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diff --git a/old/63299-0.txt b/old/63299-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 009ca70..0000000 --- a/old/63299-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,31171 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of the Pearl, by -George Frederick Kunz and Charles Hugh Stevenson - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Book of the Pearl - The history, art, science, and industry of the queen of gems - -Author: George Frederick Kunz - Charles Hugh Stevenson - -Release Date: September 26, 2020 [EBook #63299] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF THE PEARL *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing, Chris Curnow, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - THE BOOK OF - THE PEARL - - -[Illustration: - - THE CZARINA OF RUSSIA -] - - - - -[Illustration] - - THE BOOK OF - THE PEARL - THE HISTORY, ART, SCIENCE, AND INDUSTRY OF THE QUEEN OF GEMS - - - BY - GEORGE FREDERICK KUNZ, A.M., Ph.D. - AND - CHARLES HUGH STEVENSON, LL.M., D.C.L. - - Orient pearls fit for a queen - Will I give thy love to win, - And a shell to keep them in. - —_The Faithful Shepherdess (1611)_ - -[Illustration] - - NEW YORK - THE CENTURY CO. - 1908 - - - - - Copyright, 1908, by - THE CENTURY CO. - - _Published October, 1908_ - - - THE DE VINNE PRESS - - - - - TO - - MARGARET, THE PEARL - - AS A SLIGHT MARK OF APPRECIATION BY THE AUTHORS OF HER FATHER’S GENEROUS - ENCOURAGEMENT OF SCIENCE, ART, ENGINEERING, TECHNOLOGY, AND LITERATURE - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - INTRODUCTION xv - - I PEARLS AMONG THE ANCIENTS 3 - - II MEDIEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY OF PEARLS 15 - - III ORIGIN OF PEARLS 35 - - IV STRUCTURE AND FORMS OF PEARLS 51 - - V SOURCES OF PEARLS 65 - - VI THE PEARL FISHERIES OF THE PERSIAN GULF 85 - - VII EAST AFRICAN PEARL FISHERIES 153 - - VIII PEARL FISHERIES OF THE BRITISH ISLES 159 - - IX PEARL FISHERIES OF THE SOUTH SEA ISLANDS 189 - - X PEARL FISHERIES OF VENEZUELA 225 - - XI PEARL-CULTURE AND PEARL-FARMING 285 - - XII MYSTICAL AND MEDICINAL PROPERTIES OF PEARLS 301 - - XIII VALUES AND COMMERCE OF PEARLS 319 - - XIV TREATMENT AND CARE OF PEARLS 375 - - XV PEARLS AS USED IN ORNAMENTS AND DECORATION 403 - - XVI FAMOUS PEARLS AND COLLECTIONS 449 - - XVII THE ABORIGINAL USE OF PEARLS, AND THEIR DISCOVERY IN 485 - MOUNDS AND GRAVES - - BIBLIOGRAPHY 517 - - INDEX 541 - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - The Czarina of Russia _Frontispiece_ - - FACING PAGE - - Ancient Chinese crown with pearls. Ancient Chinese pearl - rosary. Chinese priests keeping guard over the tombs - of the kings, in Mukden, where the crowns are - preserved 4 - - Grecian pearl and gold necklace 8 - - Front cover of Ashburnham manuscript of the Four Gospels 16 - - Francis I, King of France, 1494–1547. Isabelle de Valois 19 - - (From photographs by A. Giraudon) - - Maria Theresa (1717–1780), Queen of Hungary 24 - - Facsimile of title-page of decrees of Venetian Senate - regulating the wearing of pearls 27 - - Lady Abinger. Mrs. Adair. Baroness de Forest. Hon. Mrs. - Renard Gréville. Marchioness of Lansdowne. Lady - Londonderry. Lady Wimborne 30 - - (From photographs, copyright by Lafayette, Ltd., - London) - - Venezuela shell. Panama shell 36 - - Shells from Venezuela with attached pearls. Exterior - view of same. X-ray photograph of shell, printed - through exterior of shell and showing encysted pearls 39 - - Mexican pearl-oyster with adherent pearl. Group of - encysted pearls in shell of Australian pearl-oyster. - Mexican pearl-oyster with encysted fish. Group of - encysted pearls (oriental). Reverse of same group, - showing outline of the individual pearls 42 - - Cross section of an irregular pearl, magnified 80 - diameters. Cross sections of pearls, magnified 30 - diameters. Thin section of mother-of-pearl, magnified, - showing sponge borings which traversed the pearl - shell. Structure of conch pearl produced by - fracturing, magnified 80 diameters 53 - - Pearls from common clam of eastern coast of America. - Pearl “nuggets” from the Mississippi Valley. Wing - pearls from the Mississippi Valley. Dog-tooth pearls - from the Mississippi Valley 55 - - Actual sizes of pearls from ⅛ grain to 160 grains 57 - - Brooches made of petal, dog-tooth, and wing pearls 58 - - Gray pearls in the possession of an American lady and - brooch from Tiffany & Co.’s exhibit, Paris Exposition, - 1900 60 - - Shell of pearl-oyster with attached pearl 68 - - Pinna or wing shell. Pearl-oyster of Ceylon 72 - - Shell and pearls of the common conch 76 - - Cargo boat in pearl fishery of the Persian Gulf. Huts of - mats and palm leaves, the homes of the pearl fishermen - at Menamah, Bahrein Islands, Persian Gulf 87 - - Agha Mohammed (1666–1725). Shah Sulaiman (1647–1694) 88 - - Arab pearl-divers at work in the Persian Gulf 90 - - His Imperial Majesty, Mohammed Ali, Shah of Persia 94 - - The “Prince of Pearls”; the late Rana of Dholpur in his - pearl regalia 101 - - The late Maharajah of Patiala 108 - - Facsimiles of notices of pearl-fishing at - Marichchikadde, in English and Cingalese 110–111 - - Unloading oysters from the vessels into the kottus at - Marichchikadde, Ceylon. The pearling fleet on the - shore at Marichchikadde, Ceylon. Hindu workmen - preparing to drill pearls, Marichchikadde, Ceylon 115 - - Indian pearl merchants ready for business. Children of - Persian pearl dealers 120 - - Street scene in Marichchikadde, the pearling camp of - Ceylon. Return of the fleet from the pearl reefs to - Marichchikadde, Ceylon 126 - - Pearls presented by the Imam of Muscat to President Van - Buren 131 - - Necklace and earrings from the treasury of the Emir of - Bohkara 136 - - Carved “Jerusalem Shell” from the Red Sea 142 - - Cap of State, from looting of summer palace, Pekin, in - 1860 145 - - Fishing for the awabi (abalone) shells at Wada-no-hara, - Japan 148 - - (From “The Burlington Art Magazine”) - - Old print showing four methods of catching pearl-bearing - mollusks 160 - - Madame Norischkine née Straudman. Duchesse Elizabeth - (Constantin). - (From a photograph by Ch. Bergamasco, St. Petersburg) - (From a photograph by A. Pasetti, St. Petersburg) - Daughter of General Sobelieff, first Countess - Beauharnais 163 - - Scotch pearl rivers 167 - - Great Cameo Pearl 170 - - Dowager Czarina of Russia. Grand Duchess Vladimir. - (From a photograph by Ch. Bergamasco, St. Petersburg) - Grand Duchess Marie Pavlovna 174 - - Miter of Patriarch Nikon 176 - - Panagia or ornament worn on the breast of a bishop in - Russia 180 - - Russian Boyard ladies of the seventeenth century, - showing caps and other ornaments of pearls 184 - - Pearl-divers of the Tuamotu Archipelago. Settlement of - pearl fishermen at Hiqueru, Tuamotu Archipelago 197 - - Pearling boats at Hiqueru, Tuamotu Archipelago. - Australian pearl-diver (armored) coming up from the - depths 204 - - Opening pearl-oysters and searching for pearls, off the - coast of Australia. Grading, weighing, and packing - mother-of-pearl, off the coast of Australia 213 - - Moro boats, used among the pearl islands of the Malay - Archipelago. Raft used for pearl-fishing in the Malay - Archipelago 216 - - Pearling village, with youthful fishermen, Sulu Islands. - Japanese diver in Dutch East Indies, come up to “blow” - for a few minutes 220 - - Gray pearls from Lower California, and diamonds 228 - - Clara Eugenia, daughter of Philip II 237 - - The Adams gold vase 248 - - Negro pearling camp, on bank of an Arkansas river. Group - of Arkansas pearl fishermen 254 - - Brooch, Renaissance style, set with baroque pearls, from - American streams 259 - - Brooches and rings of fresh-water pearls from Wisconsin - and Tennessee 262 - - Pearl-bearing unios 266 - - Pearling scene on White River, Arkansas. Pearling camp - on upper Mississippi River 270 - - The evolution of buttons, made from Mississippi shells 275 - - Necklace of fresh-water pearls 276 - - Shell of pearl-bearing abalone 280 - - Shell of _Dipsas plicatus_, with attached metal figures - of Buddha coated with nacre. Shell of _Dipsas - plicatus_, with attached porcelain beads coated with - nacre 286 - - Artificial rearing-ponds for the development of - pearl-oysters on the Island of Espiritŭ Santo, Gulf of - California. Trays containing small pearl-oysters - prepared for placing at the bottom of artificial - rearing-ponds 291 - - Japanese legend of the dragon and the pearl, idealized - in Jade 302 - - Russian eikon of the Madonna 312 - - Pectoral cross of Constantine IX, Monomachus (1000–1054 - A.D.) 321 - - Great pearl necklace of the French crown jewels 332 - - The Siamese Prince in full regalia 336 - - Half-pearls: lots of three different sizes. Brooch of - half-pearls and onyx, United States, 1860 343 - - Pearl nose rings, Baroda, India. East Indian earring of - strings of pearls and table diamonds. Grape pendants. - Oriental pearls 345 - - Necklace containing 126,000 seed-pearls, Louis XVI - period 346 - - Seed-pearls and gold; Chinese ornaments of the - nineteenth century. Complete set of seed-pearl jewelry - in original case 357 - - Persian princess and ladies in waiting 364 - - Facsimiles of the title-page and last leaf of an - enactment abolishing duty on pearls, English - Parliament, 1732 368 - - Pearl drilling 376 - - Pearl stringing 383 - - Necklace of seed-pearls, United States, Civil War period 389 - - Mother-of-pearl shell from Tahiti 390 - - Ladies’ sewing case and scissors inlaid with - half-pearls; watches incrusted with half-pearls; - snuff-box, ivory inlaid with fresh-water pearls; - miniature surrounded by half-pearls 395 - - Evolution of a seed-pearl brooch. Seed-pearls, Indian - strings. White horsehair for stringing 396 - - Facsimile of letter of M. Gaston Mogeaud, Director of - the Louvre 398 - - Madame Thiers’s pearl necklace, bequeathed to the Louvre - Museum, Paris 398 - - (From a photograph by A. Giraudon) - - Antique ornaments of pearls 404 - - Tyszkiewizc bronze statuette of Aphrodite 407 - - Pearl earrings from Herculaneum and Pompeii 408 - - Antique pearl ornaments 410 - - East Indian necklace of pearls, table diamonds, glass - beads, gold and enamel 413 - - Crown of Reccesvinthus and other Gothic crowns of the - seventh century 416 - - (From a photograph by A. Giraudon) - - Her Majesty, Queen Alexandra of Great Britain and - Ireland, Empress of India 418 - - (From a photograph by W. & D. Downey, London) - - Crown of St. Edward 424 - - (From “The English Regalia,” published by Kegan Paul, - Trench, Trübner & Company, Ltd., London) - - The Empress Dowager of China 431 - - Pearl ornaments of the seventeenth and eighteenth - centuries 434 - - Margherita, Dowager Queen of Italy 439 - - Collection of black pearls belonging to an American lady 440 - - Señora Carmen Romero Rubio de Diaz, wife of President - Porfirio Diaz of Mexico 442 - - (From a photograph by Valleto & Co., Mexico) - - Jade jar inlaid with pearls set with fine gold. Japanese - decoration set with pearls 444 - - Gaikwar of Baroda, 1908 450 - - Mary, Queen of Scots 453 - - (From “Portraits and Jewels of Mary Stuart,” published - by James MacLehose and Sons, Glasgow) - - Queen Elizabeth of England. Elizabeth of France 456 - - Pearl carpet or shawl of the Gaikwar of Baroda 460 - - The Hope pearl. Weighs 1800 grains 463 - - Her Grace, the Duchess of Marlborough 465 - - (From a photograph by Lafayette, Ltd., London) - - The Madame Nordica collection of colored pearls 468 - - Grand pearl diadem of the French crown jewels 471 - - The Imperial Austrian crown 472 - - The Great Sévigné of the French crown jewels 474 - - Madame Nordica 476 - - Mrs. George J. Gould 480 - - Fresh-water pearls from Hopewell group of mounds, Ross - County, Ohio 499 - - Fresh-water pearls from Hopewell group of mounds, Ross - County, Ohio 510 - - - - - MAPS - - - PAGE - - The pearling regions in Ceylon and British India 129 - - Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, the pearling center of the - world 140 - - The pearling regions in Oceania and Malaysia 191 - - Venezuela and Panama, the principal pearling regions of - South America 227 - - Gulf of California and the pearling territory of western - Mexico 243 - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - -The preparation of this book has been a joint labor during the spare -moments of the two authors, whose time has been occupied with subjects -to which pearls are not wholly foreign—one as a gem expert, and the -other in the fisheries branch of the American government. But for the -views and expressions contained herein, they alone are personally -responsible, and do not represent or speak for any interest whatever. -For many years the writers have collected data on the subject of pearls, -and have accumulated all the obtainable literature, not only the easily -procurable books, but likewise manuscripts, copies of rare volumes, -original edicts, and legislative enactments, thousands of newspaper -clippings, and interesting illustrations, many of them unique, making -probably the largest single collection of data in existence on this -particular subject. It was deemed advisable to present the results of -these studies and observations in one harmonious volume, rather than in -two different publications. This publication is not a pioneer in an -untrodden field. As may be seen from the appended bibliography, during -the last two thousand years hundreds of persons have discussed -pearls—mystically, historically, poetically, and learnedly. Among the -older writers who stand out with special prominence in their respective -periods are the encyclopedist Pliny, in the first century A.D.; Oviedo -and Peter Martyr of the sixteenth century; the physician Anselmus De -Boot, and that observant traveler and prince of jewelers, Tavernier, in -the seventeenth century. It would be difficult to do justice to the many -writers of the nineteenth century and of the present time; but probably -most attention has been attracted by the writings of Hessling and Möbius -of Germany; Kelaart, Streeter, Herdman, and Hornell of Great Britain; -Filippi of Italy, and Seurat and Dubois of France. While the book is a -joint work in the sense that each writer has contributed material to all -of the chapters and has critically examined and approved the entire -work, the senior author has more closely applied himself to the latter -half of the text, covering antiquity values, commerce, wearing -manipulation, treatment, famous collections, aboriginal use, and the -illustrations, while the junior author has attended to the earlier half -of the book, with reference to history, origin, sources, fisheries, -culture, mystical properties, and the literature of the pearl. - -The senior author has had exceptionally favorable opportunities to -examine the precious objects contained in the various imperial and royal -treasuries. Through the courtesy of the late Count Sipuigine, Court -Chamberlain, and of the late General Philamanoff, custodian of the -Ourejena Palata, he was permitted to critically examine the Russian -crown jewels in the Summer Palace on the Neva, and in the Palata in the -Kremlin, at Moscow, he examined the crowns and jewels of all the early -czars. Through the courtesy of Baron von Theile, he was permitted to -inspect carefully and in detail the wonderful jewels of the Austrian -crown, which are beautifully ordered and arranged. The English and Saxon -crown jewels were also seen under favorable conditions which permitted -detailed examination, and the jewel collections of almost all the -principal museums of Europe and America were carefully studied. As -regards the literature of the subject, the senior author has gathered -together the largest known existing collection of works treating of -pearls and precious stones. - -In covering so comprehensive a subject, many obligations have been -incurred from individuals and officials, to whose courtesy and -assistance is due much of the interest of this work. To list all of -these is impossible, yet it would be ungrateful not to note the -following: her Majesty Queen Margherita of Italy; his Royal Highness the -Gaikwar of Baroda; to H. R. H. le Prince Ruprecht of Bavaria, of Munich; -to the late Prince Sipuigine, then chamberlain of the Russian Imperial -Appanages; to Sir Edward Robert Pearce Edgcumbe for data relative to -fisheries of East Africa; Dr. H. C. Bumpus, director of the American -Museum of Natural History, New York, for many courtesies in regard to -materials and illustrations; Sir Caspar Purdon Clarke, director, Dr. -Edward Robinson, assistant director, J. H. Buck, curator of Metal-work, -and A. G. St. M. D’Hervilly, assistant curator of Paintings, all of the -Metropolitan Museum of Art, for numerous courtesies; Archer M. -Huntington, founder of the Hispanic Society and Museum in New York City; -Dr. Bashford Dean, Prof. Friedrich Hirth, Chinese professor, Dr. -Berthold Laufer, Prof. A. V. Williams Jackson, professor of Indo-Iranian -languages, and Prof. M. H. Saville, all of Columbia University, New York -City; J. Pierpont Morgan, for the right to publish the illustration of -Ashburnham missal; Dr. W. Hayes Ward, Assyriologist; Dr. Charles S. -Braddock, formerly Chief of Medical Inspection for the King of Siam; -Robert Hoe, for the two plates of unique Persian illustrations from his -manuscripts; Edmund Russell, for East Indian material; F. Cunliffe-Owen, -the author of diplomatic subjects; Ten Broeck Morse; Walter Joslyn; -Stansbury Hagar; Henri de Morgan, explorer; Dr. Nathaniel L. Britton, -director New York Botanical Garden, J. H. Lawles, and Ludwig Stross, for -many courtesies; Miss M. de Barril and Miss Belle da Costa Greene, all -of New York; Dr. Stewart W. Culin, of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and -Sciences; the Contessa Casa Cortez, for Peruvian information, of -Brooklyn; Dr. Charles B. Davenport, of the Carnegie Institution -Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor; Arthur C. Parker, archæologist, State -Museum, Albany, N. Y.; A. S. Clark, antiquarian, Peekskill, N. Y.; Dr. -Richard Rathbun, assistant secretary, Dr. Cyrus Adler, curator, Dr. Otis -S. Mason, curator of Ethnology, all of the Smithsonian Institution; Dr. -S. W. Stratton, chief of the Bureau of Standards; Miss E. R. Scidmore; -Gilbert H. Grosvenor, editor, National Geographic Magazine; Hon. William -Eleroy Curtis; his Excellency Enrique C. Creel, Embajador de Mexico, and -James T. Archbold, war correspondent, all of Washington, D. C.; Prof. W. -P. Wilson, director Philadelphia Commercial Museum, Clarence B. Moore, -Academy of Natural Sciences, and T. Louis Comparette, curator Numismatic -Collection, U. S. Mint, all of Philadelphia; Prof. Henry Montgomery, -University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; Dr. Warren K. Moorehead, -archæologist, Andover, Mass.; H. D. Story, and Theo. M. Davis, curators -of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Mass.; Miss Mathilde Laigle -of Wellesley College; Prof. F. W. Putnam and Alfred M. Tozzer, Peabody -Museum of Archæology, Cambridge, Mass.; Prof. Edward S. Morse, Salem, -Mass.; Dr. Hiram Bingham, Yale University; W. E. Frost, Providence, R. -I.; Dr. Edgar J. Banks, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.; Hon. F. J. -V. Skiff, director, for several photographs of museum material, and Dr. -George A. Dorsey, curator of Anthropology of the Field Columbian Museum; -Dr. A. R. Crook, curator of the Museum of Natural History, Springfield, -Ill.; Richard Hermann, director Hermann Museum, Dubuque, Ia.; Charles -Russell Orcutt, San Diego, Cal.; David I. Bushnell, St. Louis, Mo.; Dr. -J. H. Stanton, Prairie du Chien, Wis.; Joe Gassett, Clinton, Tenn.; -Prof. Wm. C. Mills, University of Ohio, Columbus, O., for material -covering the new Ohio mound discoveries; Mrs. Marie Robinson Wright, -author and South American traveler, New York City; Miss Helen Woolley of -Judson College, Alabama; Prof. Dr. Eugene Hussak, Rio Janeiro; Hon. -George E. Anderson, Consul General of the United States, Rio de Janeiro, -Brazil; Señor L. E. Bonilla, Consul General of Colombia; Madam Zelia -Nuttall, Coyoacan, Mexico; Prof. Waldstein, University of Cambridge, -Cambridge, England; Dr. O. F. Bell, assistant keeper Ashmolean Museum, -Oxford; Dr. Stephen W. Bushell, Chinese authority; Lady Christopher -Johnston, Dr. William F. Petrie, University College, Dr. Charles -Hercules Read, director of the department of Archæology, British Museum, -for illustrations and data; Cyril Davenport, antiquarian writer of the -British Museum, for the illustration of the English crown, and crown -information; to Sir John Evans, late veteran archæologist and writer; -Thomas Tyrer, chemist, W. Talbot Ready, A. W. Feaveryear, E. Alfred -Jones, author on metal-work, Edwin W. Streeter, all of London, England; -Prof. H. P. Blackmore, curator Blackmore Museum, Salisbury, England; Dr. -Thos. Gann, Harrogate, England; Prof. Arthur E. Shipley, Cambridge, -England; Dr. Wilfred Grenfell, Labrador; T. W. Lyster, librarian of the -National Library of Ireland, Prof. R. F. Scharff, director of the -National Museum of Ireland, Dublin, W. Forbes Hourie, all of Ireland; -Mr. James Hornell, Dr. W. A. Herdmann, all on information concerning the -Ceylon fisheries; Prof. James M. Milne, Belfast, Ireland; David -MacGregor, Perth, Scotland; Joseph Baer & Co., Frankfurt, Germany; Herrn -C. W. Kesseller, Idar, Germany; Prof. Dr. Carl Sapper, University of -Tübingen, Germany; Geheimrath Prof. Dr. Max Bauer, University of -Marburg, Germany; Herrn Prof. Dr. Hofer, director Biologische -Versuchsstation, Munich; Herrn Ernst Gideon Bek, Pforzheim, Germany; -Hon. Albert H. Michelsen, American Consul at Turin; Sabbatino De -Angelis, of Naples, Italy; Mons. Alphonse Falco, of the Chambre -Syndicale Pierres Précieuses of Paris; Prof. A. Lacroix, Musée Histoire -Naturale, Paris; Mons. Georges Pellisier, Paris; Sr. Gaston J. Vives, La -Paz, Mexico; Prof. R. Dubois, Faculté des Sciences, University of Lyons, -France; Prof. P. Candias, director of the National Museum, Athens, -Greece; Prof. G. A. F. Molengraaff, University of Delft, Holland; the -late Prof. Dr. Furtwängler of Munich; Dr. Otto Leiner, Custus -Landes-Museum at Constanz, Baden; Herrn Dr. A. B. Meyer, Herrn Carl -Marfels, Berlin; Prof. Dr. H. Schumacher, University of Bonn; Geheimrath -C. F. Hintze, Breslau; Herrn R. Friedlaender & Sohn, Berlin; Herrn -Reg.-Rath Dr. W. von Seidlitz, Dresden; Dr. R. Jacobi, director König -Zoologichen Museum, Dresden, Germany; his Excellency Dr. Szalaz, -director Hungarian National Museum; Dr. S. Radischi, director National -Industrial Museum of Budapest; and to Herrn A. B. Bachrach, Budapest, -Hungary; Frau Melanie Glazer, of Prague, and Herrn V. Fric, Prague, -Bohemia; Herrn Prof. Dr. F. Heger, Custus Imperial Archæological -Collection, Vienna; Herrn H. von Willer and Herrn Max Zirner, of Vienna; -Herrn Leopold Weininger, the artisan goldsmith of Austria, for many -courtesies; Prof. W. Vernadskij, University of Moscow; Mons. C. Faberje, -Joaillier de la Cour, St. Petersburg, Russia; his Excellency Baron P. -Meyerdorff, assistant director, Musée des Antiques, Ermitage Impériale, -St. Petersburg, for important data and illustrations; his Excellency N. -J. Moore, Premier, Western Australia; Dr. K. Van Dort, engineer of -Bankok, Siam; Dr. J. Henry Burkill, of the India Museum, Calcutta, -India; Alphaeus E. Williams, manager of the De Beers Mine, Kimberley; -Capt. E. L. Steever, District Governor of Jolo, Philippine Islands; Dr. -T. Nishikawa, Zoölogical Institute; K. Mikimoto, both of Tokio, Japan; -Dr. S. M. Zwemer of Bahrein, Persian Gulf; Mr. Hugh Millman of Thursday -Island, Australia; Julius D. Dreher, American Consul at Tahiti, Society -Islands; and not least, by any means, the uniform promptness and -completeness with which the officials of the British Colonial Service -have responded to the many inquiries which the writers have addressed to -them. - - THE AUTHORS. - - September, 1908. - - - - - I - PEARLS AMONG THE ANCIENTS - - - - - THE BOOK OF THE PEARL - - - - - I - PEARLS AMONG THE ANCIENTS - - - The richest merchandise of all, and the most soveraigne commoditie - throughout the whole world, are these pearles. - - PLINY, _Historia naturalis_. - _Lib._ IX, c. 35. - -Perfected by nature and requiring no art to enhance their beauty, pearls -were naturally the earliest gems known to prehistoric man. Probably the -members of some fish-eating tribe—maybe of the coast of India or -bordering an Asiatic river—while opening mollusks for food, were -attracted by their luster. And as man’s estimation of beauty developed, -he found in them the means of satisfying that fondness for personal -decoration so characteristic of half-naked savages, which has its -counterpart amid the wealth and fashion of the present day. - -Pearls seem to be peculiarly suggestive of oriental luxury and -magnificence. It is in the East that they have been especially loved, -enhancing the charms of Asiatic beauty and adding splendor to barbaric -courts celebrated for their display of costume. From their possession of -the rich pearl resources it is natural that the people of India and of -Persia should have early found beauty and value in these jewels, and -should have been among the first to collect them in large quantities. -And no oriental divinity, no object of veneration has been without this -ornament; no poetical production has lacked this symbol of purity and -chastity. - -In a personal memorandum, Dr. A. V. Williams Jackson, professor of -Indo-Iranian languages in Columbia University, states that it is -generally supposed that the Vedas, the oldest sacred books of the -Brahmans, contain several allusions to pearl decorations a millennium or -more before the Christian era, as the word _krisana_ and its -derivatives—which occur a half dozen times in the Rigveda, the oldest of -the Vedas—are generally translated as signifying “pearl.” Even if this -interpretation of the term be called into question on the ground that -the Hindus of the Panjab were not well acquainted with the sea, there -can be little or no doubt that the Atharvaveda, at least five hundred -years before the Christian era, alludes to an amulet made of pearls and -used as a sort of talisman in a hymn[1] of magic formulas. - -Those two great epics of ancient India, the Ramayana and the -Mahabharata, refer to pearls. The Ramayana speaks of a necklace of -twenty-seven pearls, and has pearl drillers to accompany a great -military expedition.[2] An old myth recounts the offerings made by the -elements as gifts worthy of the deity: the air offered the rainbow, the -fire a meteor, the earth a ruby, and the sea a pearl. The rainbow formed -a halo about the god, the meteor served as a lamp, the ruby decorated -the forehead, and the pearl was worn upon the heart. - -The literature of Hinduism frequently associates the pearl with Krishna, -the eighth avatar or incarnation of Vishnu, the most popular god of -Hindu worship. One legend credits its discovery to the adorable Krishna, -who drew it from the depths of the sea to adorn his daughter Pandaïa on -her nuptial day. Another version makes the pearl a trophy of the victory -of Krishna over the monster Pankagna, and it was used by the victor as a -decoration for his bride. - -In the classic period of Sanskrit literature, about the first century of -the Christian era, there were abundant references to pearls, generally -called _mukta_ (literally “the pure”); and there are dozens of words for -pearl necklaces, circlets, strings, and ornamental festoons, -particularly in the dramas of Kalidasa—the Hindu Shakspere, who lived -about the third century A.D.—and of his successors. - -In the Mahavansa and the Dipavansa, the ancient chronicle histories of -Ceylon in the Pali language, are several early Cingalese records of -pearl production and estimation.[3] The Mahavansa lists pearls among the -native products sent from Ceylon about 550 B.C., King Wijayo sending his -father-in-law gifts of pearls and chanks to the value of two lacs of -rupees; and notes that about 300 B.C., several varieties of Ceylon -pearls were carried as presents by an embassy to India. - -[Illustration: - - Ancient Chinese crown with pearls -] - -[Illustration: - - Ancient Chinese pearl rosary -] - -[Illustration: - - Chinese priests keeping guard over the tombs of the kings, in Mukden, - where the crowns are preserved -] - -In the ancient civilization of China, pearls were likewise esteemed; -this is evidenced by the frequent mention of them in traditional -history, their employment in the veneration of idols, and as tribute by -foreign princes to the emperor. One of the very earliest of books, the -Shu King (dating from about 2350–625 B.C.), notes that, in the -twenty-third century B.C., Yü received as tribute oyster pearls from the -river Hwai, and from the province of King Kau he received “strings of -pearls that were not quite round.”[4] That ancient Chinese dictionary, -the Nh’ya, originating thirty centuries ago, speaks of them as precious -jewels found in the province of Shen-si on the western frontier. - -Many fantastic theories regarding pearls are to be found in ancient -Chinese literature. Some writers credited them as originating in the -brain of the fabled dragon; others noted that they were especially -abundant during the reign of illustrious emperors, and they were used as -amulets and charms against fire and other disasters. Curious allusions -were made to pearls so brilliant that they were visible at a distance of -nearly a thousand yards, or that rice could be cooked by the light from -them. And one found about the beginning of the Christian era, near -Yangchow-fu, in the province of Kiang-su, was reported so lustrous as to -be visible in the dark at a distance of three miles. - -In Persia, the popularity of pearls seems to date from a very early -period. Professor Jackson states that if they are not mentioned in the -extant fragments of the ancient Zoroastrian literature, the Avesta and -the Pahlavi, or by the Middle Persian books from the seventh century -B.C. to the ninth century A.D., it is probably a mere accident, due to -the character of the work or to the fragmentary condition of the -literature; for pearls were well known during that entire period, and -seem to be indicated in extant sculptures. The coin and the gem -portraits of Persian queens commonly show ear-pendants of these. The -remains of a magnificent necklace of pearls and other gems were recently -found by J. de Morgan in the sarcophagus of an Achæmenid princess -exhumed at Susa or Shushan, the winter residence of the kings of Persia. -This necklace, perhaps the most ancient pearl ornament still in -existence, dates certainly from not later than the fourth century B.C., -and is now preserved in the Persian Gallery of the Louvre.[5] Even if we -had no other evidence, it would be natural to assume that the knowledge -of pearls was as wide-spread among the Iranians in antiquity as it was -among the Hindus, since the Persian Gulf, like the Indian Ocean, has -been famous for its fisheries from ancient times. - -In the ruins of Babylon no pearls have been found; indeed, it would be -surprising if they could survive for so many ages in the relatively -moist soil which contains much saltpeter. Inlays of mother-of-pearl and -decorations of this material have been secured from the ruins of -Bismaya, which Dr. Edgar J. Banks refers to about 4500 B.C. - -There is likewise little evidence that pearls were extensively employed -by the ancient Assyrians, notwithstanding that excavations at Nineveh -and Nimrud have furnished much information regarding their ornaments; -and the collars, bracelets, sword-hilts, etc., wrought in gold and -ornamented with gems, show that the jewelers’ art had made much -progress. This is not wholly trustworthy as determining the relative -abundance; for being of organic or non-mineral origin, pearls would not -have survived the burial for thousands of years so well as the crystal -gems. An inscription on the Nineveh Obelisk, which states, according to -Sir Henry Rawlinson, that in the ninth year of his reign Temenbar -received, as “tribute of the kings of the Chaldees, gold, silver, gems, -and pearls,”[6] shows that the sea-born gems were highly valued there. - -The mother-of-pearl shell was in use as an ornament in ancient Egypt -certainly as early as the sixth dynasty (_circa_ 3200 B.C.), the period -of the Tanis Sphinx. In a recent letter from Luxor, where he is studying -the ruins of ancient Thebes, Dr. James T. Dennis states that he has -found several of these shells bearing cartouches of that period; and in -the “pan-bearing graves” of the twelfth dynasty (2500 B.C.), the shell -occurred not only complete, but cut in roughly circular or oblong -angular blocks and strung on chains with beads of carnelian, pottery, -etc. - -So far as can be determined from the representations of ancient Egyptian -costumes, pearls do not seem to have been employed to any great extent -in their decoration. The necklaces, earrings, and other jewels found in -the tombs, which are composed largely of gold set with crystal gems, -contain the remains of a few pearls, but give no indication that they -were numerous. In fact, no evidence exists that they were used -extensively before the Persian conquest in the fifth century B.C.; and -probably it was not until the time of the Ptolemies that there began the -lavish abundance which characterized the court of Alexandria at the -height of her power. - -The authorities differ in regard to the mention of pearls in ancient -Hebrew literature; although in the Authorized Version of the Old -Testament, this significance has been given to the word _gabîsh_ in Job -xxviii. 18, where the value of wisdom is contrasted with that of -_gabîsh_. Some writers claim that this word refers to rock crystal. -Other authorities are of the opinion that the word _peninim_ in Lam. iv. -7, which has been translated as “rubies,” actually signifies pearls. In -Gen. ii. 12, Prof. Paul Haupt has proposed to render _shoham_ stones by -pearls, since the Hebrew word translated “onyx,” if connected with the -Assyrian _sându_, might mean “the gray gem.” It does not appear that -they entered into the decorations of the Tabernacle and the Temple, or -were largely employed in the paraphernalia of the synagogue. - -In the New Testament, however, there are numerous references to the -estimation in which pearls were held. In his teachings, Christ -repeatedly referred to them as typifying something most precious: “The -kingdom of heaven is like unto a merchant man, seeking goodly pearls: -who, when he had found one pearl of great price, went and sold all that -he had, and bought it” (Matt. xiii. 45, 46); and in “casting pearls -before swine,” in that great Sermon on the Mount (Matt. vii. 6). In -picturing the glories of the Heavenly City, St. John made the twelve -gates of pearls (Rev. xxi. 21); and what could better serve as portals -through the walls of precious stones? - -In the Talmud, pearls are frequently mentioned, and usually as -signifying something beautiful or very costly, as “a pearl that is worth -thousands of zuzim” (Baba Batra, 146a); a “pearl that has no price” -(Yerushalmi, ix. 12d); the coats which God made for Adam and Eve were -“as beautiful as pearls” (Gen. R. xx. 12), and the manna was “as white -as a pearl” (Yoma, 75a). Their purchase formed one of the exceptions to -the law of _Ona’ah_ (overcharge), for the reason that two matched pearls -greatly exceeded the value of each one separately (Baba Mezi’a, iv. 8). - -The high value attached to pearls by the ancient Hebrews is illustrated -by a beautiful Rabbinical story in which only one object in nature is -ranked above them. On approaching Egypt, Abraham hid Sarah in a chest, -that foreign eyes might not behold her beauty. When he reached the place -for paying custom dues, the collectors said, “Pay us the custom”; and he -replied, “I will pay your custom.” They said to him, “Thou carriest -clothes”; and he stated, “I will pay for clothes.” Then they said to -him, “Thou carriest gold”; and he answered, “I will pay for gold.” On -this they said to him, “Surely thou bearest the finest silk”; and he -replied, “I will pay custom for the finest silk.” Then said they, “Truly -it must be pearls that thou takest with thee”; and he answered, “I will -pay for pearls.” Seeing that they could name nothing of value for which -the patriarch was not willing to pay custom, they said, “It cannot be -but that thou open the box and let us see what is within.” So the chest -was opened, and the land was illumined by the luster of Sarah’s -beauty.[7] - -The love which the early Arabs bore to pearls is evidenced by the -references to them in the Koran, and especially the figurative -description given of Paradise. The stones are pearls and jacinths; the -fruits of the trees are pearls and emeralds; and each person admitted to -the delights of the celestial kingdom is provided with a tent of pearls, -jacinths and emeralds; is crowned with pearls of incomparable luster, -and is attended by beautiful maidens resembling hidden pearls.[8] - -The estimation of pearls among the art-loving Greeks may be traced to -the time of Homer, who appears to have alluded to them under the name -τρίγληνα (triple drops or beads) in his description of Juno; in the -Iliad, XIV, 183: - - In three bright drops, - Her glittering gems suspended from her ears. - -and in the Odyssey, XVIII, 298: - - Earrings bright - With triple drops that cast a trembling light. - -Classical designs of Juno usually show the three pear-shaped pearls -pendent from her ears. The ancient Greeks probably obtained their pearls -from the East through the medium of Phenician traders, and a survival of -the word τρίγληνα seems to exist in the Welsh _glain_ (bead), the name -having been carried to Britain by the same traders, who exchanged -textiles, glass beads, etc., for tin and salt. - -The Persian wars in the fifth century B.C., doubtless extended the -acquaintance which the Greeks had with pearls, as well as with other -oriental products, and increased their popularity. One of the earliest -of the Greek writers to mention pearls specifically appears to have been -Theophrastus (372–287 B.C.), the disciple and successor of Aristotle, -who referred to them under the name μαργαρίτης (_margarites_), probably -derived from some oriental word like the Sanskrit _maracata_ or the -Persian _mirwareed_. He stated that pearls were produced by shell-fish -resembling the _pinna_, only smaller, and were used in making necklaces -of great value. In Pliny’s “Historia naturalis,” that great storehouse -of classical learning, reference is made to many other writers—mostly -Greeks—who treated of gems; but virtually all of these writings have -disappeared, except fragments from Theophrastus, Chares of Mytilene, and -Isidorus of Charace. - -[Illustration: - - GRECIAN PEARL AND GOLD NECKLACE - - Of about third century B.C. - - Now in Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York -] - -From Greece admiration for pearls quickly extended to Rome, where they -were known under the Greek word _margaritæ_. However, a more common name -for this gem in Rome was _unio_, which Pliny explained by saying that -each pearl was unique and unlike any other one. The conclusion of the -historian Ammianus Marcellinus (330–395 A.D.), that it was because each -one was found singly in a shell,[9] seems scarcely correct. Claude de -Saumaise, the French classical scholar, thought that the common name for -an onion was transferred to the pearl, owing to its laminated -construction.[10] According to Pliny, the Romans used the word _unio_ to -distinguish a large perfect pearl from the smaller and less attractive -ones, which were called _margaritæ_.[11] - -It was not until the Mithridatic Wars (88–63 B.C.) and the conquests by -Pompey that pearls were very abundant and popular in Rome, the great -treasures of the East enriching the victorious army and through it the -aristocracy of the republic. In those greatest spectacular functions the -world has ever known—the triumphal processions of the conquering -Romans—pearls had a prominent part. Pliny records that in great Pompey’s -triumphal procession in 61 B.C. were borne thirty-three crowns of pearls -and numerous pearl ornaments, including a portrait of the victor, and a -shrine dedicated to the muses, adorned with the same gems.[12] - -The luxuries of Mithridates, the treasures of Alexandria, the riches of -the Orient were poured into the lap of victory-fattened Rome. From that -time the pearl reigned supreme, not only in the enormous prices given -for single specimens, but also in the great abundance in possession of -the degenerate descendants of the victorious Romans. The interior of the -temple of Venus was decorated with pearls. The dress of the wealthy was -so pearl-bedecked that Pliny exclaimed in irony: “It is not sufficient -for them to wear pearls, but they must trample and walk over them”;[13] -and the women wore pearls even in the still hours of the night, so that -in their sleep they might be conscious of possessing the beautiful -gems.[14] - -It is related that the voluptuous Caligula (12–41 A.D.)—he who raised -his favorite horse Incitatus to the consulship—decorated that horse with -a pearl necklace, and that he himself wore slippers embroidered with -pearls; and the tyrannical Nero (37–68 A.D.), not content with having -his scepter and throne of pearls, provided the actors in his theater -with masks and scepters decorated with them. Thus wrote the observant -Philo, the envoy of the Jews to the Emperor Caligula: “The couches upon -which the Romans recline at their repasts shine with gold and pearls; -they are splendid with purple coverings interwoven with pearls and -gold.” - -Yet not all the men of Rome were enthusiastic over the beautiful “gems -of the sea, which resemble milk and snow,” as the poet Manlius called -them. Even then, as now, there were some faultfinders. The immortal -Cæsar interdicted their use by women beneath a certain rank; Martial and -Tibullus inveighed against them; the witty Horace directed his stinging -shafts of satire against the extravagance. Referring to a woman named -Gellia, Martial wrote: “By no gods or goddesses does she swear, but by -her pearls. These she embraces and kisses. These she calls her brothers -and sisters. She loves them more dearly than her two sons. Should she by -some chance lose them, the miserable woman would not survive an -hour.”[15] Hear what stern old Seneca had to say: “Pearls offer -themselves to my view. Simply one for each ear? No! The lobes of our -ladies have attained a special capacity for supporting a great number. -Two pearls alongside of each other, with a third suspended above, now -form a single earring! The crazy fools seem to think that their husbands -are not sufficiently tormented unless they wear the value of an -inheritance in each ear!”[16] - -The prices reported for some choice ones at that time seem fabulous. It -is recorded by Suetonius, that the Roman general, Vitellius, paid the -expenses of a military campaign with the proceeds of one pearl from his -mother’s ears: “_Atque ex aure matris detractum unionem pigneraverit ad -itineris impensas_.” In his “_Historia naturalis_,” Pliny says that in -the first century A.D., they ranked first in value among all precious -things,[17] and reports sixty million sestertii[18] as the value of the -two famous pearls—“the singular and only jewels of the world and even -nature’s wonder”—which Cleopatra wore at the celebrated banquet to Mark -Antony. And Suetonius[19] places at six million sestertii the value of -the one presented by Julius Cæsar as a tribute of love to Servilia, the -mother of Brutus, who thus wore - - The spoils of nations in an ear, - Changed to the treasure of a shell. - -Or, as St. Jerome expressed it in his “Vita Pauli Eremitæ”: - - _Uno filo villarum insunt pretia._ - -We are told by Ælius Lampridius that an ambassador once brought to -Alexander Severus two remarkably large and heavy pearls for the empress. -The emperor offered them for sale, and as no purchaser was found, he had -them hung in the ears of the statue of Venus, saying: “If the empress -should have such pearls, she would give a bad example to the other -women, by wearing an ornament of so much value that no one could pay for -it.” - -The word “margarita” was used symbolically to designate the most -cherished object; for instance, a favorite child. In an inscription -published by Fabretti, p. 44, No. 253, the word _margaritio_ has the -same significance. (Sex. Bruttidio juveni margaritioni carissimo, vixit -annis II mensibus VII, diebus XVIII.)[20] - -While the ancient writers were familiar with the pearl itself, they knew -little of the fisheries, and related many curious stories which had come -to Athens and Rome. Pliny and Ælianus quoted from Megasthenes that the -pearl-oysters lived in communities like swarms of bees, and were -governed by one remarkable for its size and great age, and which was -wonderfully expert in keeping its subjects out of danger, and that the -fishermen endeavored first to catch this one, so that the others might -easily be secured. Procopius, one of the most entertaining of the old -Byzantine chroniclers, wrote of social relations between the -pearl-oysters and the sharks, and of methods of inducing the growth of -pearls. - -The principal fisheries of antiquity were in the Persian Gulf, on the -coasts of Ceylon and India, and in the Red Sea. The pearls referred to -in ancient Chinese literature appear to have been taken from the rivers -and ponds of that country, while those in Cochin China and Japan seem to -have come from the adjoining seas. The pearls were distributed among the -nations in control of the fisheries, and from them, other people -received collections, either as presents, in conquest, or by way of -trade. History makes no mention of pearls having been obtained elsewhere -than in the Orient up to the time of Julius Cæsar, when small quantities -of inexpensive ones were collected in Britain by the invading Romans. -And in the first century A.D., Pliny states that small reddish pearls -were found about Italy and in the Bosphorus Straits near Constantinople. - -A number of specimens of pearls of the artistic Greeks and of the -luxurious Romans are yet in existence, and some of these are in a fairly -good state of preservation. A notable and interesting example is a -superb Greek necklace of pearls and gold, referred to the third century -B.C., and now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Several -earrings now in that museum, in the Hermitage at St. Petersburg, the -British Museum, the Louvre in Paris, and in the Boston Museum of Fine -Arts, are shown in this book. Some of these may have decorated ears that -listened to the comedies of Aristophanes, the tragedies of Euripides, -the philosophies of Plato, or the oratory of Demosthenes. A number of -classic statues have the ears pierced for earrings, notably the Venus de -Medici now in the Tribuna of the Uffizi, Florence; and a magnificent -pair of half-pearls is said to have decorated the Venus of the Pantheon -in Rome.[21] Pearl grape earrings are shown on the artistic intaglio by -Aspasios, representing the bust of the Athene Parthenos of Phidias, -which has been in the Gemmen Münzen Cabinet at Vienna since 1669. - -The beautiful Tyszkiewicz bronze statuette of Aphrodite was acquired in -1900 by the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, and has even yet a pearl in a -fairly good state of preservation suspended from each ear by a spiral -thread of gold which passes quite through the gem and also through the -lobe of the ear. This statuette has been described as “the most -beautiful bronze Venus known.”[22] Professor Froehner considers that it -belongs nearer to the period of Phidias (_circa_ 500–430 B.C.) than to -that of Praxiteles (_circa_ 400–336 B.C.); but Dr. Edward Robinson does -not concur in this opinion, and refers it to the Hellenic period -(_circa_ 330–146 B.C.). - -However, considering the very large accumulations, relatively few pearls -of antiquity now remain, and none of these is of great ornamental value. -Those in archæological collections and art museums are more or less -decayed through the ravages of time and accident to which they have been -subjected. While coins, gold jewelry, crystal gems, etc., of ancient -civilizations are relatively numerous, the less durable pearls have not -survived the many centuries of pillage, waste, and burial in the earth. - -A well-known instance of this decay is found in the Stilicho pearls, -which owe their prominence to the incident of their long burial. The -daughters of this famous Roman general, who were successively betrothed -to the Emperor Honorius, died in 407 A.D., and were buried with their -pearls and ornaments. In 1526, or more than eleven centuries afterward, -in excavating for an extension of St. Peter’s, the tomb was opened, and -the ornaments were found in fair condition, except the pearls, which -were as lusterless and dead as a wreath of last year’s flowers. - - - - - II - - MEDIEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY - - - - - II - MEDIEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY OF PEARLS - - - I’ll set thee in a shower of gold, and hail - Rich pearls upon thee. - _Antony and Cleopatra_, Act II, sc. 5. - -The popularity of pearls in Rome has its counterpart in the Empire of -the East at Byzantium or Constantinople on its development in wealth and -luxury after becoming the capital of that empire in 330 A.D. Owing to -its control of the trade between Asia and Europe, and the influence of -oriental taste and fashion, enormous collections were made; and for -centuries after Rome had been pillaged, this capital was the focus of -all the arts, and pearls were the favorite ornaments. The famous mosaic -in the sanctuary of San Vitale at Ravenna, shows Justinian (483–565) -with his head covered with a jeweled cap, and the Empress Theodora -wearing a tiara encircled by three rows of pearls, and strings of pearls -depend therefrom almost to the waist. In many instances the decorations -of the emperors excelled even those of the most profligate of Roman -rulers. An examination of the coins, from those of Arcadius in 395 to -the last dribble of a long line of obscure rulers when the city was -captured and pillaged by Venetian and Latin adventurers in 1204, shows -in the form of diadems, collars, necklaces, etc., the great quantity of -pearls worn by them. The oldest existing crown in use at the present -time, the Hungarian crown of St. Stephen, which is radiant with pearls, -is of Byzantine workmanship. - -Outside of Constantinople, the demand and fashion for pearls did not -cease with the downfall of the Roman Empire and the spoliation of Rome -in the fifth century. The treasures accumulated there, and the gems and -jewels, were carried away by the conquering Goths and scattered among -the great territorial lords of western and northern Europe. - -In the ancient cities of Gaul, in Toulouse and Narbonne, the Ostrogoth -and the Visigoth kings collected enormous treasures. The citadel of -Carcassonne held magnificent spoils brought from the sacking of Rome in -410 by Alaric, king of the Ostrogoths, consisting in part of jewels from -the Temple, these having been carried to Rome after the spoliation of -Jerusalem in 70 A.D. Several beautiful objects of this and somewhat -later periods are yet in existence, notably the Visigothic crowns and -crosses, in the Musée de l’Hôtel de Cluny, Paris, the most beautiful of -which are probably the crown and the cross of Reccesvinthus.[23] - -Even as the treasures of Rome were despoiled by the Ostrogoths and the -Visigoths, so, later, their collections were depleted by the military -operations of the Franks, when Narbonne was pillaged; when Toulouse was -sacked by Clovis, or Chlodowig, in 507; when the churches of Barcelona -and Toledo were despoiled by Childebert in 531 and 542; and by various -expeditions in succeeding years. - -The military triumphs of the Franks placed them in the highest rank -among the peoples of Europe, in the sixth and seventh centuries, in the -possession of treasures of jewels which enriched their palaces and great -churches. And the taste which the triumphs of war had developed was -maintained by the trade carried on by the Jewish and Syrian merchants. -The inhabitants of Gaul were extremely fond of objects of art, of rich -costumes, and of personal decorations; and the courts of some of the -early kings rivaled in magnificence those of oriental monarchs. -Especially was this true during the reign of King Dagobert (628–638), -who competed in splendor with the rulers of Persia and India. His -skilful jeweler, Eligius (588–659), was raised to the bishopric of -Noyon, and eventually—under the name of St. Eloi—became one of the most -popular saints in Gaul. Under direction of this artistic bishop, the -ancient churches received shrines, vestments, and reliquaries superbly -decorated with pearls and other gems. Indeed, for several centuries -following the time of Eligius, the greatest treasures of jewels seem to -have been collected in the churches. - -The use of gems in enriching regalia, vestments, and reliquaries in -Europe, advanced greatly during the reign of Charlemagne (768–814); and -princes and bishops competed with each other in the magnificence of -their gifts to the churches, sacrificing their laical jewels for the -sacred treasures. Few of the great ornaments of Charlemagne’s time are -now in existence in the original form. Doubtless the most remarkable -pieces are the sacred regalia of the great emperor, preserved among the -imperial treasures in Vienna. - -[Illustration: - - FRONT COVER OF ASHBURNHAM MANUSCRIPT OF THE FOUR GOSPELS - - From the ninth century. One quarter of the actual dimensions. - - Owned by J. Pierpont Morgan, Esq. -] - -An artistic use for pearls at that time was in the rich and elegant -bindings of the splendidly written missals and chronicles, finished in -the highest degree of excellence and at vast expense. An artist might -devote his whole life to completing a single manuscript, so great was -the detail and so exquisite the finish. Vasari states that Julio Clovio -devoted nine years to painting twenty-six miniatures in the Breviary of -the Virgin now in the royal library at Naples. The library at Rouen has -a large missal on which a monk of St. Andoen is said to have labored for -thirty years. These books were among the most valued possessions of the -churches, and their bindings were enriched with gold and pearls and -colored stones. The wealthy churches had many such volumes; Gregory of -Tours states that from Barcelona in 531 A.D. Childebert brought twenty -“_evangeliorum capsas_” of pure gold set with gems. Several of these -superbly bound volumes are yet in existence, in the Basilica of St. Mark -in Venice; in the treasury of the cathedral at Milan; among the imperial -Russian collections in the Ourejenaya Palata at Moscow, etc.; and they -furnish probably the most reliable examples of artistic jewel work of -the Dark Ages. - -The most remarkable specimen of these books in America is doubtless the -Ashburnham manuscript of the Four Gospels, now owned by J. Pierpont -Morgan, Esq., which affords an interesting example of the jeweler’s art. -For many centuries it belonged to the Abbey of the Noble Canonesses, -founded, in 834, at Lindau, on Lake Constance. After an extended -examination, Mr. Alexander Nesbit concluded that the rich cover of the -manuscript was probably made between 896 and 899 by order of Emperor -Arnulf of the Carolingian dynasty. Most of the ninety-eight pearls -appear to be from fresh water, and probably all of them were obtained -from the rivers of Europe. This is one of the few remaining pieces of -the magnificent ecclesiastical jeweling of that period. - -After the death of Charlemagne, internal dissensions, separations and -the division of the Empire into the nations of Europe, annihilated -commerce, oppressed the people, and impoverished the arts. In the ninth -century, the Normans pillaged many of the palaces and churches in -Angoulême, Tours, Orléans, Rouen, and Paris, and destroyed or carried -away large treasures. The tenth and the eleventh centuries were indeed -the Dark Ages in respect to the cultivation of the arts; yet even during -that period the churches of western Europe received many gems from -penitent and fear-stricken subjects. The heart of man, filled with the -love of God, laid its earthly treasure upon the altar in exchange for -heavenly consolation. Pious faith dedicated pearls to the glorification -of the ritual; altars, statues, and images of the saints, priestly -vestments, and sacred vessels, were surcharged with them. The great -museums and the imperial collections contain some beautiful and highly -venerated objects of this nature. - -In the meantime pearls of small size and of fair luster had been -collected in the rivers of Scotland, Ireland, and France, the headwaters -of the Danube, and in the countries north thereof. In England, as noted -in the preceding chapter, they were obtained by Cæsar’s invading -legions, who carried many to Rome. Ancient coins indicate that pearls -formed the principal ornament of the simple crowns worn by the early -kings of Britain previous to Alfred the Great. - -The river pearls were not so beautiful as oriental ones; but, owing to -the ease with which they were obtained, they were employed more -extensively and especially in ecclesiastical decorations, the principal -use for pearls from the eighth to the eleventh century. Apparently -authentic specimens of fresh-water pearls of an early period are the -four now in the coronation spoon of the English regalia, which is -attributed to the twelfth century. - -From the most ancient times until the overthrow of the Roman Empire, -practically the only use for pearls was ornamental; but after the eighth -century there developed a new employment for these as well as for other -gems. Natural history was little studied in Europe from the ninth to the -fourteenth century, except for the effect which its subjects had in -medicine and magic, which were closely allied. Largely through Arabic -influence, the practice of medicine had developed into administering -most whimsical remedies, among which gems, and especially pearls, played -a prominent part, and belief in the influence of these was as strong as -in that of the heavenly bodies. For this application, large demands had -arisen for pearls, which seem to have been prescribed for nearly every -ill to which the flesh was heir. On account of their cheapness, the -small ones—seed-pearls—were used principally; though larger ones were -preferred by persons who could afford them. While many of these -so-called medicinal pearls were obtained from the Orient, most of them -were secured from the home streams in the north of Europe and in the -British Isles. - -After the decadence of Roman power in the East, the rulers of India and -Persia, through their control of the fisheries, again accumulated -enormous quantities of pearls. All of the early travelers to those -countries were astonished at the lavish display of these gems in -decorative costume. - -The manuscript of Renaudot’s two Mohammedans, who visited India and -China in the ninth century, notes that the kings of the Indies were rich -in ornaments, “yet pearls are what they most esteem, and their value -surpasses that of all other jewels; they hoard them up in their -treasures with their most precious things. The grandees of the court, -the great officers and captains, wear the like jewels in their -collars.”[24] - -[Illustration: - - FRANCIS I, KING OF FRANCE, 1494–1547 - - Louvre, Paris -] - -[Illustration: - - ISABELLE DE VALOIS - - By Pantoia de la Cruz, Prado Museum, Madrid -] - -Inventories of some of the oriental collections of later times seem to -be extravagant fiction rather than veritable history. In that -interesting book dictated in a Genoese prison to Rusticiano da Pisa, -accounts are given by Marco Polo of great treasures seen by the first -Europeans to penetrate into China. He describes the king of Malabar as -wearing suspended about his neck a string of 104 large pearls and rubies -of great value, which he used as a rosary. Likewise on his legs were -anklets and on his toes were rings, all thickly set with costly pearls, -the whole “worth more than a city’s ransom. And ’tis no wonder he hath -great store of such gear; for they are found in his kingdom. No one is -permitted to remove therefrom a pearl weighing more than half a -_saggio_. The king desires to reserve all such to himself, and so the -quantity he has is almost incredible.”[25] - -Later travelers give wonderful descriptions of this excessive passion -for pearls. Literature is full of this appreciation, and of the part -which these gems played in the affairs of the Orientals. Who has not -dwelt with delight upon those imperishable legends such as are embodied -in the Arabian Nights, of the pearl voyages by Sindbad the Sailor, of -the wonderful treasure chests, and of the superb necklaces adorning the -beautiful black-eyed women! - -The returning Crusaders in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and the -development of the knightly orders, had much to do with spreading -through Europe a fondness for pearls in personal decoration. Those who, -like Chaucer’s knight, had been with Peter, King of Cyprus, at the -capture and plunder when “Alexandria was won,” returned to their homes -with riches of pearls and gold and precious stones. And learning much -relative to decorative art from Moorish craftsmen, the jewelers of -western Europe set these in designs not always crude and ineffective. - -Although they were well known and valued, pearls do not seem to have -been much used in England before the twelfth century, as the -Anglo-Saxons were not an especially art-loving people. The word itself -is of foreign derivation and occurs in a similar form in all modern -languages, both Romance and Teutonic; _perle_, French and German; -_perla_, Italian, Portuguese, Provençal, Spanish, and Swedish; _paarl_, -Danish and Dutch. Its origin is doubtful. Some philologists consider it -Teutonic and the diminutive of _beere_, a berry; Claude de Saumaise -derives it from _pirula_, the diminutive of _pirum_, a sphere; while -Diez and many others refer it to _pira_ or to the medieval Latin -_pirula_, in allusion to the pear shape frequently assumed by the -pearl.[26] - -The word pearl seems to have come into general use in the English -language about the fourteenth century. In Wyclif’s translation of the -Scriptures (about 1360), he commonly used the word _margarite_ or -_margaritis_, whereas Tyndale’s translation (1526) in similar places -used the word _perle_. Tyndale translated Matt. xiii. 46: “When he had -founde one precious pearle”; Wyclif used “oo preciouse margarite.” Also -in Matt. vii. 6, Tyndale wrote, “Nether caste ye youre pearles before -swyne”; yet Wyclif used “margaritis,” although twenty years later he -expressed it “putten precious perlis to hoggis.” Langland’s Piers -Plowman (1362), XI, 9, wrote this: “_Noli mittere_ Margeri perles Among -hogges.” The oldest English version of Mandeville’s Travels, written -about 1400, contained the expression: “The fyn Perl congeles and wexes -gret of the dew of hevene”; but in 1447, Bokenham’s “Seyntys” stated: “A -margerye perle aftyr the phylosophyr Growyth on a shelle of lytyl -pryhs”; and Knight de la Tour (about 1450) stated: “The sowle is the -precious marguarite unto God.” - -The word is given “perle” in the earliest manuscripts of those old epic -poems of the fourteenth century, “Pearl” and “Cleanness,” which have -caused so much learned theological discussion and which testify to the -great love and esteem in which the gem was held. The first stanza of -“Pearl” we quote from Gollancz’s rendition: - - Pearl! fair enow for princes’ pleasance, - so deftly set in gold so pure,— - from orient lands I durst avouch, - ne’er saw I a gem its peer,— - so round, so comely-shaped withal, - so small, with sides so smooth,— - where’er I judged of radiant gems, - I placed my pearl supreme.[27] - -The fourteenth-century manuscript in the British Museum gives this as -follows: - - Perle plesaunte to prynces paye, - To clanly clos in gold so clere, - Oute of oryent I hardyly saye, - Ne proved I never her precios pere,— - So rounde, so reken in uche a raye, - So smal, so smothe her sydez were,— - Queresoever I jugged gemmez gaye, - I sette hyr sengeley in synglere. - -And from a modern rendering of “Cleanness” we quote: - - The pearl is praised wherever gems are seen, - though it be not the dearest by way of merchandise. - Why is the pearl so prized, save for its purity, - that wins praise for it above all white stones? - It shineth so bright; it is so round of shape; - without fault or stain; if it be truly a pearl. - -In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries throughout Europe pearls were -very fashionable as personal ornaments, and were worn in enormous -quantities; the dresses of men as well as of women were decorated and -embroidered with them, and they were noted in nearly every account of a -festive occasion, whether it were a marriage, a brilliant tourney, the -consecration of a bishop, or the celebration of a victory in battle. - -The faceting of crystal gems was not known at that time, and those -dependent on artifice for their beauty were not much sought after. -Although the diamond had been known from the eighth century, it was not -generally treasured as an ornament, and not until long after the -invention of cutting in regular facets—about 1450—did it attain its -great popularity. - -In the Dark Ages, it was customary for princes and great nobles to carry -their valuables about with them even on the battle-fields; first, in -order to have them always in possession, and second, on account of the -mysterious power they attributed to precious stones. Since jewels -constituted a large portion of their portable wealth, nobles and knights -went into battle superbly arrayed. In this manner the treasures were -easily lost and destroyed; consequently, relatively few of the personal -ornaments of that period are preserved to the present time. - -Among the greatest lovers of pearls in the fourteenth and fifteenth -centuries were the members of the ducal house of Burgundy, and -especially Philip the Bold (1342–1404), Philip the Good (1396–1467), and -Charles the Bold (1433–77), and some of the gems which they owned are -even now treasured in Austria, Spain, and Italy. When Duke Charles the -Bold, in the year 1473, attended the Diet of Treves, accompanied by his -five thousand splendidly equipped horsemen, he was attired in cloth of -gold garnished with pearls, which were valued at 200,000 golden -florins.[28] We are told that “almost a sea of pearls” was on view at -the marriage of George the Rich with Hedwig, the daughter of Casimir III -of Poland, at Landshut, in 1475. Among the many ornaments was a pearl -chaplet valued at 50,000 florins which Duke George wore on his hat, and -also a clasp worth 6000 florins.[29] Members of the related houses of -Anjou and Valois also held great collections. Nor in this account should -we omit some of the English sovereigns, including especially Richard II -(1366–1400), one of the greatest dandies of his day. - -During the fifteenth century, enormous quantities of pearls were worn by -persons of rank and fashion. A remarkable 1483 portrait of Margaret, -wife of James III of Scotland, which is now preserved at Hampton Court, -shows her wearing such wonderful pearl ornaments that she might well be -called Margaret from her decorations. As this queen was praised for her -beauty, we fear the artist has scarcely done justice to her appearance; -or possibly since that period tastes have changed as to what on a throne -passes for beauty. Her head-dress is undoubtedly the most remarkable -pearl decoration which we have seen of that century. - -The uxorious and sumptuous Henry VIII of England (1491–1547) spent much -of the great wealth accumulated by his penurious father, Henry VII, in -enriching the appearance of his semi-barbaric court. In this reign, the -spoliation of the Catholic cathedrals and churches contributed many -pearls to the royal treasury; and onward from that time, they were -prominently displayed among the ornaments of the women of rank in -England. Most of the portraits of Henry’s wives show great quantities of -these gems; many of them with settings doubtless designed by artistic -Hans Holbein the Younger (1497–1543); and during the succeeding reigns -the women near the throne were commonly depicted with elaborate pearl -decorations. - -The cold, unflattering portraits by Holbein of the court celebrities of -that period, not only of the gracious women and of the dandified men, -but of the clergy as well, show the prominence of pearls. Note his -portrait of Jane Seymour, of Anne of Cleves, of Christina of Denmark, -and the pearl-incrusted miter of Archbishop Warham of Canterbury. - -An interesting story is told of Sir Thomas More, the learned chancellor -of Henry VIII, showing his view of the great display of jewels which -distinguished the period in which he lived: - - His sonne John’s wife often had requested her father-in-law, Sir - Thomas, to buy her a billiment sett with pearles. He had often put - her off with many pretty slights; but at last, for her importunity, - he provided her one. Instead of pearles, he caused white peaze to be - sett, so that at his next coming home, his daughter-in-law demanded - her jewel. “Ay, marry, daughter, I have not forgotten thee!” So out - of his studie he sent for a box, and solemnlie delivered it to her. - When she, with great joy, lookt for her billiment, she found, far - from her expectation, a billiment of peaze; and so she almost wept - for verie griefe.[30] - -Meanwhile, in the yet unknown America, pearls were highly prized, and -their magic charm had taken an irresistible hold on aborigines and on -the more highly civilized inhabitants of Mexico and Peru. In Mexico the -palaces of Montezuma were studded with pearls and emeralds, and the -Aztec kings possessed pearls of inestimable value. That they had been -collected elsewhere for a long time is evidenced by the large quantities -in the recently opened mounds of the Ohio Valley, which rank among the -ancient works of man in America. As in the Old World, so in the New, -they had been used as decoration for the gods and for the temples, as -well as for men and women. - -The principal immediate effect of Columbus’s discovery and of the -commercial intercourse with the New World, was the great wealth of -pearls which enriched the Spanish traders. The natives were found in -possession of rich fisheries on the coast of Venezuela, and somewhat -later on the Pacific coast of Panama and Mexico, whence Eldorado -adventurers returned to Spain with such large collections that—using an -old chronicler’s expression—“they were to every man like chaff.” For -many years America was best known in Seville, Cadiz, and some other -ports of Europe, as the land whence the pearls came. Until the -development of the mines in Mexico and Peru, the value of the pearls -exceeded that of all other exports combined. Humboldt states that till -1530 these averaged in value more than 800,000 piastres yearly.[31] And -throughout the sixteenth century the American fisheries—prosecuted by -the Spaniards with the help of native labor—furnished Europe with large -quantities, the records for one year showing imports of “697 pounds’ -weight” into Seville alone. - -For two centuries following the discovery of America, extravagance in -personal decoration was almost unlimited at the European courts, and the -pearls exceeded in quantity that of all other gems. Enormous numbers -were worn by persons of rank and fortune. This is apparent, not only -from the antiquarian records and the historical accounts, but also in -the paintings and engravings of that time; portraits of the Hapsburgs, -the Valois, the Medicis, the Borgias, the Tudors, and the Stuarts show -great quantities of pearls, and relatively few other gems. - -Probably the largest treasures were in possession of the Hapsburg -family, which furnished so many sovereigns to the Holy Roman Empire, to -Austria, and to Spain, and which, by descent through Maria Theresa, -continued to rule the Holy Roman Empire until its abolition in 1806, and -has since ruled Austria and Hungary. - -A number of superb pieces of jewelry owned centuries ago by members of -this illustrious family are yet in existence; notably the buckle of -Charles V, and especially the imperial crown of Austria, made in 1602 by -order of Rudolph II.[32] - -Two great women of that period are noted for their passion for pearls, -Catharine de’ Medici (1519–89), and Elizabeth of England (1533–1603). It -requires but a glance at almost any of their portraits, wherein they are -represented wearing elaborate pearl ornaments, to see to what an extent -they carried this fondness. And many other women were not far behind -them, among whom were Mary Stuart, Marie de’ Medici, and Henrietta -Maria. And not only by the women, but by the men also, pearls were worn -to what now seems an extravagant extent. Nearly all the portraits of -Francis I (1494–1547), Henry II (1519–59), Charles IX (1550–74), and -Henry III (1551–89) of France; of James I (1566–1625), and of Charles I -(1600–49) of England, and likewise of other celebrities, show a great -pear-shaped pearl in one ear. Many portraits also show pearls on the -hats, cloaks, gloves, etc. - -When the Duke of Buckingham went to Paris in 1625, to bring over -Henrietta Maria to be queen to Charles I, he had, according to an -account in the “Antiquarian Repertory,” in addition to twenty-six other -suits, “a rich suit of purple satin, embroidered all over with rich -orient pearls, the cloak made after the Spanish mode, with all things -suitable, the value whereof will be twenty thousand pounds, and this, it -is thought, shall be for the wedding day at Paris.” - -In the rich and prosperous cities of southern Europe, pearls were no -less popular. From its share of the spoils of the Byzantine Empire, -after its partition in 1204, pearls and other riches were plentiful in -Venice, and they were increased by the rapidly developing trade with the -Orient. In the rival maritime cities, Genoa and Pisa, the gem was -equally popular; and likewise in Florence “the Beautiful.” When Hercule -d’Este sought Lucrezia Borgia (1480–1519) in marriage for his son, her -father, Pope Alexander VI, plunging both hands in a box filled with -pearls, said: “All these are for her! I desire that in all Italy she -shall be the princess with the most beautiful pearls and with the -greatest number.”[33] - -Separated by three centuries of time and by the intervening simplicities -of puritanism and democracy, it is difficult for us to appreciate the -passion for pearls in Europe at that period, which may well be called -the Pearl Age. - -[Illustration: - - MARIA THERESA (1717–1780), QUEEN OF HUNGARY - - By Martin de Mytens, 1742 -] - -The sumptuary laws which prevailed at different times in France, -England, Germany, and other countries, did not overlook this -extravagance; and an entire volume might be devoted to the efforts to -curb the excessive use. In France they were probably most stringent -during the reign of Philip IV (1285–1314), of Louis XI (1461–83), of -Charles IX (1560–74), of Henry III (1574–89), and of Louis XIII -(1610–43). In Germany almost every city had its special restrictions. A -sumptuary law of Ulm, in 1345, provided that no married woman or maiden, -either among the patricians or the artisans, should wear pearls on her -dresses; and another, in 1411, restricted them to “one pearl chaplet,” -and this should not exceed twelve _loth_ (half ounce) in weight. A -Frankish sumptuary law of 1479 provided that ordinary nobles serving a -knight at a tourney should not wear any pearl ornaments, embroidered or -otherwise, excepting one string around the cap or hat. The regulations -decreed by the Diet of Worms, in 1495, set forth that the citizens who -were not of noble birth, and nobles who were not knights, must withhold -from the use of gold and pearls. A similar provision was enacted by the -Diet of Freiburg in 1498, and likewise by the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, -which permitted the wives of nobles four silk dresses, but without -pearls. In the sumptuary law of Duke John George of Saxony, April 23, -1612, we read: “the nobility are not allowed to wear any dresses of gold -or silver, or garnished with pearls; neither shall the professors and -doctors of the universities, nor their wives, wear any gold, silver or -pearls for fringes, or any chains of pearls, or caps, neck ornaments, -shoes, slippers, shawls, pins, etc., with gold or silver or with -pearls.” Beadles, burgomasters, and those connected with the law-courts -were forbidden to wear chains of pearls and ornaments of precious stones -on their dresses, caps, etc., or slippers or chaplets with pearls. - -Probably in no place were these laws more stringent than in the -art-loving republic of Venice from the fourteenth to the sixteenth -century. This seems remarkable in view of the fact that this city was -largely dependent for its wealth and prominence on commerce with the -East, of which pearls constituted a prominent item. - -The earliest Venetian restriction that we have found regarding pearls -was made in 1299; when, in a decree determining the maximum number of -guests at a marriage ceremony and the extent of the bridal trousseau, -the grand council of the republic provided that no one but the bride -should wear pearl decorations, and she should be permitted only one -girdle of them on her wedding dress. This enactment was modified in -1306, but numerous other restrictions were substituted, notably in 1334, -1340, 1360, 1497, and 1562. These differed in many particulars: some -forbade ornaments or trimmings of pearls, gold, or silver on the dresses -of any women except a member of the Doge’s family; and other enactments -required that, after a definite period of married life, no woman should -be permitted to wear pearls of any kind. But an examination of the -documents and of the paintings of that period shows that these decrees -had little effect, and the luxury of the “Queen of the Adriatic” in the -use of pearls at the most brilliant epoch in her history is aptly -reproduced in the portraits by Giovanni Bellini, Lorenzo Lotto, the -great Titian, Tintoretto, Paul Veronese, and other artists of the -highest rank. In the engraving by Hendrik Goltzius of a marriage at -Venice in 1584, not one of the many women present seems to be without -her necklace and earrings of pearls, and some of them have several -necklaces.[34] And the same appears true of the principal female figures -in Jost Amman’s noted engraving, “The Espousal of the Sea,” executed in -1565.[35] - -As preservation of the republic became more difficult with declining -resources and with the continued growth of dazzling splendor, a -resolution in the Senate, dated July 8, 1599, set forth that “the use -and price of pearls has become so excessive and increases to such an -extent from day to day, that if some remedy is not provided, it will -cause injury, disorders, and notable inconvenience to public and private -well-being, as each one of this council in his wisdom can very easily -appreciate.” And then it was enacted: “That, without repealing the other -regulations which absolutely prohibit the wearing of pearls, it shall be -expressly enjoined that any woman, whether of noble birth or a simple -citizen, or of any other condition, who shall reside in this our city -for one year (except her Serenity the Dogaressa and her daughters and -her daughters-in-law who live in the palace), after the expiration of -fifteen years from the day of her first marriage, shall lay aside the -string of pearls around her neck and shall not wear or use, either upon -her neck or upon any other part of her person, this string or any other -kind of pearls or anything which imitates pearls, neither in this city -nor in any other city or place within our dominion, under the -irremissible penalty of two hundred ducats.” - -And yet ten years later, on May 5, 1609, another law enacted in the -Senate stated: - - Although in the year 1599 this council decided with great wisdom - that married women should be permitted to wear pearls for only - fifteen years after their first marriage, nevertheless it is very - evident that the desired end has not been attained, and the - extravagance has continued up to the present time and still - continues with the gravest injury to private persons. Therefore, as - it is necessary to remedy, by a new provision, not only this - considerable incommodity, but also to prevent in the future the - introduction into the city of a greater quantity of pearls than are - found here at present, it is enacted, that married women as well as - those who shall marry in the future (except the Serene Dogaressa and - her daughters and her daughters-in-law living in the palace) of - whatever grade and condition they may be, who have resided in this - city for one year, cannot wear pearls of any kind except for ten - years immediately following the day of their first marriage; and - after that period they must lay aside these pearls which they are - forbidden to wear on any part of their persons, at home or abroad, - and as well in this as in the other cities, lands, and other places - of our dominion, under the penalty of two hundred ducats. And if the - husband of the offending wife is a noble, he shall be proclaimed in - the greater council and declared a debtor to the office of the - governors of the revenue in the sum of twenty-five ducats for each - fine; and if he is a citizen or of any other condition, besides the - penalty of two hundred ducats and the fine of twenty-five ducats - above mentioned, he shall be banished for three years from Venice - and the Duchy, and the same for each offence. And pearls or anything - which imitates pearls, shall be forbidden to all other women, men - and boys or girls of every age and condition at all times and in all - places, under the same penalty of two hundred ducats. In the future - no one shall in any manner bring pearls to this city as merchandise, - under the penalty of their seizure and forfeiture. And the merchant - shall be imprisoned for five consecutive years; and if he flees, he - shall be banished from the city and district of Venice and from all - other cities, lands, and places of our dominion for eight - consecutive years.... And all who at present have pearls to sell are - required to deposit a list of them with the sumptuary office, so as - to avoid all fraud which could be practiced in this matter. - -[Illustration: - - PARTI - PRESE - NELL ECCELLENTISS - Conseglio di Pregadi. - - _1599. Adi 8. Luglio, & 1609. 5. Maggio._ - - In materia di Perle. - - Stampata per Antonio Pinelli, - Stampator Ducale. - _A S. Maria Formosa, in Cale del Mondo Novo._ -] - -A copy of the title-page of this enactment is presented above. - -The decrees and edicts were not confined to Venice, or to Italy, France, -or Germany; they made their appearance quite generally throughout -western and northern Europe and the interdictions of the civil -authorities were strengthened by the voice of the bishops and other -clergy, especially in the imperial cities of southern Germany. Yet the -united authority of church and state was ineffectual in stemming the -tide of fashion and personal fancy, and whether or not pearls should be -worn became one of the much discussed questions of that period. - -To the question, “Whether the statute and regulation of Bishop -Tudertinus, who had excommunicated all women who wore pearls, was -binding,” Joannes Guidius replied that many denied that this was so, and -made the subtle defense that “the women had not accepted it and all had -worn pearls, and it was considered that such a law was binding only when -it was accepted by those for whom it was intended.”[36] - -And as to the validity of the statutes requiring that women should not -wear more than a definite number of pearls, he decided that “such a -statute is valid and in itself good. And if the question is put whether -every woman who infringes incurs the penalty, an answer may be gathered -from the sayings of the doctors, who distinguish between married and -unmarried women. They consider that an unmarried woman is obliged to -obey the statute and regulation or to incur the penalty. But as to a -married woman, if her husband approves, she should obey the statute; if, -however, the husband objects, then the wife ought to wish to obey the -statute, but in effect she should rather obey her husband, for she is -most immediately and strongly bound to do this.”[37] Aided by such -ingenious opinions as these, the women continued to follow their own -inclinations notwithstanding the opposition of church and state. - -Other fine distinctions were drawn by the lawyers of that day regarding -ownership of gems under certain conditions. For instance, it was decided -that pearls given by a father to his unmarried daughter remained her -property after marriage because “they are given for a reason, namely to -induce a marriage”; yet “pearls handed to a wife by her husband are not -considered as her property, but must be given to his heirs, since it is -supposed that they were given only for her adornment. The same holds -good as respects pearls handed to a daughter-in-law by her -father-in-law.”[38] - -However, the greed of fashion, which law-makers and bishops could not -arrest, was gradually satiated; and, influenced probably by the horrors -of the Thirty Years’ War, more simple taste prevailed in the latter part -of the seventeenth century. - -In the meantime, improvements in cutting and polishing had greatly -increased the beauty and popularity of diamonds and other crystal gems, -and this adversely affected the demand for pearls. Furthermore, cleverly -fashioned imitations manufactured at a low cost also served to decrease -the relative rank and fashion of the sea-born gems. In the eighteenth -century, pearls were relatively scarce; the resources of the American -seas were largely exhausted, likewise the Ceylon and Red Sea fisheries -were not to be depended on, and practically the entire supply came from -the Persian Gulf, with a few from European rivers and the waters of -China. As a result, although they continued to be prized by -connoisseurs, pearls were not so extensively sought after by the rank -and file of jewel purchasers. - -It should be noted, however, that from the most ancient times, the -princes of India and of Persia have had their pick and choice of the -output from Ceylon and the Persian Gulf; and the largest single -collections of the Western world have never equaled the possessions of -some of those rulers. Some Indian princes have loaded themselves with -thousands of pearls, and individual ornaments have been valued not only -by oriental, but by European experts, at several millions of dollars. - -The great diamond resources of Brazil were discovered in 1727, and after -a few years these came on the market at the rate of 140,000 carats -annually. At that time ladies of rank did not esteem diamonds so highly -as pearls. This distinction was accentuated by Lord Hervey in his -account of the coronation, in 1727, of George II and his consort -Caroline, who wore not only the great pearl necklace inherited from -Queen Anne, but “had on her head and shoulders all the pearls she could -borrow of the ladies of quality at one end of the town, and on her -petticoat all the diamonds she could hire of the Jews and jewelers at -the other; so that the appearance and the truth of her finery was a -mixture of magnificence and meanness not unlike the _éclat_ of royalty -in many other particulars, when it comes to be nicely considered and its -source traced to what money hires or flattery lends.”[39] In a portrait -of Charlotte (1744–1818), wife of George III, the pearls and diamonds -appear equally popular. - -On the entry of the British into possession of Ceylon in 1796, the -fisheries of that country were resumed with great success after thirty -years of idleness, resulting in very large outputs for several seasons. -But owing to exhaustion of the areas, they were soon reduced, and the -yield became small and uncertain. - -About 1845, pearls came on the market from the Tuamotu Archipelago and -other South Sea islands, and the industry was revived on the Mexican -coast. The pearls from these localities are noted for their range of -coloration, and particularly for the very dark shades, black or greenish -black being especially prominent. But the fashion, and thus, -necessarily, the demand, had always been for white and yellow pearls; -consequently, these black ones were of little value in the markets until -about ten years later, when they became fashionable in Europe largely -through their popularity with Empress Eugénie of France, then at the -height of her power. To this queen, pearls owe much of their high rank -in fashion in the nineteenth century; and on her head they were royal -gems royally worn, as appears from Winterhalter’s portrait of her, -showing her magnificent necklace. - -The discovery of the resources on the Australian coast about 1865, and -the development of the fishery there for mother-of-pearl, resulted in -many large white pearls coming from that coast. The search was confined -to the relatively shoal waters, until the introduction of diving-suits -about 1880. The use of these facilitated a considerable extension of the -fisheries not only on the Australian coast, but also in Mexico, the -Malay Archipelago, several of the South Sea islands, and some minor -localities. - -In America, few jewels were worn previous to the Civil War, owing to the -absence of great wealth and to the simplicity of taste in personal -decorations. The rapid increase in wealth and luxury, on the termination -of that war, resulted in a great demand for gems, and the most brilliant -and showy ones were selected, especially diamonds. This demand was the -more readily supplied by the discovery of the South African mines, with -their great yield from 1870 to the present time. So popular did that gem -become that many a young man invested his first earnings in a -“brilliant,” and an enormous diamond in the shirt-front became the -caricatured emblem of a prosperous hotel clerk. - -But in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, in Europe, as well as -in America and elsewhere where gems are worn, luxury found in pearls a -refinement, associated with richness and beauty, exceeding that of -diamonds and other crystal gems, and in the last few years they have -taken the highest rank among jewels. This change in fashion and the -increase in wealth among the people developed vastly greater demands and -consequently very much higher prices. These have resulted in greatly -extending the field of search, and during the last two or three decades -many new territories have been brought into production. - -By far the most important of these new regions is the Mississippi Valley -in America, the pearl resources of which were made known about a score -of years ago. As the exploitation developed, the gems from these streams -added very largely to the supply, especially of the baroque or irregular -pearls, which have increased greatly in fashion in the last ten years. - -[Illustration] - - LADY ABINGER MRS. ADAIR - LADY WIMBORNE HON. MRS. RENARD GRÉVILLE - MARCHIONESS OF LANSDOWNE - LADY LONDONDERRY - BARONESS DE FOREST - -Notwithstanding the popular idea that pearls are scarce owing to -depletion of the fisheries, they are doubtless produced in greater -quantities at present than ever before in the history of the world. -True, they were more plentiful in Rome after the Persian conquest, and -in Spain immediately following the exploitation of tropical America; but -it is highly probable that in no equal period have the entire fisheries -of the world yielded greater quantities than in the five years from 1903 -to 1907 inclusive. Certain individual fisheries are now less productive -than at the height of their prosperity; those in the Red Sea do not -compare favorably with their condition in ancient times, the European -resources are nearly exhausted, the supplies from the Venezuelan coast -do not equal those obtained early in the sixteenth century, the yield -from Mexico is not so extensive as twenty-five years ago, and the same -is true of some other regions. On the other hand, the great fisheries of -Persia and Ceylon are yet very prosperous, the Ceylon fishery of 1905 -surpassing all records, and the number of minor pearling regions has -largely increased. - -The present value of pearls—which has advanced enormously since 1893—is -due to the extended markets and the increased wealth and fashion in -Western countries, rather than to diminished fisheries. The oriental -demand still consumes the bulk of the Persian and Indian output, and the -vast increase in wealth among the middle classes in America, Europe, and -elsewhere, has increased the demand tenfold over that of a century ago. -While women no longer appear ornamented from head to foot as in the -sixteenth century, pearls are in the highest fashion, and the woman of -rank and wealth usually prizes first among her jewels her necklace of -pearls. - - - - - III - - ORIGIN OF PEARLS - - - - - III - ORIGIN OF PEARLS - - - Heaven-born and cradled in the deep blue sea, it is the purest of - gems and the most precious. - - S. M. ZWEMER. - -The origin of pearls has been a fruitful subject of speculation and -discussion among naturalists of all ages, and has provoked many curious -explanations. Most of the early views—universally accepted during those -centuries when tradition had more influence than observation and -experiment—have no standing among naturalists at the present time. And -although much information has been gained as to the conditions -accompanying their growth, and many theories are entertained, each with -some basis in observed fact, science does not yet speak with conclusive -and unquestioned authority as to the precise manner of their origin and -development. - -Owing to the chaste and subdued beauty of pearls, it is not strange that -poets of many countries have founded their origin in tears—tears of -angels, of water-nymphs, of the lovely and devoted. Sir Walter Scott in -“The Bridal of Triermain” refers to— - - The pearls that long have slept, - These were tears by Naiads wept. - -In one of his most lovely and consoling thoughts, Shakspere says: - - The liquid drops of tears that you have shed, - Shall come again, transform’d to orient pearl, - Advantaging their loan with interest - Of ten times double gain of happiness. - -And we quote from Rückert’s “Edelstein und Perlen”: - - I was the Angel, who of old bowed down - From Heaven to earth and shed that tear, O Pearl, - From which thou wert first-fashioned in thy shell. - To thee I gave that longing in thy shell, - Which guided thee and caused thee to escape, - O Pearl, from the bewitching sirens’ song. - -In luster they so closely resemble the limpid, sparkling dewdrop as it -first receives the sun’s rays, that the ancients very naturally -conceived that pearls are formed from drops of dew or rain. The usual -legend is, that at certain seasons of the year, the pearl-oysters rise -to the surface of the water in the morning, and there open their shells -and imbibe the dewdrops; these, aided by the breath of the air and the -warmth of the sunlight, are, in the course of time, transformed into -lustrous pearls; but if the air and the sunlight are not received in -sufficient quantities, the pearls do not attain perfection and are -faulty in form, color, and luster. However remarkable and even absurd -this may seem at present, it appears to have been universally accepted -for centuries by the most learned men of Europe as well as by primitive -people who delight in the mystical and fantastic. This opinion was -recorded in the Sanskrit books of the Brahmans and in other oriental -literature. The classical and medieval writings of Europe contain -numerous references to it; and it is found even yet in the traditions -and folk-lore of some peoples. - -In the first century A.D., Pliny wrote in his “Historia naturalis,” -according to Dr. Philemon Holland’s quaint translation: - - The fruit of these shell fishes are the Pearles, better or worse, - great or small, according to the qualitie and quantitie of the dew - which they received. For if the dew were pure and cleare which went - into them, then are the Pearles white, faire, and Orient; but if - grosse and troubled, the Pearles likewise are dimme, foule, and - duskish; pale they are, if the weather were close, darke and - threatening raine in the time of their conception. Whereby (no - doubt) it is apparent and plaine, that they participate more of the - aire and sky, than of the water and the sea; for according as the - morning is faire, so are they cleere: but otherwise, if it were - misty and cloudy, they also will be thicke and muddy in colour. If - they may have their full time and season to feed, the Pearles - likewise will thrive and grow bigge: but if in the time it chance to - lighten, then they close their shells together, and for want of - nourishment are kept hungrie and fasting, and so the pearles keepe - at a stay and prosper not accordingly. But if it thunder withall, - then suddenly they shut hard at once, and breed only those - excrescences which be called _Physemata_, like unto bladders puft up - and hooved with wind, no corporal substance at all: and these are - the abortive & untimely fruits of these shell fishes.[40] - -[Illustration: - - PANAMA SHELL - - (_Margaritifera margaritifera mazatlanica_) - - With pearls attached -] - -[Illustration: - - VENEZUELA SHELL - - (_Margaritifera radiata_) - - Showing growth of pearls -] - -Pliny’s views were probably derived from the ancient authorities of his -time, particularly from Megasthenes, Chares of Mytilene, and Isidorus of -Charace; and these curious fictions were incorporated by subsequent -writers and influenced popular opinion for many centuries. With scarcely -a single exception, every recorded theory from the first century B.C. to -the fifteenth century evidences a belief in dew-formed pearls. - -This theory is referred to by Thomas Moore in his well-known lines: - - And precious the tear as that rain from the sky, - Which turns into pearls as it falls in the sea. - -The Spanish-Hebrew traveler Benjamin of Tudela, in his “Masaoth” in -Persia (from 1160 to 1173), wrote: “In these places pearls are found, -made by the wonderful artifice of nature: for on the four and twentieth -day of the month Nisan, a certain dew falleth into the waters, which -being sucked in by the oysters, they immediately sink to the bottom of -the sea; afterwards, about the middle of the month Tisri, men descend to -the bottom of the sea, and, by the help of cords, these men bringing up -the oysters in great quantities from thence, open and take out of them -the pearls.”[41] - -From the “Bustan,” one of the most popular works of Sadi, the Persian -poet (1190–1291 A.D.), Davie quotes: - - From the cloud there descended a droplet of rain; - ’Twas ashamed when it saw the expanse of the main, - Saying: “Who may I be, where the sea has its run? - If the sea has existence, I, truly, have none!” - Since in its own eyes the drop humble appeared, - In its bosom, a shell with its life the drop reared; - The sky brought the work with success to a close, - And a famed royal pearl from the rain-drop arose. - Because it was humble it excellence gained; - Patiently waiting till success was attained. - -Even the usually well-informed William Camden (1551–1623), in whose -honor the Camden Historical Society of England was named, accepted the -theory of dew-formed pearls. He stated that the river Conway in Wales -“breeds a kind of shells, which being pregnated with dew, produce -pearl.”[42] Also, speaking of the Irt in county Cumberland, England, he -said: “In this brook, the shell-fish, eagerly sucking in the dew, -conceive and bring forth pearls, or (to use the poet’s word) shell -berries (_Baccas concheas_).”[43] - -A recent letter from the American consul at Aden indicates that this -view is held even yet by the Arabs of that region. In giving their -explanation for the present scarcity in the Red Sea, he states: “There -is a belief among them that a pearl is formed from a drop of rain caught -in the mouth of the pearl-oyster, which by some chemical process after a -time turns into a pearl; and as there has been very little rain in that -region for several years past, there are few pearls.” - -So firmly established throughout Europe was the belief in dew-formed -pearls, that its non-acceptance by the native Indians of America excited -the commiseration of the Italian historian Peter Martyr, in his “De Orbe -Novo,” one of the very first books on America, published in 1517. He -states: “But that they [pearls of Margarita Island on the present coast -of Venezuela] become white by the clearnesse of the morning dewe, or -waxe yelowe in troubled weather, or otherwise that they seeme to rejoice -in fayre weather and dear ayre, or contrary-wise, to be as it were -astonished and dymme in thunder and tempests, with such other, the -perfect knowledge hereof is not to be looked for at the hands of these -unlearned men, which handle the matter but grossly and enquire no -further than occasion serveth.”[44] Peter Martyr was distinguished for -his learning, was an instructor at the court of Spain at the height of -its power, and came in contact with the most enlightened men of Europe, -consequently it may be assumed that he reflected the best opinions of -his time. - -It was not long before the aborigines of America were not alone in -discrediting the views which had prevailed in Europe for more than -fifteen hundred years. That practical old sailor Sir Richard Hawkins -concluded that this must be “some old philosopher’s conceit, for it can -not be made probable how the dew should come into the oyster.”[45] A -similar view is expressed by Urbain Chauveton in his edition of Girolamo -Benzoni’s “Historia del Mondo Nuovo,” published at Geneva in 1578. From -his reference to pearl-oysters on the Venezuelan coast, we translate: - -[Illustration: - - Shells from Venezuela (_Margaritifera radiata_) with attached pearls -] - -[Illustration: - - Exterior view of same -] - -[Illustration: - - X-ray photograph of shell, printed through exterior of shell and - showing encysted pearls -] - - Around the island of Cubagua and elsewhere on the eastern coast, are - sandy places where the pearl-oysters grow. They produce their eggs - in very large quantities and likewise pearls at the same time. But - it is necessary to have patience to let them grow and mature to - perfection. They are soft at the beginning like the roe of fish; and - as the mollusk gradually grows, they grow also and slowly harden. - Sometimes many are found in one shell, which are hard and small, - like gravel. Persons who have seen them while fishing say that they - are soft as long as they are in the sea, and that the hardness comes - to them only when they are out of the water. Pliny says as much, - speaking of the Orientals in Book IX, of his Natural History, ch. - 35. But as to that author and Albert the Great and other writers - upon the generation of pearls, who have said that the oysters - conceive them by means of the dew which they suck in, and that - according as the dew is clear or cloudy the pearls also are - translucent or dark, etc., etc.,—all this is a little difficult to - believe; for daily observation shows that all the pearls found in - the same shell are not of the same excellence, nor of the same form, - the same perfection of color, nor the same size, as they would or - must be if they were conceived by the dew all at one time. Besides - this, in many of the islands the Indians go fishing for them in ten - or twelve fathoms depth, and in some cases they are so firmly - attached to the rocks in the sea that they can be wrenched off only - by main strength. Would it not be difficult for them to inhale the - quintessence of the air there? It seems then that it is the germ and - the most noble part of the eggs of the oyster which are converted - into pearls rather than any other thing; and the diversities of - size, color, and other qualities, proceed from the fact that some - are more advanced than others, as we see eggs in the body of the - hen.[46] - -The old theory of dew-formed pearls was illustrated even as late as 1684 -on a medal struck in honor of Elena Piscopia of the Corraro family of -Venice. This bore an oyster-shell open and receiving drops of dew, and -underneath was engraved the motto “_Rore divino_” (By divine dew). Even -yet one hears occasionally from out-of-the-way places—as in the instance -reported by the American consul at Aden—of pearls formed from rain or -dew, notwithstanding that there seems to exist absolutely no -justification for it in scientific zoölogy. - -Probably the most popular theory entertained from the fifteenth to the -seventeenth century was that pearls were formed from the eggs of the -oyster. This was intimated by Chauveton in the quotation above given, -and it was also referred to by many naturalists. - -In an interesting letter, dated Dec. 1, 1673, and giving as his -authority the testimony of an eye-witness, “Henricus Arnoldi, an -ingenious and veracious Dane,” Christopher Sandius wrote: “Pearl shells -in Norway do breed in sweet waters; their shells are like mussels, but -larger; the fish is like an oyster, it produces clusters of eggs; these, -when ripe, are cast out and become like those that cast them; but -sometimes it appears that one or two of these eggs stick fast to the -side of the matrix, and are not voided with the rest. These are fed by -the oyster against her will and they do grow, according to the length of -time, into pearls of different bigness.”[47] This possibly hit the mark -with greater accuracy than the observations of the “ingenious and -veracious Dane” warranted, for he seems to have had quite a different -idea as to the manner in which the pearls are “fed by the oyster against -her will” from those generally entertained by naturalists at the present -time. - -However, Oliver Goldsmith settled the matter by declaring briefly: -“Whether pearls be a disease or an accident in the animal is scarce -worth enquiry.”[48] Thus it seems that notwithstanding all that had been -written and the extended attention given to the subject, theory -prevailed to the almost complete exclusion of practical investigation, -with little intelligent advance over Topsy’s “’spect they just growed.” - -Owing, doubtless, to the scarcity of pearl-bearing mollusks in their -vicinities, naturalists of Europe were somewhat slow in giving attention -to the origin of pearls. This is further accounted for by the fact that -the gems occur more frequently in old and diseased shells than in the -choice specimens which have naturally attracted the notice of -conchologists. - -One of the first of the original observations made on this subject was -that by Rondelet, who, in 1554, advanced the idea that pearls are -diseased concretions occurring in the mollusca, similar to the morbid -calculi in the mammalia.[49] - -The first writer to intimate the similarity in structural material or -substance between pearls and the interior of the shell in which they are -formed, appears to have been Anselmus de Boot (_circa_ 1600), who wrote -that the pearls “are generated in the body of the creature of the same -humour of which the shell is formed; ... for whenever the little -creature is ill and hath not strength enough to belch up or expel this -humour which sticketh in the body, it becometh the rudiments of the -pearl; to which new humour, being added and assimilated into the same -nature, begets a new skin, the continued addition of which generates a -pearl.”[50] The Portuguese traveler, Pedro Teixeira (1608), stated: “I -hold it for certain that pearls are born of and formed of the very -matter of the shell and of nothing else. This is supported by the great -resemblance of the pearl and the oyster-shell in substance and color. -Further, whatever oyster contains pearls has the flesh unsound and -almost rotten in the parts where the pearls are produced, and those -oysters that have no pearls are sound and clean fleshed.”[51] - -Somewhat more than one hundred years later, this theory was confirmed by -investigations made by the famous physicist Réaumur (1683–1757). -Microscopic examination of cross sections of pearls show that they are -built up of concentric laminæ similar, except in curvature, to those -forming the nacreous portion of the shell. In a paper published by the -French Academy of Science in 1717,[52] Réaumur noted this condition, and -suggested that pearls are misplaced pieces of organized shell, and are -formed from a secretion which overflows from the shell-forming organ or -from a ruptured vessel connected therewith, and that the rupture or -overflow is ordinarily produced by the intrusion of some foreign or -irritating substance. - -Sir Edwin Arnold calls attention to this theory in his beautiful lines: - - Know you, perchance, how that poor formless wretch— - The Oyster—gems his shallow moonlit chalice? - Where the shell irks him, or the sea-sand frets, - He sheds this lovely lustre on his grief. - -In pursuance of this idea, we find, in 1761, the Swedish naturalist -Linnæus, “the father of natural history,” experimenting in the -artificial production of pearls by the introduction of foreign bodies in -the shell, and meeting with some degree of success. His discovery was -rated so highly that it has been announced by some writers as the reason -why the great naturalist received the patent of nobility, which is -generally supposed to have been the reward for his services to science. - -It seems that Linnæus’s discovery but verified the old saying that there -is nothing new under the sun, for later it was announced[53] that in -China—where so many inventions have originated—this idea had been put to -practical account for centuries preceding, and the crafty Chinaman had -succeeded in producing not only small pearly objects, but even images of -Buddha, with which to awe the disciples of that deified teacher. - -The method consisted in slightly opening or boring through the shell of -the living mollusk and introducing against the soft body a small piece -of nacre, molded metal, or other foreign matter. The irritation causes -the formation of pearly layers about the foreign body, resulting, in the -course of months or of years, in a pearl-like growth. While these have -some value as objects of curiosity or of slight beauty, they are not -choice pearls, nor for that matter were those produced by Linnæus. - -It will be observed that the theory of Réaumur, and also that of -Linnæus, required the intrusion of some hard substance, such as a grain -of sand, a particle of shell, etc., to constitute a nucleus of the -pearl; and this is the accepted explanation at the present time as to -the origin of many of the baroque or irregular pearls, and likewise the -pearly “blisters” and excrescences attached to the shell. But not so as -to the choice or gem pearls, those beautiful symmetrical objects of -great luster which are usually referred to in speaking of pearls. - -Examinations of many of these have failed, except in rare instances, to -reveal a foreign nucleus of sand or similar inorganic substance. In -searching many fresh-water mussels, Sir Everard Home frequently met with -small pearls in the ovarium, and he further noticed that these, as well -as oriental pearls, when split into halves, often showed a brilliant -cell in the center, about equal in size to the ova of the same mollusk. -From these observations, in 1826 he deduced his “abortive ova” theory, -and announced: - - A pearl is formed upon the external surface of an ovum, which, - having been blighted, does not pass with the others into the - oviduct, but remains attached to its pedicle in the ovarium, and in - the following season receives a coat of nacre at the same time that - the internal surface of the shell receives its annual supply. This - conclusion is verified by some pearls being spherical, others having - a pyramidal form, from the pedicle having received a coat of nacre - as well as the ovum.[54] - -Naturalists generally accepted these conclusions, that pearls originate -in pathological secretions formed, either as the result of the intrusion -of hard substances, or by the encysting or covering of ova or other -objects of internal origin; and there was no important cleavage of -opinion until the development of the parasitic theory, as a result of -the researches of the Italian naturalist Filippi, and those following -his line of investigations. This theory is not severely in conflict with -those of Réaumur, Linnæus, Home, etc., but relates principally to the -identity of the irritating or stimulating substance which forms the -nucleus of the pearl. - -In examining a species of fresh-water mussel, the _Anodonta cygnea_, -occurring in ponds near Turin, and especially the many small pearly -formations therein, Filippi observed that these were associated with the -presence of a trematode or parasitic worm, which he named _Distomum -duplicatum_, and which appears to be closely allied to the parasite -which causes the fatal “rot” or distemper in sheep. Under the -microscope, the smallest and presumably the youngest of these pearls -showed organic nuclei which appeared undoubtedly to be the remnants of -the trematode. In Anodonta from other regions, which were not infested -with the distoma, pearls were very rarely found by Filippi. In a -paper,[55] published in 1852, containing a summary of his observations, -he concluded that a leading, if not the principal, cause of -pearl-formation in those mussels was the parasite above noted; and in -later papers[56] he included such other forms as _Atax ypsilophorus_ -within the list of parasitic agencies which might excite the -pearl-forming secretions, comparing their action to that of the -formation of plant-galls. - -[Illustration: - - Mexican pearl-oyster (_Margaritifera margaritifera mazatlanica_) with - adherent pearl -] - -[Illustration: - - Group of encysted pearls in shell of Australian pearl-oyster - (_Margaritifera maxima_) -] - - American Museum of Natural History - -[Illustration: - - Mexican pearl-oyster (_Margaritifera margaritifera mazatlanica_) with - encysted fish -] - - American Museum of Natural History - -[Illustration: - - Group of encysted pearls (Oriental) -] - -[Illustration: - - Reverse of same group, showing outline of the individual pearls -] - -The discovery of the parasitic origin of pearls was extended to the -pearl-oysters and to other parasites by Küchenmeister[57] in 1856, by -Möbius[58] in 1857, and by several other investigators. Prominent among -these were E. F. Kelaart and his assistant Humbert, who, in 1859[59] -disclosed the important relation which the presence of vermean parasites -bears to the origin of pearls in the Ceylon oysters. These naturalists -found “in addition to the Filaria and Cercaria, three other parasitical -worms infesting the viscera and other parts of the pearl-oyster. We both -agree that these worms play an important part in the formation of -pearls.” Dr. Kelaart likewise found eggs from the ovarium of the oyster -coated with nacre and forming pearls, and also suggested that the -silicious internal skeletons of microscopic diatoms might possibly -permeate the mantle and become the nuclei of pearls. Unfortunately, Dr. -Kelaart’s investigations were terminated by his death a few months -thereafter. - -In 1871, Garner ascribed the occurrence of pearls in the common English -mussel (_Mytilus edulis_) to the presence of distomid larvæ.[60] -Giard,[61] and other French zoölogists, made similar discoveries in the -case of Donax and some other bivalves. In 1901, Raphael Dubois confirmed -the observations of Garner, associating the production of pearls in the -edible mussels on the French coasts with the presence of larvæ of a -parasite, to which he gave the name of _Distomum margaritarum_, and -boldly announced: “La plus belle perle n’est donc, en définitive, que le -brillant sarcophage d’un ver.”[62] - -Prof. H. L. Jameson, in 1902, disclosed the relation which exists -between pearls in English mussels (_Mytilus_) and the larvæ of _Distomum -somateriæ_.[63] The life history of this trematode, as revealed by Dr. -Jameson, is especially interesting from a biological standpoint, since -it is entertained by three hosts at different times: the first host is a -member of the duck family; the second is the Tapes clam (_Tapes -decussatus_), or perhaps the common cockle (_Cardium edule_), which -incloses the first larval stage, and the third is the edible mussel, in -which the second larval stage of the parasite stimulates the formation -of pearls. At the Brighton Aquarium and the Fish Hatchery at Kiel, Dr. -Jameson claims to have succeeded in artificially inoculating perfectly -healthy mussels with these parasites by associating them with infested -mollusks, and thereby producing small pearls. - -From Dr. Jameson’s interesting paper we abridge the following account of -the manner in which the pearls are developed. The trematode enters -_Mytilus edulis_ as a tailless cercaria, and at first may often be found -between the mantle and the shell. The larvæ, after a while, enter the -connective tissue of the mantle, where they come to rest, assuming a -spherical form, visible to the naked eye as little yellowish spots about -one half millimeter in diameter. At first the worm occupies only a space -lined by connective-tissue fibrils, but soon the tissues of the host -give rise to an epithelial layer, which lines the space and ultimately -becomes the pearl-sac. If the trematode larva completes its maximum -possible term of life, it dies, and the tissues of the body break down -to form a structureless mass which retains the form of the parasite, -owing to the rigid cuticle. In this mass arise one or more centers of -calcification, and the precipitation of carbonate of lime goes on until -the whole larva is converted into a nodule with calcospheritic -structure. The granular matter surrounding the worm, if present, also -undergoes calcification. The epithelium of the sac then begins to shed a -cuticle of conchiolin, and from this point the growth of the pearl -probably takes place on the same lines and at the same rate as the -thickening of the shell.[64] - -Fully as remarkable as the observations of Dr. Jameson are the results -claimed by Professor Dubois in experimenting with a species of -pearl-oyster (_M. vulgaris_) from the Gulf of Gabes on the coast of -Tunis, where they are almost devoid of pearls, a thousand or more shells -yielding on an average only one pearl. Conveying these to the coast of -France in 1903, he there associated them with a species of -trematode-infested mussel (_Mytilus gallo-provincialis_), and after a -short period they became so infested that every three oysters yielded an -average of two pearls.[65] This claim has not been without criticism; -but who ever knew scientists to agree? - -In the pearl-oyster of the Gambier Islands (_M. margaritifera cumingi_), -Dr. L. G. Seurat found that the origin of pearls was due to irritation -caused by the embryo of a worm of the genus _Tylocephalum_, the life of -which is completed in the eagle-ray, a fish which feeds on the -pearl-oyster.[66] - -In 1903, Prof. W. A. Herdman, who, at the instance of the colonial -government, and with the assistance of Mr. James Hornell, examined the -pearl-oyster resources of Ceylon, announced: “We have found, as Kelaart -did, that in the Ceylon pearl-oyster there are several different kinds -of worms commonly occurring as parasites, and we shall, I think, be able -to show that Cestodes, Trematodes, and Nematodes may all be concerned in -pearl formation. Unlike the case of the European mussels, however, we -find that in Ceylon the most important cause is a larval Cestode of the -Tetrarhynchus form.”[67] - -In his investigation of the Placuna oyster in 1905, Mr. James Hornell -found that the origin of pearls was due to minute larva of the same -stage and species as that which causes the pearls in the Gulf of Manar -oyster.[68] - -The spherical larvæ of this tapeworm sometimes occur in great abundance, -and there is evidence of forty having been found in a single -pearl-oyster. Mr. Hornell states that the living worm does not induce -pearl formation, this occurring only when death overtakes it while in -certain parts of the oyster. As a consequence, pearls are more numerous -in oysters which have been long infected, where the worms are older and -more liable to die. This parasitic worm has been traced from the -pearl-oyster to the trigger-fishes, which eat the pearl-oysters, and -thence into certain large fish-eating rays, where it becomes sexually -mature and produces embryos which enter the pearl-oyster and begin a new -cycle of life-phases. - -It seems, therefore, that the latest conclusions of science appear -entirely favorable to the parasitic theory as explaining at least one, -and probably the most important, of the causes for the formation of -pearls; and that some truth exists in the statement that the most -beautiful pearl is only the brilliant sarcophagus of a worm. This -morphological change is not peculiar to mollusks, for in most animal -bodies a cyst is formed about in-wandering larvæ. Fortunately for lovers -of the beautiful, in the pearl-oysters the character of the cyst-wall -follows that of the interior lining of the shell, and not only -simulates, but far surpasses it in luster. - -While the theory that pearls are caused by the intrusion of some unusual -substance has the evidence of actual demonstration in many instances, -and is unquestionably true to a large extent, yet microscopic -examination of some pearls suggests the theory that a foreign substance -is not always essential to their formation, and that they may originate -in calcareous concretions of minute size, termed “calcospherules.” As -regards their origin, Professor Herdman classifies pearls into three -sorts: (1) “Ampullar pearls,” which are not formed within closed sacs of -the shell-secreting epithelium like the others, but lie in pockets or -ampullæ of the epidermis. The nuclei may be sand-grains or any other -foreign particles introduced through breaking or perforation of the -shell. (2) “Muscle pearls,” which are analogous to gallstones, formed -around calcospherules at or near the insertion of the muscles. And (3) -“Cyst pearls,” in which concentric layers of nacre are deposited on -cysts containing parasitic worms in the connective tissue of the mantle -and within the soft tissues of the body.[69] - -Even a particle of earth, clay, or mud may form the nucleus of a pearl. -This was illustrated a few years ago in a fine button-shaped pearl, -which was accidentally broken under normal usage and was found to -consist of a hard lump of white clay surrounded by a relatively thin -coating of nacre. More remarkable yet are the cases in which a minute -fish, a crayfish, or the frustule of a diatom has formed the nucleus. - -Several instances have been described by Woodward, Gunther, Putnam, -Stearns, and others, where small fish have penetrated between the mantle -and the shell of the mollusk, and the latter has resented the intrusion -by covering the intruder with a pearly coating. In two or three -instances the secretion occurred in so short a time that the fish -suffered no appreciable decomposition, and its species is readily -identified by observation through the nacreous layer. Among the -remarkable specimens of this nature which have come under our -observation are two very curious shells received in March, 1907, from -the Mexican fisheries. One of these specimens shows an encysted fish, so -quickly covered and so perfectly preserved that even the scales and -small bones are in evidence; indeed, one can almost detect the gloss on -the scales of the fish; and in the other—with a remarkable comet-like -appearance—a piece of ribbed seaweed is apparently the object covered. - -From the foregoing, it appears that the pearl is not a product of health -associated with undisturbed conditions, but results from a derangement -in the normal state of the mollusk. Unable to resist, to rid itself of -the opposing evil, it exercises the powers given to it by a beneficent -Creator and converts the pain into perfection, the grief into glory. -Nature has many instances of the humble and lowly raised to high degree, -but none more strikingly beautiful than this. One of the lowest of -earth’s creatures, suffering a misfortune, furnishes a wonderful lesson -upon the uses of pain and adversity by converting its affliction into a -precious gem symbolical of all that is pure and beautiful. As written by -a forgotten poet: “Forasmuch as the pearl is a product of life, which -from an inward trouble and from a fault produces purity and perfection, -it is preferred; for in nothing does God so much delight as in -tenderness and lustre born of trouble and repentance.” As the great -Persian poet Hafiz says: - - Learn from yon orient shell to love thy foe, - And store with pearls the wound that brings thee woe. - - - - - IV - - STRUCTURE AND FORMS - - - - - IV - STRUCTURE AND FORMS OF PEARLS - - - “This maskellez perle that boght is dere, - The joueler gef fore alle hys gold, - Is lyke the reme of hevenes clere”; - So sayde the fader of folde and flode, - “For hit is wermlez, clene and clere, - And endelez rounde and blythe of mode, - And commune to all that ryghtwys were.” - FOURTEENTH-CENTURY MSS. OF “PEARL,” - IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM. - -As Kadir Munshi says, “pearls have no pedigree”; their beauty is not to -be traced to their origin, but exists wholly in the excellence of the -surroundings in which they develop. - -The pearl-bearing mollusks are luxurious creatures, and for the purpose -of protecting their delicate bodies they cover the interior of their -shells with a smooth lustrous material, dyed with rainbow hues, and -possessing a beautiful but subdued opalescence. No matter how foul, how -coral covered, or overgrown with sponges or seaweeds the exterior may -be, all is clean and beautiful within. This material is nacre or -mother-of-pearl. It consists ordinarily of an accumulation of extremely -thin semi-transparent films or laminæ of a granular organic substance -called conchiolin, with the interstices filled with calcareous matter. -The nacre decreases in thickness from the hinge toward the lip of the -shell, and terminates a short distance from the extreme edge. - -Next to the nacre is the middle layer or the shell proper. In species of -_Margaritifera_, this stratum is commonly formed of layers of calcareous -prisms arranged vertically to the shell surface. External to this middle -or prismatic layer is the epidermis or periostracum, the rough outer -coating of varying shades, usually yellow or brown. Where the waves are -rough, and the bottom hard and rocky, this covering is thick and heavy, -to afford greater protection; but where the waters are smooth and -gentle, and the bottom free from rocks, Nature—never working in -vain—furnishes only thin sides and slight defense. As is the case with -the nacre, the prismatic layer and the periostracum decrease in -thickness from the hinge to the edge, and the inside lip of the shell -shows the gradual union of the three superimposed layers. The two outer -layers are formed by the thick edge of the mantle, the remaining -portion—or nearly the entire surface—of this organ secretes the nacral -layer. - -Not only is the interior of the shell made lustrous and beautiful, but -this tendency is exerted toward all objects that come in contact with -the soft body of the mollusk, either by intrusion simply within the -shell, or deeply within the organs and tissues of the animal itself. All -foreign bodies—such as small parasites, diatoms, minute pebbles, -etc.,—irritate the tender tissues of the mollusk, and stimulate the -pearly formation which in course of time covers them. At first the -nacreous covering is very thin; but with added layer after layer the -thickness is enhanced, and the size of the object increases as long as -it remains undisturbed and the mollusk is in healthful growth. - -Chemically considered, aside from the nucleus, the structure of pearls -is identical in composition with that of the nacre of the shell in which -they are formed. Analyses have shown that those from the fresh-water -mussels of England and Scotland, and from the pearl-oysters of Australia -and of Ceylon, have nearly identical composition in the proportion of -about 5.94 per cent. of organic matter, 2.34 of water, and 91.72 per -cent. of carbonate of lime.[70] The specific gravity ranges from nearly -2 to about 2.75, increasing with the deposit of the nacreous coatings. -The following summary by Von Hessling[71] shows the results of certain -determinations of specific gravity: - - Authority Specific Note - Gravity - - Muschenbroet 2.750 at moderate temperature - - Brisson 2.684 at 14° Réaumur - - Möbius 2.686 4 fine pearls, weighing 2.396 gms. - - Möbius 2.650 24 pearls, weighing 6.221 gms. - - Möbius 2.336 63 brown pearls from Mazatlan, weighing 4.849 - gms. - - Voit 2.722 Bavarian pearls, 3–3⁄16 carats, medium quality - - Voit 2.616 Bavarian pearls, 3⅝ carats, finer quality - - Voit 2.724 Bavarian pearls, 1¾ carats, very fine - - Voit 2.578 Bavarian pearls, gray, with some luster - - Voit 2.765 Bavarian pearls, brown, ranking between good & - black - - Voit 2.238 Bavarian pearls, poor black pearls, impure - -[Illustration: - - Cross section of an irregular pearl, magnified 80 diameters -] - -[Illustration: - - Cross sections of pearls, magnified 30 diameters -] - -[Illustration: - - Thin section of mother-of-pearl, magnified, showing sponge borings - which traversed the pearl shell -] - -[Illustration: - - Structure of conch pearl produced by fracturing, magnified 80 - diameters -] - -The distinctive characteristic, the great beauty of a true pearl, is its -luster or orient, which is a subdued iridescence, rather than the -glittering brilliance of the diamond; and unless the shelly growth be -lustrous it does not rank as a gem pearl, no matter how perfect its form -or beautiful its color. This luster is due to the structural arrangement -of the surface as well as to the quality of the material. The nacreous -material forming true pearls, and likewise mother-of-pearl, is commonly -deposited in irregular tenuous layers, very thin and very small in area -compared with the surface of the pearl. These laminæ overlap one -another, the surfaces are microscopically crumpled and corrugated, and -the edges form serrated outlines. The greater the angle which the laminæ -form with the surface, the closer will be these serrated outlines, and -where the plane of the exterior lamina is parallel with the plane of the -surface the lines are not present. This arrangement causes the waves of -light to be reflected from different levels on the surface, just as in a -soap bubble, and the minute prisms split the rays up into their colored -constituents, producing the chromatic or iridescent effect. - -The cause is wholly mechanical, and an impression of the surface made in -very fine wax shows a similar iridescence. Also, if a piece of -mother-of-pearl be immersed in acid until the surface lime or shelly -matter is dissolved, the pellucid membrane shows the iridescence until -it is so compressed that the corrugations are reduced. About two score -years ago an Englishman invented steel buttons with similar minute -corrugations producing pearly effect, but the manufacture was -unprofitable, owing, principally, to their liability to tarnish. - -In the shells of some mollusks—as the edible oysters (_Ostrea_) or the -giant clam (_Tridacna_),—there is almost a total absence of the crumpled -corrugated laminæ, and, consequently, there is little luster. In others -the nacre is of better quality, resulting in superior orient, and it -probably reaches its highest degree of perfection in the pearl-oyster -(_Margaritifera_). - -As the curvature of the surface of pearls is greater, and the minute -striæ are more numerous, than in ordinary mother-of-pearl, it follows -that the iridescence is likewise greater. - -Superior nacre is more or less translucent, depending on its quality; -and to the iridescence of the outer laminæ is added that of many -interior ones, so that the luster is vastly increased. The position of -the pearl within the shell may greatly affect the quality of the -material and, consequently, the orient. The choicest are commonly found -within the soft parts of the animal, and those of poorer quality are at -the edges of the mantle, or within the fibers of the adductor muscle of -bivalves. - -The structure of pearls may be studied by examining thin cross sections -under the microscope, or by transmitted polarized light. It appears that -ordinarily a pearl is made up of many independent laminæ superimposed -one upon another “like the layers of an onion,” or, rather, resembling -the leaves near the upper part of a well formed cabbage. When subjected -to sufficient heat, the laminæ separate from each other, as do shells of -edible oysters and similar mollusks under like conditions. When broken -by a hammer, a pearl may exhibit this laminated formation. If not split -directly through the center, the central section may retain the -spherical form; and as this commonly remains attached to one of the -parts, its concave impression appears in the other portion of the broken -pearl. The outer laminæ of many pearls may be removed with a fair -prospect of finding a good subjacent surface, and this may be continued -until the size is greatly reduced. These laminæ are not always similar -in color or luster. - -However, not all pearls are laminated in this manner. Instead of -superimposed layers, some of them exhibit a crystalline form, composed -of beautiful prismatic crystals radiating from the center to the -circumference. In at least one oriental pearl examined, these crystals -were in well defined arcs, and were further separated into concentric -rings of different degrees of thickness, depth of color, and distance -apart. Another specimen—a Scotch pearl—combined in separate layers both -the laminated form and the crystalline structure. - -Dr. Harley points out that some crystalline pearls apparently originate -in mere coalescences of mineral particles, rather than in well defined -nuclei.[72] Microscopic sections of crystalline pearls convey the idea -that the prisms branch and interlace with one another, and also that in -some instances they are of fusiform shape. However, these appearances -seem to be due simply to the cross sections having cut the prisms at -different angles. - -Pearls showing these types were exhibited at a meeting of the Royal -Society of London, June 8, 1887. That exhibit also contained a section -of a west Australian pearl of curiously complex crystalline formation; -instead of one central starting-point, it had more than a dozen -scattered about, from which the crystalline prisms radiated in all -directions. - -Since the three superimposed layers of the shell are secreted by -separate parts of the mantle, _viz._, the nacre by the general surface, -the prismatic layer by the inner edge, and the epidermis by the outer -edge, it follows that if a pearl in course of formation is moved from -one of these distinctive portions of the palial organ to another, the -nature of its laminæ changes. Thus, if a pearl formed on the broad -surface of the mantle is moved in some way to the inner edge of that -organ, it may be covered with a prismatic layer; if then moved to the -outer edge it may receive a lamina of epidermis, and then by changing -again to the broad surface of the mantle it receives further coats of -nacre. - -[Illustration: - - Pearls from common clam (_Venus mercenaria_) of eastern coast of - America -] - -[Illustration: - - Pearl “nuggets” from the Mississippi Valley -] - -[Illustration: - - Wing pearls from the Mississippi Valley -] - -[Illustration: - - Dog-tooth pearls from the Mississippi Valley -] - -The structure of pearls from univalve mollusks, such as the conch, the -abalone, etc., as well as those from some bivalves, as the Pinna, for -instance, differs from that of the true pearls formed in species of -Margaritifera. Instead of the alternate layers of conchiolin and of -carbonate of lime, many of these have an alveolar structure. When -greatly magnified, the surface of a Pinna pearl appears to be formed of -very small polygones, which, as decalcification shows, are the bases of -small pyramids radiating from the nucleus. The walls of these pyramids -are formed of conchiolin, and they are filled with carbonate of lime of -a prismatic crystalline structure. This is simply a modification of the -parallel laminæ in the Margaritifera pearls, for, as Dubois points out, -in some sections we can see portions where the alveolar formation has -proceeded for a time coincidentally with the lamellar form. - -Pearls are affected by acids and fetid gases, and may be calcined on -exposure to heat. Their solubility in vinegar was referred to by the -Roman architect Vitruvius (“De Architectura,” L. viii. c. 3) and also by -Pausanias, a Greek geographer in the second century (“Hellados -Periegesis,” L. viii, c. 18); but it seems that there could be little -foundation for Pliny’s well-known anecdote in which Cleopatra is -credited with dissolving a magnificent pearl in vinegar and drinking -it—“the ransom of a kingdom at a draught”—to the health of her lover -Antony.[73] It is no more easy to dissolve a pearl in vinegar than it is -to dissolve a pearl-button—for the composition is similar, and one may -easily experiment for himself as to the difficulty in doing this. Not -only does it take many days to dissolve in cold vinegar the mineral -elements of a pearl of fair size, but even with boiling vinegar it -requires several hours to extract the mineral matter from one four or -five grains in weight, the acid penetrating to the interior very slowly. -And in neither case can the pearl be made to disappear, for even after -the carbonate of lime has dissolved, the organic matrix of animal -matter—which is insoluble in vinegar—retains almost the identical shape, -size, and appearance as before. If the pearl is first pulverized, it -becomes readily soluble in vinegar, and might be thus drunk as a lover’s -potion, but it would scarcely prove a _bonne bouche_. - -Pearls assume an almost infinite variety of forms, due largely to the -shapes of the nuclei, and also to their positions within the mollusk. -The most usual—and, fortunately, also the most valuable—is the -spherical, resulting from a very minute or a round body as a nucleus and -the uniform addition of nacre on all sides. Of course, spherical pearls -can result only where they are quite free from other hard substances; -consequently they originate only in the soft parts of the mollusk and -not by the fixation of some nucleus to the interior surface of the -shell. - -The perfectly spherical pearls range in weight from a small fraction of -a grain to three hundred grains or more, but it is very, very rare that -one of choice luster weighs more than one hundred grains. The largest of -which we have any specific information was that among the French crown -jewels as early as the time of Napoleon, an egg-shaped pearl, weighing -337 grains. The largest pearl known to Pliny in the first century A.D. -weighed “half a Roman ounce and one scruple over,” or 234½ grains Troy. -These very large ones, weighing in excess of one hundred grains, are -called “paragons.” The small pearls—weighing less than half a grain -each—are known as “seed-pearls.” The very small ones, weighing less than -1⁄25 of a grain, are called “dust-pearls.” These are too small to be of -economic value as ornaments. - -Slight departures from the perfect sphere, result in egg shapes, pear -shapes, drop shapes, pendeloque, button shapes, etc. Some of these are -valued quite as highly at the present time as the spherical pearls, and -many of the most highly prized pearls in the world are of other than -spherical form. Indeed, pearls of this kind are found of larger size -than the perfectly round pearls. The egg-shaped pearl,[74] called “la -Régente,”—one of the French crown jewels sold in May, 1887—weighed, as -stated above, 337 grains. The great pear pearl described by -Tavernier—“the largest ever discovered”—weighed about 500 grains. A -button pearl received from Panama in 1906 weighed 216 grains. - -Wider departures from the spherical form result in cylindrical, conical, -top-shaped, etc. Some pearls present the appearance of having been -turned in a lathe with intricate tooling. Remarkable examples of these -“turned pearls” have been found, competing in their circular perfection -with the best work of a jeweler’s lathe. - -Many standard varieties of non-spherical, but normally shaped pearls, -are recognized by the fishermen and the jewelers. For instance, in the -nomenclature of the American fishermen, _bouton_, or button pearls are -divided into “haystacks” and “turtle-backs,” according to the height of -the projection. Also, certain imperfections result in distinguishing -names: “bird’s-eye” refers to a pearl having a little imperfection on -the best surface; “ring-arounds” have a dark or discolored ring about -them; and “strawberries” have numerous minute projections on the -surface. - -During its growth, a spherical pearl may come in contact with a foreign -body, such as grit or a vegetable film, and the additional nacral layers -envelop the adjacent matter until it is entirely concealed within the -pearl, its position being recognized only by the excrescence on one -side, and, with continued increase in size, even this may be almost -overcome. - -[Illustration: - - ACTUAL SIZES OF PEARLS FROM ⅛ GRAIN TO 160 GRAINS -] - -Sometimes double, triple, or multiple pearls are formed; each of these -may have a separate nucleus and grow independently for a time until they -adjoin each other; continuing to grow, they become so united as to form -a connected mass. The “Southern Cross” is a remarkable example of this. -It appears to consist of seven nearly spherical pearls attached to one -another in a straight line, and one projecting from each side of the -second in the row, thus forming a Roman cross.[75] - -A few years ago, near Sharks Bay, on the coast of western Australia, a -cluster was found containing about 150 pearls closely compacted. This -cluster measured about one and a half inches in length, three quarters -of an inch in breadth, and half an inch in thickness. - -When a growing pearl is very near to the nacreous lining of the shell, -the pressure between the two hard substances results in a rupture of the -pearl-forming sac and the epithelial layer of the shell, and the pearl -comes in actual contact with the nacre. The pearl gradually becomes -attached to the shell, and the under portion is prevented from growing -further; the upper or exposed surface receives other layers, resulting -in the formation of a _bouton_. As the shell around the pearl continues -to grow, it gradually closes about, and almost wholly conceals the -pearl. Since it is constantly wasting away on the exterior surface as it -grows on the interior, it follows that in time the shell passes the -pearl quite through to the outside, where it rapidly decays. Thus the -oyster virtually forces the annoying intruder directly through the wall -of its house instead of by way of the open door, and magically closes -the breach with its marvelous masonry. - -These embedded pearls are generally faulty and of diminished luster, -but in the aggregate, large quantities of imperfect ones, and -especially half and quarter pearls, are secured in this manner. -Sometimes—particularly in the Australian fisheries—large pearls are -thus found, weighing twenty, forty, sixty, and even eighty grains; and -when the faulty outside layers of nacre are removed, a subjacent -surface of fine luster may possibly be revealed. In bivalves, these -adherent pearls are commonly in the deep or lower valve, except in -those unusual cases where the mollusks have been lying in a reverse -position. At the fisheries, the surfaces of the shells are carefully -inspected for evidence of pearly nodules, and these are broken open in -search for encysted objects. Cutters of mother-of-pearl occasionally -find embedded pearls of this kind which have escaped the vigilant eyes -of the fishermen. - -We read of an instance in an important paper treating of the jeweling -trade of Birmingham: “A few years since [the paper was written in 1866] -a small lot of shells was brought to Birmingham, which either from -ignorance or mistake had not been cleared of the pearls at the fishery. -A considerable number were found and sold, and one especially was sold -by the man who had bought the shell for working into buttons, for £40. -The purchaser, we believe, resold the same for a profit of £160; and we -have heard that it was afterward held in Paris for sale at £800.” - -A choice gem which was found in New York, in October, 1905, in an -Australian shell, sold finally for $1200. - -The intrusion and continued presence of grains of sand or similar -material between the mantle and the shell causes the formation of nacre -over the foreign body, resulting in a _chicot_ (blister pearl), or -possibly a quarter or a half-pearl. The growth of a _chicot_ sometimes -results from the mollusk covering a choice pearl which has become -loosened from the soft tissues and adheres to the shell, as above cited. -Hence, it is sometimes desirable to break a _chicot_ to secure its more -valuable inclosure. In the account of his interesting pearling -experiences on the Australian coast, Henry Taunton states: “During the -first season’s shelling at Roebuck Bay, we came across an old worm-eaten -shell containing a large blister, which was removed in the usual manner -by punching a ring of minute holes around its base; a slight tap was -then sufficient to detach it. For many weeks it was untouched, no one -caring to risk opening it, for if filled with black ooze, which is -frequently the case, it would be of little value. At last, baffled in -his attempt to solve the problem, and emboldened by an overdose of -‘square face,’ the skipper gave it a smart blow with a hammer, which -cracked it open, and out rolled a huge pearl, nearly perfect, and -weighing eighty grains. A few specks and discolorations were removed by -a skilful ‘pearl-faker,’ and it was sold in London for £1500.”[76] - -Blister pearls are also caused by the defensive or protective action of -the mollusk in resisting the intrusion of some animal, as a boring -sponge or a burrowing worm, which has begun to penetrate the outer -layers of the shell. This stimulation causes the mollusk to pile -nacreous material upon the spot, thus making a substantial mound closely -resembling a segment of a large pearl. This walling-out of intruders is -not the result of intelligent forethought or of instinct, analogous to -the repairing of a damaged web by a spider, or the retunneling of a -collapsed gallery by ants; it is a pathological rather than an -intelligent action. - -[Illustration: - - BROOCHES MADE OF PETAL, DOG-TOOTH, AND WING PEARLS - - From the Upper Mississippi Valley -] - -When the nucleus of a pearl is large and very irregular, it necessarily -follows that the deposited nacre roughly assumes the irregular outline -of the inclosed object. This is strikingly shown in pearls covering a -minute fish, a crayfish, or a small crab. Several specimens have been -found in which the species could be identified by examination through -the nacreous coating. - -In the American Unios there is a strong tendency to produce elongated -pearls near the hinge of the shell, which are consequently known as -“hinge pearls.” The occurrence and form of these suggest that their -origin may not be due to nuclei, but that they result from an excess of -carbonate of lime in the water, and that the animal stores a surplus of -nacre in this convenient form. There are several standard forms of these -hinge pearls. Many are elongated or dog-toothed, some are hammer-shaped, -others resemble the wings of birds, the petals of flowers, the bodies of -fish, and various other objects. A large percentage of the pearls found -in Unios of the Mississippi Valley are of these types. - -Some irregular pearls or baroques are very large, weighing an ounce or -more. A well-known example is the Hope pearl, described on page 463, -which weighs three ounces. These monster pearls sometimes assume odd -shapes, such as clasped hands, the body of a man, lion, or other animal, -etc. - -Although baroques may have a pearly luster, they are not highly prized -unless unusually attractive, and they have little permanent value, apart -from their estimation in the eyes of admirers of the curious and unique. -They are used largely in _l’art nouveau_, and in forming odd and -fanciful objects of jewelry, the designer taking advantage of the -resemblance which they bear to common objects of every-day life, and by -additions of gold and other ornaments completing the form which nature -had merely suggested. - -Some remarkable examples of baroque mountings have been produced, and a -few are to be found in most of the large pearl collections. In a single -case in the Imperial Treasury at Vienna are baroques forming the -principal parts or figures of a horse, stag, lamb, tortoise, lizard, -cock, dragon, butterfly, gondola, hippopotamus, female bust, and three -mermaids. Other well-known collections are those of the royal family of -Saxony in the Grüne Gewölbe at Dresden; those in the Palace of Rosenberg -at Copenhagen; in the Waddesden (Rothschild) collection of the British -Museum; among the jewels in the Louvre in Paris; with the treasures of -the Basilica of St. Mark in Venice; and in the museum of the University -of Moscow. - -A remarkable pearl-like ornament more common in Asia than in the -Occident, is the _coque de perle_, which is an oval section of the -globose whorl of the Indian nautilus. The exterior or convex surface is -highly lustrous, but the material is very thin. It is commonly provided -with a suitable filling or backing of putty or cement to impart -solidity, and is used like a blister pearl. Sometimes two perfectly -matched _coques de perle_ are filled and cemented together, giving the -appearance of an abnormally large oblong or nearly spherical pearl. - -The color of pearls has no connection with the luster. In general it is -the same as that of the shell in which they are formed. Black pearls are -found in the black shells of Mexico, and pink pearls in the pink-hued -_Strombus_ of the Bahamas. Ceylon pearls are seldom of any other color -than white, and Sharks Bays are almost invariably quite yellow or -straw-colored, while those of Venezuela are commonly yellowish tinged. -But from other localities, pearls simulate every tint of the rainbow, as -well as white and black. The most common, as well as the most desirable -ordinarily, is white, or rather, silvery or moonlight glint,—“_la gran -Margherita_,” as Dante calls it; but yellow, pink, and black are -numerous. They may also be piebald—a portion white and the rest pink or -brown or black. Some years ago there was on the market a large -bean-shaped pearl of great luster, one half of which was white and the -other quite black, the dividing-line being sharply defined in the plane -of the greatest circumference. The pearls from Mexico, the South Sea -islands, and the American rivers are especially noted for their great -variety of coloration, covering every known tint and shade, and -requiring such a master as Théophile Gautier to do justice to them. - -Many theories have been advanced to explain the coloration of pearls. -When the old idea of dew formation prevailed, it was considered that -white pearls were formed in fair weather, and the dark ones when the -weather was cloudy. It was further considered that the color was -influenced by the depth of the water in which they grew: that in deep -water they were white, but where it was so shallow that the sunlight -easily penetrated, the pearls were more likely to be dark in color. -Tavernier curiously explained that the black pearls of Panama and Mexico -owed their color to the black mud in which the pearl-oysters of those -localities lived, and that Persian Gulf pearls were more inclined to -yellow than those of Ceylon, owing to the greater putrefaction of the -flesh before they were removed therefrom.[77] Two centuries ago the -color of a pearl was attributed to that of the central nucleus, and it -was concluded that if the nucleus was dark, the pearl would be of a -similar hue.[78] This theory has also been upset, for pearls are found -white on the exterior and quite dark within, and also with these -conditions reversed. - -[Illustration: - - GRAY PEARLS IN THE POSSESSION OF AN AMERICAN LADY AND BROOCH FROM - TIFFANY & CO.’S EXHIBIT, PARIS EXPOSITION, 1900 -] - -The color of a pearl is determined by that of the conchiolin, as appears -from its remaining unchanged after decalcification. While generally it -is the same as that of the mother-of-pearl at the corresponding point of -the shell in which it is formed, there are many exceptions to this, and -the reasons for the varying tints and colors are probably to be found in -the changes in position of the pearl, the ingredients of the water, the -health of the mollusk, accidents of various kinds, etc. These factors -will be referred to later in discussing the pearls from different -mollusks and regions; but in general it is no more easy to explain the -colors of pearls than it is to say why one rose is white and another is -yellow. - -Medieval writers had much to say regarding unripe or immature pearls, -likening them to eggs in the body of a hen, which follow a uniform rate -of growth; and this idea is not entirely absent even in contemporaneous -writings. However, it is an interesting fact that the humble mollusks, -like the five wise virgins with prepared lamps, keep their gems perfect -in beauty and luster at all times. It matters not whether the pearl be -removed when it is only the size of a pinhead or not until it reaches -that of a marble, it is at all times a complete, a ripe, a perfect -pearl, and the largest surpasses the smallest only in the -characteristics and properties which are incidental to size. Imparting -perfection and completion every day, every moment, the mollusk utilizes -the added time simply in enlarging its beautiful work. - -Although art has made wonderful progress in that direction, the pearl, -like truth, is not easily imitated. There is as much difference between -the ubiquitous imitations and the perfect gem as there is between a -chromolithograph and a silvery Corot, or between the effects of -cosmetics and the freshness of youth. While to the unskilled, or under -superficial inspection, the false has some of the properties of the -genuine, it is only necessary to place them side by side to make the -difference apparent. However clever the imitation may be in color, in -form, and in density, it always lacks in richness, in sweetness, and in -blended iridescence. - - - - - V - - SOURCES OF PEARLS - - - - - V - SOURCES OF PEARLS - - Rich honesty dwells like a miser, sir, in a poor house, as your - pearl in your foul oyster. - - _As You Like It_, Act V, sc. 4. - - -In geographic range, the sources of pearls are widely distributed, each -one of the six continents yielding its quota; but the places where -profitable fisheries are prosecuted are restricted in area. First in -point of value, and possibly of antiquity also, are the fisheries of the -Persian Gulf, giving employment ordinarily to thirty thousand or more -divers. The yield in the likewise ancient fisheries of the Gulf of -Manaar is uncertain, but sometimes remarkably large. The Red Sea -resources are now of slight importance compared with their extent in the -time of the Ptolemies. Other Asiatic fisheries are in the Gulf of Aden, -about Mergui Archipelago, on the coast of China, Japan, Korea, and Siam, -and also in the rivers of China, Manchuria, and Siberia. - -Aside from those produced in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the pearl -fisheries of Africa are of small extent. Some reefs exist on the lower -coast of the German East African territory and also in Portuguese East -Africa, but they have not been thoroughly exploited. - -In most of the inshore waters of Australasia pearls may be secured; the -fisheries are most extensive on the northern coast of Australia, in the -Sulu Archipelago, and about the Dutch East Indies. Tuamotu Archipelago, -Gambier, Fiji, and Penrhyn are prominent in the South Pacific Ocean. - -In the seas of Europe few pearls have been found, but the rivers have -yielded many; and although the resources have been greatly impaired, -many beautiful gems are yet found there. - -South America contributes the important reefs on the coast of -Venezuela—the land of unrest and revolutions, whose fisheries were first -exploited by Columbus. Other South American countries in which pearls -are collected are Panama, Ecuador, Peru, etc. In North America, pearls -are found in the pearl-oyster of the Gulf of California, the abalone of -the Pacific coast, the queen conch of the Gulf of Mexico, and in the -Unios of most of the rivers, especially those of the Mississippi Valley. - -Since pearly concretions partake of the characteristics of the shell -within which they are formed, it follows that practically all species of -mollusks whose shells have a well-developed nacreous lining yield pearls -to a greater or less extent. But the number of these species is -relatively small. They belong chiefly to the _Margaritiferæ_, or -pearl-oyster family of the sea, and to the _Unionidæ_, or family of -fresh-water mussels. Pearls occur also in some univalves, but not so -abundantly as in bivalves of the families mentioned. Broadly stated, we -may hope to find pearls within any mollusk whose shell possesses a -nacreous surface; and it is useless to search for them in shells whose -interior is dull and opaque, such as the edible oyster for instance. - -The great bulk of the pearls on the market, and likewise those of the -highest quality, are from the _Margaritiferæ_, which are widely -distributed about tropical waters. Although these mollusks are spoken of -as pearl-oysters, they are not related in any way to the edible oysters -(_Ostrea_) of America and Europe.[79] The flesh is fat and glutinous, -and so rank in flavor as to be almost unfit for food, although eaten at -times by the poorer fishermen in lieu of better fare. The origin of the -name is doubtless due to the fact that in the somewhat circular form of -the shell they resemble oysters rather than the elongated mussels of -Europe, to which they are more nearly related in anatomy. Also in -that—like their namesakes—they are monomyarian, having only one adductor -muscle. - -The two valves or sides of the pearl-oyster shell are nearly similar in -shape and almost equal in size; whereas in the edible oysters one valve -is thin and somewhat flat, while the other is thicker, larger, and -highly convex. In the latter, also, the hinge, or umbo, is an angular -beak; but in the pearl-oysters the umbo is prolonged by so-called ears -or wings into a straight line the length of which is nearly equal to the -breadth of the shell. - -The byssus, or bunch of fibers, by which pearl-oysters attach themselves -to the bottom indicates their relationship to the mussels. The -possession of a small foot and somewhat extended migratory powers—at -least in the first years of growth—also distinguish them from the -sedentary edible oysters. But from an economic point of view, the -principal difference is the possession of a thick, nacreous, interior -lining in the shells of pearl-oysters, which is wholly lacking in the -edible species. Like their namesakes, the pearl-oysters are exceedingly -fertile, a single specimen numbering its annual increase by millions. - -Commercially considered, the pearl-oysters are roughly divisible into -two groups, (1) those fished exclusively for the pearls which they -contain, and (2) those whose shells are so thick as to give them -sufficient value to warrant their capture independently of the yield of -pearls. The best examples of the first group are the pearl-oysters of -Ceylon and of Venezuela, and to a less extent those of the Persian Gulf, -the coast of Japan, and of Sharks Bay, on the Australian coast. Of the -second group, the pearl-oysters of Torres Straits and of the Malay -Archipelago are the most prominent members. Between these two groups are -the many species and varieties whose shells and pearls are more evenly -divided with respect to value, including those of Mexico, Panama, the -Red Sea, the South Sea islands, etc. - -Some conchologists recognize a large number of species of -_Margaritiferæ_, while other authorities consider many of these as local -variations of the same species. There is much difference in the size, -color, and markings of the shells in different localities, owing to -varying geographical and physical conditions. The distinction of species -and the nomenclature herein adopted are those of Dr. H. L. Jameson, who -has recently revised and rearranged the collection of shells belonging -to this family in the British Museum of Natural History,[80] and to whom -we are indebted for descriptive notes relative to several of the -species. - -The greatest pearl-producer in the family of pearl-oysters is the -_Margaritifera vulgaris_ of the Gulf of Manaar and the Persian Gulf, and -to a much less extent of the Red Sea. It occurs in various other inshore -waters of the Indian Ocean, and about the Malay Archipelago and the -coast of Australia and New Guinea, although it is not the principal -pearl-oyster of those waters. An interesting account of its immigration -into the Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal was given by Vassel in -1896.[81] - -This species is quite small, averaging two and a half inches in diameter -in Ceylon waters, and somewhat more in the Persian Gulf, whence large -quantities of the shell are exported under the name of “Lingah shell.” -The Ceylon variety has the nacreous lining almost uniformly white over -the entire surface, only the lip having a slightly pinkish ground color. -The exterior is marked by seven or eight reddish brown radial bands on a -pale yellow ground. In addition to its greater size, the Persian variety -is darker, and the lip of the shell has a reddish tinge. - -For centuries the _Margaritifera vulgaris_ has sustained the great pearl -fisheries of Ceylon, India, and Persia, and at present yields the bulk -of pearls on the market, especially the seed-pearls and also those of -medium size. It produces relatively few large ones, rarely exceeding -twelve grains in weight. These pearls are commonly silvery white, and -for their size command the highest prices, because of their beautiful -form and superior luster. Excepting the Venezuelan species, this is the -only pearl-oyster which at present supports extensive fisheries -exclusively for pearls; in the fisheries for all other species the value -of the shells furnishes considerable revenue, and in some localities -this represents several times as much as the income from the pearls. - -Ranking next to _Margaritifera vulgaris_ in extent of pearl production -is the _Margaritifera margaritifera_, which is widely distributed about -the tropical inshore waters of the Pacific and Indian oceans. It is very -much larger than the Lingah oyster, good specimens measuring seven or -eight inches in diameter, and the nacreous interior is usually of a -darker color. In addition to its yield of pearls, the shell of this -species is of value in the mother-of-pearl trade, and contributes -largely to the economic results of the fisheries. Indeed, in several -regions the shell is of more value than the pearls, which represent only -an incidental yield. As Jameson notes, the color and markings of the -shell, though extremely variable, generally suffice to distinguish this -species. The ground color of the exterior ranges through various shades -from yellowish brown to very dark brown. Its characteristic markings -consist of from ten to eighteen radial rows of white and yellow spots, -running from the umbo, or hinge, to the margin. - -Several varieties of _Margaritifera margaritifera_ are recognized. The -type species occurs along the north coast of Australia, from Brisbane on -the east to Sharks Bay on the west; on the New Guinea coast; at Formosa; -and about many of the islands of the Pacific. The well-known “black lip -shell” of Australian waters is of this species; it shows a greenish -black on the margin of the nacre. The yield of this is very small -compared with that of the large pearl-oyster of Australia. - -[Illustration: - - SHELL OF PEARL-OYSTER WITH ATTACHED PEARL - - (_Margaritifera margaritifera mazatlanica_) - - From Costa Rica -] - -The _Margaritifera margaritifera_ occurs on the eastern coast of Arabia -in two varieties, which differ somewhat from the type species. These -have been designated by Jameson as _M. margaritifera persica_ and _M. -margaritifera erythræensis_. These are much larger than the Lingah shell -of the Persian Gulf, but are smaller than the Australian species. The -percentage of pearls in them is less than in the Lingah species, but -from a commercial point of view this is to some extent offset by the -greater value of the shell. The _M. m. persica_ is more numerous in the -gulf than the _M. m. erythræensis_, and large quantities of the shell -are marketed in Europe. Formerly the shipments were made principally by -way of Bombay, hence the shell is known in the mother-of-pearl trade as -“Bombay shell.” The exterior is of a light grayish or greenish brown -color, with yellowish white radial bands. The nacre has a slightly -roseate tint, and the margin is greenish yellow. The pearls found herein -are more yellowish in color and attain a larger size than those from the -Lingah oyster. - -The _M. m. erythræensis_ occurs also in the Red Sea and along the shores -of the Arabian Sea. Among mother-of-pearl dealers it is known as -“Egyptian shell” or “Alexandria shell,” owing to the fact that prior to -the opening of the Suez Canal shipments were commonly made by way of -Alexandria. The color of the nacre is darker than that of its related -variety in the Persian Gulf. In the trade, three grades of this shell -are recognized, classed according to the shade of color. The lightest -comes from Massowah and near the southern end of the Red Sea, and the -darkest from farther north, in the vicinity of Jiddah and Suakim. - -The islands of the southern Pacific, and of eastern Polynesia -especially, yield another variety of _M. margaritifera_, to which the -name _M. m. cumingi_ has been given. The nacre is of a dark metallic -green, and in the mother-of-pearl trade the shell is designated as -“black-edged.” It attains a large size, only slightly smaller than the -large Australian species; many individual specimens measure ten inches -in diameter, and weigh six or seven pounds for the two valves. Belonging -to this variety are those oysters whose shells are known in the markets -of Europe and America as “Tahiti,” “Gambier,” and “Auckland” shells, the -name designating the port of shipment. - -Yet another subspecies, the _M. m. mazatlanica_, occurs on the coasts of -Panama and Mexico, and especially in the Gulf of California. This is -likewise green-edged, and the exterior color is yellow or light brown. -This shell has been marketed in quantities since 1850, and is known in -the mother-of-pearl trade as “Panama shell.” It is smaller than the -Australian species, specimens rarely exceeding eight inches in diameter. -It yields a large percentage of the black pearls that have been so -fashionable in the last fifty years. - -Since 1870, the largest pearls have been found mainly in a very large -species of pearl-oyster, _Margaritifera maxima_, obtained off the north -and west coasts of Australia, among the Sulu Islands, and elsewhere in -the Malay Archipelago. In the fisheries for this species, the -mother-of-pearl is the principal object sought, and the pearls are -obtained incidentally. It is the largest of all the members of this -family, reaching in exceptional cases twelve or thirteen inches in -diameter, and weighing upward of twelve pounds; while the Ceylon oyster -rarely exceeds four ounces in weight. So marked is this difference, that -the Australian species is often designated the “mother-of-pearl oyster,” -and the Ceylon species the “pearl-oyster.” Jameson notes that it differs -from the _Margaritifera margaritifera_, its nearest competitor in size, -in its much longer hinge, its shape, its lesser convexity, and in its -color and markings. As described by him, the color ranges from pale -yellowish brown to deep brown, with traces of radial markings of dark -brown, green, or red in the umbonal area. In its marginal region, the -shell is marked by a series of circumferential lines about one third of -a millimeter apart. - -Several geographical varieties of this species are recognized in the -mother-of-pearl trade, differing principally in the coloring of the -interior surface. The chief commercial varieties are “Sydney” or -“Queensland,” “Port Darwin,” “West Australian,” “New Guinea,” “Manila,” -“Macassar,” and “Mergui.” The nacre of those from the Australian coast -is almost uniformly silvery white. That of the “Manila shell” is -characterized by a broad golden border surrounding the silvery white -nacre. The “Macassar shell” lacks the golden border of the “Manila -shell,” and is similar in its uniform whiteness to the “Sydney shell,” -but its iridescence is much greater. - -The _Margaritifera carcharium_, from Sharks Bay, on the coast of -Australia, yields yellow pearls and small quantities of mother-of-pearl. -This species is small—three or four inches in diameter. The color is -grayish or greenish yellow, with several somewhat indistinct radial -bands of brownish green. The nacre has a yellowish green tint, with a -margin of pale yellow, with brown markings. - -In the West Indies and on the Atlantic coast of tropical America, -especially the coast of Venezuela, occurs the _Margaritifera radiata_. -This species is quite small, and seems to be closely allied to the -Ceylon oyster. Like the latter, the nacreous interior is rich and -brilliant, but owing to its small size, the shell is wholly valueless as -mother-of-pearl. The principal and almost the only fishery for this -species is on the Venezuelan coast, in the vicinity of Margarita Island, -the islands of Cubagua, and Coche. - -The coast of Japan yields the _Margaritifera martensi_, which occurs -among the numerous islands in the southern part of the empire, but does -not extend beyond 40° north latitude. This species is likewise small, -and closely resembles the pearl-oyster of Ceylon, from which it differs -principally in coloration. As noted by Jameson, brown and white -predominate in the exterior coloring, and the interior of the lip is -marbled with yellow ocher and chocolate brown, instead of pink, as in -the Ceylon shell. - -There are numerous other species of pearl-oysters, but they are of -slight economic importance, and do not support fisheries of value. - -As only a small percentage of the individual mollusks contain pearls, it -follows that vast quantities are destroyed without any return whatever, -and handling them merely adds to the expense of the industry, as well as -reduces the resources of the reefs. This could be obviated if it were -possible, without opening them, to determine the individual mollusks -containing pearls. - -Among the several methods proposed for this purpose, especially -interesting is the use of X-rays, which was suggested by Raphael Dubois -of Lyons, France, in 1901.[82] The shells of some pearl-oysters—those of -Ceylon and of Venezuela for instance—are relatively thin, and it was -thought that by the means of the rays the presence of pearls could be -ascertained, and non-pearl-bearers could be saved from opening, and be -returned to the reefs without injury. Although the calcareous shell -partly interrupts the radiations, it is not difficult to recognize the -presence of large pearls. - -The theory has never been found practical in application, owing largely -to the rough and irregular exterior of the shell and the small size of -the pearls. The presence of the larger pearls may be ascertained by this -method; but it is exceedingly probable that a very large percentage of -the small ones, and especially the seed-pearls, would be overlooked. -Furthermore, if in their sixth year oysters contain no pearls, the -probability of appearance therein later is very small, and little -benefit would result from their return to the water. As to saving the -trouble of opening the non-pearl-bearing mollusks, labor in the pearling -regions is usually inexpensive, and this cost is far more than offset by -the reasonable certainty of securing practically all the small as well -as the large pearls by the present method of operation. Owing to the -greater thickness and the economic value of the large pearl-oysters—as -those of Australia or of Mexico, for instance—the application of X-rays -to them is obviously impractical. However, when pearl-oyster culture -becomes a highly developed industry, with personal ownership in those -mollusks returned to the water, some method such as this might be of -great value. - -Pearls are yielded by various species of _Unionidæ_ or _Naiades_ -occurring in the rivers of America, Scotland, Saxony, Bavaria, Norway, -Sweden, Russia, France, China, etc. These mollusks exist exclusively in -the fresh-water streams, lakes, and ponds, and quickly die when -submerged in salt water. The _Unionidæ_ are of particular interest in -America, as it is here that this group is most abundant, and nearly -every stream east of the Rocky Mountains contains more or less of them. -The Mississippi basin abounds in Unios, or “clams,” as they are known to -the fishermen of that region, and furnishes about 400 of the 1000 -recognized species of this important family. - -The Unios are most abundant in clear, running water, where the bottom is -gravelly or sandy. The interiors of the shells are iridescent, and vary -greatly in tint, exhibiting many delicate shades of color from silvery -white to straw color, pink, purple, brown, etc. - -About five hundred species of American fresh-water mussels have been -recognized by conchologists. Many of these differ from one another so -very slightly that they are scarcely distinguishable from an examination -of the shells themselves, or even from the descriptions, and a detailed -index to the complete list is of little economic importance. The -professional fishermen and the shell-buyers take the trouble to name -only the species with which they deal, which includes only about -twenty-five species, all of which are margaritiferous, though some to a -greater extent than others. In the pearling regions a popular -nomenclature exists, the names given by the fishermen having reference -to the shape, color, etc. - -The niggerhead (_Quadrula ebena_) is the most numerous in the -Mississippi, and it is extensively used in button manufacture. The thick -shell of this species is almost round, with a black outer surface and a -pearly white interior. At maturity it averages about four inches in -diameter and four ounces in weight. Owing to its uniform whiteness and -the flatness of its surface, it is well adapted to button manufacture, -and for this purpose more than twenty thousand tons are taken in the -Mississippi Valley every year. When the fishery originated, the -niggerhead was very abundant in some places, and especially between La -Crosse and Burlington. From a single bed near New Boston, Illinois, -measuring about 200 acres in area, 7500 tons, or about 70,000,000 -individual shells, were removed in three years. In 1897, a bed of 320 -acres near Muscatine furnished 500 tons, or about 4,750,000 shells. This -species occasionally yields valuable pearls. - -Two species of Unios, _Quadrula undulata_ and _Q. plicata_, are known -among the fishermen as “three-ridges.” The former is also known as the -“blue-point” from the fact that the sharp edge is usually tinged faint -blue on the inside. Although not the best for button manufacture, the -shells yield the greatest number of pearls. - -[Illustration: - - PINNA OR WING SHELL (_Pinna seminuda_) - - One third natural size -] - -[Illustration: - - PEARL-OYSTER OF CEYLON (_Margaritifera vulgaris_) - - Natural size -] - -A species somewhat similar to the niggerhead is the bullhead -(_Pleurobema æsopus_). This shell is thick and opaque, the nacre is not -so iridescent as that of the niggerhead, nor does it yield pearls of -such good quality. These two species are not evenly distributed over the -bottom of the streams, but occur in great patches or beds, sometimes -several feet in thickness and covering many hundreds of acres. Some of -the beds are several miles in length, and they may be separated by -twenty or thirty miles in which the mollusks are so scarce that -profitable fishing can not be made; but usually the reefs are smaller -and more closely situated. - -The sand shells (_Lampsilis_)—of which there are several species—do not -occur in large beds, but are scattered over the sandy beaches and -sloping mud-banks. In shape they are narrow and long, adults measuring -five or six inches in length. Owing to the small waste in cutting, due -to uniformity in thickness, these shells are sold to button -manufacturers for more than the niggerhead, which in turn is more -valuable than the bullhead. - -The buckhorn (_Tritigonia verrucosa_) is very long and narrow; on the -dark brown exterior it is rough, as is the horn from which it takes its -name, while the interior shows a beautiful display of colors. This is -not found in beds, but lies scattered among other species. It sells at a -relatively high price—usually in excess of $20 per ton—for button -manufacture. - -Another species is the butterfly (_Plagiola securis_), which is very -prettily marked on the outside with faintly colored dotted stripes of -varying length. Over a background of dark yellow run black stripes to -the outer edge of the shell, with dark dots between the stripes. The -shell is small and thick, and like the sand shell and the buckhorn, is -found in small quantities. Owing to the beauty and permanency of its -luster, this shell is in demand for button manufacture, and its pearls -are often very beautiful. - -Other well-known species are the pancake (_Lampsilis alatus_), the -maple-leaf (_Quadrula wardi_), and hackle-back (_Symphynota -complanata_). On the Atlantic seaboard, the principal species in which -pearls have been found are _Unio complanata_; the _Alasmodon arcuata_, -which has hinge teeth, and a species of Anodon. Pearls from the _Unio -complanata_ are usually smaller but more lustrous than those from either -of the other species. - -Among the many fresh-water mussels are found some remarkable conditions -of animal life. Probably the most curious is the parasitic stage of -certain species. When hatched from the egg, each one of these is -provided with hooks or spines, by means of which it attaches itself to -the gills or fins of a swimming fish and becomes embedded therein. After -confinement in this cyst for a period of two months or more, the small -mollusk works its way out and falls to the bottom of the river or pond, -where its development continues along lines more conventional to -molluscan life. - -In most of the species of Unios the sexes are separate; but it has been -determined that in some the individuals are provided with both sets of -sexual organs. It is claimed by some naturalists that certain species -may change from one sex to another; yet this does not seem to have been -positively established. - -Not the least interesting of the habits of the Unios is the manner in -which they “walk,” bushels of them changing their habitation in a few -hours. The shell opens slightly and the muscular tongue-like “foot” is -thrust out, and by pressure of this on the bottom, the mollusk is -propelled in a jerky, jumpy movement with more speed than one would -suppose possible for the apparently inert creature. - -The number of eggs produced by an individual in one season ranges from a -few hundred in some species to many millions in others, as in the -_Quadrula heros_, for instance. Most of the fresh-water mollusks are of -slow growth, reaching maturity in six or eight years, and it is believed -that if undisturbed they live to be from fifteen to fifty years old; -indeed, some writers credit them with attaining an age of one hundred -years. - -While outwardly there is no positive indication of the existence of -pearls, they are relatively scarce in young mollusks, and likewise in -those having a normal, healthy appearance, with smooth exterior free -from blemishes, and they are found generally in the older, irregular, -and deformed shells, which bear excrescences and the marks of having -parasites. However, some of the choicest pearls have come from shells -relatively young and apparently in perfect condition. - -It has been pointed out that with the fresh-water Unios there are three -indications on which the fishermen to some extent rely for determining -the presence of pearls from the outward aspects of the shell. There are, -first, the thread or elevated ridge extending from the vertex to the -edge; second, the kidney-shape of the shell, and third, the contortion -of both valves toward the middle plane of the mollusk. - -A single mollusk may contain several small pearls,—more than one hundred -have been found,—but in such cases usually none has commercial value. -Ordinarily only one is found in the examination of very many shells. Of -these objects it may be truthfully said that “many are found, but few -are chosen,” few that are of first quality or are worthy of a fine -necklace. In many instances, several pounds of cheap pearls would be -gladly exchanged for a choice gem weighing an equal number of grains. - -On the Atlantic seaboard of America, the Anodontas, or “mussels,” as -they are known locally, are more numerous than the Unios. They prefer -the still waters of the ponds and lakes, rather than the swift currents -of the streams. The shell is much thinner than that of the Unios, and it -is usually not so brilliant in color and iridescence; consequently the -pearly concretions obtained from them are less lustrous. - -The rivers of Europe, and of Asia also, contain numbers of pearl-bearing -mussels. In many localities the yield of pearls has at times attracted -attention and produced much profit, though probably never equaling the -present extent of the Mississippi River finds. The principal -pearl-bearer of Europe is the _Unio margaritifera_, the shell of which -has been of some local importance in the manufacture of pearl buttons. -In Great Britain it is known as the pearl-mussel; in France as the -_moule_ or _huître perlière_; in Germany as _perlenmuschel_; in Belgium -as _paarl mossel de rivieren_; in Denmark as _perle-skiael_; in Sweden -as _perlmussla_; in Russia as _schemtschuschuaja rakavina_, and in -Finland as _simpsuckan cuosi_. The _Unio margaritifera_ likewise exists -in Siberia, and possibly elsewhere in Asia. Other species of Unio exist -there and in Mongolia, Manchuria, etc., as, for instance, _U. -mongolicus_, _U. dahuricus_, etc. A leading species in eastern China, -the _Dipsas plicatus_, has long been extensively employed in the -artificial production of pearly objects or culture pearls.[83] Unio -pearls show less uniformity of tints than those derived from the -pearl-oysters. They present an extended series of shades, corresponding -to those on the interior of the shells, from almost perfect white -through various tints of cream, pink, yellow, bright red, blue, green, -russet, and brown. The metallic shades are numerous, especially the -steels and the coppers. - -Most of the members of the _Mytilidæ_ family, which includes the marine -mussels, are of slight luster; and the pearly concretions found in them -are of the grade known as “druggists’ pearls,” so-called because, -formerly, they were used in a powdered form in astringent and other -medicines. However, some of these mussels on the European coast yield -pearls that are fairly lustrous. The white and the pink are most -numerous, but purple, red, bronze, and yellow are by no means uncommon. - -A few pearls are also obtained from the sea-wings or wing-shells -(_Pinna_), the silkworms of the sea, found in the Red Sea, the -Mediterranean Sea, the Indian Ocean, the southern coast of America, and -elsewhere. These shells are narrow at the umbo, or hinge, long, and -fan-shaped; they are generally brittle, and present a horn-like -appearance. The interior is commonly of a silvery reddish or -orange-colored hue, and this tint is imparted to the pearls. The most -characteristic feature of the _Pinna_ is the thick rope of silky fibers, -from four to ten, and sometimes twenty or more inches in length, -constituting the byssus, a remarkable provision by means of which it -anchors itself to the bottom and thus outrides the storm. Formerly the -byssus was gathered in Sicily, washed in soap and water, dried, corded, -and fabricated into gloves and similar articles of a fine texture. The -finished garments were of a beautiful golden brown color, resembling the -burnished gold on the backs of some splendid flies or beetles. - -The yield of _Pinna_ pearls is very small. A few are obtained from the -Mediterranean, especially on the Adriatic coast. These are usually -rose-tinted or reddish in color, but of diminished orient, and inferior -in size. _Pinna_ pearls are also reported from the Isle of Pines and -from New Caledonia, where they are commonly very dark, almost black in -color. - -The window-glass shell (_Placuna placenta_), the _vitre chinoise_ of -some writers, yields a few small, irregularly shaped pearls of a dull -leaden color. It occurs in the inshore waters of the Indian and the -southwestern Pacific oceans; fisheries are prosecuted in Tablegram Lake, -near Trincomali, on the northeast coast of Ceylon; on the coast of -Borneo, especially at Pados Bay, and to a less extent in some other -localities. This mollusk is quite distinct from the true pearl-oyster, -and in adult life is devoid of the byssus, living on the muddy bottom of -the shallow waters. The shell is almost circular, the right valve is -quite flat, and the left only slightly convex. It is remarkable for its -transparency, especially in the first year of growth, when the beating -of the heart of the mollusk is visible through it. Reaching maturity in -about two years, the shell becomes white and translucent, resembling -pressed isinglass somewhat in its texture. It then measures about six or -seven inches in length, and nearly the same in width. The outside is -rough; the interior is glazed over and has a subdued pearly luster. It -is so thin and transparent that with a strong light very coarse print -can be read through it. It is commonly used in the East Indies as a -substitute for glass in windows, admitting a soft mellow light into the -room. For this purpose it is usually cut into small rectangular or -diamond-shaped pieces, about five or six square inches in area, and -these are inserted into sash frames. It forms a good economical -substitute for glass, not only in windows of native residences, but also -in lanterns and the like. - -[Illustration: - - SHELL AND PEARLS OF THE COMMON CONCH - - (_Strombus gigas_) - - Of Florida and the West Indies -] - -The giant clam (_Tridacna gigas_) of tropical waters yields a few large -opal-white symmetrical pearls, with faint luster and of little value. -The transversely oval shell of the _Tridacna_, with its great squamous -ribs, is probably the largest and heaviest in existence, single pairs -weighing upward of 500 pounds. It is found in tropical seas, and -especially in the Indian Ocean. It is much used for ornament, -particularly for fountain-basins, and for _bénitiers_, or holy-water -fonts. A beautiful pair used as _bénitiers_ in the Church of St. Sulpice -in Paris is said to have been a gift of the Republic of Venice to -Francis I. There seems to be no established fishery for this mollusk, -and the pearls very rarely come on the market. About four years ago in -New York City an effort was made to market one weighing about 200 -grains. The owner represented that it was a “cocoanut pearl,” and -offered to sell it for $2000; whereas its actual value was probably not -over $10 or $20, and that only for a museum collection. - -Pearls of slight luster also occur in the quahog, or hard clam (_Venus -mercenaria_), of the Atlantic coast of the United States. Although these -are rare, they are generally of good form, and some weigh upward of -eighty grains each. They are commonly of dark color, purplish, -ordinarily, but they may be white, pale lilac, brown, and even purplish -black, or black. The white ones—which so nearly resemble ivory buttons -as readily to pass for them at a casual glance—are of little value; but -fine dark ones have retailed at from $10 to $100 each. There is little -demand for them, for unless the color is very good, they possess slight -beauty, lacking the orient peculiar to choice pearls. Pearls have also -been reported from the edible clam of the Pacific coast of America. - -Shelly concretions are found in the edible oyster of America (_Ostrea -virginica_), as well as in that of Europe (_O. edulis_); but these are -commonly objects of personal interest or of local curiosity, rather than -of artistic or commercial value, as they are lacking in luster and -iridescence. Most of them are dull or opal-white, some are purple, and a -few are white on one side and purple on the other. As many as fifty of -these formations have been found in a single oyster. Sometimes they are -of odd appearance, suggesting the human eye or face, and recently one -was found which bore a striking resemblance to a human skull. -Notwithstanding many news items to the contrary, it is doubtful whether -the choicest pearl from an edible oyster would sell for as high as $20 -on its own merits; professional shuckers have opened thousands of -bushels of oysters without finding one which would sell for ten cents. - -Among univalves, the most prominent pearl-producer is probably the -common conch or great conch (_Strombus gigas_) of the West Indies and -the Florida coast, which secretes beautiful pink pearls of considerable -value. This is one of the largest of the univalve shells, some -individuals measuring twelve inches in length, and weighing five or six -pounds. The graceful curves and the delicate tints of lovely pink color -make it exceedingly attractive. The conch abounds in the waters of the -West Indies, especially in the Bahamas, where many thousands are -annually taken for the shell, which forms quite an article of commerce. -The flesh is esteemed as food and is also used for bait; and it is -particularly in preparing for these purposes that the pearls are found, -as no established fisheries exist for the pearls alone. - -The ear-shells or abalones (Haliotidæ) found on the coasts of -California, Japan, New Zealand, and other localities in the Pacific, -secrete pearly concretions, sometimes with fine luster, but usually of -small value. These shells resemble in general outline the form of the -human ear. Distinguishing characteristics are the flatly-spiral -bowl-like shape, and the regular series of holes in the back near the -distal margin, for the admission of water to the respiratory organs. The -holes are on the left side and parallel with the columellar lip, and -those nearest the apex close up as the shell increases in size. The -shells are rough externally, but beautifully nacreous within. In variety -and intensity of coloring, the nacre is superior to that of the -pearl-oysters, but it is not so harmonious, and it does not form so -thick and flat a layer. - -Abalone pearls are especially interesting on account of their brilliant -and unusual colors. Green predominates, but blue and yellow also occur. -Although commonly very small, some of the well formed ones exceed -seventy-five grains in weight, and those of irregular shape may be very -much larger. The ear-shells also produce many irregular pearly masses. -Although these are without an established commercial value, their -beautiful greenish or bluish tints adapt them for artistic jeweled -objects, such as the body of a fly or of a beetle. - -Similar concretions are found in species of turbos and turbinella, -especially the Indian chank (_Turbinella rapa_), which yields pink and -pale red pearls. The pearly nautilus (_Nautilus pompilius_) yields a few -yellowish pearls, especially those taken in Australian waters; but from -the paper nautilus—“the sea-born sailor of his shell canoe”—no pearls -are obtained, owing to the non-lustrous nature of the shell. - -In bygone days, especially in Asia, and also to some extent in Europe, -pearls were credited as coming from many non-molluscan sources. The -Rabbis had the idea that they came also from fish, as noted in the story -of a tailor who was rewarded by finding a pearl in one which he bought -(Gen. R. xi. 5). The Raganighantu of Narahari, a Kashmir physician of -about 1240 _A.D._, reported them as coming from bamboos, cocoanuts, -heads of elephants, bears, serpents, whales, fish, etc.;[84] although it -conceded that these were deficient in luster, which is recognized as the -characteristic feature of pearls. We understand, therefore, that this -use of the word signifies only hard concretions of a spherical form. In -the apology for his book, prison-bound Bunyan wrote: - - A pearl may in a toad’s head dwell, - And may be found in an oyster shell. - -The crystal gems—the diamonds, rubies, etc.—are practically unlimited in -their longevity, existing thousands of years unchanged in condition. -Except those which have been discovered by man, the earth contains about -as many as it ever did, and it is not unreasonable to suppose that in -course of time a considerable percentage of the total will be -discovered. But in the seas as well as in the rivers, the longevity of -pearls is greatly restricted, and - - Full many a gem of purest ray serene - The dark, unfathomed caves of ocean bear[85] - -to run their course of existence and decay unseen and unknown. -Perishable while in the seas, almost as cereals and fruits on land, the -harvest must be gathered with promptness or it is wasted. And it seems -probable that only a small percentage of the beautiful gems produced in -the waters have gladdened the sight of man. - -With considerable hesitancy we have attempted to estimate the number of -persons employed in the pearl fisheries of the world, and the aggregate -local value of their catch. For two or three regions, this is not a -matter of great difficulty. For instance, the divers employed in the -Ceylon fishery are numbered each season, and the auction sales of their -catch furnish a reasonably satisfactory basis for determining the value -of the output. Likewise in Australia, Venezuela, and some minor -localities, the fishermen are numbered; but the reports are less -satisfactory as to the value of the pearls. In the Persian Gulf, the Red -Sea, the Gulf of California, and the islands of the Pacific, where -pearl-diving is a profession and a regular source of livelihood, the -number of employees is fairly constant. But in the rivers and ponds of -America, as well as of Europe and of Asia, where neither experience nor -costly equipment is required for the industry, and pearls to the value -of very many thousands of dollars are obtained by men, women, and even -children, on pleasure bent, as well as in the widely fluctuating -professional fisheries, the problem is far more difficult. - -Contending with these many difficulties, we venture to present the -following estimate of the number of persons employed in the pearl -fisheries of the world, and the value of the output in 1906. - - Localities. Pearls Shells - Fishermen Local Local - No. Values. Values. - - Asia: - - Persian Gulf 35,000 $4,000,000 $110,000 - - Ceylon[86] 18,500 1,200,000 40,000 - - India 1,250 100,000 95,000 - - Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, etc.[87] 3,000 200,000 150,000 - - China, Japan, Siberia, etc. 20,000 400,000 50,000 - - ——————— —————————— —————————— - - Total 77,750 $5,900,000 $445,000 - - Europe: - - British Isles 200 15,000 - - Continent of Europe 1,000 100,000 3,000 - - ——————— —————————— —————————— - - Total 1,200 $115,000 $3,000 - - Islands of the Pacific: - - South Sea islands 4,500 125,000 500,000 - - Australian coast[88] 6,250 450,000 1,200,000 - - Malay Archipelago 5,000 300,000 800,000 - - ——————— —————————— —————————— - - Total 15,750 $875,000 $2,500,000 - - America: - - United States rivers 8,500 650,000 350,000 - - Venezuela 1,900 275,000 10,000 - - Mexico 1,250 210,000 200,000 - - Panama 400 40,000 75,000 - - Miscellaneous 1,000 75,000 25,000 - - ——————— —————————— —————————— - - Total 13,050 $1,250,000 $660,000 - - ======= ========== ========== - - Grand total 107,750 $8,140,000 $3,608,000 - -Our returns do not represent the annual output of pearls in the values -best known to gem buyers. The difference in price between pearls in the -fisherman’s hands in the Persian Gulf or at the Pacific islands, and -that for which they are exchanged over the counters in New York or -Paris, is nearly as great as the difference in value of wool on the -sheep’s back and of the same material woven into fashionable fabrics. -For each dollar received by the fisherman, the retail buyer probably -pays three; and it is not unreasonable to suppose that the pearls herein -represented probably sold ultimately for an aggregate of $24,420,000. - -This summary falls far short in giving a correct idea of the importance -of the pearl fisheries in furnishing a livelihood to humanity; for it -takes no consideration of that great body of men who contribute -incidentally to the prosecution of the fisheries, such as shell-openers, -pearl-washers, watchmen, cooks, laborers, etc. In the Ceylon pearl -fishery of 1906, for instance, our estimate shows 18,500 fishermen; but -there were 40,000 persons engaged at the pearl camp alone, and many -others were given employment in boat-building, supplying provisions, -selling the pearls, etc., and this does not include the wives and -children depending on the industry for sustenance. Indeed, it seems not -unreasonable to estimate that instead of only the 18,500 fishermen, -85,000 persons were in a large measure dependent for their livelihood on -the Ceylon fishery in 1906. - -Estimated on the same basis, we have a total of 500,000 persons -depending largely on the pearl fisheries of the world for their support. -Thus we see that pearl buyers and pearl wearers not only gratify a -commendable admiration for the beautiful, but contribute largely to the -economic balance whereby one class of humanity either sustains or is -dependent upon another, even though these classes be so widely separated -as the crown of Russia from the half-starved diver of the tropical seas. -How strange is the providence of God, who, by granting the pearl to the -poor Arab, the Tamil of India, the South Sea Islander, and the forgotten -Selang of Mergui, makes the greatest and wealthiest in the world -contribute to their support. - - - - - VI - - PEARLS FROM ASIA - - THE PERSIAN GULF, FISHERIES OF INDIA, CEYLON PEARL FISHERIES, RED SEA - AND ARABIAN SEA, CHINA, JAPAN, SIBERIA, ETC. - - - - - VI - THE PEARL FISHERIES OF THE PERSIAN GULF - - - Dear as the wet diver to the eyes - Of his pale wife, who waits and weeps on shore, - By sands of Bahrein in the Persian Gulf; - Plunging all day in the blue waves; at night, - Having made up his toll of precious pearls, - Rejoins her in their hut upon the shore. - - SIR EDWIN ARNOLD. - -The pearl fisheries of the Persian Gulf are the most famous and valuable -in the world, and have been prosecuted for more than two thousand years. -A translation by that eminent Assyriologist, Jules Oppert, of a -cuneiform inscription on a broken obelisk, erected presumably by a king -of Nineveh, seems to indicate a very early origin for these -fisheries.[89] Professor Oppert’s translation is: - - In the sea of the changeable winds (_i.e._, the Persian Gulf), - his merchants fished for pearls; - In the sea where the North Star culminates, - they fished for yellow amber. - -The earliest writing of Europeans on the East refer to these fisheries. -An account of them was given by the Greek writer Megasthenes, who -accompanied Seleucus Nicator, the Macedonian general, in his Asiatic -conquests, about 307 B.C. Shortly afterward they were noted by the Greek -historian, Isidorus of Charace, in his account of the Parthian Empire. -Extracts from Nearchus preserved by Arrian also mention them. Ptolemy -speaks of the pearl fisheries which existed from time immemorial at -Tylos, the Roman name for the present Island of Bahrein. These resources -were well known in the days of Pliny. In his “Historia Naturalis,” Book -IX, ch. 35, he says: “But the most perfect and exquisite [pearls] of all -others be they that are gotten about Arabia, within the Persian -Gulf.”[90] Pliny states also (Book VI, ch. 25) that Catifa (El Katiff), -on the Arabian coast opposite Bahrein, was the center of an important -fishery. - -In the ninth century these fisheries were noted by Massoudi, one of the -earliest Arabian geographers.[91] In the latter part of the twelfth -century they were visited and described by the Spanish-Hebrew traveler, -Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela.[92] The Arabian traveler, Ibn Batuta, wrote of -them about 1336.[93] In 1508 they were noted in the account of Lodovico -Barthema’s expedition to the Island of Ormus. According to him: - - At three days’ journey from this island they fished the largest - pearls which are found in the world; and whoever wishes to know - about it, behold! There are certain fishermen who go there in small - boats and cast into the water two large stones attached to ropes, - one at the bow, the other at the stern of each boat to stay it in - place. Then one of the fishermen hangs a sack from his neck, - attaches a large stone to his feet, and descends to the bottom—about - fifteen paces under water, where he remains as long as he can, - searching for oysters which bear pearls, and puts as many as he - finds into his sack. When he can remain no longer, he casts off the - stone attached to his feet, and ascends by one of the ropes fastened - to the boat. There are so many connected with the business that you - will often see 300 of these little boats which come from many - countries.[94] - -Shortly following the visit of Barthema, the Portuguese under -Albuquerque took possession of the principal ports of the Persian Gulf, -and they imposed heavy taxes on the pearl fishery throughout the century -of their retention. While under their jurisdiction, the fisheries were -visited and described by J. H. van Linschoten in 1596, who wrote: - - The principall and the best that are found in all the Orientall - Countries, and the right Orientall pearles, are between Ormus and - Bassora in the straights, or Sinus Persicus, in the places called - Bareyn, Catiffa, Julfar, Camaron, and other places in the said Sinus - Persicus, from whence they are brought into Ormus. The king of - Portingale hath also his factor in Bareyn, that stayeth there onlie - for the fishing of pearles. There is great trafficke used with them, - as well in Ormus as in Goa.[95] - -[Illustration: - - Cargo boat in pearl fishery of the Persian Gulf -] - -[Illustration: - - Huts of mats and palm leaves, the homes of the pearl fishermen at - Menamah, Bahrein Islands, Persian Gulf -] - -This was the Ormus where the treasures of the Orient were gathered in -abundance, the half-way house between the East and the West, making it -one of the greatest emporia of the world. So renowned was its wealth and -commerce that it was a saying among the Portuguese, were the whole world -a golden ring, Ormus would be the jeweled signet. It was built on an -island, supported a population of 40,000 persons, and was particularly -well situated as a distributing point for the pearls, which enriched the -argosies of Portugal, and contributed so largely to - - the wealth of Ormus and of Ind, - Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand - Show’rs on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, - -which Milton celebrates in “Paradise Lost.” This wonderful Ormus, in the -sixteenth and seventeenth centuries one of the wealthiest places in the -world, is now only a fishing village of less than a hundred huts. - -It was at Ormus, nearly a century later, in 1670, that the shrewd old -jewel merchant, Tavernier, whose acquaintance with gems doubtless -equaled that of any man of his time, saw what he called “the most -beautiful pearl in the world”; not so much for its size, for it weighed -only 48¼ grains, nor for its regularity in form, but because of its most -wonderful luster.[96] - -In describing the fisheries, which had been retaken by the Persians in -1622, Tavernier wrote in 1670, according to Ball’s translation: - - There is a pearl fishery round the island of Bahren, in the Persian - Gulf. It belongs to the King of Persia, and there is a good fortress - there, where a garrison of 300 men is kept.... When the Portuguese - held Hormuz [Ormus] and Muscat, each boat which went to fish was - obliged to take out a license from them, which cost fifteen - _abassis_ [$5.45], and many brigantines were maintained there, to - sink those who were unwilling to take out licenses. But since the - Arabs have retaken Muscat, and the Portuguese are no longer supreme - in the Gulf, every man who fishes pays to the King of Persia only - five _abassis_, whether his fishing is successful or not. The - merchant also pays the king something small for every 1,000 oysters. - The second pearl fishery is opposite Bahren, on the coast of Arabia - Felix, close to the town of El Katif, which, with all the - neighboring country, belongs to an Arab prince.[97] - -During the century following Tavernier’s time, the fisheries were -vigorously prosecuted, owing to the impoverished condition of the reefs -in India and America, and to the large demand for pearls, not only by -the Oriental courts, but by the wealth and fashion of Europe. Except for -the last four years, when the Ceylon fishery was very productive, -throughout the eighteenth century the Persian Gulf was almost the only -important source of supply for pearls. For several years following the -reopening of the Ceylon fishery in 1796, that region diverted some of -the attention which the Persian waters had been receiving, but it was -not long before these regained their ascendancy. - -In 1838, Lieutenant J. R. Wellsted, an officer in the British India -service, reported that the fisheries of the gulf employed 4300 boats, -manned by somewhat more than 30,000 men.[98] Of these boats, 3500 were -from the Island of Bahrein, 100 from the Persian coast, and the -remaining 700 from the Pirate Coast situated between Bahrein and the -entrance to the Gulf of Oman. Lieutenant Wellsted estimated the value of -the pearls secured annually as approximately £400,000, which is somewhat -less than the average value of the output in recent years. - -Twenty-seven years later, according to Sir Lewis Pelly,[99] who was in -the Indian service from 1851 to 1877, there were 1500 boats at Bahrein, -and the annual return from the whole fishery was £400,000, the same as -previously reported by Wellsted. In 1879, the value of the output was -estimated at £600,000 by the British Resident, Colonel Ross, and at -£800,000 by Captain L. E. Durand, of the British Protectorate of the -Persian Gulf. Owing to the increased market value, the average output in -the last five years has amounted to approximately four million dollars -annually. This refers to the local value only, which is greatly -increased by the time the pearls leave the markets in Bombay and Bagdad. - -The Persian Gulf is nearly 600 miles long, with an average width of -somewhat more than 100 miles. The Strait of Ormus—thirty to sixty miles -wide—connects it with the Gulf of Oman, which opens directly into the -Arabian Sea. The depth of water rarely exceeds thirty fathoms. Oyster -reefs are well distributed throughout the gulf, and are in greatest -abundance on the Arab side between the 24th and 27th degrees of north -latitude and the 50th and 54th degrees of east longitude, at a distance -of from a few hundred yards to sixty miles from the shore, and -especially in the vicinity of the Bahrein Islands. The oysters are -scattered over level areas of coral rock and sand, with depths ranging -from two to eighteen fathoms.[100] The divers rarely descend in deeper -water than twelve fathoms, notwithstanding that valuable pearls are -apparently obtainable at greater depths. - -Although the British Protectorate extends over the Persian Gulf, -insuring the peaceful prosecution of the fisheries and the settlement of -intertribal contentions by the government resident, the fisheries are -under the regulations of the maritime Arab sheiks. The restrictions -imposed by these, however, are principally with a view to collecting a -revenue from each boat employed. The total amount realized thereby is -unknown, but there is good reason for supposing that it is considerable. - -[Illustration: - - AGHA MOHAMMED (1666–1725) - - Founder of the present Persian dynasty - - From a Persian manuscript in the library of Robert Hoe, Esq. -] - -[Illustration: - - SHAH SULAIMAN (1647–1694) - - From a Persian manuscript in the library of Robert Hoe, Esq. -] - -The fisheries are carried on during the greater part of every year, -presenting a strong contrast to the Ceylon fishery, which is prosecuted -usually less than forty days, and in only about one year in three on an -average. This is especially remarkable when it is considered that no -particular care is taken of the Persian reefs and, except for certain -tribal restrictions, the fishermen may work whenever and wherever they -choose. Owing to the extended area over which the fishing is prosecuted -and the existence of undisturbed breeding-oysters in the deeper waters, -the reefs are not readily exhausted, notwithstanding the tens of -millions of mollusks annually removed therefrom. - -The fisheries are at their height from June to September, when nearly -every person on the coast is interested in some capacity, if not in -fishing, at least in furnishing supplies, cleaning shells, buying -pearls, etc. In April and May the water on the deep banks is so cold -that the fishermen confine their efforts to the more shallow areas. -During the winter months, the cold weather and the northwesterly gales -interfere with the work, except such as is prosecuted in the smaller -bays and inlets. - -The pearling operations are financed mostly by Indian _bunnias_, or -traders, principally from Bombay, who furnish capital for equipment, -supplies of food, etc., and who purchase the pearls in gross lots. These -men bear very hard on the fishermen, furnishing the supplies and buying -the pearls almost at their own prices; and the poor divers who explore -the depths and secure the pearls derive from their exertions little more -than the crudest necessaries of life, and are usually in debt to the -traders. - -The actual fishing operations are carried on mainly by the maritime -tribes of Hasa and Oman, including those on the Pirate Coast. The -inhabitants of the Bahrein Islands and the adjacent shores have been -devoted to pearling from time immemorial; but the Wahabis of the Pirate -Coast—the _Ichthyophagi_ of Ptolemy’s time—have more recently, under the -persuasive influence of British gunboats and magazine-rifles, -substituted pearling for their two-century inherited life of fanatical -piracy. Referring to these people in his quaint sketches of Persia -eighty years ago, Sir John Malcolm wrote: “Their occupation is piracy, -and their delight murder, and to make it worse they give you the most -pious reasons for every villainy they commit. They abide by the letter -of the sacred volume, rejecting all commentaries and traditions. If you -are their captive and offer all to save your life, they say, “No! It is -written in the Koran that it is not lawful to plunder the living; but we -are not prohibited from stripping the dead. So saying they knock you on -the head.”[101] Most of the Wahabi pearlers congregate in the mat-hut -settlements of Dobai, Abu Thubi, and Ras-el-Kheima, located at the -mouths of creeks which form fairly good harbors for the small boats. The -Batina coast also furnishes some pearl fishermen, these coming -principally from Fujaira, Shenas, Sohar, Suaik, and Sib. - -The headquarters for the pearling fleet are at Bahrein Island, the -largest of the insular group bearing the same name, the islets of -Moharrek, Sitrah, and Nissan completing the group. This is the early -home of Chaldean civilization, and one of the traditional sources of the -Phenicians, and whence came that fish-god who—according to the -Babylonian myth—bore the ark over the deluge. This island, the center of -the greatest pearl fishery in the world, is half way down on the -southern side of the Persian Gulf, and twenty miles from the mainland of -“Araby the blest.” It is about twenty-eight miles in length, and ten in -width at the widest part. The population approximates 60,000, all -Moslems, except about 100 Banyan traders from Sindh, India. The northern -half of the island is described as of great beauty, being a garden of -pomegranate, lemon, citron, and quince-trees, and especially the -magnificent date-palms, with numerous springs furnishing an abundance of -excellent fresh water. The principal settlement, Manama, with about -10,000 inhabitants, is poorly built, the houses consisting mostly of -huts of mats and palm leaves; yet it presents a better appearance than -any other settlement along this coast. - -The one great industry, and the center of all interest throughout this -region, is the pearl fishery. The present conditions are precisely as -Palgrave wrote in 1863: “It is from the sea, not from the land, that the -natives subsist; and it is also mainly on the sea that they dwell, -passing amid its waters the one half of the year in search of pearls, -the other half in fishery or trade. Hence their real homes are the -countless boats which stud the placid pool, or stand drawn up in long -black lines on the shore, while little care is taken to ornament their -land houses, the abodes of their wives and children at most, and the -unsightly strong boxes of their treasures. ‘We are all, from the highest -to the lowest, slaves of one master—Pearl,’ said Mohammed bin Thanee to -me one evening; nor was the expression out of place. All thought, all -conversation, all employment, turns on that one subject; everything else -is merely by-game, and below even secondary consideration.”[102] - -[Illustration: - - ARAB PEARL-DIVERS AT WORK IN THE PERSIAN GULF -] - -According to recent returns, the Persian Gulf fisheries employ about -3500 boats,[103] large and small, of which 1200 of the best are owned at -Bahrein, 700 on the coast of El Hassa from El Katar to Kuweit, and the -remaining 1600 are from various parts of the gulf, and especially from -the Pirate Coast east of El Katar. They measure from one to fifty tons. -The smaller ones, with three to fifteen men each, work near the shores; -the larger, carrying fifteen to thirty men, fish over the whole gulf, -remaining out for weeks at a time. These craft are very picturesque with -their artistic rigs and spoon-shaped sails, and when the fishery is at -its height the scene is one of rare interest. The boats from Bahrein are -of excellent construction made by native workmen using local materials, -with home-woven sailcloth and rigging of twisted date-fiber. Each of the -larger ones usually evidences a lingering trace of Semitic influence in -its _kubait_, or figurehead, covered with skin of the sheep or goat -sacrificed in the launching ceremonies.[104] The boats from El Hassa and -the Pirate Coast are usually smaller and less substantial than those -from Bahrein, the fishermen from the latter place far surpassing those -of the mainland in civilization and industrial wealth. - -The fleet is manned by approximately 35,000 fishermen. In addition to -the _nakhoda_, or captain, who is often the owner of the boat, the crew -consists of _ghoas_ or divers, who are mainly Arabs and Sedees, and -_sebs_, or rope-tenders, who are usually Bedouins or Persians and attend -the divers and perform other duties. Many Hindus from India, and -flat-nosed, sable-hued Negroes from the east coast of Africa find -employment here. On each of the larger boats is a general utility man, -known as _el musully_, literally the “prayer-man,” who, in addition to -various other duties, relieves those _sebs_ who stop to pray. - -Among the fishermen are all types and classes to be met with in this -part of the world, with the usual contingent of the lame, the halt, and -the blind. There are a number of fishermen who have been maimed and -mutilated by shark bites. A surprisingly large number of men who have -become totally blind engage in diving, and they usually do fairly well -where the oysters are abundant on the reefs. And one or two unfortunate -divers are reported who continue the work even though handicapped by the -loss both of a leg and of eyesight, this interfering less with their -diving than with their movements on land. - -The fishery in this region owes absolutely nothing to modern -civilization in the method of securing the pearls from the depth of the -sea; it is carried on to-day practically as it was six hundred years -ago, and probably has been without important variation for two thousand -years. Aside from a loin-cloth, the diver is devoid of clothing except -that rarely, early in the season when _polypi_ abound, he is enveloped -in a cotton overall as a protection. Over each finger and thumb he wears -a shield or stall (_khubaat_, or finger-hat), about two inches long, -made of flexible leather, to protect the fingers from the sharp shells -and coral-growths. As each fisherman usually wears out at least two sets -of these shields each season, it will be seen that a very large quantity -of them is required to supply the entire fleet. - -The divers use stones on which they descend feet foremost. Although this -is less spectacular than the method of diving practised by the natives -of the South Sea islands, it enables the fisherman to reach the bottom -more speedily and with far less effort. The diving-stones range in -weight from thirty to fifty pounds each, depending largely on the depth -of water and the weight of the fisherman. They are somewhat oval in -shape, and have one end perforated to admit a rope. Immediately above -the attachment is formed a loop, resembling a stirrup, to receive the -diver’s foot. When prepared for the day’s work, each stone is suspended -by a stout rope over outriggers projecting from the side of the boat, -and by a slip-knot is temporarily held four and a half or five feet -below the surface of the water. A very stout diver may have a stone -affixed to his waist to overcome his greater buoyancy. Usually two -divers use one stone together and descend alternately. Each one has an -attendant in the boat who assists him in ascending, and looks after the -ropes, baskets of shells, etc. - -In preparing for descent, the fisherman takes hold of the rope from -which the diving stone is suspended, puts one foot in the loop just -above the stone and places the other foot in the rim of a net basket, -eighteen inches wide, made of coir rope. When ready, he signals his -attendant, inhales several good breaths, closes his nostrils with a -_fitaam_ or nostril-clasp of flexible horn attached to a cord around his -neck, raises his body somewhat above the surface to give force to the -descent, releases the slip-knot retaining the stone, and sinks rapidly -to the bottom. Immediately disengaging his foot from the stone, he -throws himself in a stooping position on the ground and collects as many -oysters as possible during the fifty seconds or more in which he is able -to remain under water. When near his limit of endurance, he hastily -gives a signal jerk to the rope attached to the basket, and the watchful -attendant hauls him up as speedily as possible, the diver frequently -quickening the ascent by hand over hand movement up the rope. When near -the surface, he lets go of the rope and with his arms close to his body -pops above the surface puffing and blowing. The contents of the net bag -are emptied into a large basket by the attendant, and the dead shells -and other refuse are separated from the live oysters and thrown back -into the sea, the diver having worked too rapidly at the bottom to -discriminate closely as to what he gathered. - -In the meantime, the stone has been drawn up and suspended by the -slip-knot in its customary position and the diving partner is resting at -the surface preparatory to descending. Thus, diving alternately at -intervals of five or six minutes, each fisherman descends thirty or -forty times in an ordinary day’s work. The number of oysters gathered at -each descent depends on such conditions as their abundance, the depth -and clearness of the water, etc. It ranges from none to fifty or more, -but ordinarily ten or twelve is a good average. As the men commonly work -on shares, the shells brought up by each diver or by each pair of divers -are kept separate. - -The best type of Arab divers are very careful of themselves, drying the -body thoroughly with towels on coming out of the water, taking intervals -of rest during the day’s work; and even while in the water between dives -they may enjoy the luxury of a cheroot or pipe, or possibly a cigarette -may pass from mouth to mouth of several men. - -When pursuing their work, the divers are abstemious. After devotions at -sunrise and a light breakfast of perhaps dates or rice and coffee, they -begin fishing. About noon they knock off for coffee, prayers, and an -hour’s siesta, and then resume work for several hours. When the day’s -work is over and they have faced Meccaward with the customary prayers, -they rest and eat a substantial meal, commonly of dates and fish roasted -over a charcoal fire. - -In equal depths the Arab fishermen remain under water longer than those -of India who resort to the Ceylon fishery, but this is partly -counterbalanced by the latter descending somewhat more frequently. When -preparing for a lengthy dive, the fisherman imbibes large quantities of -air, opening his mouth and inhaling large volumes. - -The length of time a diver remains submerged in the average depth of -seven or eight fathoms rarely exceeds sixty seconds, although some may -remain seventy, eighty, and even ninety seconds on special occasion. A -fully substantiated instance is reported from Manaar of an Arab diver -having remained 109 seconds in seven fathoms of water. This occurred -April 13, 1887, and was witnessed and reported[105] by Captain James -Donnan, the inspector of the fishery. Wellsted reports[106] a diving -contest in the Persian Gulf in which only one man, of the hundreds who -competed, remained down 110 seconds; the depth, however, is not noted. - -There are numerous reports of much longer stays than these; indeed, a -study of the published evidence bearing upon the subject furnishes -surprising results. Ribeiro wrote, in 1685, that a diver could remain -below while two _credos_ were repeated: “_Il s’y tient l’espace de deux -credo._”[107] In his interesting account of the Ceylon fishery, Percival -stated that the usual length of time for divers to remain under water -“does not much exceed two minutes, yet there are instances known of -divers who could remain four or even five minutes, which was the case -with a Caffre boy the last year I visited the fishery. The longest -instance ever known was of a diver who came from Anjango in 1797, and -who absolutely remained under water full six minutes.”[108] Le Beck -says, that in 1797, he saw a diver from Karikal remain down for the -space of seven minutes.[109] The merchant traveler, Jean Chardin, -reported in 1711 that the divers remain up to seven and a half minutes -under water: “_Les plongeurs qui pêchent les perles sont quelquefois -jusqu’à demi-quart-d’heure sous l’eau._”[110] - -In 1667, the Royal Society of London addressed an inquiry on this -subject to Sir Philiberto Vernatti, the British Resident at Batavia in -the East Indies. Vernatti’s reply gave certain details regarding the -Ceylon fishery, but did not touch upon the length of diving because, as -he stated, he could not “meet with any one that can satisfy me, and -being unsatisfied myself, I cannot nor will obtrude anything upon you -which may hereafter prove fabulous; but shall still serve you with -truth.”[111] Two years later, and presumably after investigation, -Vernatti reported: “The greatest length of time that pearl-divers in -these parts can continue under water is about a quarter of an hour; and -that by no other means than custom; for pearl-diving lasts not above six -weeks, and the divers stay a great while longer at the end of the season -than at the beginning.”[112] - -[Illustration: - - Photograph, Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. - - HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY, MOHAMMED ALI, SHAH OF PERSIA - - Wearing the Kajar crown -] - -The anatomist Diemerbroeck relates[113] the case of a pearl diver who, -under his own observation, remained half an hour at a time under water -while pursuing his work; and this was seriously adopted without comment -by John Mason Goode in his “Study of Medicine.”[114] Ibn Batuta, “the -Doctor of Tangier,” wrote about 1336 that “some remain down an hour, -others two hours, others less.”[115] A still earlier writer, Jouchanan -ibn Masouiah,[116] in his book on stones, states that “the diver, when -he dives, places upon his nose a _masfâsa_ lest water should enter into -him, and breathes through the fissure, and remains under water for half -an hour.” According to Sebaldus Rau[117] this _masfâsa_ was an article -resembling a hood or cap, which the diver placed over his nose. It was -made of some impervious material and had a projection so long that it -reached to the surface of the water. The same writer believes that this -object was alluded to by Aristotle (“De part. animal.,” _Lib._ II, c. -16), where he likens the trunk of the elephant to the instrument used by -certain divers for aiding their respiration, so that they could remain -longer in the water and draw in air from above the surface.[118] And -here we cease pursuit of further records, lest our faith in recorded -testimony be too severely tested.[119] - -A superficial inspection of the above evidence, from the one or two -hours noted by Ibn Batuta about the year 1336, to the half an hour of -Diemerbroeck in 1672, the quarter of an hour of Vernatti in 1669, the -seven and one half minutes of Chardin in 1711, the six minutes of -Percival in 1803, to the 110 seconds of the present time, seems to -indicate very clearly a gradual but somewhat remarkable decrease in the -ability of the Asiatic divers, and that the pearl fishermen of the -present day are very different creatures from their ancestors. And -especially is this so when it is considered that the above records are -not isolated reports selected for the particular purpose of showing a -decrease in the length of diving; on the contrary they are authoritative -and representative publications of their respective periods. We do not -recall having seen in any report issued previous to 1675, an intimation -that the limit of time was less than ten minutes. - -However, a careful consideration of the subject leads to the belief that -there has been no serious decrease in the length of time that the Arab -and Indian divers remain under water, and that either the writers were -misinformed or that the individual cases reported were extremely -exceptional. Ibn Batuta’s instance of one to two hours could easily be -caused by a mistake in copying Arabic manuscript, or in the translation. -The case related by Diemerbroeck in which a pearl diver remained -submerged half an hour, is more perplexing, especially as the physician -reports that this was done under his own observation. The numerous -reports of five or six minutes may have been based on a very exceptional -case. - -These statements are viewed as highly incredible by men who have spent -scores of years at the fisheries. A man may remain submerged for several -minutes, but the conditions are vastly different from the activities of -pearl-gathering at a depth of ten fathoms, where the pressure of the -water is nearly thirty pounds to the square inch, and the slightest -exercise is fatiguing. Unless the time is taken by a watch, it is easy -to overestimate the stay; the seconds pass very slowly when one is -waiting momentarily for the appearance of the diver’s head above the -water, and certainly to the nearly exhausted fisherman with straining -chest and palpitating heart, the last few seconds must seem extremely -long indeed. An instance is noted in which an Arab diver remained -submerged seventy-one seconds, and on his reappearance, naïvely inquired -if he had not been down ten minutes. It seems doubtful whether the 110 -seconds herein noted has been greatly exceeded, in recent years at -least, by Arab or Indian divers, who do not appear to equal the -semi-amphibious natives of the South Sea islands in their exploits. - -One of the most curious features of the pearling industry is the manner -in which the fishermen secure supplies of drinking water. In the -vicinity of Bahrein, numerous fresh-water springs exist at the bottom of -the gulf in depths of two or three fathoms, and the fishermen dive into -the depth of the salt water down to where the fresh water is springing -forth and there fill a skin or other suitable receptacle which they -bring to the surface. By running a pipe down near the bottom in the -vicinity of one of these springs, an abundance of fresh water may be -pumped into the boat. - -Three species—or at least three varieties—of pearl-bearing oysters are -obtained in the Persian Gulf. These are known locally as _mahar_, -_sudaifee_, and _zinni_. Of these, the _mahar_ or Lingah oyster, which -corresponds to the Ceylon pearl-oyster, yields the greatest quantity of -pearls, and those of the finest quality. It measures three or three and -a half inches in diameter, and is found in deeper water than the others. -The _sudaifee_ and the _zinni_, which are larger, yield pearls in much -smaller quantities than the _mahar_. - -On large boats, which remain out for two or three weeks at a time, the -oysters are left on deck overnight, and the following morning they are -opened by means of a curved knife (_miflaket_), four or five inches in -length. The smaller boats working near shore convey the catch to the -land for the opening and searching for pearls. - -The Persian Gulf pearls are commonly not so white as those from Ceylon, -but they are found of larger size, and it is believed in Asia that they -retain their luster for a greater length of time. Many of the Persian -Gulf pearls, especially those from _sudaifee_ and _zinni_ shells, have a -distinctly yellow color. Tavernier made a curious explanation of this. -He stated: - - As for the pearls tending to yellow, the color is due to the fact - that the fishermen sell the oysters in heaps, and the merchants - awaiting sometimes up to 14 or 15 days till the shells open of - themselves, in order to extract the pearls, some of these oysters - lose their water during this time, decay, and become putrid, and the - pearls become yellow by contact. This is so true that in all oysters - which have retained their water, the pearls are always white. They - are allowed to open of themselves, because if they are opened by - force, as we open our oysters in the shell, the pearls may be - damaged and broken. The oysters of the Manar Strait open of - themselves, 5 or 6 days sooner than those of the Gulf of Persia, - because the heat is much greater at Manar, which is at the tenth - degree of North latitude, while the island of Bahrein is at about - the twenty-seventh. And consequently among the pearls which come - from Manar there are few yellow ones found.[120] - -Tavernier was more familiar with the pearls themselves than with the -methods of the fishery. The yellow color is not due to contact with the -putrefactive flesh, and is independent of the manner of opening. In -fact, if putrefaction caused the yellow color, this shade would be far -more prevalent in the Manaar or Ceylon pearls than in those from -Bahrein, for practically all of the Ceylon oysters are permitted to -putrefy, whereas only a portion of those in the Persian Gulf are opened -in this manner. Furthermore, notwithstanding that it is nearer the -equator, the heat at Manaar during the pearling season is not to be -compared with that at Bahrein when the season is at its height, for the -Persian Gulf during July and August is notorious as one of the hottest -places on the globe. - -While the great bulk of the pearls are either white or yellowish, these -fisheries yield a few pink, bluish, gray, and occasionally even black -pearls. These unusual colors are not especially prized. A curious and -remarkably detailed story has gone the rounds in which the qualities of -Persian and Ceylon pearls are compared, to the disparagement of the -latter, and during the last hundred years few accounts have been -published of this fishery without recording it. We notice it first in -Morier’s “Journey through Persia in 1808 and 1809,”[121] but possibly it -antedated that report. The statement is that the pearls of Ceylon peel -off, while those of Persia are as “firm as the rock on which they grow”; -and though they lose in color and luster one per cent. annually for -fifty years, they still lose less than those of Ceylon, and at the -expiration of the fifty years they cease to diminish in appearance. - -The pearl output in the Persian Gulf at the present time appears from -the official returns to exceed four million dollars annually at local -valuation. The exports in 1903 were reported at £827,447, and in 1904, -£1,077,241. It is generally understood that all of the pearls are not -entered in the official figures, and the valuations in the markets of -Asia and Europe are greatly in excess of these amounts. The profits of -the fishery are divided among a great number of persons. A large -percentage goes to the shrewd _bunnias_ from India, who finance the -fishery operations, and who, by all sorts of tricks connected with -advances of supplies, valuation of the catch, etc., manage to make a -very good thing out of the business. It is nothing unusual for the -valuation of a lot of pearls to double and even treble after leaving the -hands of the fishermen. - -While many of the gulf pearls—and especially of the small seed-pearls—go -to Bagdad, the great bulk of them are sold to representatives of Hindu -and Arab merchants of Bombay for shipment to that city, which to the -Bahrein fisherman is the heart of the outside world. Few of the pearls -go directly into Arabia or Persia, as the certain sale in the larger -Bombay market is preferable to a sometimes higher but less regular price -in other markets. Indeed, pearls may usually be purchased at a less cost -in India than a stranger would be obliged to pay at Bahrein. The Bombay -merchants “sow the earth with Orient pearl,” dealing direct with London, -Paris and Berlin, and with the oriental jewelers. Most of the yellow -pearls find oriental purchasers, with whose dark complexions they -harmonize better than the silvery white ones. They are also more popular -because of a belief existing throughout the East that they are less -likely to lose their luster with the lapse of years. - -The shell of the pearl-oysters is not used locally, but large quantities -are exported to Europe for manufacture. Although it is the smallest and -cheapest produced in the gulf, yet, owing to the enormous quantity taken -for their pearls, the shell of the _mahar_ (_Margaritifera vulgaris_) -constitutes the bulk of the exports. Formerly most of the shipments were -made from the harbor of Lingah, hence it is known in the markets of -Europe as “Lingah shell.” But in the last three or four years, much of -it has been transported to Europe via Bander Abbas and Bushire. A German -firm at Bahrein is extensively employed in exporting this shell, and -several Indian merchants are also engaged in the trade. The total -exports in 1906 amounted to 3262 tons, valued at $26,408 according to -the port returns, but worth about $135,000 in Europe. Very large -quantities are received in London, and over 2500 tons have been offered -at auction in a single year. This shell is very small, averaging about -three inches in diameter and about one and a half ounces in weight. It -is the cheapest of all mother-of-pearl. The best quality sells in London -for ten to twenty shillings per hundredweight, but the ordinary grade is -worth usually less than nine shillings, and sometimes as low as three -shillings per hundredweight. America formerly imported it, but few lots -have been received since the exploitation of the Mississippi shell about -fifteen years ago. - -The shell of the larger species of pearl-oysters in the Persian Gulf is -worth considerably more than the “Lingah shell,” selling in Europe for -£12 to £60 per ton, yet manufacturers consider it as furnishing only -poor qualities of mother-of-pearl. Several hundred tons are exported -annually. It measures six or seven inches in diameter and is used -principally in making cheap grades of buttons. - - - THE PEARL FISHERIES OF CEYLON - - Errors, like straws, upon the surface flow; - He who would search for pearls must dive below. - - DRYDEN, _All for Love_, Prologue. - -Second in extent to those of Persia only, are the intermittent and -uncertain pearl fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar. This is an arm of the -Indian Ocean, from 65 to 150 miles in width, separating the island of -Ceylon from the southernmost part of India. The pearl-oyster banks—known -locally as paars—are situated off the northwest coast of Ceylon and also -in the vicinity of Tuticorin on the Madras coast of the mainland. The -Ceylon fisheries are under the control of the colonial government of the -British Empire, and those of the mainland are monopolized by the Madras -government. Notwithstanding the fact that they are outside of the -three-mile limit established as the bound of national jurisdiction, -exclusive privileges are exercised over these fisheries by the -respective governments,[122] and poaching vessels are liable to seizure -and punishment. - -Though possibly not so ancient as those of Persia, the Ceylon pearl -fisheries are of great antiquity. References to them occur in Cingalese -records dating from 550 B.C. Pliny, Ptolemy, Strabo, and other ancient -writers speak of their importance. - -The “Periplus of the Erythræan”—written about the end of the second -century A.D.—refers to these fisheries, and states that, owing to the -dangers involved, it was customary to employ convicts therein. In the -days of the “Arabian Nights,” under the name “Serendib,” this was the -scene of the pearling adventures of Sindbad the Sailor, and the -reputation of the valuable pearl resources is reflected in those -wonderful tales. - -The first extensive description we have of the Gulf of Manaar fisheries -was given by the Venetian traveler, Marco Polo, who visited the region -about 1294. He wrote: - - The pearl fishers take their vessels, great and small, and proceed - into the gulf where they stop from the beginning of April till the - middle of May. They go first to a place called Bettelar, and then go - 60 miles into the Gulf. Here they cast anchor and shift from their - large vessels into small boats. You must know that the many - merchants who go divide into various companies, and each of these - must engage a number of men on wages, hiring them for April and half - of May. Of all the produce they have first to pay the king, as his - royalty, the tenth part. And they must also pay those men who charm - the great fishes to prevent them from injuring the divers whilst - engaged in seeking pearls under water, one-twentieth of all that - they take. These fish-charmers are termined _Abraiaman_; and their - charm holds good for that day only, for at night they dissolve the - charm so that the fishes can work mischief at their will. These - _Abraiaman_ know also how to charm beasts and birds and every living - thing. When the men have got into the small boats they jump into the - water and dive to the bottom, which may be at a depth of from 4 to - 12 fathoms, and there they remain as long as they are able. And - there they find the shells that contain the pearls, and those they - put into a net bag tied round the waist, and mount up to the surface - with them, and then dive anew. When they can’t hold their breath any - longer they come up again, and after a little down they go once - more, and so they go on all day. These shells are in fashion like - oysters or sea-hoods. And in these shells are found pearls, great - and small, of every kind, sticking in the flesh of the shell-fish. - In this manner pearls are fished in great quantities, for thence in - fact come the pearls which are spread all over the world. And I can - tell you the King of that State hath a very great receipt and - treasure from his dues upon those pearls.[123] - -That quaint old missionary bishop, Friar Jordanus, in his “Mirabilia -Descripta, or the Wonders of the East” (_circa_ 1330), reports that -“more than 8000 boats” were sometimes employed for three months -continually in these fisheries, which were then prosecuted under the -jurisdiction of the Cingalese kings of Kandy, and that the quantity of -pearls taken was “astounding and almost incredible.”[124] - -[Illustration: - - THE “PRINCE OF PEARLS”: THE LATE RANA OF DHOLPUR IN HIS PEARL REGALIA -] - -This number of boats seems entirely too large, especially in view of the -fact that Jordanus secured his information at second hand; but it leaves -the impression that the fisheries of that period were of great -importance. - -When the Portuguese, attracted by the wealth of its resources, obtained -control of this region about 1510, they exacted from the local rulers an -annual tribute in pearls and spices. Later they conducted the fisheries -on their own account, permitting the native fishermen to retain one -fourth of the catch as compensation for their work, and dividing the -remainder into three equal portions, for the king, the church, and the -soldiers, respectively. - -Linschoten, who visited India about 1590, leaves this interesting -account of the fishery at that time: - - “There are also other fishings for pearle, as between the Iland of - Seylon, and the Cape de Comoriin, where great numbers are yearlie - found, for that the King of Portingale hath a captaine there with - soldiers that looketh unto it; they have yearlie at the least above - 3 or 4 thousand duckers [divers], yt live onlie by fishing for - pearles, and so maintaine themselves.” He describes the methods of - fishing, which appear to be similar to those of the present time, - and adds: “When they have made an end of the day’s fishing, all the - fishers with the captaine, soldiers, laborers and watchmen for the - king, goe together, and taking all the pearls [pearl-oysters] that - are caught that day they divide them into certaine heaps, that is, - one part for the king, another part for the captaine and soldiers, - the third part for the Jesuits, because they have their Cloyster in - that place, and brought the countrie first into the Christian faith, - and the last part for the Fishers, which is done with Justice and - Equalitie. This fishing is done in the Summer tyme, and there - passeth not any yeare but that divers Fishers are drowned by the - Cape de Comoriin (which is called the King’s fishing) and manie - devoured by fishes, so that when the fishing is done there is great - and pitiful noyse and cry of women and children heard. Yet the next - yeare they must do the same work againe, for that they have no other - means to live, as also for that they are partlie compelled thereunto - by the Portingales, but most part because of the gaine.”[125] - -The best description we have seen of the Ceylon fisheries at the time of -the Portuguese occupation, is that of Caesar Frederick, a Venetian -trader, who referred to the period from 1563 to 1581. Frederick -reported, according to Hickocke’s translation in the Hakluyt edition: - - The sea that lieth between the coast which descendeth from Cao - Comori, to the lowe land of Chilao, and from Island Zeilan, they - call the fishing of Pearles, which fishing they make every yeare, - beginning in March or April, and it lasteth fiftie dayes, but they - doe not fishe every yeere in one place, but one yeere in one place, - and another yeere in another place of the same sea. When the time of - this fishing draweth neere, they send very good Divers, that goe to - discover where the greatest heapes of Oisters bee under water, and - right agaynst that place where greatest store of Oisters bee, there - they make or plant a village with houses and a Bazaro, which - standeth as long as the fishing time lasteth, and it is furnished - with all things necessarie, and nowe and then it is neere unto - places that are inhabited, and other times farre off, according to - the place where they fishe. The fishermen are all Christians of the - countrey, and who so will may goe to fishing, paying a certain dutie - to the king of Portugall, and to the Churches of the Friers of Saint - Paule, which are in that coast. All the while that they are fishing, - there are three or foure Fustes armed to defend the Fishermen from - Rovers. It was my chance to bee there one time in my passage, and I - saw the order that they used in fishing, which is this. There are - three or foure Barkes that make consort together, which are like to - our litle Pilot boates, and a little lesse, there goe seven or eight - men in a boate: and I have seene in a morning a great number of them - goe out, and anker in fifteene or eighteene fadome of water, which - is the ordinarie depth of all that coast. When they are at anker, - they cast a rope into the sea, and at the end of the rope, they make - fast a great stone, and then there is readie a man that hath his - nose and his eares well stopped, and annointed with oyle, and a - basket about his necke, or under his left arme, then he goeth downe - by the rope to the bottome of the Sea, and as fast as he can hee - filleth the basket, and when it is full, he shaketh the rope, and - his fellows that are in the Barke hale him up with the basket: and - in such wise they go one by one untill they have laden their barke - with oysters, and at evening they come to the village, and then - every company maketh their mountaine or heape of oysters one distant - from another, in such wise that you shall see a great long rowe of - mountaines or heapes of oysters, and they are not touched until such - time as the fishing bee ended, and at the ende of the fishing every - companie sitteth round about their mountaine or heape of oysters, - and fall to opening of them, which they may easilie doe because they - bee dead, drie and brittle: and if every oyster had pearles in them, - it would be a very good purchase, but there are very many that have - no pearles in them: when the fishing is ended, then they see whether - it bee a good gathering or a badde: there are certaine expert in the - pearles whom they call Chitini, which set and make the price of - pearles according to their carracts [carats or weight], beautie, and - goodnesse, making foure sorts of them. The first sort bee the round - pearles, and they bee called Aia of Portugale, because the - Portugales doe buy them. The second sorte which are not round, are - called Aia of Bengala. The third sort which are not so good as the - second, they call Aia of Canara, that is to say, the kingdome of - Bezeneger. The fourth and last sort, which are the least and worst - sort, are called Aia of Cambaia. Thus the price being set, there are - merchants of every countrey which are readie with their money in - their handes, so that in a fewe dayes all is brought up at the - prises set according to the goodnesse and caracts of the - pearles.[126] - -A remarkable instance of the immutability of custom in the Orient is -found in the fact that, except in a few minor particulars, Frederick’s -account, written more than three centuries ago, could serve as a -description of the methods of the fisheries in recent years. The -industry was then very extensive, as appears from an account shortly -afterward (about 1608) by Pedro Teixeira, who reported[127] that from -400 to 500 boats were employed, and from 50,000 to 60,000 persons -resorted to the fishery. - -In 1658, possession of Ceylon and India passed from the Portuguese to -the Dutch, who for a time continued the pearl fisheries after the manner -practised by their predecessors; but owing to contentions as to the -details of management, they soon resorted to leasing them each year to -the highest bidder, or to several bidders, for a definite money payment. -The successful bidders prosecuted the industry in the same manner as the -government had previously done, employing the same native fishermen and -compensating them with one fourth of the oysters secured. Under the -Dutch rule the fisheries were very unprofitable, and particularly so -during the last seventy years of their authority. There was practically -no fishing from 1732 to 1746, and there was also a suspension—but not -entirely from lack of oysters or of pearls—from 1768 until the territory -passed into the control of the British in 1796. - -The colonial government of the British Empire continued the Dutch policy -of leasing, only restricting the limits of territory and season for -fishing. Many objections were found to this method. It was difficult to -regulate the business properly, and there were no reliable means of -determining its proceeds and conditions. At length in 1835, the -government began to operate the fishery on its own account, as the -Portuguese had done two hundred years before, allowing the fishermen one -fourth of the oysters taken by them and selling the remaining three -fourths for the benefit of the treasury. In this way the full value of -the resources was realized without mystery, deception, or concealment, -and the plan worked satisfactorily for all concerned. - -Owing, presumably, to the long period in which they had lain -undisturbed, the Ceylon oyster reefs were in excellent condition at the -beginning of British rule. In 1796 the government derived a revenue of -Rs.1,100,000 therefrom, and in 1797 the revenue was Rs.1,400,000; these -two years were by far the most productive during the first century of -British occupation. - -Several very interesting reports on the industry were prepared about -that time. Especially to be noted among these were the accounts by Henry -J. LeBeck in 1798;[128] by Robert Percival in 1803;[129] and by James -Cordiner in 1807,[130] to which reference is made for detailed accounts -of the fisheries of that period. - -The Ceylon fishery was prosecuted about every other year from 1799 to -1809, and the annual returns ranged from £15,022 in 1801 to £84,257 in -1808. From 1810 to 1813, inclusive, there was a blank so far as receipts -were concerned. In 1814 the fishery was very good, bringing in a revenue -of £105,187. With the exception of very slight returns in 1815, 1816, -and 1820, no oysters were then obtained until 1828. Excepting 1832 and -1834, the industry was prosecuted each year from 1828 to 1837, the -revenue to the government averaging about £30,000 annually. Then came a -long blank of seventeen years, for there was no fishing from 1838 to -1854, and likewise from 1864 to 1873. Indeed, so depleted had the beds -throughout the Gulf of Manaar become in 1866, that serious consideration -was given to the possibilities of securing seed oysters from the Persian -Gulf for restocking the reefs; but fortunately this was rendered -unnecessary by the discovery soon afterward of a few oysters on several -reefs on both the Ceylon and the Malabar coasts. - -From 1855 to 1863, and also from 1874 to 1881, the returns were only -ordinary, the highest being £51,017 in 1863, and £59,868 in 1881,—the -best year since 1814; and during these two periods fishing was entirely -omitted in nearly one half the seasons. There were five lean years from -1882 to 1886, and the 1887 fishery was only fair, with a yield of -£39,609. But the returns for 1888 were large, amounting to £80,424; and -those for 1891 were even greater, being £96,370, representing a yield of -44,311,441 oysters. No oysters were caught from 1892 to 1902, inclusive. -In 1903, the fishery was profitable, yielding 41,180,137 oysters, and -the share of the government amounted to £55,303; and in 1904 the yield -was almost the same, being 41,039,085 oysters and a revenue of £71,050 -to the government. - -In 1905 occurred the greatest fishery in the modern history of Ceylon. -The season extended from February 20 until April 21, giving forty-seven -working days, exclusive of Sundays and five days of bad weather, the -longest period in over half a century.[131] The boats employed numbered -318, with 4991 divers and 4894 attendant _manduks_. The yield of oysters -exceeded all records, amounting to 81,580,716 in number, or nearly twice -as many as in any previous year within the period of British occupation. -The prices at which these sold ranged from Rs.24 to Rs.124 per thousand, -with an average of Rs.48.89 for the entire season. The government -received Rs.2,510,727 as its share of the revenue, which was twice as -much as in any previous year since the British have been in control, and -doubtless the largest received by any government in the history of the -industry. The oysters falling to the share of the divers must have sold -for at least Rs.1,255,363 (since 1881 the divers have received one third -of the catch as their compensation, instead of one fourth). The profits -of the merchants, who purchased and opened the government oysters as -well as those of the divers, doubtless amounted to fully as much, making -a total of Rs.5,021,453, or nearly $2,000,000 as a low estimate of the -local value of the pearls secured at Ceylon in 1905. - -Owing to the great success in 1905, an enormous number of persons -flocked to the camp at the beginning of the season in 1906. Employment -was given to 473 boats, the largest number on record, and over 8600 -divers were engaged, with an equal number of attendants. Owing to -unfavorable weather and the great quantity of oysters removed in 1905, -the catch in 1906 was less than in that record year, amounting to -67,150,641 in number, from the sale of which Rs.1,376,746 was realized. -The prices covered a wide range. For the large Cheval oysters, even -Rs.276, Rs.291, and Rs.309 per 1000 were received. The inferior, stunted -oysters from the Muttuvaratu paar ranged from Rs.20 to Rs.41 per 1000, -and even at these prices many buyers sustained losses. On the other hand -considerable money was made by the buyers of those from Cheval, in which -some very large and beautiful pearls were found. - -The results of the 1907 fishery were surprisingly good, excellent prices -being obtained. The proceeds from the sale of two thirds of the -21,000,000 oysters amounted to Rs.1,040,000, or just under $350,000. The -fishery lasted thirty-six working days. Only 173 boats were used, as it -was considered that a fleet of this size is fully as large as can be -employed advantageously to the greatest satisfaction of all interested. - -According to the compilations of the colonial secretary’s office, the -gross revenue to the government from 1796 to 1907, inclusive, amounted -to £2,098,830. If to this be added the fishermen’s share and the -merchants’ compensation, we have a total of about £4,200,000 or -$21,000,000 as the local value of the pearls produced in Ceylon during -the period of British occupation. The value of these in the markets of -Asia and Europe was undoubtedly very much greater. - -In many respects the Ceylon pearl fisheries are the most interesting in -the world. Owing to their ready accessibility and thorough organization, -they are far better known than any others. Reliable data exist as to the -number of oysters taken during each season since 1854, and it is -possible to estimate roughly the pearls obtained therefrom. Throughout -the 112 years of British occupation, and previously to some extent under -the successive rule of the Cingalese kings, of the Portuguese, and of -the Dutch, for centuries, the reefs were annually examined by official -inspectors, and fishing was permitted only in those years when they -appeared in satisfactory condition. - -A noticeable feature of these fisheries is their uncertainty, a -prosperous season being followed by an absence of fishing sometimes -extending over ten years or more. This is not of recent development. -Over eight hundred years ago a total cessation of yield for a -considerable period was recorded[132] by Albyrouni, who served under -Mahmud of Ghazni. He stated that, in the eleventh century, the oysters -which formerly existed in the Gulf of Serendib (Ceylon) disappeared -simultaneously with the appearance of a fishery at Sofala in the country -of the Zends, where previously the existence of pearls had been unknown; -hence it was conjectured that the pearl-oysters of Serendib had migrated -to Sofala. - -In the 249 years since Ceylon passed from the dominion of the Portuguese -in 1658, there have been only sixty-nine years in which the pearl -fisheries were prosecuted. During the last century there were only -thirty-six regularly authorized fisheries. Enormous quantities of -oysters have appeared on the reefs, giving rise to hopes of great -results, only to end in disappointment, owing to their complete -disappearance. In the fall of 1887, for instance, examination of one of -the reefs revealed an enormous quantity of oysters, covering an area -five miles in length by one and a half miles in width, with “600 to 700 -oysters to the square yard” in places. It was estimated by the -inspection officials that there were 164,000,000 oysters, which exceeded -the total number taken in the preceding sixty years, and which should -have yielded several million dollars’ worth of pearls in the following -season, according to the usual returns. But some months later not an -oyster was to be found on this large reef, the great host presumably -having been destroyed by action of the sea. Numerous reasons are -assigned for the failure of promising reefs. Those most frequently heard -are that the currents sweep the oysters away, that they are devoured by -predaceous enemies, that they are covered by the shifting bottom, or -that they voluntarily move to new grounds. - -The oysters are found in well-known and permanently located banks or -paars in the upper end of the Gulf of Manaar, in the wide shallow -plateau off the northwest end of the island and directly south of Adams -Bridge. The hard calcrete bottom is formed mostly of sand combined with -organic remains in a compact mass and with more or less coral and shell -deposits. The density of the water, as determined by Professor Herdman -(to whose important and valuable report[133] we are indebted for much -information), is fairly constant at 1.023, and the temperature has a -normal range of from 82° to 86° F. during the greater part of the year. -The charts and records refer to about twenty paars, but most of these -have never yielded extensively, either to the English or to the Dutch. -In the aggregate, they cover an area fifty miles in length and twenty -miles in width. Most of them are from five to twenty miles from the -shore, and at a depth of five to ten fathoms. The principal paars are -Cheval, Madaragam, Periya, Muttuvaratu, Karativu, Vankalai, Chilaw, and -Condatchy. Only three have afforded profitable fisheries in recent -years, _i. e._: Cheval, Madaragam and Muttuvaratu. - -The other paars are of practically no economic value at the present -time. They become populated with tens of millions of oysters, which -mysteriously disappear before they are old enough for gathering. -Especially is this true of the Periya paar, which is about fifteen miles -from the shore, and runs eleven miles north and south, varying from one -to two miles in width. Frequently this is found covered with young -oysters, which almost invariably disappear before the next inspection, -owing, probably, to their being covered by the shifting bottom caused by -the southwest monsoon. The natives call this the “Mother paar,” under -the impression that these oysters migrate to the other paars. - -The Ceylon government has given very careful attention to all matters -affecting the prosperity of the pearl resources. It has maintained a -“Pearl Fishery Establishment,” consisting of a superintendent, an -inspector and numerous divers, attendants, and sailors. The inspector -examines the paars, determines when and to what extent they should be -fished, and directs the operations. The superintendent conducts the work -on shore, divides and sells the oysters, etc. The expense of this -establishment has approximated $40,000 per annum when there has been a -fishery, and about $22,500 without fishery expenses. - -It has been decided by naturalists that Ceylon oysters less than four -years old produce very few marketable pearls; in the fifth, and again in -the sixth year the value of the yield doubles, and in the seventh it is -supposed to increase fourfold. Beyond that age there appears to be -little increase, and there is the risk of the oysters dying, and of the -pearls deteriorating or becoming lost. Eight years seems to be the -natural limit of life. While experience has shown that the most -profitable period for taking the pearl-oysters is when they are from -five to seven years old, the mollusks are liable to disappear, -especially after the fifth year, and the danger of waiting too long is -as great as that of beginning too early. The fishing on any particular -bank is determined by various circumstances and conditions, and is -permitted only after careful examination. - -The different beds are inspected from time to time, and no fishing is -permitted until the condition of the pearl-oysters on the particular -reef thrown open seems to warrant the most valuable returns. In the -examination of a bed apparently in suitable condition, several thousand -oysters—usually eight or ten thousand—are taken up and the pearls found -therein are examined and valued. If they average Rs.25 or Rs.30 per -thousand oysters, profitable results may be expected, provided there is -a sufficient quantity of oysters on the bed. This method of determining -the fishery is very ancient. Tavernier wrote, about 1650, “before they -fish, they try whether it will turn to any account by sending seven or -eight boats to bring 1000 oysters each, which they open, and if the -oysters per 1000 yield five _fanos_ or above, they then know the fishing -will turn to account.”[134] And much the same method was described by -Ribeiro in 1685. - -When it has been decided to hold a fishery, public notice is given by -advertisement, stating which of the many paars or reefs will be open, -and the estimated quantity of oysters to be removed, the number of boats -that will be given employment, and the date for beginning the season and -the length of time it will probably last. This notice is usually given -in December preceding the fishery, and it is the signal for preparation -by tens of thousands of persons in this part of Asia, and especially on -the Madras and the Malabar coasts of India, and on the coast of Arabia. -The fishermen, the merchants, and the multitude of artisans, mechanics, -and laborers who contribute to the industry, set their homes and -business in order so that they may attend. We give the notice issued in -1907, both in Cingalese and in English.[135] - -[Illustration: - - THE LATE MAHARAJAH OF PATIALA -] - -Early in February the area to be gleaned is again examined, the limits -of the oysters are charted and buoyed off, the number that may be -obtained is estimated as accurately as possible, and valuation samples -are collected. Several thousand oysters are taken up, the pearls are -removed, examined, and valued by uninterested experts, and the results -are published, so that prospective buyers may have a reliable idea as to -their value. Otherwise this would not be possible until the merchants -had washed some of their own purchases, which ordinarily would not be -for a week or ten days after the opening of the season. - -The fishery usually begins late in February or early in March, as the -sea is then relatively calm, the currents least perceptible, and there -is less danger of storms. It is prosecuted from a temporary settlement -or camp on the sandy shore at a place conveniently near the reefs. The -important fisheries of the five years ending in 1907, were centered at -the improvised settlement known as Marichchikadde. Although prosecuted -from the coast of Ceylon, relatively few Cingalese attend compared with -the large numbers who assemble from India, Arabia, and elsewhere. - -A week or two before the opening of the season, the boats begin to -arrive, sometimes fifty or more in a single day, laden with men, women -and children, and in many cases with the materials for their huts. In a -short time the erstwhile desolate beach becomes populated with thousands -of persons from all over the Indian littoral, and there is the noisy -traffic of congregated humanity, and a confusion of tongues where before -only the sound of the ocean waves was heard. Beside the eight or ten -thousand fishermen, most of whom are Moormen, Tamils, and Arabs, there -are pearl merchants—mainly Chetties and Moormen, boat repairers and -other mechanics, provision dealers, priests, pawnbrokers, government -officials, koddu-counters, clerks, boat guards, a police force of 200 -officials, coolies, domestic servants, with numbers of women and -children. And for the entertainment of these, and to obtain a share of -the wealth from the sea, there are jugglers, fakirs, gamblers, beggars, -female dancers, loose characters, with every allurement that appeals to -the sons of Brahma, Buddha or Mohammed. Natives from the seaport towns -of India are there in thousands; the slender-limbed and -delicate-featured Cingalese with their scant attire and unique -head-dress; energetic Arabs from the Persian Gulf; burly Moormen, sturdy -Kandyans, outcast Veddahs, Chinese, Jews, Portuguese, Dutch, -half-castes, the scum of the East and the riffraff of the Asiatic -littoral, the whole making up a temporary city of forty thousand or more -inhabitants.[136] - - - - - THE - Ceylon Company of Pearl Fishers, - LIMITED. - - - NOTICE - - - Is hereby given that a Pearl Fishery will take place at - Marichchukkaddi, in the Island of Ceylon, on or about February 20, - 1907. - - The Banks to be fished are— - - The Karativu, Dutch Moderagam and Alanturai Pars, estimated to contain - 21,000,000 oysters, sufficient to employ 100 boats for twenty-one days - with average loads of 10,000 each per day. - - The Northwest and Mid-West Cheval, estimated to contain 2,000,000 - oysters, sufficient to employ 100 boats for two days with average - loads of 10,000 oysters. - - The Muttuvaratu Par, estimated to contain 8,000,000 oysters, - sufficient to employ 100 boats for eight days with average loads as - before stated: each boat being fully manned with divers. - - 2. It is notified that fishing will begin on the first favourable day - after February 19. Conditions governing the employment of divers will - be issued separately. - - 3. Marichchukkaddi is on the mainland, eight miles by sea south of - Sillavaturai, and supplies of good water and provisions can be - obtained there. - - 4. The Fishery will be conducted on account of the Ceylon Company of - Pearl Fishers, Ltd., and the oysters put up to sale in such lots as - may be deemed expedient. - -[Illustration] - -A populous town springs up with well-planned and lighted streets and -vast numbers of temporary abodes of all sorts, according to the means -and the caste of the occupants, some of them just large enough for two -or three persons to creep into. Although made mostly of poles, mats, -_cajans_ or plaited fronds of the cocoanut tree, they furnish ample -shelter for the locality and season, the uncertainty of the fishery from -year to year being sufficient argument against expensive and substantial -buildings. Numerous wells and cisterns yield water for the use of all. -Sanitary measures are strictly enforced, with a liberal use of -disinfectants. At a considerable distance southward from the settlement -are constructed the private _toddis_, or inclosures, for decomposing the -oysters and washing the pearls therefrom. Nearer the camp or settlement -itself are the police court, the jail, the bank, the post and telegraph -offices, the auction room, the hospital and the cemetery—all to endure -through a strenuous six weeks of toil and labor, of money-getting and -gambling, and then the inhabitants “fold their tents like the Arabs, and -silently steal away,” leaving the debris to the shore-birds and the -jackals. - -The fishing fleet consists of several hundred boats[137] of various rigs -and sizes. These are interesting on account of their picturesque -appearance and also their remarkable diversity of types in hull and -rigging: there is the broad and roomy Jaffna dhoney, commonly painted -black; the lugger-like Paumben boat; the very narrow and speedy -canoes,—not unlike the single masted bugeyes of the Chesapeake -region—from Kilakarai and neighboring villages, most noticeable owing to -their great number and their bright colors—red, green, or yellow; the -clumsy looking, single masted Tuticorin lighters, sharp sterned and -copper bottomed, the largest boats in the fleet, ranging in capacity -from twenty to forty tons each; and, most singular of all, the three -masted great canoes from Adirampatnam and Muttupat on the Tanjore coast, -pale blue in color and with curved prow. In addition to these standard -types, added novelty is imparted by a few boats of design so odd and -fantastic as would be conceived only by the mind of an oriental builder. - -Reaching the camp at the beginning of the season, these boats are -examined by the officials as to condition and equipment and, if found -satisfactory, are registered and numbered. When the quantity of oysters -to be removed is small, many more boats may arrive than is necessary or -than can find profitable employment. Formerly when this occurred a -lottery was held to determine those to be employed. More recently the -officials have endeavored to engage all boats passing the inspection, -although to do so might necessitate arranging the fleet into two -divisions, each fishing on alternate days. In 1874, the boats were -arranged in three divisions, the red, blue and green, with fifty boats -in each; in 1879, and again in 1881, there were two divisions, the red -and the blue; and likewise in 1880, in 1903 and in 1906 there were two, -the red and the white divisions. Of the 318 boats employed in the 1905 -fishery, 143 were from Kilakarai, seventy-four from Jaffna, thirty-five -from Tuticorin, thirty-four from Paumben, nine from Manaar, six from -Negapatam, five from Colombo, four each from Tondi and Kayalpatam, and -one each from Devipatam, Adrapatam, Ammopatam, and Koddaipatam. - -The number of persons on each boat ranges from about twelve to -sixty-five, with an average for the entire fleet of about thirty-five -men per boat. This includes the _sammatti_, or master, who represents -the owner; the _tindal_, or pilot; the _todai_, or water-bailer, who is -very necessary on these leaky craft, and who also takes charge of the -food and drinking water; at times a government inspector or “boat -guard”; and from five to thirty divers, with an equal number of -_manducks_, or attendants.[138] The _sammattis_, _tindals_, and _todais_ -are nearly all from the coast of southern India. The “boat guards” or -inspectors are natives of Ceylon, and are employed by the government to -prevent the fishermen from opening the oysters. Most of the _manducks_ -are from the Indian coast. - -Of the 4991 divers employed in 1905, 2649 were Moormen or Lubbais from -Kilakarai, Tondi, etc., on the Madura coast; 923 were Arabs; 424 were -Erukkalampiddi Moormen from Ceylon, and the remaining 995 were Tamils -from Tuticorin, Rameswaram and elsewhere on the Madras coast, Malayalans -from the Malabar coast, with small numbers from other localities on the -Asiatic coasts. - -Among the 8600 divers in 1906, were 4090 Arabs, the largest number of -those people employed in recent years. In 1905 there were only 923 Arab -divers, in 1904 only 238, and previously the number was much less. Some -have worked on the Ceylon coast since 1887, but most of them are newly -arrived from Bahrein and Kuweit, where they received their training as -pearl-divers. They are very energetic and skilful fishermen, far -surpassing the Tamils, coming early in the season and staying late, and -working on many days when rough seas deter the Indian divers from -venturing out. - -The Erukkalampiddi divers of Ceylon are by no means so energetic or -steady in work as the Arabs, and commonly desert the fishery before the -close. The Tamil divers belong to the Parawa and Kadeiyar castes. - -The season in the Ceylon fishery is very short, only about six or eight -weeks at the most; and the holidays and storms usually reduce the number -of actual working days to less than thirty. In no other pearl fishery of -importance is the season less than four months in length, and in most of -them it extends through more than half of the year. Owing to this -restricted time, there is greater activity in the Ceylon fishery -compared with the value of the output than in any other pearl fishery in -the world. - -Although the season is short, it is strenuous. Arising shortly after -midnight, the thousands of fishermen breakfast, perform their devotions -and prepare to get under way so as to reach the reefs about sunrise. -There each boat takes its position on the ground allotted for the day’s -work, and which has been marked in advance by buoys topped with flags; -and shortly afterward, on a signal from the guard vessel, the diving -commences. This is carried on in the same manner as already described -for the Persian Gulf, except that the Indian divers do not use -nose-clips, only compressing the nostrils with the fingers during the -descent. Rarely do they descend to a greater depth than ten fathoms. - -The divers work in pairs, each pair using a single diving stone in -common, and descending alternately, precisely as in the Persian Gulf. It -is remarkable what few changes have occurred in the methods of the -fishery in the last six centuries; the description[139] of Marco Polo, -who visited the region about 1294, and of writers somewhat more recent, -indicating that, in the main features, it was then conducted in the same -manner as at the present time. - -An exception to the usual mode of diving is practised by the Malayalam -fishermen, who, in some seasons—as in 1903, for instance—attend in large -numbers from Travancore and northward on the Malabar coast. These men -are rather low in skill and physical endurance.[140] They dive head -foremost from a spring-board, and even with this assistance,—or possibly -we should say, handicapped by this method,—they find the average depth -of eight fathoms too great for them to work in with much comfort, rarely -remaining under water longer than forty-five seconds. - -The number of oysters secured on each visit to the bottom ranges from -nothing to seventy-five or more, averaging between fifteen and fifty. -This depends not only on the ability of the fishermen, but also on the -abundance of oysters and the ease with which they may be collected. -Sometimes they are held together in loose bunches of five to ten in -each, and a diver can easily gather one hundred in the short length of -time he remains submerged. In other localities they may be somewhat -firmly attached individually to the bottom, so that some force is -necessary to release them, thus reducing the possible quantity. -Ordinarily one dive clears a space of several square yards. - -[Illustration: - - Unloading oysters from the vessels into the kottus, at Marichchikadde, - Ceylon -] - -[Illustration: - - The pearling fleet on the shore at Marichchikadde, Ceylon -] - -[Illustration: - - Hindu workmen preparing to drill pearls, Marichchikadde, Ceylon -] - -Since 1904, a steamer has been employed each season by the government -for dredging oysters in connection with experiments in oyster-culture. -The officer in charge of this work concludes that “dredging is -economically a more sound method of fishing than is diving.”[141] This -view is disputed by the superintendent of the fishery, who points out -that the average catch by the steamer when dredging mature oysters only -slightly exceeds that of an ordinary diving boat, and the cost of -maintenance and operation is vastly greater.[142] A remarkable tribute -to the skill of the nude divers, brought out by this discussion, is -that, during some days when they were at work, the sea was too rough for -dredging by the steamer, notwithstanding that she was a typical Grimsby -or North Sea trawler of 150 tons measurement, built in 1896.[143] - -A rough comparison of the Ceylon method of catching pearl-oysters with -that practised by the American oyster-growers may not be uninteresting. -On a basis of 400 to the bushel, the total Ceylon catch of 81,580,716 -pearl-oysters in 1905 represents a trifle more than 200,000 bushels, or -about the quantity annually produced by each of the half dozen leading -oyster-growers of this country. Each one of these growers requires only -about three steamers, at a total cost, maybe, of $25,000, and manned by -twenty-five men; instead of one steamer at a cost of $25,000 and 318 -diving boats manned by 10,000 men, which was the equipment in Ceylon. To -be sure, the conditions under which the work is prosecuted are -different—however, not so entirely unlike as might be supposed—and the -American season is about six months long instead of the two months in -Ceylon; but the comparison is presented simply as a suggestion of the -possibilities of dredging on the Ceylon reefs. - -Until 1885, one of the most novel features of the fishery was the -employment of shark-charmers or “binders of sharks” (_kadal-kotti_ in -the Tamil language, _hai-banda_ in Hindustani), whose presence was -rendered necessary by the superstition of the Indian divers. The -fishermen placed implicit reliance upon the alleged supernatural powers -of these impostors, resembling in some respects that reposed in the -“medicine men” by the American Indians, and would not dive without their -supervision. It is unknown at what period the influence of these -semi-priests developed, but at the time of Marco Polo’s visit about -1294, they were in the full bloom of their authority, receiving one -twentieth of the total catch of oysters,[144] which amounted to a very -considerable sum. It is probable that the number of shark-charmers was -then quite large, some writers more recently referring to one for each -boat. During the Portuguese occupation the number was reduced to twelve, -and at the beginning of the British influence, it was further reduced to -two. - -Interesting descriptions have been given of the methods by which these -men exercised their alleged powers. In 1807, Cordiner stated: - - One goes out regularly in the head pilot’s boat. The other performs - certain ceremonies on shore. He is stripped naked, and shut up in a - room, where no person sees him from the period of the sailing of the - boats until their return. He has before him a brass basin full of - water, containing one male and one female fish made of silver. If - any accident should happen from a shark at sea, it is believed that - one of these fishes is seen to bite the other. The divers likewise - believe that, if the conjurer should be dissatisfied, he has the - power of making the sharks attack them, on which account he is sure - of receiving liberal presents from all quarters.[145] - -Amusing stories are told of the shrewdness displayed by these fellows in -inventing explanations to redeem their credit when a fisherman became a -victim of the sharks. These accounts are by men who evidently bore no -good-will toward the shark-charmers, and it would be of interest to hear -from the other side; but we have been unable to find any one who has -appeared in print in their defense. - -The British government, in its policy of noninterference with the -superstitions or semi-religious customs of the natives, tolerated these -seeming impostors, owing, probably, in a measure, to the fact that the -superstitious belief in their necessity was favorable to the -preservation of the resources, since it restricted poaching on the -reefs. However, the government endeavored to prevent an extravagant -misuse of the influence, and restricted the compensation of the -shark-charmers to one oyster per day from each diver. Later, they were -remunerated by the government, and were not allowed, under any pretense -whatever, to demand, exact, or receive oysters or any other compensation -from the boatmen, divers, or any other persons. And, finally, in 1885, -the shark-charmers were done away with entirely, after having exacted -their toll for upward of six centuries at least. - -The dangers to which the Ceylon divers are exposed have been greatly -exaggerated, and especially the risks from sharks. Poets tell how “the -Ceylon pearler went all naked to the hungry shark,” and the struggle of -the diver has been a favorite theme with sensational writers. As a -matter of fact, the trouble from this source is very slight, and the -occupation is less dangerous than that of most of the deep-water -fisheries, not to be compared, for instance, with that of the winter -haddock-fishery off the New England coast. Even in 1905, when 4991 -divers and an equal number of assistants were employed in pearling, not -a single fatal accident was reported, and although much rough weather -prevailed, not a fishing boat was lost. In the important fishery of -1904, with 3049 divers, only one fatal accident occurred, this was an -elderly Moorman, whose death at the bottom was apparently due either to -apoplexy or to exhaustion from remaining under water too long. - -The superintendent of the fishery reported that not a single shark was -seen during the 1904 season.[146] According to the statement of Sir -William Twynam, whose Ceylon pearl fishing experience and observation -equal those of any European, he has never known of a diver being carried -off by a shark, and has heard of only one case—“which was a very -doubtful one.”[147] Prof. James Hornell, the inspector of pearl banks, -reported in 1904: “During all the months I have spent upon the pearl -banks during the last two years and a half I have never had a glimpse of -a shark dangerous to man. Several times the boatmen have caught basking -sharks of considerable size, but all were of a species that lives almost -entirely upon small crustaceans.”[148] The late Mr. A. M. Ferguson wrote -in 1887: “I think it is pretty certain that in the whole course of the -Ceylon fisheries only two human beings have fallen victims to these -fierce fishes.”[149] - -The diving continues until a signal is given from the guard vessel about -twelve or one o’clock, this time depending largely on the beginning of -the sea breeze which roughens the water and interferes with the work, -and likewise serves to speed the passage of the sail vessels to the -shore. Occasionally the breeze is unfavorable, and the boatmen are -obliged to row for miles, delaying their return in some instances until -nightfall. Then the shore is lighted up to guide them to the landings, -and extra precautions are maintained to prevent them from getting away -with some of the oysters in the darkness. - -It is claimed—and doubtless with much truth—that it is not unusual for -the boatmen to take advantage of the time spent in reaching the shore to -surreptitiously open many of the oysters and extract the pearls -therefrom, throwing the refuse back into the sea. It would appear from -some authorities that this is a general practice. One official—and -probably the one in the best position to know—reported in 1905 that more -than 15,000,000 oysters, or nearly one fifth of the enormous catch -during that season, were illicitly opened.[150] However, this statement -is strongly disputed by the superintendent of the fishery, who states: - - As a matter of fact the opening of oysters that goes on in the boats - is of a much more casual description than this. The divers - occasionally pick out some of the best looking oysters that happen - to be conspicuous, or some that open, and look inside them. It is - quite possible that a valuable pearl might be found in this way, but - the chances are against it. It is hardly likely that the divers - would throw into the sea an enormous quantity of perfunctorily - examined oysters in which they have a share and which contain - pearls, while they were aware that immediately on landing they could - get good prices for their shares.[151] - -The government officials have endeavored to put a stop to whatever -looting may exist, searching boats and occupants at the shore, revoking -the license of any boat showing evidence of oysters having been opened -or carrying knives or other appliances for that purpose. The fishermen -are alleged to resort to all sorts of devices to secrete their illicit -find of pearls, concealing them in the nose, ears, eyes, and other parts -of the body, and even hiding them in parcels in the furled sails or -attached to the embedded anchor. In some seasons—as in 1904 and 1905—the -government employed a guard for each boat. But serious criticism has -been made of the integrity of these guards, who, with compensation of -only one rupee per diem, could scarcely be expected to resist the action -of thirty or forty fishermen and report their doings, when by silence -they would have much to gain, and “the guards simply add to the number -of thieves on board” was reported by one superintendent. - -Doubtless the most interesting sight in the Ceylon fishery is afforded -by the return, about mid-afternoon, of the hundreds of novel, -sail-spreading boats running before the wind and crowded with turbaned -fishermen dressed in their few brilliant rags, and each anxious to be -the first at the wave-washed beach, where they are welcomed by an equal -if not greater number of officials, merchants, laborers, and camp -followers, gathered on the shore to learn the result of the fishery. The -fantastic appearance of the boats, the diversified costumes of the -people, the general scene of animation, afford a view which for novelty -is rarely equaled even in the picturesque Orient. - -The average number of oysters brought in daily by each boat is about -10,000. Some days when the weather is unfavorable many of the boats -return empty; on other days they may have 25,000 or more. In 1905 the -maximum catch in one day for one boat was 29,990, while in 1904 a single -boat brought in 37,675 oysters. The catch by the entire fleet one day in -1905 was 4,978,686 oysters, or an average of 16,485 for each of the 302 -boats out on that occasion. - -Each person taking part in the fishery receives as his compensation a -definite portion of the oysters. By government regulations, published in -1855 and yet operative, each _sammatti_, _tindal_, and _todai_ receives -daily one dive of oysters from each diver in the boat to which they are -respectively attached. In some instances the hire of the boat is paid -for in cash—about Rs.1.50 per day from each diver,—but in most cases -either one fifth or one sixth of each diver’s portion is devoted to this -purpose. After these provisions have been made, each diver gives one -third of his remaining portion to his _manduck_, retaining the balance -for himself. The Moormen divers from Kilakarai commonly contribute one -dive daily to the mosque of their native town,[152] in addition to the -portions given to the _sammatti_, _tindal_, and _todai_. Previous to -1855, the Hindu temples of the Madras Presidency were allowed to operate -a certain number of boats on their own account, but this led to so many -abuses that it was abolished. - -After the boats are run up on the firm, hard beach, all the oysters are -removed by the crews of the boats into the government _koddu_ or -palisade, a large wattle-walled and palm-thatched inclosure with square -pens, each bearing a number corresponding to that of each boat. This is -done under close supervision to prevent a diversion of the oysters from -the regular channels, which otherwise would be relatively easy among the -animation and excitement caused by the thousands of persons about the -landing-place. - -Within the government inclosure, the oysters taken by each boat are -divided by the fishermen themselves into three portions as nearly equal -as possible. This applies not only to the oysters falling to the share -of the divers and _manducks_, but also to those set apart for the -_sammatti_, _tindals_, and _todais_, for hire of the boat and even for -the Kilakarai mosque. An official indicates one of these as the share of -the fishermen, who at once remove their portion from the inclosure -through a narrow gate on the landward side. By this arrangement a -satisfactory division of the oysters is secured and all cause for -complaint or unfairness is removed. Previous to 1881, the fishermen -received only one fourth of the catch as compensation for their work; -but in that year their portion was increased to one third, at which it -has since remained. - -As soon as the fishermen pass out of the government _koddu_ with their -quota, they are met by a crowd of natives eager to buy the oysters in -small lots, and frequently at so many per rupee—ranging from eight to -twelve ordinarily. This “outside market” is one of the many interesting -features of the camp, for there are few persons on the shore who do not -risk small sums in testing their fortunes in this lottery. And a -wonderful lottery it is too, in which a man may risk a few coppers and -win a prize worth hundreds of dollars. A poor Tamil once bought five -oysters for half a rupee, and in one of them he found the largest pearl -of the season. Any not sold among this eager, animated throng are at -once marketed with a native buyer. The diver then hastens to immerse -himself in one of the bathing tanks provided for the purpose. It is -claimed that if this bath is omitted after immersion all the morning in -the salt water of the gulf, the diver is liable to fall ill; and a -sufficient supply of fresh water for this purpose is an important factor -in the arrangement of the camp. - -Owing to their sale in much smaller lots, or as we may say, at retail, -the fishermen succeed in getting relatively high prices for their -oysters, and their earnings exceed one half of the government’s share. -In 1905 this amounted to probably £86,000, or an average of about $1350 -for each of the 318 boats. However, some crews made very much more than -this, with a corresponding decrease for the others. Although 1905 was a -record year for large returns, even in an ordinary season pearl fishing -is relatively profitable, as a skilled diver earns five or six times as -much as a common laborer in Ceylon. The regulations particularly forbid -the employment of divers for a monetary consideration instead of for a -share of the oysters according to the established custom. - -The remaining two thirds of the oysters in the _koddu_ are the property -of the government. These are combined and counted. At nine o’clock each -evening they are sold at auction, and by noon of the following day all -have been removed, and the inclosure is ready for the incoming catch. - -At the auction the number of oysters to be sold that evening is -announced, and bids are invited. Some one starts the bidding at, maybe, -Rs.20 or 25, and this is advanced by successive bids until the limit -appears to be reached, which may possibly be Rs.50 or 60. The successful -bidder is permitted to take as many oysters in multiples of 1000 as he -chooses; and after he is supplied, other merchants desiring them at that -particular price are accommodated. If there is no further demand for -them at that price, the bidding on the remaining oysters is begun -precisely as at first, and when the maximum bid is reached, all -merchants willing to give that amount are furnished with as many as they -wish in multiples of 1000 as before. If this does not exhaust the -oysters, the bidding on the remainder is started up again, and so on -until all are sold.[153] No one knows at the time whether he is buying a -fortune in gems or only worthless shells. - -[Illustration: - - Indian pearl merchants ready for business -] - -[Illustration: - - Children of Persian pearl dealers -] - -The prices at which the oysters are sold at auction may differ greatly -from the estimated valuation of the samples secured in the February -examination. For instance, in 1905 the valuation of the South Madaragam -oysters was Rs.17.86 per 1000, yet the auction sales on the first day -began at Rs.53 and went up to Rs.61 per 1000, or three times the -valuation; and about the same general proportion of increase prevailed -for the oysters from the remaining banks, a result of great advances in -the market for pearls. - -The auction prices for the different lots and from day to day are fairly -constant. But the shrewd Indian merchants know their business well and -keep in close touch with the yield, so that there are many variations in -the selling price that are puzzling to the uninitiated. A somewhat -higher estimation is placed on the oysters from certain banks, and also -on those from rocky portions of a particular reef, owing to their -reputation for yielding a larger percentage of pearls. The estimation of -particular oysters varies to some extent according to the amount of -adhering rock and coral growth. As already shown, the prices in 1906 -covered the remarkable range of from Rs.20 to 309 per 1000. -Superstitious belief in luck also has its influence, and a buyer may -consider a certain day as unfavorable for him and abstain from bidding -on that occasion; or considering a particular day as lucky, he may bid -very high to secure a considerable portion of the sales. - -The prices in different seasons vary greatly. In 1860, the average was -Rs.134.23 per 1000, which was unprecedentedly large; the nearest to this -was Rs.79.07 in 1874 and Rs.49 in 1905. In 1880, the average price per -1000 was only Rs.11, which was the lowest ever recorded. The records for -individual days greatly exceed these limits. The highest figures at -which oysters have sold on any one day was Rs.309 per 1000 in 1906, the -equivalent for each oyster of 10½ cents in American money. In 1874, the -price reached Rs.210 per 1000, and in 1905, the maximum price was -Rs.124, or about 4¼ cents for each oyster. - -The oyster-buyers are principally wealthy Chetties from Madura, Ramnad, -Trichinopoli, Parambakudi, Tevakoddai, Paumben, Kumbhakonam, and other -towns of southern India. These are quite different from the scantily -clothed Naddukoddai Chetties so common in Ceylon. Many of them are -fashionably dressed in semi-European costume, with walking-stick, patent -leather boots, and other evidences of contact with Europe. Smaller -quantities of oysters are purchased by Moormen of Kilakarai, Ramnad, -Bombay, Adrampatam, Tondi, etc. A few oysters are also purchased by the -Nadans or Chánár caste people of Perunali, Kamuti, and Karakal. Over 99 -per cent. of the 50,346,601 oysters sold by the government in 1905 were -secured by Indian buyers, and less than one per cent. by Cingalese. A -few of the oysters—from two to five per cent.—are sent to Indian and -Ceylon ports, but most of them are opened at the fishing camp. - -The purchaser of only a small number of oysters may open them at once by -means of a knife, and with his fingers and eyes search for the pearls. -By this method very small pearls may be easily overlooked, and it is -scarcely practicable in handling large quantities of oysters. These are -removed to private inclosures known as _toddis_ or _tottis_, situated -some distance from the inhabited portions of the camp; where, exposed to -the solar heat, they are permitted to putrefy, and the fleshy parts to -be eaten by the swarms of big red-eyed bluebottle flies, and the residue -is then repeatedly washed. - -Shakspere may have had in view some such scene as this when he spoke of -the “pearl in your foul oyster.” The lady who cherishes and adorns -herself with a necklace of Ceylon pearls would be horrified were she to -see and especially to smell the putrid mass from which her lustrous gems -are evolved. The great quantity of repulsive bluebottle flies are so -essential to success in releasing the pearls from the flesh, that a -scarcity of them is looked upon as a misfortune to the merchants. -However, except it may be at the beginning of a fishery, there is rarely -ever a cause for complaint on this score, for commonly they are so -numerous as to be a great plague to persons unaccustomed to them, -covering everything, and rendering eating and drinking a difficult and -unpleasant necessity, until darkness puts a stop to their activities. -But the intolerable stench, impossible of description, the quintessence -of millions of rotting oysters, fills the place, and makes existence a -burden to those who have not acquired odor-proof nostrils. This animal -decomposition seems almost harmless to health; indeed, the natives -evidently thrive on it, and eat and sleep without apparent notice of the -nauseous conditions. And yet vegetable decomposition in this region is -usually followed by fatal results. Notwithstanding sanitary precautions -and the usual quarantine camp and hospitals, cholera occasionally -becomes epidemic and puts a stop to the fishery, as was the case in -1889; but this probably was due more to the violation of ordinary -sanitary laws than to the decaying oysters. - -In a large _toddi_ the oysters are placed in a _ballam_, or a dug-out -tank or trough, fifteen or twenty feet long and two or three feet deep, -smooth on the inside so that pearls may not lodge in the crevices. This -tank is covered with matting, and the _toddi_ is closed up, sealed, and -guarded for a week or ten days, when the fly maggots will have consumed -practically all of the flesh tissues, leaving little else than the -shells and pearls. The tank is then filled with sea water to float out -the myriads of maggots. Several nude coolies squat along the sides to -wash and remove the shells. The valves of each shell are separated, the -outsides rubbed together to remove all lodgments for pearls, and the -interior examined for attached or encysted pearls. The washers are kept -under constant supervision by inspectors to prevent concealment of -pearls; they are not permitted to remove their hands from the water -except to take out the shells, and under no circumstances are they -allowed to carry the hands to the mouth or to any other place in which -pearls could be concealed. - -After the shells have been removed, fresh supplies of water are added to -wash the debris, which is turned over and over repeatedly, the dirty -water being bailed out through sieves to prevent the loss of pearls. -After thorough washings, every particle of the _sarraku_, or material at -the bottom of the _ballam_, consisting of sand, broken pieces of shell, -pearls, etc., is gathered up in a cotton cloth. Later the _sarraku_ is -spread out on cloths in the sun to dry, and the most conspicuous pearls -are removed. When dry, the material is critically examined over and over -again, and winnowed and rewinnowed, and after it seems that everything -of value has been secured, the refuse is turned over to women and -children, whose keen eyes and deft fingers pick out many _masi-tul_ or -dust-pearls; and even after the skill of these has been exhausted, the -apparently worthless refuse has a market value among persons whose -patience and skill meets with some reward. It is due largely to the -extreme care in the search that so many seed-pearls are found in Ceylon. - -And this leads to a discussion of what is commonly known in Ceylon as -the “Dixon washing machine.” This is an invention of Mr. G. G. Dixon who -constructed it at Marichchikadde in 1904 and 1905, at a total cost to -the government of about Rs.162,000,[154] including all expenses -incidental to the experiment. The machine involves two separate -processes; the first consists in separating the shells from the soft -portion of the oysters, and the second in recovering the pearls from the -resultant _sarraku_ after it has been dried. In 1905, about 5,000,000 -oysters were put through this machine,[155] but with what result has not -been announced. - -The shells having pearls attached to the interior surface are turned -over to skilled natives, who remove the valuable objects by breaking the -shell with hammers, and then with files and other implements remove the -irregular pieces of attached shell and otherwise improve the appearance. - -In no fishery in the world is the average size of the pearls secured -smaller, nor is the relative number greater than in that of Ceylon. It -is rare that one is found weighing over ten grains, and the number -weighing less than two grains is remarkable. For roundness and orient -they are unsurpassed by those of any region. However, Ceylon pearls -worth locally Rs.1000 ($400) are by no means abundant. The most valuable -one found in the important fishery of 1904, is said to have been sold in -the camp for Rs.2500. The fishery of 1905 yielded one weighing 76½ -_chevu_, and valued at Rs.12,000. - -The quantity of seed-pearls obtained in the Ceylon fishery exceeds that -of any other—probably all other parts of the world. The very -smallest—the _masi-tul_,—for which there is no use whatever in Europe, -have an established value in India, being powdered for making _chunam_ -for chewing with betel. Those slightly larger,—_tul_ pearls—for which -also there is no market in Europe, are placed in the mouth of deceased -Hindus of wealth, instead of the rice which is used by poorer people. - -The great bulk of the Ceylon pearls are silvery white in color, but -occasionally yellowish, pinkish, and even “black” pearls are found, -although the so-called “black” pearls are really brown or slate-colored. -In some seasons these are relatively numerous, as in 1887, for instance. - -Notwithstanding the large product at the fishery camp, it is difficult -to purchase single pearls or small quantities there at a reasonable -price, the merchants objecting to breaking a _mudichchu_, or the lot -resulting from washing a definite number of oysters. - -The shells obtained in the Ceylon fisheries do not possess sufficient -thickness of lustrous nacre for use as mother-of-pearl, and are mostly -used for camp-filling. A few are burned and converted into _chunam_, -_i.e._: prepared lime for building purposes, or to be used by natives -for chewing with the betel-nut. Forty or fifty years ago, before the -large receipts of mother-of-pearl from Australia and the southern -Pacific, there was a good market for the shell for button manufacture -and the like, but since 1875 only the choicest have been used for this -purpose, and these are worth only about $25 per ton delivered in Europe. - -It will be observed that up to the close of the season of 1906, the -Ceylon fisheries were operated by the colonial government as a state -monopoly. In 1904, proposals were made to the British colonial office by -a London syndicate with a view to leasing the fisheries for a term of -years. The original suggestion was that they should be leased for thirty -years in consideration of an annual rental of £13,000 or Rs.195,000, -together with a share of the net profits after payment of a reasonable -rate of interest on the investment; and later it was suggested that the -rental be Rs.100,000 a year and twenty per cent. of the profits after -seven per cent. on capital had been paid to the shareholders. But the -government preferred a definite money payment without any rights to -share in the profits realized; and after lengthy negotiations this was -fixed at Rs.310,000 annually, with certain preliminary payments. -Accordingly, on November 30, 1905, a preliminary agreement was executed -between the crown agents for the colonies, acting on behalf of the -government of Ceylon, and representatives of the Ceylon Company of Pearl -Fishers, Limited. On February 27, 1906, this agreement was confirmed and -made effective by special ordinance[156] of the governor and legislative -council of Ceylon, and the crown agents were authorized to execute the -lease as of January 1, 1906. - -The principal financial terms of this lease required the company to -purchase the expensive Dixon pearl-washing machine at a cost of -Rs.120,000, which was Rs.42,000 less than it cost the government during -the preceding two years; to purchase at a cost of Rs.62,501 the -steamship _Violet_, which the government had used in its experimental -oyster-culture; to reimburse the government each year the amount spent -in policing, sanitation and hospital services at the fishery camp, which -had in some individual seasons amounted to more than Rs.200,000; to -expend each year from Rs.50,000 to Rs.150,000 in the development of -pearl-oyster culture; and to pay an annual rental of Rs.315,000, a rate -based roughly on the average return of the preceding twenty years, -including the record year of 1905. - -The company was authorized to take up the pearl-oysters by means of -divers, or by steam dredges, or by such other mechanical means as might -appear most advantageous, and to carry on such experiments with the -immature oysters as appeared most conducive to the profitable working of -the fisheries, provided they do nothing to make the resources less -valuable at the expiration of the lease. - -One of the most interesting features of the lease is that relating to -the power of the colonial government to grant an exclusive right of -fishing on the banks outside the three-mile limit. The question of this -exclusive right arose in 1890, but was not conclusively determined. -Fearing lest this authority did not exist, the terms in which the right -of fishing was conveyed were carefully chosen by the attorney general to -protect the government from liability “should any international question -arise”;[157] and the government leased to the company “all the right or -privilege which the lessors have hereto exercised and enjoyed of fishing -for and taking pearl-oysters on the coasts of Ceylon between Talaimannar -and Dutch Bay Point, to the intent that the company _so far as the -lessors can secure the same_ may have the exclusive right, liberty and -authority to fish for, take and carry away pearl-oysters within the said -limits.... But nothing in this lease shall be taken to make the lessors -answerable in damages if _owing to any cause beyond the control of the -lessors_ the company is prevented from fully exercising and enjoying -such exclusive right and privilege.”[158] - -In the meantime, while the negotiations were in progress, there occurred -the very profitable fishery of 1905, from which the colonial government -derived a revenue of Rs.2,510,727, or approximately eight times the -proposed annual rental; and before the lease was finally concluded -occurred the fishery of 1906, with its revenue of Rs.1,376,746. While it -is true that a succession of barren seasons prevailed from 1892 to 1902, -yet, as the revenue in 1903 was Rs.829,548, and in 1904 it was -Rs.1,065,751, there was, in the four years ending in 1906, a revenue to -the government of Rs.5,782,772, or nearly as much as the total amount to -be derived from the lease during the twenty years it was to run. These -figures seemed to furnish strong reasons for retaining such a valuable -source of revenue, with its possibilities of still greater expansion -under the supervision and direction of specialists in the employ of the -government. - -Many of the inhabitants of Ceylon saw in this a decided objection to the -lease, and there was a general feeling of indignation in the colony, -with public meetings in protest, and the like. In reply to a memorial -prepared at one of these meetings held in Colombo, Lord Elgin, the -British secretary of state for the colonies, wrote under date of May 9, -1906: - - The memorialists have protested against the lease on the double - ground that a lease on any terms is contrary to the best interests - of Ceylon, and that the rent agreed upon is “under existing - circumstances wholly inadequate.” There must always be in cases of - this kind a difference of opinion as to whether a fixed annual sum, - with immunity from all expense and sundry other advantages, is or is - not preferable to continuing to face all the risks for the sake of - all the profits. In the present instance the lease appears to me to - have been drafted with a sincere desire to safeguard to the utmost - the property and interests of the Colony. - -[Illustration: - - Street scene in Marichchikadde, the pearling camp of Ceylon -] - -[Illustration: - - Return of the fleet from the pearl reefs to Marichchikadde, Ceylon -] - - It may be true that the development of the fishery upon a scientific - system affords good prospect of a greater return in the future than - has been obtained in the past, and affords at least the hope that - the barren cycles which have been so common in the past will not - recur to the same extent. But the operations necessary to that end - are of a highly technical and experimental character, and I am very - doubtful whether any machinery which could be set in motion by the - Government would be suited to develop processes at once so doubtful - and so delicate. In twenty years’ time the Colonial Government will - receive back the fishery, not only intact, but in the most perfect - state to which commercial enterprise and scientific methods can - raise it, and, in the meanwhile, a regular and substantial payment - is assured. Twenty years are no doubt a considerable period in the - lifetime of individuals; but if within that time all the resources - that science can contribute toward systematic development of the - fisheries have been applied and thoroughly tested, the period will - not, I think, be regarded as excessive or unfortunate in the history - of a fishery which has lasted for more than two thousand years.[159] - -The Ceylon Company of Pearl Fishers, Limited, with a paid up capital of -£165,000, has just entered into possession of its lease, and it is -uncertain what changes will be made in the methods of the fishery or -what measure of success will follow the attempts at pearl-oyster culture -and the growth of pearls. The attention of the pearling interests of the -world is now directed to the work of this company in the development of -its magnificent leasehold, and it seems not unlikely that greater -changes will be made in the methods of the industry during the ensuing -decade than have occurred in the whole of the last ten centuries.[160] - -A curious fishery, with the _Placuna placenta_ for its object, exists in -Tablegram Lake, a small bay in northeastern Ceylon adjacent to the -magnificent harbor of Trincomali, which Nelson declared to be “the -finest in the world.” At intervals during the nineteenth century, the -Ceylon government leased the Tablegram Lake fishery to native bidders -for a period of three consecutive years. In 1857, Dr. Kelaart visited -the place and calculated that in the three years preceding, eighteen -million oysters had been removed.[161] Owing to scarcity of the mollusk, -no fisheries have existed since 1890, but from 1882 to 1890 they were -regularly leased at an average of Rs.5000 for each term of three years. -Prof. James Hornell, who made a careful examination in 1905, reported -that if the business were carried on providently and systematically, “it -should become the source of a fairly regular annual revenue to -Government of from Rs.10,000 to Rs.12,000, possibly even more.”[162] - -The _Placuna_ oysters are caught by Moormen divers, who are scarcely -equal physically to the pearl fishery in the sea. They rarely descend -more than four fathoms, and most of the work in Tablegram Bay is in less -than two fathoms. Each diver returns with from one to five or more -oysters, depending on their abundance, and receives one half of the -catch as his share of the proceeds. Unlike the method in the -pearl-oyster fishery of Ceylon, the _Placuna_ oysters are opened while -fresh, this work being performed by coolies, who are compensated at the -rate of about Rs.3 per 1000. - - - THE PEARL FISHERIES OF INDIA - - There are two moments in a diver’s life: - One, when a beggar, he prepares to plunge; - Then, when a prince, he rises with his prize. - - ROBERT BROWNING. - -Notwithstanding the great fame of the pearl fisheries of India, those -prosecuted within the limits of British India proper are of small -extent. The only pearl resources within the empire are the rarely -productive reefs on the Madras coast in the vicinity of Tuticorin, the -relatively modern fisheries of Mergui Archipelago, and some small reefs -of only local importance on the Malabar coast and in the Bombay -presidency. - -The celebrity of India in connection with the pearl fisheries has never -rested on the extent of those within the territorial limits or under the -control of this government. It originated in the fact that it is largely -Indian capital which finances the fisheries of Ceylon and of the Persian -Gulf; nearly all of the divers and others employed in Ceylon are from -the coast of this empire, and most of the pearls are purchased by -merchants of Bombay, Madura, Trichinopoli, and other large towns. Thus, -from an economic and industrial point of view, the pearl fisheries of -Ceylon, and to a less extent those of the Persian Gulf, have contributed -to the fame and to the wealth of the Empire of India. - -The pearl fisheries off Tuticorin in the Madras presidency have been -referred to incidentally in the account of the fisheries of Ceylon. They -are separated by only a few miles of water, and are prosecuted by the -same fishermen and in precisely the same manner. Consequently, it is -difficult to discuss them separately, especially in their early history -and during the time that this part of the world was under the rule of -the Portuguese and later of the Dutch. - -[Illustration: - - The pearling regions in Ceylon and British India -] - -The fisheries of the Madras coast compete in antiquity with those of -Ceylon. Indeed, from the time of Ptolemy to the seventeenth century, the -industry seems to have been prosecuted largely from the Madras side of -the gulf, centering at Chayl or Coil on the sandy promontory of Ramnad. -This place appears to be the Κόλχοι of Ptolemy, the Ramana Koil of the -natives, as well as the Cael of the travelers of the Middle Ages. But -during the last three hundred years, the Ceylon side has been the scene -of the greatest pearling operations; and from the Madras coast, the -fisheries have not been prosecuted except at long intervals, averaging -once in fifteen or twenty years. - -Owing to the scarcity of oysters and to other causes, the fishery was -prosecuted on the Madras coast in only eight years of the whole period -from 1768 to 1907. These years of productivity were 1822, 1830, 1860, -1861, 1882, 1889, 1890, and 1900; and even then the yield was relatively -small. The largest was 15,874,500 oysters in 1860, from which the Madras -government derived a revenue of Rs.250,276; and about half as many -oysters were obtained in 1861 with a revenue of Rs.129,003. Numerous and -prolonged experiments in conserving the reefs and in cultivating the -oysters have been made without success. The reason usually given for the -greater wealth of oysters on the Ceylon side is, that it is more -sheltered from the strong currents which sweep down the Bay of Bengal -into the Gulf of Manaar and impinge directly on the coast of the -mainland. - -The headquarters of the fishery are at Tuticorin, near to Madura, the -Benares of the south, the holy “City of Sweetness” which the gods have -delighted to honor from time immemorial. But the camp is commonly -erected of palmyra and bamboo on the barren shore several miles distant -from Tuticorin. The 1890 fishery was at Salápatturai, and that of 1900 -at a place which received the mouth-filling name of Veerapandianpatanam. - -The preparations for pearling at Tuticorin are similar to those on the -Ceylon coast. In the autumn the reefs are examined by government -inspectors, and if the conditions seem to warrant a fishery in the -following spring, arrangements are made therefor and the proper -notification issued. The announcement follows the general plan of that -in Ceylon. The following, from the Fort St. George “Gazette,” Madras, -January 16, 1900, is a copy of the notification preceding the last -fishery which has occurred: - - Notice is hereby given that a pearl fishery will take place at - Veerapandianpatanam on or about the 12th March, 1900. - - 1. The bank to be fished is the Theradipulipudithapar, estimated to - employ 100 boats for twenty days with average loads of 7,000 oysters - per day. - - 2. It is therefore recommended that such boat owners and divers as - may wish to be employed shall be at Tuticorin on or before the 1st - of March next and anchor their boats abreast of the government - flagstaff; the first day’s fishing will take place on the 12th of - March, weather permitting. - - 3. The fishery will be conducted on account of Government, and the - oysters put up for sale in such lots as may be deemed expedient. - - 4. The arrangements of the fishery will be the same as have been - usual on similar occasions. - -[Illustration: - - PEARLS PRESENTED BY THE IMAM OF MUSCAT TO PRESIDENT VAN BUREN - - Now in the United States National Museum, Washington, D. C. -] - - 5. Payments to be made in ready money in rupees or in Government of - India notes. Checks on the Bank of Madras or Bank Agencies will be - received on letters of credit being produced to warrant the drawing - of such checks. - - 6. All particulars can be obtained on application to the - Superintendent of Pearl Fisheries, Tuticorin. - - Sd/—J. P. BEDFORD, - _Collector_. - - Tinnevelly Collector’s Office, - 16th November 1899. - -On the long sweep of desolate shore at a place convenient to the reefs, -a temporary camp is erected, just as is done on the Ceylon coast. -However, this camp is not nearly so large, only about one fourth or one -fifth the size of that on the eastern side of the gulf. It resembles the -larger one in the quarters for divers and merchants, the bazaars, the -bungalows for the officials, the hospital, the sale and washing -inclosures, etc.; in addition to these is the temporary Roman Catholic -chapel. - -The divers are mainly of the Parawa caste from Tuticorin, Pinnacoil, -Pamban, etc. on the Madras coast. Although influenced by many Hindu -superstitions, they are nominally Roman Catholics, as evidenced by the -scapulars suspended from the neck, their ancestors having been converted -and baptized through the zealous work of that prince of missionaries, -St. Francis Xavier, in the sixteenth century. Even yet a chapel at -Pinnacoil is held in special reverence by these people as a place where -the saintly father preached. Professor Hornell writes that the present -hereditary head of this caste is Don Gabriel de Croos Lazarus Motha Vaz, -known officially as the Jati Talaiva More, or Jati Talaivan. He resides -at Tuticorin, and is largely the intermediary between the government and -the Parawa fishermen. - -In the details of its prosecution, the Madras fishery differs in no -important particular from that of Ceylon. The boats are manned and -operated in precisely the same way; they fish in the morning only, -taking advantage of the prevailing favorable winds; the divers carry the -oysters into the government inclosure, and divide them into three equal -lots, of which they receive one; the share of the government is -auctioned daily, the divers disposing of theirs as they choose; and the -oysters are rotted and washed in the same manner as in Ceylon. - -In addition to the fishery for pearl-oysters at Tuticorin, two other -species of pearl-producing mollusks are collected in the Madras -presidency; one of these is a species of mussel (_Mytilus smaragdinus_, -according to Dr. Edgar Thurston of the Madras Museum), which is -collected from the estuary of the Sonnapore River near Berhampore; and -the other is the _Placuna placenta_, found in many places in this -presidency, and especially in Pulicat Lake and in the vicinity of -Tuticorin. - -The Sonnapore mussels, which are small and bright green in color, are -found adhering to the masses of edible oysters in depths of ten or -twelve feet of water. They are caught in a novel manner, as described in -a letter from the acting collector of customs at Ganjam. Thrusting a -long bamboo pole deep into the bottom of the reef, the fisherman dives -down, and holding on to this bamboo, breaks off as large a mass of the -oysters as he can bring to the surface in one hand, helping himself up -the bamboo pole with the other. Removing the mussels from the mass, he -opens them with a suitable knife and by running his thumbs and fingers -over the flesh tissues, detects the pearls therein. These pearls are of -very inferior quality and of little ornamental value. They are sold -mostly for chunám and for placing in the mouth of deceased Hindus. - -Along the west coast of India, in the Bombay presidency, a few pearls -are found at various places, but the output is of slight value. The most -important of these is off the coast of Nawanagar, on the south side of -the Gulf of Cutch, where the true pearl-oyster is found. - -According to the “Jamnagar Diwan,” the yearly value of the Nawanagar -fisheries is about Rs.4000. This is smaller than formerly, as the reefs -are in a depleted state; to give them a chance to recuperate, a close -season was established in 1905. The oysters are found along a coast-line -eighty miles in length extending from Mangra, near Jodya Bunder, to -Pindera in the Gulf of Cutch, and also about the islands of Ajad, Chauk, -Kalumbar, and Nora, which are also situated in the Cutch Gulf. They are -not procured by diving, but are gathered off the rocks when the tide is -out. During the monsoon, the collection is limited to eight days in the -month; _i.e._, from the twelfth to the fifteenth of each half according -to the Hindu calendar. - -The fisheries are by law restricted exclusively to the _waghers_ of ten -villages, which are Varinar, Sashana, Sika, Balachedi, Jhakher, Sarmat, -Bharana, Salaya, Chudesar, and Bedi. The collection of the pearls is -left entirely to these men, who at Divala—the Hindu new year—bring all -the pearls gathered by them to the durbar. There an estimate is made of -their value, one fourth of which is paid to the _waghers_, and the -pearls are turned over to the representatives of the state treasury for -sale. This method of conducting the industry has been long established. -In recent years the government experimented in farming out the revenue, -but the old custom has been resumed in order to placate the native -fishermen. - -A few pearl-oysters are also found on the Ratnagiri coast below Bombay, -and likewise at Kananur in the Malabar district. In 1901–1902, there was -some local excitement about pearls found at Belapur and quantities were -reported as collected; but since then little has been heard of the -industry in that region. - -Elsewhere on the west coast of India, pearls are obtained from the -so-called “window-glass” shell, of the genus _Placuna_. The individual -shells are flat, thin, and transparent, and are still used in Goa and -vicinity as a substitute for glass in windows. This mollusk is abundant -from Karachi, near the Baluchistan border, to the Kanara district south -of Bombay; and wherever it occurs in any abundance it is collected for -the sake of the small pearls found therein. - -Of the fishery at Karachi, Mr. E. H. Aitken writes: “It is farmed out by -Government for a good sum. In 1901, the amount realized was Rs.3650 for -a period of three years; but the lessee lost heavily, and in 1904 the -highest offer for a similar period of three years was Rs.1851. Pearls -may be found in as many as ten to twenty per cent. of the mature -mollusks.” Pearls are far more numerous in the _Placuna_ than in the -pearl-oysters, but few of them are of sufficient size or luster to be -used as ornaments, ranking with the so-called medicinal pearls of -Europe. They are much softer in texture than the pearls of the -Margaritiferæ. The largest are commonly of irregular form, with the -surface slightly botryoidal or like the “strawberry” pearls of the -Mississippi. While not often used as ornaments, they are highly valued -by the Hindus in calcined or powdered form for medicinal purposes, and -especially to be chewed with the betel-nut, and are also used in the -original form in funeral rites, a small quantity being placed in the -mouth of a deceased person. - -In the Mergui Archipelago, which is within the territory of lower Burma -and under the jurisdiction of the government of British India, patches -of pearl-oyster reefs are scattered over an area roughly computed at -11,000 square miles, taking 97° 40′ as the western boundary. They occur -principally in the strong tidal passages among the islands. The bottom -is formed largely of porphyritic granite interspersed with sand and -thinly covered with corals, coral cups, the long whip-like black coral -(_Antipathes arborea_), and other submarine animal and vegetable -growths.[163] These constitute a home most favorable to the growth and -development of molluscan life. - -Of the several species of pearl-bearing mollusks occurring in the Mergui -Archipelago, by far the most important is the “mok,” or large Australian -pearl-oyster (_Margaritifera maxima_). The shell attains a maximum size -of about thirteen inches in diameter, and the nacre is of a milky or -silvery color. This species occurs in its two varieties of “golden lip” -and “silver edge,” the former being in greater abundance. The “silver -edge” shell is the more valuable owing to its uniformity of coloring, -and the pearls found therein are of superior luster and orient. - -The “pate goung,” or Lingah pearl-oyster (_Margaritifera vulgaris_), is -similar to that of the Gulf of Manaar. It is circular in shape and -measures about two and one half inches in diameter. The nacre is -silvery, with slight yellowish tinge. Many of the pearls from this -species are of a silvery color, but most of them are yellowish or -golden. The fishery for this mollusk is of little importance compared -with that for the larger pearl-oyster, which is the species referred to -in Mergui when not otherwise mentioned. - -The pearl fisheries of Mergui originated with the Selangs or Salangs, a -nomadic race of maritime gipsies, the last remnants of whom live among -the three thousand islands of this group. They are supposed to be of -Malay descent; but their early history is unknown, and they are rapidly -passing away in the conflict of existence with the neighboring peoples. -Probably in no part of the world are the pearl fisheries prosecuted by a -more primitive class of men. With their women and children, they live -mainly in roomy dug-out boats; but during the southwest monsoon they -erect temporary shelters on the shore, these consisting of a few frail -sticks, supporting coverings of braided mats, and floors of bamboo -strips. - -They have few wants and derive a livelihood principally from gathering -and bartering shells, pearls, cured _thadecon_, and nests of the -sea-swallow (Collocalia). Within depths of six or eight fathoms they are -fairly good divers, both the men and the women, but their physical -endurance is slight. Their trade is mostly with Chinese merchants who -visit them in small vessels. No information exists as to when the -Selangs first found profit in searching for pearls; but it was probably -many centuries ago, and for a long time they made contributions of them -to the Buddhist rulers of Burma. - -Shortly after the acquisition of Mergui Archipelago in 1826, -representatives of the British government brought experienced divers -from southern India to examine more fully the resources which the -Selangs had made known; but as only seed-pearls were secured, the -government concluded that they would yield an insignificant revenue, and -the attempt to develop these resources was given up.[164] - -However, the Selangs continued to fish in their primitive fashion; and -as the market for the shell developed, the profits increased. But their -wants were easily appeased, and the increased profits were -counterbalanced by decreased activities. Old traders among the islands -tell of the opportunities of those days when choice pearls could be -obtained for a pinch of opium or for a few ounces of tobacco. - -Far from the highways of the world, the Selangs remained undisturbed in -their beautiful seas until nearly twenty years ago. Meanwhile, 800 miles -distant, Singapore had arisen from a desert shore to the rank of a great -seaport, and the headquarters for the pearl fishery of the Malay -Archipelago and of the northwestern coast of Australia. In this fishery -the vessels were well equipped and depended on the use of diving -apparatus rather than on nude divers. - -Beginning about 1888, some of these vessels made occasional visits to -the Mergui pearl-oyster reefs, and usually with very profitable results. -This was the first instance in which diving apparatus was successfully -introduced on any part of the Asiatic coast from the Red Sea to Malacca -Strait. So great was the profit that nearly every one on the lower coast -of Burma with sufficient capital or credit hastened to obtain a boat and -diving equipment. The success of some of these early ventures was -remarkable, single pearls worth $3000, $5000, and even $10,000 each -being secured. The reefs in the shoal waters were rapidly depleted, to -the great disadvantage of the nude Selangs, who can do little in deep -water. - -With a view to deriving a revenue from these well-equipped vessels, the -government of Burma in 1898 divided the 11,000 square miles of pearling -territory into five definite areas known as “blocks.” The area within -each of these blocks was surveyed, marked, and charted; and the -financial commissioner from time to time determined as to each block -whether licenses for pearl fishing should be issued, or whether the -exclusive right therein should be leased. These leases were disposed of -either by inviting tenders and granting the lease to any of the persons -who might tender, or by public auction, as the financial commissioner -might direct. By the terms of the lease, the lessee was obliged to -register at the office of the deputy commissioner of finance the number -of boats and pumps employed by him; to declare by letter, at the end of -each month, the number, weight, and estimated value of all -mother-of-pearl shell and pearls collected during the month, and to -refrain from taking any mother-of-pearl measuring less than six inches -from lip to hinge. - -Outside the limits of blocks in which the exclusive pearl fishing was -leased, licenses to use diving implements were granted in such number -and on payment of such fees, not exceeding Rs.1000 per apparatus, as -might from time to time be fixed, every such license expiring on June 30 -next following the date on which it was granted, and no license was -transferable. - -The five blocks in which the Mergui pearling rights were leased are of -large area, averaging somewhat over 2000 square miles each. The lessees -customarily granted permits to subsidiary fishermen to operate in their -respective blocks, on payment of a royalty, this ranging in amount from -12½ to 25 per cent. of the mother-of-pearl secured, and the pearls found -were the absolute property of the fishermen. - -Until 1900 the pearling rights were leased by blocks as above noted. -Rights to catch trochus, green snail shells, and sea-slugs, were -included in the lease. It was noticed that European pearlers always -sublet the trochus and green snail rights, and it was decided to auction -these separately; while as regards pearling proper the auction system -was abolished in that year in favor of a system of licensing individual -vessels for a fee of Rs.400 each. The right to collect pearls by nude -diving was thought for some time to have been left free; but -subsequently it was auctioned along with the rights to collect green -snails, trochus and sea-slugs. - -The following summary, compiled from data furnished by Mr. I. H. Burkill -of the Indian Civil Service, shows the extent of the pearl and shell -fisheries of Mergui for a series of years. - - Year. No. of Revenue from Revenue from Reported Value of - Pumps. Pumps. Auction Rights. Yield. - Rs. Rs. Rs. - - 1904 70 28,000 22,500 149,239 - - 1905 77 30,800 14,200 131,921 - - 1906 80 32,000 15,300 124,798 - - 1907 76 30,400 19,700 - -The local headquarters of the industry are at Mergui, but most of the -supplies are drawn from Maulmain and Rangoon, or from the more distant -Singapore, where the industry is financed. The season extends from -October to April or May, when the southwest monsoon begins and puts a -stop to the fishery on this exposed coast. - -The boats used are mostly of Burmese build. They measure from 25 to 35 -feet in length, and 7 or 8 feet in width, and have 18 to 24 inches of -draft, with curved or half-moon shaped keels, and with high square -sterns. Owing to the very light draft and the amount of free-board, they -are deficient in weatherly qualities; but are fast sailors before the -wind and are easily rowed from place to place. For this reason they are -especially suited to the industry in Mergui, because during the pearling -season calms and light winds prevail and oars form the principal motive -power, especially in the channels and passageways between the islands -where the tides are frequently very swift. - -If a number of boats are of the same ownership, a schooner of thirty to -one hundred tons’ capacity is commonly provided as a floating station -and base of supplies for them; the gathering of such a fleet presents an -interesting sight, like a great white hen among her brood of chickens. - -[Illustration: - - FROM THE TREASURY OF THE EMIR OF BOKHARA - - Necklace and earrings. Property of an American lady -] - -Most of the boats are from Mergui, and are chartered at a monthly rate -of from Rs.105 to Rs.120 each, including a crew of four or five Burmans -with their subsistence, consisting principally of rice and salted fish; -the charterer is further required to pay each member of the crew four -annas, or one rupee, for each day actually employed in operating the -diving pump. In addition to these men, each boat carries one diver and -an attendant, commonly known as “tender.” The boat is sailed or rowed by -the crew, as directed by the diver; and while the latter is submerged, -the boat and crew are under the supervision of the attendant. - -The divers are the most important men in the fleet, for on their ability -and efficiency depends the success of the enterprise. A very -considerable portion of them are natives of the Philippine Islands, -although many Japanese have been employed recently, and the number is -increasing. The compensation is at the rate of £2 to £4 per month, and -£20 for each ton of mother-of-pearl secured. The attendants are likewise -mostly Manilamen, but many Malayans and Burmans are employed; the wages -range from Rs.50 to Rs.80 per month, including provisions. The peculiar -duties of the attendant are to help the diver into his dress, place the -shoulder leads into position, screw on the helmet, and especially to -receive and respond to signals and to direct the movements of the vessel -in accordance therewith. - -The scaphander, or diving dress, is composed of solid sheet rubber, -covered on both sides with canvas. The head-piece is made of tinned -copper, and is fitted with three glasses, one at the front and one on -each side, so as to afford the diver as wide a view as is consistent -with strength of construction. It has a valve by which he can regulate -the pressure of the atmosphere. The dress has a double collar, the inner -portion coming up around the neck, and the other hermetically fastened -to the breastplate. The breastplate is likewise made of copper. The suit -is connected with the air-pump by means of a stout rubber tube which -enters the helmet, and through which air is supplied to the diver -incased therein. This air-tube consists of three or four lengths—each of -fifty feet—of light hose, commonly called “pipe.” This is buoyant so -that it may be easily pulled along, and may not readily foul among the -rocks. However, when working on very rough bottom with sharp-edged -stones, the lower length is of stouter material in order to resist the -chafing on the bottom. Before descending, the air-line is loosely coiled -around the diver’s arm to prevent a sudden strain on it when it is -tightened, and a signal-line is attached to his waist to enable him to -communicate with the men above. - -In fishing, if the current is slight, the boat is permitted to drift -therewith, and if there is little or no current, it is propelled by oars -as may be required. The diver—fully dressed in the rubber suit with -helmet, etc.,—goes overboard easily by means of a Jacob’s ladder of five -or six rungs on the port side of the boat, and is lowered by an -attendant, who gives close attention to the lines, the crew having -manned the pump in the meantime. On reaching bottom, the diver walks -along, following the course of the moving boat and swinging his -shoulders from side to side to take in a wide vision in his search for -oysters. In clear water he can discover them at a distance of -twenty-five or thirty feet, even when fifteen fathoms below the surface; -but sometimes the water is so clouded that it may be necessary for him -to go almost on hands and knees to see them, and when the seaweeds are -thick and high, he may locate them almost as much by feeling as by -sight. Owing to this difficulty in seeing the oysters, the work is -suspended in rough weather and for many days following. The catch is -placed in a sack or basket of quarter inch rope, which is raised when -filled, emptied, and returned to the bottom by means of a rope. - -Finding the shell is by no means an easy matter, and much natural -hunter-craft is necessary. Of a neutral color, it is not at all -conspicuous as it lies on a gray coral bed, itself covered with coral or -sponge or hidden in dense masses of gorgeous seaweeds. Still less -visible is the shell on a muddy bottom, for there it embeds itself and -exposes only half an inch or so of the “lip.” As the boat is impelled by -the tide, the diver may have to walk rapidly in a swinging gait; and if -he should stumble or fall while stooping to pick up the shell, recovery -of balance may be difficult. He must be constantly on the alert and has -many dangers to avoid. Sharks are numerous in these clear tropical -waters; but although disaster sometimes results, they are timid, a -stream of air bubbles from the sleeve of the dress sending them away in -fright. More fruitful sources of danger are fouled air-pipes, broken -pumps, falling into holes, and especially paralysis from recklessly deep -diving. - -When the diver wishes to come up, he closes the escape valve in his -helmet; his dress fills and distends with air, causing a speedy return -to the surface, and the tender hauls him alongside by means of the -life-line. After “blowing” for a few minutes with the helmet removed, -and usually enjoying the indispensable cigarette, he returns to the -bottom. - -When the Mergui reefs were first exploited by diving apparatus, the bulk -of the shells were secured from depths of ten to twelve fathoms. These -shallow reefs have been exhausted, temporarily, at least, and the divers -now work in deeper water, fifteen, twenty, and even twenty-five fathoms, -if the bottom is very uneven and rocky. Many shells are found in the -depressions between the large boulders, which may be twenty or thirty -feet deeper than the surrounding areas. - -The oysters are opened by means of the long-bladed working-knife of the -country, known as _dah-she_. The flesh is thrown into a large basket or -washtub, where it is searched by the proprietor of the boat, who takes -each piece between the hands and squeezes and feels through every part -of it. After the flesh has been carefully examined, the sediment at the -bottom of the tub is washed and panned to obtain those pearls which have -fallen through the flesh tissues. The Mergui pearls are commonly of good -color and luster, and compare favorably with those from the Sulu -Archipelago or the Dutch East Indies. - -The sea-green shell of the snail (_Turbo marmoratus_) is gathered in -large quantities by the nude diving Selangs, who barter it to Chinese -traders at the equivalent of Rs.8 or 10 per 100 in number. The flesh is -also dried and disposed of to these traders under the name of -_thadecon_, at about Rs.3 per _viss_ of 3.33 pounds. This mollusk yields -a few greenish yellow pearls. - -In 1895, three pearl reefs were discovered off the Bassein coast in the -district of Irawadi.[165] These proved fairly remunerative for one -season and a portion of another, when they were abandoned. - - - THE PEARL FISHERIES OF THE RED SEA, GULF OF ADEN, ETC. - - Under the Ptolemies, and even long after—under the Califs—these were - islands whose merchants were princes; but their bustle and glory - have since departed from them, and they are now thinly inhabited by - a race of miserable fishermen. - - JAMES BRUCE (1790). - -The Red Sea was one of the most ancient sources of pearls, furnishing -these gems for centuries before the Christian era, and particularly -during the reign of the Ptolemies. These pearls were alluded to by -Strabo, Ælianus, and other classical writers. Although the prominence of -the fisheries has suffered by comparison with those of Persia and -Ceylon, the yield has been more or less extensive from the days of -Solomon up to the present time. - -Of the several pearl-yielding mollusks in the Red Sea and on the -southeast coast of Arabia, the largest and best known is that called -“sadof” by the Arabs, and which has been identified by Jameson as -_Margaritifera m. erythræensis_. This is closely related to the large -species in the Persian Gulf. It is commonly four or five inches in -diameter, and in exceptional instances attains a diameter of eight -inches and a weight of three pounds or more. In addition to its size, it -is distinguished by a dark green coloring about the edges, and a more or -less greenish tint over the nacreous interior surface; this color is -darker in the vicinity of Jiddah and Suakin than at the southern end of -the sea, or in the Gulf of Aden. This species occurs singly rather than -congregated in beds or reefs. Although it is found in depths of fifteen -fathoms or more, most of the fishing is in less than five fathoms of -water. - -[Illustration: - - Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, the pearling center of the world -] - -The “sadof” yields pearls only rarely, and is sought principally for the -shells, which afford good qualities of mother-of-pearl, the pearls -furnishing an additional but always looked-for profit to the regular -source of income. As in other regions, there is no constant relation -between the value of the pearls and the quantity of mollusks taken. The -oysters of some reefs are comparatively rich in certain years; while in -other seasons or on other reefs the mollusks may be numerous but yield -very few pearls. - -The second species of importance in the Red Sea is similar to the Lingah -oyster and is known to the Arabs as “bulbul.” This is much smaller than -the “sadof,” averaging less than three inches in diameter. It is -collected for the pearls exclusively, the shells being too small for -industrial use; but only 3 or 4 per cent. of the individuals yield -pearls. - -It is claimed by writers of authority that it is the red Pinna pearl -from this sea that is referred to in the Scriptures under the name -_peninim_ as the most precious product, and which has been translated as -rubies.[166] The shell is extremely fragile, and the nacreous interior -is white tinged with a beautiful red. It is of little importance in the -commercial fisheries of the Red Sea at the present time. - -The “sadof” is more scattered and less numerous than the “bulbul”; and -in order to save much useless diving, it is customary to inspect the -bottom before descending. Therefore, operations are largely restricted -to calm weather, when the water is sufficiently clear to enable the -divers to sight the individual oysters on the bottom. In recent years, -water-telescopes have been used to assist in locating them. The most -popular form consists of a tin can with a sheet of glass inserted in the -bottom. The glazed end of the tin is submerged several inches below the -surface, affording a far-reaching and much clearer vision. In this -fishery the divers work from small canoes (_uri_), each manned by two -men, one of whom rows while the other leans over the bow and searches -for the oysters. When one is sighted, he dives into the water for it, -and then returns to the boat to resume the search. - -The pearling season begins commonly in March or April, and continues -until about the end of May; it is renewed in the autumn, continuing -through September and October.[167] The vessels employed are of two -varieties: _dhows_ carrying from twenty to eighty men each, and the much -smaller _sambuks_ or sail-boats without decks, each with from six to -twenty-five men, most of whom are Negro slaves. Many of the large -vessels are from the Persian Gulf. The _sambuks_ are owned principally -by Zobeid Bedouins inhabiting the coast between Jiddah and Yambo, and -also the islands near the southern end of the sea, which are very -hot-beds of pearls, shells, religious frenzy and half famished Arabs and -Negro slaves. - -The “bulbul” oysters are taken in nearly the same manner as in the -Persian Gulf. When the vessel is located over the reef, each diver -descends, commonly with a short stick of iron or hard wood, with which -he releases the oysters within reach; placing them in a sack, he is -pulled up by an attendant when his breath is nearly exhausted. - -The fisheries are prosecuted along both sides of the Red Sea and in the -channels among the islands, from the Gulf of Akabah to Bab-el-Mandeb. -They are especially extensive among the Dahlak Islands on the coast of -the Italian colony Eritrea, where the population is largely supported by -them. This was the center of the industry during the time of the -Ptolemies and in the early Christian era. The fisheries are also -important in the vicinity of Jiddah, the port of entrance for Mecca and -Medina, holiest places of Islam. They likewise exist near Kosseir at the -northern end of the sea, and at Suakin, Massawa, the Farsan Islands, and -Loheia, near the lower end. They are carried on by Arabs, who succeed in -evading efforts at control on the part of the local governments. Even on -the African side, the Arab fishermen predominate, for the native -Egyptian has never evinced much fondness for venturing on the sea. - -On the southeast coast of Arabia, pearl fishermen are to be found at the -various harbors from Aden to Muscat. Their fantastic dhows are met with -in the harbor of Makalla, and also in that of Shehr. On the Oman coast, -the ports of Sur and of sun-scorched Muscat do a considerable pearling -business, not only locally but to the Sokotra Islands, and even on the -coast of East Africa and Zanzibar, the trading baggalas adding pearling -and illicit slave-trading to their many sources of income. A number of -these traders, each with an instinct for pearls equal to that of a -trained hound for game, visit the fishing centers at intervals, and -exchange needful commodities for pearls and shells. - -The Arab pearl-divers of the Red Sea have been noted for the depths to -which they can descend. Lieutenant J. R. Wellsted, of the Indian Navy, -who had unusual facilities for acquaintance with their exploits, -reported that in the Persian Gulf the fishermen rarely descended beyond -eleven or twelve fathoms, and even then they exhibited signs of -exhaustion; but that in the Red Sea they go down twice that depth. Among -the most noted of these divers of the last century was old Serúr, who -attracted the notice of many travelers. Lieutenant Wellsted states that -he saw him descend repeatedly to twenty-five fathoms without the -slightest evidence of distress; that he frequently dived in thirty -fathoms, and is reported to have brought up mud from the bottom at a -depth of thirty-five fathoms, which is about the record, the pressure of -the water being nearly 90 pounds to the square inch. His sons were also -remarkably expert; one of them when scarcely thirteen years of age would -descend to a depth of twenty-five fathoms.[168] - -[Illustration: - - CARVED “JERUSALEM SHELL” FROM THE RED SEA - - In the collection of Dr. Bashford Dean -] - -An interesting story of an Arab’s diving ability is told by Lieutenant -Wellsted: “In 1827, we were cruising in the sloop _Ternate_ on the pearl -banks. Whilst becalmed and drifting slowly along with the current, -several of the officers and men were looking over the side at our Arab -pilot, who had been amusing himself in diving for oysters. After several -attempts, his search proved unsuccessful. ‘Since I cannot get oysters I -will now,’ said he, ‘dive for and catch fish.’ All ridiculed the idea. -He went down again, and great was our astonishment to see him, after a -short time, rise to the surface with a small rock-fish in each hand. His -own explanation of the feat was, that as he seated himself at the -bottom, the fish came around and nibbled at his skin. Watching his -opportunity, he seized and secured his prey by thrusting his thumb and -forefinger into their expanded gills.”[169] - -Owing to the character of the fishery and the lack of government -supervision, it is extremely difficult to determine accurately the -extent of this industry in the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf. All over -this coast extends the influence of the Hindu traders, who finance the -fisheries and purchase most of the catch. The pearls are sent mostly to -Bombay, and are not reported in the official returns of the Red Sea -ports. The fishermen are suspicious of outside inquiries, and are far -from anxious to impart reliable information. Probably the best estimates -of the catch are to be obtained from Bombay merchants, from whom A. -Perazzoli learned in 1898 that pearls to the value of 2,000,000 lire -($400,000) were carried from the Red Sea to Bombay each year.[170] In -the last four or five years the output has been smaller than usual, -owing to disturbed political conditions. - -The annual product of “Egyptian” and “Bombay” shells in these fisheries -is usually upward of 1000 tons, worth from $100 to $600 per ton, -according to quality. Most of these go to Austria and France, only about -200 tons reaching London each year. Owing to the dark color and the lack -of thickness in the nacreous layer, they are scarcely suitable for -anything else than button manufacture. Many of them are sent to -Bethlehem and Jerusalem, where they are cut into various shapes for -crosses, crucifixes, wafer-boxes, beads, and nearly every conceivable -article in which mother-of-pearl is manufactured. Many of the choicest -shells are incised with scriptural or allegorical designs for sale to -tourists as well as for export. The best of the engraved shells sell for -$10 to $50, and the cheaper ones for less than $1 each. This industry is -of great importance in Bethlehem, giving employment to a considerable -percentage of the eight thousand inhabitants of the village. - -Doubtless in no pearl fishery in the world are greater hardships endured -than in the Red Sea and along the coast of the Arabian Gulf. In -practically every other region, the industry is carried on under -government supervision, and there is little opportunity for -ill-treatment of the humbler fishermen. But the fanatics who control the -fishery on the Arabian coast—untrammeled by authorities and responsible -to none—show little consideration for the poor divers, and particularly -for the unfortunate black slaves brought from the coast of Africa. - -These pearl fishermen lead a very eventful life, the divers especially. -They see some wonderful sights down below the surface-plant life and -creeping things and enemies innumerable. Dropping from the sun-scorched -surface down into the deep cool waters, everything shows “a sea change, -into something rich and strange,” just as the eyes of the drowned man in -Ariel’s song are turned into pearls and his bones into coral. - -And there are enemies innumerable. The terrible sharks, prowling about -near the bottom, prove a source of perpetual uneasiness, and in the -aggregate many fishermen are eaten by these bloodthirsty tigers of the -sea. There are horrible conflicts with devil-fish equaling that in -Hugo’s “Toilers of the Sea.” The saw-fish is also a source of danger, -particularly in the Arabian Gulf, and instances are reported in which -divers have been cut in two by these animals, which sometimes attain a -length of twelve or fifteen feet, and possess a saw five feet long and -three inches broad, armed on each edge with teeth two inches in length. -Another menacing peril is the giant clam (_Tridacna gigas_), a monster -bivalve, whose shell measures two or three feet in diameter, and is -firmly anchored to the bottom. This mollusk occurs on many of the -Asiatic pearling grounds. Lying with the scalloped edges a foot or more -apart, a foot or a hand of the diver may be accidentally inserted. When -such a fate befalls a fisherman, the only escape is for him to amputate -the member immediately. Once in a while on the pearling shores a native -may be found who has been maimed in this manner, but usually the -unfortunate man does not escape with his life. - -[Illustration: - - CAP OF STATE, FROM LOOTING OF SUMMER PALACE, PEKIN, IN 1860 - - Now in South Kensington Museum -] - - - THE PEARL FISHERIES OF CHINA, JAPAN, SIBERIA, ETC. - - Do churls - Know the worth of Orient pearls? - Give the gem which dims the moon - To the noblest or to none. - - EMERSON, _Friendship_. - -It appears from ancient Chinese literature, noted in the first chapter -of this book, that pearl fisheries have existed in the rivers of China -for several thousand years. The Chinese also derived pearls from the -sea, and especially from the coast of the province of Che-kiang. Little -is known of the early fisheries, but the fragmentary literature contains -so many allusions to pearls as to lead us to believe that they were of -considerable extent and importance. - -It is related that about 200 B.C., a pearl dealer at Shao-hing, an -ancient city between Hang-chau and Ning-po, on the shore of Hang-chau -Bay, furnished to the empress a pearl one inch in diameter, for which he -received five hundred pieces of silver; and to an envious princess the -same dealer sold a “four-inch pearl.” A hundred years later, the -reigning emperor sent an agent to the coast to purchase “moon pearls,” -the largest of which were two thirds of an inch in diameter. - -In the tenth century A.D., Mingti, one of the most extravagant of the -early monarchs, used so many pearls—not only in his personal decoration -but on his equipage and retinue,—that after a formal procession the way -would be rich in the jewels which dropped from the gorgeous cortège. -About 1000 A.D., an embassy to the emperor brought as tribute an -ornament composed of strings of pearls, and also 105 liang (8¾ lbs.) of -the same gems unmounted. - -An interesting story is told of “pearl-scattering” by an embassy to the -Chinese court from a Malayan state about 1060. Following the customs of -their country, the ambassadors knelt at the threshold of the audience -chamber, and then advanced toward the throne, bearing a golden goblet -filled with choice pearls and water-lilies wrought of gold. These they -scattered upon the floor at the feet of the emperor; and the courtiers, -hastening to pick them up, secured ten hang (15 oz.) of pearls.[171] - -The Keh Chi King Yuen, a Chinese encyclopedia, describes a pearl fishery -in the southern part of Kwang-tung province, in the department of -Lien-chau and near the city of Hóhpú. Fishing began in the spring, and -was preceded by conciliating the gods through certain sacrifices, in -order that the weather might be propitious and that no disaster might be -suffered through sharks and other agencies. The five sacrificial -animals,—horses, cattle, sheep, swine, and fowls,—were presented; but -ordinarily paper images of these were economically substituted, as -equally acceptable to the Chinese rulers of destiny. In the details of -the diving, the fishery resembled somewhat that prosecuted about the -same period in the Gulf of Manaar. The diver was let down by a rope, and -after collecting the mollusks and placing them in a basket, he was drawn -up at a given signal. Much complaint was made that the divers would open -the mollusks, extract the pearls and conceal them in the mouth before -returning to the surface. - -The business became so perilous and the loss so great, that about the -beginning of the sixteenth century, according to the same encyclopedia, -dredges were adopted. These at first were simple rakes; later large -dredges were trailed along between two boats, by means of which great -quantities of shells were gathered. So important was the industry that -an officer was designated by the viceroy of Canton to collect a revenue -therefrom. It does not appear that pearls have been collected in -considerable numbers on this part of the Chinese coast for very many -years, probably not since the advent of Europeans. - -Pearls are yet found in the river mussels in all parts of eastern Asia, -from Siberia to the Indian Ocean, and from the Himalayas to the Pacific. -It is represented that they are not from the _Unio margaritifera_, the -common river-mussel of Europe, but from other species, such as _Unio -mongolicus_, _U. dahuricus_, _Dipsas plicatus_, etc. It is quite -impossible to obtain a reliable estimate of the total number of persons -employed, or the output of pearls in China, but these items are -certainly very much larger than the average Occidental believes. - -In the vicinity of Canton the _Dipsas plicatus_ has been used for -centuries by the Chinese in the production of artificial pearls, this -industry giving employment to thousands of persons.[172] - -The pearl-mussel fishery is of importance in Manchuria, where it has -been carried on for hundreds of years, not only by the citizens, but by -the military department on account of the government, and especially in -the streams which flow into the Songari, a tributary of the Amur. -Jacinth relates that in case of a deficit, the officers and subalterns -were punished by a deduction from their pay, and also by corporal -chastisement.[173] Witsen speaks of the pearls from the River Gan, a -tributary of the Amur, and also from the islands of the Amur, the -boundary river of Manchuria. Pearl fisheries were established at these -places by the Russians nearly two centuries ago.[174] - -Pearls become finer and more plentiful the further we penetrate into -Manchuria; and they are numerous in the lake of Heikow or Hing-chou-men, -“Black Lake” or “Gate of Precious Gems,” where they have long been -exploited for the account of the emperor of China. - -The occurrence of pearls in many parts of Asiatic Russia was noted by -Von Hessling. In northern Siberia, according to Witsen, writing in -1705,[175] pearls were found in the waters about the town of Mangasea on -the Turuchan; and Von Middendorf notes that they were found in the -Tunguska River, which flows into the Yenisei. Whether, however, they -come from the _Unio margaritifera_ is considered doubtful by Von -Middendorf. Witsen referred to their occurrence in the rivers and -streams of Irkutsk and Onon, and this is confirmed by several writers of -more recent times. Pallas says that the mussels found there are quite -large, and speaks of the Ilim, which flows into the Angara, as another -river where they occur. - -Ancient books relating to Japan repeatedly allude to the occurrence of -pearls on the coasts of that country. They are mentioned in the Nihonki, -of the eighth century, the oldest Japanese history. - -Tavernier wrote about 1670: “It is possible that of those who have -written before me concerning pearls, none have recorded that some years -back a fishery was discovered in a certain part of the coasts of Japan, -and I have seen some of the pearls which the Dutch brought from thence. -They were of very beautiful water, and some of them of large size, but -all baroques. The Japanese do not esteem pearls. If they cared about -them it is possible that by their means some banks might be discovered -where finer ones would be obtained.”[176] - -In 1727, Kaempfer wrote that pearls, called by the Japanese _kainotamma_ -or shell jewels, were found in oysters and other mollusks almost -everywhere about Saikokf. Every person was at liberty to fish for them. -Formerly the natives had little or no value for them, till they learned -of their estimation by the Chinese, who were ready to pay good prices -for them, their women being very proud of wearing necklaces and other -ornaments of pearls. “The largest and finest pearls are found in the -small sort of oysters, called _akoja_, which is not unlike the Persian -pearl-oyster. These are found only in the seas about Satzuma and in the -Gulf of Omura (Kiusiu). Some of the pearls weigh from four to five -candareens[177] and these are sold for a hundred kobans each.[178] The -inhabitants of the Loochoo Islands buy most of those about Satzuma, -since they trade to that province. Those found on the Gulf of Omura are -sold chiefly to the Chinese and Tunquinese, and it is computed that they -buy for about 3000 taels[179] a year. This great profit occasioned the -strict orders, which were made not long ago by the princes both of -Satzuma and Omura, that for the future there should be no more of these -oysters sold in the market with other oysters, as had been done -formerly.”[180] - -Kaempfer also noted that the Japanese obtained pearls from the yellow -snail shell and from the _taira gai_ (Placuna) in the Gulf of Arima, and -especially from the awabi or abalone (Haliotis). This mollusk was much -sought after for food, being taken in large quantities by the -fishermen’s wives, “they being the best divers of the country.”[181] - -Of the several species of pearl-oysters which occur in the coastal -waters of Japan, the only one of importance at present is the -_Margaritifera martensi_. While this occurs in very many localities, it -is most numerous among the southern islands, where some fine pearls have -been secured. The fishery for this species was quite extensive thirty or -forty years ago, and the reefs were largely depleted. For nearly a score -of years it has been used in growing culture pearls, an account of which -is given on pages 292, 293. - -A few pearls are obtained from several other bivalve mollusks in Japan. -Among the collections of the present writers are pearls from -_Margaritifera martensi_, collected at Bay Agu; from _M. panasisæ_, -about the Liu-kiu Islands; from _Pecten yezocusis_, in Sokhaido; from -_Mytilus crasitesta_, in the Inland Sea, and from North Japan, and from -a species of Dipsas found in Lake Biwa. - -While the pearl fisheries of Japan are not of great importance in any -single locality, the distribution of the reefs is so extensive that the -aggregate yield is considerable. - -The awabi or ear-shell (_Haliotis gigantea_), found on the coast of -Japan, Korea, etc., yields many pearly forms. This species is much -smaller than the California abalones. It has a fairly smooth, nacreous -surface, but its value is depreciated by the great size of the marginal -perforations, which render useless for commercial purposes all of the -shell external to the line of perforations. While its opalescent tints -make it desirable for manufacturing into certain styles of buttons and -buckles, its principal use is for inlaying work or marquetry, for which -it is especially adapted, owing to its fineness of texture and beauty of -coloring even when reduced to thin sheets. - -[Illustration: - - FISHING FOR THE AWABI (ABALONE) SHELLS AT WADA-NO-HARA, JAPAN -] - -Probably the most interesting of the abalone fisheries is that on the -shores of Quelpaerd Island, about sixty miles south of the Korean coast, -which is prosecuted largely by the women. Dressed only in a scanty -garment, these women swim out to the fishing grounds, distant several -hundred yards in some cases, carrying with them a stout knife and a -small sack suspended from a gourd. On reaching the reefs, they dive to -the bottom—sometimes to a depth of six or eight fathoms—and by means of -the knife, remove the abalones from the bottom and place them in the -sack. They may remain out an hour, diving repeatedly until the sack is -filled, when they swim back to the shore. Pearls are found only rarely; -in one lot of one hundred shells, only five were found bearing pearls; -two with three pearls each, two with two pearls each, and one with a -single pearl. The flesh of this mollusk after it has been cleaned and -dried, is quite popular as an article of diet. Although white when -fresh, the color changes to a dark red. The pieces of dried flesh, in -the form of flat reddish disks four or five inches in diameter, are -fastened on slender sticks—about ten to each stick—and displayed in the -grocery shops in Seul and other cities. - -In the Gulf of Siam on the Asiatic coast, pearls are obtained from a -small oyster with a thin shell, presumably a variety of the Lingah -oyster. The beds have not yet been thoroughly exploited, as the Siamese -do not especially value pearls, attributing some superstitious -sentiments of ill luck to them. However, from time to time Chinese -traders have bought them from the Malay divers and sold them at great -profit in the Singapore market. The known beds occur chiefly in the -northern part of the gulf, on the west coast, and extend in a narrow -belt for a distance of about one hundred miles. The fishing is -prosecuted by nude divers in shallow water. A recent letter from Dr. K. -Van Dort, a mining engineer of Bangkok, Siam, states that in 1906 in six -weeks, with the aid of half a dozen divers he was able to collect 720 -grains’ weight of pearls, mostly small ones, but including one of 20 -grains, one of 14 grains, two of 12 grains each, and seven over 9 grains -in weight. He reports that the total value of the large ones in Bangkok -was $1500, but the small ones could not be sold to any advantage, as -they are little prized by the Siamese. The shells are of no commercial -value, as they are too thin for industrial use other than for inlaid -work. Some fine old specimens of marquetry in which these shells were -used exist in the Buddhist temples at Bangkok. This art of inlaying is -almost lost among the Siamese, and there is said to be only one man in -the king’s palace who can lay any claims to proficiency in working -mother-of-pearl shell. - - - - - VII - - PEARLS FROM THE AFRICAN COASTS - - - - - VII - EAST AFRICAN PEARL FISHERIES - - - The Islanders with fleecy curls, - Whose homes are compass’d by the Arabian waves; - By whom those shells which breed the orient pearls - Are dived and fish’d for in their green sea caves. - - TASSO, _Jerusalem Delivered_. - -The principal pearl fisheries of the coasts of Africa are those -prosecuted in the Red Sea, between this continent and Asia. These have -already been described in the preceding chapter, among the Asiatic -fisheries; for, although situated between the two continents, they are -prosecuted largely by Arabs rather than by natives of the western shores -of the sea. - -Other than those in the Red Sea, the only pearl resources in Africa -which have received attention are on the eastern coast, south of the -Gulf of Aden. Little information exists as to the origin of these -fisheries. In a paper published by the Lisbon Geographical Society, -January, 1903, Señor Ivens Ferranz states that, according to tradition, -in remote times the Ibo Archipelago, on the northeast coast of -Portuguese East Africa, was inhabited by a Semitic colony, which located -there to fish for pearls, and these were carried through the Red Sea to -King Solomon. He adds that there is little doubt that, after the great -emigration which started from the Persian Gulf in 982 and founded -Zanzibar, Kilwa, and Sofala on this coast, some Arabs engaged in fishing -for pearls about the islands near Sofala. - -In 1609 Joao dos Santos wrote that on the sandy sea bottom about the -Bazaruto Islands, which are about 150 miles south of Sofala, there were -many large oysters which bore pearls, and the natives fished for them by -diving in practically the same manner as in the Persian Gulf.[182] - -In a personal memorandum, Sir Robert Edgcumbe states that in the very -early times of Portuguese exploitation on the eastern coast of Africa, -pearl fishing was carried on in these waters. For a long period the -tenure of power exerted by the Portuguese was of a feeble character; -they practically occupied no position of importance on the mainland, but -seized upon stations on the islands which offered decent harbors. Thus -their chief settlements, such as Mozambique and Ibo, were on islands -lying off the coast, and until recent years they made no serious attempt -to occupy the mainland. - -Arabs and Banyans carried on the commercial traffic of the country, as -they still do, and they were more truly the masters of this coast than -were the Portuguese, who were little more than nominal rulers. Trading -to and from India in their small dhows, the Arabs and Banyans had full -knowledge of the value of pearls, and undoubtedly secured all that were -obtainable. But they observed no restrictions, and without doubt—for a -time, at any rate—greatly impaired the productive power of the -fisheries. - -The principal pearl reefs of East Africa, so far as known at present, -extend along the coast of the German East African territory from the -Province of Uzaramo to the Rovuma River, the southern limit of that -territory, and also into Portuguese East Africa as far south as Pemba -Bay, a total distance of about 300 miles. Along much of this coast, -there are islands lying from one to two miles off shore, and between -these islands are barriers of reefs, which create a series of lagoons. -In these lagoons, protected by the islands and the reefs from the -influence of the surf formed by the Indian monsoons, there are large -patches of coral rock and groups of living coral, which form excellent -attachments for the pearl-oysters. - -It is only recently that serious attention has been paid to these pearl -resources, although year by year a considerable number of pearls have -been collected by the natives and sold to Arabs and Banyans, who have -sent them chiefly to India by way of Zanzibar. The natives of these -parts are not very expert in diving, and they collect the oysters -principally by wading out as far as they can at low tide. They do not -wait for the mollusks to attain a proper age, and as a result they find -few pearls of large size. Many parcels of pearls fished in this very -elementary way pass through the custom-house, where they are subject to -a small duty for export, and others are smuggled out of the country. -Quantities of seed-pearls are sent to India, where they are used -principally as a medicine and in cosmetics; and occasionally there are -rumors that some choice pearls have been discovered. - -In the German territory a concession of the fisheries was granted a few -years ago to Dr. Aurel Schulz; and, although we are not in position to -say what success he has met with, it is reported that he has secured a -considerable number of pearls under four grains in weight, of fair shape -and quality and of good marketable value. - -A concession of the pearl fishery on the Portuguese coast north of Ibo -has been granted to the East African Pearl Company. For this company an -examination of the resources is now being made by Mr. James J. Simpson, -acting under direction of Prof. W. A. Herdman, of the Liverpool -University, the technical advisor of the Ceylon Company of Pearl -Fishers. - -At least four species of pearl-bearing mollusks exist here; these are -_Margaritifera vulgaris_, _M. margaritifera_, _Pinna nobilis_, and a -species of Perna, named in the order of their importance. A preliminary -report of Mr. Simpson (supplied through the courtesy of Sir Robert -Edgcumbe), states that among the Ibo Islands about one half of the -bottom is sandy and the other half is covered with detached pieces of -coral rock, groups of living corals, masses of nullipore, and expanses -of fixed seaweed. On all of these in the shoal waters, there is such an -abundance of pearl-oysters (_M. vulgaris_) that a single diver, by -simply descending and bringing up a few in his hands each time, can -secure about 200 in fifteen minutes. Oysters also occur singly on the -sandy bottom, but not so abundantly. Within the three-year-old oysters -there are many seed-pearls. It is evident that there has been an -extensive removal of large oysters in recent years and that large pearls -were then found; but the depredations of the natives now prevent the -mollusks from attaining an age and size which render them useful as -pearl-bearers. - -Said Mr. Simpson in his report: “The women here play great havoc on the -reefs by going out daily and collecting the pearl-oysters at low tide. -All along the coast from Muliga Point to Arimba the shores are covered -with shells. At one place we came across a heap of freshly-opened -oysters which consisted of thirty or forty thousand at the lowest -estimate; while an older heap contained between forty to sixty millions. -Four women who were fishing on the reefs while we were there had over -two thousand oysters in their baskets. Thus it is evident that immense -quantities are annually destroyed. And the worst feature is that out of -those destroyed, not one per cent. were over two years old.” - -It is the intention of the East African Pearl Company, as soon as the -investigation of the resources is completed, to police the fishing -grounds so as to put an end to the removal of immature oysters, which -yield only seed-pearls, and to permit them to attain maturity. In -addition to this, it is their purpose to utilize the extensive beds of -oysters lying in comparatively deep water, which are now inaccessible to -the natives owing to their lack of diving skill. - -Sir Robert Edgcumbe writes that it is impossible to say more at present -than that these fisheries at one time bore a high repute, and that the -oysters have continued to exist in multitudes though fished by the -natives in the immature state; and there is every indication that if -properly policed and worked in a scientific way these fisheries should -once again become of much importance. The fact that the pearl-bearing -oysters are found there in large quantities, notwithstanding that they -have been poached without restriction by the natives, indicates that -only proper management and policing are necessary to make them valuable -and productive. - -On the lower coast of Portuguese East Africa, pearl fishing has been of -some local importance. The reefs are most extensive about the Bazaruto -Islands, previously referred to as about 150 miles south of Sofala. In -1888, when famine prevailed on this coast, the inhabitants of this -archipelago, of both sexes and of all ages, fished for the large -pearl-oysters (known locally as _mapalo_), selling their catch at -Chiloane to Asiatic traders, who gave them a handful of rice for a large -basket of the mollusks. It was estimated that during two months of that -year, pearls to the value of eighty _contos_ ($83,500) were taken.[183] -In 1889 three British subjects attempted to renew the fishery by using -dredges, but without success, owing, it is said, to the great weight of -the implements. - -The Kafirs of Bazaruto continue to fish irregularly, but their catch is -not of importance. These pearls are carried by traders to Zanzibar, -Muscat, and Bombay. The American consul writes that some years ago the -Portuguese government granted a concession to a company of American -fishermen to exploit the Bazaruto reefs, but the attempt to work the -concession failed through “bad management, lack of funds, heavy -expenses, and political difficulties,” a combination apparently -sufficient to wreck a similar attempt in the most favorable locality. - -The American consul at Tamatave states that in 1907 the government of -Madagascar awarded two grants for pearl fisheries, covering the entire -western coast, a distance of one thousand miles, excepting two hundred -miles, for which two grants were given in 1906. Apparently no effort was -made to develop the earlier grants; the later ones may be operated, -perhaps jointly. These concessions are personal, and may not be sold or -transferred without the governor-general’s consent. The use of divers, -machinery, dredges, and other apparatus, and the building of necessary -stations are allowed, if there be no interference with navigation, -fishing, or coast travel. An annual tax is to be paid, with a stated -increase each year, and revised according to the success of the -enterprise. A report must be sent yearly to the governor-general. The -grants may be revoked if work is not begun within a stated period; if -the work is needlessly abandoned during one year, or if the tax is not -paid. Whenever the interests of the colony or of the public service -require it, the privilege may be withdrawn without indemnity. - - - - - VIII - - EUROPEAN PEARL FISHERIES - - THE BRITISH ISLES, THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE - - - - - VIII - PEARL FISHERIES OF THE BRITISH ISLES - - - And Britain’s ancient shores great pearls produce. - - MARBODUS (_circa_ 1070). - -The occurrence of pearls in the British Isles was known two thousand -years ago, and frequent references to them were made in Roman writings -of the first and second centuries of the Christian era. - -In his “Lives of the Cæsars,” the biographer Suetonius, after speaking -of the admiration which Julius Cæsar had for pearls, states that their -occurrence in Britain was an important factor in inducing the first -Roman invasion of that country in 55 B.C.[184] If this be true, the -English-speaking people owe a vast debt of gratitude to these pearls in -bringing their Briton ancestors in contact with Roman civilization; and -the influence which they have thus exercised on the world’s history has -been greater than that of the pearls from all other regions or, we might -add, than all other jewels. - -The naturalist Pliny (23–79) stated: “In Brittaine it is certain that -some do grow; but they bee small, dim of colour, and nothing orient. For -Julius Cæsar (late Emperor of famous memorie) doth not dissimble, that -the cuirace or breastplate which he dedicated to Venus mother within her -temple was made of English pearles.”[185] - -This decoration of pearls was a very proper offering to the goddess who -arose from the sea. - -The historian Tacitus noted in “Vita Agricolæ” that the pearls from -Britain were dusky or brownish (_subfusca ac liventia_).[186] In his -commentaries on the Gospel of Matthew, Origen (185–253), one of the -Greek fathers of the church, described the British pearls as next in -value to the Indian. Their surface, he stated, was of a golden color, -but they were cloudy and less transparent than those from India. - -We have no certain information whether the pearls secured by the Romans -were from the edible mussel (_Mytilus edulis_) of the sea-coast or from -the Unios of the fresh-water streams. Tacitus’s statement that they were -collected “as the sea throws them up,” seems to locate them on the -sea-coast; but conditions in modern times make it appear more probable -that they were from the fresh waters. - -Some of the very early coins of the country indicate that pearls were -used to ornament the imperial diadem of the sovereigns of ancient -Britain. In “Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum,” the celebrated -English monk, Bede (673–735) surnamed “The Venerable,” enumerated among -other things for which Britain was famous in his day, “many sorts of -shell-fish, among which are mussels, in which are often found excellent -pearls of all colours; red, purple, violet and green, but mostly -white.”[187] And Marbodus, Bishop of Rennes, in his lapidarium, written -about 1070, refers to the British pearls as equaling those of Persia and -India. About 1094 a present of an Irish pearl was made to Anselm, -Archbishop of Canterbury, by Gilbert, Bishop of Limerick.[188] - -In the twelfth century there was a market for Scotch pearls in Europe, -but they were less valued than those from the Orient.[189] An ordinance -of John II, King of France, in August, 1355, which confirmed the old -statutes and privileges of goldsmiths and jewelers, expressly forbade -mounting Scotch and oriental pearls together in the same article, except -in ecclesiastical jewelry (Orfèvre ne peut mettre en œuvre d’or ne -argent parles d’Ecosse avec parles d’orient se ce n’est en grands -joyaulx d’église).[190] - -Writing in the sixteenth century, the historian William Camden -(1551–1623) stated in his “Britannia”: - -[Illustration: - - OLD PRINT SHOWING FOUR METHODS OF CATCHING PEARL-BEARING MOLLUSKS - - Reproduced from “Margaritologia, sive Dissertatio de Margaritis,” by - Malachias Geiger, Monachii, 1637 -] - - The British and Irish Pearls are found in a large black Muscle.... - They are peculiar to rapid and stony rivers; and are common in - Wales, and in the North of England, and in Scotland, and some parts - of Ireland. In this country they are called by the vulgar _Kregin - Diliw_, i.e. Deluge shells; as if Nature had not intended the shells - for the rivers; but being brought thither by the Universal Deluge, - they had continued there, and so propagated their kind ever since. - Those who fish here for Pearls, know partly by the outside of these - Muscles, whether they contain any; for generally such as have them - are a little contracted or distorted from their usual shape. A - curious and accomplished Gentleman, lately of these parts, showed me - a valuable Collection of the Pearls of the Conway River in Wales; - amongst which I noted a stool-pearl [button-pearl], weighing - seventeen grains, and distinguished on the convex side with a fair - round spot of a Cornelian colour, exactly in the center.[191] - -In 1560 “large handsome pearls” were sent from Scotland to Antwerp.[192] -In 1620 a great pearl was found in the Kellie Burn, in Aberdeenshire. -This was carried to King James by the provost, who was rewarded with -“twelve to fourdeen chalder of victuals about Dunfermline, and the -Customs of Merchants’ goods in Aberdeen during his life.” No record -appears of the reward paid to the finder; possibly it was not worth -recording. - -In 1621 the Privy Council of Scotland issued a proclamation that pearls -found within the realm belonged to the Crown; and conservators of the -pearl fisheries were appointed in several of the counties, including -Aberdeen, Ross, and Sutherland. It was the duty of the conservators, -among other things, to nominate experts to fish for pearls during July -and August, “when they are at chief perfection.” The conservators and -fishermen were compensated by selling those pearls of ordinary quality, -but “the best for bignesse and colour” were to be remitted to the king. -It was reported to the Privy Council that the conservator in -Aberdeenshire did very well in the first year. “He hath not only taken -divers pearls of good value, but hath found some in waters where none -were expected.” The first parliament of Charles I abolished these -privileges. - -Robert Sibbald, physician to Charles II, wrote that he had seen a -necklace of Scotch pearls which was valued at two thousand crowns; they -were “larger than peas, perfectly round, and of a brilliant -whiteness.”[193] - -It is said that Sir Richard Wynne of Gwydir presented to Catherine of -Braganza, queen of Charles II of England, a pearl from the Conway in -Wales, which is said to be even yet retained in the royal crown. In his -“Faerie Queene” (1590), Spenser speaks of the - - Conway, which out of his streame doth send - Plenty of pearles to deck his dames withal. - -The White Cart River in Scotland, on which the city of Paisley is -situated, was distinguished, according to Camden, “for the largeness and -the fineness of the Pearls that are frequently found hereabouts and -three miles above.”[194] And the pearls from Irton in Cumberland, -England, were so noted at that time that “fair as Irton pearls” became a -byword in the north country. In their history of Westmoreland and -Cumberland,[195] Nicolson and Burn state that “Mr. Thomas Patrickson, -late of How of this county (Cumberland), having employed divers poor -inhabitants to gather these pearls, obtained such a quantity as he sold -to the jewellers in London for above £800.” But in 1794 Hutchinson[196] -stated that none had been seen for many years past. - -Pearl fishing in Ireland was of some consequence in the seventeenth -century. Speaking of the Slaney River, Solomon Richards, in a -description of Wexford about the year 1656, said: “It ought to precede -all the rivers in Ireland for its pearle fishing, which though not -abundant are yet excellent, for muscles are daily taken out of it about -fowre, five and six inches long, in which are often found pearles, for -lustre, magnitude and rotundity not inferior to oriental or any other in -the world.”[197] In 1693 Sir Robert Redding wrote that there were four -rivers in the county of Tyrone in northern Ireland which abounded in -pearl-mussels, all four emptying into Lough Foyle and thence into the -sea. They were also to be found in several rivers in the adjacent -Donegal County. Redding gave an interesting description of the fishery: - - In the warm months before harvest is ripe, whilst the rivers are low - and clear, the poor people go into the water and take them up, some - with their toes, some with wooden tongs, and some by putting a - sharpened stick into the opening of the shell; and although by - common estimate not above one shell in a hundred may have a pearl, - and of these pearls not above one in a hundred be tolerably clear, - yet a vast number of fair merchantable pearls, and too good for the - apothecary, are offered to sale by those people every summer assize. - Some gentlemen of the country make good advantage thereof, and I - myself, whilst there, saw a pearl bought for £2, 10s. that weighed - 36 carats, and was valued at £40, and had it been as clear as some - others produced therewith it would certainly have been very - valuable. Everybody abounds with stories of the good pennyworths of - the country, but I will add but one more. A miller took a pearl, - which he sold for £4, 10s. to a man that sold it for £10 to another, - who sold it to the late Lady Glenanly for £30, with whom I saw it in - a necklace; she refused £80 for it from the late Duchess of Ormond. - - The young muscles never have any pearl in them. The shells that have - the best pearls are wrinkled, twisted, or bunched, and not smooth - and equal, as those that have none. And the crafty fellows will - guess so well by the shell, that though you watch them never so - carefully, they will open such shells under the water, and put the - pearls in their mouths, or otherwise conceal them. Yet sometimes - when they have been taking up shells, and believing by such signs as - I have mentioned, that they were sure of good purchase, and refused - good sums for their shares, they found no pearl at all in them. Upon - discourse with an old man that had been long at this trade, he - advised me to seek not only when the waters were low, but on a - dusky, gloomy day also, lest, said he, the fish see you, for then he - will shed his pearl in the sand; of which I believe no more than - that some muscles have voided their pearls, and such are often found - in the sands.[198] - -[Illustration] - - MADAME NORISCHKINE DUCHESSE ELIZABETH DAUGHTER OF GENERAL SOBELIEFF - NÉE STRAUDMAN (CONSTANTIN) FIRST COUNTESS BEAUHARNAIS - -For several years following 1760, the Scotch pearl fisheries were of -considerable local value. The zoölogist, Thomas Pennant, wrote of them -several times in his “Tour of Scotland.” Referring to the Tay and Isla -rivers, then as now the center of the Scotch pearling, he states: “There -has been in these parts a very great fishery of pearl, got out of the -fresh-water muscles. From the year 1761 to 1764, £10,000 worth were sent -to London, and sold from 10s. to £1 6s. per ounce. I was told that a -pearl had been taken there that weighed 33 grains. But this fishery is -at present exhausted, from the avarice of the undertakers. It once -extended as far as Loch Tay.”[199] And he adds later that, some years -preceding, a pearl fishery was prosecuted in Loch Dochart with great -success and the pearls were esteemed the fairest and largest of any. - -From 1770 to 1860 the pearl resources of Scotland remained almost -dormant, and Scotch pearls were rarely met with in the markets. In 1861 -a German merchant, who was acquainted with the beauty of these gems, -traveled through the districts of Tay, Doon and Don, obtaining a great -number which the poor people kept for their own pleasure, not esteeming -them of any market value, and interested the fishermen in searching for -the mussels. The seemingly high prices which he paid and the abundance -of the pearls sent hundreds of persons to the rivers and small brooks. -Those who were otherwise employed during the day devoted hours of the -long summer nights to diligent search after the coveted shells; while -boys and old persons, who were without regular avocations, waded day -after day where there was a probability of reward. In the course of a -short time pearls, good, bad and indifferent, reached the originator of -the movement at Edinburgh, from Ayrshire, from Perthshire, and from the -Highland regions far beyond the Grampians. He was soon the possessor of -a collection which, for richness and variety, had seldom been surpassed. -A trade in these gems was developed, the patronage of royalty was -obtained, and once more Scotch pearls became fashionable, and their -vogue was enhanced by the fondness which Queen Victoria entertained for -them. - -In addition to the rivers named, pearls were found in the Forth, the -Teith, the Ythan, and the Spey in eastern Scotland. The summer of 1862 -was most favorable for pearling, owing to the dryness of the season and -the low water, and unusually large quantities of pearls were found, the -prices ranging ordinarily from 10s. to £2 6s. Queen Victoria is said to -have purchased one for forty guineas; others were bought by Empress -Eugénie and by the Duchess of Hamilton. A necklace of them was sold for -£350 in 1863.[200] The value of the entire catch in Scotland in 1864 was -estimated at £12,000 to the fishermen, the yield being unusually large -in that season owing to the unprecedented drought which permitted access -to the deep beds of the rivers. In some of the streams the resources -were quickly depleted, but in others the fisheries yielded profitable -returns for many years. While most of the pearls were small, some of -them were choice and of considerable individual value, ranging from £5 -to £150, and £500 is said to have been paid for one fine specimen. - -The pearl-mussel of the British Isles (_Unio margaritifera_) has a -thick, coarse and unsightly shell, from 3 to 7 inches in width and 1½ to -2½ inches in length from the umbo to the lip. The rough exterior is dark -brown, and it is sometimes twisted, distorted and barnacled. - -It generally lies scattered and detached over the pebbly bottoms, but it -also exists in reefs or beds which are sometimes of considerable extent. -These occur usually where a stretch of water is still and deep, and -oftentimes where the depth places the mussels beyond the reach of the -fishermen. Apart from the pearls it contains, the mussel is of no -economic value except that in some localities the mollusk is used for -bait in cod-fishing. - -In recent years the pearl-mussel has been numerous in several of the -rivers of Scotland, such as the Tay, Earn, and Teith in Perthshire; the -Dee, the Don, and the Ythan in Aberdeenshire; the Spey and Findhorn in -Inverness-shire, and also the classic Doon of Burns, the Nith, the Annan -and others in southern Scotland; however, it is rare in the Clyde and -the Tweed. - -The Teith has long been famed for pearl-bearing, though like other -rivers it has become nearly fished out. The Tay produces many pearls, -yet as a rule they are not of the best class. Some of its tributaries, -as the Tummel and the Isla, also bear pearls; those in the Isla are -usually fine and rank higher than those from the Tay. The Earn is also -famous for the fine quality of its pearls, but the whole river was -robbed of its wealth some years ago by a body of professional fishermen, -and it has not yet recovered from the raid; few pearls now exist there -save in the deeper pools, where doubtless may still be hid “full many a -gem of purest ray serene.” - -In Ireland pearls have been found principally in the rivers of counties -Kerry, Donegal, Tyrone, Antrum, etc. In an article in “The Field,” -December 10, 1864, Mr. F. T. Buckland stated that they abound near -Oughterard, and that a man called “Jemmy the Pearl-catcher,” who lived -there, told him that he knew when a mussel had a pearl in it even -without opening the shell, because “she [the mussel] sits upright with -her mouth in the mud, and her back is crooked,” that is, corrugated like -a ram’s horn. Pearls are yet found in several localities in the Emerald -Isle, notably in the river Bann in the northeastern part and in the -beautiful Connemara district in western Ireland. In 1892 the Bann -yielded one of the choicest pearls that ever came from Ireland. Within -the last twelve months Lady Dudley, wife of the Viceroy of Ireland, -presented to Queen Alexandra a number of pearls from the Connemara. -These were mounted in a green enameled brooch, and excited so much -admiration that an active demand for similar gems quickly developed in -County Galway. - -Mr. D. MacGregor, a well-known jeweler of Perth, to whom we are indebted -for much information relative to pearls in Scotland, states that no -attention whatever is given to conserving the mussel; on the contrary, -the waters are unscrupulously despoiled by the greedy pearl fisherman -who destroys all that he finds, since, by chance, they may yield the -coveted gem. Immense numbers are thus wantonly destroyed, which if -allowed to grow and propagate would be more likely to contribute to the -pearl yield, as it is well known that it is the aged mussels in which a -pearl is most likely to be found. There is no close time, and so -extensive have been the raids upon the mussels in recent years that they -have been rapidly exterminated in places accessible to the fishermen; -and should the spoliation continue and extend to the deep waters, the -pearl-mussel may soon become extinct. - -Pearl fishing is not prosecuted throughout the year, as it can be -carried on only in the dry season when the waters are low. There are a -number of professional fishermen who search in their favorite streams, -and sometimes very profitably, as much as £200 having been gained in a -single season by one fisherman. One of the most noted of these was -“Pearl Johnnie,” who a few years ago hailed from Compar-Angus, in -Perthshire, and who styled himself “Pearl Fisher to the Prince of -Wales,” by reason of some dealings he once had with his Royal Highness. -He was very successful in his experience of more than thirty years. -There is little mystery in the search; skill does not always avail, and -men, women and children are rewarded or disappointed indiscriminately. -The bed of the stream is searched until the patches of mussels are -discovered, and this is usually the most tedious part of the work. These -may be in very shoal water, where a small boy has only to wade with -water above his knees and pick up the mussels by stooping; but more -frequently the water covers a man’s hips, and at times he is immersed -almost to the shoulders. - -The equipment of a pearl fisherman is simple. If he wades, he commonly -wears long boots with tops reaching to his breast. Provided with a pole -five or six feet long having a cleft at the lower end, and with a tube -several inches in diameter with the lower end closed by a glass, he -invades the home of the pearl-mussel. Thrusting the tube or water glass -beneath the surface, he scans the bed of the stream, and when a mussel -is sighted, the cleft pole is brought into use and it is picked up by -means of these primitive tongs. Owing to the close resemblance which the -pearl-mussel bears to the stones in the riverbed, good eyesight is -required to avoid overlooking it. A bag by the fisher’s side receives -the catch; and when this is well filled, he goes to the bank of the -stream and opens his lottery, in the great majority of cases to find -that he has drawn a blank. - -A boat is seldom used, simply because it is not available, but in the -tidal waters it is indispensable. The “box” is a risky device for -fishing in the deeper waters. It is a small contrivance, somewhat like -the ancient British coracle, in which the fisherman sits or lies over on -his chest; venturing out in the deeper parts which can not be waded, he -carefully peers through the tube and draws up his find with the long -cleft stick. This is a tiresome method, but some places can not be -readily fished in any other manner. - -In Aberdeenshire, Perthshire, etc., there are a few men who regularly -spend the season “at the pearls.” The knowing ones dispose of their best -finds to wealthy residents or to strangers and tourists who frequent the -vicinity. In addition to these experienced fishermen, many of the idlers -and unemployed about the riverside towns, and also the farm servants in -the country, search the waters in their neighborhood in the hope of -picking up some gems. But very often it is severe and disappointing -labor, for the pearl-seeker may travel far and endure privation and -hardships for days, and yet, after destroying hundreds and even -thousands of mussels, he may be rewarded with only a little almost -worthless dross; but again and again he returns to the elusive game, -inspired by the “hope which springs eternal in the human breast.” - -[Illustration: - - The Valley of the Tay -] - -[Illustration: - - The River Earn - - Photographs by The Raeburn Portrait Studio, Perth, Scotland - - SCOTCH PEARL RIVERS -] - -The British pearls are in great variety of colors, but most of them are -practically valueless on account of the absence of orient or luster; for -one possessing the white pearly luster, fifty may be found of a dull -color and devoid of value. Many of these opaque pearls are dark, -lusterless brown, and handfuls of them sell for only a few shillings. A -large percentage are of a grayish or milky color, or of a bluish white -tinge; these seldom attain much value unless aided by excellence of -shape and purity of skin. A few are of a dark, fiery tint and of great -luster. Sometimes the pearl is of a beautiful pink tint, sometimes of a -light violet, or other exquisite shade. The fine pink ones are very rare -and are highly prized. The best are those having the sweet, pure white -light which constitutes the inimitable loveliness of a pearl; but few of -them are found even in the most favorable seasons, and usually these are -from the streams in the northeastern counties and some of the streams in -the southwest. Very few combine the qualities of perfection in shape and -luster; and the product of many seasons might be examined in vain to -furnish enough pearls to make a well-matched necklace of gems weighing -from five to ten grains each. But occasionally beautiful specimens are -discovered, weighing fifteen or twenty grains or more. One found in -Aberdeenshire a few years ago, perfect in shape and luster, weighed -twenty-five grains, and sold at first hand for £50. Another one, found -at the confluence of the Almond and the Tay in 1865, weighed thirty -grains. - -While most of these pearls are sold to jewelers in Edinburgh, Aberdeen, -Inverness, Perth, and other towns, many of the finest specimens have -gone into the possession of prominent Scotch and English families, who -have a fancy for collecting them. Queen Victoria possessed a fine -collection of Scotch pearls, choice specimens of many years’ search, -obtained almost exclusively from the Aberdeenshire waters which murmur -round her beautiful Highland home. In 1907, a Scotch pearl was sold in -Perth for the sum of £80; this was of a good luster with a bluish tint, -it was spherical, measured seven sixteenths of an inch in diameter, and -weighed twenty-one grains. - -The falling off in the yield of pearls in some streams is credited to a -certain extent to the building of bridges and the consequent abandonment -of fords. This is based on the theory that injury to the mollusk has -something to do with the production of pearls, and that they are to be -found more plentiful about fords and places where cattle drink. The -theory is beautifully stated by the lamented Hugh Miller: “I found -occasion to conclude that the Unio of our river-fords secretes pearls so -much more frequently than the Unionidae and Anadonta of our still pools -and lakes, not from any specific peculiarity in the constitution of the -creature, but from the effects of the habitat which it chooses. It -receives in the fords and shallows of a rapid river many a rough blow -from the sticks and pebbles carried down in time of flood, and -occasionally from the feet of men and animals that cross the stream -during droughts, and the blows induce the morbid secretions, of which -pearls are the result. There seems to exist no inherent cause why -_Anadon cygnea_, with its beautiful silvery nacre—as bright often, and -always more delicate, than that of _Unio margaritiferus_—should not be -equally productive of pearls; but secure from violence in its still -pools and lakes, and unexposed to the circumstances that provoke -abnormal secretions, it does not produce a single pearl for every -hundred that are ripened into value and beauty by the exposed, -current-tossed Unionidae of our rapid mountain rivers. Would that -hardship and suffering bore always in a creature of a greatly higher -family similar results, and that the hard buffets dealt him by fortune -in the rough stream of life could be transmitted, by some blessed -internal pre-disposition of his nature, into pearls of great -price.”[201] - -The small blue mussel (_Mytilus edulis_) of the British seas yields -opaque pearls of a deep blue color, but most of them are more or less -white in some part. Sometimes a shell is found in which a blue pearl -will be adhering to the blue lip of the shell while a dull white one -adheres to the white portion of the shell. These pearls are commonly -flattened on one side, doubtless where they have been adjacent to the -shell. None of them is of more than very slight value. - -Probably the principal fishery for the salt-water mussel pearls is that -in the estuary of the Conway in Wales. These are mostly quite small and -well answer the designation of seed-pearls, although a few are of fair -size. In color most of them range from dirty white to the dusky or -brownish tint noted by Tacitus eighteen centuries ago, but a few are of -a pure silvery tint. In some seasons London dealers have agents at -Conway for purchasing these pearls. The price is usually from eight to -thirty shillings per ounce. - - - THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE - - Après l’esprit de discernement, ce qu’il y a au monde de plus rare, - ce sont les diamants et les perles. - - LA BRUYÈRE, _Les caractères_. - -Pearls occur in species of mussels found in the streams and lakes of -Europe, in some of which the fisheries have been of considerable local -interest. It appears that these resources were exploited by the Romans, -then by the Goths and the Lombards, and later the natives continued to -draw forth the treasures which lay hidden about their homes. These -pearls have attracted attention up to the present time; and while they -do not compare with those of the seas, either in quality or in aggregate -value, yet they are prized on account of their intrinsic worth as well -as because they are a product of the fatherland. In the densely -populated valleys, the rivers are so polluted by refuse and sewage that -the mollusks have been greatly depleted; but in the streams of clear, -cool water, draining the mountain regions of France, Germany, Austria, -and also in the rivers of Norway, Sweden, Russia, etc., the fisheries -are not unimportant. - -The most celebrated of the pearl fisheries in France are those of the -Vologne, a small river in the extreme eastern part of the country, in -the department of Vosges. Its sources are in Lake Longmere in the Vosges -mountains on the Alsace frontier, and it flows into the Moselle at -Jarmenil, between Remiremont and Épinal. While the pearl-mussel occurs -to some extent in nearly the whole length of this river, and, indeed, is -to be met with in the wild brooks and forest streams of nearly all the -mountainous parts of France, it is most abundant in the vicinity of -Bruyères, where the Vologne receives the waters of the Neuré. These -resources were described in 1845 by Ernest Puton,[202] and in 1869 by D. -A. Godron;[203] to whom—and especially to Godron—we are indebted for -much of our information. - -The fisheries of the Vologne have been celebrated for nearly four -centuries. Writing in 1530, Volcyr stated: “In the river Vologne between -Arche and Bruyères, near the ancient castle of Perle, beautiful pearls -are found. In the opinion of jewelers and artists they closely resemble -the oriental.”[204] A few years later Francis Reues wrote: “There is -near the Vosges mountains in Lorraine a river fertile in pearls, yet -they are not very brilliant. The strange thing is that the quality which -they lack by nature is supplied by the aid of pigeons, which swallow -them and restore them purer than before.”[205] In a publication of 1609, -this little river is represented in the frontispiece by the figure of a -nymph bearing many pearls, while beneath is the emblem: _Vologna -margaritifera suas margaritas ostentat_.[206] - -In his paper above noted, Godron recites several orders issued from 1616 -to 1619 by the Duke of Lorraine, who then had jurisdiction over the -present department of Vosges, showing that a high value was attached to -these pearls and that the resources were well looked after. Writing in -1699, Dr. Martin Lister alluded to the many pearls taken from the rivers -about Lorraine and Sedan. A Paris merchant showed him a fresh-water -pearl of 23 grains, valued at £400, and assured him that he had seen -some weighing 60 grains each.[207] - -In 1779 Durival gave an extensive account[208] of the Vologne fishery. -He records that for sixty years pearls had been abundant, but at the -time he wrote they were very scarce. - -Puton states that, in 1806, when taking the baths at Plombières in the -Vosges, Empress Josephine formed a great liking for the Vologne pearls, -and at her request some of the mussels were sent to stock the ponds at -Malmaison. It does not appear that any favorable result followed this -transplanting. - -Owing to the extensive fisheries, the mussels became so scarce that in -1826, when the Duchesse d’Angoulême was visiting in the Vosges, it was -impossible to secure enough pearls to form a bracelet for her. This -scarcity has continued up to the present time; and yet in the aggregate -many pearls have been secured, so that there are few prominent families -in the neighborhood who do not possess some of them. They are especially -prized as bridal presents to Vosges maidens. - -While the Vologne pearls are of good form and of much beauty, they do -not equal oriental pearls in luster. The color is commonly milky white, -but some of them have a pink, yellow, red, or greenish tint. In size -they rarely exceed 4 grains. The Nancy museum of natural history -possesses one which weighs 5¼ grains and measures 6½ mm. in diameter. - -In western France, according to Bonnemere,[209] the pearl-mussel is -widely diffused, and in the aggregate many pearls are secured therefrom. -They are somewhat numerous in the river Ille near its union with the -Vilaine at Rennes; though small, these are commonly of good color and -luster. In the department of Morbihan and that of Finistère, many pearls -have been secured, especially in the Steir, the Odet, and in the -Stang-Alla near Quimper. Small pearls, frequently of some value, are -found in the Menech near the town of Lesneven, a few miles northeast of -Brest, the great naval port of France. - -[Illustration: - - GREAT CAMEO PEARL, ACTUAL SIZE 22 INCHES - - Sold at auction in Amsterdam in 1776 for 180,000 florins. Note great - baroque pearl forming body of the swan at the base, diameter 1.37 - inches -] - -The _Unio sinuatus_ (_pictorum_), the _mulette_ of the artists, which -has a shorter and smaller shell than the pearl-mussel, has also yielded -many small pearls of good quality, as well as shells for manufacturing -purposes. This species has been regularly exploited in the Adour, in the -Charente, in the Gironde and its tributaries—the Garonne and the -Dordogne and their affluents, and in some other streams in western -France. - -There is a pearl fishery in the Charente River near the western coast of -France, and likewise in the Seugne, a small tributary entering it from -the south. The mussel is known locally under the name of _palourde_. In -an account of this fishery,[210] Daniel Bellet states that in the -Seugne, where the water is shallow and clear, the mussel is secured by -entering the pointed end of a wooden staff or stick between the valves -of the open shell as the mollusk lies feeding on the bottom; as the -shell is immediately closed tightly upon the intruding stick, it is -easily removed from the water. - -In the deeper waters of the Charente, the fishery is prosecuted on a -larger scale. Until recently, the _palourdes_ were caught by means of a -dredge towed by a small boat, which was raised from time to time and the -catch removed. Ten or fifteen years ago the scaphander or diving -apparatus was introduced, requiring seven men for its operation, and by -its use large catches have been made. The mussels are taken to the bank -and there boiled for a time to cause the shells to open, so that the -contents may be easily removed. - -The shells are examined one by one to find any pearls that may adhere -thereto, and then the flesh of the mollusk is crushed between the -fingers to locate pearls contained in the mass; this is done largely by -children, working under competent supervision. Many pearls of fairly -good size and luster are obtained. The flesh of this mollusk is edible -and well-liked in southwestern France; and the shells are also of value -in the manufacture of buttons and similar objects. - -In Germany the pearl fisheries are most important in streams of the -southern districts, in Bavaria, Saxony, and Silesia. The pearl-mussel in -these waters is not so abundant as formerly; yet, owing to the care -which has been given to these resources, it is probably as numerous here -as in any other part of the continent. The mussel rarely occurs singly, -generally in small beds or banks contiguous to each other, and in some -favorable regions these are extensive. - -The pearl fisheries of Bavaria have been prominent since the sixteenth -century. They exist principally in the districts of Upper Franconia -(_Oberfranken_) and Upper Palatinate (_Oberpfalz_), the several -tributaries of the Danube between Ratisbon and Passau, and in those -tributaries of the Main and the Saale which rise in the Bavarian -mountains, such as the Oelsnitz, the Lamnitz, Schwesnitz, Grünebach, -Vils, and the Perlbach; also in the district of Lower Bavaria, where in -nine districts alone there are one hundred pearl-bearing streams and -lakes, of which the most important are the Regen, the Isar, and the -Ilz.[211] - -Early in the sixteenth century, the river Ilz had the reputation of -yielding the choicest pearls in Lower Bavaria. The right to them was -reserved to the bishop of Passau, and a decree was made in 1579 that -persons convicted of poaching on these reserves should be hanged.[212] -Since that time there have been few decades in which the gems have not -been found in the woodland brooks and mountain streams that flow through -the ravines and past quaint, interesting castles of the wonderful -Bavarian highlands. Most of the prominent families in this beautiful -region have collections of native pearls, and there is still some trade -in them in picturesque Passau, at the junction of the Danube, the Ilz -and the Inn. - -Tavernier wrote about 1670: “As for the pearls of Scotland, and those -which are found in the rivers of Bavaria, although necklaces are made of -them which are worth up to 1000 _écus_ (£225) and beyond, they cannot -enter into comparison with those of the East and West Indies.”[213] - -The official returns for the Bavarian fisheries, dating from the latter -part of the sixteenth century, were examined by Von Hessling in 1858. He -noted many gaps in the statements of the yearly returns, partly on -account of the loss of the records and partly because the pearls were -delivered directly into the hands of the princes. The results of the -first fisheries are recorded in the district of Hals for the years -1581–99, in Viechtach for 1581–83 and 1590–93, and in Weissenstadt and -Zwiesel for 1583. The range of the fisheries was enlarged through the -discovery of new areas during the first half of the seventeenth century; -but this was offset by the bad seasons and by disturbed conditions -during the Thirty Years’ War. From 1650 to 1783 the pearls in the forest -lands of the Palatinate were exploited regularly and uninterruptedly, -with the exception of the district of Wetterfeld and that of Neunburg -vor dem Wald, where they were prosecuted for a few years only. From 1783 -to 1814, they were almost entirely neglected, and the take was confined -to a few streams in Upper Palatinate and in the Bavarian forests. In the -former episcopal principality of Passau, where, according to general -accounts, the waters were rich in pearls, the records were scanty -previous to 1786; this was probably owing to the fact that the head -gamekeeper was obliged to transmit the catch of pearls directly to the -prince-bishop. The records for the fisheries in the districts of Rehau -and Kulmbach began with the year 1733. - -From these fragmentary returns—making no estimate for the years for -which there were no figures available—Von Hessling found that from 1600 -to 1857 there were taken 15,326 pearls of the first class, which were -clear white in color and of good luster; 27,662 pearls of the second -class, which were somewhat deficient in luster, and 251,778 pearls of -the third or poorest class, or “_Sandperlen_,” which, though of poor -quality, had sufficient whiteness and luster to be used as ornaments. -Had the records been complete, these figures would probably have been at -least fifty per cent. greater, or a total of about 445,000 pearls in the -257 years. In the last forty-three years of this period, for which the -records are fairly complete, the annual average was 208 pearls of the -first, 395 of the second, and 3091 of the third class, a total each year -of 3694 pearls of all grades. This was divided among the districts as -follows: - - ANNUAL AVERAGE - - District First class Second class Third class Total - Upper Franconia 13 34 52 99 - Upper Palatinate 38 77 207 322 - Lower Bavaria 157 284 2832 3273 - ——— ——— ———— ———— - Total 208 395 3091 3694 - -Probably the most interesting of the pearl fisheries in Germany are -those prosecuted in the extreme southwestern part of the kingdom of -Saxony, in the picturesque region known as Vogtland. This is not on -account of their extent, for the output rarely exceeds $2000 in value in -any season; but because for nearly three hundred years they have been -conducted with the utmost care and regard for the preservation of the -resources. Indeed, a record exists of practically every pearl obtained -for nearly two centuries. - -The waters in which the Saxon Vogtland fisheries are prosecuted are the -Elster River, from the health resort of that name to a short distance -below Elsterberg; its tributaries, the Mülhaüser, Freiberger, and -Marieneyer brooks; the Hartmannsgrüner and the Triebel brooks, the -Trieb, the Meschelsgrüner, the Teil, and Loch brooks, and twenty-five or -more small ponds. - -For most of the data relative to these fisheries, we are indebted -to J. G. Jahn’s “Die Perlenfischerei im Voigtlande,” Oelsnitz, -1854; to Hinrich Nitsche’s “Süsswasserperlen, Internationale -Fischerei-Ausstellung zu Berlin,” 1880, and to O. Wohlberedt’s -“Nachtrag zur Molluskenfauna des Königreiches Sachsen,” -“Nachrichtsblatt der deutschen Malakozoologischen Gesellschaft,” -Frankfurt-am-Main, 1899, pp. 97–104. - -In the year 1621, the electoral prince, Johann Georg I, reserved the -pearl fishery of the Vogtland in Saxony as a royal privilege, and -appointed Moritz Schmerler as superintendent and fisherman. From that -time until the present, this fishery has remained a royal prerogative; -and, remarkable to state, except at the close of the seventeenth century -when the father-in-law of a Schmerler enjoyed the privilege, all the -superintendents of the fishery—twenty-four persons in number—have been -direct descendants of the second pearler, Abraham Schmerler, who, in -1643, succeeded his brother Moritz. The present superintendent Julius -Schmerler has been in charge since 1889. - -This fishery is conducted in accordance with regulations of the chief -inspector of forests for the district of Auerbach. The present -regulations date from June 15, 1827. In compliance therewith an -inspection is made of the waters each spring to remove all obstructions -and debris that would injure the resources; and, if necessary, entire -beds of mussels are removed from one locality to another which appears -more favorable. No mussels are opened at that time, for the real search -for pearls does not begin until the season is far advanced and the -fishermen can wade up to the waist in the water without discomfort. - -Dr. Nitsche states that the whole pearling district is not searched over -every year, but is divided into 313 sections, each one constituting a -day’s work for three fishermen, and rarely are more than twenty or -thirty of these fished in any one year. Thus each section or district is -permitted to rest and recuperate for ten or fifteen years before it is -again invaded. Every mussel is opened carefully by hand, with the aid of -a peculiarly constructed iron instrument. By inserting the edge of this -between the nibs of the shell and turning it at right angles, the valves -are opened sufficiently to determine whether a pearl is contained -therein. If none is observed, the instrument is released and the mussel -returned uninjured to the water; but if a pearl is found within, the -shell is forced open and the find removed. In case small pearls are -observed which give promise of growing larger in time, they are not -removed, but the year is marked upon the shell with the opening -implement and the mussel returned to the water. It often happens that -good pearls are later removed from shells marked in this manner. - -Complete records exist of the yield of this fishery during each year -since 1719, when the Vogtland passed to the electorate of Saxony. The -following is a summary of these records arranged in series of twenty -years each. - -[Illustration] - - DOWAGER CZARINA OF GRAND DUCHESS VLADIMIR GRAND DUCHESS MARIE - RUSSIA PAVLOVNA - - Years Half - Clear clear Sand Damaged Average - pearls pearls pearls pearls Total per year - No. No. No. No. No. No. - - 1720–1739 1,809 727 1,201 552 4,289 214 - - 1740–1759 1,412 578 484 281 2,755 138 - - 1760–1779 1,042 272 427 219 1,960 98 - - 1780–1799 1,261 243 357 179 2,040 102 - - 1800–1819 1,603 261 325 203 2,392 120 - - 1820–1839 1,659 340 326 326 2,651 133 - - 1840–1859 1,884 610 387 505 3,386 169 - - 1860–1879 1,618 682 450 514 3,264 163 - - 1880–1899 471 394 86 373 1,324 66 - - 1900–1905 79 161 22 86 348 58 - - —————— ————— ————— ————— —————— ——— - - Total in - 186 years 12,838 4,268 4,065 3,238 24,409 - - Average per - year 69 23 22 17 131 - -In recent years the development of manufacturing industries in Saxony -and the resultant pollution of the water has greatly reduced the -abundance of the mollusks and consequently the output has been much -restricted. The average annual yield in the twenty years ending in 1879 -was 163 pearls; in the twenty years ending in 1899 it was 66 pearls, and -in the six years ending in 1905 the annual average was 58 pearls. Owing -to high water, there was no fishing in 1888; and with a view to -permitting the resources to recuperate, the fishery was suspended from -1896 to 1899, inclusive. Omitting these five years, the average yield -during each season in the two decades ending 1899 was 88 pearls. - -At the end of each season, the pearls secured are turned over to the -director of forestry for the district of Auerbach; by him they were -formerly sent to the royal cabinet of natural history, or to the royal -collection at Dresden, but since 1830 they have been sent to the royal -minister of finance, by whom they are sold each year. The total proceeds -from these sales now amount to about 55,000 marks. - -In former times, according to Dr. Nitsche, it was customary to use these -pearls in making royal ornaments. This was the origin of the famous -Elster necklace, consisting of 177 pearls, now in the art collection in -the Grüne Gewölbe in the palace at Dresden. Another assortment in that -collection consists of nine choice, well-matched pearls, weighing 140 -grains. For a necklace of Saxon pearls, the property of a duchess of -Sachsen-Zeitz, the sum of 40,000 thalers ($28,400) is said to have been -refused. - -In Prussian Silesia the pearl-mussel is found in the upper tributaries -of the Oder, especially in Bober River from Löwenberg to the sources -among the foot-hills of the beautiful Riesengebirge, in the Lusatian -Neisse to Görlitz, the Queiss above Marklissa, and in the Juppel as far -as Weidenau. The Queiss has been famous for its pearls since the -sixteenth century, and even yet specimens of great beauty are obtained -therefrom. As long ago as 1690, Ledel complained of the diminution of -the number of mollusks owing to their wilful destruction by children; -and in 1729 the government issued a rescript in Upper Lusatia -(_Oberlausitz_) recommending the care of the young mollusks.[214] - -Pearls are also found in the White Main a short distance from its -source, in the head waters of the Saale, and in numerous other -mountain-draining streams of middle Germany. Indeed, references could be -made to the discovery of pearls in nearly every stream of Germany at -some time during the last three or four centuries. - -The records of pearl fisheries in the province of Hanover were traced by -Von Hessling as far back as the sixteenth century, when they were -prosecuted in the Aller, Ovia or Om, Lua or Low, and in the Seva in the -district of Lüneburg. During the reign of Christian Ludwig (1641–65) and -in that of George William (1666–1705), pearl fishing was carried on by -the state, and old records of the former district of Bodenteich note the -customs and practices of that period and of earlier times, and the -implements employed. In 1706, for instance, 265 clear and 292 imperfect -pearls were taken by three official fishermen from the Gerdauerbach. -Gradually, however, owing to indifferent management, the brooks yielded -less and less; the government seems to have entirely abandoned -supervision of them, so that, according to Taube’s “Communication,”[215] -slight results were obtained in 1766; indeed, only a few pearls could be -shown as curiosities.[216] - -Regarding the condition of the Hanoverian pearl-brooks, especially of -those in the vicinity of Uelzen, Möbius wrote: “Uelzen lies at the -confluence of eleven small rivulets, three of which, the Wipperau, the -Gerdau and the Barnbeck, contain pearl-mussels. Fishing has been pursued -here for centuries, and there exists an old regulation of the sixteenth -century in regard to the pearl fisheries in the Ilmenau. Even at the -present day, hundreds of pearls are found here which command a good -price when they are bright and of good form. These either have a silvery -sheen or they are of a reddish color. The season for fishing is during -the months of July and August. The pearls are usually found in deformed -shells. Their shape varies greatly; most of them are flat on one side. -Naturally those which are spherical are the best, but the pear shapes -are highly prized.” Möbius frequently failed to find one pearl in a -hundred shells, but at other times he came across six or eight in this -quantity. Most of the mussels are found in the deepest places, -especially near the banks of the streams. One end of the shell usually -projects out of the sand. The fisherman is represented as feeling about -the bottom with his feet, and when he finds a shell, he seizes it -between his toes, picks it out, and then places it in the basket -suspended from his neck.[217] - -[Illustration: - - MITER OF PATRIARCH NIKON - - Presented by the Czar Alexis Mikhailovitch and the Czarina Marie - Illiinichna. Decorated largely with European fresh-water pearls. Now - in the treasury of the Patriarchs, Moscow. -] - -In Baden and in Hesse are small pearl fisheries. In 1760, Elector -Maximilian III sent to Mannheim, then in the Palatinate, eight hundred -living pearl-mussels from the Bavarian forests, and again in 1769, he -sent four hundred mussels from Deggendorf on the Danube, so that they -might be established in the Palatinate. The mussels were placed in the -Steinbach not far from Heidelberg, where they thrived so well that -fishing was instituted in 1783. Soon, however, most of the mussels -became buried in the sand, and the remainder were transplanted into a -quieter portion of the Steinbach, between Kreutzsteinach and Schönau, -about five miles northeast of Heidelberg. Here they seem to have been -forgotten, and were left undisturbed until, about 1820, a fine pearl -valued at two louis d’or was found near Schönau. This discovery soon led -to such reckless exploitation that the government reserved the fishery -as a state monopoly. The mussels were examined and sorted, and a portion -of the brook was specially prepared for their reception. However, the -cost of supervision was greater than the proceeds of the fishery, and -the business was rented to private parties for a very small amount. This -was paid as late as 1840 by the Natural History Society of Mannheim, the -annual rate then being ten florins. - -An effort was made nearly two hundred years ago to develop the pearl -fisheries in Hesse. In 1717, Landgrave Prince William requested his -cousin, Duke Moritz of Saxony, to send a pearl fisherman “to examine -some streams in his territory where mussels have been found and to -determine whether they are fitted for pearl fishing and whether -fisheries can be established.”[218] In the following year, a member of -the famous Schmerler family from the Saxon fisheries was sent to Cassel, -but with what result is unknown. - -When the pearling excitement developed at Schönau about 1820, Landrath -Welker, of Hirschhorn on the Neckar, requested the grand duke of Hesse -to place him in charge of the fishery, and when the proposition was -declined, he formed a small company for pearl-culture. In 1828 his -company had 558 mussels, 88 of which showed pearl formations; in 1833, -out of 651, 98 contained such objects, and in 1851, 117 mussels were -found with pearl formations out of 867 examined.[219] Owing to the -policy of the company in selling the pearls only among the members -thereof, the profits were altogether insufficient to cover the expenses, -and gradually the fishery dwindled down until it was prosecuted only as -a pastime. - -Pearls are found in the province of Schleswig-Holstein, which formerly -belonged to Denmark, but since 1866 has been a part of the kingdom of -Prussia. Möbius relates that the Bavarian soldiers in 1864 collected -large quantities of pearls from the streams of this province and sold -many of them to jewelers in Hamburg.[220] Most of them were of good form -and luster; milky white was the prevailing tint, but some were pink and -others were rose-tinted. - -In Austria, pearl fisheries are most important in the province of -Bohemia, where they are prosecuted in the headwaters of the Moldau from -Krumau, a few miles above Budweis, to below Turenberg, and to a much -less extent in its tributary, the Wottawa, on the northeastern slopes of -the Böhmer Wald or Bohemian Forest mountains. From very early times the -right of fishery belonged to those domains and estates through which the -streams flow, as for example, the cloister of Hohenfurth, the domain of -Rosenberg, of Krumau, etc. The Schwarzenberg family formerly drew a -considerable revenue therefrom. Over a hundred years ago the fishery was -actively prosecuted by Count Adolph Schwarzenberg, who exhibited at the -Bohemian Exposition, held in Prague in 1791, an interesting collection -of shells, apparatus employed in the fishery, and many beautiful pearls -obtained from his domains. The fisheries of the Wottawa were noted in -1560 by the Swiss naturalist Konrad von Gesner,[221] and again in 1582 -by the district treasurer, Wolf Huber von Purgstall. In 1679, Balbinus -referred to the excellent qualities of the pearls, estimating the value -of many of them at twenty, thirty, and even one hundred golden florins -each. He described the methods by which they were taken, and also -complained of the destruction of the reefs by depredations of -poachers.[222] - -The Wottawa or Otawa River has long had linked with its name the epithet -“the gold- and pearl-bearing brook.” Formerly, along its shores gold -washing was more or less carried on, as well as the fresh-water -pearl-mussel industry. At the present time, every third or fourth year, -these mussels are gathered, by means of small, fine-woven nets, from the -bed of the river, and a goodly number of pearls are collected. - -The reefs in the Moldau from Hohenfurth to Krumau were almost entirely -ruined in 1620 by the troops who were cantoned there when the Bohemian -Protestants were overthrown near the beginning of the Thirty Years’ War, -and they never regained the reputation they formerly enjoyed. According -to the Vienna “Handels- und Börsenzeitung,” the output of the pearls -fifty years ago in the upper Moldau, in the Wottawa, and in the -Chrudimka—a tributary of the Elbe—reached in some years the sum of one -million florins in value, and as much as eighty and sometimes even one -hundred and twenty florins were paid for an individual specimen.[223] -These pearls closely resemble those from Passau in Bavaria, and some -approach the oriental gems in luster. - -In the archduchy of Austria, pearls occur in several of the tributaries -of the “beautiful blue Danube.” They are especially important in streams -within the former district of Schärding, such as the Ludhammerbach, the -Ranzenbergerbach, the Glatzbachenbach, the Brambach, the -Schwarzbergerbach, the Mosenbach, and the Hollenbach; those in the -former district of Waizkirchen, including the Pirningerbach, the -Kesselbach, and many of their tributary brooks, and the Michel, the -Taglinsbach, the Fixelbach, and the Haarbach, in the domain of -Marbach.[224] Fishing in the Pirningerbach and the Kesselbach was -prosperous about 1765, and Empress Maria Theresa received a beautiful -necklace and bracelets of the pearls therefrom. In the district of -Marbach, the fishing was prosecuted as long ago as 1685 for the account -of the archbishop of Passau. - -In Hungary from time immemorial, the native pearls have been popular -with the Magyar women, and very many yet exist in the old Hungarian -jewelry worn with the national costume. A century ago there was scarcely -a family of local prominence which did not possess a necklace of pearls, -although these were frequently not of choice quality or of considerable -size. With a falling off in the output of the native streams there has -been a great increase in the quantity of choice oriental pearls -purchased by the wealthy families, and some of the most costly necklaces -in Europe are now owned here. - -In the kingdom of Denmark no pearl fisheries are now prosecuted, but -three centuries ago the gems were taken in the Kolding Fjord in the -province of Veile, Jutland. The great Holberg, who ranks first in Danish -literature, wrote that the governor of the castle at Kolding employed as -a pearl fisherman a Greenlander who had come to Denmark in 1605 or 1606, -and who “had given the governor to understand that in his native land he -was accustomed to fish for pearls.” Being required to work continuously, -both winter and summer, he fell ill and died, and as no one else wished -to pursue the occupation, the fishery ceased.[225] - -In many of the Norwegian brooks, pearl fishing has been carried on for -two or three centuries, and often with satisfactory results. It appears -from ordinances dated November 10, 1691, May 14, 1707, and May 28, 1718, -that the fisheries were under special supervision as a royal prerogative -of the queen of Denmark.[226] Jahn notes that in 1719 and in 1722, Saxon -pearl fishermen were sent for. In 1734 Charles VI of Denmark requested -the elector of Saxony to send one of the pearl fishermen of Vogtland to -examine the brooks of Norway in reference to the pearl resources, and to -determine the practicability of establishing fisheries there. In -response to this request, C. H. Schmerler was sent to Copenhagen and -thence to Christiania, where he began an investigation of the Norwegian -waters, the governor himself attending at the beginning of the work. So -great was the estimation of its importance, that Schmerler was soon -afterward received in audience by the king and queen of united Denmark -and Norway at Frederiksborg palace near Copenhagen, and was awarded a -gift of one hundred ducats and a life-pension.[227] - -In 1751, according to Pontoppidan, Bishop of Bergen, the Norwegian pearl -fisheries were placed under the jurisdiction of the diocese of -Christiansand. Among the principal pearling regions at that time were -the Gon, Närim and Quasim rivers in the Stavanger district or amt; the -Undol, Rosseland and other brooks in the Lister and Mandal province; and -several streams in the district of Nadenäs.[228] - -The returns from the Norwegian fisheries gradually decreased. After 1768 -the rights were leased, and the revenue therefrom was paid into the -royal treasury. Owing to small returns, this source of revenue received -less and less attention, and about a century ago it was altogether -neglected, although from time to time choice finds were made. Due to -unusually low water in 1841, a number of valuable pearls were found near -Jedderen in the province of Christiansand, some selling as high as $300 -each; several of these were shown at the London Industrial Exhibition by -the diocese of Christiania. - -[Illustration: - - PANAGIA OR ORNAMENT WORN ON THE BREAST OF A BISHOP IN RUSSIA -] - -The pearl fisheries of Sweden were noted, nearly four centuries ago, by -Olaus Magnus, Archbishop of Upsala.[229] The gems were sought for by -expert fishermen in the interior districts, and were brought in large -quantities to the coasts for sale, the women and girls of all classes, -rich and poor, using them extensively in personal decoration. - -The celebrated Linnæus left a detailed account of the method by which -mussels were caught in Sweden nearly two centuries ago. He wrote: “In -the summer season, if the water is shallow, the fishermen wade in the -stream and gather the mussels with their hands. Should the water be -deeper, they dive for the mussels and place such as they find in a -vessel made of birch bark, which they carry with them. Sunny days are -selected, because then they can see deeper into the water. But, should -this not suffice, they traverse the river on rafts which are painted -white beneath so that the bed of the stream may be illumined by the -reflected light. The men lie prone on the rafts and look down into the -depths so that they may immediately seize with wooden tongs the mussels -which they discover. Or else, hanging by their hands to the rafts, they -seize them in the water with their toes. If the water is too deep even -for this, they dive and feel around on the bottom with their hands until -it becomes necessary to rise again to the surface in order to breathe. -However, out of a hundred mussels, scarcely one contains a good pearl; -but sometimes as many as twenty pearls of the size of a grain of sand -are found in one shell. Many of the larger pearls are reddish or dark, -but occasionally a beautiful white pearl is hidden under such a -covering; although, naturally, it is rare that this is altogether -perfect. It has been noted that mussels seven years old contain pearls; -and in each of two mussels eighteen years old, a pearl was found -attached to the shell.”[230] - -The list of streams in Sweden from which pearls were taken, as noted by -Olaf Maimer, J. Fischerstein, and Gissler[231] a century and a half ago, -seems to cover nearly all the rivers and brooks which flow from the -mountains of this beautiful country. - -In Russia the love for the pearl has been almost as great as in Persia -and India. During the Middle Ages, pearls were worn upon the clothes of -nearly all well-to-do Russians. The great head-dresses of the women were -ornamented with them; and they were used in decorating the stoles, -vestments, crosses, and the priceless relics in the churches. - -The pearl-mussel is found in very many of the Russian streams. It occurs -throughout Archangel, in most of the rivers which flow into the White -Sea, into Lake Ladoga, Lake Onega, and the Baltic Sea; and likewise in -the Volga watershed. Von Hessling states that east of the Volga its -southern boundary extends to Lat. 56°, while on the west it extends -further southward, so that in the region of the Dnieper it reaches Lat. -51°. The extreme southern limit is near the mouth of the Don, about 47° -north latitude.[232] - -In northern Russia pearls are secured in the provinces of Livonia. -Esthonia, and Olonetz, and in the grand duchy of Finland, where they -have been sought after for three centuries or more. Most of them are -bluish gray in color and they attain a maximum weight of about twelve -grains. Although not equaling the oriental gems, these pearls are of -good quality and are highly esteemed, not only by the peasants but by -the nobility and by the royal family of Russia. For reference to most of -the historical data relative to the fishery in Livonia, we are indebted -to an account written by H. Kawall.[233] - -So long ago as 1612, Dionysius Fabricius compared the pearls of Livonia -with those of India. Said he: “Nor should I omit to mention that there -are rivers in Livonia wherein large pearls are produced in shells; and I -myself have seen some as large as the oriental, especially when they are -well grown. But because the peasants of this region are too ignorant to -determine with certainty when they mature, they are unable to collect -them properly, and therefore the pearls have become rarer.”[234] - -According to Mylius,[235] in the seventeenth century, when Livonia -belonged to Sweden, the pearl resources received attention from the -government. Charles IX of Sweden decreed October 22, 1694, that the -pearls therefrom should not be exported but should be sold to officers -of the crown at a definite price. In 1700, an inspector of the fishery -in Livonia, whose name was Krey, reported that the peasants collected -pearls secretly from the small rivers and brooks, and forwarded them to -Moscow for sale. As the peasants objected to selling them to the king’s -commissioners at the prices fixed, the fishery soon dwindled in extent. -However, on the annexation of Livonia to Russia in 1712, and the removal -of these restrictions, it revived and became of local importance during -the last years of the reign of Peter the Great. - -In 1742 the Livonian fishery was reorganized at the suggestion of a -Swede named Hedenberg. Furnished by the government with funds and an -escort, he began an exploration of the pearl-bearing waters, commencing -with Lake Kolk, where he secured many pearls of value, some of which -were presented to Empress Elizabeth.[236] - -The fishery then came into great favor. To the nobility of Livonia, in -whose domains the brooks were situated, the crown accorded sixty rubles -for each half ounce of choice pearls secured, and for every half ounce -of the second class, thirty rubles; but the nobles were obliged to -renounce their rights to the fisheries and to permit the lakes and -brooks to be guarded by imperial soldiers. Owing to the very great -destruction of mussels which yielded no pearls, a reward was offered to -any one who would discover a method of determining from external -characteristics those individual shells which contain gems of value. - -In 1746, when the Empress Elizabeth passed the summer in Livonia, large -quantities of pearls from the neighboring brooks were presented to her. -But, owing to the cost of supervision, the expenditures soon exceeded -the revenues and the government abandoned the guard and dismissed the -fishermen. Little by little the search decreased, and by 1774 relatively -few pearls were found.[237] - -According to Hupel, the Schwarzbach River, near Werro, was celebrated -for its pearls, which were noted for their size and beauty; one of the -tributaries of this river is named Perlenbach (Pearl Brook). The Ammat -and Tirse streams, and forty other brooks and lakes also yielded them. -Pearls of slight value were likewise produced in the Palze and the -Rause, near Palzmar; the Paddez, a tributary of the Evest which empties -into the Düna, and the Voidau and the Petribach, each of which flows -into the Schwarzbach. Near the Tirse was a very old road house, -patronized by the peasants, which from time immemorial had borne the -name Pehrlu-kroghs (Pearl Tavern). - -Formerly some of the brooks of Esthonia on the Gulf of Finland, and -principally those near Kolk and the adjacent lakes, furnished beautiful -pearls. From these waters came the beautiful necklace which is yet an -heirloom in the Kolk family. The choicest of these weighed from five to -ten grains, and the color was grayish blue. The Emperor Alexander I is -said to have received a present of pearls collected in the vicinity of -Tammerfors, in the government of Tavastehus, in the grand duchy of -Finland. The development of manufacturing in that region, however, has -destroyed most of the mussels. - -Von Hessling notes that in the province of Olonetz, pearls are found in -the Poventshanka, in the Ostjor, and in the Kums, where they are secured -by the neighboring peasants who sometimes make valuable finds.[238] When -the brooks dry up, the mussels are easily secured; old inhabitants note -that on one occasion of this kind many superb pearls were found in the -Poventshanka, and a necklace of them was presented to the Empress -Catherine Alexievna. These pearls rarely leave the province in which -they are collected, as the inhabitants are fond of using them for -personal decoration. Young girls attend to the fishing, and workmen -pierce them for about two copecks each. Choice ones sell for thirty to -one hundred rubles apiece. - -In the government of Archangel pearls have been collected for centuries -from the streams flowing into the White Sea and the Arctic Ocean. An -extended account of the fisheries of this region was given by Von -Middendorff.[239] He states that the _Unio margaritifera_ inhabits all -the rivers in which the descent is not too rapid, and especially in the -Tjura, the Tuloma, the Kovda, Kereda, the Kanda, etc. The fisheries have -been conducted exclusively by the shore Laplanders; but they have been -neglected in recent years owing to the small returns. Von Hessling notes -that the pearls are dull in color; in the opinion of the fishermen this -is caused by the mysterious influence of the copper money which they -carry with them. The Tuloma was formerly a productive river; its pearls -were sold in Kola, whence they were carried to Archangel, 335 miles -distant, where they were pierced by expert workmen. The Tjura also -yielded many pearls; but since a Laplander was drowned while fishing for -them, a legend has spread that the spirit of the river guards the -pearls, and the natives hesitate about seeking them. - -Probably the occurrence of so many in the home streams had much to do -with developing in Russia that great love for the pearl which has made -it the national ornament, all classes finding pleasure in its -possession. While the superb gems treasured by the nobility are mostly -from oriental seas, a considerable percentage of those worn by the -peasantry are from the native waters. An interesting account of this -fondness among a certain class of Russian women—the Jewesses of Little -Russia—was given sixty years ago by the German traveler Kohl. - -[Illustration: - - RUSSIAN BOYARD LADIES OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, SHOWING CAPS AND - OTHER ORNAMENTS OF PEARLS -] - - In Alexandria, a small city in the government of Kherson in South - Russia, a Jew kept a café, and his charming daughter served us with - coffee. We paid her compliments on her beautiful eyes and teeth. But - she seemed to be much less vain of these natural ornaments than of - the acquired ones in the magnificent glittering pearl-cap which she - wore upon her head. For all the women through South and Little - Russia even as far as Galicia wear a certain stiff, baggy cap which - is very disfiguring, and is covered all over with a great number of - pearls, upon a foundation of black velvet. It is called a “mushka.” - This cap, with very unimportant modifications, has almost always the - same form; the only difference is that, in the case of the wealthy, - the pearls are larger, and sometimes a number of small pearls and - precious stones are suspended here and there, set in the same way as - the earrings of our ladies. It is common for them to wear half their - fortune on their heads in this way. For these caps generally cost - from five hundred to one thousand roubles, and many are worth five - or six thousand and even more; they wear them every day, holidays as - well as ordinary days, and strut around the kitchens and cellars - with their “mushka.” They spend their last penny in order to secure - such a pearl-cap, and even when they are clad in rags their head is - covered with pearls. In order to furnish the requisite material for - this wide-spread fashion, the commerce in pearls of Odessa, Taganrog - and some other places in southern Russia is not unimportant. There - may live in the region where the pearl-caps of which I speak are - worn at least 2,000,000 Jewesses. Let us estimate that among them - there are but 300,000 adults, and that only half of these, 150,000, - wear pearl-caps (only the most indigent and the most aristocratic do - not wear the “mushka”); let us then estimate the average value of - such a cap at only five hundred roubles—these are the lowest minima - and fall far short of the real figures—and we have a total capital - of 76,000,000 roubles, which the Jewesses of this region wear upon - their heads. Naturally the annual diminution of this capital is - small, since these pearls are transmitted from the mothers to their - daughters and granddaughters. Still, if we estimate that they last - for a century, the necessary yearly contribution amounts to nearly - one million. It is, however, probable that a much larger capital is - employed in the commerce of pearls. They are, for the most part, - oriental and come by way of Turkey and Odessa or else by way of - Armenia and Tiflis. We inquired of our beautiful Jewess whether she - was not in perpetual dread on account of her pearl-cap, and how she - protected it from thieves. She answered that she wore it on her head - all day and at night placed it in a casket which rested under her - pillow. So that the whole short life of these Jewesses of the - steppes revolves around their pearl-cap as the earth does around the - sun.[240] - -Several species of marine mollusks on the coasts of Europe yield pearly -formations, but none of much ornamental or commercial value. Probably -the most interesting of these are from the Pinna on the Mediterranean -coasts, and especially on the coast of Sardinia and the shores of the -Adriatic. An interesting collection of these Pinna pearls was furnished -to the writers by Alexandro Castellani of Rome. - - - - - IX - - ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC - - SOUTH SEA ISLANDS, AUSTRALIAN COASTS, MALAY ARCHIPELAGO - - - - - IX - PEARL FISHERIES OF THE SOUTH SEA ISLANDS - - - Sea-girt isles, - That, like to rich and various gems, inlay - The unadorned bosom of the deep. - - MILTON. - -Gathering pearl shells and pearls is the principal industry of the -semi-amphibious natives of the hundreds of palm-crowned and foam-girdled -islands of the southern Pacific, commonly known as the South Sea -Islands. Among these the most prominent for pearl fishing are the -Tuamotu Islands or Low Archipelago, the Society Islands, the Marquesas, -the Fiji Islands, Penrhyn or Tongareva, and New Caledonia. These are -under the protection of the French government, except Fiji and Penrhyn, -which belong to Great Britain. - -Almost ever since the South Sea Islands have been known to civilization -they have contributed pearls; and the fishery has been one of the -principal industries, not only for the natives, but also for the not -inconsiderable number of sailors who, preferring the lotus on shore to -the salt pork and monotony of ship life, have yielded to the insular -attractions and formed domestic ties. The industry has been especially -extensive during the last seventy years, when there has been a -profitable market for the shells. Most of the natives—men, women, and -children—follow it for a living. Domestic duties rest very lightly upon -the women, and many of these, and even young girls, find employment in -diving, in which at moderate depths these dusky mermaids are nearly, if -not quite as expert as the men and boys. - -Tahiti, the largest of the eleven Society Islands, is the center of the -pearling industry of French Oceanica. It is situated in about Lat. 17° -S. and Long. 150° W., and has an area of approximately 410 square miles -and a population of 11,000, nearly one half of whom live in Papeiti, the -principal town. This is one of the most agreeable of the “Summer Isles -of Eden,” Nature furnishing food in abundance, and climate and social -customs requiring little in the way of dress and habitation. -Notwithstanding its importance as the headquarters of the pearling -industry, few pearl-oysters are caught at Tahiti, most of them coming -from the archipelagoes of Tuamotu, Gambier, and occasionally Tubai. - -The Tuamotu Archipelago is the scene of the principal pearl fisheries of -the South Seas; and from the local importance of this industry the group -is sometimes called the Pearl Islands. These coral-formed islands are -strung out for a distance of 900 miles in a northwest and southeast -direction, and extend from Lat. 14° to 23° S. and from Long. 136° to -149° W. They number about seventy-eight, many of them made up of small -atolls only a few feet above the surface of the ocean, and with an -aggregate area of about 360 square miles. The total population is -approximately 6000, with many visitors from Tahiti and other neighboring -islands during the pearling season. The principal products are pearl -shell and pearls, copra, and cocoanut oil; and nearly one half of the -islands yield nothing but shell and pearls. The chief port is Fakarava -on an island of the same name, and the trade is almost entirely with -Tahiti. - -As the Tuamotus are of coral formation, they produce little vegetable -growth, and the people seem often on the brink of starvation, forming a -striking contrast with those of the neighboring Society Islands. Drawing -their subsistence entirely from the sea, except for the native cocoanuts -and breadfruit, these people have, at times, been in great straits for -food, and it was doubtless severe hunger that drove them to the acts of -cannibalism with which they have been charged. And the sea which -supplies them with food has also visited them with great destruction. As -recently as January, 1903, a great storm swept over this group, drowning -over 500 of the inhabitants, and destroying a very considerable portion -of the pearling fleet and other property. - -The pearl-oyster reefs of the Tuamotu Archipelago are very extensive, -only eight or ten of the islands failing to contribute to the supply. -They occur in the protected lagoons of the atolls, where the bottom is -well covered with coral growth, with numerous elevations and depressions -of various sizes; and it is about the bases and in the recesses of these -coral growths that the best shells are usually found. Most of them are -of the black-edged variety of _Margaritifera margaritifera_, which here -attains a great size, reaching a diameter of twelve inches in extreme -cases. - -While pearl-oysters are found about nearly all of the Tuamotu Islands, -the reefs are richest at Hikueru or Melville Island. When that lagoon is -open it is the scene of the greatest operations, and it is credited with -nearly one half of the total product of the archipelago. At the opening -of the season, this is the resort of fishermen from all over the group, -even from a distance of five hundred miles, and thousands of natives -camp in temporary leaf-thatched huts among the cocoanut-palms on the -beach, those from the different islands congregating in isolated -settlements. As many as five thousand persons are sometimes brought -together in this way. - -[Illustration: - - THE PEARLING REGIONS IN OCEANIA AND MALAYSIA -] - -The volcanic-formed Gambier Islands, with high peaks reaching, in one -instance, an altitude of over 1200 feet, present a striking contrast to -the Tuamotu atolls. This group consists of five large and several small -islands, surrounded by a coral reef of an irregular triangular figure. -The 1100 inhabitants of the Gambier Islands derive a large percentage of -their support from the pearl fishery. The patches of pearl-oysters are -located between the islands and the barrier reefs. They are numerous -about the island of Mangareva, which is well surrounded by them on the -north, east, and southeast. Oysters from the reef of Tearae, which -extends from the eastern point of Mangareva to the small island of -Aukena, a distance of two miles, are especially rich in pearls. On this -reef, where the water is from one to four fathoms in depth, the mollusks -are small, rarely exceeding five or six inches at maturity, but the -shell is very thick and coral covered; these yield many pearls. In -greater depths, the oysters attain a larger size, but they yield few -pearls. - -The first white man to attempt the exploitation of the pearl resources -of the Tuamotus appears to have been Mörenhout. In a voyage to the -Oceanic Islands in 1827, he learned of the great wealth of pearl shell, -and applied to Queen Pomaré at Tahiti for permission to employ the -natives in the fishery. With an eye to business, she required a fee of -$5000 for herself before granting the desired authority.[241] -Considering this excessive, Mörenhout attempted to deal with the natives -without permission of the dusky queen, but under these adverse -conditions he found the trade unsatisfactory and soon abandoned it. - -In 1830, and the years immediately succeeding, desultory pearling -voyages were made from Valparaiso, Chile, and these were followed by -expeditions from America and elsewhere. An interesting account of the -trade at that time is contained in Lucatt’s “Rovings in the Pacific from -1837 to 1849,” published in London in 1851. - -The Mormon influx in 1846 resulted in a further development of the pearl -fishery; and Grouard, the local leader of that denomination, is credited -with making a fortune in the business. - -From the beginning of the industry up to 1880, when control of the -islands passed to the French government, it is estimated that about -15,000 tons of pearl-oysters were secured. The extent of the fishery -during the few years preceding 1880 made such drains upon the -productiveness of the reefs that many of them gave signs of exhaustion. -With a view to adopting methods for conserving the industry, so -essential to the welfare of the natives, the French Ministry of Marine -and Colonies in 1883 inaugurated an investigation of its condition, and -of the possibilities for improvement. This was made under the immediate -direction of G. Bouchon-Brandely, whose interesting report[242] contains -much data on this subject. - -As a result of these investigations and recommendations, a restricted -season for fishing was adopted, and only a portion of the reefs was -thrown open each year, a decree of the governor, published in the -“Journal Officiel” of the colony, determining the islands in which the -fishery might be prosecuted. This interdiction, known locally as -_rahui_, is for the purpose of permitting the oysters to develop, and -thus prevent the exhaustion of the reefs. - -By decree of January 24, 1885, a restriction was made against taking -shells measuring less than 17 centimeters in diameter on the interior -nacre, or weighing less than 200 grams per valve. But this was repealed -in 1890, and since then there has been no restriction on the size of the -oysters that may be fished. - -The pearl fishery and the isolated leper station are the principal -claims which attract the attention of the outside world to the island of -Penrhyn or Tongareva, one of the Manahiki group, in Lat. 9° S., and -Long. 158° W. This desolate atoll island consists of a ring of land a -few hundred yards in width, inclosing a lagoon nine miles long and five -miles wide, and it produces little else than pearls and pearl shell. The -white gravelly shore yields little vegetation except cocoanuts, which -share with fish in furnishing sustenance to the semi-amphibious natives. - -At Penrhyn the pearl fishery is carried on in the clear, limpid waters -of the atoll where the oysters are undisturbed by storms. The shells -belong mostly to the golden-edged variety, and are of good quality, the -value in London ranging from £100 to £250 per ton. Relatively few pearls -are found, amounting in aggregate value to only about one fourth of the -value of the shells. These are the principal objects of the fishery; the -finding of pearls is incidental, but careful search is always made for -them, and some choice specimens have been secured. - -On the coast of New Caledonia, pearling is of recent origin, dating as -an industrial enterprise from 1897, although previous to that time some -shells and pearls had been secured by native beach-combers. This island -is 220 miles in length and 30 in width, situated 850 miles southeast of -Australia, and about the same distance from New Zealand. It is a French -colony, and has been used by that government as a penal settlement since -1864. - -In 1897, rich beds of pearl-oysters were discovered off the west coast -of this island. They are most numerous between the shore and the barrier -reefs on the west coast from Pouembout River to Gomen Bay, and -especially about the small island of Konienne at the mouth of the -Pouembout River. They are also abundant among the Loyalty Islands off -the eastern coast of New Caledonia, and especially at the island of -Lifu.[243] The shell is similar to that from Torres Straits, and the -yield of pearls is very large. Several concessions have been obtained to -exploit these beds, one of them covering 130 miles in length. The -industry is carried on by means of scaphanders, in a manner similar to -that of Torres Straits. Virtually all of the catch is sent to France. - -The natives of the South Sea Islands, and particularly of Penrhyn and -the Tuamotu group, are doubtless the most expert divers in the world. -This can be readily appreciated by those who have read of Hua Manu in C. -W. Stoddard’s thrilling narrative, or have heard the story of the brown -woman who swam for forty hours in a storm with a helpless husband on her -back. Accustomed to the water from infancy, these human otters swim all -day long as readily as they would walk, go miles from shore without a -boat in search of fish which they take by means of baited hook and line, -and boldly attack a shark single-handed. Seemingly fabulous stories are -told of their descending, unaided, 150 feet or more beneath the surface, -and remaining at lesser depths for nearly three minutes, far surpassing -any modern records of the divers of India. - -The water in the South Seas is wonderfully clear, enabling the fishermen -to detect small objects at considerable depths, and especially so when -using the water-telescope, similar to that employed in the Red Sea -fisheries. By immersing this to a depth of several inches and cutting -off the light from the upper end as he gazes through it down into the -waters, the fisherman can readily inspect the bottom at a depth of -fifteen fathoms, and thus locate the shells before he descends. - -The diving is quite unlike that in Ceylon and Arabia. The men do not -descend on stones, but swim to the bottom. The diver is stripped to his -_paréu_ or breech-clout, his right hand is protected by a cotton mitten -or by only a wrapping of cotton cloth, and in his left hand he carries a -pearl shell to assist in directing his movements and in detaching the -oysters at the bottom. In preparing for a deep descent, he sits for -several minutes in characteristic attitude with hands hanging over -knees, and repeatedly inflates his lungs to the fullest capacity, -exhaling the air slowly through his mouth. After five or six minutes of -“taking the wind,” the diver inhales a good breath, drops over the -gunwale into the water to give him a start, and descends feet foremost. -At a distance of twelve or fifteen feet below the surface, gracefully as -an otter or a seal, he bends forward and turns head downward and, with -limbs showing dimly in frog-like motion, he swims vertically the -remaining distance to the bottom. There he assumes a horizontal position -and swims slowly just above the ground, searching critically for -suitable oysters, in this way traversing a distance possibly of fifty -feet or more. When he has secured an oyster, or his breath is -approaching exhaustion, he springs from the ground in an erect position -and rapidly swims upward, the buoyancy of his body hastening his ascent -so that he pops head and shoulders above the surface, and falls back -with laboring pulse and panting breath. In case the dive has been -unusually extended, a few drops of blood may trickle from the nose and -mouth. His find—consisting frequently of nothing and rarely of more than -one oyster—is carried in a cocoanut fiber sack suspended from the neck, -or is held in the left hand, or may be hugged beneath the left arm. - -Ordinarily in actual fishing operations, the fishermen do not descend to -greater depths than fifteen fathoms, and remain from sixty to ninety -seconds. Writing in 1851, a trader who had spent several years in -collecting pearls and pearl shells among the Tuamotus stated: “I timed -several by the watch, and the longest period I knew any of them to keep -beneath the water was a minute and a quarter, and there were only two -who accomplished this feat. Rather less than a minute was the usual -duration. It is unusual for them to attempt deep diving; and let the -shells be ever so abundant, they will come up and swear there are -none.”[244] - -However, in mutual contests or in special exhibitions, reports of -twenty, twenty-three, and even twenty-five fathoms are numerous, and -they have repeatedly been timed two and a half to three minutes. -Bouchon-Brandely speaks of a woman at Anaa, one of the Tuamotus, who -would go down twenty-five fathoms and remain three minutes under -water.[245] This seems very unusual, but there are numerous reports of -two and a half minutes at about seventeen or eighteen fathoms. In -October, 1899, at Hikueru Island, another of the Tuamotu group, a young -native made an exhibition dive for the officers of the United States -Fish Commission steamship _Albatross_. He reached bottom at a depth of -102 feet under the boat’s keel, and remained submerged two minutes and -forty seconds. The water was so transparent that he was clearly seen -from the surface. After he touched bottom at that great depth, he calmly -picked over the coral and shells to select a piece to bring up.[246] The -diver was ready to go down again only a few minutes after he came up. - -In his work on French Oceanica, Chartier states: “There are three women -well known in the archipelago [of Tuamotu] who have no equals elsewhere; -they explore the depth at twenty-five fathoms and remain not less than -three minutes before reappearing at the surface.”[247] However, these -unusual depths and extensions of time are dangerous, and care must be -taken or serious results follow. Most of the catch is obtained in about -ten fathoms of water. - -At the request of the writer, Mr. Julius D. Dreher, American Consul at -Tahiti, made inquiries among the South Sea Islands in regard to the -record of the best divers, and wrote as follows: - - Mr. J. L. Young, who has lived in these islands for thirty years, - informs me that he has never seen a diver remain under water longer - than 80 seconds, and that at a depth of twelve to fifteen fathoms. - At one time he tested a man who claimed to be able to stay under for - three minutes, yet this man could hold his breath on land less than - 80 seconds by the watch. - - Elder Joseph F. Burton, who has spent many years as a missionary in - these islands, states that once in Hikueru, of the Tuamotu group, he - went out in a boat with the divers to time them. The best record - made was 107 seconds, but he was informed that there were better - divers on the island than those he tested. He thinks the water was - ten to twelve fathoms in depth. A native of Takaroa, named Metuaro, - told Mr. Burton that he could stay under water three minutes or - longer. When these divers come up they take a breath and immediately - put their head under water to prevent headache. - - Mr. J. Lamb Doty, formerly Consul and now Vice-Consul at Tahiti, who - has spent eighteen years here, is willing to be quoted as affirming - that he once timed a diver who remained under water 2 minutes 35 - seconds. - - Mr. Henry B. Merwin, a leading trader with the Tuamotu Islands, is - willing to be quoted as saying that he saw a diver remain under - water 4 minutes 45 seconds by the watch. This is generally regarded, - so far as my inquiries go, as improbable; but most persons - interviewed believe that men do remain under water 2½ to 3 minutes. - A native of Takaroa, named Tai, assured me in the presence of others - that there were twenty men in that island who could remain under - water 2½ to 3 minutes at a depth of twenty fathoms. He claimed to be - able to stay 3 minutes at that depth. - -[Illustration: - - Pearl-divers of the Tuamotu Archipelago; men, women and children dive - in these waters -] - -[Illustration: - - Settlement of pearl fishermen at Hiqueru, Tuamotu Archipelago -] - -Diving-suits, or scaphanders, have been used at most of the South Sea -Islands, but in a very irregular manner. In 1890 the use of scaphanders -was restricted in the Tuamotu group, and by decree of December 28, 1892, -it was interdicted altogether with a view to preserving the industry to -the natives, as it represents their principal means of livelihood. The -suit commonly employed at Penrhyn consists of a helmet and a jumper, -neither boots nor trousers being worn. Owing to the absence of weights -on the feet, it rarely but nevertheless sometimes happens that a diver -turns upside down, and the unwieldy helmet keeps him head downward while -the air rushes out under the bottom cord of the jumper and he is -suffocated. Also, when a good patch of shells has been located, the -temptation to remain down too long is great, and paralysis often -results. On the whole, these diving-suits have proven very dangerous to -the light, graceful swimmers of these southern seas, to whom they are -about as much of an impediment as was Saul’s armor to the shepherd lad -who slew the giant with the simple pebble from a sling. - -And there are dangers also in nude diving, even to those who have spent -a lifetime about the water. Sharks and sting-rays and devil-fish there -are in abundance, and many of them know the taste of diver’s flesh; on -the other hand many a daring South Sea Islander could tell of a fierce -combat more thrilling than even those pictured by Victor Hugo. One of -the chief advantages of the diving-suit is that in case a shark comes -along, the diver can bide his time until the fish is ready to leave, or -he can frighten it away by ejecting air bubbles from the sleeve of his -suit or by other demonstrations; whereas a nude diver is obliged to seek -the air without delay, and in the retreat is seized by the fish who, -human like, has his appetite increased by the visible retreat of the -object of his desire. - - Not Schiller nor Edgar Allan Poe ever conjured up a picture more - ghastly than that of a Penrhyn diver caught like a rat in a trap by - some huge, man-eating shark or fierce kara mauua, crouching in a - cleft of the overhanging coral, under the dark green gloom of a - hundred feet of water, with bursting lungs and cracking eyeballs, - while the threatening bulk of his terrible enemy looms dark and - steady, full in the road to life and air. A minute or more has been - spent in the downward journey; another minute has passed in the - agonized wait under the rock.... Has he been seen?... Will the - creature move away now, while there is still time to return? The - diver knows to a second how much time has passed; the third minute - is on its way; but one goes up quicker than one comes down, and - there is still hope.... Two minutes and a half; it is barely - possible now, but—the sentinel of death glides forward; his cruel - eyes, phosphorescent in the gloom, look right into the cleft where - the wretched creature is crouching, with almost twenty seconds of - life still left, but now not a shred of hope. A few more beats of - the laboring pulse, a gasp from the tortured lungs, a sudden rush of - silvery air bubbles, and the brown limbs collapse down out of the - cleft like wreaths of seaweed. The shark has his own. (Beatrice - Grimshaw in the “Graphic.”) - -At the end of the day’s work, the catch is opened by means of a large -knife, and carefully searched for the much prized pearls. Usually the -fisherman finds none; occasionally he discovers a small round one or a -large baroque, and at long intervals—possibly once in two or three -years—his search is rewarded with a fine pearl for which he may receive -$50 or $60, and there is always the chance that the very next oyster -will disclose a gem which will make him independent for the remainder of -his life; and if no pearls whatever are found, there are the shells, the -sale of which furnishes sufficient to purchase tobacco, knives, -fish-hooks, the gaudy cotton cloths, the flour and other simple articles -of food, and especially rum, that fatal gift of civilization which has -been the curse of so many primitive peoples. - -Some of the individual pearls secured have been remarkably large, -weighing 100 grains and over. Returning visitors from Tahiti, with views -magnified doubtless in proportion to the distance of the objects of -their description, credited Queen Pomaré with the possession of some -sufficiently large to be used for billiard-balls. Sixty years ago superb -pearls could be obtained from the natives for a few gallons of rum or a -small number of pieces of cheap calico, and several shrewd traders made -great profits in the business. But as trade at the islands was open to -vessels of all nationalities, the competition increased, with the result -that the natives gradually learned the high estimation in which pearls -are held, and in recent years it has not been unusual for one of medium -grade to sell higher in Oceanica than it would in Europe. - -It is difficult to form a reliable estimate of the value of the pearling -industry of the South Sea Islands. The Tuamotu group, with 4000 -fishermen, yields, in an average season, about 450 tons of -mother-of-pearl, worth about £65,000 in London, where most of it is -marketed. The yield at the remaining French islands is less than that of -the Tuamotus. Probably the total yield of mother-of-pearl in all the -South Sea Islands is not far from 900 tons, worth about $700,000. - -No statistics whatever are available regarding the yield of pearls, and -the estimates sent from the islands are small compared with those made -by London and Paris firms who import the pearls. A large number of -persons living in Papeiti and many traders visiting the islands depend -very largely on pearl-dealing for a livelihood. From the yield of pearl -shell and estimates made by dealers, we are inclined to put the value of -the pearls secured in an average season from all the South Sea Islands -at about $125,000, only a small portion of which goes to the fishermen -themselves, the greater part representing profits of the traders. - - - PEARL FISHERIES OF AUSTRALIA - - Ocean’s gem, the purest - Of nature’s works! What days of weary journeyings, - What sleepless nights, what toils on land and sea, - Are borne by men to gain thee! - - UNKNOWN. - -As regards area of distribution the most extensive pearl-oyster grounds -of the world are situated on the northern and western coasts of -Australia. These are located within the jurisdictions of Queensland, -Western Australia, and South Australia; and extend in irregular patches -from near Cooktown on the northeast almost to Fremantle at the -southwest, a distance of nearly 3000 miles. Those in Queensland are -commonly known as the Torres Straits fisheries, as they are especially -important there; but they extend a considerable distance beyond each end -of the strait, and pearling expeditions are made from the limits of the -Great Barrier coral reef northward to the vicinity of New Guinea.[248] -Those of Western Australia are commonly spoken of as the Northwest -fisheries. - -The fisheries of Queensland and of Western Australia are approximately -equal in extent, as regards number of vessels, boats, and men employed, -and the quantity and value of the catch, with the advantage slightly in -favor of the Northwest fishery in the last four or five years. In 1905, -according to the official figures, the Queensland fishery gave -employment to 348 vessels and 2850 men, and yielded shell and pearls -worth £135,000, which was the smallest output since 1890. The Western -Australia fishery, exclusive of Sharks Bay, employed 365 vessels in -1905, and about the same number of men as in Queensland, and yielded -£196,000 worth of shell and pearls. The fishery of South Australia -employed about 60 vessels and 375 men, and yielded about £25,000 worth -of shell and pearls. This makes for the whole of Australia, except -Sharks Bay hereinafter noted, a total of 773 vessels, 6075 men, and an -output worth £356,000. It should be understood that the South Australia -fishery is not prosecuted on the southern coast of the continent, but on -the northern coast, in what is known as the Northern Territory of South -Australia. - -Three species of pearl-oysters are found in Australian waters. The -largest species, _Margaritifera maxima_, which is by far the most -important and widely distributed, occurs to a greater or less extent -throughout the whole of this region. This yields the standard -motherof-pearl of commerce. Although the pearls which it yields are -among the largest and finest in the world, this mollusk is sought more -particularly for the shell, the value of which from season to season -averages three or four times as much as that of the pearls. Ordinarily -this shell is uniformly white over the entire inner surface, and is -commonly known locally as “silver lip”; but some “golden-edged” shell -occurs on the muddy grounds in narrow passages between the islands on -the northwest coast. - -While this species is gregarious, it is not located in densely covered -beds, but is scattered in patches over the reefs. Some of these are -miles in length and contain scores of tons, but visually they are very -much smaller. The oysters occur principally on rocky bottom, and also on -clay and sand when well covered with seaweeds, but are rarely found on -muddy ground. They are most numerous in the channels where the current -is strong. The small oysters are generally loosely attached by the -byssus to rock, gravel or other shells; while the mature ones lie -loosely on the bottom or slightly turned in the sand. - -The second species of the Australian pearl-oysters, _Margaritifera -margaritifera_, is smaller, rarely exceeding eight inches in diameter -and a weight of two pounds. The distinguishing characteristic is the -black edge bordering the inner surface of the shell, whence it acquired -the local designation “black lip.” This variety is not rare in -Queensland, and in Western Australia its range extends as far as -Champion Bay in Lat. 29° S. However, the catch is small compared with -that of the _Margaritifera maxima_, amounting to only two or three per -cent. in Queensland. In 1905, the export of “silver lip” and -“golden-edged” from Thursday Island was 527 tons, and of “black lip” -only 11 tons; in 1904, these figures were 778 and 7 respectively. In -Western Australia the percentage of yield is much larger than this. - -The third species, _Margaritifera carcharium_, is confined almost -entirely to the limits of Sharks Bay, on the extreme western coast of -Australia. At maturity it is the smallest of the three, averaging three -or four inches in diameter, and about equals in size the Lingah -pearl-oyster of the Persian Gulf. The percentage of pearls therefrom is -relatively greater than from the larger variety; but, owing to its small -size and lack of thickness, the shell is of little commercial value. The -value of the output in recent years has approximated two or three -thousand pounds sterling, which is very much less than formerly, the -value of the shell having greatly decreased since the introduction of -the Mississippi shell in button manufacture. - -The pearl fishery on the coast of Australia originated about 1861. It -appears that an American sailor named Tays was the pioneer in the -business; and on his death by drowning, the business was conducted by -his partner named Seubert.[249] This was on the northwest coast, and the -output reached the market by way of Singapore. At first the oysters were -so abundant in shallow water that they could be picked up at low tide, -and beach-combing was profitable, especially when carried on with cheap -native labor. As the beach-beds became exhausted, the natives were -encouraged to wade out to greater depths, and soon they became -accustomed to “bob under” for those oysters visible from the surface. -The Australian blacks were thus taught to dive, and in 1867 diving from -boats in two or three fathoms was attempted with such success that in -the following year the practice was generally adopted, the depth in -which they worked gradually extending to six or eight fathoms. In diving -from a boat, the men imitated “bobbing under” which they had practised -in shoaler water; they slipped off the gunwale feet foremost, and when -six or eight feet below the surface, turned and swam downward. - -Owing to the close labor relations existing between the natives and the -sheep-raisers of northwestern Australia, the latter were brought into -the business, and for a number of years pearling and sheep-raising were -closely associated. The blacks were employed in various duties in -connection with raising and shearing sheep, and it was important to find -some occupation for them when ranch-work was slack, not only for their -own subsistence but for the protection of the herdsmen and their -property. Fortunately, this opportunity was furnished by the pearl -fishery, for which these men were well qualified. - -The profits of the business soon attracted many outside capitalists, and -it became difficult to procure divers. Not only did the pearlers—and -particularly new-comers—resort to impressing the blacks into service, -but skilled fishermen were brought over from the Malay Archipelago, and -in some cases the methods used in securing them were by no means -regular. - -In 1871 the Northwest pearl fishery gave employment to 12 vessels of 15 -to 50 tons each, and yielded about 180 tons of mother-of-pearl. During -the same year, in Torres Straits, where the industry had extended about -1868, there were 10 vessels—mostly from the port of Sydney—and the catch -of mother-of-pearl approximated 200 tons, valued at £60,000 in -London.[250] Each vessel was commonly manned by two or three white men -and from ten to fifty divers, who worked from dinghys, in gangs of six -or eight each with an overseer in charge. - -As the fishery increased rapidly in extent, the problem of securing nude -divers became a serious one, and “nigger hunting” became rather common, -the Australian black man representing the cheapest form of labor, -working for his food, tobacco, and the simplest articles of clothing. -There was no complaint that the men thus impressed were treated with -inhumanity; on the contrary they were well fed and cared for; yet, with -a view to protecting them and preventing even a suspicion of -wrong-doing, the Australian government enacted regulations restricting -pearling contracts with the natives. Nearly every year these regulations -became more stringent, affecting the hours for diving, and limiting the -work to depths of six and a half fathoms, so that the employment of -Australian aborigines in the fishery became extremely troublesome and -annoying. - -The government of the Netherlands also placed severe restrictions on the -employment of natives of the Dutch Indies, requiring security of £20 per -head for the repatriation of each man; and the local chiefs or rajahs -also expected a rake-off before permitting their men to ship. These -Malays—from the islands of Solor, Allor, Adonare, etc.,—also expected -much better pay and better provisions than the Australian blacks. - -The following interesting account by Henry Taunton gives a graphic -description of the fishery as carried on at that time: - - The work was far from easy. It was exhausting and perilous for the - divers, and full of privation, exposure, and danger for the white - men. Only the hope of a prosperous season reconciled one to the - life. When shells were plentiful and the weather fine, the work was - exciting and interesting enough; but during rough weather, when one - had to be constantly straining at the oar to keep the dinghy from - drifting too rapidly, or when hour after hour might pass without the - men bringing up a single shell, the discouragement was great. The - rays of the vertical sun beating down on one’s shoulders at such - times seemed as if it would never reach the western horizon, which - was the signal for returning on board. - - As may well be imagined, when three or four white men had to control - and compel some thirty or forty natives to carry on work which they - detested, a very strict discipline had to be maintained. It was the - rule that no talking was allowed amongst the divers when in the - dinghy, nor were they even permitted to address the white man, - unless, maybe, to answer a question as to the nature of the bottom, - whether _nanoo_ (sand) or _bannin_ (shelly bottom), etc., or unless - some urgent necessity arose. Sometimes, indeed, I have pushed off - from the vessel’s side of a morning and have not heard a word spoken - until we returned on board at night, unless chance might take me - within hail of some other dinghy, when felicitations or condolences - would be exchanged, as good or bad luck might happen. At times, when - the “patch” was small, the dinghys of the whole fleet might be - congregated on a very small area, in which case the scene was - animated enough. On all sides you could see divers slipping into the - water and others just coming to the surface, puffing, blowing, and - coughing to clear their eyes, ears, and mouth from the salt - water—some with, others without shells. Others would be swimming to - regain their dinghy or squatting in their places for the few - minutes’ rest permitted, and, if the wind were at all fresh, - shivering with cold; for although the weather might be extremely - hot, the constant plunging in and out for many hours at a time - tended to reduce the bodily temperature considerably. The white men - would be seen standing up in each dinghy. They were lightly clad, - with shirt sleeves and trousers rolled up, in all varieties and - colours of costume, from the regulation shirt, trousers, and felt - hat, with leather belt sustaining sheath-knife and pouch, to the - more comfortable pyjama suit, or even the Malay sarong. Some would - be straining hard at the end of the scull-oar, forcing the boat - against wind and tide in the endeavor to keep it as long as possible - on the “patch,” which was marked by the discoverer’s buoy, which - also might be observed nodding on the surface, and canted over by - the swiftly rushing tide. Others, their men all being below, just - kept the dinghy’s head to wind until, by judicious use of the oar - and well-calculated drifting, all the divers reappear on the surface - within a short distance from their own boat. This is the secret of - saving the divers from wasting their powers and time uselessly.... - As may be supposed, where the tide sweeps the divers along the - bottom at the rate of three or four or even six miles an hour, they - have to be very smart in seeking and grabbing any shell within - reach. I have never tested them with a time-keeper; but by counting - seconds on many occasions, from the moment a diver’s head sank below - until it again came above the surface, I estimated the average time - under water was fifty-seven seconds. Part of this is of course - expended in swimming to the bottom, where they can remain only a - very few seconds, as time must be allowed for reaching the surface - before letting go their breath. Practice in ever-varying depths - enables them to gauge this limit of time to a nicety. But sometimes - they cut things too fine, and then a catastrophe was inevitable, - unless much watchfulness was exercised by the white man, who has to - keep his eyes turned in all directions once his men are down. So - long as a diver can hold his breath the pressure forces him to the - surface at a speed which seldom requires accelerating by strokes - with the hands or feet; but the moment he lets go his breath—if - under water—his upward course is arrested and his body commences to - sink. Now, when the white man sees this, either he must plunge in to - the rescue himself, or direct such divers who may be on the top to - do the needful. - - On a calm day, when one can see far into the blue clear depths - below, I have often seen one of my men shooting rapidly upwards - until within perhaps a foot or two from the surface, when a sudden - gush of bubbles from the man’s mouth would tell its own tale. - Instantly he would begin to sink gently downwards, and only quick - action could save this diver who had miscalculated his time. - However, as it was not infrequent for divers to go down and never - come up at all, one may conclude that, where the time to be allowed - is comprised in so few seconds, even the most experienced make fatal - errors.[251] - -The difficulties in securing labor at length resulted in experiments -with the scaphander or diving dress, and gradually its adoption by most -of the pearling fleet. The labor problem and the exhaustion of the -oysters in medium depths developed more quickly in Torres Straits than -on the northwest coast, and diving outfits were introduced there about -1879, while this was delayed about five years longer on the northwest -coast. The outfit did not immediately supplant nude diving in either -locality. In 1883, only 80 of the 206 Queensland vessels were supplied -with scaphanders, the others continuing to use nude diving, and even yet -nearly one third of the vessels depend on that form of fishery. Of the -353 vessels fishing in 1904, 108 depended on nude divers and 245 were -supplied with armored equipment. - -In 1881 the Queensland government took cognizance of the rapidly -developing industry, and enacted a license system and other regulations. -For every boat under two tons an annual license fee of £1 (in 1886 this -was reduced to ten shillings) was enacted, and for every vessel of ten -tons or under, the sum of £3, with an additional amount for vessels in -excess of that measurement; but not exceeding £20 in any case.[252] In -1886 it was required by the Queensland government that every person -employed “as a diver, and using a diving apparatus,” must be licensed -annually, for which a fee of £1 is exacted.[253] And in 1891 it was -required that “every diving dress and air-pump and all air-tubes and -gear used in the fishery in connection with diving must be submitted to -an inspector for examination once at least in every period of six -months.”[254] The license system was adopted in Western Australia in -1886, a fee of £1 per annum being exacted for each vessel engaged in the -fishery.[255] In 1891, South Australia adopted the license system, -requiring that every boat of two tons or under should pay ten shillings, -and that each boat over that measurement should pay twenty shillings. - -With a view to protecting the reefs, the government of Queensland in -1891 enacted a law forbidding the sale or removal—except for cultivation -purposes—of any pearl shell “of the kind scientifically known as -_Meleagrina margaritifera_, and of either of the varieties commonly -known as ‘golden-edged’ and ‘silver lip,’ of which the nacre or -mother-of-pearl measures less than six inches from the butt or hinge to -the opposite edge or lip, but this does not apply to the variety -commonly called ‘dwarf-shell.’”[256] Owing to the difficulty in -enforcing this regulation, the size restriction was reduced in 1897 to -five inches from the hinge to the opposite lip, or six and one half -inches exteriorly, shells of this size weighing approximately one pound. -It is claimed that many oysters less than five inches in length are -raised, opened for pearls, and then cast back into the water.[257] In -1899 the governor of South Australia interdicted the capture in the -waters of that territory of any shell of “_Meleagrina margaritifera_ -measuring less than four inches from the butt or hinge to the opposite -edge or lip.” Competent evidence exists that a good-sized pearl has been -found in an oyster measuring one inch in diameter. - -[Illustration: - - Pearling boats at Hiqueru, Tuamotu Archipelago -] - -[Illustration: - - Australian pearl-diver (armored) coming up from the depths -] - -The fishermen of Western Australia rendezvous at Broome, about one -thousand miles by water north of Perth, the nearest railway station. -With only a thousand or so inhabitants, under normal conditions, this is -a scene of great activity, and bears a reputation of being no -Sunday-school when the fishermen are in, with tons of shell and many a -pickle bottle more or less full of pearls. Cossack and Onslow are also -important stations. - -In 1905, 340 luggers and 25 schooners were employed in the pearl -fisheries of Western Australia, exclusive of Sharks Bay. Of this number -about 85 per cent. hailed from Broome. The schooners ranged in size from -13 to 133 tons, and the luggers were mostly about 12 tons, with a -minimum of 3 and a maximum of 14 tons. The total number of fishermen -approximated 2900, a medley of races, Japanese, Malays, Chinese, Arabs, -native aboriginals and South Sea Islanders working together more or less -harmoniously. The yield consisted of 1394 tons of mother-of-pearl, with -a declared value of £146,225, and about £50,000 worth of pearls, a total -of £196,255 for the year, which was an increase of £32,286 over -1904.[258] - -The headquarters for the fishery of the Northern Territory of South -Australia are at Port Darwin. In 1905 this fishery employed forty-nine -sail vessels and two canoes manned by Europeans, and two proas and -twelve canoes manned by Malays. The crews, numbering about 375, -consisted mainly of Malays, Japanese and Filipinos. In 1905, 42 per -cent. were Malays, 24 per cent. were Japanese, and 20 per cent. were -Filipinos. Owing to the low price of pearl shell, the fishery was not -prosecuted actively, and many of the Asiatics left for the pearling -reefs at the Aru Islands. The total value of pearl shells reported among -the exports for that year was £18,526; during the preceding year it was -£28,391. No record is available for the value of the pearls. - -The Queensland pearling fleet has its rendezvous at Port Kennedy, -Thursday Island, which was originally maintained by the British, the -Queensland, and the New South Wales governments as a harbor of refuge -for mariners. Politically this port is important as the strategic key to -the northeast of Australia, but its prosperity is almost wholly -dependent on the pearl-oyster fishery. The population approximates 1600, -consisting largely of Japanese, Malays, Cingalese, Pacific islanders, -and Australian aborigines, with specimens from nearly every Asiatic and -European nationality, and some from America and Africa. The Japanese -predominate, their influx dating from 1891; and at present the industry -is largely dependent on these Scotchmen of the Orient for its most -skilful workmen. The heterogeneous nationalities, and the abundance of -sand-flies, mosquitos, etc., make this island rather less desirable as a -place of residence than it is interesting from a political and -ethnological point of view. - -The Queensland fishery in 1905 employed 348 vessels, and yielded 543 -tons of shell, according to the government returns. In 1904, 353 vessels -were engaged, and the catch was 798 tons of shell. - -During the last fifteen years there has been a very steady decrease in -the average catch of pearl-oysters per boat in the Australian fishery. -The average catch in the Queensland fleet in 1890 approximated 7 tons -per boat; from 1898 to 1903 it was about 3 tons annually; in 1904 it was -only 2¼ tons, and in 1905 a trifle more than 1½ tons. The yearly -increasing number of boats would naturally lower the average, but the -decrease is generally ascribed to the denudation of the reefs, due to -close working for thirty-five years without giving them a chance to -recuperate. - -The small yield in Queensland in 1904 and 1905 was due largely ta the -extended rough weather and the accompanying thick or muddy water, which -presented an obstacle to the prosecution of the work. Mr. Hugh Milman, -the government resident at Thursday Island, states that each year the -beds in the more sheltered spots have been extensively fished, rendering -it necessary for the fleet to go farther afield in places where the -depth of water is greater, and where the vessels are more exposed to the -full force of the southeast winds which prevail for about seven months -of the year, and which were unusually severe in 1905.[259] The general -denudation of the beds is not the principal cause of the decreased take. -An additional cause for the falling off in 1905 was the deflection of a -large percentage of the fleet to new fields of operation, 110 vessels -leaving for the Aru Islands in the Arafura Sea, when the season was -about half finished. - -For vessels using diving apparatus, the season continues throughout the -year, but it is frequently interrupted by storms, which may cause the -boats to lie in harbor for ten days, or even two weeks at a time. The -nude divers suspend work from December to March, and also during the -season of gales. - -Each vessel is manned by a diver, his attendant, and a crew of four men, -who in pairs take alternate shifts at the manual pump for supplying air -to the diver. The entire force of men take part in managing the vessel -and in caring for the catch. The vessel is provided with full equipment -and supplies of food, water, etc., to last two or three weeks, depending -on the distance of the fishing grounds from the shore station, or the -frequency of trips made by a supply vessel. - -Except a number of owners and their representatives, there are now very -few white persons engaged in pearling in Australian waters. Even the -persons in charge of the vessels are largely natives of the Pacific -Islands. Owing to the hardships encountered and the small remuneration, -it is difficult to secure white labor; and aliens from Japan, the -Philippines, Java, Singapore, India and New Guinea, are employed. - -The divers are of many nationalities, principally Japanese and Malays, -and the former are said to be the most efficient. Previous to 1890, they -were mostly whites, and were paid at the rate of £40 per ton of shells; -but increased competition and the influx of cheaper labor caused a -considerable decrease in the rate of compensation, driving most of the -white men out of the employment. At present the Japanese almost -monopolize the business. Of the 367 divers licensed at Thursday Island -in 1905, 291 were Japanese, 32 were Filipinos, 21 were from Rotuma -Island, 16 were Malays, and 7 were of other nationalities; this shows -how completely the white man has been driven out of this skilled branch -of labor. - -The oysters are so scattered that considerable walking is necessary to -find them. They usually lie with the shells partly open, and in grasping -them the fisherman must be careful not to insert a finger within the -open shell, or a very bad pinch will result. The progress of the vessel -must be adapted to that of the diver, and when a good clump of oysters -is found it may even be desirable to anchor. If the current and wind are -just right, the vessel may repeatedly drift over a bed, the diver -ascending and remaining on board while the vessel is retracing its -course to the windward side of the reef. On new grounds, the nature of -the bottom is determined by casting the lead properly tipped with soap -or tallow, and the prospects for oysters thus determined without -descending. - -During good weather and in eight or ten fathoms of water, a diver can -work almost continually, and need not return to the surface for two -hours or more; but as the depth increases, the length of time he may -remain at the bottom in safety decreases almost in geometric ratio, and -he comes to the surface frequently for a “blow” with helmet removed. -Evidence secured by a departmental commission of the Queensland -government in 1897, showed that in good weather at a depth of eight or -ten fathoms, a diver works from sunrise to sunset, coming to the surface -only a few times. In a depth of over fifteen fathoms the attendant -usually has instructions not to let him remain longer than fifteen -minutes at a time; yet a diver’s eagerness in working where good shell -is plentiful sometimes impels him to order the attendant to disregard -this rule. The very great pressure of the water—amounting to thirty-nine -pounds or more to the square inch—is liable to cause paralysis, and -death occasionally results. In working at a depth of twenty to -twenty-five fathoms, a diver is rarely under water longer than half an -hour altogether during the day. The greatest depth from which shell is -brought appears from the same evidence to be “30 fathoms and a little -over”; but at that depth—where the pressure is seventy-eight pounds to -the square inch—the fisherman remains down only a few minutes at a -stretch, and should be exceedingly careful. The work is injurious, and -even under the best conditions the diver not infrequently becomes -semi-paralyzed and disqualified in a few years. Notwithstanding that the -work is performed by men in vigorous health, nearly every year there are -from ten to twenty-five deaths in the Queensland fleet alone;[260] three -fourths of these are due to paralysis, and most of the remaining result -from suffocation, owing largely to inexperience in use of gear. From -five to ten years is the usual length of a man’s diving career, although -in the fleet may be found men who have been diving for twenty-five years -or more. - -On the vessels manned by Japanese, commonly several members of the crew -are competent divers and take a turn at the work, although only one -license is secured. Such a vessel carries only one head-piece, but two -otherwise complete suits, the helmet fitting either, so that as soon as -one exhausted diver comes up to rest, a successor is ready to have the -helmet screwed to his body-dress and descend without delay, thus saving -about half an hour in the changing. - -The nude divers in the Australian pearl fisheries are mostly Malays and -Australian aborigines. They work from dinghys operated from a vessel, -each dinghy carrying six or eight divers, usually with a white man as -overseer. The man in charge sculls against the tide to keep the boat -stationary over the ground, and all the fishermen of a particular dinghy -descend together for greater safety from sharks, and to cover the ground -systematically. On rising, each diver swims to the boat, throws his -catch over the gunwale, and climbs in to rest for a few minutes. -Sometimes two or possibly even three oysters may be brought up at a -single descent, but a diver is doing well if he brings up one oyster in -ten descents. The average daily catch of each man is probably two or -three oysters, but a fisherman has been known to bring up fifty in one -day. On some vessels, those who fall behind in the catch are punished by -extra duty aboard ship. - -The pearling industry has had a marked effect on the industrial and -social condition of the natives of the Australian coast and the adjacent -islands. Many of these natives now have boats of their own, and others -seek employment on other vessels. Law and order and decent respect for -property have arisen, with schools and churches. The result is all the -more remarkable when it is considered that scarcely more than a -generation has passed since labor among the men was unknown, the women -doing all the work necessary to meet their scanty requirements. - -As now carried on in Australia, pearling is a hard life, the men working -for two thirds of the season in a dead calm and oppressive heat, while -in the remaining months they are rolling day and night. The members of -the crew are not allowed ashore without a written permission from the -captain of the boat, and men and luggage are searched on leaving the -vessel. In addition to these objections, life on board is not unusually -made intensely disagreeable by the myriads of inch-long cockroaches, -which are attracted by and multiply rapidly on the shreds of muscle left -on the pearl shell stored in the hold. Storms are frequent on the coast. -In February, 1899, three schooners and eighty smaller vessels were -wrecked, and eleven white and four hundred colored men were drowned. - -At the end of each day’s fishing, the oysters are cleaned of submarine -growths. Sometimes this is by no means an easy task, as many of the -shells are so covered with weeds, coral, and sponge as to bear little -resemblance to oysters. After they have been scrubbed and the edges have -been chipped, they are washed and stored on deck. Early the following -morning they are opened and examined for pearls. This opening is done -carefully to avoid injury to any pearl that may be within. The hinge of -the shell is placed on the deck and a broad knife forced down so as to -sever the adductor muscle, causing the shells to spring open and -permitting the removal of the soft parts. The flesh is carefully -examined, both by sight and by feeling, to locate all pearls, which are -picked out by hand and placed in a suitable receptacle. Within the -adductor muscle are found seed-pearls and small baroques; the large -pearls are found embedded in the mantle, where their presence may be -detected as soon as the shell is opened, the pearly gleam contrasting -with the light blue of the mantle. Sometimes, though rarely, large -pearls are found loose within the shell, whence they roll out when the -shell is opened. Valuable pearls are occasionally removed from blisters -on the surface of the shell, or from within the body of the nacre -itself. Even when empty, these blisters are valuable, and are especially -adapted for brooches and other ornaments requiring a broad and -relatively flat surface. - -After the flesh has been carefully examined throughout, it is discarded, -as it is not considered suitable for food, and the shell is dried for -half a day or so to make the hinge brittle in order that it may be -broken without injury to the mother-of-pearl. After the shell has been -roughly cleaned, it is placed in the hold, if the vessel is operating -from a shore station, as is commonly the case in Torres Straits. Since -long exposure to the sun affects the quality of the mother-of-pearl, it -is important that it be kept under cover. On returning to the station, -it is thoroughly cleaned, assorted, dried, the dark edges clipped off, -and the cleaned shell is packed in shipping cases, each containing from -250 to 325 pounds. On the west coast, where the vessels at times operate -200 or 300 miles from port, the shell is cleaned, assorted and crated on -the vessels; whence it may be delivered direct to the steamers. The -Northwest shell is somewhat smaller than the mature shell of Torres -Straits, averaging about 1100 to the ton, whereas that of Thursday -Island runs about 725 to the ton. - -It is very difficult to prevent the theft of pearls by the fishermen as -they are liable to treat them as perquisites if not carefully watched. -Indeed, on the Torres Straits vessels it has come about that pearls do -not constitute a recognized source of income to the proprietors. There -the fishery is now conducted almost exclusively for the shells, as the -wage-earners secrete probably as many valuable pearls as they turn over -to the rightful owners. The hot sun causes many of the oysters to open, -and deft fingers quickly pick out such pearls as may be visible. An -oyster may be induced to open its shell by being held near the galley -fire on the lugger, and the insertion of a piece of cork holds it open -while a pearl is shaken out or hooked out by means of a piece of wire. -Then the cork is removed and the oyster closes again with no evidence of -robbery. The proprietors of boats who themselves open the oysters almost -invariably secure larger yields of fine pearls than those who depend on -paid employees, who rarely have the luck to find choice pearls, judging -from what they turn in. The government of Queensland has endeavored to -put a stop to pearl stealing, and by enactment[261] of 1891, it -restricted all selling or buying of pearls within the fishing region -except through regularly licensed dealers, whose transactions are open -to examination. - -But the fishermen seem to have little difficulty in evading the laws, -and throughout the fleet the men have become so adept that they regard -the pearls as their contraband perquisites. And the ease with which -these may be secreted is surpassed only by the facility with which they -may be sold, notwithstanding legislation to the contrary. Indeed, some -employers make no claim to the pearls found, thus enabling them to -secure fishermen at lower rates of wages. - -As previously noted, the pearls constitute only an incidental catch in -the fisheries on the Australian coast, but in the aggregate the yield is -very large. The yield in the northwest Australian fishery in 1906 is -estimated at £50,000, local valuation; in the Queensland fishery -£33,000; in that of South Australia £5000, a total of £88,000 or -$440,000.[262] Relatively few seed-pearls are obtained, and some of the -pearls are of great size. Some beautiful specimens have been found, but -usually they have less luster and are more irregular in form than the -Persian or the Indian output. - -Among the remedies suggested for improving the condition of the -Australian pearl reefs may be mentioned the establishment of six inches -as the minimum size of the shell that may be taken (five inches is now -permitted in Queensland, and there is no restriction in Western -Australia), the closure of certain areas for stated periods from time to -time, and a limit on the number of vessels employed. The government -resident at Thursday Island, Mr. Hugh Milman, who has had long -acquaintance with the industry, strongly recommends the adoption of a -system of artificial culture; and in the meantime, to foster the -industry, “licenses should be granted to a reduced number of boats and -certain sheltered areas should be closed altogether for a few years to -give the beds time to recover. This latter procedure, however, the -pearlers themselves are not in favor of, as they are of the opinion that -the weather conditions against which they have to contend are sufficient -protection to prevent the denudation of the principal grounds.” - -A few years ago certain areas in Torres Straits were proclaimed closed -for a period against the removal of pearl shell; but, owing to the want -of effective patrol, the shell was poached to a very large extent, and -consequently the good that should have resulted from the experiment was -not apparent. Owing to the impracticability of continuous patrol, and -the want of proper legislation to bring die offenders to book, it was -decided to remove the restrictions. - -The Sharks Bay fishery, to which we have previously referred,[263] is -prosecuted by means of small sail-boats using light dredges, except in -the case of the very shallow or “pick-up banks,” where the oysters are -commonly removed by hand. Some years ago this fishery was of much local -importance; but the developing scarcity of the oysters, and the present -low value of this grade of shell in Europe, due to the competition with -Mississippi shell, have resulted in a great reduction. In 1905, the -industry gave employment to 17 small boats and 42 men, of whom 18 were -Europeans, 13 Asiatics, and 11 aboriginal natives. The yield of pearls, -according to official report of the government of Western Australia, -approximated £2000 in value, and of pearl shell there was 88 tons, with -a declared value of £607. In 1896 the government of Western Australia -surveyed the Sharks Bay reefs, and opened them to preëmption in small -areas for cultivating this species of pearl-oyster. At present they are -mostly held under exclusive licenses for a period of fourteen years. The -business is under an elaborate system of regulations; but as appears -from the above figures the results have not been important. - -Pearls are more numerous in this pearl-oyster than in the two other -Australian species. In removing them from the flesh, a modification of -the Ceylon process is adopted. The mollusks are opened by means of a -knife, and the contents of the shells are placed in vats or tubs—known -locally as “poogie tubs”; and, exposed to the hot sun, are allowed to -putrefy. Sea water is added, and the putrid mass stirred; after several -days the water and the thoroughly disintegrated flesh tissues are -decanted, leaving the pearls at the bottom. The odor from a number of -these “poogie tubs” is said to almost rival that of the “washing -toddies” at Marichchikadde. - -The Sharks Bay pearls are commonly yellowish or straw-colored, and -sometimes have a beautiful golden tinge. Although obtained from small -shells, they are sometimes of considerable size—twenty grains or more in -weight, and fine specimens sell for several hundred dollars each. China -and India furnish better markets for them than Europe or America. - - - PEARL FISHERIES OF THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO - - My thoughts arise and fade in solitude; - The verse that would invest them melts away - Like moonlight in the heaven of spreading day. - How beautiful they were, how firm they stood, - Flecking the starry sky like woven pearl. - - SHELLEY, _My Thoughts_. - -[Illustration: - - Opening pearl-oysters and searching for pearls, off the coast of - Australia -] - -[Illustration: - - Grading, weighing, and packing mother-of-pearl, off the coast of - Australia -] - -For nearly four hundred years, pearls and pearl shells have been the -most beautiful objects which have reached the outside world from the -many islands of the Malay Archipelago. On his visit to this part of the -world in 1520, Pigopitta, a companion of Magalhães, reported pearls -among the prized possessions of the natives. The fisheries have never -been of great importance, although the reefs are widely scattered -throughout the archipelago, and the possibilities seem favorable for -very great development. Thomas de Comyn stated a century ago, that pearl -fisheries had been undertaken “from time to time about Mindanao, Zebu, -and some of the smaller islands, but with little success and less -regularity, not because of a scarcity of fine pearls, but on account of -a lack of skill of the divers and their well-established dread of -sharks.”[264] - -Giacinto Gemmi,[265] writing of Philippine pearls, repeats a strange -tale from the “Storia de Mindanao” by the Jesuit father, Combes, to the -effect that in a certain spot, under many fathoms of water, there was a -pearl of inestimable value, as large as an egg; but, although the king’s -ministers had made every effort to have it secured, they had always been -unsuccessful. - -During the last thirty years, pearls and pearl shells have been secured -from most of the inshore waters of Malaysia, but the output has not been -so regular or so extensive as the conditions seem to warrant. Our -observation leads to the conviction that this is not due so much to lack -of skill on the part of the divers, or to their dread of sharks, -mentioned by Comyn; but to the fact that foreign capital, attracted to -this part of the world, has found more security and profit in developing -plantations, and the natives have not had sufficient enterprise to -systematize and develop the fishery resources. - -Throughout Malaysia, including the Philippine Islands, the pearl is -known as _mutya_, _mootara_, or a similar name, closely resembling the -Sanskrit _mukta_ or the Cingalese _mootoo_, indicating the source of the -influence originating the fishery and trade. - -The most widely-known pearl fisheries of Malaysia are in the Sulu -Archipelago, a group of islands comprising about 1000 square miles in -area, and containing a population of 100,000. The beautiful yellow -pearls shared with the many acts of piracy in attracting attention to -this group previous to 1878, when the islands were brought under the -influence of Spanish rule; and since the Spanish-American War, pearl -fishing has been the leading industry, though it has received less -attention from outside sources, perhaps, than has the existence of -slavery and harems as part of the social system. - -Writing in 1820, John Crawfurd stated that the annual export of pearls -from Sulu Islands to China approximated 25,000 Spanish dollars in value, -and the mother-of-pearl similarly exported was worth 70,000 dollars. -“Considering the turbulent and piratical habits of the natives of the -Sulu group, it is certain that a greater share of skill and industry -than can at present be applied to the fisheries, would greatly enhance -the value and amount of their produce.”[266] - -In the Sulu Archipelago, the pearl-oyster reefs exist from Sibǔtu Pass -to Basilan Strait, and roughly cover an estimated area of 15,000 square -miles; that is, in the most favorable localities throughout this area, -pearl-oysters occur to a greater or less extent. The fisheries are -prosecuted by Malays and Chinese, and are largely centered at Sulu. - -Pearl-oysters occur about many other islands. They exist at Maimbun and -Parong; and also off the island of Tapul and its neighbor Lagos, both -southwest of Maimbun. In the channels among these islands, on the rocky -gravelly bottom where there is a good current, oysters are commonly -found. They also occur off Laminusa, northeast of Tawi-Tawi, at Cuyo -Island, and in the waters about Malampaya and Bacuit. - -The large mother-of-pearl oyster (_Margaritifera maxima_) known locally -as _concha de nacr_, is by far the most abundant. When full-grown in -this region it is ordinarily between ten and thirteen inches in -diameter. The young oyster attaches itself to the bottom by means of the -green byssus; but after attaining a weight of one pound, it is too heavy -to be easily moved by the tide, and the ligature gradually disappears. -The Australian “black lip” (_Margaritifera margaritifera_), known here -as _concha de nagra_, is also found. In these waters it attains a -diameter of about eight inches, but most specimens are considerably -smaller. - -There is another pearly shell in the Philippines, a spiral gasteropod -known locally as _caracoles_, which is ordinarily five or six inches in -diameter, and has a beautiful pearly surface. This yields very few -pearls; it is sought for pearl-button manufacture, selling for about the -same as the _concha de nagra_. - -Streeter states that it is declared by the natives of the Sulu -Archipelago that pearls of a yellowish hue have been found in the pearly -nautilus (_Nautilus pompilius_), one of the group of cephalopodous -mollusks. As, however, there is a superstition that they bring ill luck, -the natives say that they throw them away, believing that any one who -should fight while wearing one of these pearls in a ring, would -certainly be killed. If we consider the habits and organism of this -remarkable animal, and the splendid nacreous coating of its shell, the -assertion that pearls are found in it seems quite natural. Indeed, the -occurrence of pearls in the pearly nautilus is generally recognized. - -For many years the successive sultans of Sulu exercised authority over -the fisheries and—in addition to exacting certain percentages and -presents from the fishermen—claimed as their perquisites all pearls -exceeding a designated weight. The fisheries were prosecuted by nude -divers, of whom there were a large number. A Chinese company had been -particularly fortunate in its relations with the Sulus, and had an -extensive equipment in the fishery, consisting of a number of small -vessels, each carrying a crew of seven men, who used diving-suits. In -addition to these, some of the native Moros owned boats from which -diving-suits were employed. - -Following the Spanish-American War and the transfer of the Philippine -Islands to America, several vessels proceeded to engage in the fisheries -without previously consulting the representatives of the Sultan of Sulu. -This called forth from that official an appeal to the American -authorities for protection in his claims. He gave an account of the -pearl fishery in this interesting document, which we quote at -length—through the courtesy of the American Bureau of Insular -Affairs—because of the light it throws, not only on the industry, but -also on the characteristics of these people with whom the American -government is now dealing. - - - STATEMENT MADE BY THE SULTAN OF SULU RELATIVE TO THE PEARL FISHERIES - - (Forwarded by the Governor of Moro Province.) - - [Translation.] - - (SEAL of the SULTAN.) - No date. - - I beg to inform my father, the civil governor, Major Scott, as you - want to know about the mother-of-pearl shell, why it is the right of - all Sulu people, above all my own right, this is the reason: - - The forefathers of the Sulu people used to take the mother-of-pearl - shell from the downs because the mother-of-pearl shell belonged to - the downs, and they took them to eat the oyster with other food; of - the shell they made plates and saucers to put the food on, and the - pearls they used to make a hole through and put them on a string as - necklaces for their children. This was at a time when no other - nation had come to Sulu to buy the mother-of-pearl shell. - - Later, a big boat, called the _Sampang_, wandered from China to - Sulu; there were on board many people, all Chinese; it was loaded - with merchandise. The people came ashore and saw the mother-of-pearl - shell which the Sulu people were carrying. The captain of the boat - said: “Have you many more of these things?” and the people answered, - “Plenty; this is what we take from the downs to eat with other - food.” The Captain said. “Gather me plenty. I will buy them from - you.” The people went and gathered them and bartered them for plates - and saucers. When all the shells from the downs were finished they - looked into the deep, and that is how they found the pearling - grounds, and the people noted them, and remembered them. This is - what they agreed upon; whoever finds pearling grounds they belong to - him from generation to generation. That is what they agreed upon. - That is the reason why the Sulu people have the right, and that they - came to make the dredge (_badja_) to get the mother-of-pearl shell - from the deep, because they can not see them. - - Later Salips came from Mecca of the Arab nation; they came to Sulu - to convert the people into Mohammedans, as they had no religion. And - when the Sulu people, including the islanders, adopted the faith, - then they agreed to have a sultan and they elected Saripul Hassim to - be sultan. Saripul Hassim said: “I don’t want you to make me your - sultan if I do not know what the rights of the sultan are, and who I - have to govern over, because this is not my country, this is your - country.” - - And this is how everybody agreed to accept him as sultan over Sulu - and all the islands; this is how he became Sultan and governed over - all, and this is how Saripul Hassim accepted to be the sultan of - Sulu, to have full power over land and sea, and the people’s rights, - where they got their living from on land and sea, were left to them, - because they were the means of their getting their livelihood. - - But a law was made, if they found valuables in the sea, such as - pearls, tortoise shell, ambal or anything extraordinary, they have - to show it to the sultan, and if the pearls weigh six chuchuk or - over they become the share of the sultan; if they do not have that - weight, the people can do with them as they please and sell them. If - the sultan wants them, he will buy them according to custom. As to - tortoise shell, if they weigh two ketties, they go to the sultan, - and as to the ambal, whether it is much or little, it falls to the - sultan. Whoever finds it must take it to the sultan. Whoever of his - subjects violates this law as agreed upon, the sultan can punish him - as he pleases. - - They accepted this law as agreed upon, to be carried out by them - (sultan and people), and their descendants, and not to be changed; - but they asked of the sultan not to let any other nation take a - share in this industry; it is enough for them; and the sultan agreed - to this because they did not know how to earn their living - otherwise. This is what the sultan and his subjects agreed to - because the Sulu had no other treasures on land beyond the - cultivation; the treasures came from the sea only, therefore other - people are forbidden because this is the property of all my - subjects, and especially my own. - - Recently, in my time and in the Spanish time, there came to me - Captain Tiana; he wanted to dive for pearl shells. I said “I cannot - give you my consent at once because since our forefathers (sultan - and people) we have an agreement, I will confer with my people.” I - sent for the chiefs and the dattos and I told them about it, that - Captain Tiana came to me and asked to dive for pearl shells. They - said it cannot be done, because there is an agreement between our - forefathers that other nations cannot join in this industry of the - Sulu seas, because there is no other means of earning a living for - your subjects. - -[Illustration: - - Moro boats, used among the pearl islands of the Malay Archipelago -] - -[Illustration: - - Raft used for pearl fishing in the Malay Archipelago -] - - I informed Captain Tiana of it. He said: “Allow me to dive for pearl - shells, I will give toll to you as sultan and I will also give toll - to the owners of the pearl grounds according to what we agree upon.” - - So I informed all the owners of the pearling ground, and they said, - “If he is really in earnest to give toll to us owners of the ground - according to what we agree upon, if we don’t agree, we will not - allow him to fish.” Thereupon Captain Tiana and I went to the - Spanish governor to bear witness. The governor said: “All right; - anything you agree upon; I cannot change the law of the Moro people, - and I will not interfere.” - - That is how I allowed Captain Tiana to fish, and I gave him a letter - of the truth according to agreement. Therefore if any person of - other nation wants to fish for mother-of-pearl shell, he will have - to do as Captain Tiana did, and ask me for a letter of truth, and if - he has no letter and does not pay toll to the owners of the ground, - and especially to me, he cannot dive, and if he violates this and if - anything befalls him, I am not responsible and do not want to be - held responsible, because the mother-of-pearl shells are like the - property in our boxes given to us by God. They do not go away from - the places where they are put, they are not like fish that go about. - Therefore, we forbid it. It is our heritage from our forefathers. - - (Signed) HADJI MOHAMAD JAMAUL KIRAM, - Sultan of Sulu. - - [SEAL OF THE SULTAN.] - -Following these representations, the legislative council of the Moro -province, by authority of the Philippine Commission, interdicted all -fishing for pearl-oysters within three marine leagues of any land within -the territorial limits of the Moro province, without license first -obtained from the treasurer of the district within which the vessel -carries on the major part of its operations.[267] No license was to be -issued to any vessel not owned in the Philippine Islands or in the -United States, and not wholly owned by citizens of the United States, by -natives of the Philippine Islands, or by persons who have acquired the -political rights of natives,[268] except that foreign vessels which for -one year immediately preceding had actually engaged in pearl fishing -might secure license to continue therein for a period of five years -thereafter. - -Licenses were of two kinds, according to the nature of the fishery. To -engage in fishing with the aid of diving-suits, the fee was five hundred -pesos annually, for each of the greatest number of divers beneath the -surface of the water at any one time. For fishing without submarine -armor, the fee was five pesos annually, for each of the greatest number -of nude divers to be employed by the vessel during any voyage, and the -same sum for each of the greatest number of dredges or rakes to be -employed beneath the surface at any one time; but this did not apply to -vessels under 15 tons, owned and operated wholly by native Moros, until -January 1, 1906. - -It was also made unlawful to catch or to have in one’s possession within -the Moro province “any pearl shell or any bivalvular or lateral plate, -or any pearl shell of less than 4½ inches in diameter, measured with a -flat, rigid measuring rod along the line of the ligament which joins one -binocular or lateral plate to the other at the hinge, unless the lateral -plate of such shell be more than 7 inches in diameter measured with a -flat, rigid measuring rod from the outer edge of the horny lips to the -center of the hinge, the rod being so placed as to form a right angle -with the line of the hinge.”[269] - -According to a report furnished by the Mining Bureau at Manila, there -were seven vessels fishing with diving-suits in the Sulu Archipelago in -1905, each representing an investment of about 6000 pesos. In 1906 there -were ten vessels engaged in this industry, and the collection on -licenses for that fiscal year amounted to 3375 pesos. These vessels are -mostly small Moro craft which cannot venture upon distant cruises in the -archipelago for prospecting purposes, and their operations are confined -for the most part to the immediate vicinity of Jolo. Each vessel carries -one diver, a tender, a cook, and four sailors. In addition to food -supplies, the sailors and the cook each receive twelve to fifteen pesos -per month, the tender thirty to forty pesos per month, and the diver the -same amount and in addition thereto a bonus of twenty cents for each -shell secured. Near Jolo the vessels work throughout the year, but -farther north very little fishing is done from December to April, when -monsoons prevail. The man in charge of each vessel is obliged by law to -keep an accurate record of the number and weight of shells found, and -his figures are checked up by a customs official at either Jolo or -Zamboanga, the ports of discharge. - -To enable them to secure pearl-oysters at depths of from twenty to forty -fathoms, the Sulus have long made use of a dredge (_badja_) peculiarly -constructed of native materials, and admirably adapted to the purpose. -This consists of five or more long wooden teeth slightly curved and -spreading outward, with an expanse at the ends of twenty inches or more. -The dredge is properly balanced by two stones, and a bridle rope is so -attached to it that, when thrown overboard and towed behind a canoe -drifting with the current or the wind, the implement rests on the curve -of the teeth, which are in almost a horizontal position. As the teeth -enter the gaping shell of an oyster lying on the bottom, the animal -instantly closes tightly on the intruder and effects its own capture. -The principle is similar to that of the “crowfoot” dredge of the -Mississippi River, although the design of the implement is radically -different. A second rope is attached so as to raise and lower the -implement and to detach it from corals, rocks, and other objects against -which it may catch in its course on the bottom. This dredge is designed -for very deep areas, where the bottom is relatively smooth. - -The Moros employ yet another method of fishing, using a _magtung-tung_ -or three-pronged catcher, which is let down by a rattan rope and by -means of which individual shells sighted from the surface are obtained. -When the water is perfectly clear this implement can be operated where -the depth is fifteen or eighteen fathoms, but its use is impractical -where the water is clouded or there is even a slight ripple on the -surface. - -However, the bulk of the catch is made by the nude divers, of which -there are hundreds at Maimbun, Tapul, Lugus and elsewhere. In their -small boats these Moro fishermen visit the reefs, where the boats are -anchored. Provided only with a short, heavy knife, with which to release -the shells from the bottom or, perchance, as a weapon of defense against -sharks and other fish, they enter the water feet first, but soon turn -and descend head downward, precisely as on the Australian coast, -swimming toward the bottom with bold strokes. The Sulu pearl-divers—and -especially those at Parang, Patian and Sicubun—are among the most expert -in the world. They easily penetrate to twelve fathoms and, if necessary, -to eighteen or twenty fathoms. But they are not very industrious, and -seldom descend more than twelve or fifteen times a day, preferring -rather to go with their wants half satisfied than to satiate them by -more active exertions. - -Many descents may be necessary to locate and obtain a single oyster, but -when this is secured the shell alone may ordinarily be traded for -sufficient to supply the fisherman’s needs for several days, and there -is always the chance of a pearl. After a short day of labor, the -fishermen return, and the oysters which they have secured are opened and -examined for pearls. After the flesh has been carefully searched it is -placed in the sun to dry and, later, to be used for food, and the shells -are carefully cleaned and placed under cover until they may be bartered -or sold. - -The Sulu shell is characterized by a peculiar yellowish tint around the -rim, by means of which it is readily distinguished. Its size and -beautiful iridescence make it very attractive, and for choice individual -specimens high prices are received. It is the largest of the -mother-of-pearl shells, single half-shells of “bold” size average one -and one half pounds in weight, while some attain a weight of six pounds. -The body of the shell furnishes the most beautiful of all -mother-of-pearl, yet the necessity for discarding the yellow rim, or, -rather, for using it separate from the rest, makes it unpopular with -manufacturers. The annual product is estimated at 200 tons, valued in -London and New York at $200,000, and of pearls about $30,000 worth. - -The Sulu pearls are frequently large and of choice quality, but they are -far more inclined to a yellowish tint than those from Australian waters, -1300 miles southward. The sultans accumulated the finest collection of -them, and some of these found their way into the markets from time to -time as the condition of the exchequer ran low or royal emergency -required, as in 1882, for instance, when it was necessary to defray the -expense of Sultan Buderoodin’s pilgrimage to Mecca. During the last six -or seven years, much has been heard of the present sultan’s collection, -which he largely inherited, and some fairly good specimens have been -presented to prominent Americans. - -Pearl-oysters are among the important resources of the inshore waters of -the Dutch East Indies, including the surrounding seas of Sumatra, Java, -Borneo, Celebes, the Aru Islands, the Moluccas or Spice Islands, and -Papua or New Guinea. For very many years the natives have gathered pearl -shell and pearls from these waters, and especially on the coast of the -Aru Islands, at Gilolo or Halmahera, and the islands thereabout, on the -east coast of Celebes, and about the Sunda group. The collections were -made in the shallow waters by beach-combing and by nude diving, and were -bartered with the Chinese and Arab traders sailing from Singapore, -Macassar, and other ports. Occasionally a pearling vessel from Singapore -or from Torres Straits would try its luck in these waters; but, except -for the work of the natives, the reefs were practically untouched -previous to 1883. - -As the Australian fleet increased in size and the oysters became scarce -in Torres Straits and on the northwest coast, some of the vessels -occasionally visited the Aru Islands, the coast of Papua, etc. These met -with considerable success and the number of trips increased, especially -in 1893, when oysters were unusually scarce in Australia. - -The following year, 1894, the government restricted the fishery to -inhabitants of the Netherlands and of Netherlands India, or to companies -established in those countries and operating under the Dutch flag. Owing -to the activity of Dutch capital in coffee, tobacco and other plantation -enterprises, the pearl resources received very little attention from -them. The success of the Australian fishery encouraged the formation in -1896 of an Amsterdam company to exploit the Aru grounds; but apparently -without financial success, for it liquidated in 1898. - -[Illustration: - - Pearling village, with youthful fishermen. Sulu Islands -] - -[Illustration: - - Japanese diver in Dutch East Indies, come up to “blow” for a few - minutes -] - -In the meantime, residents of these islands paid more and more attention -to the pearl fishery; also Europeans, Chinamen and Arabs arranged with -the native chiefs for fishing in their territorial waters, paying -therefor a fixed sum in cash or a percentage of the catch, which was -permitted on approval by the governor-general of Dutch India. The fleet -continued to increase from year to year, and in 1905 there was a very -large influx of vessels from the Australian fisheries, 110 luggers and 7 -tenders coming from Thursday Island alone. - -The species are the same as occur on the northern coast of Australia, -the “silver edge” or “golden lip” (_Margaritifera maxima_) occurring in -greatest abundance, and the “black lip” (_M. margaritifera_) to a less -extent. - -The shells are the principal object of the search, and the pearls found -incidentally form an additional source of revenue. These shells divide -with those of Australia the reputation of being the most valuable in the -world. They are commonly known in the trade by the name of the port from -which they are originally shipped, as Manila, Macassar, Banda, Ceram, -Penang, Mergui, etc. Before the exploitation of the Australian grounds, -they sold at very high prices, and $2000 or more per ton was sometimes -realized for those of the best quality. Singapore is the headquarters -for supplies for the industry in all this region, and it is from that -port that the shells and pearls are mostly distributed. - -The pearls obtained in Netherlands India are of choice quality and of -relatively large size, a considerable percentage of them weighing over -eight grains, and fairly good pearls of fifty grains or more are -occasionally reported. Colored pearls are rarely met with, nearly all of -them being clear white, like the beautiful Macassar shell. - -At Pados Bay, island of Borneo, one hundred or more persons find -employment fishing the Placuna oysters, selling the shells for about $2 -per picul (139 pounds to the picul), the dried meats at $4 to $6 a -picul, and the seed-pearls (_seleesip_) at about $2 per mayam. Many of -these pearls are sold in the village of Batu Batu. When a fisherman buys -his few necessaries at the Chinese shops, he pulls out his little -package of seed-pearls and pays in that currency, the Chinaman making a -good profit by the transaction. - - - - - X - - AMERICAN PEARLS - - VENEZUELA, PANAMA, MEXICO, AMERICAN FRESH WATERS, MISCELLANEOUS - - - - - X - PEARL FISHERIES OF VENEZUELA - - - When I discovered the Indies, I said that they composed the richest - country in the world. I spake of gold and pearls and precious - stones, and the traffic that might be carried on in them. - - Extract from Columbus’s Fourth Letter. - -The Caribbean Sea furnishes one of the most interesting chapters in the -history of the pearl fisheries. In no region of the world have these -resources caused more rapid exploitation or affected the inhabitants to -a greater extent than on the shores of Venezuela. - -Before the discovery of America, the natives of this region collected -pearls from the mollusks which they opened for food in times of -necessity, and also sought them for ornamental purposes. And although -they had large collections which they used for personal ornamentation -and for decorating their temples, it does not appear that they prized -them extravagantly, readily bartering them for small returns. - -In Columbus’s account of his third and fourth voyages to America, he -repeatedly refers to pearls. On the third voyage, in 1498, after passing -the mouth of the Orinoco River, he entered the Gulf of Paria, where the -natives “came to the ship in their canoes in countless numbers, many of -them wearing pieces of gold on their breasts, and some with bracelets of -pearls on their arms; seeing this I was much delighted and made many -inquiries with the view of learning where they found them. They replied -that they were to be procured in their own neighborhood and also at a -spot to the northward of that place. I would have remained here, but the -provisions of corn, and wine, and meats, which I had brought out with so -much care for the people whom I had left behind, were nearly wasted, so -that all my anxiety was to get them into a place of safety, and not to -stop for anything. I wished, however, to get some of the pearls that I -had seen, and with that view sent the boats on shore. I inquired there -also where the pearls were obtained. And they likewise directed me to -the westward and also to the north behind the country they occupied. I -did not put this information to the test, on account of the provisions -and the weakness of my eyes and because the ship was not calculated for -such an undertaking.” - -In his letter to one of the queen’s attendants, written in 1500, -Columbus says, in justification of his conduct toward his miserable -detractors: “I believed that the voyage to Paria would in some degree -pacify them because of the pearls and the discovery of gold in the -island of Española. I left orders for the people to fish for pearls, and -called them together and made an agreement that I should return for -them, and I was given to understand that the supply would be abundant.” - -And again in the same letter, after speaking of a quantity of gold which -mysteriously disappeared when Governor Bobadilla sent him and his -brothers loaded with chains to Spain, he says: “I have been yet more -concerned respecting the affair of the pearls, that I have not brought -them to their Majesties.... Already the road is opened to gold and -pearls, and it may surely be hoped that precious stones, spices, and a -thousand other things will also be found.” - -A more detailed account of Columbus’s pearling adventures, and of the -subsequent discoveries and explorations on the Caribbean coast is given -by Francisco Lopez de Gomara in his “Historia general de las Indias,” -published in 1554, of which the following is a literal translation -slightly abridged: - - Since there are pearls on more than four hundred leagues of this - coast between Cape Vela and the Gulf of Paria, before we proceed - farther it is proper to say who discovered them. In the third voyage - made by Christopher Columbus to the Indies, in 1498, having reached - the island of Cubagua, which he called “Isle of Pearls,” he sent a - boat with certain sailors to seize a boat of fishermen, to learn - what people they were and for what they were fishing. The sailors - reached the shore where the Indians had landed and were watching. A - sailor broke a dish of Malaga ware and went to trade with them and - to look at their catch, because he saw a woman with a string of - rough pearls (_aljofar_) on her neck. He made an exchange of the - plate for some strings of rough pearls, white and large, with which - the sailors returned highly delighted to the ships. To assure - himself better, Columbus ordered others to go with buttons, needles, - scissors, and fragments of the same Valencian earthenware, since - they seemed to prize it. These sailors went and brought back more - than six marcs (forty-eight ounces) of rough pearls, large and - small, with many good pearls among them. Said Columbus then to the - Spaniards: “We are in the richest country of the world. Let us give - thanks to the Lord.” They wondered at seeing all those rough pearls - so large, for they had never seen so many, and could not contain - their delight. They understood that the Indians did not care much - for the small ones, either because they had plenty of large ones, or - because they did not know how to pierce them. - - Columbus left the island and approached the land, where many people - had collected along the shore, to see if they also had pearls. The - shore was covered with men, women, and children, who came to look at - the ships, a strange thing for them. Many Indians presently visited - the ships, went on board and stood amazed at the dress, swords, and - beards of the Spaniards, and the cannon, tackle, and arms of the - ship. Our people crossed themselves, and were delighted to see that - all those Indians wore pearls on their necks and wrists. Columbus - asked by signs where they fished them, and they pointed to the coast - and island. - -[Illustration: - - Venezuela and Panama; the principal pearling regions of South - America -] - - Columbus then sent to the shore two boats with many Spaniards, for - greater certainty of those new riches, and because they importuned - him. The chief took them to a place where there was a circular - building that resembled a temple, where presently much bread and - fruits of different kinds were brought. At the end of the feast he - gave them pearls for sweetmeats, and took them afterward to the - palace to see the women and the arrangement of the house. Of the - numerous women there, not one was without rings of gold and - necklaces of pearls. The Spaniards returned to the ships, wandering - at such pearls and gold, and requested Columbus to leave them there. - But he did not wish to do so, saying they were too few to settle. He - hoisted sail and ran along the coast as far as Cape Vela, and from - there came to Santo Domingo, with the intention of returning to - Cubagua after regulating the affairs of the government. He - suppressed the joy he felt at having found such treasures, and did - not write to the king regarding the discovery of pearls, or at all - events did not write it until it was already known in Castile. This - was largely the cause for the anger of the king, and the order to - bring Columbus a prisoner to Spain. They say that he did not so much - intend to conceal this discovery from the king, who has many eyes, - as that he thought by a new agreement to get this rich island for - himself. - - Of the sailors who went with Christopher Columbus when he found the - pearls, the greater number were from Palos. As soon as these came to - Spain, they told about the country of pearls, displayed many, and - carried them to Seville to sell, whence they went to the court and - into the palace. Excited by this report, some persons there - hurriedly prepared a ship and made Pedro Alonso Niño its captain. He - had from the Catholic king license to go in search of pearls and - land, provided he should not go within fifty leagues of any - discovered by Columbus. - - Niño embarked in August, 1499, with thirty-three companions, some of - whom had been with Columbus. He sailed as far as Paria, visited the - coast of Cumana, Maracapan, Port Plechado, and Curiana, which lies - united to Venezuela. There he landed, and a chief, who came to the - coast with fifty Indians, conducted him amicably to a large town to - take water, refreshments, and the barter he was in search of. He - bartered for and secured fifteen ounces of pearls in exchange for - pins, rings of horn and tin, glass beads, small bells, and similar - trifles. The Spaniards stayed in the town twenty days, trading for - pearls. The natives gave a pigeon for a needle, a turtledove for one - glass bead, a pheasant for two, and a turkey for four. For that - price they also gave rabbits and quarters of deer. The Indians asked - to be shown the use of needles, since they went naked and could not - sew, and were told to extract the thorns with them, for they went - barefooted: Niño brought to Galicia ninety-six pounds of rough - pearls, among which were many fine, round, lustrous ones of five and - six carats, and some of more. But they were not well pierced, which - was a great fault. On the route a quarrel arose over the division, - and certain sailors accused Niño before the governor in Galicia, - saying that he had stolen many pearls and cheated the king in his - fifth, and traded in Cumana and other places where Columbus had - been. The governor seized Niño, but did not keep him in prison very - long, where he consumed pearls enough.[270] - -[Illustration: - - GRAY PEARLS FROM LOWER CALIFORNIA, AND DIAMONDS - - Pan-American Exposition, 1901 -] - -This expedition of Pedro Alonso Niño was the first financially -profitable voyage to America. After his return, the Cubagua pearl -fishery became the object of numerous speculations, and many other -Spaniards fitted out voyages, most of them sailing from Hispaniola or -Haiti, nine hundred miles distant. Owing to the ill-treatment of the -Indians and excessive cruelties toward them, much difficulty was -experienced in securing divers. This was relieved in 1508 by -transporting large numbers of Indians from the Lucayan or Bahama Islands -and impressing them into the service. These were so expert in the work -that individuals sold for upward of 150 ducats each.[271] With their aid -the fishery prospered so greatly that in 1515 a settlement, called New -Cadiz, was established on Cubagua Island by the governor of Hispaniola, -Diego Columbus, son of the discoverer. This small island was dry and -desolate, without water or wood, which were brought from the mainland -twenty miles distant, or from Margarita Island about three miles to the -northward. - -An interesting description of the manner of securing the pearls by these -early adventurers was given by Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes -(1478–1557) in his “Historia natural y general de las Indias,” written -less than thirty years after the discovery of the mainland of America. A -translation of this book was published in 1555 by Richard Eden in his -“Decades of the New World”; from which we extract the following account, -the retention of Eden’s quaint phraseology seeming permissible owing to -this being one of the very earliest books on America. - - - _Of the maner of fyshynge for perles_ - - The Indians exercise this kynde of fyschynge for the moste parte in - the coastes of the North in _Cubagua_ and _Cumana_. And manye of - theym which dwell in the houses of certeyne particular lordes in the - Ilandes of _San Dominico_ and _Sancti Iohannis_, resort to the - Ilande of _Cubagua_ for this purpose. Theyr custome is to go fyve, - syxe, or seven, or more in one of theyr _Canoas_ or barkes erly in - the mornynge to sume place in the sea there about where it appeareth - unto them that there shulde bee greate plentie of those shell fyshes - (which sume caule muscles and sume oysters) wherein perles are - engendered. And there they plonge them selves under the water, even - unto the bottome, savynge one that remaynethe in the Canoa or boate - which he keepeth styll in one place as neare as he can, lookynge for - theyr returne owte of the water. And when one of them hath byn a - good whyle under the water, he ryseth up and commeth swymmynge to - the boate, enterynge into the same, and leavynge there all the - oysters whiche he hath taken and brought with hym. For in these, are - the perles founde. And when he hathe there rested hym selfe a whyle, - and eaten parte of the oysters, he returneth ageyne to the water, - where he remaynethe as longe as he can endure, and then ryseth - ageyne, and swimmeth to the boate with his pray, where he resteth - hym as before, and thus continueth course by course, as doo all the - other in lyke maner, being all moste experte swymmers and dyvers. - And when the nyght draweth neare, they returne to the Ilande to - theyr houses, and presente all the oysters to the master or stewarde - of the house of theyr lorde who hath charge of the sayde Indians. - And when he hath gyven them sumwhat to eate, he layeth up the - oysters in safe custodie untyll he have a great quantitie thereof. - Then hee causeth the same fyssher men to open them. And they fynde - in every of them pearles other great or smaul, two or three or - foure, and sumtymes five and syxe, and many smaule graines accordyng - to the lyberalitie of nature. They save the pearles bothe smaule and - great whiche they have founde: And eyther eate the oysters if they - wyl, or caste them away, havynge so great quantitie thereof that - they in maner abhorre them. Those oysters are of hard fleshe, and - not so pleasant in eatyng as are owres of Spayne. This Ilande of - _Cubagua_ where this manner of fysching is exercised, is in the - Northe coaste, and is no bygger then the Iland of Zelande. - Oftentymes the sea encreaseth greatly, and muche more then the - fyshers for pearles wold, bycause where as the place is very depe, a - man can not naturally rest at the bottome by reason of the - aboundaunce of aery substannce whiche is in hym, as I have - oftentymes proved. For althoughe he may by vyolence and force - descende to the bottome, yet are his feete lyfted up ageyne so that - he can continue no tyme there. And therefore where the sea is verye - deepe, these Indian fyshers use to tye two great stoones aboute them - with a corde, on every side one, by the weyght whereof they descend - to the bottome and remayne there untyl them lysteth to ryse ageine: - At which tyme they unlose the stones, and ryse uppe at their - pleasure. But this their aptenesse and agilitie in swimming, is not - the thynge that causeth men moste to marvaile: But rather to - consyder how many of them can stande in the bottome of the water for - the space of one hole houre and summe more or lesse, accordynge as - one is more apte hereunto then an other. An other thynge there is - whiche seemeth to me very straunge. And this is, that where as I - have oftentymes demaunded of summe of these lordes of the Indians, - if the place where they accustomed to fysche for pearles beynge but - lyttle and narrowe wyll not in shorte tyme bee utterly without - oysters if they consume them so faste, they al answered me, that - although they be consumed in one parte, yet if they go a fyschynge - in an other parte or on another coaste of the Ilande, or at an other - contrary wynd, and continue fysshing there also untyll the oysters - be lykewyse consumed, and then returne ageyne to the fyrste place, - or any other place where they fysshed before and emptied the same in - lyke maner, they find them ageine as ful of oysters as though they - had never bin fysshed. Wherby we may judge that these oysters eyther - remove from one place to an other as do other fysshes, or elles that - they are engendered and encrease in certeyne ordinaire places. This - Iland of _Cumana_ and _Cubagua_ where they fyshe for these perles, - is in the twelfe degree of the part of the said coaste which - inclineth toward the North. - -The cupidity of the proprietors of the fishery led to most cruel -treatment of the divers and, if the accounts of the time are to be -relied upon, a large percentage of them died under the harsh regime. -About 1515 the unfortunate natives obtained an earnest and influential -advocate in Bartolomé de las Casas, who, in 1516, prevailed upon the -youthful Charles V to decree that the fishery should be prosecuted only -in summer, that the divers should not be required to work more than four -hours a day where the depth exceeded six fathoms, that they should -receive good nourishment and half a quart of wine daily, should have -hammocks or beds in which to sleep, and should be provided with clothes -to put on as soon as they left the water.[272] And by later ordinances -it was stipulated that death should be inflicted on any one forcing a -free Indian to dive for pearls. - -In 1528 the resources of Coche Island were exploited with so much -success that within six months “1500 marcs (12,000 ounces) of pearls” -were secured. Pearl banks were successively found at Porlamar, -Maracapana, Curiano, and at various places on the coast from the Gulf of -Paria to the Gulf of Coro, a distance of over five hundred miles, which -became designated the “Pearl Coast.” For a number of years previous to -1530, the output exceeded in value 800,000 piastres annually, -approximating one half the produce of the American mines at that -time.[273] It was largely these pearls that enriched the cargoes of many -of those famous caravels that crossed the Atlantic to Spain. Indeed, for -several decades, America was best known in continental Europe as the -land whence the pearls came. - -An interesting account of an early effort to use dredges in the Cubagua -pearl fishery was given by Girolamo Benzoni, who had lived in America -from 1542 to 1555, and was familiar with the conditions. He states: - - “At the time the pearl fishery flourished on this island there came - here one Louis de Lampugnan with an imperial license authorizing him - to fish such quantities of pearls as he pleased within all the - limits and bounds of Cubagua. This man set out from Spain with four - caravels loaded with all the necessary provisions and munitions for - such an enterprise, which some Spanish merchants furnished him. He - had made a kind of rake, the fashion of which was such that in - whatever part of the sea it was used, not an oyster would escape. At - the same time he would have raked and drawn out all that bore pearls - if he had not been disappointed. But the Spaniards in Cubagua all - banded against him in the execution of his privilege. They said the - emperor was too liberal with other people’s goods, and if he wished - to give he might give his own as he wished. As for themselves they - had conquered and kept that country with great labor and at the - peril of their lives, and there were far better reasons why they - should enjoy it than a stranger. Poor Lampugnan, seeing that his - patents did not avail him the value of a straw, and at the same time - not daring to return to Spain, partly through fear of being - ridiculed and partly on account of the money he owed, was ruined. In - fact, the business and its anxieties drove him crazy and he was - exposed to the mockery of all the world as a lunatic. In the end, - after dragging out five years in this miserable condition, he died - in this isle of Cubagua.”[274] - -The average size of these pearls derived from the Venezuelan fisheries -was small, specimens rarely exceeding twenty grains. In 1577, Urbain -Chauveton wrote: “The pearls of Cubagua are mostly 2, 3, 4, and 5 -carats. But the quantity of them is so great that the fifth part which -is paid to the king of Spain yields every year the value of more than -15,000 ducats; this besides the frauds committed and the pearls which -stick to the fingers of those who manage the business, and who pilfer -the most beautiful in great numbers, sending them here and there for -sale. They place themselves in great danger if the facts become known, -but they do it all the same.”[275] - -The enormous demands made by the Spaniards soon had its effect on the -resources, for Chauveton adds: “It is apparent they decrease and not so -many are found as in the beginning. The reason for this is that the -Spaniards are so eager to gather large quantities of them quickly that -they are not content to use their divers to search for them in the -depths of the sea, but they have conceived and invented I know not how -many machines of rakes and drags to scrape up everything. In fact they -have at times collected them all so that another could not be found, and -have had to abandon their fishing for a considerable time to give the -oysters a chance to lay their eggs and grow their pearls.”[276] - -The decrease noted by Chauveton was probably not very serious, for the -Spanish historian, Jose de Acosta, reports that in 1581 he saw “the note -of what came from the Indies for the king; there were 18 marcs of -pearles, besides 3 caskets; and for private persons there were 1265 -marcs, and besides them, 7 caskets not pierced, which heretofore we -would have esteemed and helde for a lie.”[277] Also the records show -that in 1597 Spain received from the Venezuelan fisheries “350 pounds’ -weight of pearls.” It is to be regretted that the Spaniards so -frequently reported the yield of pearls by pounds’ weight, for—owing to -the great variation in quality—this is about as unsatisfactory as to -report the wealth of an individual by the pounds’ weight of his -title-deeds or of his stock certificates. The value of “350 pounds of -pearls” might have been anywhere from twenty thousand dollars to as many -millions. Assuming that all were two grains each in weight and of good -quality, the total value would approximate $600,000 according to the -valuation of that period; and on a basis of eight grains each, it would -be $9,600,000, or sixteen times as much. But as original parcels of -pearls from the fisheries, these figures should be divided by three. - -Following 1597, the productiveness of the Cubagua beds rapidly -decreased. By acts of cruelty and oppression the Spaniards had converted -the surviving Indians into deadly foes, ready to take advantage of any -opportunity to avenge themselves on their oppressors, and thus -terrifying the settlers into abandoning the enterprise. Early in the -seventeenth century the development of mining resources in Mexico, Peru, -etc., attracted the adventurous Spaniards. A considerable decrease in -the value of pearls, brought about by the skilful manufacture of -imitations at Venice, and elsewhere in southern Europe, also affected -the prosperity of the fisheries. As a result of these combined -influences, the output in Venezuela was greatly reduced, and it ceased -long before the close of the following century. Thus ended an enterprise -which, for a number of years, represented the greatest single industry -of the European people on the American continent. - -According to General Manuel Laudecta Rosales, the Venezuela archives -contain no reference to any renewal of the fishery until early in the -nineteenth century. At the time of Humboldt’s visit in 1799, the fishery -was entirely neglected around the islands of Margarita, Cubagua, and -Coche, and the only evidence of pearls was a few very insignificant ones -picked up about Cumana and sold among the natives at a piaster per -dozen.[278] - -After the overthrow of Spanish authority on this coast, Messrs. Rundell, -Bridge and Rundell, a firm of well-known goldsmiths of London, obtained, -in 1823, from the government of Colombia, a ten-year monopoly of the -fishery at several places on the coast of the new republic, in -consideration of one fifth of the pearls secured.[279] After the -independence of Venezuela in 1829, the taxes imposed were so heavy that -the industry languished, and about 1833 it was practically abandoned. - -Owing to the improved physical condition of the reefs, the fishery -developed largely in 1845; and for several years an average of 1600 -ounces of pearls were secured, an ounce of good quality selling for 150 -to 500 bolivars (one bolivar = 19½ cents), and the inferior quality at -80 to 100 bolivars.[280] At that time there was a tax of sixteen -bolivars per boat monthly. In 1853 this was increased to forty-eight -bolivars per boat, and the use of dredges (_arrastras_) was interdicted, -soon reducing the fishery to a very low stage. Subjected to frequent -changes in regulations, and burdened by heavy taxes, the industry -remained in poor condition until about 1895. Since then the enhanced -value of pearls, and the increased industrial activity on the coast, has -resulted in a very large development of the fishery. - -In recent years the government of Venezuela has granted concessions to -individuals and to companies for the exploitation of defined areas for a -limited period, exacting 10 per cent. royalty on the proceeds of the -enterprise. In granting these concessions, the government usually -reserves the right to examine the books, and to intervene when necessary -in any phase of the enterprise. For protecting its revenue, the -government requires that shipments of the pearls must be signed by its -agent, and bills of sale must be countersigned by the Venezuelan consul -in the place where the sales are consummated. - -The Venezuelan pearl fishery now gives employment to about 350 boats, -manned by five or six men each, sailing from the ports of Juan Griego, -Cumana, and Carupano. These are sail craft, measuring from two to -fifteen tons each, and are licensed by the Venezuelan authorities at a -charge of 15 bolivars ($2.92) each. Most of the boats use dredges, but -some of them resort to nude diving, after the manner of the sixteenth -century. Attempts have been made to use the scaphander, or diving armor, -but without success, owing largely to the difficulty in obtaining -experienced workmen, and also to local prejudice against this form of -fishery. It is claimed that in using the scaphander, all oysters are -removed from the reefs, whereas the _arrastra_ or dredge spreads the -oysters and thereby enlarges the reefs. This is the principal and, -except those at Sharks Bay and the Sulu Islands, the only important -pearl fishery in which the oysters are secured by means of dredges. -These are made of iron and are similar to those implements used in the -scallop fisheries of New York and Rhode Island. They are dragged over -the beds, and when filled are lifted and their contents emptied into the -boat, the fishermen culling out the desirable oysters from the mass and -throwing the refuse material overboard. - -The pearl-oyster (_Margaritifera radiata_) secured on the coast of -Venezuela is closely related to the Ceylon species. It averages slightly -larger in size, and there is a much greater range in coloration. The -pearls are of good quality. In color they range from white to bronze, -and occasionally a so-called black one is found. The total output is -valued locally at about 1,750,000 francs ($350,000) per year. Most of -them are sold in Paris. - -Owing to their small size and lack of thickness, the shells of the -Venezuela pearl-oyster are of little or no value in the mother-of-pearl -trade. Thousands of tons of them, the accumulations of scores of -fisheries, lie in heaps and ridges along the coast, as though in years -long past vast armies of oysters, engaged in deadly combat, had left -their innumerable myriads of slain comrades to bleach on the shores. - - - THE PANAMA PEARL FISHERIES - - The bordring Ilands, seated here in ken, - Whose Shores are sprinkled with rich Orient Pearle, - More bright of hew than were the Margarets - That Caesar found in wealthy Albion. - - ROBERT GREENE, _Orlando Furioso_ (1594). - -From the point of view of the Spaniards of his day, the greatest result -of Balboa’s immortal journey in 1513 across the Isthmus of Panama to the -broad waters of the Pacific, was the discovery of the pearl resources of -the Gulf of St. Michael, now known as the Gulf of Panama. Probably the -best description of this is given by Lopez de Gomara in his “Historia -general de las Indias,” published in 1554, from which we translate the -following account. - -After Balboa had reached the Pacific in 1513, he proceeded a short -distance along the coast until he met with an Indian chief by the name -of Tomaco. Being questioned about the gold and pearls which some of his -people wore, Tomaco sent for some gold and 240 large pearls and a great -number of small ones—a rich present, which filled the Spaniards with -pleasure. Seeing the Spaniards so delighted, Tomaco ordered some of his -men to go and fish for pearls. These went and in a few days obtained 64 -ounces, which also he gave them. The Spaniards were surprised to see -such pearls, and that their owners did not value them; they not only -gave them away, but their paddles were decorated therewith, for the -principal income and wealth of these chiefs was the pearl fishery. -Tomaco told Balboa that these riches were nothing in comparison with -those of Tararequi, which had pearls larger than a man’s eye, taken from -oysters the size of sombreros. The Spaniards wished to go there at once, -but fearing another tempest, left it for their return. They dismissed -Tomaco and rested in the country of Chiape, who, at the request of -Balboa, sent thirty of his men to fish. These did it in the presence of -seven Spaniards, who looked on and saw them take six loads of small -shells. As it was not the season for that fishery, they did not go into -very deep water where the shells were. Not only did they not fish in -September and the following months, but they did not even travel by -water, on account of the stormy weather which then prevails in that sea. -The pearls which they extracted from those shells were like peas, but -very fine and white. Of those received from Tomaco, some were black, -others green, blue, and yellow. - -On the return of Balboa’s expedition to Darien in 1514, the sight of the -pearls and the wonderful reports made by the men, caused his successor, -Pedrarias, to fit out another expedition, an account of which we -likewise translate from Gomara. - - By command of Pedrarias, Gaspar de Morales went in the year 1515 to - the Gulf of St. Michael, with 550 Spaniards, in quest of the island - of Tararequi, which was said by Balboa’s men to be so abundant in - pearls and so near the coast. The chief of that island sallied forth - with many people to prevent his entrance, and clamored and fought - three times with our people on equal terms, but the fourth time he - was defeated. He then made friends, carried the chief of the - Spaniards to his house, which was a large and good one, gave him - food to eat, and a basket of pearls which weighed 110 marcs [880 - ounces]. The chief received for them some looking-glasses, stringed - beads, bells, scissors, axes, and small wares of barter, which he - valued more than he had the pearls. He promised to give as tribute - to the emperor, in whose guardianship he placed himself, 100 marcs - of pearls every year. With these the Spaniards returned to the Gulf - of St. Michael and from thence to Darien. - - Tararequi is within five degrees of the equator. It possessed a - great fishery for pearls, which are the largest and best of the new - world. Many of the pearls which the cacique gave were like filberts, - others like nutmegs, and there was one of 26 and another of 31 - carats, pear-shaped, very lustrous, and most perfect, which Peter of - the Port, a shop-keeper, bought of Gaspar de Morales for 12,000 - castilians. The purchaser could not sleep that night for thinking on - the fact that he had given so much money for one stone, and so he - sold it the very next day to Pedrarias de Avila, for his wife Donna - Isabel de Bovadilla, at the same price, and afterwards the Bovadilla - sold it to Donna Isabella the Empress. - - Pedrarias, who delighted in such fishery, requested the cacique to - make his men fish for pearls in the presence of the Spaniards. The - fishermen were great swimmers and divers, and seemed to have spent - all their lives in that employment. They went in small boats when - the sea was calm, and not in any other manner. They cast a stone for - an anchor from each canoe, tied by strong, flexible withes like - boughs of the hazel. They plunged to search for oysters each with a - sack or bag at the neck, and returned loaded with them. They entered - four, six, and even ten fathoms of water, for the shell is larger - the deeper they go, and if at times the larger ones come in shallow - water it is through storms, or because they go from one place to - another in search for food, and having found their pasture they stay - there until they have finished it. They perceive those who search - for them, and stick so close to the rocks or ground, or one to - another, that much strength is needed to detach them, and many times - the fishermen cannot raise them and leave them, thinking they are - stones. In this fishery many persons are drowned, either by - remaining too long at the bottom, or because they become entwined or - entangled in the cord, or such carnivorous fish as the shark devour - them. This is the manner of fishing pearls in all the Indies, and - many fishermen die from the dangers aforesaid, and from the - excessive and constant labor, the little food, and the maltreatment - they have. The emperor was led to enact a law among those whom - Blasco Nunez Vela brought, which imposed the penalty of death upon - him who should forcibly compel any free Indian to fish for pearls. - He thought more of the lives of the men than of his interest in - pearls, though they were of great value. The law was worthy of such - a prince and of perpetual memory.[281] - -[Illustration: - - CLARA EUGENIA, DAUGHTER OF PHILIP II - - Painting by Gonzales, in the Galeria del Prado, Madrid Most of these - pearls were doubtless from the early American fisheries -] - -Gonzalo de Oviedo referred to the pearl resources of Panama in his -“Historia natural de las Indias,” Toledo, 1526, mentioned in the chapter -on pearl fisheries of Venezuela. After describing the resources of -Cubagua and Cumana on the Venezuelan coast, he states, according to -Eden’s quaint translation: - - Lykewise pearles are founde and gathered in the South sea cauled - _mare del sur_. And the pearles of this sea [the Caribbean coast] - are verye bygge. Yet not so bigge as they of the Ilande of pearles - cauled _de las perlas_, or _Margaritea_, whiche the Indians caule - _Terarequi_, lying in the gulfe of saincte Michael, where greater - pearles are founde and of greater price then in any other coaste of - the Northe sea, in _Cumana_, or any other porte. I speake this as a - trewe testimonie of syght, havyng byn longe in that South sea, and - makynge curious inquisition to bee certenly informed of all that - perteyneth to the fysshvnge of perles. From this Ilande of - Tararequi, there was brought a pearle of the fasshyon of a peare, - wayinge xxxi carattes, which Petrus Arias had amonge a thousande and - soo many poundes weight of other pearles which hee had when - capitayne Gaspar Morales (before Petrus Arias) passed to the saide - Ilande in the yeare 1515, which pearle was of great prise. From the - saide Ilande also, came a great and verye rounde pearle, whiche I - brought owte of the sea. This was as bygge as a smaule pellet of a - stone bowe, and of the weight of xxvi carattes. I boughte it in the - citie of Panama in the sea of Sur: and paide for it syxe hundredth - and fyftie tymes the weyght therof of good gold,[282] and had it - thre yeares in my custodie: and after my returne into Spaine, soulde - it to the erle of Nansao, Marquisse of Zenete, great chamberleyne to - youre maiestie, who gave it to the Marquesse his wyfe, the ladye - Mentia of Mendozza. I thyncke verely that this pearle was the - greatest, fayrest, and roundest that hath byn seene in those partes. - For youre maiestie owght to understande that in the coaste of the - sea of Sur, there are founde a hundredth great pearles rounde after - the fasshyon of peare, to one that is perfectly rounde and greate. - This Iland of Terarequi which the Christians caule the Ilande of - pearles, and other caule it the Ilande of floures, is founde in the - eyght degree on the southe syde of the firme lande in the provynce - of golden Castyle or Beragua. (Arber, “The First Three English Books - on America,” Birmingham, 1885.) - -In addition to the gems noted by Oviedo, these waters furnished many -other beautiful pearls in the sixteenth century, and added largely to -the collections of the Spanish court and of the cathedrals of Seville, -Toledo, etc. The Italian traveler, Gemelli-Careri, who visited the -Panama fisheries in 1697, reported that they yielded pearls equal to -those of Ceylon. He mentioned one weighing 60 grains, for which the -owner—a Jesuit priest—refused 70,000 pesos.[283] - -In 1735, the Spanish admiral, Antonio de Ulloa visited the Panama pearl -fisheries and wrote an extended description of them.[284] According to -his account the pearls were then found in such plenty that there were -few slaveholders in the vicinity who did not employ at least a portion -of their Negroes in the fishery. These were selected for their dexterity -in diving, and were sent to the islands in gangs of from eight to twenty -men each, under the command of an overseer. They lived in temporary huts -on the shore, and visited the pearl reefs in small boats. Anchoring in -eight or ten fathoms of water, the Negroes would, dive in succession to -the bottom, returning with as many oysters as possible. It was laborious -work, attended with danger owing to the numerous sharks. - - Every one of these Negro divers is obliged daily to deliver to his - master a fixed number of pearls; so that when they have got the - requisite number of oysters in their bag, they begin to open them, - and deliver the pearls to the officer, till they have made up the - number due to their master; and if the pearl be but formed, it is - sufficient, without any regard to its being small or faulty. The - remainder, however large or beautiful, are the Negro’s own property, - nor has the master the least claim to them, the slaves being allowed - to sell them to whom they please, though the master generally - purchases them at a very small price.... Some of these pearls, - though indeed but few, are sent to Europe, the greater part being - carried to Lima, where the demand for them is very great, being not - only universally worn there by all persons of rank, but also sent - from thence to the inland portions of Peru.[285] - -During the hundred years following, the pearl reefs of Panama were not -very productive, and relatively little attention was paid to them. The -development of a market for the shells in the mother-of-pearl trade, -about 1840, enhanced the profits of the few natives engaged in pearling -in a desultory manner, and led to an increase in the number of -fishermen. During some years when industrial and market conditions were -favorable, large quantities of shells were exported. In 1855, for -instance, 650 tons of these shells were shipped to England alone, and in -1859 the reported quantity was 957 tons. Those from the Island of San -José, one of the Pearl Archipelago, were said to be the largest and -choicest in the bay. Many of them were used in decorating the twin -towers of the stately old cathedral at Panama. - -Since then the industry has fluctuated greatly, depending on the market -for the shell. Many outsiders have experimented in the fishery, but most -of these attempts have resulted in financial loss, through -mismanagement, storms, sickness, or other causes. A story is told -locally of a party of thirty men, principally from Scotland, who arrived -at Panama equipped with a diving-bell and such necessary machinery as -air-pumps, windlasses, etc. Much was expected of their operations, but -soon yellow fever broke out among them, and within six weeks two thirds -of the members of the party had died. The remaining members, becoming -disheartened, and in fear of the dread disease, lost no time in leaving -the country. The diving-bell and machinery remained for several years as -a curiosity at Panama, for no one returned to claim them, nor has the -use of similar apparatus been attempted since then. - -The scattered pearl reefs extend from the east side of the Bay of Panama -nearly to the Costa Rica boundary. However, this gives an exaggerated -idea of their area, as much of this territory yields no pearl-oysters -whatever. The principal reefs and the headquarters of the fishery are at -Archipelago de las Perlas or Pearl Islands, which are from thirty to -sixty miles southeast of the Pacific terminus of the projected Panama -Canal. This archipelago contains sixteen small islands, on which are -about twice that number of small settlements of Negro and Indian -descendants, with a total population of perhaps one thousand. About half -of these live on Isla del Rey, the largest island, about fifteen miles -long and half that in width. The chief village, San Miguel, is the -center of the pearling industry, and consists mostly of palm-thatched -huts and a handsome stone church, more costly than all the remaining -buildings of the town combined. While the soil is fertile and some -vegetables are raised, the inhabitants depend almost wholly on the -fisheries. - -In 1901, the Republic of Colombia invited bids for the right to operate -the pearl and coral fisheries for a term of fifteen years, but nothing -seems to have come of it, and the establishment of the Panama Republic -in 1903 terminated the authority of Colombia in these resources. - -The Panama fisheries differ widely in their character from those of -Venezuela. The mollusk is much larger, averaging about six inches in -diameter when fully grown, thus furnishing a valuable quality of -mother-of-pearl. The shell constitutes the principal object of the -fishery; the pearls themselves are of incidental importance, but are -always looked for and anxiously expected. - -The season extends from May to November, with a rest during the -remaining five months of the year. The fishery is open to natives and to -foreigners alike. While the leading fishermen employ diving-suits, which -were introduced here about 1890, nude diving is yet practised to a -considerable extent, the men descending in eight or ten, and some even -in twelve fathoms of water. There is no restriction whatever on the nude -fishermen, but for each machine diver an annual license fee of $125 -United States currency is exacted. - -Owing to the low market price for Panama shell during recent years, the -fishery has not been vigorously prosecuted, and it has even dwindled to -low proportions. A letter from one of the leading pearling companies in -Panama states that the machine divers number about twenty, while there -are about four hundred nude fishermen; and another firm likewise -prominent, estimates these fishermen at twenty and three hundred -respectively. - -Yet a third pearling company writes that there are fifteen machine -divers and two hundred head divers; and adds that the small demand for -this quality of mother-of-pearl has made the condition of the industry -about as bad as it could be; many who have capital invested are getting -out of the business, and unless the market improves, the industry may be -abandoned. Probably with the introduction of new capital and methods in -the infant republic, the pearl resources may receive greater attention -and a large development ensue. - -The Panama pearls are of good quality and frequently of large size. In -color they range from white to green and lead-gray, and frequently -greenish black. Valuable pearls are not common, but occasionally the -fisherman is amply rewarded. A letter from the American consul at Panama -states that in 1899 a native boy, fifteen years old, fishing in shallow -water, as much for sport as for profit, found a pearl which he sold to a -local speculator for 4000 silver dollars ($1760); this speculator -delivered the same pearl to a dealer in Panama for 10,000 silver dollars -($4400), and an offer of 30,000 francs was refused for it later in -Paris. A pearl worth $2400 was reported as found within half a mile of -the steamship anchorage at Panama. A pearl from a giant oyster -resembling Tridacna, was an absolute egg-shape, pure cocoanut white, and -weighed 169 grains; it was 21 mm. at the longest and 16.5 mm. at the -narrowest part. The surface showed very distinctly a wavy structure, -occasionally with a tiny, brighter central point; the surface under the -glass resembling a honeycomb network. At the smallest point there was a -radiated center with quite a brilliant field. It was worth only $100. - -Not always, however, does the poor, ignorant fisherman receive the full -value of his find; and many a story is told of some thoughtless -improvident native, who, for less than a mess of pottage, “like the base -Indian, threw a pearl away, richer than half his tribe.” - -Most of the Panama pearls are sold in Paris, relatively few of them -coming to America direct. This is not because of any greater estimation -of them in Paris or higher prices obtained; but the trade relation has -been long continued and the credits are well established. From Paris -many of these pearls reach the American market. - - - THE PEARL FISHERIES OF MEXICO - - Then, too, the pearl from out its shell, - Unsightly in the sunless sea, - (As ’twere a spirit, forced to dwell - In form unlovely) was set free, - And round the neck of woman threw - A light it lent and borrowed too. - - THOMAS MOORE, _The Loves of the Angels_. - -Pearl-bearing oysters are found at various places on the Pacific coast -of Mexico, and especially along the coast of Lower California, where -extensive fisheries are prosecuted. The pearls are noted for the great -variety of colors which they display. A large percentage are black, -others are white, brown, peacock green, etc. Generally they are small -and of irregular form, yet sometimes very large ones are secured, -weighing 100, 200, and even 300 grains. - -European knowledge of the pearl resources of Mexico dates from the -conquest of that country by Hernando Cortés about 1522. The diary of his -lieutenant, Fortuno Ximines, tells of finding native chiefs living in -primitive huts along the sea-shore, with quantities of beautiful pearls -lying carelessly around. From a tribe near the present site of -Hermosillo, in the State of Sonora, Cortés secured great quantities of -the gems. It appeared that the fishery had been in existence for -centuries. The location of the pearl reefs was prominently noted on -Cortés’ map of this coast, made in 1535, a copy of which was procured by -the Rev. Edward E. Hale when in Spain in 1883. - -Following Cortés’ explorations of the Pacific coast of Mexico -(1533–1538), a number of expeditions were fitted out for securing pearls -by trading with the natives, by forcing them to fish, and by even more -questionable means. Several of these expeditions found record in history -either by reason of their unusual success or through the extreme cruelty -with which they were conducted. The contact of the Spaniards with the -Indians resulted in very bitter feelings on the part of the latter, so -that it became risky for small traders to venture among them. From time -to time, successful expeditions were made, especially the one of 200 men -sent in 1596 by the viceroy of Mexico to “the rich Isles of California,” -mentioned by Teixeira.[286] Antonio de Castillo, a Spanish colonist, -with headquarters south of Mazatlan, was one of the most successful of -the early adventurers, and Iturbide Ortega and José Carborel were also -among the fortunate ones of that period.[287] Ortega marketed his pearls -in the city of Mexico, and the reported sale of one for 4500 dollars had -considerable effect in stimulating the industry. - -The advent of the Jesuits to western Mexico in 1642, developed amicable -relations with the Indians; and although the missionaries were -agriculturists rather than fishermen, the restoration of harmony -resulted in a more favorable prosecution of the fisheries. The colonists -of Sinaloa and Nueva Galicia, who had formerly, in small vessels and -with great danger, made occasional visits to the pearl beds, built -larger vessels and made more frequent visits without apprehension. The -skilful Yaqui and Mayo Indians were employed or impressed as divers, -just as natives of the Bahamas had served in the fisheries of Venezuela. -Great profits resulted from the operations. Venegas wrote that “it was -certain that the fifth of every vessel was yearly farmed for 12,000 -dollars.”[288] - -So profitable was the fishery that the Spanish soldiers and sailors -stationed in the Gulf of Cortes—as the Gulf of California was then -called—were frequently charged with devoting more attention to pearling -than to their official duties. In order to put a stop to this evil, in -1704, Father Silva-Tierra, who was in authority in that part of the -country, ordered that no soldier or sailor should engage in the fishery. -With a view to removing the demoralizing influences of promiscuous -adventurers among the Indians, the industry was later restricted to -persons specially authorized. - -Probably the most successful of the early pearlers was Manuel Osio, who -is credited with having marketed “127 pounds’ weight of pearls in 1743,” -and “275 pounds’ weight” in 1744.[289] He operated in the vicinity of -Mulege and northward, employing the Yaqui Indians; and through his -pearling interests is said to have become the richest man in Lower -California. - -[Illustration: - - Gulf of California and the pearling territory of western Mexico -] - -The revenue from the royal fifth, somewhat later, was reported by -Alvarado[290] at 12,000 dollars per year; but this was disputed by Jacob -Baegert, a Jesuit priest. Baegert spent seventeen years in Mexico and, -returning to Europe on the expulsion of his order from that country in -1767, published a report in 1772, containing rather an unfavorable view -of the fishery. He stated that each summer eight, ten, or twelve poor -Spaniards from Sonora, Sinaloa, and elsewhere on the mainland, crossed -the gulf in small boats to the California shore for the purpose of -obtaining pearls. They carried supplies of Indian corn and dried beef, -and also a number of Indians who served as divers, the Spaniards -themselves showing little inclination to engage in the work when native -fishermen could be employed so cheaply. Provided with a sack for -receiving the oysters which they removed from the bottom, the fishermen -dived head first into the sea, and when they could no longer hold their -breath they ascended with the gathered treasure. The oysters were -counted before opening; and, when the law was complied with, every fifth -one was put aside for the king’s revenue. Most of the oysters yielded no -pearls; some contained black pearls, others white ones, the latter -usually small and ill-shaped. If, after six or eight weeks of hard labor -and deducting all expenses, a Spaniard gained a hundred American pesos, -he thought he had made a little fortune, but this he could not do every -season. “God knows,” said Baegert, “whether a fifth of the pearls -secured in the California sea yields to the Catholic king an average of -150 or 200 pesos in a year, even without frauds in the transaction. I -heard of only two persons—with whom also I was personally acquainted—who -had accumulated some wealth, after spending 20 or more years in the -business. The others remained poor notwithstanding their pearl -fishing.”[291] - -Father Baegert’s statement of the returns seems to be substantiated by -the reports of the royal fifth a few years later. For the period from -1792 to 1796 this was placed at “2 lbs. 2 ozs.” by some writers; and -according to others, from 1788 to 1797 it amounted to only “3 lbs. 9 -ozs.,” which is the quantity assigned by some accounts to 1797 -alone.[292] These returns apparently indicate that a great decrease had -occurred since the days of Osio; but it seems very doubtful whether, -under the conditions existing in Mexico at that time, the royal treasury -received its due share of the proceeds. - -Shortly following the independence of Mexico in 1821, and after a period -of little activity, several attempts were made to exploit the pearl -resources. The great prosperity in England, ensuing upon the termination -of the Napoleonic Wars, resulted in much speculation and the promotion -of stock subscriptions in many visionary schemes. Among these was “The -General Pearl and Coral-Fishing Association of London,” which in 1825 -equipped and sent out to Mexico, by way of Cape Horn, two vessels -prepared to exploit the pearl resources by the use of diving-bells -similar to those formerly employed in submarine construction. This -expedition was under the direction of Lieutenant R. W. H. Hardy, whose -report thereon presents an interesting exhibit of the condition of the -pearl fishery at that time. - -Hardy found the fishery at a very low ebb, owing, largely, to the -scarcity of oysters and the uncertainty of depending on the native -divers. He adds with peculiar naïveté: “I had almost forgotten to -mention a very curious circumstance with respect to the pearl-oyster, -namely that on the coast of Sonora there are none at all, except at -Guaymas.” He states also that to the northward of 28° 30′ not the trace -of a shell could be discovered on either side of the gulf. - -The center of the industry was then at Loreto, a village of 250 -inhabitants; but another small station existed at La Paz. At Loreto six -or eight vessels of twenty-five tons each were employed, each having -three or four sailors and fifteen or twenty Yaqui Indians who served as -divers. Head-diving was in vogue, the work proceeding from 11 A.M. to 2 -P.M., and the depth ranging from three to twelve fathoms. The annual -catch of pearls was “4 or 5 pounds’ weight, worth from $8000 to -$10,000.”[293] After the government’s claim of one fifth had been set -apart, the owner and captain of the vessel received one half and the -divers the other half. - -It was found impossible to use diving-bells when the sea was at all -rough, and even during calm weather they were impracticable on account -of the unevenness of the ground and the strong undercurrents. An effort -was made to employ native divers, but owing to the disorganized state of -affairs only four could be secured. In the Gulf of Mulege a large number -of oysters were collected, but when these were opened “six very small -pearls” were all that could be found. After spending about three years -on the coast, Hardy returned to England, and the company abandoned the -enterprise. - -In the early history of the Mexican pearl fishery, the shells were of no -market value; but about 1830 a French trader named Combier made -experimental shipments to France, securing cheap freight rates by using -the waste shells largely as ballast for the vessels.[294] The best -quality sold for about 600 francs per ton, and the market was found -sufficient for regular shipments. The value gradually increased, and in -1854 it approximated 2000 francs per ton in France, placing the industry -upon a very remunerative basis. This resulted in much activity in the -fishery, and an increase in the number of boats and divers. - -In 1855, the fishery gave employment to 368 divers, and yielded $23,800 -worth of pearls, and 350 tons of shells worth $13,500.[295] It was -estimated by Lassepas that from 1580 to 1857, inclusive, 95,000 tons of -oysters were removed from the Gulf of California, yielding 2770 pounds -of pearls, worth $5,540,000.[296] - -For protection of the reefs, the Mexican government in 1857 divided the -Gulf of California into four pearling districts, and provided that only -one of them should be worked each year, and then only in areas leased -for the season to the highest bidders, thereby permitting the reefs -successively to remain undisturbed for three years. - -The yield of pearls in 1868 approximated $55,000, and that of shells -$10,600 in value; while in 1869 these items were given as $62,000 and -$25,000, respectively.[297] The local prices ranged from $15 per ounce -for seed-pearls to $1500 for a choice gem. - -At that period the fishery was carried on from shore camps or from large -vessels, each carrying twenty to fifty divers, who were mostly Yaqui -Indians from the eastern shore of the gulf. The camp or vessel was -located in the vicinity of the reefs or beds, and the fishing was -prosecuted from small boats, each carrying three or four nude divers. -Fastened to the waist or suspended from the neck was a net for the -reception of oysters, and each diver carried a short spud or stick with -which to detach them from the bottom, and to some extent for use as a -weapon of defense against sharks and similar enemies. The diving -progressed mostly in the morning, when the sea was unruffled by the -breeze which usually begins shortly after noon. The season lasted from -May to late in September, when the water became too cold for further -operations. - -The divers were paid a definite share of the catch, and kept in -debt-bondage by means of advances and supplies. Little clothing was -necessary, and the provisions consisted principally of corn, beans, and -sun-dried beef. Luxuries were added in the form of tobacco, and of -mescal distilled from the maguey plant, indulgence in these constituting -the chief remuneration for the season’s labor. The finding of an -unusually choice pearl brought to the lucky fisherman a gratuity of a -few dollars, and shore leave for several days in which to spend it. -Dressing in his best calico garments, he hastened to the nearest town to -indulge in release from restraint, in drunkenness and debauchery—the -highest dreams of happiness of a Yaqui Indian—thoughts of which served -to bring him to the fishery each year from his home across the gulf. - -From the Spanish conquest until 1874, the Mexican pearl fishery was -conducted exclusively by nude divers. The experiments with the -diving-bell in 1825 had been without favorable result, and also an -attempt by an American in 1854 to use a diving-suit with air-pump, etc., -this failure being credited to imperfection of apparatus. In 1874, -through the influence of European pearl merchants, two schooners, each -of about 200 tons’ measurement, one from Australia and the other from -England, visited the Mexican grounds, with a dozen boats fully equipped -with scaphanders or diving armor, including helmets, rubber suits, -pumps, etc. Owing to their working in deeper water than the nude divers -were able to exploit, their success was remarkable, and they secured -upward of a hundred thousand dollars’ worth of pearls and shells during -the first season. - -The hitherto somnolent inhabitants of Lower California were amazed at -seeing their resources thus easily removed, and were awakened to the -opportunities afforded them to acquire the wealth which nature had -scattered at their very doors. With this object-lesson before them, -companies were formed for raising sufficient capital for the business, -and the leading operators equipped their men with scaphanders, to the -great annoyance of the would-be independent fishermen, who had not -sufficient means to purchase the costly equipment. Many of these -continued to employ nude divers, but after 1880 this method of fishery -was subordinate to the use of diving apparatus. The change was -accompanied by many accidents, and rarely did a month pass without the -loss of a man, due in most cases to faulty apparatus or to inexperienced -management. - -In 1884 President Gonzalez inaugurated the policy of granting exclusive -concessions to the pearl reefs. On February 28 of that year, five -concessions were granted to as many persons, giving them and their -associates and assigns the exclusive right to all shell fisheries in -their respective zones of large area, for a period of sixteen years, in -consideration of a royalty and export duty, amounting altogether to -about $10 per ton of shells exported in the first three years, and $15 -per ton for the remaining thirteen years of the term. Immediately these -five grants were consolidated, forming the Lower California Pearl -Fishing Company (“Compañia Perlífera de la Baja California”), -incorporated under the laws of California with an invested capital of -$100,000. - -Other concessions were given covering the ocean shore of Lower -California, the eastern side of the gulf within the States of Sonora and -Sinaloa, and the ocean shore of Mexico southward from Sinaloa. In -addition to these, certain territorial rights of fishing are claimed -through grants dating back very early in the history of the country. So -eagerly have these concessions been sought in recent years, that there -is now little pearling ground on the coast which is not under corporate -or private claim. And, owing to speculation in these concessions and in -the formation of companies to develop them, it is somewhat difficult to -obtain wholly reliable data relative to the condition and extent of the -industry. - -Two species of pearl-bearing mollusks occur on the Mexican coast. The -principal one is the _M. margaritifera mazatlanica_, known locally as -the _concha de perla fina_. This species is closely related to the -“black lip shell” of the Australian coast. It is considerably larger -than the Venezuelan oyster, averaging four or five inches in diameter -and attaining an extreme diameter of seven or possibly eight inches. It -occurs to some extent all along the Pacific coast of Mexico, in detached -beds intercalated in places. The principal reefs, which have been -exploited for nearly four centuries, are in the shallow waters of the -Gulf of California and especially within the 300 miles between Cape San -Lucas and Mulege Bay. The fisheries have centered about the islands of -Cerralvo, Espiritu Santo, Carmen, and San José, and in the bays of -Mulege, Ventana, and San Lorenzo. The depth of water on the reefs ranges -from two to twenty-five fathoms, with an average of probably six or -eight fathoms. The species is generally isolated, and firmly attached by -the byssus to the bottom rocks or the stone corals, from which it may -remove in case of necessity, though it probably does not do so -frequently. - -The second species is known locally under the name _concha nacar_, and -has been named _Margaritifera_ (_Avicula_) _vinesi_ (Rochebonne).[298] -It occurs only in the northern part of the gulf near the mouth of the -Colorado River. Formerly it was abundant in that region, occurring in -large areas, but it has become much reduced and is now little sought -after. It is claimed that this species is far more productive of pearls -than the _M. margaritifera_, and that it yielded the large quantities -obtained by Osio in the eighteenth century. Although iridescent, the -shell is so thin and convex that it is without commercial value. - -[Illustration: - - THE ADAMS GOLD VASE - - Ornamented with American gems and fresh-water pearls, rock crystal, - gold quartz and agatized wood - - Top of vase and side view - - Now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art -] - -The headquarters of the Mexican pearl fishery are at La Paz, the capital -of Lower California, 240 miles northwest of Mazatlan and 150 miles north -of Cape San Lucas. This “Mantle of Peace”—the literal translation of La -Paz—contains about 5000 inhabitants, nearly all of whom are more or less -dependent on the pearl fishery. It presents an attractive picture, with -the cocoanut-palms extending down almost to the water’s edge, and the -high mountains forming a background. The low, stone houses, the tile -roofs, the plaza with tropical trees, and the beautiful flower beds -under perennial sunny skies, give it a quaint appearance. The most -conspicuous objects from the harbor are the large old warehouses, with -thick walls and iron-barred windows, for the storage of the pearls and -the shells. During the season, from April to November, the arrival and -departure of the pearling vessels presents a scene of great animation. - -The present methods of the fishery on the Mexican coast are quite -different from those of thirty years ago when nude diving was the only -method in vogue. Instead of the haphazard work, largely in shallow -water, the industry is conducted systematically, and the limit of depth -is increased, much of the diving being in depths of ten to fifteen -fathoms. The fishermen operate either from a large vessel making a -cruise two or three months in length, or from a camp on the shore near -the reefs. A vessel visits them frequently to furnish supplies and to -transport the catch to La Paz. The fishing boats are undecked craft, -each equipped with an air-pump and a crew of six men: a diver, a _cabo -de vida_ or life-line man, who is usually the captain, two _bomberos_ at -the air-pump, and two rowers. - -The greatest depth at which armored diving is attempted in Mexico rarely -exceeds twenty fathoms; twenty-five fathoms is fully as deep as it is -practicable to go, and it is not advisable to remain at that depth more -than a very few minutes. At fifteen fathoms a diver may remain half an -hour or more, and at six or eight fathoms he may work uninterruptedly -for several hours. When the water is very cold, the diver comes up -frequently to restore his numbed circulation by vigorous rubbing. The -occupation is especially conducive to rheumatism, and paralysis is more -or less general, due, not only to the compressed atmosphere, but to the -abrupt changes of temperature. The work is very debilitating, with -particular effect on the nerves, and partial deafness is common. It is -important that the diver be careful about overeating before descending, -as heavy foods, and meats especially, make respiration difficult; -therefore, breakfast consists of little more than bread and coffee. The -risks and dangers from sharks, devil-fish, etc., have greatly diminished -since the introduction of scaphanders; for a stout diver in his -waterproof dress, with leads on the breast, shoulders, and shoes, and on -his head a massive helmet containing great gaping windows for eyes, is -enough to cause even a hungry shark to hesitate and to seek a more -digestible meal. - -There are yet many nude divers in Mexico, who operate in shallow waters, -their cheap labor making them successful competitors of the armored -divers. In arranging with these, the pearling company commonly -grub-stakes a crew, pays a stipulated sum per hundredweight for the -shells, and bargains for the pearls. If the fishermen are not satisfied -with the price offered for these, they are at liberty to sell to other -buyers under certain restrictions. - -Nude diving is confined to the warm months, beginning about the middle -of May and continuing until October. Owing to the cloudy or muddy -condition of the water in the gulf, the nude diver can not inspect the -bottom from the surface and select the best oysters before descending, -nor can he work satisfactorily at depths greater than seven or eight -fathoms. While the work is hard, it is more remunerative than the -average branch of labor in this region. - -Each day the boats deliver their catch of oysters at the fishing-camps -or on board the receiving vessels. After they have been freed from -marine growths and refuse, the mollusks are opened and searched for -pearls. This operation is performed by trusted employees, usually -elderly men who have become physically disqualified for diving, and who, -seated together at a low table, work under the watchful eyes of -overseers. A knife is introduced between the valves of the oyster, the -adductor muscle is severed, and the valves are separated by breaking the -hinge. The animal is removed from the shell and carefully examined with -the eyes and the fingers, and then squeezed in the hands to locate any -pearl which may be concealed in the organs or tissues. The debris is -passed to other persons, who submit it to further examinations. A man -may work all day long and find only a few seed-pearls, but occasionally -there is the excitement of discovering a beautiful gem. - -In some localities the flesh of the pearl-oyster is a source of profit -through its sale to Chinamen, who dry and otherwise prepare it for sale -among their countrymen in Mexico and America, as well as in the Orient. -Frequently the large adductor muscle is dried for food, making excellent -soup-stock, and, indeed, it is quite palatable when stewed. - -It is difficult to approximate the output of the Mexican pearl -fisheries, other than the pearl shell, because the dealers place a -merely nominal value on the pearls in their invoices when sending them -to Europe, an invoice of $500 sometimes representing gems valued in -Paris at several thousand dollars. Furthermore, it is difficult to -obtain satisfactory information from the pearling companies, owing, -presumably, to the fear of developing greater competition. According to -the estimates at La Paz, the local value of the pearl yield now -approximates $250,000 annually, and the value of the same over the -counters in Europe and America probably exceeds one million dollars. - -Some remarkably large pearls have been secured in the Mexican fisheries, -especially considering the small size of the oysters. In 1871 a pearl of -96 grains, pear-shaped and without a flaw, sold at La Paz for 3000 -pesos. In March, 1907, a beautiful pinkish white one, found near the -lower end of the peninsula, sold for 28,000 pesos or $14,000. One of the -best years for choice finds was 1881, when the scaphanders were first -employed to their greatest efficiency. A black pearl was then secured -which weighed 112 grains, and which brought 40,000 francs in Paris. In -1882 two, weighing 124 and 180 grains respectively, sold for 11,000 -pesos. In the following year a light brown pearl, flecked with dark -brown, and weighing 260 grains, sold for 7500 pesos. These are the -prices which the La Paz merchants received for these pearls, and not the -much greater amounts for which they were finally sold by the jewelers. - -One of the finest pearls was found in 1884 near Mulege. This weighed 372 -grains. The Indian fisherman is said to have sold it for $90; the -purchaser declined an offer of 1000 pesos, and also a second offer of -5000, and soon sold it to a La Paz dealer for 10,000 pesos. Its value in -Paris was estimated at 85,000 francs. Probably the most famous of all -pearls obtained from these grounds was “the 400–grain pearl” found near -Loreto, and “which is now among the royal jewels of Spain.” It is said -that this was offered by the lucky fisherman to the Mission of Loreto, -and by the Director of Missions in Lower California was presented to the -Queen of Spain.[299] - -As in every other fishery, one hears in Mexico of fishermen who have -grasped a prize only to lose it through inexperience or improvidence. -The account given above of the sale of the 372–grain pearl found near -Mulege furnishes an instance of this. It is related in La Paz that in -1883 an Indian sold for ten pesos a gem weighing 128 grains, for which -the purchaser received 27,500 francs in Paris. On another occasion a -Mexican sold two pearls, easily worth $4000, for $16 worth of groceries. - -In the eighteenth century, the Notre Dame de Loreto possessed a -remarkable collection of Mexican pearls, which had been presented from -time to time by the fishermen. During the régime of the Jesuits, it was -customary to devote the proceeds of the last day of the fishery to the -decoration of the altar of that mission. After the expulsion of this -religious order in 1767, the mission was pillaged and the collection -dissipated. From the old aristocracy of Mexico, family heirlooms of many -choice pearls were placed on the European market during the civil wars -in Mexico to contribute to the support of the contending armies. One -lady in Sonora is said to have disposed of her collection for 550,000 -francs. A fine collection of these pearls, accumulated from 1760 to -1850, and showing them in a great variety of colors, shapes, and sizes, -was in Chihuahua until recently. - - - AMERICAN FRESH WATERS - - And my pearls are pure as thy own fair neck, - With whose radiant light they vie. - - WHITTIER, _The Vaudois Teacher_. - -The most recently developed pearl fisheries are within the limits of the -United States, in the rivers and fresh-water lakes, and especially those -in the Mississippi Valley. As an important industrial enterprise, these -fisheries are less than two decades old, yet they are very productive, -yielding annually above half a million dollars’ worth of pearls, many of -which compare favorably in quality with those from oriental seas. - -The prehistoric mounds in the Mississippi Valley present evidence of the -estimation in which pearls were held by a race of men who passed away -ages before America was first visited by Europeans. In some of these -mounds, erected by a long-forgotten race, pearls have been found not -only in hundreds and in thousands, but by gallons and even by bushels. -Some of these equal three quarters of an inch in diameter, and in -quantity exceed the richest individual collections of the present day. -Damaged and partly decomposed by heat and through centuries of burial, -they have lost their beauty, and are of value only to the archæologist -and to indicate the quantity of pearly treasures possessed by these -early people. - -Owing to the great wealth of pearls which had been uncovered on the -Spanish Main, at Panama, and in the Gulf of California, Eldorado -explorers, in the sixteenth century, were particularly eager in -searching for them within the present limits of the United States; in -the reports of their wanderings, much space is given to these gems, and -these reports aided largely in inducing and encouraging other -expeditions. Some of these accounts read like the marvelous stories of -Sindbad the Sailor, quantities of pearls—hundreds of pounds in some -instances—being secured by the exchange of trinkets and by more -questionable means. It would be easy to bring together numerous accounts -of apparently reliable authorities to show that in the sixteenth century -pearls were obtained here in far greater quantities than were ever known -in any other part of the world; but this conclusion seems not wholly -correct. - -The unfortunate wanderings of Hernando de Soto from 1539 to 1542 gave -rise to most of the reports of rich pearl finds within the limits of -this country. Of this voyage there are three principal accounts. The -first was by Luis Hernandez de Biedma, who had accompanied De Soto as -factor for Charles V of Spain. His brief report was presented to the -king in 1544, although it was not published until 1841, nearly three -centuries later, when it appeared in a French translation.[300] The -second, and in our opinion the most reliable account,[301] published at -Evora in 1577, was by an unnamed Portuguese (in English editions, -commonly spoken of as the Gentleman of Elvas), who was a member of the -expedition. The third account,[302] by far the longest and most widely -known, but which was not written until 1591, was by Garcilasso de la -Vega, who represented that his information was from a Spanish cavalier -who had accompanied De Soto. - -The only reference made to pearls in Biedma’s report seems to be his -allusion to the large quantity secured at the village of Cofaciqui, on -the east bank of the Savannah River. He states: “When we arrived there, -the queen ... presented the governor with a necklace of pearls of five -or six rows, procured for us canoes to pass the river, and assigned the -half of the village for our quarters. After having been in our company -three or four days, she escaped into the forest; the governor caused -search to be made after her, but without success; he then gave orders to -break open a temple erected in this village, wherein the chiefs of the -country were interred. We took out of it a vast quantity of pearls, -which might amount to six or seven arrobas,[303] but they were spoiled -by having been underground.”[304] - -The Portuguese narrative alludes to the pearls at Cofaciqui, stating -that the queen “took from her own neck a great cordon of pearls, and -cast it about the neck of the governor.... And the lady, perceiving that -the Christians esteemed the pearls, advised the governor to search -certain graves in the town, where he would find many; and that if he -would send to the abandoned towns, he might load all his horses. He -sought the graves of that town and there found fourteen rows of pearls, -and little babies and birds made of them.”[305] This account makes no -further mention of pearls, except to state that at the battle of Mavilla -this great collection was burned, and that when the Queen of Cofaciqui -escaped from the Portuguese she carried with her a little chest full of -unbored pearls, which some of the Spaniards thought were of great -value;[306] and further, that on one or two other occasions a few pearls -were received from the Indians as presents. - -The account of De Soto’s wanderings, given by Garcilasso, the Peruvian -historian, contains many references to pearls, which read more like -romance than reality. With his knowledge of the jewels, temples, etc., -in Mexico and Peru, and recognizing some similarities in the manners of -the people of those countries and the ones with whom De Soto came in -contact, Garcilasso was easily led to statements which, though possibly -true in the one case, seem fictitious in the other. - -He gives the story of the Queen of Cofaciqui, with some additional -particulars. The string of pearls which she presented to the governor -made three circuits of her neck and descended to her waist. In his -account, the graves in Cofaciqui became a temple containing, among other -riches, more than a thousand measures of pearls, of which they took only -two. Near Cofaciqui was the temple of Talomeco, over a hundred steps -long by forty broad, with the walls high in proportion. Upon the roof of -the temple were shells of different sizes, placed with the inside out, -to give more brilliancy, and with the intervals “filled with many -strings of pearls of divers sizes, in the form of festoons, from one -shell to the other, and extending from the top of the roof to the -bottom.” Within the temple, festoons of pearls hung from the ceiling and -from all other parts of the building. In the middle were three rows of -chests of graded sizes, arranged in pyramids of five or six chests each, -according to their sizes. “All these chests were filled with pearls, in -such a manner that the largest contain the largest pearls, and thus, in -succession, to the smallest, which were full of seed-pearls only. The -quantity of pearls was such, that the Spaniards avowed, that even if -there had been more than nine hundred men and three hundred horses, they -all together could not have carried off at one time all the pearls of -this temple. We ought not to be too much astonished at this, if we -consider that the Indians of the province conveyed into these chests, -during many ages, all the pearls which they found, without retaining a -single one of them.”[307] In the armory attached to this temple were -long pikes, maces, clubs, and other weapons mounted with links and -tassels of pearls. - -Garcilasso has an interesting story of an incident said to have occurred -a few days after leaving Cofaciqui, when the troops were passing through -the wilderness. - -[Illustration: - - Negro pearling camp on bank of an Arkansas river -] - -[Illustration: - - Group of Arkansas pearl fishermen; photographed shortly after the - woman in the center of the group had found a pearl for which she - received $800 -] - - Juan Terron, one of the stoutest soldiers of the army, toward noon, - drew from his saddle-bags about six pounds of pearls, and pressed a - cavalier, one of his friends, to take them. The cavalier thanked him - and told him that he ought to keep them, or rather, since the report - was current that the general would send to Havana, send them there - to buy horses and go no longer afoot. Offended at this answer, - Terron replied that “these pearls then shall not go any farther,” - and thereupon scattered them here and there upon the grass and - through the bushes. They were surprised at this folly, for the - pearls were as large as hazel-nuts, and of very fine water, and - because they were not pierced they were worth more than six thousand - ducats. They collected about thirty of these pearls, which were so - beautiful that it made them regret the loss of the others, and say, - in raillery, these words, which passed into a proverb with them, - “There are no pearls for Juan Terron.”[308] - -At the capital of Iciaha, De Soto received from the cacique or chief, a -string, five feet in length, of beautiful and well-matched pearls as -large as filberts. Upon De Soto’s expressing a desire to learn how the -gems were extracted from the shells, the chief immediately ordered four -boats to fish all night and return in the morning. - - In the meantime they burnt a great deal of wood upon the shore, in - order to make there a great bed of live coals, that at the return of - the boats they might put thereon the shells, which would open with - the heat. They found, at the opening of the first shells, ten or - twelve pearls of the size of a pea, which they took to the cacique, - and to the general who was present, and who found them very - beautiful, except that the fire had deprived them of a part of their - lustre. When the general had seen what he wished, he returned to - dine; and immediately after, a soldier entered, who instantly said - to him that, in eating oysters which the Indians had caught, his - teeth had encountered a very beautiful pearl of a very lively color, - and that he begged him to receive it to send to the governess of - Cuba. Soto politely refused this pearl, and assured the soldier that - he was as obliged to him as if he had accepted it; and that some day - he would try to acknowledge his kindness, and the honor which he did - his wife; and that he should preserve it to purchase horses at - Havana. The Spaniards valued it at four hundred ducats; and as they - had not made use of fire to extract it, it had not lost any of its - lustre.[309] - -Notwithstanding the strong indorsement given to Garcilasso’s narrative -by Theodore Irving and some other writers, his tendency to exaggerate -depreciates greatly the historical value of his account, and it seems -wholly unreliable as an authority relative to early resources in -America. We may reasonably doubt whether De Soto’s expedition came in -contact with more pearls than those mentioned by Biedma and the -Portuguese writer. - -The account of the first voyage along the coast of the United States, -that of the Italian, Juan Verrazano, in 1524, contains no reference to -pearls, although he penetrated into the interior a score or two of -miles, and was frequently in contact with the natives, who lived largely -by fishing, and who prized many ornaments of different colored stones, -copper rings, etc. - -The first expedition which went far into the interior was the ill-fated -one under command of Pánfilo de Narvaez in 1528. A thrilling -account[310] of this journey was written by Cabeza de Vaca, who was one -of the four survivors, after eight years’ wandering through America to -Mexico. Cabeza had been controller and royal treasurer of the -expedition, and in that position it was his particular duty to acquaint -himself with all the pearls, gold, and similar riches found by the -party. Notwithstanding his tradings with the Indians and their efforts -to gain his friendship by means of presents, his account makes no -mention of pearls, except to refer to a statement made by some Indians -that on the coast of the South Sea there were pearls and great riches. - -Hernando D’Escalante Fontaneda, who was shipwrecked on the Florida coast -about 1550, and was detained there a prisoner for seventeen years, -wrote: - - “Between Abolachi [Appalachicola] and Olagale is a river which the - Indians call Guasaca-Esqui, which means Reed River. It is on the - sea-coast, and at the mouth of this river the pearls are found in - oysters and other shells; from thence they are carried into all the - provinces and villages of Florida.”[311] - -The European narrators also reported great stores of pearls along the -Atlantic seaboard. Among the first of these may be mentioned David -Ingram, who is represented as traveling by land from the Gulf of Mexico -to the vicinity of Cape Breton in the years 1568 and 1569. As it -appeared in the first edition of Hakluyt’s Voyages, this relation -states: - - “There is in some of those Countreys great abundance of Pearle, for - in every Cottage he founde Pearle, in some howse a quarte, in some a - pottel [half a gallon], in some a pecke, more or less, where he did - see some as great as an Acorn; and Richard Browne, one of his - Companyons, found one of these great Pearls in one of their Canoes, - or Boates, wch Pearls he gave to Mouns Campaine, whoe toke them - aboarde his shippe.”[312] - -Estimation of Ingram’s wonderful relation is decreased by Purchas’s -comment: - - As for David Ingram’s perambulations to the north parts, Master - Hakluyt, in his first edition printed the same; but it seemeth some - incredibilities of his reports caused him to leave him out in the - next impression; the reward of lying being, not to be believed in - truths.[313] - -Even the members of Raleigh’s Roanoke Colony of 1585 reported pearls. -Hariot stated: - - Sometimes in feeding on Muscles we found some Pearle: but it was our - happe to meet with ragges, or of a pide colour: not having yet - discovered those places where we heard of better and more plenty. - One of our company, a man of skill in such matters, had gathered - from among the Savage people about five thousand: of which number he - chooses so many as made a faire chaine, which for their likenesse - and uniformity in roundenesse, orientnesse, and piednesse of many - excellent colours, with equality in greatnesse, were very faire and - rare: and had therefore been presented to her Majesty, had we not by - casualty, and through extremity of a storme lost them, with many - things els in coming away from the countrey.[314] - -So far as we can learn, there is no evidence to show that, during the -sixteenth or the seventeenth century, any pearls of value were received -in Europe from within the present limits of the United States, as was -the case with the resources of Venezuela, Panama and Mexico. Many of the -accounts quoted above seem wholly fictitious, some of them possibly -drawn up for the purpose of promoting exploring expeditions. It is also -probable that knowledge of the enormous collections at Venezuela and -Panama misled some of the narrators into recognizing as pearls the -spherical pieces of shell or even the cylindrical wampum which the -Indians made in large quantities and used as money. - -However, it is unquestionable that pearls of value were in the -possession of some of the wealthier tribes. Biedma’s account of the 150 -pounds or more of damaged pearls in the graves at Cofaciqui seems wholly -reliable, and likewise many other statements; and it is an interesting -problem to determine the source from which the Indians obtained them. - -Most of the narratives refer to the pearls as coming from the coast of -the South Sea or Gulf of Mexico. The evidence of Fontaneda, who had -spent seventeen years in the country, throws some light on this. He -states that pearls were obtained at the mouth of Reed River near -Appalachicola, whence they were distributed throughout Florida. This -seems to indicate that on the west coast of Florida there might have -been extensive reefs of pearl-bearing mollusks, which have since become -extinct, although existing shell-heaps do not confirm this. - -While it is possible and even probable that many of these pearls in the -possession of the Indians came from the Gulf of Mexico or even from the -Caribbean Sea, it seems much more likely that they came largely from the -Unios of the inland lakes and rivers. - -The voyages of Narvaez, Ayllon, De Soto, Ribault, etc., had been so -unfortunate that for a century little exploration was made in the -territory of the southern part of the United States. When this territory -was again invaded, little was seen in the way of pearls. - -Iberville, who established the French settlement near the mouth of the -Mississippi in 1699, was specially directed to look for them. His -instructions state: “Although the pearls presented to his Majesty are -not fine either in water or shape, they must nevertheless be carefully -sought, as better may be found, and his Majesty desires M. d’Iberville -to bring all he can; ascertain where the fishery is carried on, and see -it in operation.”[315] Pearls were found in the territory of the -Pascagoulas, but they were not worth the trouble of securing them. It -appears that from these the Pearl River in Mississippi derived its name. - -The only reference to pearls in the seventy-one volumes of Travels and -Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France, from 1610 to -1791, is a note by Father Gravier stating that he saw no choice pearls: -“It is true the chief’s wife has some small pearls; but they are neither -round nor well pierced, with the exception of seven or eight, which are -as large as small peas, and have been bought for more than they are -worth.”[316] - -Daniel Coxe’s description, in 1722, of pearl resources in America, is of -special interest because of the extended experience of his father as a -trader in the country. He states: - - Pearls are found to be in great abundance in this country; the - Indians put some value upon them, but not so much as on the colored - beads we bring them. On the whole coast of this province, for two - hundred leagues, there are many vast beds of oysters which breed - pearls, as has been found in divers places. But, which is very - remarkable, far from the sea, in fresh water rivers and lakes, there - is a sort of shell-fish between a mussel and a , wherein are found - abundance of pearls, and many of an unusual magnitude. The Indians, - when they take the oysters, broil them over the fire till they are - fit to eat, keeping the large pearls they find in them, which by the - heat are tarnished and lose their native lustre; but, when we have - taught them the right method, doubtless it would be a very - profitable trade. There are two places we already know within land, - in each of which there is a great pearl fishery. One about - -[Illustration: - - BROOCH, RENAISSANCE STYLE, SET WITH BAROQUE PEARLS, FROM AMERICAN - STREAMS - - Pan-American Exposition, 1901 -] - - one hundred and twenty leagues up the River Meschacebe - [Mississippi], on the west side, in a lake made by the river of the - Naches, about forty miles from its mouth, where they are found in - great plenty and many very large. The other on the River Chiaha, - which runs into the Coza or Cussaw River (as our English call it), - and which comes from the northeast, and, after a course of some - hundred miles, disembogues into the Gulf of Florida, about one - hundred miles to the east of the Meschacebe.[317] - -It is interesting to note that the first place mentioned by Coxe as the -location of a great pearl fishery is not far from one of the most -productive pearling regions of the last fifteen years, _viz._, the -eastern part of Arkansas. The second place noted by him appears to be -identical with the Iciaha, where, nearly two centuries before, the -Indians exhibited the methods of their fishing to De Soto and his -companions. - -Excepting Coxe’s notice, for 250 years following 1600, little was heard -of the occurrence of pearls within this country. This does not indicate -necessarily that the gems were absent from the waters; but, not using -the Unios for food as did the aborigines, the residents had little -occasion to open them and in this way learn of their contents. And even -where pearls were occasionally found in mollusks opened for fish-bait, -the people were in few instances informed as to their market value, and -did not attempt to sell them, although the most attractive ones may have -been treasured as ornaments or as keepsakes. This was paralleled in the -diamond fields of South Africa, where gems worth thousands of dollars -were used as playthings by the farmers’ children. A jewel, like a -prophet, is frequently without honor in its own country until the -residents of that country learn of the great esteem in which it is held -elsewhere. - -And yet, in some localities a few pearls were collected from time to -time. The Moravians—familiar with the pearls of their native streams in -Europe—gathered many from the Lehigh River near Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, -over a century ago;[318] and from Rhode Island and elsewhere a few were -obtained. - -The first awakening to a realization of the value of fresh-water pearls -in America occurred fifty years ago, when several beautiful gems were -marketed from the northern part of New Jersey. The story of this find -has been frequently told. A shoemaker named David Howell, who lived on -the outskirts of Paterson, occasionally relieved the monotony of his -trade by a fishing excursion to some neighboring stream, where he would -usually collect a “mess” of mussels. Returning from one of these visits -to Notch Brook in the spring of 1857, the mussels were fried with the -usual abundance of grease and heat. After this preparation, one of them -was found to contain a large, round pearl weighing “nearly 400 grains,” -which possibly might have proven the finest of modern times, had not its -luster and beauty been destroyed by the heat and grease.[319] Had the -pearl been discovered in time, its value might have exceeded $25,000, -thus making poor Howell’s fried mussels one of the most expensive of -suppers. - -Hoping to duplicate his wonderful find, Howell collected and searched -other mussels, and his example was followed by several of his neighbors. -Within a few days a magnificent pink pearl was found by a Paterson -carpenter named Jacob Quackenbush. This weighed ninety-three grains, and -was bought by the late Charles L. Tiffany for Messrs. Tiffany & Co., New -York City, for $1500. Mr. Tiffany later described with much interest the -feelings he experienced after making the purchase. Said he: “Here this -man finds a pearl within seventeen miles of our place of business! What -if thousands should be found, and many perhaps finer than this one! -However, we risked buying the pearl, and as no one in New York seemed -interested in it, we sent it to our Paris house for sale, and a French -gem dealer offered for it a very large advance on the original price, -paying 12,500 francs.” From this dealer it passed into the possession of -the young and beautiful Empress Eugénie, from whom and from its great -luster it derived the name “Queen Pearl.” Its present market value would -doubtless amount to $10,000 or more. - -When news of the very large price received for Quackenbush’s find became -public, great excitement developed in the vicinity of Notch Brook. -Persons came from all directions to search in the shallow streams for -valuable pearls. Farmers of the neighborhood tried their luck, and also -mechanics and other residents of the adjacent villages and towns, and -even some from Newark, Jersey City, and New York. An old resident, who -was an eye-witness, describes the scene as one of great animation, the -crowds of people and the horses and wagons along the shore giving “an -appearance of camp-meeting time.” At least one schoolmaster in the -vicinity is said to have closed his school to give his pupils an -opportunity to engage in the hunt. - -With trousers rolled up, the people waded into the shallow water and -sought for the mussels in the mud and sand on the bottom. Many pearls -were secured, but none approached in size or value the two above -noted.[320] During 1857, the New York City market received about $15,000 -worth of pearls from these waters, and in addition many were sold -locally or retained as souvenirs of the hunt. At the low price of pearls -existing then, this figure would mean possibly ten times as much at -present, or $150,000. - -The active search soon depleted the resources of the little stream, so -that in the following year the reported value of the yield was only a -few thousand dollars. The decrease continued until in a few years -practically every mussel was removed, and at present scarcely a single -Unio is to be found in these waters. - -The interest in pearling extended far from the place of the original -find; and in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and even as far away as Texas, search -was made in the streams. In the Colorado and its tributaries, about -20,000 were found in a short while. Most of these were small and -unattractive, but a considerable number were reported “as large as -pepper-corns” and a few “the size of a small rifle ball,” the number -decreasing with the increase in size. A correspondent in the “Neue Zeit” -wrote: - - Sometimes they are round, sometimes cylindrical, elliptical, - hemispherical, or of an altogether irregular shape. The finest have - a milk-white, silvery sheen; many, however, are reddish yellow, - bluish brown, or quite black; the last naturally have no value - whatever. As to their value, there is considerable uncertainty, and - it can easily be understood that those who have a great number of - them in their possession greatly overestimate them. So far they are - found principally in the Llano and the San Saba.[321] - -After the resources in northern New Jersey were depleted and the -excitement had died out, little was heard of pearling in this country -until 1878, when many were found in Little Miami River in southwestern -Ohio. The fishing was carried on at low water, and principally by boys, -who would wade out in the water and feel for the mollusks with their -feet, and then bob under and pick them up with their hands. The senior -author spent a day in this fishery with a party of six boys with some -success. During 1878 about $25,000 worth of pearls were collected in the -vicinity of Waynesville on that stream. Mr. Israel H. Harris, a banker -of Waynesville, then began collecting these pearls; and by purchasing -during several years nearly every interesting specimen found in the -vicinity, he made his collection one of the largest and best known in -the country. When sold in 1888, it contained several thousand pearls, -mostly of small size, averaging in weight little more than one grain -each. A large portion of this collection was exhibited in the American -section of the Paris Exposition of 1889, and was awarded a gold medal. -Included in this exhibit was a series of ornaments in which the gems -were arranged according to color, so that in one the pearls were green, -in another purplish brown, in another pink, in another waxy white, and -in one a cream-white. It also contained a button-shaped pearl weighing -thirty-eight grains and several pink ones almost translucent. A pink -pearl of eight grains was admired by all who saw it; by reflected light -this had the color and translucency of a drop of molten silver. Many of -the pink pearls found in the Little Miami and its tributaries were of -the most beautiful rose-petal pink; pearls of this peculiar color have -never been found in any other waters. - -From Ohio the industry gradually extended westward and southward, and -new fields were developed, pearls to the value of about $10,000 annually -coming on the market from such widely separated States as Vermont, -Kentucky, Tennessee, Florida, Texas, Washington, etc. However, little -general interest was taken in fresh-water pearls, and few choice ones -were found until the magnificent resources of the upper Mississippi -Valley were discovered. Owing to the ease with which the mollusks may be -collected by wading, it was in the relatively shallow tributaries that -the fishery first developed, rather than in the deep channels of the -main stream and of the large affluents. - -The first region in the Mississippi Valley to attract attention was -southwestern Wisconsin. Early in the summer of 1889, many beautiful -pearls were found in Pecatonica River, a tributary of Rock River, which -in turn empties into the Mississippi. Within three months, $10,000 worth -of gems were sent from this region to New York City alone, including one -worth $500, which was a very considerable sum for a fresh-water pearl at -that time. The interest quickly spread to neighboring waters, and within -a short time pearls were found also in Sugar River, in Apple River, in -Rock River, in Wisconsin River, and in the Mississippi in the vicinity -of Prairie du Chien. The fact that little experience and no capital was -required for the business drew large numbers of persons to the -newly-found Klondike; and the finds were so numerous and of such high -quality that about $300,000 worth of pearls were collected before the -end of 1891, greatly exceeding all records for fresh waters. - -The Wisconsin pearls are remarkable for their beauty, luster, and -diversified coloring, and some lovely shades of pink, purple, and -especially metallic green have been found. Several of them have weighed -in excess of fifty grains each, and some individual values ran well into -four figures. One shipment made from Sugar River to London in September, -1890, contained ninety-three pearls, weighing from four to twenty-eight -grains each, for which £11,700 was received in payment. In the limits of -one county in the following year, pearls to the value of nearly $100,000 -were secured. - -[Illustration: - - BROOCHES AND RINGS OF FRESH-WATER PEARLS FROM WISCONSIN AND TENNESSEE - - Paris Exposition, 1900 -] - -Shortly following the outbreak of pearling in Wisconsin came the -development of interest in certain parts of Tennessee. For many years -pearls had been secured from the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers and -their tributaries, especially Caney Fork, Duck, Calf Killer, and Elk -rivers, the headquarters of the fishery and the local markets being -Carthage, Smithville, Columbia, and Arlington. The search had been -conducted in a moderate way by pleasure parties in the summer, and by -farmers after the crops had been laid aside. - -In 1901 pearling excitement developed in the mountain regions of eastern -Tennessee, especially in Clinch River. These newly-discovered resources -proved so valuable that the local interest became very great. Vivid and -picturesque accounts published in the local papers reported hundreds of -persons as camping at various points along the streams, some in tents -and some in rough shanties, and others going from shoal to shoal in -newly-built house-boats. They were described as easygoing, -pleasure-loving people, the men, women, and children working hard all -day, subsisting largely on fish caught in the same stream, and dancing -at night to the music of a banjo around the camp-fires. The center of -the new industry was Clinton, the county seat of Anderson County, -whither the successful hunters betook themselves each Saturday, the -preferred time for selling the catch. - -The next outbreak of pearling excitement was in Arkansas, in the region -referred to by Daniel Coxe two centuries ago as the location of great -pearl resources.[322] Although in recent times little had been heard of -pearls in Arkansas previous to 1895, they were not unknown in that -State. For years they had been picked up by the fishermen, and used as -lucky stones or given to the children for playthings. Some had come into -the possession of persons acquainted with their value. About 1875, a few -pearls were collected by a party of men engaged in cutting cedar poles -on White River; in 1888, a brilliant pear-shaped pink pearl of -twenty-seven grains was secured from the same river, and sold to a -prominent resident. Little had been said about these finds, and in -general the people of Arkansas had slight idea of the occurrence or the -value of pearls in those waters. - -In 1895, a surveying party on White River found pearls in the Unios of -that stream, and collected them to the value of about $5000. News of -this discovery attracted attention to the resource, and other persons -sought for the gems in the White River and its tributaries, in the St. -Francis and the Arkansas rivers. The unusually low water in 1896 -facilitated the fishery, and resulted in the discovery of many large and -valuable gems. The interest developed rapidly, and within twelve months -nearly every stream of water in Arkansas yielded pearls, with the finds -most extensive and valuable in White River and its tributary the Black -River, which has proved to be the richest pearling region in America. -The industry centered at Black Rock, more than a thousand persons -fishing within twenty miles of that place. It is estimated that within -three years following the development of this fishery, this State -yielded pearls to the value of more than $500,000. - -When the Arkansas fishery was at its height, it was reported that ten -thousand persons were employed therein. The fishermen were from nearly -every class and condition in the State. Women were not absent; even -children participated in the industry, and some proved more fortunate -than the older hunters. It was not uncommon to see several hundred -persons congregated at one bar or in one stretch of the river, all -intent on making a fortune, and all occupied in fishing or in opening -the shells. So complete was the absorption of the people in this -pursuit, and so many of the farm-hands were occupied in the eager search -for anticipated fortunes, that the local papers reported much -apprehension and difficulty in harvesting the cotton and other crops. - -Within the main channel of the Mississippi, the relative scarcity of -pearls in the Unios, and the greater preparation required for collecting -the mollusks in the deep waters, retarded the fishery until the -establishment of button manufacture afforded a market for the shells, -this originating in 1891. The industry developed rapidly, and for -several years has consumed about 35,000 tons of shells annually, -obtained principally in the Mississippi between Quincy and La Crosse, -and to a much less extent in other streams in this valley. This is more -than twice the total product of mother-of-pearl shell in all parts of -the world. However, the value per ton is very much less than that of the -best grade of mother-of-pearl; that from Australia, for instance, -commonly selling for $1200 per ton, whereas the Mississippi shell -usually sells for less than $20, although the very choicest may bring -upward of $50 per ton. - -The gathering of shells for manufacture has extended to many of the -large tributaries of the Mississippi, especially the Arkansas, the -White, the St. Francis, the Ohio and the Illinois rivers, and this -industry has added largely to the pearl yield in these waters. - -In the last three years, the scenes of greatest activity have been the -Wabash River and its tributaries, where shell-collecting developed in -1903, and the Illinois River, where the industry was of little -importance previous to 1906. On the Wabash, camps were established at -almost every town, from the mouth up to St. Francis, Illinois, and about -one thousand persons found employment. Some of the most beautiful -American gems have come from this river. They are usually silvery white -in color and of the sweetest luster. A single pearl weighing only ten -grains has been sold at the river for $1000; but it is frequently the -case that a fine gem will sell for more at the place where found than in -the great markets. During the spring of 1907, three pearls were found in -the Wabash near Vincennes, which weighed forty-one, fifty-one, and -fifty-three grains respectively. One of these was white, one faint pink, -and the third was yellow. The finest pearls have been reported from the -vicinity of Mount Carmel near the lower end of the river. Very large -quantities of baroques or slugs are found in the Wabash and the -Illinois; 30,000 ounces were reported from those rivers and their -tributaries in 1907, for which the fishermen received a total of -$50,000. A large symmetrical pearl found during 1907 weighed a trifle -under 150 grains, and a slug was found which weighed fully one ounce, or -606 grains. - -The pearl-hunting excitement has been felt even on the Atlantic -seaboard, as a result of the publication of the discoveries in the -Mississippi Valley. In Maine many pearls have been reported, especially -in the vicinity of Moosehead Lake. In 1901 over one hundred were found -in that vicinity; most of them were of little value, but more than a -dozen were worth $10 or $15 each. Three found by Kineo guides were sold -for an aggregate of $300. The choicest one reported in that year weighed -twelve and one half grains and sold for $150; had it been perfect in -form and luster its value would have been several times that amount. -Most of these pearls were found by Moosehead guides, who found -purchasers among the visiting fishermen and hunters. - -Since 1901 many farm-boys as well as guides have devoted much attention -to the business, some of them deriving as large a revenue therefrom as -from the use of the rifle. Good finds have been made, during the last -year or two especially. In 1906, one choice pearl sold for $700, and -many have sold for $10 to $75 each. The search has proven so alluring -that returning visitors have complained that some of the guides care to -do little more than search every rill, brook, and creek they come across -looking for the mollusks. Just at present the principal attention seems -to be directed to the streams in the western part of Maine, where the -river-beds are more sandy and the shell-fish more abundant than in the -northern and eastern part of the State. - -In Massachusetts pearls have been collected from many of the ponds and -brooks. In Nonesuch Pond in Weston, the _Unio complanata_ has yielded -many small ones of attractive appearance, but not of sufficient size or -luster to sell for more than $10 each. Ponds in the town of Greenwich -and also in Pelham in Hampshire County are among the best in -Massachusetts for pearls. The Sudbury River above Concord also yields -many. Relatively few of the Unios contain pearls, and the gem-bearing -individuals seem to be grouped in special localities. Outside of these -places, thousands of mussels may be opened without revealing a single -gem. A collection of small Massachusetts pearls was brought together a -few years ago by Mr. Sherman F. Denton of Wellesley Farms, who has -devoted much time to exploring the inland waters of Massachusetts. - -Connecticut also has had a slight touch of the pearl fever. In 1897, Mr. -C. S. Carwell of Ledyard, explored the headwaters of Mystic River, and -in a few weeks collected a number of pearls, one of which he is reported -as having sold for $500, and two others were estimated at $400 each. And -from the other end of the State, along the Shepaug River, is reported a -similar account of the success of Mr. Arlo Kinney of Steep Rock. -Attracted by these reports, crowds of seekers have proceeded in the -usual reckless manner to make wholesale destruction of the mollusks. The -finds have been especially large and valuable in the lakes and streams -of Litchfield County, particularly in Bantam Lake. - -In New York State, pearls have been found in the swift shallow streams -in the Adirondack region, and in several of those entering the St. -Lawrence, particularly the Grass River in St. Lawrence County. Pearls -were first reported from this region in 1894. In 1896 the Grass yielded -one pearl weighing fifty-eight grains, worth $600 locally; and in 1897 -one weighing sixty-eight grains was found, the fisherman selling it for -$800. A resident of Russell township devoted most of his time to -pearling in Grass River during 1896 and 1897, from which he is said to -have realized $2000. In this region the mussels are found by wading in -the shallow water and scanning the bottom through a water-telescope. -Most of the pearls are of slight value, but many individuals are -reported as worth from $30 to $60 each. - -Pearl River in Rockland County, New York, has furnished a number of -brown pearls. These are commonly small, weighing from one eighth to one -half grain each, although some weigh seven or eight grains each. Most of -these are not lustrous, but occasionally a bright brown or a bright -copper-brown specimen of from one to four grains is met with. At the -Paris Exposition, in 1900, were exhibited one hundred of these pearls, -with an aggregate weight of 281 grains; these now form part of the -Morgan-Tiffany Collection, in the American Museum of Natural History. - -Even in the rich coal regions of Pennsylvania pearls are found. Possibly -the most productive section in that State has been the headwaters of the -Schuylkill River in the vicinity of Tamaqua, Quakake, and Mahony City. -Of the tributaries of the Schuylkill, those contributing largely to the -yield have been Lewiston, Nipert, Still, Locust, and Hecla. These rise -in the mountains and are rivulets of fair size by the time they reach -their common outlet. - -[Illustration: - - PEARL-BEARING UNIOS - - From the Mississippi Valley - - The upper pictures show the two valves of the same shell, and the - pearl is detachable -] - -The original pearl finds in the Schuylkill date from half a century ago, -when they were secured by farmers who used the mussel shells in removing -hair from the hides of slaughtered pigs. During the Mississippi pearling -excitement in 1897, several persons from New York, who were summering in -Schuylkill County, searched the small streams for pearl-bearing mussels -with such success that within a short while many farmers became -enthusiastic hunters during their spare time. Half a dozen or more men -did very well, their catch amounting to thousands of dollars’ worth. Mr. -Frank M. Ebert, of Quakake, has put most of his spare time in the -business in the last ten years, and has secured many good pearls. It is -estimated that the total catch in Schuylkill County alone approximates -$20,000 at local values. So actively has the search been conducted that -at present few adult mussels of the pearl-bearing species remain, and a -day’s work may result in finding less than a dozen. - -The best price reported as received by a local fisherman was $200 for a -twenty-grain pearl in the year 1904. Many individual specimens have been -sold at prices ranging from $100 to $175. It is claimed that a pearl -sold by a fisherman in Schuylkill for fifty cents was later marketed in -Philadelphia for $125, and with slight mounting was ultimately sold for -$1600. The most attractive weigh from ten to twenty grains each; larger -ones have been found, weighing up to thirty-eight grains, but as a rule -the luster is not so good as that possessed by pearls of medium size. -The common colors are dark blue, pink, lavender, and white. A few are -black and some are brown. The brown pearls are seldom of value, owing to -deficiency in luster. - -In Maryland pearls have been collected from the brooks near the head of -Chesapeake Bay, and especially in Kent and Cecil counties. These are of -almost every conceivable color, ranging from a clear white to a dainty -pink, and to very dark colors, especially bronze and copper. Most of -them are too small for commercial value, and only a few reach sufficient -size to command more than $5 or $10 each, but single specimens have sold -as high as $50. - -Georgia has yielded some pearls, chiefly in the vicinity of Rome, at the -junction of the Etowah and Oostanaula rivers. This is believed to be the -site of the Indian town Cofaciqui, where, in his memorable expedition of -1540–1541, De Soto found the natives in possession of so many pearls. -The general news of finds in the Mississippi Valley stirred up local -interest in this region in 1897, and when the streams were low and clear -in the autumn many persons engaged in hunting the mussels. An ex-sheriff -of Rome is reported as having secured about fifty pearls, lustrous but -irregular. A few miles above Rome, a farmer made a trial on Johns Creek, -a tributary of the Oostanaula; and from a basketful of Unios he reports -finding several marketable pearls for which he received $180 from a -Baltimore jeweler. Others followed, and many fine specimens were -secured. Unios are especially abundant in the Flint, Ocmulgee, and -Oconee rivers, and it seems probable that many pearls might be found in -these streams. - -Florida has not yet been actively exploited, but it may prove a -productive region ere long. The reports of De Soto’s expedition make -special reference to the size and beauty of the pearls found at a point -where he crossed the Ocklocknee River about thirty miles above its -mouth, near the present site of Langston, Wakulla County. And there -seems little doubt that pearls may be found in the Ocklocknee and also -in its affluent, the Sopchoppy River. The banks of these streams are -full of shells, and pearls of choice color have been sent from there. - -It is unnecessary to refer in detail to the origin of pearling in each -of the States. The general interest in this industry from 1889 to the -present time has resulted in the examination of most of the rivers and -creeks, and in few has the search been entirely unrewarded, although the -finds have been relatively much greater in some waters than in others. -As a rule, pearl-bearing Unios are most numerous in clear, swift -streams, with sandy or gravelly bottoms and which flow through -calcareous rocks. With pearlers as with miners, there is a stampede to -the places where a good find is reported, since the rivers are free for -all; consequently, there is much variation from year to year in the -amount of attention which the individual streams and localities receive. - -While many of the pearlers operating in the Mississippi River are -professional fishermen or rivermen, most of those in the smaller streams -have had no previous experience in similar work. Frequently whole -families come twenty or thirty miles, and even greater distances, and -camp on the river bank. In many instances farm-hands are there who have -abandoned their crops, mechanics who have left steady jobs, railway men -who have taken a lay-off, teachers, merchants, all eager and expecting -to find a fortune. In some localities, pearl fishing has been used as an -attraction in big picnic advertisements, and has drawn larger crowds -than a public orator. - -The mollusks are removed from the river bottoms in various ways and by -many forms of apparatus. In the shallow streams the fishermen simply -wade out in the water and pick up the shells by hand. If not readily -visible from the surface, the shells may be located with the bare feet -or by the use of a water-telescope. Where the water is too deep for -wading, the fishermen work from small boats, and use garden rakes or -other convenient inplements. - -Where pearling has developed into more of an industry, special forms of -rakes and drags are employed. A shoulder rake, with a handle twelve to -twenty feet in length, is used extensively under the ice in frozen -rivers, and in lakes and other places where the water is still and from -eight to fifteen feet in depth. This is simply an overgrown or enlarged -garden rake, armed with twelve or fifteen iron teeth about five inches -in length. A wire scoop or basket is attached to receive the catch as it -is pulled from the bottom by the teeth, and when this scoop is well -filled it is lifted and the contents dumped on the ice or into the -skiff. This method is laborious, and is employed only where the water is -shallow and the mollusks are abundant. Scissor tongs—similar to those -used by oystermen on the Atlantic coast—are also employed in some -localities, especially in Arkansas, where it is estimated that 1700 -pairs were manufactured and sold in 1899 and 1900, at about $7 each. - -In the large streams of the Mississippi Valley, with their slow and -steady currents, and where the Unios are taken largely for their shells -to be used in button manufacture, the most popular form of apparatus -since 1896 has been the crowfoot drag. This ingenious contrivance -consists of a cross-bar of hollow iron tubing or common gas-pipe, six or -eight feet long, to which are attached, at intervals of five or six -inches, stout twine or chain snoods or stagings, each about eighteen -inches in length. To each of these are attached three or four prongs or -“hooks,” about six inches apart. These “hooks” are four-pronged, and are -made of two pieces of stout wire bent at right angles to each other. -According to the depth of the water, from twenty-five to seventy-five -feet of three quarter inch rope is attached to the drag for the purpose -of towing it behind the boat, which is permitted to drift down the -stream with the current. This contrivance costs about $3, and each -fisherman generally has at least two of them, as well as a wide -flat-bottom boat costing $5 or $10. - -Sometimes, when the current is light, the fisherman prepares a “mule” to -assist the boat in towing the resisting drag. This “mule” consists of a -wooden frame, hinged in V-shape, and is fastened several feet in advance -of the boat with the V end pointed down the stream. It sinks low in the -water, and the current pressing against the angle carries it along, and -thus tows the skiff and the resisting drag at a uniform rate of speed. -When there is not sufficient current even for this contrivance, as in -the wide reaches and in the lakes, oars, sails, and even power engines -may be used for propelling the boat. - -As the crowfoot drag is slowly drawn along the bottom, it comes in -contact with the mollusks feeding with open shells. When a hook or other -part of the drag enters an open shell, the mollusk immediately closes -firmly upon the intruding object and clings thereto long enough to be -drawn up into the boat. In this way, where the Unios are thick, nearly -every hook becomes freighted, and some may have two or three shells -clinging thereto. It is easy to collect fifty mollusks in passing over a -length of two hundred feet. Two drags are carried by each fisherman, and -the second one is put overboard as soon as the first one is ready to be -raised. This is suspended with the bar across two upright forks on -either side of the boat with the prongs swinging freely, and the mussels -are removed therefrom. When this operation is completed, the drag is put -overboard and the other one is ready for lifting. This apparatus is very -effective, and as much as a ton of shells has been taken by one man in -twelve hours, but the average is very much less, probably not over four -or five hundred pounds. Objection is made to this manner of fishing, -since many mollusks not brought to the surface are so injured that they -die. - -A cruder implement of similar type has long been employed on many -logging streams. The weighted branch of a tree is dragged on the bottom -behind a raft of logs, and the mussels attach themselves to the twigs in -the same manner as on the crowfoot hooks. - -During the pearling excitement in Arkansas, a considerable portion of -the choice pearls were found, not in the mussels, but lying loosely in -the mud of the shores, indicating that under some circumstances, as -agitation by freshets or floods, the loose pearls are shaken out from -the Unios. In some instances, indeed, the pearls were found upon or in -the soil at some distance from streams or lakes. It is reported that in -October, 1897, Mr. J. W. McIntosh, of the northern part of Lonoke -County, while digging post-holes in the old bed of Cypress Bayou, found -a number of pearls, some “as large as a 44–caliber Winchester ball,” -lying within the shells at a depth of a foot and a half below the -surface. This peculiar occurrence is partly explained by the wide -extension of the waters in flood times over the low region, and by the -shifting of streams and the isolation of cut-offs. - -Stray pearls have been found in many other odd places, as in the viscera -of chickens and ducks, in the stomachs of fish, and even within a pig’s -mouth. It is not an uncommon scene in the pearling region to see men -raking over the muck in hog-pens along the river banks, hoping there to -find a stray pearl lost from the mussels with which the animals had been -fed by persons who had indeed “cast pearls before swine.” It is related -that a Negro near Marley, Illinois, in this way secured a pearl weighing -118 grains, for which he received $2000 from a St. Louis buyer, and -which was ultimately sold to a New York dealer for $5000. - -[Illustration: - - Pearling scene on White River, Arkansas - - The fishermen are using scissor tongs from flat-bottom skiffs -] - -[Illustration: - - Pearling camp on upper Mississippi River - - Crowfoot drags are shown on the flat-bottom skiffs at the river bank -] - -During the height of the Arkansas pearling excitement in 1897, the -speculative spirit was so rife that many persons—unwilling to engage in -the labor of fishing—purchased unopened mussels from the fishermen in -the venture for aleatory profits. The price for these ranged from -twenty-five cents to $2 per hundred, and fluctuated rapidly, according -to the immediate results, increasing several hundred per cent. in a few -minutes under the influence of a valuable find. One fisherman sold -mussels to the value of $28 in one day, and thought he had made an -excellent bargain until over $1000 worth of pearls were revealed when -the shells were opened. - -While some pearlers work in southern streams throughout the year, -generally the season is coincident with warm weather, when the water is -low and the work may be conducted with comfort. In the vicinity of -Muscatine and Rock Island about twelve years ago, large quantities of -Unios were taken during the winter when the river was frozen over, the -men working with long rakes from the surface of the ice. - -When only a few mollusks are taken, they are readily opened with a knife -to permit a search for the pearls. But where there are many, as in the -Mississippi River, the opening is facilitated by heating. After a -sufficient catch has been obtained, they are subjected to the action of -steam in a box, or they are heated in an ordinary kettle; a few minutes -of steaming or cooking are sufficient to cause the shells to spring -open. The fleshy parts are removed and thoroughly searched, the interior -surfaces of the shells are likewise examined for attached pearls, and -the liquid at the bottom of the vessel is strained so that nothing of -value may escape. - -This cooking is a convenient method of opening the shells, but -unquestionably it injures the quality of many pearls. In some instances -when the shells open, the pearls fall out and descend to the heated iron -bottom, where they are quickly injured. The surface of one exposed too -long to the heat shows numerous minute cracks, which increase in number -and size when subjected to changes of temperature. Some choice gems have -in this manner been rendered almost valueless. If a jacket boiler, or -one with a double bottom, were used, there would be less danger of -injuring the pearls; or a similar result could be accomplished by -placing a wire screen a few inches above the bottom. - -Several fishermen have endeavored to devise mechanical methods for -removing the pearls and thus avoid the painstaking search among the -flesh tissues now necessary; but these contrivances have not proved -satisfactory, and have not been employed except experimentally. - -In the Mississippi and its tributaries, where the fishery is very -extensive, after the pearls have been secured, the shells are sold to -button manufacturers and to exporters at prices ranging from $4 to $40 -per ton, according to species, quality, and market conditions. This -provides a fairly remunerative income to the fishermen even if no pearls -whatever are found. But in the small tributaries and where the mollusks -are less numerous, the shells are of little value owing to the expense -of bringing them together and conveying them to market. - -Not every mollusk contains a pearl, and the village belle, intent on her -evening toilet, need not buy a bushel of clams with the pleasant -anticipation of finding a sufficient number of gems for a necklace. -Small and irregular pearls are not at all uncommon, but choice ones are -decidedly scarce, and each one represents the destruction of tens of -thousands of mollusks. Quantities of irregular and imperfect nodules -known as slugs are collected, which sell for only a few dollars per -ounce. In some sections of the Mississippi, the slugs are so very -numerous that their aggregate value exceeds that of the choice pearls. - -In the Mississippi, the percentage of pearls found in a definite -quantity of mollusks is less than in the tributary streams, yet the much -greater quantity of shells collected raises the total yield to a very -considerable amount. Pearling is subordinate and incidental to gathering -the shells for manufacture. In that length of the river from St. Paul to -St. Louis, a fair average yield to the fishermen is about fourteen -dollars’ worth of pearls and slugs to each ton of shells. Of course, -this is not the individual experience, for a single Unio may contain a -gem worth $5000, and on the other hand several tons of shells may yield -only a few cents’ worth of baroques. The market for the shells places -the Mississippi fishing upon an industrial basis, and guarantees a -substantial income to every fisherman even when no pearls whatever are -found. - -Unios from the upper part of the Mississippi yield a much greater -percentage than those from below Davenport. In 1904, for instance, from -the 4331 tons of shells taken in Wisconsin the fishermen secured pearls -which they sold for $91,345, an average of $21 per ton; from the 822 -tons in Minnesota the average was $16 per ton; in Iowa the average was -$12 for each of the 7846 tons; in Illinois, $5 per ton for the 2364 -tons, and in Missouri less than $1 worth of pearls was secured by the -fishermen for each ton of shells which they took in the year named. A -large number of choice pearls weighing over thirty grains each were -found in the vicinity of Prairie du Chien and McGregor. Within a river -length of one hundred miles in that region, the fishermen in 1904 -gathered pearls which ultimately sold for $300,000. It is therefore -apparent that the returns vary greatly in the different regions; -nevertheless, even in the less productive localities fine pearls are -sometimes found, which contribute to make the industry a profitable one. - -Success in pearling is like that in mining. In the White River in -Arkansas, for instance, one man found $4200 worth in one month. Another -discovered a $50 pearl in the first shell he opened. A Negro found an -$85 pearl the first day he worked, while another fisherman worked seven -months and secured less than $10 worth. It is a question of finding or -not finding; the finding brings riches sometimes, and though the -failures reduce the average profits as low as in other local ventures, -the big prizes affect the mind, and the average is lost to sight. Taking -the country as a whole, it is probable that the total find has been -sufficient to pay the average fisherman little if any more than $1 for -each day’s work. - -The fresh-water pearls range in size from that of the smallest seed to -that of a pearl weighing several hundred grains. There is relatively -only a small quantity of seed-pearls, especially when compared with the -output in the fisheries of Ceylon and Persia. Possibly this is due -largely to a scarcity of the parasites which seem to perform so -important a function in the regions noted. A further reason may be found -in the manner in which the mollusks are opened and searched. Were the -Ceylon method of opening employed here—which, however, is not at all -practicable—it seems probable that the quantity of seed-pearls found in -this country would be greatly increased. - -The pearls from the tributaries of the Mississippi are noted for their -great range of coloration. From a dead white, the color is gradually -enhanced to faint shades of pink, yellow, or salmon tints, then to a -more decided form of these. From the light shades, the range extends to -purple and to bright copper red, closely resembling a drop of molten -copper. Some are very light green; others rose, steel blue, or russet -brown, while purplish and very dark brown are not uncommon. White pearls -are probably the most numerous; but pink, bronze, and lavender are by no -means rare. - -A large percentage of the Mississippi River pearls are very irregular in -form, many of them resembling dogs’ teeth, birds’ wings, the heads or -bodies of different animals, etc. - -As a rule the fresh-water pearls do not rank so high in value as those -from oriental seas, since ordinarily they are not so lustrous. However, -some of them have sold at very high figures. A round pearl weighing 103 -grains, found in Black River, Arkansas, in 1904, was eventually sold for -$25,000; and one of 68 grains, found, in 1907, on the Wisconsin side of -the Mississippi River, was recently marketed at $15,000. - -One of the largest American pearl necklaces, brought together in 1904, -consisted of thirty-eight pearls weighing 1710 grains in the aggregate, -an average of 45 grains for each pearl. The central gem weighed 98½ -grains and those on the left of it respectively 85¾, 79⅝, 65¼, 59⅝, 49⅜, -46¼, 45⅛, 43¾, 41½, 40½, 40⅝, 35⅛, 37⅝, 30, 25⅛, 22¼, 20¼, and 19 -grains. The pearls on the right were graduated as follows: 85¼, 76⅛, -64⅞, 59½, 47¼, 46, 45⅛, 44½, 42½, 41¾, 38, 37⅞, 36, 35, 34⅝, 29½, 25¼, -21, and 20⅜, grains. This necklace was exhibited at the St. Louis -World’s Fair. It was sold to a London merchant, who in turn sold it to a -Parisian dealer, and it was finally purchased by a Spanish nobleman at a -price said to be about 500,000 francs. - -Another necklace shown at the St. Louis World’s Fair, was of American -fresh-water pearls from the rivers of Arkansas. The total weight of -these pearls, sixteen in number, was 861⅝ grains, an average of 61½ -grains for each pearl. Of these one drop pearl weighed 77 grains, and -two others each 65½ grains. A round pearl of 70 grains completed the -adornment of the pendant. The circlet consisted of ten round pearls -alternating with precious stones. The central pearl weighed 98½ grains -and on each side were two of 61 grains, then two of 56 grains, two of -54⅞, and two of 48 grains, one of 45⅜ grains being at the back of the -necklace. - -In the early days of pearl hunting in American streams, the fishermen -had little idea of their value, and sold choice gems for insignificant -sums. In 1887, a fisherman on Rock River, Illinois, found a 40–grain -pearl which he carried in his pocket for several months. Showing it one -day in Davenport, he was offered $20 for it. He quickly accepted the -offer, and on his return home told his friends about “the sucker who -gave $20 for the shell slug.” At present this “shell slug” is worth more -than one hundred times that amount. Numerous instances of a similar -nature occurred until the average fisherman lost all confidence in his -judgment as to the values, and extravagant ideas prevailed regarding -even almost worthless nacreous concretions. Thus, when a choice pearl is -found, an exorbitant price is set upon it and the seller feels for the -market value by repeated dickerings with several buyers. And unless one -is an expert, he is quite likely to pay two or three times as much for a -pearl at the river bank as in a metropolitan market. Some of the -fishermen collect everything in the shape of nacreous concretions, and -very often pearl buyers in New York and elsewhere receive packages which -are not worth the postage; in many other packages nine tenths of the lot -is worthless; and the practical joker and the swindler have solicited -bids on bright marbles, rounded pieces of pearl shell, and even -sugar-coated pills. - -While many pearls of fine luster and beautiful and regular form have -been derived from these fisheries, it occasionally happens, in the case -of pearls consigned to the city pearl dealer, that cracks, breaks or -marks, which might detract from their value, are closed or removed, -either by means of water or oil, the pearls having been kept in one or -the other until a few moments before they were shown to the merchant. -Pearls worth hundreds of dollars have sometimes shown breaks, and in one -instance a pearl valued at $7000 showed these cracks even a very short -time after the sale. - -[Illustration: - - THE EVOLUTION OF BUTTONS, MADE FROM MISSISSIPPI SHELLS -] - -In many of the pearling regions of the Mississippi Valley, inquiry of -almost any fisherman will result in his bringing forth from an inside -pocket a small box padded with raw cotton and containing an assortment -of pearls and slugs. Most of the slugs he will sell at prices ranging -from fifty cents to $5 per ounce, for several of the small pearls he -will likely ask from $2 to $20 each, and one or two of the largest he -may value at $50 or more. At very rare intervals, a choice pearl will be -found, for which he may expect anywhere from $200 to $5000. - -While the highest prices are not received by the fishermen, there are -many who have been so fortunate as to obtain $1000 or more for a single -pearl, and several have received double that amount. Probably the -highest figure obtained by the original finder was $3800, -notwithstanding exaggerated stories of enormous five-figure prices. -Recently the press credited a lad sixteen years of age with securing -$20,000 for a pearl he had found. - -A particularly striking yarn relative to a so-called “Queen Mary” pearl -went the rounds of the press some time ago. According to the newspaper -report, this pearl was found by the wife of a fisherman who was a -cripple or something equally pathetic, and, fortunately, when the family -resources were at the lowest. With tears of joy, the fisherman embraced -his wife and told her it was her very own and she should wear it. -However, by means of a check for $17,500, he was induced to part with -it, but only on condition that it be named Queen Mary in honor of the -hard-working wife. The report continues that the original buyer sold it -for $25,000, and at last accounts it was held by a Chicago dealer who -had “refused $40,000 and probably would not accept $50,000 for it.” The -facts seem to be that this pearl, which was found near Prairie du Chien -in 1901 and weighed 103 grains, was originally sold for $250, and the -local buyer sold it in Chicago for $550, where for many months it was -offered at $1000. - -All sorts of stories of valuable finds are told in the pearling regions: -stories of mortgages that have been released, of homes bought, of -college educations secured from the proceeds of a single gem; but these -tales are offset by the untold stories of the undermining of fine, -strong character in awaiting the turn of fortune which never comes. The -public is quickly apprised of the valuable finds, but it does not hear -of the time and labor lost by the hundreds who are unsuccessful. -Pearling excitement has many of the features of a mining craze. While a -few are benefited, hundreds are made poorer, and in many instances -reduced to absolute want. Persons have given up their established -business to devote their time to pearling, staking all on the aleatory -profits, and have squandered days and months in the hope that one great, -immense, all-rewarding find will be made. The monotony of continued -disappointment is occasionally brightened by the news that some -one—possibly a near neighbor—has made a lucky find, and then the work is -continued with renewed enthusiasm. A spirit akin to that which dominates -the gambler takes possession of the fisherman, and the days go on and -the seasons go by while the gem that is to bring the fortune still -eludes him. In many localities the pursuit yields far less profit than -pleasure, and many a man who spends a summer in pearling is in a fair -way to spend the winter at the expense of some one else. - -The pearls are collected for the trade by a score or more of buyers, who -visit the fisheries at intervals and purchase of the individual -fishermen by personal dickering and bargaining. The buyers endeavor to -keep informed of all choice pearls discovered, and when an especially -valuable find is reported each one endeavors to have the first chance to -secure it. The principal local centers of the pearling industry and -marketing are Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin; McGregor, Clinton, and -Muscatine, Iowa; Newport, Black Rock, and Bald Knob, Arkansas; Clinton, -Carthage, and Smithville, Tennessee; St. Francisville, Illinois; and -Vincennes and Leavenworth, Indiana. - -However, a large number of the pearls from American rivers are consigned -by the finders to well-known gem dealers, the owners depending for fair -treatment on the integrity and high standing of these experts. An -interesting story is told of the pearl and the accompanying shell in -which it was found, which was sent to a New York dealer by a poor woman. -The price she received pleased her immensely; and in writing her -appreciation, she added that she was especially gratified at receiving -so good a price because it enabled her to send her boy to school. The -dealer sent another check as a gift, and a few days before the next -Thanksgiving Day a thirty-five-pound turkey was received by the -four-score-year-old jeweler as an evidence of the mother’s gratitude. - -[Illustration: - - NECKLACE OF FRESH-WATER PEARLS - - Paris Exposition, 1900 -] - -The outbreak of pearl hunting in various parts of the country is -frequently chronicled by the newspapers. These despatches are much -alike, usually telling how some fisherman discovered a beautiful pearl -which he sold to some responsible jeweler for an amount varying from -$100 to $2000. The despatches generally state further that the effect of -the find has been remarkable; the whole region is seized with the fever, -and into the rivers and creeks swarm the hunters of both sexes, of all -ages, and from all classes of the community. Factory-men leave their -mills, farmers their crops, and merchants their stores, and with the -members of their families join in searching for the gems. The mussels -are secured by whatever means is most convenient. If valuable finds -continue, thousands and thousands of mollusks are destroyed in the -search, and when the efforts begin to prove futile the excitement -subsides almost as quickly as it began. In very many localities the -industry has run the whole gamut of the feverish excitement of its -beginning, the humor and romance of its existence, and the pathos of its -ending. - -If disturbed labor conditions at the height of the excitement were the -only disagreeable attendant, these pearling furors could be viewed more -favorably. But, unfortunately, in many localities, especially in shoal -waters of restricted area, the fishery has been prosecuted so vigorously -that it appears probable the resources will be very materially -impoverished if not ruined in a few years, unless prompt and decisive -protective measures are adopted. In some waters the crowds engaged in -the search have removed practically every mussel without regard not only -to protecting the immature mussels, but even to the necessity for -preserving breeding mollusks. Many ponds and small river basins have -been so denuded that not for many years, if ever, can they recover their -former wealth of pearl-bearers. - -This state of affairs has not come about without opposition on the part -of those interested in the industry and the general welfare of the -localities. Intelligent and well-directed efforts have been made to -provide a system of regulations for protecting the mussels so that the -maximum yield of pearls may be secured. But this is a very difficult -problem to deal with. It involves not only the methods of fishery, but -the question of sewage disposal by the cities and the large factories, -through which great quantities of mussels have been destroyed. - -Undoubtedly it will be difficult to devise regulations that will be -satisfactory alike to the fishermen, the button manufacturers and the -farmers. The great desideratum in the pearl fisheries—of the seas as -well as in the fresh-water streams—is a restriction of the gathering to -such mollusks and to such seasons and periods of years as produce the -largest results with the least injury to the permanency of the -resources. - -It is generally agreed that the young or immature mollusks should be -protected; but it is not easy to determine what is an immature Unio, as -some species never grow large. Likewise, the beds should not be -disturbed when the mollusks are loaded with young, but it is difficult -to select particular months which would be better for close season than -any others. The propositions which seem to be most actively advocated -impose restrictions on the number and size of the mussels to be taken, a -cessation of fishing from January 1 to May 31, closing certain areas -when partly depleted, and prohibiting the use of especially injurious -forms of apparatus. But whatever is done should be done without delay, -before the pearl hunters and the button manufacturers kill the goose -which for some years has been laying the golden eggs.[323] - - - MISCELLANEOUS PEARL FISHERIES OF AMERICA - - The deep’s wealth, coral, and pearl, and sand - Like spangling gold, and purple shells engraven - With mystic legends by no mortal hand. - - SHELLEY, _The Revolt of Islam_. - -The beautiful pearls of the conch (_Strombus gigas_) are sought for in -the West Indies and on the neighboring continental coasts. They are -found most abundantly about the Bahamas, a group of more than four -hundred islands off the Florida coast, where many of the fishermen -devote a considerable portion of their time to collecting them. It is -from this industry that the beach-combers of this group of islands, as -well as those of the Florida reefs, have received the designation -“Conchs.” - -Near the shores, where they formerly abounded, a few conchs are yet -picked up by wading fishermen. In waters of medium depth they are -secured either by diving or by means of a long pole with a hook at the -end. In great depths, the mollusks are located by means of a waterglass -similar to the type employed in the Red Sea or among the South Sea -Islands. - -The animal is readily removed from the shell after crushing the tip end -of the spire where the large muscle is attached. The flesh forms an -important article of food to the fishermen and to the residents of the -outlying islands. It is said that a “Conch” can make a visit to Nassau -of a week or ten days, and subsist almost entirely on this dried meat, -with which he fills his pockets on starting. A large demand exists for -the beautiful shells for ornamenting flower-beds, garden-walks, etc. -Many of them are burned into lime for building purposes. Formerly -several hundred thousand shells were exported annually to England for -use in porcelain manufacture. - -The pearls are generally found embedded in the flesh of the mollusk; -quite often they are in a sac or cyst with an external opening, from -which they are sometimes dislodged by the muscular movement of the -animal. The yield is small, a thousand shells in many cases yielding -only a very small number of seed-pearls or perhaps none at all. Most of -them are oval, commonly somewhat elongated. The usual size is about one -grain in weight, but some of them weigh over twenty, and a very few -exceed fifty grains each. These pearls are generally of a deep pink -color, shading toward whitish pink at each end. While this is the usual -color, yellow, white, red, and even brown conch pearls are occasionally -obtained; these are not so highly prized as the pink ones. Conch pearls -present a peculiar wavy appearance and a sheen somewhat like watered -silk, a result of the reflections produced by the fibrous stellated -structure. While many are beautifully lustrous, they are commonly -deficient in orient, and the color is somewhat evanescent. - -Most of the Bahama conch fishermen sell their catch of pearls at Nassau. -According to the late Mr. Frederick E. Stearns, there are in Nassau four -dealers who have an arrangement with Paris and London houses, to whom -they can ship pearls in any number and draw against them with a bill of -lading. In addition to these, there are a dozen dealers in Nassau who -buy what pearls they can secure and offer them for sale. - -The value of conch pearls is as variable as their form, color, and size, -and they are sold by the fishermen at prices ranging from twenty-five -cents to one dollar or more each. Those weighing from three to ten -grains, and of good color and luster, but not quite regular in form, -sell for about $10 per grain; those of exceptional perfection in color -and form, and of about the same weights, sell for from $15 to $30 per -grain. In other and exceptional cases, where the size is very large, the -form perfect, and the color and luster choice, the value is enhanced to -several hundred and even several thousand dollars each. A perfect conch -pearl is among the most rare and most valuable of gems. An unusually -choice one has sold in New York City for more than $5000. The yield -fluctuates considerably, but perhaps averages about $85,000 in value -annually. One of the finest conch pearls ever found is shown on the -plate with the conch shell. - -There are two important materials that have occasionally been sold and -mistaken for the conch pearl. First, the pale Italian, Japanese, or West -Indian coral, with a color very closely approaching that of the pearl. -By means of a lens it can readily be seen that the coral is in layers, -and does not possess the concentric structure of the pearl, or the -peculiar interwoven structure, with its characteristic sheen, so -frequent in conch pearls. Secondly, the pink conch shell in which the -pearl itself is found; this is frequently cut to imitate the pearl and -sold as such in the West Indies and elsewhere. This can also be detected -by the fact that the layers are almost horizontal and the structure is -not concentric or interwoven, as it is in the conch pearl, while the -luster is more like that of the shell than that of the pearly nacre. - -Streeter relates that many years ago an ingenious American turned out -some bits of conch shell into the shape of pearls and placed them in the -conch shells. A slight secretion formed over them, but it was not the -true pearly secretion, and the layer was very thin, so that the -deception was easily detected. - -Not the least interesting of the American pearl fisheries is that which -has the abalones (Haliotis) for its object. These occur in many inshore -tropical and semi-tropical waters, and particularly in the marginal -waters of the Pacific. They attach themselves to the rocks by means of -their large muscular disk-shaped foot, which acts like a sucker or an -exhaust-cup. - -On the California coast the abalones are gathered in large quantities -for the pearls, for the shells, and especially for the flesh, which is -dried and used for food. The principal fishing grounds are at Point -Lobos in Monterey County, and along the shores of Catalina and Santa -Rosa islands in Santa Barbara County, with smaller quantities from -Halfmoon Bay and from the rocks along the shores of Mendocino County. At -low tide the fishermen wade out in shallow water, and, by means of a -knife, separate the mollusk from its resting-place. Unless this is done -quickly and before the mollusk has time to prepare itself for the -attack, it closes down on the rock by means of its sucker-like foot, -from which it cannot be removed without breaking the shell. A story is -told at Santa Barbara of a Chinese fisherman having been drowned off one -of the outer islands by having his hand caught underneath the shell of -an abalone. - -A few years ago, Japanese fishermen introduced the use of diving-suits -in taking these mollusks in three fathoms of water; but in March, 1907, -the California legislature interdicted this form of fishery. That -legislature also interdicted the capture of black abalones measuring -“less than twelve inches around the outer edge of the shell, or any -other abalone, the shell of which shall measure less than fifteen inches -around the outer edge.” - -The animal is removed from the shell by thrusting a thin blade of soft -steel between the flesh and the shell, and thus loosening the great -muscle. The flesh is salted and boiled, and then strung on long rods to -dry in the open air. When properly cured, the pieces are almost as hard -and stiff as sole leather. Most of it is packed in sacks and exported to -China, but large quantities are sold on the Pacific coast at from five -to ten cents per pound. The catch is much less than it was forty years -ago. - -[Illustration: - - SHELL OF PEARL-BEARING ABALONE - - From the coast of California -] - -Many pearly masses are obtained from the abalones, and a few of these -are of considerable beauty. Some are very large, measuring two inches in -length and half an inch or more in width; but they are rarely of good -form, and their value is commonly far less than that of choice Oriental -pearls. Owing to their irregularity in form, they are scarcely suitable -for necklaces. One of the best necklaces of these pearls ever brought -together sold a few years ago for $2000; but individual specimens have -exceeded $1000 in market value. While abalone pearls are not on the -market in any great quantities, one resident of Santa Barbara has a -collection of more than a thousand specimens, ranging in value from -several hundred dollars to less than one dollar each. Most of the -objects sold in curio and jewelry stores on the Pacific coast as abalone -pearls are simply irregular knots or protuberances cut from the surface -of the shell. The California fishermen are credited with having received -$3000 for the abalone pearls in 1904; but it is safe to say that this -represents only a small fraction of their final sale value. - -In the river mussels of Canada, and especially in those from the -Province of Quebec, and the Ungava Region, pearls are occasionally -found. These are usually white and of good luster. They are not the -object of systematic search, but in the aggregate many are secured by -Indians and Eskimos, and some by the trappers and fishermen who operate -from Quebec and Montreal. A number, weighing from one to sixty-five -grains each, were shown at the Colonial Exhibition in London in 1886, -and received favorable notice. Recently, two beautifully matched pink -pearls, weighing about fourteen grains each, were obtained from one -mussel. A single pearl found in Canada has sold for $1000, but as a -general rule they are of relatively little value. The Hudson Bay traders -are represented as having secured a fair share of these pearls. - -During the last few years, many pearls have been found in the streams of -Prince Edward Island and of New Brunswick Province, and also in those of -Nova Scotia. Most of them are well formed, but their color is generally -inferior and their luster deficient. Many of them are buff or brown in -color, some are bright and fairly good, a few are rose-tinted, and -others are slate-colored and even almost black. Toronto jewelers report -that many Canadian pearls are in the possession of farmers and others in -the lower provinces, held by them for higher prices than the jewelers -are willing to pay. The Nova Scotia pearls are from a bivalve which has -been identified as _Alasmodon margaritifera_. They are especially -abundant in Annapolis and King counties. - -Even in the streams of northern Labrador and of the Caniapuscaw -watershed, pearls are obtained by the natives, and by the hunters and -fishermen who resort to that desolate country. These closely resemble -the pearls of Scotland in color, size, and luster. A story is told of a -fisherman who by chance found in one shell two well-matched pearls, -which he later sold for $150; so pleased was he with his success that he -spent a fortnight in diligent search, but secured only half a dozen -small ones, worth perhaps $3 for the lot. Most of these pearls are -silvery white, but beautiful pink ones are not rare. An unusually choice -20–grain pearl from this region sold in 1905 for $1000. - -On the coast of Ecuador, pearl fisheries of minor importance have been -prosecuted from time to time. Dr. H. M. Saville, of the American Museum -of Natural History, states that in his explorations in that country he -frequently came across evidence of pearls and the information that -fisheries had existed on the coast centuries ago. - -An interesting letter from that world-wide traveler and interesting -writer, William E. Curtis, states that formerly there was a pearl -fishery on the coast of Ecuador at the little town known as Manta, in -the Province of Manabi; but it had to be abandoned on account of a -particularly voracious species of fish called _el manti_, which abounds -in that locality and gives the place its name. Pearls are said to be -even more abundant at Manta than in Panama Bay. It is reported that this -is the place where the Incas obtained those splendid gems which the -Spaniards found in the palaces and temples of Peru. - -In the waters of Costa Rica, pearl-oysters are found, and at times the -fishery has been of considerable local importance. Owing to fear of -injury to the reefs, the use of diving machinery was interdicted there a -few years ago; but in 1906 its employment was authorized under certain -restrictions. Licenses good for six months were authorized for a maximum -of thirty machines, which may work at a minimum depth of thirty-seven -feet. - -On the coast of Colombia, South America, scattered reefs of -pearl-oysters occur. A lease of the pearl fisheries and those for corals -and sponges was granted July 2, 1906, but it is unknown what results -have followed. This lease lasts five years, beginning August 1, 1906. - -There is almost an absolute paucity of information in regard to the -occurrence of fresh-water pearls in other parts of South America. The -only data we have obtained are from Prof. Eugene Hussak of the Mining -School of Sao Paulo, Brazil, who writes us that some pearls have been -obtained from one of the Bahia rivers. Possibly, when the resources of -the interior of that continent are better known, many pearls may be -found. - - - - - XI - - PEARL-CULTURE AND PEARL-FARMING - - - - - XI - PEARL-CULTURE AND PEARL-FARMING - - - Some asked how pearls did grow, and where. - Then spoke I to my girl, - To part her lips, and show them there - The quarelets of pearl. - - HERRICK, _The Quarrie of Pearls_. - -The great profit that would accrue from an increased output of pearls -has long directed attention to the problem of bringing this about by -artificial means. - -In his life of Apollonius of Tyana, Philostratus, a Greek writer of the -third century, repeats a story afloat at the time, which credited the -Arabs of the Red Sea with possessing some method of growing pearls -artificially. The story as it reached Greece was that they first poured -oil upon the sea for the purpose of calming the waves, and then dived -down and caused the oysters to open their shells. Having effected this, -they pricked the flesh with a sharp instrument and received the liquor -which flowed from the wounds into suitable molds, and this liquor there -hardened into the shape, color, and consistence of the natural -gems.[324] - -While the description given by Philostratus is charged with many -improbable details, and could scarcely develop belief, even in the most -credulous, as to the exact method of procedure, it seems that the story -may not have been wholly without foundation, and that attempts were made -at that remote date to stimulate the growth of pearls. - -In more modern times, the possibility of aiding or starting pearly -formations in mollusks seems first to have been conceived by the Chinese -about the fourteenth century. In 1736 there appeared in that storehouse -of Oriental information, “Lettres édifiantes et curieuses écrites des -missions étrangères,”[325] a communication from F. X. de Entrecolles, -dated Pekin, 4th November, 1734, which set forth that there were people -in China who busied themselves with growing pearls, and the product was -not only vastly superior to the imitations manufactured in Europe, but -were scarcely to be distinguished from the genuine. From Father -Entrecolles’s very detailed quotation of his unnamed Chinese authority, -we condense this account. In a basin one half full of fresh water, place -the largest mussels obtainable, set this basin in a secluded place where -the dew may fall thereon, but where no female approaches, and neither -the barking of dogs nor the crowing of chickens is to be heard. -Pulverize some seed-pearls (_Yo tchu_), such as are commonly used in -medicine, moisten this powder with juice expressed from leaves of a -species of holly (_Che ta-kong lao_), and then roll the moistened powder -into perfectly round pellets the size of a pea. These are permitted to -dry under a moderate sunlight, and then are carefully inserted within -the open shells of the mollusks. Each day for one hundred days the -mussels are nourished with equal parts of powdered ginseng, china root, -_peki_, which is a root more glutinous than isinglass, and of _pecho_, -another medicinal root, all combined with honey and molded in the form -of rice grains. - -Although extremely detailed in some particulars, the Chinese account -omits much to be desired as to the method in which the shells were -opened to receive the pellets and the nourishment, and as to the -importance of seclusion from females and loud noises. Admitting that it -is “inaccurate and misleading,” this letter seems to indicate very -clearly that the Chinese had some method of assisting nature in growing -pearls in river mussels. - -The first person in Europe whose suggestion of the possibility of -pearl-culture attracted general attention was Linnæus, the Swedish -naturalist (1707–1778). In a letter to Von Haller, the Swiss anatomist, -dated 13th September, 1748, he wrote: “At length I have ascertained the -manner in which pearls originate and grow in shells; and in the course -of five or six years I am able to produce, in any mother-of-pearl shell -the size of one’s hand, a pearl as large as the seed of the common -vetch.”[326] There was much secrecy about Linnæus’s discovery, and even -yet there is uncertainty as to the details of the method. - -[Illustration: - - Shell of _Dipsas plicatus_, with attached metal figures of Buddha - coated with nacre -] - -[Illustration: - - Shell of _Dipsas plicatus_, with attached porcelain beads coated with - nacre -] - -The Linnean Society of London apparently possesses some of the very -pearls grown by Linnæus, as well as several manuscripts which throw much -light on this subject. It appears from the latter that, under date of -6th February, 1761, Linnæus wrote that he “possessed the art” of -impregnating mussels for pearl production, and offered for a suitable -reward from the state to publish the “secret” for the public use and -benefit. A select committee of the state council of Sweden was appointed -to confer with him, and on 27th July, 1761, the naturalist appeared and -verbally explained his discovery. After various meetings, the select -committee approved the “art” and recommended a compensation of 12,000 -dalars (about $4800). It does not appear that the award was paid, and -the following year the secret was purchased by Peter Bagge, a Gothenberg -merchant, for the sum of 6000 dalars. On 7th September, 1762, King -Adolph Frederick issued a grant to this merchant “to practice the art -without interference or competition.”[327] - -Peter Bagge was unable to exercise the rights which he had acquired, nor -was he able to dispose of them to advantage. On his death the memorandum -of the secret became lost, and it was not found until about 1821, when -it was discovered by a grandson, J. P. Bagge. Under the date of 27th -February, 1822, the King of Sweden confirmed to this grandson the -privileges which his ancestor had purchased in 1762. Fruitless efforts -were again made to dispose profitably of the rights either to -individuals or to the Swedish government. - -The details of Linnæus’s “secret” have never been published -authoritatively. In his “History of Inventions,” Beckmann states that -before the naturalist thought of the profits that might accrue from his -discovery, he intimated the process in the sixth edition of his “Systema -naturæ,” wherein he states: “Margarita testæ excrescentia latere -interiore, dum exterius latus perforatur.”[328] “I once told him,” says -Beckmann, “that I had discovered his secret in his own writings; he -seemed to be displeased, made no inquiry as to the passage, and changed -the discourse.”[329] - -In the second volume of his edition of “Linnæus’s Correspondence,”[330] -Sir J. E. Smith remarks: “Specimens of pearls so produced by art in the -_Mya margaritifera_ are in the Linnean cabinet. The shell appears to -have been pierced by flexible wires, the ends of which perhaps remain -therein.” Referring to this remark, J. P. Bagge comments: “This is the -nearest I have seen any one come to truth, but still it will be remarked -by reading the ‘secret’ that more information is required to enable -persons to practice the art.” - -After a thorough examination of the manuscripts and other material, -Professor Herdman concludes that the essential points of Linnæus’s -process are to make a very small hole in the shell and insert a round -pellet of limestone fixed at the end of a fine silver wire, the hole -being near the end of the shell so as to interfere only slightly with -the mollusk, and the nucleus being kept free from the interior of the -shell so that the resulting pearl may not become adherent to it by a -deposit of nacre.[331] - -Shortly after Linnæus communicated with the Swedish government and -before his death, it was learned in Europe that the art of producing -“culture pearls” by a somewhat similar process had been practised by the -Chinese for centuries.[332] They used several forms of matrices or -nuclei, but principally spheres of nacre and bits of flat metal or -molded lead, which were not infrequently in conventional outline of -Buddha. In the spring or early summer, these were introduced under the -mantle of the living mollusk after the shell had been carefully opened a -fraction of an inch, and the animal was then returned to the pond, or -lake. The mollusk did its work in a leisurely way, like some people who -have little to do, and many months elapsed before it was ready for -opening and the removal of the pearly objects. - -The most satisfactory description we have seen of this process appears -to be that communicated nearly a century later to the London Society of -Arts by Dr. D. T. Macgowan,[333] through H. B. M. plenipotentiary in -China, from which this account is abridged and modified. - -The industry is prosecuted in two villages near the city of Titsin, in -the northern part of the province of Che-kiang, a silk-producing region. -In May or June large specimens of the fresh-water mussels, _Dipsas -plicatus_, are brought in baskets from Lake Tai-hu, about thirty miles -distant. For recuperation from the journey, they are immersed in fresh -water for a few days in bamboo cages, and are then ready to receive the -matrices. - -These nuclei are of various forms and materials, the most common being -spherical beads of nacre, pellets of mud moistened with juice of camphor -seeds, and especially thin leaden images, generally of Buddha in the -usual sitting posture. In introducing these objects, the shell is gently -opened with a spatula of bamboo or of pearl shell, and the mantle of the -mollusk is carefully separated from one surface of the shell with a -metal probe. The foreign bodies are then successively introduced at the -point of a bifurcated bamboo stick, and placed, commonly in two parallel -rows, upon the inner surface of the shell; a sufficient number having -been placed on one valve, the operation is repeated on the other. As -soon as released, the animal closes its shell, thus keeping the matrices -in place. The mussels are then deposited one by one in canals or -streams, or in ponds connected therewith, five or six inches apart, and -where the depth is from two to five feet under water. - -If taken up within a few days and examined, the nuclei will be found -attached to the shell by a membranous secretion; later this appears to -be impregnated with calcareous matter, and finally layers of nacre are -deposited around each nucleus, the process being analagous to the -formation of calculary concretions in animals of higher development. A -ridge generally extends from one pearly tumor to another, connecting -them all together. Each month several tubs of night soil are thrown into -the reservoir for the nourishment of the animals. Great care is taken to -keep goat excretia from the water, as it is highly detrimental to the -mussels, preventing the secretion of good nacre or even killing them if -the quantity be sufficient. Persons inexperienced in the management lose -ten or fifteen per cent. by deaths; others lose virtually none in a -whole season. - -In November, the mussels are removed from the water and opened, and the -pearly masses are detached by means of a knife. If the matrix be of -nacre, this is not removed; but the earthen and the metallic matrices -are cut away, melted resin or white sealing-wax poured into the cavity, -and the orifice covered with a piece of shell. These pearly formations -have some of the luster and beauty of true pearls, and are furnished at -a rate so cheap as to be procurable by almost any one. Most of them are -purchased by jewelers, who set them in various personal ornaments, and -especially in decorations for the hair. Those formed in the image of -Buddha are used largely for amulets as well as for ornaments. They are -about half an inch long, and while in the shell have a bluish tint, -which disappears with removal of the matrix. Quantities of them are sold -as talismans to pilgrims at the Buddhist shrines about Pooto and -Hang-chau. - -In some shells the culture pearls are permitted to remain by the Chinese -growers, for sale as curios or souvenirs; specimens of these have found -their way into many public and private collections of Europe and -America. These shells are generally about seven inches long and four or -five inches broad, and contain a double or triple row of pearls or -images, as many as twenty-five of the former and sixteen of the latter -to each valve. That the animal should survive the introduction of so -many irritating bodies, and in such a brief period secrete a covering of -nacre over them all, is certainly a striking physiological fact. Indeed, -some naturalists have expressed strong doubts as to its possibility, -supposing the forms were made to adhere to the shell by some -composition; but the examination of living specimens in different stages -of growth, with both valves studded with them, has fully demonstrated -its truth. - -It is represented that in the northern part of the Che-kiang province -about five thousand families are employed in this work in connection -with rice-growing and silk-culture. To some of them it is the chief -source of income, single families realizing as much as 300 silver -dollars annually therefrom. In the village of Chung-kwan-o, the -headquarters for culture pearls in China, a temple has been erected to -the memory of the originator of this industry, Yu Shun Yang, who lived -late in the thirteenth century, and was an ancestor of many persons now -employed thereby. - -The method in vogue in China for so many centuries has been the -starting-point for similar attempts in various other countries. During -the New Jersey pearling excitement in 1857, there were found several -spherical pieces of nacre which had been introduced into Unios -apparently for experimental pearl-culture; and in the collection of -shells bequeathed to the United States National Museum by the late Dr. -Isaac Lea, is a hemispherical piece of candle grease partly coated with -pinkish nacre. Kelaart applied the Chinese method to the Ceylon -pearl-oysters with much success in 1858. At the Berlin Fisheries -Exhibition, in 1880, appeared the results of experiments in growing -culture pearls in the river mussels in Saxony. Small foreign bodies had -been introduced in the mantle, and others had been inserted between the -mantle and the shell. These nuclei consisted of shell beads, unsightly -pearls from other mussels, etc.; but unfortunately the shape of these -was such that the mantle could not fit closely around them, consequently -the result was so irregular as to be of no value except to show that -German Unios as well as those of China could be made to cover foreign -objects with pearly material. - -Professor Herdman notes that, between 1751 and 1754, an inspector named -Frederick Hedenberg received an annual salary “to inoculate the -pearl-mussels of Lulea (in the northern part of Sweden) with -‘pearl-seeds’ which he manufactured, and then to replant the mussels. -Certain pearls were produced by the inspector, which it is recorded were -sold for some 300 silver dollars.”[334] - -As noted by Broussonnet, in Finland artificial pearls were produced by -inserting a round piece of nacre between the inner face of the shell and -the mantle. The owner of the pearl fisheries at Vilshofen has succeeded -in producing pearly figures by introducing into the mollusk flat figures -of pewter, most of them representing fish in form. - -In 1884, Bouchon-Brandely made experiments in pearl production at -Tahiti. Gimlet holes about half an inch in diameter were drilled through -different places in the shells of pearl-oysters, and through each of -these holes a pellet of nacre or of glass was inserted and held by brass -wire passing through a stopper of cork or burao wood, by means of which -each opening was hermetically closed, so that the pellet was the only -foreign substance protruding on the inside of the shell.[335] The -oysters were returned to the sea without further injury, and after the -lapse of a month the pellets were found covered with thin layers of -nacre. - -[Illustration: - - Artificial rearing-ponds for the development of pearl-oysters on the - Island of Espiritū Santo, Gulf of California -] - -[Illustration: - - Trays containing small pearl-oysters prepared for placing at the - bottom of artificial rearing-ponds at Espiritū Santo Island, Gulf of - California -] - -Experiments in growing pearls in the abalone or Haliotis were made in -1897 by Louis Bouton, an account of which was given at the meeting of -the Paris Académie des Sciences in 1898.[336] The tenacity of life in -this mollusk makes it especially desirable for experiments of this -nature. Through small holes bored into the shell, pellets of -mother-of-pearl were inserted and placed within the mantle, the small -holes being afterward closed up. Other nacreous pellets were introduced -directly into the bronchial cavity. The objects were soon covered with -thin, pearly layers, resulting in a few months in spheres of much -beauty, resembling somewhat the pearls naturally produced by this -mollusk. In six months, according to M. Bouton, the layers became of -sufficient thickness to be attractive. Within limitations, the size of -the pearl produced is in proportion to the length of time it is allowed -to remain within the mollusk. The results of the experiments seem to -encourage further efforts in this line, and possibly in course of time -there may be a profitable business in growing pearls in abalones on the -Pacific coast of the United States. Indeed, the experiments in -transplanting and cultivating the pearl-oyster in Australia leads one to -fancy that the culture of that species in the warm coastal waters of -America is by no means an impossibility. - -Many other experiments along similar lines have been made more recently. -An interesting feature of attempts made by Mr. Vane Simmonds of Cedar -Rapids, Iowa, in 1896–1898, is that in order to avoid straining the -adductor muscles by forcibly opening the shell while the mollusk -resisted the intrusion, each selected Unio was exposed in the open air -and sunshine until the valves opened; then a wooden wedge was carefully -inserted in the opening, and the mollusk immediately immersed in water -to revive it or to sustain life. After a few moments of immersion, the -operator carefully raised the mantle from the shell, inserted the pellet -of wax or other small article to be covered with nacre, drew the mantle -to its normal position, removed the wedge, and returned the mollusk to a -selected place in the stream at sufficient depth to avoid danger of -freezing in winter. - -Probably it would be more satisfactory to stupefy the mollusks by means -of some chemical in order to insert the pellets. Marine mollusks have -been successfully stupefied by slowly adding magnesium sulphate crystals -to the sea water until the animals no longer respond to contact. If -treatment is not too prolonged, they may be returned to normal sea water -with good prospects of recovery. To stupefy fresh-water mollusks, either -chloral hydrate or chlorosone may be employed, although the latter is -expensive to use in great quantity. Dr. Charles B. Davenport, of the -Carnegie Institution, suggests that it might be well to experiment with -pouring ether or chloroform over them. - -In Japan the production of these pearly formations in _Margaritifera -martensi_, which is closely related to the Ceylon oyster, has developed -into some prominence since 1890, and the results have been well -advertised. The industry is located in Ago Bay, near the celebrated -temple of Ise in the province of Shima, and gives employment to about -one hundred persons. It is stated that the proprietor, Kokichi Mikimoto, -has leased about one thousand acres of sea bottom, on which are a -million oysters of this species, which yield from 30,000 to 50,000 -culture pearls annually. - -As described by Dr. K. Mitsukuri, the shoal portions of this area are -used for breeding the oysters and raising them to maturity, and in the -deeper parts—covered by several fathoms of water—the oysters are -specially treated for producing the culture pearls. In the former, the -spat is collected on small stones, weighing six or eight pounds each, -placed during May or June. The following November these stones, with the -attached spat or young, are removed, for protection from cold, to depths -greater than five or six feet, where they remain for about three years. -At the end of that period, the growing oysters are taken from the water, -the shells opened slightly, and rounded bits of pearl shell or nacre are -introduced under the mantle without injury to the mollusks. About -300,000 are thus treated annually, and placed in the deeper water at the -rate of about one to each square foot of bottom area. After the lapse of -about four years more, the oysters are removed from the water and -opened, when a large percentage of the pellets are found covered on the -upper or exposed surface with nacre of good luster. - -Most of these culture pearls are button-shaped and weigh two or three -grains each. Although somewhat attractive and superior to the culture -pearls of China and other fresh waters, they by no means compare -favorably with choice pearls. They are rarely, if ever, spherical, and -only the upper surface is lustrous; consequently they serve only the -purpose of half-pearls. A cross section shows the nacreous growth in a -thin concentric layer, forming a fragile hemispherical cap, the concave -wall of which is covered with a brownish granular secretion which -prevents perfect adhesion. Compared with choice pearls, they are not -only deficient in luster, but are fragile, and are beautiful only on the -upper surface, and not available for necklaces. Good specimens sell for -several dollars each, and some individuals reach $50 or more. Specimens -exhibited at the Paris Exposition in 1900 were awarded a silver medal; -at the St. Petersburg Exhibition in 1902 they were awarded a gold medal; -at the Tokio Exhibition a grand prize, and a medal at the St. Louis -Exposition in 1904. The awards were given in the fisheries, and not the -gem divisions. - -The work of Mikimoto is not the only attempt now being made in Japan to -produce pearls. A letter from Dr. T. Nishikawa, of the Tokio Imperial -University, states: “It is a great pleasure for me to tell you that I am -studying pearl formation and pearl-oyster culture in the university -laboratory, and recently I have got my pearl laboratory at Fukura, on -the Island of Awaji, where I began the pearl-culture work this summer -(1907). Fortunately, I found the cause of Japanese pearl formation, -_i.e._, the reason why and how the pearl is produced in the tissue of an -oyster. I made practical application of this theory with great prospects -for producing the natural and true pearls at will.” - -Among the most interesting of the pearl-culture enterprises are those of -the Compañia Criadora de Concha y Perla, under the direction of Sr. -Gaston J. Vives, in the Gulf of California. This company has an -extensive station at San Gabriel, near La Paz, where breeding oysters -are placed in prepared chests or cages for collecting the spat on trays. -After remaining there for several weeks or months, the young mollusks -are removed to prepared places (_viveros_) for further growth. -Experiments are now made in depositing them between a series of parallel -dams alternately touching each shore of a lagoon, thus developing a -current of water over the oysters for conveying food to them, and thus -hastening their growth. - -In efforts to increase the output of pearls, attention has been given to -the possibilities for extending the area and production of the reefs, -and for stocking new areas and replenishing exhausted ones, thus -bringing the pearl-bearing mollusks to maturity in greater abundance. - -Although theoretically it does not seem a very difficult undertaking to -cultivate the pearl-oysters by methods somewhat similar to the -cultivation of edible oysters and clams, in no part of the world has -this been successfully done on an extensive scale. While in certain -minor cases, the areas of some species of pearl mollusks have been -extended indirectly through man’s agency—as the range of the Red Sea -pearl-oyster into the Mediterranean since the Suez Canal was -opened—there is no well-known instance in which new areas have been -abundantly populated through direct efforts. - -In the chapter on the pearl fisheries of Asia are noted the hitherto -unsuccessful efforts made in Ceylon and India to preserve the young and -immature oysters on the storm-swept reefs by removing them to less -exposed areas. This has received close attention from the Ceylon -authorities during the last two years. Other practical measures which -are recommended for that region include “cultching,” or the deposit of -suitable solid material, such as shells or broken stone, to which the -young oysters can attach themselves; thinning out overcrowded reefs, and -cleaning the beds by means of a dredge, thereby removing starfish and -other injurious animals. The attempts made by individuals and -associations to extend the range of the reefs on the coast of Australia, -among the Tuamotu Islands, in the Gulf of California, and some other -localities, are noted in the appropriate chapters. But it may be stated -that in most instances lack of adequate police protection has been not -the least of the difficulties with which these experiments have had to -contend. - -Nor has much greater success followed upon efforts to prevent the -exhaustion of the reefs and productive grounds through overfishing, -except in those instances in which the government exercises a -proprietory interest and determines the season, the area to be fished, -and the quantity of mollusks to be removed. The most prominent instance -of this is in Ceylon, where the fishery has been restricted to such -seasons and periods as appeared to insure the maximum yield of pearls. -Without restriction upon the fishery, the pearl-oyster in that populous -region would doubtless become almost extinct in a few years. Another -instance of proprietory interest on the part of the government is in -some of the German States, where pearl fishing has been regulated and -restricted for centuries. But there the sewage from cities and factories -has accomplished almost as effectively, if less rapidly, what -unrestricted fishing would have done. - -Much attention has been given to the subject of pearl-culture in -Bavaria, where the government has granted a small subsidy to encourage -this industry, and a model pearl-mussel bank has been established in one -of the brooks for the rational culture of the mussels. - -On the Australian coast, the only theoretical protection of consequence -is the restriction on taking small or immature oysters; but, owing to -the great area over which the fisheries are prosecuted there, it has not -been possible to enforce the regulations. At some of the Pacific islands -and elsewhere, interdictions exist as to use of certain apparatus of -capture, but this is intended for the purpose of reserving the industry -to dependent natives rather than for protecting the reefs. Several -efforts have been made to insure adequate protection for the Unios in -our American rivers, but nothing in this direction has yet been -accomplished by legislative enactment, except in Illinois. - -Reference has already been made to the parasitic stage of Unios.[337] -The attachment of the newly-hatched mollusks to the gills or fins of a -fish is entirely a matter of chance, and unless this takes place they -die within a few days. Under natural conditions the fish thus infected -will rarely be found carrying as many of the parasitic Unios as they can -without serious injury. If the fish are placed in a tank or a pond -containing large numbers of newly-hatched Unios, it is possible to bring -about the attachment of hundreds of them for every one that would be -found there by chance of nature. A fish six inches in length may thus be -made to carry several hundred parasitic Unios, and thus a thousand fish -artificially infected may do the work of several hundred thousand in a -state of nature. Experiments with small numbers of fish under -observation in the laboratory indicate that their infection on a large -scale is entirely possible, and the experiment by Messrs. Lefevre and -Curtis now in progress at La Crosse, Wisconsin, in which over 25,000 -young fish have been infected, gives every indication that such work may -be begun even with the scanty knowledge now possessed. - -Since it has already been shown that the production of pearls is an -abnormal condition, it does not follow that an increase in the quantity -of mollusks would necessarily result in a corresponding increase in the -yield of pearls. Indeed, it might even be that the artificial conditions -bringing about an enhanced prosperity and abundance of the mollusks -would result in a corresponding decrease in the product of gems, the -improved surroundings impairing if not destroying the conditions to -which the pearls owe their origin. This has resulted in directing -efforts toward abnormally increasing the abundance of pearls in a -definite number of mollusks. - -The development of the parasitic theory of pearl formation has naturally -invited attention to the possibilities of increasing the yield of pearls -by inoculating healthy mollusks with distomid parasites. It does not -appear that this has yet advanced beyond the experimental stage, and -virtually all that has been accomplished has been set forth in the -chapter on the origin of pearls. It seems that there are great -possibilities in the artificial production along these lines; and that -under skilful management it could be made a profitable industry, -especially if carried on concurrently with the systematic cultivation of -mother-of-pearl shells. - -Although there is scientific basis for the belief that it may be -possible in time to bring about pearl growth in this manner, the public -should not be too hasty in financing companies soliciting capital for -establishing so-called “pearl farms.” Every once in a while announcement -is made in the public press of wonderful success which has been attained -by some investigator, who surrounds his discovery with as much mystery -as enveloped the Keeley motor, and who is as anxious to sell stock as -was the owner of that mythical invention. A prospectus of one of these -“pearl syndicates,” which is now before us, claims to “increase and -hasten pearl production by forcing the oyster, through doctoring the -water in which it is immersed and also by irritating the mollusk -itself.” So far as the writers are aware, aside from the inexpensive but -somewhat attractive culture pearls, no commercial success has yet -followed the many attempts at artificial production. - -This chapter should not close without reference to the so-called -“breeding pearls,” probably the most curious of all theories of pearl -growth, regarding which many inquiries have been made. Throughout the -Malay Archipelago there exists a generally accepted belief that if -several selected pearls of good size are sealed in a box with a few -grains of rice for nourishment they will increase in number as well as -in size. If examined at the expiration of one year, small pearls may be -found strewn about the bottom of the box, according to the theory; and -in some instances the original pearls themselves will be found to have -increased in size. If again inclosed for a further period of a year or -more, the adherents of the theory say, the seed-pearls will further -increase in size, and additional seed-pearls will form. Furthermore, the -grains of rice will present the appearance of having been nibbled or as -though a rodent had taken a bite in the end of each. - -It is claimed that the breeding pearls are obtained from several species -of mollusks, mostly from the Margaritifera, but also from the Tridacna -(giant clam) and the Placuna (window shell). While cotton is the usual -medium in which the pearls and rice are retained, some collectors -substitute fresh water and yet others prefer salt water. It seems that -rice is considered essential to success. - -The earliest account we have seen of this extraordinary belief was given -by Dr. Engelbert Kæmpfer,[338] who was connected with the Dutch embassy -to Japan from 1690 to 1696, and since that time it has been referred to -by many travelers in the Malay Archipelago. - -A correspondent in the time-honored “Notes and Queries,” 20th September, -1862, writes: - - Nearly five years ago, while staying with friends in Pulo Penang - (Straits of Malacca), I was shown by the wife of a prominent - merchant five small pearls, which had increased and multiplied in - her possession. She had set them aside for about 12 months in a - small wooden box, packed in soft cotton and with half a dozen grains - of common rice. On opening the box at the expiration of that time, - she found four additional pearls, about the size of a small pinhead - and of much beauty, which I saw and examined not long after the lady - made the discovery. While my story may be received with laughter, I - can most solemnly assure you of the truth of my having seen these - pearls, and I have not the slightest doubt of the perfect - truthfulness of the lady who possessed them. I questioned an eminent - Malay merchant of Penang on this subject, and he assured me that one - of his daughters had once possessed a similar growth of pearls.[339] - -Notwithstanding the apparent absurdity of this pearl-breeding theory, -belief in it appears to be not only sincere but wide-spread, as can be -attested by any one familiar with affairs in the archipelago. A critical -examination into the matter was made in 1877 by Dr. N. B. Dennys, -curator of the Raffles Museum at Singapore, the result of which was -communicated to the Straits branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 28th -February, 1878.[340] From his numerous quotations of persons who gave -the results of their experiences we extract two instances. One gentleman -had 120 small pearls in addition to the five breeding ones with which -the experiment had started twenty years before, and during the entire -period the box had not been molested except that it was opened -occasionally for inspection by interested persons. Another experimentor -inclosed three breeding pearls with a few grains of rice on 17th July, -1874; on opening the box on 14th July, 1875, nine additional pearls were -discovered, and the three original ones appeared larger. - -The belief has many curious variations. It is stated that in Borneo and -the adjacent islands, many of the fishermen reserve every ninth pearl -regardless of its size, and put the collection in a small bottle which -is kept corked with a dead man’s finger. According to Professor -Kimmerly, nearly every burial-place along the Borneo coast has been -desecrated in searching for “corks” for these bottles, and almost every -hut has its dead-finger bottle, with from ten to fifty “breeding pearls” -and twice that number of rice grains.[341] A correspondent at Sandakan, -North Borneo, writes that at the time of his death at Hongkong in 1901, -Dr. Dennys had in his possession a small box containing “breeding -pearls”; but these disappeared after his death, and his brother, the -crown solicitor, was unable to find them. This correspondent also states -that the Ranee of Sarawak, a British protectorate in western Borneo, has -a collection of “breeding pearls” numbering about two hundred, and that -this is the only large collection known at present. - -As contrasted with abundant and unquestionably sincere testimony that -pearls do “breed,” it may be stated that absolutely no result has -followed one or two native experiments made under supervision. While it -must be admitted that negative evidence is always weaker than positive, -and twenty failures would be outweighed by one successful experiment, -yet the scientific objections to the possibility of pearls “breeding” -cannot be overcome. The phenomenon is doubtless one of those curiosities -of natural history in which some important factor has been overlooked. - -Another curious theory is that peculiar pearls continue to grow after -removal from the mollusk in which they originate. Quite recently it was -reported from New Durham, North Carolina, that a pearl found there in -1896 had been growing continually since it was found and removed from -the water. Unfortunately, it was weighed only when the last observation -was made, and its increased size doubtless existed only in the -imagination of its possessor. - - - - - XII - - MYSTICAL AND MEDICINAL PROPERTIES OF PEARLS - - - - - XII - MYSTICAL AND MEDICINAL PROPERTIES OF PEARLS - - - Divers are the virtues of gems; some give favor in the sight of - lords; some protect against fire; others make people beloved; others - give wisdom; some render men invisible; others repel lightning; some - baffle poisons; some protect and augment treasures, and others cause - that husbands should love their wives. - - Arabic version of Solomon’s writings. - -While no special gems are mentioned in the tribute which the Arabs -credit to Solomon, it seems that pearls must certainly have been -included, for in nearly all countries where these gems have been prized -and from the earliest period, they have been credited with mystic -properties and healing virtues. - -In the first chapter of this book, reference was made to the -Atharvaveda, dating from at least 2400 years ago, and its allusion to -the use of an amulet of pearl shell and of pearls among the Hindus in -bestowing long life and prosperity upon young Brahmanical disciples. As -this amulet is fastened upon the youth, the following hymn is recited, -according to this ancient Veda of the Atharvans: - - Born of the wind, the atmosphere, the lightning, and the light, may - this pearl shell, born of gold, protect us from straits! - - With the shell which was born in the sea, at the head of bright - substances, we slay the Rakshas and conquer the Atrins [devouring - demons]. - - With the shell [we conquer] disease and poverty; with the shell, - too, the Sadanvas. The shell is our universal remedy; the pearl - shall protect us from straits! - - Born in the heavens, born in the sea, brought on from the river - [Sindhu], this shell, born of gold, is our life-prolonging amulet. - - The amulet, born from the sea, a sun, born from Vritra [the cloud], - shall on all sides protect us from the missiles of the gods and the - Asuras! - - Thou art one of the golden substances, thou art born from Soma [the - moon]. Thou art sightly on the chariot, thou art brilliant on the - quiver. - - (May it prolong our lives!) The bone of the gods turned into pearl; - that, animated, dwells in the waters. That do I fasten upon thee - unto life, luster, strength, longevity, unto a life lasting a - hundred autumns. May the amulet of pearl protect thee![342] - -The mystical Taoists, in their pursuit of immortality, made much of -pearls as an important ingredient in formulæ for perpetuating youth. -According to an old Taoist authority, in preparing one of these elixirs, -an extra long pearl which has been worn for many years is steeped in -some infusion of malt, or a preparation of serpents’ gall, honeycomb, -and pumice-stone. When the pearl becomes plastic, it is drawn out to the -length of two or three feet, cut into suitable lengths, and formed into -pills, the taking of which renders food thenceforth unnecessary.[343] - -The myth of the dragon and the pearl has been a far-reaching theme of -the artists in Japan and China, whether in color, metal, or stone. There -has been much written as to how the myth became so fixed in the minds of -the Orientals, and Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria, who has made an -exhaustive study of the myth of the dragon in all its phases, has very -courteously communicated to us the following facts. Personally he had -never been able to learn of a true or clear description of the origin of -the myth other than the well-recorded legend given by Legge in the -“Sacred Books of the East” (Vol. XL, p. 211), in which there is a -quotation from Shuangtze, a writer of the fourth century before Christ, -who says: “Near the Ho river there was a poor man, who supported his -family by weaving rushes. His son, when diving in a deep pool, found a -pearl worth a thousand ounces of silver. The father said: ‘Bring a stone -and beat it in pieces. A pearl of this value must have been in a pool -nine khung deep and under the chin of the black dragon. That you were -able to get it must have been owing to your having found him asleep. Let -him awake, and the consequences will not be small.’” Prince Rupprecht -says: - - This legend has nothing to do with the illustration to which you - refer; it belongs to a cycle of myths concerning a stone in the head - of a serpent, or the crown of the king of the serpents or dragons; - myths which also exist in Germany since the days of old. I should - rather be inclined to think that the commonly accepted pearl between - the two dragons is not a pearl at all. At least this pearl is always - surrounded by ornaments in the shape of flames or claws, and - Professor Hirth discovered on such a representation in woodcut, an - explanation of the flames by the sign for Yangsui, a very ancient - kind of metallic mirrors, of concave form, that were used to produce - the heavenly fire. - -[Illustration: - - JAPANESE LEGEND OF THE DRAGON AND THE PEARL, IDEALIZED IN JADE - - Heber R. Bishop Collection, Metropolitan Museum of Art -] - - This explanation is probably erroneous and due to a misunderstanding - of the signs for flames. In my opinion, another explanation, that - the pearl is not really a pearl but a spider, is nearer to the - truth. As an argument in favor of this theory the following sentence - may be quoted from an encyclopedia of the eleventh century - (“Pieu-tzi-lei,” chap. 223): “The pearl of a fish is its eye, the - pearl of a tortoise is its foot, the pearl of the spider is its - belly.” Pearl, as well as spider, are both called in Chinese by the - same word but are written in a different way. - - I, for my part, believe that the pearl is the belly not indeed of a - spider, but of Garuda, the eagle of Vishnu, known in the old Hindu - mythology as the foe of the Vagas, beings with human bodies and the - tails of serpents. At least, I found on an old Chinese gateway, - dating back to the times of the Mongol emperors, a sculpture showing - the contest between Garuda and the Vagas. On another sculpture of - the late King epoch the Vagas are already changed into dragons, and - the wings, the limbs and the head of Garuda have become quite - insignificant, while his belly is prominent like a ball. - -A beautiful metaphor occurs in ancient Chinese writings, in the Book of -the Later Han,[344] for instance, which regards this gem as the hidden -soul of the oyster. - -There is no end of legends and myths regarding the pearl in oriental -literature. One fable credits it with a peculiar magical power: by -speaking the right word, a spirit can be called therefrom which makes -the owner a possessor of all the happiness of the earth. Browning notes -this in two exquisite stanzas, “A Pearl, a Girl,” published on the day -of his death in 1889, in which he compares this characteristic with a -woman’s love called forth by the mystic word. - - A simple ring with a single stone. - To the vulgar eye no stone of price; - Whisper the right word, that alone— - Forth starts a sprite, like fire from ice, - And lo, you are lord (says an Eastern scroll) - Of heaven and earth, lord whole and sole, - Through the power in a pearl. - - A woman (’tis I this time that say) - With little the world counts worthy praise; - Utter the true word—out and away - Escapes her soul: I am wrapt in blaze, - Creation’s lord, of heaven and earth, - Lord whole and sole—by a minute’s birth— - Through the love in a girl. - -In the folk-song of Servia is a pretty little poem which testifies to -the love they bear to pearls: - - A youth unmated prays to God, - To turn him to pearls in the sea, - Where the maidens come to fill their urns; - That so they might gather him into their laps, - And string him on a fine green thread, - And wear him pendant from the neck; - That he might hear what each one said, - And whether his loved one spoke of him. - - His prayer was granted and he lay - Turned to pearls in the dark blue sea, - Where the maidens come to fill their urns; - Then quickly they gather him into their laps, - And string him on a green silk thread, - And wear him pendant from the neck; - So he hears what each one says of her own - And what his loved one says of him.[345] - -In the days when romance and chivalry held sway in Europe, pearls and -other favors were presented by ladies for the brave knights to wear at -tournaments. And we are told in the Arthurian legends how Elaine, “the -lily maid of Astolat,” gave to Sir Lancelot “a red sleeve of scarlet, -embroidered with great pearls,” for him to wear on his helmet: and “then -to her tower she climbed and took the shield, there kept it and so lived -in fantasy”; while he fought and won at the tilt, “wearing her scarlet -sleeve, tho’ carved and cut, and half the pearls away.”[346] - -The sweet sentiment of purity associated with the pearl ennobles it -above all other gems. Rabanus Maurus, archbishop of Mainz, wrote, about -850, that “mystically, the pearl signifies the hope of the Kingdom of -Heaven, or charity and the sweetness of celestial life.”[347] True, it -was not among the twelve gems which adorned the breastplate of the high -priest of the Temple, symbolical of the twelve apostles. A Father of the -Church—St. Augustine, we believe—explains this by saying that it was -reserved for a more sacred office, that of representing Christ himself. - -Pearl signifies purity, innocence, humility, and a retiring spirit. All -stones of the gray color of the pearl have the significances which are -given to this beautiful gem.[348] - -Unlike other gems, the pearl comes to us perfect and beautiful, direct -from the hand of nature. Other precious stones receive careful treatment -from the lapidary, and owe much to his art. The pearl, however, owes -nothing to man. Perhaps this has much to do with the sentiments we -cherish for it. It touches us with the same sense of simplicity and -sweetness as the mountain daisy or the wild rose. It is absolutely a -gift of nature, on which man cannot improve. We turn from the brilliant, -dazzling ornament of diamonds or emeralds to a necklace of pearls with a -sense of relief, and the eye rests upon it with quiet, satisfied repose -and is delighted with its modest splendor, its soft gleam, borrowed from -its home in the depths of the sea. It seems truly to typify steady and -abiding affection, which needs no accessory or adornment to make it more -attractive. And there is a purity and sweetness about it which makes it -especially suitable for the maiden. - -The idea of pearly purity is inseparably linked with the name Margaret, -derived from the Persian _Murwari_ (pearl, or child of light) through -the Greek μαργαρίτης. This name—beautiful in sound as well as in -origin—is popular in all European countries, and likewise are its -abbreviations and diminutives: in Italian, Margherita and Rita; in -French, Marguerite, Margot, and Groten; in German, Margarethe, Gretchen, -and Grethel; and in English, Margaret, Marjorie, Madge, Maggie, Peggy, -etc. - -The use of the word as a proper name among the early Christians was -doubtless suggested by the sweet simplicity and loveliness of the pearl, -and by the beautiful symbolical references to this gem in the -Scriptures; and the meaning of the name has been strengthened by the -pure lives and the good deeds of the many beautiful Margarets in all -lands, including the virgin martyr, St. Margaret of Antioch, “the mild -maid of God” referred to in the Liturgy, who, before the fifth century, -was the embodiment of feminine innocence and faith overcoming evil, and -who is often represented wearing a string of pearls; also St. Margaret -Ætheling of the eleventh century, who endeared the name in Scotland, was -canonized in 1215, and was adopted as the patron saint of Scotland in -1673; and Margaret, “Pearl of Bohemia,” so beloved by the Danes. - -Especially among the Germans has the name a tender significance; with -them it is symbolical of maidenly sweetness and purity associated with -richness of womanhood, such as was typified by Goethe in the heroine of -his “Faust.” This idea may have impelled Wordsworth in the selection of -a name for the lovely, girlish character in his “Excursion”; and -Tennyson for his “Sweet pale Margaret,” and likewise Scott for “Ladye -Margaret, the flower of Teviot.” With the memory of these lives and -characters before her, many a loving mother has crystallized the hope -entertained for a baby daughter by enriching her with this beautiful -name. - -Poets seem never to tire of using the pearl as a symbol of perfection in -form, in purity, in luster, and in sweetness. But probably none has made -a more lovely comparison than Owen Meredith: - - As pure as a pearl, - And as perfect: a noble and innocent girl.[349] - -The Oriental poets unite with those of the West in their love for this -gem, and those gifted writers are lavish in its use. Let us but add the -lament of Shabl Abdullah on the death of Nozami: - - Nozami’s gone, our fairest pearl is lost. - From purest dew, kind Heaven had given her birth, - And then had fashioned her the pearl supreme. - She softly shone, but hidden from mankind, - So God has now restored her to her shell. - -Far more crude, but possibly equally pathetic, is that old epitaph from -Yorkshire, England: - - In shells and gold pearls are not kept alone, - A Margaret here lies beneath a stone. - -In the seventeenth century, Pierre de Rosnel wrote in a burst of -enthusiasm: - - The pearl is a jewel so perfect that its excellent beauty demands - the love and esteem of the whole universe. Suidas expresses himself - in regard to it thus: “The possession of the pearl is one of love’s - greatest delights; the delight of possessing it suffices to feed - love.” In a painting, Philostratus, who had the same ideas, has - represented cupids with bows enriched with pearls; and the ancients - were all agreed to dedicate the pearl to Venus. Now, to my thinking, - the reason for their so doing was, that inasmuch as this goddess of - love, the fairest of all divinities, is descended from heaven and is - formed of the sea, so in like manner the pearl—the loveliest of all - gems—is formed in the sea and is the offspring of the dew of heaven. - But he that would learn more of the excellence of the pearl, let him - inquire of the ladies, who will relate much more in its praise than - I can write, and who will doubtless confess that nothing else so - well adorns them.[350] - -Emblematic as the pearl is of maidenly purity and sweetness, it is -deemed especially appropriate as a wedding gift. This use dates from the -earliest dawn of Hindu civilization, when the beloved Krishna drew it -from the sea to decorate his beautiful daughter on her nuptial day. And -among the Hindus not uncommonly the presentation of a virgin pearl and -its piercing forms part of the marriage ceremony. In most of the -European royal weddings in recent years, pearls have been prominent -among the bridal gifts; nor have they been overlooked among the presents -to American brides, including one much in the public print about 1906, -for whom a necklace of them was selected by a neighboring republic as an -appropriate present. - -The dedication of the pearl to love and marriage appears to have been -recognized by the artistic Greeks. One of the choicest engravings -preserved from classic times is a magnificent sardonyx showing the -marriage of Cupid and Psyche, in which the lovers are united by what -some authorities consider a string of pearls—emblematic of conjugal -bonds—by means of which the god Hymen leads them to the nuptial -couch.[351] This engraved gem now forms one of the choicest objects in -the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, having been purchased at the sale of the -Marlborough gems, London, 1898, at a cost of about $10,000. - -And yet in Western countries the ill omen of pearls as bridal ornaments -has been widely recognized, these determining the tears that will be -shed in the married life. As Milton says, referring to the Marchioness -of Winchester: - - And those pearls of dew she wears, - Prove to be presaging tears. - -It was told that when the Empress Eugénie of France was finishing her -toilet preparatory to her wedding in Notre Dame in 1853, a personal -attendant reminded her of the omen, and begged that she refrain from -wearing her pearl necklace on that occasion. Eugenie paid no heed to the -warning and wore the beautiful jewels just the same; and, as all the -world knows, her life has been one long tragedy. Since that necklace was -a lengthy one, containing very many pearls, the bride who wears only a -few on her wedding day need not dread the adage so much, for, -unfortunately, no woman’s life is wholly free from grief; and most -brides would doubtless risk a few tears rather than refuse to wear a -wedding gift of pearls. - -It was a very old idea that to dream of pearls betokens tears. A -suggestion of this occurs in John Webster’s “Duchess of Malfi” (1623), -Act III, sc. 5: - - _Duchess_: I had a very strange dream to-night; - Methought I wore my coronet of state, - And on a sudaine all the diamonds - Were chang’d to pearles. - - _Antonio_: My interpretation - Is, you’ll weepe shortly; - For to me the pearles - Doe signifie your teares. - -And we quote also from “The Parson’s Wedding” (1663), Act II, sc. 5, -where Jolly exclaims: “What! in thy dumps, brother? The captain sad! -’Tis prophetic. I’d as lieve have dreamt of pearl, or the loss of my -teeth.” - -Tradition relates that Queen Margaret Tudor, wife of James IV of -Scotland, just before the battle of Flodden Field (1513), had many fears -as to the disastrous issue of that conflict, owing to having dreamed on -three nights in succession that all her jewels were suddenly turned into -pearls. This was interpreted as a sign of coming widowhood and sorrow, -which was soon verified; and a similar story is told of Marie de’ Medici -shortly before the murder of Henry IV of France in 1610. - -The employment of pearls medicinally dates from an ancient period. This -use is mentioned in the oldest existing Sanskrit medical work, the -“Charaka-Samhita,”[352] composed early in the Christian era; and -likewise in the somewhat more modern “Susruta,”[353] which probably -originated before the eighth century. - -It is particularly in Oriental countries that therapeutic properties -have been credited to pearls. The powder of these gems has been rated -very highly there, and is still used to some extent. It was considered -beneficial in cases of ague, indigestion, and hemorrhages, and was -regarded as possessing stimulative qualities. Medical literature of the -Orient contains many accounts of the uses of pearls and of the methods -of forming them into pills, ointments, etc. - -According to a treatise written by Narahari, a physician of Kashmir, -about 1240 A.D., the pearl cures diseases of the eyes, is an antidote to -poisons, cures consumption and morbid disturbances, and increases -strength and general health.[354] - -In China, as well as in other Asiatic countries, a distinction was made -in the therapeutic effects of so-called “virgin” pearls and of those -pierced or bored for stringing. The Chinese natural history of Li Shi -Chin, completed about 1596, states that bored pearls will not serve for -medicine, for which unpierced ones should be used. It further adds that -the taste is saltish, sweetish, and cold; and that they benefit the -liver, clear the eyes, and cure deafness. Dr. T. Nishikawa informs us -that at the present time many Mytilus seed-pearls are exported from -Japan to China for medicinal purposes. - -Quoting principally from Ahmed Teifashi, Whitelow Ainslie wrote in 1825 -that Arabian physicians suppose the powder of the pearl to have virtues -in weak eyes; and they credit it with efficacy in palpitations, nervous -tremors, melancholia, and hemorrhage. Also they have this strange -notion, that when applied externally and while in the shell, it cures -leprosy.[355] - -Statements of the curative properties of pearls come also from Japan at -a somewhat recent date. The catalogue of the National Exhibition at Yedo -in 1877, Part V, page 78, notes that they soothe the heart, lessen -phlegm, are an antidote to poison, and cure fever, smallpox, and -blear-eyedness. - -The popular modern idea in India as to the therapeutic value was thus -expressed by a native prince, Sourindro Mohun Tagore, Mus. Doc., the -Maharajah of Tagore, in 1881: - - The use of pearls conduces to contentment of mind and to strength of - body and soul. The burnt powder of this gem, if taken with water as - sherbet, cures vomiting of blood of all kinds. It prevents evil - spirits working mischief in the minds of men, takes off bad smell - from the mouth, cures lunacy of all descriptions and all mental - diseases, jaundice and all diseases of the heart, intestines and - stomach. Burnt pearl mixed with water and taken into the nostrils, - as a powder, takes away headsickness, cures cataract, lachryma and - swelling of the eyes, the painful sensation such as is caused by the - entry of sand into them, and ulcers. Used as a dentifrice, it - strengthens the gums and cleanses the teeth. Rubbed on the body with - other medicines, it cures all skin diseases. It stops bleeding from - cuts and ultimately heals them up. Whether taken internally or - externally, it is a sure antidote to poison. It drives away all - imaginary fears and removes all bodily pain. To prevent its tendency - to affect the brain, it should always be used with the burnt powder - of basud, and in its absence with that of white mother-of-pearl. The - dose of pearl-powder should not exceed 2¼ mashas [19.68 grs.].[356] - -The Hindus credited specific virtues to pearls of different colors: the -yellow brought wealth, the honey shade fostered understanding, the white -attracted fame, and the blue, good luck. Defective pearls caused -leprosy, loss of fortune, disgrace, insanity, and death, according to -the degree of defect. The “Mani-málá,” previously quoted, states that -“pearls possessed of every valuable quality shield their master from -every evil, and suffer nothing harmful to come near him. The house which -contains a perfect pearl the ever-restless Lakshmi (goddess of wealth) -chooses to make her dwelling for ever and a day.”[357] - -A similar idea is expressed in an old Hindu treatise on gems by -Buddhabhatta, where we read: “The pearl from the shell ought always to -be worn as an amulet by those who desire prosperity.”[358] - -Pearls still find a place in the pharmacopœia of India. One of the -latest standard works, that of R. N. Khory and N. N. Katrak,[359] -credits the powder as a stimulant, tonic, and aphrodisiac. It is one of -the ingredients in numerous Indian prescriptions used in curing -impotence, heart-disease, consumption, etc. According to these -authorities, the dose is from one fourth to one half grain of the -powdered pearl. - -Owing to the high cost of sea pearls, even those of the smallest size, a -substitute for medicinal and similar purposes is found in the Placuna -pearls of Ceylon, Borneo, etc. These are of such slight luster that only -the choicest are of ornamental value, consequently they are sold at -relatively small prices. A considerable demand exists for them to be -placed in the mouths of deceased Hindus of the middle class, instead of -the sea pearls which are used by the wealthy, or the rice which is -employed in a similar manner by persons of poorer rank. This custom -seems to be analogous to that of the ancient Britons, and also to that -of the American Indians, in depositing food and other requisites for a -journey in burial graves. The practice is an old one in India and was -noted by Marco Polo more than six hundred years ago. - -Most of the Placuna pearls are calcined and are used with areca-nuts and -betel-pepper leaves in a very popular masticatory, one of the “seven -sisters of sleep,” which is to the Hindu what opium is to the Chinaman, -or tobacco to the American or European. The hard white areca-nut (_Areca -Catechu_) is about the size and shape of a hen’s egg. Three or four -thousand tons of the small, tender nuts are annually shipped from Ceylon -to India for this masticatory, which is chewed by a hundred million -persons. After boiling in water, pellets of them are placed in a leaf of -the betel-pepper (_Piper betle_) with a small quantity of lime made from -pearls or shells, according to the desired quality and value of product. -It is credited with hardening the gums, sweetening the breath, aiding -digestion, and stimulating the nervous system like coffee or tobacco; -its most visible effect is tingeing the saliva and blackening the teeth, -which is far from attractive, especially in an otherwise beautiful -woman. A more recent use for these Placuna pearls is as an ingredient in -a proprietary face powder and enamel, which is marketed in Europe. - -It is not alone the Orientals that have found medicinal virtues in -pearls. Even in Europe they have occupied a prominent place in materia -medica, especially during the Middle Ages when a knowledge of the occult -properties of gems was an important branch of learning. Indeed, they -could scarcely have been overlooked by people who at one time or another -swallowed pretty much everything, from dried snake’s eyes to the filings -of a murderer’s irons, in their quest for the unusual and costly with -which to relieve and comfort themselves. During the Middle Ages in -Europe, writers who gave attention to pearls, as well as to other gems, -treated almost exclusively of their reputed efficacy in magic and in -medicine; and most of the accounts from the ninth to the fourteenth -century seem wholly without scientific value, and at times reach the -climax of extravagance and absurdity in their claims for the wonderful -potency of the gem. - -Albertus Magnus, the Dominican scholar born in Germany in the twelfth -century, wrote that pearls were used in mental diseases, in affections -of the heart, in hemorrhages, and dysentery.[360] - -The “Lapidario” of Alfonso X of Castile (1221–1284), called “The Wise,” -the father of the Spanish language, states: - - The pearl is most excellent in the medicinal art, for it is of great - help in palpitation of the heart, and for those who are sad or - timid, and in every sickness which is caused by melancholia, because - it purifies the blood, clears it and removes all its impurities. - Therefore, the physicians put them in their medicine and lectuaries, - with which they cure these infirmities, and give them to be - swallowed. They also make powders of them, which are applied to the - eyes; because they clear the sight wonderfully, strengthen the - nerves and dry up the moisture which enters the eyes.[361] - -Anselmus de Boot, physician to Emperor Rudolph II, and one of the great -authorities at the beginning of the seventeenth century, gave the -following directions for making “_aqua perlata_, which is most excellent -for restoring the strength and almost for resuscitating the dead. -Dissolve the pearls in strong vinegar, or better in lemon juice, or in -spirits of vitriol or sulphur, until they become liquified; fresh juice -is then added and the first decanted. Then, to the milky and turbid -solution, add enough sugar to sweeten it. If there be four ounces of -this solution, add an ounce each of rose-water, of tincture of -strawberries, of borage flowers and of balm and two ounces of cinnamon -water. When you wish to give the medicine, shake the mixture so that the -sediment may be swallowed at the same time. From one ounce to an ounce -and a half may be taken, and nothing more excellent can be had. In -pernicious and pestilential fevers, the ordinary _aqua perlata_ cannot -be compared to this. Care must be taken to cover the glass carefully -while the pearls are dissolving, lest the essence should escape.”[362] - -A curious book on the medicinal use of pearls was written in 1637 by -Malachias Geiger,[363] in which he especially praises the efficacy of -Bavarian pearls. It was true that their material value was less than -that of oriental pearls, but this was compensated by their therapeutic -qualities. He had accomplished many cures of a very serious disease and -had used these pearls successfully in cases of epilepsy, insanity, and -melancholia. - -Quotations might be given from a hundred medieval writers as to the -therapeutics of pearls. The diseases for which they were recommended, as -noted by Robert Lovell’s “Panmineralogicon, or Summe of all Authors,” -published at Oxford in 1661, seems to have included a large portion of -the entire list known at that period. This summary states: - - Pearls strengthen and confirme the heart; they cherish the spirits - and principall parts of the body; being put into collyries, they - cleanse weafts of the eyes, and dry up the water thereof, help their - filth, and strengthen the nerves by which moisture floweth into - them; they are very good against melancholick griefes; they helpe - those that are subject to cardiack passions; they defend against - pestilent diseases, and are mixed with cordiall remedies; they are - good against the lienterie, that is, the flux of the belly, - proceeding from the sliperiness of the intestines, insomuch that - they cannot retaine the meat, but let it passe undigested; they are - good against swounings; they help the trembling of the heart and - giddinesse of the head; they are mixed with the _Manus Christi_ - against fainting (called _Manus Christi perlata_ in the London - _Pharmacopaea_); they are put into antidotes or corroborating - powders; they help the flux of bloud; they stop the terms, and - cleanse the teeth; they are put into antidotes for the bowels, and - increase their vertue, make the bloud more thin, and clarify that - which is more thick and feculent; they help feavers. The _oile of - Pearles_ or unions helpeth the resolution of the nerves, convulsion, - decay of old age, phrensie, keepeth the body sound, and recovereth - it when out of order, it rectifieth womens milk, and increaseth it, - corrects the vices of the natural parts and seed. It cureth - absesses, eating ulcers, the cancer and hemorrhoides.... The best - are an excellent cordial, by which the oppressed balsame of life and - decayed strength are recreated and strengthened, therefore they - resist poyson, the plague, and putrefaction, and exhilarate, and - therefore they are used as the last remedie in sick persons.[364] - -[Illustration: - - RUSSIAN EIKON OF THE MADONNA - - Ornamented with pearls -] - -So powerful and mysterious were their alleged virtues, that in some -instances it was necessary only that the pearls be worn to make -effective their prophylaxis against disease. This belief was by no means -confined to the ignorant and inexperienced, for we are told that even -Pope Adrian was never without his amulet made of the extraordinary -combination of oriental pearls, a dried toad, etc.[365] Leonardo, in the -fifteenth century, wrote that pearls render true and virtuous all who -wear them.[366] Although we wonder at what we call the superstitions of -the Middle Ages, perchance future generations will smile at many of our -mistaken follies. - -A prominent historical instance of administering pearls medicinally was -in the treatment of Charles VI of France (1368–1422), to whom pearl -powder mixed with distilled water was given for the cure of insanity. - -A far more illustrious patient was Lorenzo de’ Medici, “The Magnificent” -(1448–1492), the celebrated ruler of Florence. When this plebeian prince -lay dying of a fever at Careggi, just after that famous interview with -Savonarola, his friends called in Lazaro da Ticino, a physician of -reputation, who administered pulverized pearls. Politian, who was -present, is credited with the statement that when the medicine was -administered, to the inquiry as to how it tasted, Lorenzo replied: “As -pleasant as anything can be to a dying man.”[367] - -Even the English philosopher, Francis Bacon (1561–1626), mentioned -pearls among medicines for the prolongation of life. He adds: “Pearls -are taken, either in a fine powder or in a kind of paste or solution -made by the juice of very sour and fresh lemons. Sometimes they are -given in aromatic confections, sometimes in a fluid form. Pearls no -doubt have some affinity with the shells wherein they grow; perhaps may -have nearly the same qualities as the shells of crawfish.”[368] - -Powdered pearl or mother-of-pearl mixed with lemon juice was used as a -wash for the face, and was considered “the best in the world.”[369] The -pearl powder and lemon juice were permitted to stand for a day or two -and the combination was then filtered before using. Another method of -preparing this was: - - Dissolve two or three ounces of fine seed-pearl in distilled - vinegar, and when it is perfectly dissolved, pour the vinegar into a - clean basin; then drop some oil of tartar upon it, and it will cast - down the pearl into fine powder; then pour the vinegar clean off - softly; put to the pearl clear conduit or spring water; pour that - off, and do so often until the taste of the vinegar and tartar be - clean gone; then dry the powder of pearl upon warm embers, and keep - it for your use.[370] - -Through their composition of carbonate of lime, pearls possibly possess -some slight therapeutic value, which, however, can easily be supplied by -other materials—as the shell, for instance—and is entirely out of -proportion to their market value as ornaments. - -Although pearls have lost their therapeutic prestige and no longer have -a recognized place in materia medica, their healing qualities are not to -be denied, for there are few ills to which women are subject that cannot -be bettered or at least endured with greater patience when the sufferer -receives a gift of pearls; the truth of which any doubting Thomas may -easily verify in his own household to the limit of his purse-strings. - -Owing to their beauty and great value, pearls have been deemed -particularly appropriate as a sacrifice in enriching a drink for a toast -or tribute. Shakspere alludes to this in the words of King Claudius, the -pearl being frequently designated _union_ in the fifteenth and sixteenth -centuries: - - The king shall drink to Hamlet’s better breath; - And in the cup an union shall he throw, - Richer than that which four successive kings - In Denmark’s crown have worn.[371] - -It is stated that a pearl worth £15,000 was reduced to powder and drunk -by Sir Thomas Gresham, the English merchant, in the presence of the -Spanish ambassador, as a tribute to Queen Elizabeth, by whom he had been -knighted.[372] - -The most celebrated instance of enriching a drink with a pearl was -doubtless Cleopatra’s tribute to Antony, Pliny’s account of which we -give in the words of old Philemon Holland: - - This princesse, when _M. Antonius_ had strained himselfe to doe her - all the pleasure he possibly could, and had feasted her day by day - most sumptuously, and spared for no cost: in the hight of her pride - and wanton braverie (as being a noble courtezan, and a queene - withall) began to debase the expense and provision of Antonie, and - made no reckoning of all his costly fare. When he thereat demanded - againe how it was possible to goe beyond this magnificence of his, - she answered againe, that she would spend upon him at one supper ten - million Sestertij. _Antonie_ laid a great wager with her about it, - and shee bound it againe, and made it good. The morrow after, - _Cleopatra_ made _Antonie_ a supper which was sumptuous and roiall - ynough: howbeit, there was no extraordinarie service seene upon the - board: whereat _Antonius_ laughed her to scorne, and by way of - mockerie required to see a bill with the account of the particulars. - She again said, that whatsoever had been served up alreadie was but - the overplus above the rate and proportion in question, affirming - still that she would yet in that supper make up the full summe that - she was seazed at: yea, herselfe alone would eat above that - reckoning, and her owne supper should cost 60 million Sestertij: and - with that commanded the second service to be brought in. The - servitors set before her one only crewet of sharpe vineger, the - strength whereof is able to resolve pearles. Now she had at her - eares hanging these two most precious pearles, the singular and only - jewels of the world, and even Natures wonder. As _Antonie_ looked - wistly upon her, shee tooke one of them from her eare, steeped it in - the vineger, and so soon as it was liquified, dranke it off. And as - she was about to doe the like by the other, _L. Plancius_ the judge - of that wager, laid fast hold upon it with his hand, and pronounced - withal, that _Antonie_ had lost the wager.[373] - -Elsewhere has been set forth the impracticability of dissolving a pearl -in a glass of vinegar without first pulverizing it.[374] It seems -probable that if Pliny’s interesting story has any foundation, Cleopatra -might have swallowed a solid pearl in a glass of wine—certainly a more -pleasing draught as well as a more graphic sacrifice; and we should -accept its reported value with a grain of salt, for it would scarcely -have been safe for the court gossip to belittle the value of this -tribute of love. - -Pliny, and other Roman writers, mention another instance, that of -Clodius “the sonne of Aesope the Tragedian Poet,” who took two pearls of -great price “in a braverie, and to know what tast pearles had, mortified -them in venegre, and drunke them up. And finding them to content his -palat wondrous well, because he would not have all the pleasure by -himselfe, and know the goodnesse thereof alone, he gave to every guest -at his table one pearle apeece to drinke in like manner.”[375] The -chronicler fails to tell what the guests thought of the flavor of -pearls, or whether some would not have preferred them for a more -appropriate use. - - - - - XIII - - VALUES AND COMMERCE OF PEARLS - - - - - XIII - VALUES AND COMMERCE OF PEARLS - - - A pearl, - Whose price hath launch’d above a thousand ships, - And turn’d crown’d kings to merchants. - - _Troilus and Cressida_, Act II, sc. 2. - -To trace the markets of the pearl is to trace the routes of commerce -from early times. The first routes from the Far East seem to have been -two: one by the Persian Gulf and the Euphrates to Babylonia and Assyria, -and thence by caravan through Damascus to Tyre and Sidon; the other by -the Red Sea and Suez to Egypt. As regards the former route, Sir George -Birdwood furnishes positive evidence that the Phenicians visited India -as early as 2200 B.C. It seems highly probable that pearls were -introduced by this route at an early period, although it is difficult to -find material proof of the fact. - -By means of this commerce, the great ancient civilizations of Phenicia, -Mesapotamia and the Nile valley doubtless became familiar with the gem -treasures of eastern Asia. Then came the opening of the Mediterranean -with first “the great Sidon,” and later Tyre, as the starting-points of -commerce, exploration, and colonial settlement among the islands and on -the shores of what, to the Asiatic peoples, was the great western sea. -However, as the Greek islands and their colonies developed, the -Phenicians were more strictly confined to the coasts of Africa and -Spain. Gades, Tartessus, and Carthage were their great colonies and -trading-ports, and their adventurous sailors passed on through the -Straits of Gibraltar and directed their course northward to the British -Isles, where they very probably obtained the pearls of the Scotch -rivers. - -Meanwhile, the campaigns of Alexander had carried Greek influence and -authority over all western Asia, reaching even to India itself, and had -led to a widely increased intercourse. Although he died at the age of -thirty-two, Alexander the Great did more than any single individual in -the world’s history to bring the nations of the Eastern and the Western -worlds into contact with each other, and it is certainly due to this -circumstance that we find much greater evidences of the use of pearls in -the western countries after his time. Besides this, the founding of -Alexandria provided a mart, in whose bazaars the traders of India, -Persia, and Arabia bartered their treasured gems, just as their -descendants do in the same place at the present day. - -It was not, however, until the establishment of the Roman empire that -this commercial intercourse reached its highest development. The Romans, -with their marvelous capacity for organization, were the first to build -a great system of permanent and well-kept roads to facilitate land -travel and land traffic. These great roads, starting from the Forum, -reached out in every direction, even to the limits of the empire; and, -as a result of increased commercial activity, more gems were engraved, -mounted, and set during the five hundred years of Rome’s commercial -supremacy than during any other early epoch of the world’s history. - -In Rome, the trade in pearls was so important that there was a -corporation of “margaritarii.” The _officinæ margaritariorum_ were -installed in the Forum, in the neighborhood of the _tabernae -argentariæ_; some were also on the Via Sacra.[376] However, the name -_margaritarius_ did not only apply to the jewelers, merchants, and -setters of pearls, but also to those who fished for them and to the -guardians of the gems and jewels wherein pearls were used. - -With the fall of the Western empire, the Dark Ages settled down like a -cloud over Europe for five hundred years. Only among the Saracens and at -Byzantium did the culture of the old civilization survive, and -eventually the light of knowledge and of progress was rekindled from -these sources. The Crusades were the chief factors in this new -development; they gave a mighty stimulus, by means of which Europe was -aroused from her lethargy and once more brought into contact with the -Orient. Venice and Genoa now became the great carriers, and from this -time, and to this source, may be traced many of the oriental gems in -Europe. The Venetian fleet of three hundred merchant ships brought the -products of the East and distributed them over Europe, by way of the -German cities of Augsburg and Nuremberg, where the great jewelers and -silversmiths made world-famed ornaments. - -[Illustration: - - PECTORAL CROSS OF CONSTANTINE IX. MONOMACHUS (1000–1054 A.D.) - - Containing some wood attributed to the true cross. -] - -When Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks, the treasures of -the Eastern empire were scattered throughout Europe; but, at the same -time, the establishment of the Turkish empire served to close the way to -India and the far East for the merchants and travelers of Europe, and, -hence, new means of access had to be sought by sea. This, as is well -known, was the cause of the voyages of De Gama and Columbus. The -unexpected result of these voyages—the discovery of a new -continent—ushered in the wonderful period of Spanish and Portuguese -development and their colonization of both the East and the West Indies; -and to this epoch belongs the introduction of American pearls to the -markets of Europe. The gradual decline of the power of Spain and -Portugal—largely owing to bigotry and to the reckless exploitation of -the regions under their control—brings us to the beginning of the -present phase of commercial intercourse in which all the nations of the -civilized world are engaged in varying proportion, according to their -power and aptitude. Never before have the different regions of the earth -been more closely in touch with each other, and we may safely say that -nothing is likely to occur which can permanently interrupt the -progressive development of the world’s commerce. - -With the various means of transportation and locomotion that have -existed in the past twenty-three or twenty-four centuries, there is no -doubt that the commerce of pearls has varied more or less, but there has -ever been, in some part of the world, a great potentate, a great -collector or dealer who has influenced the finest gems to gravitate his -way. Never has there been a time when some person was not prepared to -encourage—and to richly encourage—the sale of fine jewels to him. The -history of the commerce of precious stones is a history of travel and -exploration, of hardship, pleasure, reward, and sometimes of serious -disappointment. - -The lesson we derive from these decorative objects of natural beauty and -softness—treasured alike by savage, barbarian, ancient warrior, -statesman, king, emperor, peasant, bourgeois, magyar, lady, and -queen—always carries with it the moral that the gifts of creation are -ever prized by some one in every age or place. - -The necessary qualifications affecting the value of a pearl are: first, -that it should be perfectly round, pear-shaped, drop-shaped, egg-shaped, -or button-shaped, and as even in form as though it were turned on a -lathe. It must have a perfectly clear skin, and a decided color or tint, -whether white, pink, creamy, gray, brown or black. If white, it must not -have a cloud or a blur or haze, nor should the skin have the slightest -appearance of being opaque or dead. It must be absolutely free from all -cracks, scratches, spots, flaws, indentations, shadowy reflections or -blemishes of any kind. It must possess the peculiar luster or orient -characteristic of the gem. The skin must be unbroken, and not show any -evidence of having been polished. - -Diamonds and the more valuable precious stones generally are bought and -sold by the weight called a carat. This carat, whatever its precise -value, is always considered as divisible into four diamond or pearl -grains, but the subdivisions of the carat are usually expressed by the -vulgar fractions, one fourth, one eighth, one twelfth, one sixteenth, -one twenty-fourth, one thirty-second, and one sixty-fourth. The origin -of the carat is to be sought in certain small, hard, leguminous seeds, -which, when dried, remain constant in weight. The brilliant, glossy, -scarlet-and-black seed of _Abrus precatorius_ constitutes the Indian -rati, about three grains; the _Adenanthera pavonina_ seed weighs about -four grains. The seed of the locust-tree, _Ceratonia siliqua_, weighs on -the average three and one sixth grains, and constitutes, no doubt, the -true origin of the carat. - -Another[377] of the more notable of these weight-units used for precious -stones and precious metals is the _candarin_, _condorine_, or -_cantarai_, also termed by the Chinese _fun_ or _fan_, and by the south -Indians a _fanam_, and used all over the Indo-Chinese archipelago. This -is by origin a large lentil or pea of a pinkish color dotted with black, -about double the size of the _gonj_, and possessing the same quality of -very slight variability of weight when dried. It is probably a variety -of the same botanic genus or species as the _Abrus precatorius_. The -value when reduced to absolute standard became a subsidiary part or -submultiple of the weight of some local coin, rupee, or pagoda, or a -decimal fraction of some local tchen, as in China and Japan. - -The following derivation of the word carat is given by Grimm: “Carat. -Italian: _carato_; French: _carat_; Spanish and Portuguese: _quilate_; -Old Portuguese: _quirate_, from Arabic _qirat_, and this from the Greek, -κεράτιον.”[378] - -The carat is not absolutely of the same value in all countries. Its -weight, as used for weighing the diamond, pearl, and other gemstones in -different parts of the world, is given in decimals of a gram, by the -majority of the authorities, as follows: - - Grams In Grains Troy - Indian (Madras) .2073533 3.199948 - Austrian (Vienna) .20613+ 3.18107+ - German (Frankfort) .20577+ 3.175514 - Brazil and Portugal .20575+ 3.175206 - France .2055+ 3.171347 - England .205409 3.169943 - Spain .205393 3.169696 - Holland .205044 3.16431+ - - Pearl Grains in Grams In Grains Troy - Indian (Madras) .0518383 .799987 - Austrian (Vienna) .05153+ .79526+ - German (Frankfort) .05144+ .793878 - Brazil and Portugal .05143+ .793801 - France .051375 .792836 - England .051352 .792485 - Spain .051348 .792424 - Holland .051261 .791077 - -Assuming that the gram corresponds to 15.43235 English grains, an -English diamond carat will nearly equal 3.17 grains. It is, however, -spoken of as being equal to four grains, the grains meant being -“diamond” or “pearl” grains, and not ordinary troy or avoirdupois -grains. Thus a diamond or pearl grain is but .7925 of a true grain. In -an English troy ounce of 480 grains there are 151½ carats; and so it -will be seen that a carat is not indeed quite 3.17 grains, but something -like 3.1683168 grains, or less exactly, 3.168 grains. Further, if we -accept the equivalent in grains of one gram to be, as stated above, -15.43235, and if there be 151½ carats in a troy ounce of 480 grains, it -will follow that an English diamond carat is .205304 of a gram, -not .205409, as commonly affirmed. The following exact equivalents, in -metric grams and grains troy, of the diamond carat as used in different -parts of the world in 1882, are given by Mr. Lowis d’A. Jackson: - - DIAMOND CARATS - - Grams Grains Troy - Turin .2135 3.29480 - Persia .2095 3.23307 - Venice .2071 3.19603 - Austro-Hungary .2061 3.18060 - France (old) .2059 3.17752 - France (later) .2055 3.17135 - France (modern) .2050 3.16363 - Portugal .2058 3.17597 - Frankfort and Hamburg .2058 3.17597 - Germany .2055 3.17135 - East Indies .2055 3.17135 - England and British India .2053 3.16826 - Belgium (Antwerp) .2053 3.16826 - Russia .2051 3.16517 - Holland .2051 3.16517 - Turkey .2005 3.09418 - Spain .1999 3.08492 - Java and Borneo .1969 3.03862 - Florence .1965 3.03245 - Arabia .1944 3.00004 - Brazil .1922 2.96610 - Egypt .1917 2.95838 - Bologna .1886 2.91054 - International carat .2050 3.16363 - Proposed new international carat .2000 3.08647 - -Recalculating the above figures into pearl grains we have: - - PEARL GRAINS - - Grams Grains Troy - Turin .053375 .823700 - Persia .052375 .808267 - Venice .051775 .799007 - Austro-Hungary .051525 .795150 - France (old) .051475 .794380 - France (later) .051375 .792837 - France (modern) .051250 .790907 - Portugal .051450 .793902 - Frankfort and Hamburg .051450 .793992 - Germany .051375 .792837 - East Indies .051375 .792837 - England and British India .051325 .792065 - Belgium (Antwerp) .051325 .792065 - Russia .051275 .791292 - Holland .051275 .791292 - Turkey .050125 .773545 - Spain .049975 .771230 - Java and Borneo .049225 .759655 - Florence .049125 .758112 - Arabia .048600 .750010 - Brazil .048050 .741522 - Egypt .047925 .739595 - Bologna .047150 .727635 - International .051250 .790907 - Proposed International .050000 .771617 - -With the present system of diamond carats and pearl grains it is -necessary to keep two entirely different sets of weights or to resort to -troublesome calculations. The stock-book of a jeweler, at the present -time, will contain the following fractions, expressing the weight of a -single pearl: ½, ¼, ⅛, 1⁄16, 1⁄32, 1⁄64, when the weight could be much -better stated as 63⁄64 of a carat. It requires but a glance to see how -much easier this would be. Certain dealers have therefore proposed the -use of sets of fractions arranged in a similar way. In this manner a -stock-book can be kept much more easily and with greater precision. -Others, again, have adopted a decimal notation of the fractions of a -carat, which is even more simple and feasible, since the common -fractions ½, ¼, ⅛, etc. can be expressed as .5, .25, .125, etc., of a -carat, this being either a carat of .2053 of a gram or the English carat -of .20534 of a gram. - -On the other hand, an agreement was arrived at, as the result of a -conference between the diamond merchants of London, Paris, and -Amsterdam, by which the uniform weight of a diamond carat was fixed -at .205 of a gram, making the pearl grain .05125 of a gram. This -standard, which was suggested in 1871, by a syndicate of Parisian -jewelers, goldsmiths, and others dealing in precious stones, was -subsequently (1877) confirmed. But there is still a lack of uniformity -in the standard by which diamonds and pearls are bought and sold, and -very serious discrepancies exist in the sets of carat weights turned out -by different makers, although the international carat is almost -universally used. - -At the International Congress of Weights and Measures held at the -World’s Fair at Chicago in 1893, the writer suggested that the carat -should consist of 200 milligrams, so that ½ of a carat would be 100 -milligrams and ¼ of a grain would be 12.5 milligrams. This would mean 5 -carats or 20 grains to a French gram, and 5000 carats or 20,000 pearl -grains to a French kilogram. This would depreciate the present diamond -carat or pearl grain only about one per cent., and it would do away with -the needless series of carats and grains of the many nationalities. It -could be simply explained to any private individual in any country, -especially as there are only two countries which do not use the metric -system. - -This carat has been earnestly indorsed, its introduction advocated, and -its merits clearly shown, by M. Guilliame, of the French Bureau des Arts -et Metiers, whose energetic work has found a reasonable cooperation, in -this country as well as in Europe, in introducing what will be a -scientific, logical, comprehensive, and possibly the final and -international carat; and any ancient, obsolete, or foreign carat can be -readily reduced to this carat once the metric value of the former is -computed. - -The Association of Diamond Merchants of Amsterdam has already, to avoid -confusion, fixed the value of the carat (17th October, 1890) at 1 -kilogram = 4875 carats, or 1 carat = 3.16561 grains troy = 205.128 mg. -One pearl grain = .7914 grains troy = 51.282 mg.; but the association -has decided that, in case of litigation, these values shall be -determined by appointed bureaus, which would express them in grams and -milligrams, a most important and valuable decision, as the gram and the -milligram will always be known as weights of constant value. - -In view of the difficulty of inducing the abolition of the carat in -different countries, the German Federation of Jewelers decided to -petition the imperial government for authority to use the carat, in -order that it might be legally recognized. Such a proposition not being -in accord with the German laws in force on the subject of the metric -system, it was proposed to substitute for the carats then in use one -carat only, weighing two hundred milligrams. This proposal was very -favorably received in trade circles and may be taken into consideration -by the International Committee of Weights and Measures. The Commission -des Instruments et Travaux, to which this proposition was referred, -recommended its adoption to the committee in the following terms: - -“The Commission recognizes that it would be very desirable that the unit -of weight of precious stones (the carat) which varies in different -countries, should be made uniform, and should be reduced to the nearest -metric equivalent. The weight of 200 mg., which is very close to the -carat most in use (205.5 mg.), would seem to be the best for this -purpose. The Commission believes that there can be no objection to this -standard of 200 mg. being called ‘the metric carat’ in order to -facilitate the abolition of the old carat.” - -This proposition, adopted at the meeting of the International Committee -on the 13th of April, was communicated to the more important -associations. The Chambre Syndicale de la Bijouterie, Joaillerie et -Orfèvrerie de Paris, and the Chambre Syndicale des Négotiants en -Diamants, Perles, Pierres Précieuses et des Lapidaires de Paris assured -the committee of their support of this measure. - -The following is the text of the resolution which was passed by both the -above associations in January, 1906: - -“The Council, recognizing the advantages which would result to the -international trade in precious stones from the use of a unit based on -the metric system, desires that the metric carat of 200 mg. be -universally adopted.” - -The German Federation of Jewelers passed the following resolution in -August, 1906: - -“The German Federation considers that it is both necessary and -advantageous to replace the old carat by the metric carat of 200 mg.; it -authorizes its president to approach the imperial government and the -International Bureau of Weights and Measures, and the foreign -associations in order that the metric carat may be introduced as soon as -possible in all countries.” - -The Chamber of Commerce of Antwerp promised, in a letter dated the 7th -of December, 1906, to rescind a decision of 29th of April, 1895, -approving the adoption of a carat of 205.3 mg., when the metric carat of -200 mg. should come into universal use in the markets. - -The Association of Jewelers and Goldsmiths of Prague formally authorized -the German Federation to act in its name, in order that the reform -should come about as soon as possible by international agreement, and -the Association of Goldsmiths of Copenhagen has declared its willingness -to support the reform. The Committee of Weights and Measures in Belgium -prepared a law for the adoption of the metric carat in December, 1906. - -Mr. Larking, president of the Chamber of Commerce of Melbourne, -Australia, has transmitted by letter of September 16, 1907, the -following resolution of the Association of Manufacturing Jewelers of the -Colony of Victoria: - -“It is desirable that the carat weight should be the same in all -countries, and our association approves a metric carat of 200 -milligrams.” - -On October 16, 1907, the Association of Societies for the Protection of -Commerce in the United Kingdom passed the following resolution: - -“The Committee of the Association approves the attempt to urge the -adoption in all countries of an international carat of 200 milligrams, -and hopes that, in the interest of the unification of weights, it will -prove successful.” - -The fourth General Conference of Weights and Measures, held in Paris in -October, 1907, passed this resolution: - -“The Conference approves the proposition of the International Committee -and declares that it sees no infringement of the integrity of the metric -system in the adoption of the appellation ‘metric carat’ to designate a -weight of 200 milligrams for the commerce in diamonds, pearls, and -precious stones.”[379] - -The following resolution was passed by The Birmingham Jewelers’ and -Silversmiths’ Association, January 23, 1908: “That the best thanks of -this Committee be conveyed to the Decimal Association for the good work -they are doing, and this Committee expresses the hope that all countries -will adopt an International Carat of 200 milligrams in weight.” Finally, -on March 11, 1908, the metric carat of 200 milligrams was adopted in -Spain as the official carat for diamonds, pearls, and precious stones. - -Pearls have become of so much importance to so many dealers that a -special form of weight has been proposed for them. This would have a -diamond form and not a square form, and it would be stamped “Grain” -instead of “Carat.” Another set would be stamped in milligrams, the -regular milligram weight with the pearl fraction above it, and they -could even be made round so as better to designate the pearl. - -The great value of pearls has suggested the making of a gage, called the -Kunz gage, by means of which round pearls can be very accurately -measured. Pearls of a given weight and perfectly spherical form have -been weighed and then measured by this gage, and the theoretical -diameters as computed from the measurement of a single pearl are in the -majority of instances in exact accord with these actual measurements, -the occasional variations in the smaller pearls barely exceeding the -thousandth part of an inch. These discrepancies may be due to -imperceptible divergencies in sphericity or, possibly, to trifling -differences in specific gravity. - -The following table gives the diameters of round pearls by measurement, -from 1⁄16 to 500 grains, in millimeters and inches: - - Weight Grains Diameter Millimeters Inches - 1⁄16 1.3 .0512 - ⅛ 1.66 .0653 - ¼ 2.09 .0823 - ½ 2.65 .1043 - ¾ 2.99 .1187 - 1 3.32 .1307 - 1¼ 3.60 .1417 - 1½ 3.80 .1496 - 1¾ 3.98 .1567 - 2 4.18 .1645 - 2¼ 4.32 .1701 - 2½ 4.47 .1759 - 2¾ 4.63 .1823 - 3 4.80 .1889 - 3¼ 4.88 .1921 - 3½ 5.01 .1972 - 3¾ 5.17 .2035 - 4 5.23 .2058 - 4¼ 5.44 .2141 - 5 5.65 .2224 - 5½ 5.86 .2283 - 6 6.03 .2374 - 6½ 6.20 .2442 - 7 6.36 .2504 - 8 6.64 .2614 - 9 6.90 .2716 - 10 7.15 .2815 - 11 7.38 .2905 - 12 7.60 .2992 - 13 7.81 .3074 - 14 8.00 .3149 - 15 8.18 .3220 - 16 8.36 .3291 - 17 8.53 .3358 - 18 8.70 .3425 - 19 8.86 .3488 - 20 9.01 .3547 - 25 9.71 .3823 - 30 10.31 .4059 - 35 10.86 .4275 - 40 11.35 .4468 - 45 11.82 .4653 - 50 12.23 .4815 - 60 13.00 .5118 - 70 13.38 .5386 - 80 14.30 .5630 - 90 14.89 .5862 - 100 15.42 .6071 - 125 16.60 .6535 - 150 17.63 .6941 - 200 19.41 .7641 - 300 22.22 .8748 - 400 24.46 .9630 - 500 26.35 1.0374 - -The new and finer analytical balances weigh to the tenth part of a -milligram, the two thousandth part of a carat, the five hundredth part -of a grain; but this is not necessary. If the 200–milligram carat were -used, the two hundredth part of a carat could readily be ascertained, -and then a short-beam, rapid-weighing balance would answer every purpose -and save much time for the dealer who must make many weighings in the -course of a day. In an office where thousands of weighings were made in -a month, the task was accomplished with such minute accuracy that the -margin of error did not exceed one carat during that time. - -The _mina_, the sixtieth part of the lesser Alexandrian talent of -silver, was divided by the Romans, when they occupied Egypt, into twelve -ounces (_unciae_), and, weighing as it did 5460 grains, it became the -predecessor of the European pounds of which the troy pound is a type. If -we may believe a Syrian authority, Anania of Shiraz, who wrote in the -sixth century, the carat or diamond weight was originally formed from -one of these ounces by taking the 1⁄144 part.[380] - -We find in Murray[381] that the Greek κεράτιον was originally identical -with the Latin siliqua, and was called the _siliqua Graeca_. As a -measure of weight and fineness the carat represents the Roman siliqua as -1⁄24 of the golden solidus of Constantine, which was ⅙ of an ounce, -hence the various values into which 1⁄24 and 1⁄144 enter, or originally -entered. As a measure of weight for diamonds and precious stones, it was -originally 1⁄144 of an ounce or 3⅓ grains. It is stated in Hakluyt (Voy. -II, pp. 1, 225, 1598): “Those pearls are praised according to the -caracts which they weigh; every caract is four graines.” - -There have been at all times men who possessed a delicate touch or a -fine sense of feeling, but probably few men are living to-day who would -be able to accomplish the feat attributed to Julius Cæsar, namely, that -of estimating the weight of a pearl by simply holding it in his hand. -There are very few who can tell the weight of a pearl in this way, and -while the story may be historically interesting, it is rather dubious. - -To attempt to formulate a list of prices, comparative or otherwise, of -pearls, is almost an impossibility, as probably no two authors of the -past three centuries have ever seen the same lot of pearls, nor have -their estimates always been the same as to quality, rarity and value. - -As interesting statistics from an historical point of view, there will -be presented here a list of the values of pearls dating back some ten -centuries. That there always has existed a higher valuation for the -larger pearls, which are the rarest, will readily be apparent, but that -the correct value of a pearl of one, ten, twenty or fifty grains be -definitely given for the years 1602, 1702, 1802, or 1902 is an -impossibility. However, we believe this to be the first attempt to -present so large a body of carefully selected quotations, and they are -given to the reader, whether he be layman or professional, for what they -are worth. - -In regard to the smaller pearls, as is the case with the smaller -diamonds, prices have been dependent upon the changes of fashion; that -is, whether the prevailing style of jewelry was such that the smaller -pearl or diamond was in demand. In other words, if they were used as a -decoration forming a border, a flower, a scroll ornament, or a pave -requiring many small gems, the demand naturally increased and the prices -were higher or lower as the occasion required. - -It is not the project of this book to fix the prices of pearls at the -present time, for any such attempt would prove misleading, owing to the -fact that pearls vary in the estimation of the different dealers, and a -figure given here for the highest standard, if applied to an inferior -grade, would necessarily mislead the buyer to his positive injury. This -much, however, can be said: during the year 1907 pearls from five grains -upward have been sold according to their quality, at a base of five, -eight, ten, fifteen, or even twenty dollars in very exceptional cases; -that is to say, twenty, thirty-two, forty, sixty, or eighty shillings, -or twenty-five, forty, fifty, seventy-five or one hundred francs. -Nevertheless, it would be impossible, without considerable experience, -for a layman to apply these valuations to objects that require much -practice in determining their quality and perfection. - -With diamonds, rubies, and emeralds there may be a stated price per -carat for stones of a certain size, but a gem of unusual perfection or -brilliancy, or of exceptionally fine color, will often command a price -far beyond that generally quoted. It is the same with the pearl. Sums -which may seem exorbitant in comparison with those that are paid for -ordinary pearls, are often given for specimens remarkable for their -beauty, size, or luster. - -Pearls of one hundred grains are even more rare at the present time than -are diamonds of one hundred carats. Until the middle of the nineteenth -century, the diamonds of the world weighing one hundred carats or over -could be counted on the fingers, but since the opening of the African -mines in 1870, the number of large diamonds has increased at a much -greater ratio than have the pearls of one quarter of their weight. It -would thus seem that pearls of great size are worth four times as much -as diamonds of equal weight. For instance, a 100–carat diamond of the -finest quality would be worth at least from $1000 to $1500 a carat, -making a total value of $100,000 to $150,000; and a pearl of 100 grains -at a base of $10 would be worth $100,000. But no such high price has -ever been paid. - -The usual method of estimating the value of pearls is by establishing a -base value for those weighing one grain and then multiplying this amount -by the square of the number of grains that the pearl weighs. For -instance, if the base value of a one-grain pearl should be fixed at $1, -a pearl weighing two grains would be worth $4 (2 × 2 = 4), or $2 per -grain; one weighing five grains would be worth $25, or $5 per grain, -etc. Naturally, these values increase in proportion to the increase in -the value of the base. A base of $3 would give a value of $75 for a -five-grain pearl, or $15 per grain, while a $10 base would make the -value $50 per grain, or $250. - -This method of estimating pearls by squaring their weights has been -credited by many authors to David Jeffries, who published an interesting -treatise on diamonds and pearls in 1750–1753. It has also been credited -to Tavernier, the oriental traveler of the middle of the seventeenth -century. We have, however, traced this method back to Anselmus de Boot, -in his treatise on precious stones, dated 1609. Before this date we have -not been able to find any mention of the computation of the value of -diamonds and pearls by squaring their weight and multiplying the product -by a base of a franc, guilder, crown, dollar, or of many dollars, as -would be necessary at present. It is probable, however, that this system -is of oriental origin and it may have come to Europe through some of the -oriental traders, with the precious stones, as did the use of the carat. - -De Boot makes the carat (four grains) his unit of comparison, increasing -his base value by one third for pearls weighing eleven carats -(forty-four grains) or over. In Pio Naldi’s treatise, published in -Bologna in 1791, the unit is the grain, the base being the fourth part -of the value of four pearls weighing together one carat. Naldi, also, -increases his base value making it 1½ lire ($.30) for pearls weighing -less than ten grains, and 2½ lire ($.50) for those weighing twenty -grains and upward. - -A curious method of valuing pearls by their weight is shown in a -treatise by Buteo, published in 1554.[382] The writer states that a -pearl weighing two carats was valued at 5 gold crowns; one of four -carats at 25 crowns; and so on, the price increasing fivefold when the -weight was doubled. The intermediate figures were obtained by computing -the proportional mean of any two known weights and values. For example: -8 × 4 = 32, the square root of which is 5.656. Now, the value of a -four-carat pearl is 25 and that of an eight-carat pearl 125 crowns, and -125 × 25 = 3125, the square root being 55.9; hence a pearl weighing -5.656 carats was worth 55.9 crowns. - -The base value of a necklace can be determined in the following way. -Should the center pearl weigh 25 grains, multiply 25 by 25; the result -is 625; then, take the next two, three, or four pearls, as many as are -of approximately the same weight, add their weights together, multiply -the resulting figure by itself and divide the product by the number of -pearls in the group. Proceed in exactly the same way with the remainder -of the necklace, always grouping the pearls so that there shall not be a -considerable difference in weight between the smallest and the largest -pearl, and then add together the figures obtained for the center pearl -and for the various groups and divide the price of the necklace by this -total; the quotient will represent the multiple or base. - -As may be seen by comparison of the first with the second and third of -the accompanying tables, the result arrived at in this way will, if -there is any difference in the weight of the pearls in the various -groups, vary slightly from that obtained by calculating the weight of -each pearl separately, but it represents a satisfactory approximation. - - NECKLACE OF 41 GRADUATED PEARLS ON A $10 BASE - - 1 pearl, weighing 25 grs. 25 × 25 = 625.000 - 2 pearls, each of 22 grs. 44 × 44 = 1936 ÷ 2 = 968.000 - 2 pearls, each of 20 grs. 40 × 40 = 1600 ÷ 2 = 800.000 - 2 pearls, each of 19 grs. 38 × 38 = 1444 ÷ 2 = 722.000 - 2 pearls, each of 18 grs. 36 × 36 = 1296 ÷ 2 = 648.000 - 2 pearls, each of 17½ grs. 35 × 35 = 1225 ÷ 2 = 612.500 - 2 pearls, each of 17 grs. 34 × 34 = 1156 ÷ 2 = 578.000 - 2 pearls, each of 16½ grs. 33 × 33 = 1089 ÷ 2 = 544.500 - 2 pearls, each of 16 grs. 32 × 32 = 1024 ÷ 2 = 512.000 - 2 pearls, each of 15½ grs. 31 × 31 = 961 ÷ 2 = 480.500 - 2 pearls, each of 15 grs. 30 × 30 = 900 ÷ 2 = 450.000 - 2 pearls, each of 14½ grs. 29 × 29 = 841 ÷ 2 = 420.500 - 2 pearls, each of 14 grs. 28 × 28 = 784 ÷ 2 = 392.000 - 2 pearls, each of 13½ grs. 27 × 27 = 729 ÷ 2 = 364.500 - 2 pearls, each of 13 grs. 26 × 26 = 676 ÷ 2 = 338.000 - 2 pearls, each of 12½ grs. 25 × 25 = 625 ÷ 2 = 312.500 - 2 pearls, each of 12 grs. 24 × 24 = 576 ÷ 2 = 288.000 - 2 pearls, each of 11½ grs. 23 × 23 = 529 ÷ 2 = 264.500 - 2 pearls, each of 11 grs. 22 × 22 = 484 ÷ 2 = 242.000 - 2 pearls, each of 10¾ grs. 21½ × 21½ = 462¼ ÷ 2 = 231.125 - 2 pearls, each of 10¼ grs. 20½ × 20½ = 420¼ ÷ 2 = 210.125 - —— ——— —————————— - 41 624 10,003.750 - $10 × 10,003.75 = $100,037.50 - - THE SAME NECKLACE FIGURED IN GROUPS - - 1 pearl, weighing 25 grs. 25 × 25 = 625.00 - 2 pearls, total weight 44 grs. 44 × 44 = 1936 ÷ 2 = 968.00 - 4 pearls, total weight 78 grs. 78 × 78 = 6084 ÷ 4 = 1521.00 - 4 pearls, total weight 71 grs. 71 × 71 = 5041 ÷ 4 = 1260.25 - 6 pearls, total weight 99 grs. 99 × 99 = 9801 ÷ 6 = 1633.50 - 6 pearls, total weight 90 grs. 90 × 90 = 8100 ÷ 6 = 1350.00 - 6 pearls, total weight 81 grs. 81 × 81 = 6561 ÷ 6 = 1093.50 - 6 pearls, total weight 72 grs. 72 × 72 = 5184 ÷ 6 = 864.00 - 6 pearls, total weight 64 grs. 64 × 64 = 4096 ÷ 6 = 682.67 - ——— ——————— - 624 9997.92 - $10 × 9997.92 = $99,979.20 - -[Illustration: - - GREAT PEARL NECKLACE OF THE FRENCH CROWN JEWELS - - Composed of 362 pearls, weighing 58.8 grains. Actual size. Worn by - Empress Eugenia -] - -On a $5 base this necklace would be worth $50,018.75 according to the -first reckoning, and $49,989.60 according to the second; on a base of -$2.50 the figures would be $25,009.37 and $24,994.80 respectively. - - THE SAME NECKLACE FIGURED IN OTHER GROUPS - - 1 pearl, weighing 25 grs. 25 × 25 = 625.00 - 4 pearls, total weight 84 grs. 84 × 84 = 7056 ÷ 4 = 1764.00 - 6 pearls, total weight 109 grs. 109 × 109 = 11881 ÷ 6 = 1980.16 - 6 pearls, total weight 99 grs. 99 × 99 = 9801 ÷ 6 = 1633.50 - 6 pearls, total weight 90 grs. 90 × 90 = 8100 ÷ 6 = 1350.00 - 8 pearls, total weight 106 grs. 106 × 106 = 11236 ÷ 8 = 1404.50 - 10 pearls, total weight 111 grs. 111 × 111 = 12321 ÷ 10 = 1232.10 - ——— ——————— - 624 9989.26 - - $10 × 9989.26 = $99,892.60 - -On a $5 base this would represent a value of $49,946.30 and one of -$24,973.15 on a base of $2.50. The different grouping of the pearls -accounts for the slight reduction in value. - -A system of estimating the value of pearls which has recently been -introduced into Germany, is an adaptation of the ordinary method of -squaring the number of grains and then multiplying the result by a -certain base figure. The pearls are first grouped according to quality -and size, and a figure is agreed upon as the multiplicator of each -class. In Germany the carat is employed as the weight unit for pearls as -well as for diamonds, and in this new system the total weight of a given -number of pearls of the same class is first reduced to grains; the -number of grains is then multiplied by four and the quotient is -multiplied by the figure agreed upon. The resulting sum, after being -divided by the number of pearls, gives the carat value of such pearls. -For example, if the base figure agreed upon is 5, and we wish to find -the carat worth of 4 pearls of similar size, weighing together 3–14⁄64 -carats, the sum would be as follows: - - 206 × 4 × 4 × 5 - ——————————————— = 64.37 - 64 × 4 - -At this rate per carat, reckoning in marks, the value of the 3–14⁄64 -carats would be 207.20 marks. This result is identical with that -obtained by the ordinary method, but the calculation is perhaps a trifle -simplified.[383] - -A curious Hindu treatise on gems has been preserved for us in the -Brhatsamhitâ of Varâhamihira (505–587 A.D.). It is the earliest work of -this kind that we have in Sanskrit, and M. Louis Finot,[384] who has -published it, together with several other similar treatises, believes -that it was based upon an original composed at a much earlier period. In -his introduction M. Finot says: “It would be an error to regard the -ratnaçastra [treatise on gems] as a simple manual for the use of -jewelers. Without doubt this subject formed one of the principal -branches of commercial instruction, ... but it was also taught to -princes and it is for their use that the ratnaçastras we publish seem to -have been composed.” - -This treatise only describes four gems, although a larger number are -enumerated. These gems are the diamond, the pearl, the ruby, and the -emerald. One of the most interesting portions is that treating of the -valuation of pearls. The system described is peculiar, and, -unfortunately, there is some difficulty in finding an absolutely correct -equivalent for the values expressed. - -A price is first placed upon a pearl weighing 4 mâsakas (about 45 -grains). This is estimated at 5300 kârsâpanas (about $1600). As the -weight diminishes the valuation decreases as follows: - - 4 mâsakas 5300 kârsâpanas - 3½ mâsakas 3200 kârsâpanas - 3 mâsakas 2000 kârsâpanas - 2½ mâsakas 1300 kârsâpanas - 2 mâsakas 800 kârsâpanas - 1½ mâsakas 353 kârsâpanas - 1 mâsakas 135 kârsâpanas - 4 guñjas[385] 90 kârsâpanas - 3 guñjas 50 kârsâpanas - 2½ guñjas 35 kârsâpanas - -Smaller pearls were grouped together in dharanas (one dharana = about 72 -grains). If there were thirteen fine pearls in a dharana, they were -valued at 325 rûpakas (about $100); the other values were as follows: - - 16 pearls in a dharana were worth 200 rûpakas - 20 pearls in a dharana were worth 170 rûpakas - 25 pearls in a dharana were worth 130 rûpakas - 30 pearls in a dharana were worth 70 rûpakas - 40 pearls in a dharana were worth 50 rûpakas - 55–60 pearls in a dharana were worth 40 rûpakas - 80 pearls in a dharana were worth 30 rûpakas - 100 pearls in a dharana were worth 25 rûpakas - 200 pearls in a dharana were worth 12 rûpakas - 300 pearls in a dharana were worth 6 rûpakas - 400 pearls in a dharana were worth 5 rûpakas - 500 pearls in a dharana were worth 3 rûpakas - -It would be extremely interesting if we could find at this early date -(sixth century A.D.) an indication of the use of the system of computing -the value of pearls by the square of their weight as expressed in some -weight unit, and it is singular that the three valuations given for the -weight in guñjas are graduated in accordance with this system. A pearl -weighing 2½ guñjas and valued at 35 kârṣapâṇas would have a base value -of 5.6 kârṣâpaṇas. Estimated at this ratio we would have the following -figures: - - 3 guñjas 50.4 kârṣâpaṇas - 4 guñjas 89.6 kârṣâpaṇas - -Now, the values actually given are 50 and 90 kârṣâpaṇas, respectively, -and these figures are easily obtained by rejecting the fraction that is -less than one half and counting the fraction that is in excess of one -half as a unit. After this, however, the progression becomes irregular. -A pearl weighing 1 mâṣaka (5 guñjas) is valued at 135 kârṣâpaṇas, while -the equivalent according to the system would be 140. However, it is -possible that the writer may have changed this figure intentionally so -as to add exactly one half to the preceding valuation (90 + 45 = 135). -The succeeding values bear no relation to the system and appear to be -entirely arbitrary. Still, it can scarcely be due to hazard that the -first three figures are practically in exact accord with the system and -the fourth in close approximation. As the change seems to come when the -weight is expressed in mâṣakas instead of guñjas, we are tempted to -think that the system may have been used for single pearls weighing less -than twelve grains (1 mâṣaka = 11¼ grains), while the value of those -over that weight was estimated in a different way. - -In a much later Hindu treatise, by Buddhabhatta, after certain values -have been given for pearls of the best quality, a pearl of this class is -described as follows: - - White, round, heavy, smooth, luminous, spotless, the pearl gifted - with these qualities is called qualified (_guṇavat_). If it be - yellow, it is worth half this price; if it be not round, a third; if - flat or triangular, a sixth.[386] - -One of the earliest records we have of a system of prices for pearls is -the treatise on precious stones written in the year 1265, by Ahmed ibn -Yusuf al Teifashi, who was probably a native jeweler of Egypt. In his -time pearls were sold in Bagdad in bunches of ten strings, each string -comprising thirty-six pearls. If one of these strings weighed one sixth -of a miskal (four carats or sixteen grains), the ten strings were valued -at four dinars (about ten dollars). The values increased progressively -as follows:[387] - - Average weight 10 strings of 36 pearls, Value - of each pearl weight of each string - - Grains Carats Grains Dinars U. S. money - - ½ 4 16 4 $10.00 - - ⅔ 6 24 5 12.50 - - 1⅓ 12 48 6 15.00 - - 2 18 72 10 25.00 - - 3⅓ 30 120 15 37.50 - - 4 36 144 20 50.00 - - 4⅓ 42 168 25 62.50 - - 5⅓ 48 192 35 87.50 - - 6 54 216 40 100.00 - - 7⅓ 66 264 70 175.00 - - 8 72 288 80 200.00 - - 9⅓ 84 336 110 275.00 - - 10 90 360 150 375.00 - - 10⅔ 96 384 200 500.00 - - 12 108 432 400 1000.00 - - 12⅔ 114 456 550 1375.00 - - 13⅓ 120 480 650 1625.00 - - 14 126 504 750 1875.00 - - 14⅔ 132 528 800 2000.00 - - 16 144 576 1000 2500.00 - - 18⅔ 168 672 1500 3750.00 - -Al Teifashi then proceeds to describe a pearl of the first quality; it -must be “perfectly round in all its parts, colorless and gifted with a -fine water. When a pearl possesses these requisites and weighs one -miskal [24 carats or 96 grains] it is worth 300 dinars [$750]. If, -however, a match is found for this pearl and each one weighs one miskal -and has the same form, the two pearls together cost 700 dinars [$1750].” -This writer also mentions that in the shops of the Arab jewelers, the -pearl which exceeded the weight of a drachma (12 carats or 48 grains) -even by one grain, was called _dorra_, while the name _johar_ was used -for that which did not reach the above weight. - -In 1838, Feuchtwanger gave the price of a one-carat pearl as five -dollars, and used this amount as the multiplier of the square of the -weight; therefore, a four-carat pearl would cost four times four -multiplied by five dollars, the value of the first carat; that is to -say, a sixteen-grain (four-carat) pearl would have been worth eighty -dollars in 1838, according to this computation. - -[Illustration: - - THE SIAMESE PRINCE IN FULL REGALIA -] - -In 1858, Barbot[388] gave the value of pearls under ordinary conditions, -but very indefinitely, as follows: - - Grains Carats Francs per carat U. S. currency - - 1 ¼ 4 $0.80 - 2 ½ 10 2.00 - 3 ¾ 25 5.00 - 4 1 50 10.00 - -Above four grains they sold by the piece, and below, by the ounce. -Baroque pearls sold for 300 to 1000 francs per ounce. Seed-pearls, if -quite round, were worth about 120 francs per ounce. - -Emanuel[389] gave the following table of prices for the pearl, reduced -to United States currency: - - Grains 1865 1867 - - 3 $2.88— $3.84 $4.32— $4.80 - 4 5.28— 6.72 6.72— 8.40 - 5 8.40— 10.80 9.60— 12.00 - 6 13.20— 15.60 16.80— 19.20 - 8 21.60— 26.40 24.00— 28.80 - 10 38.40— 43.20 48.00— 52.80 - 12 57.60— 72.00 67.20— 76.80 - 14 72.00— 86.40 86.40— 96.00 - 16 96.00—144.00 96.00—144.00 - 18 144.00—192.00 144.00—192.00 - 20 192.00—240.00 192.00—240.00 - 24 288.00—345.60 288.00—345.60 - 30 384.00—480.00 384.00—480.00 - -The following values appear in the “Encyclopedia Hispano-Americana,” -Barcelona, 1894, Vol. XV, p. 180 (Louis Dieulafait): - - Grains Value, 1865 Value, 1867 - Pesetas U. S. currency Pesetas U. S. currency - - 3 17— 18 $3.40— $3.60 21— 23 $4.20— $4.60 - 4 25— 32 5.00— 6.40 32— 40 6.40— 8.00 - 5 41— 52 8.20— 10.40 46— 58 9.20— 11.60 - 6 64— 75 12.80— 15.00 81— 93 16.20— 18.60 - 8 104— 128 20.80— 25.60 116— 139 23.20— 27.80 - 10 202— 227 40.40— 45.40 252— 277 50.40— 55.40 - 12 302— 378 60.40— 75.60 352— 403 70.40— 80.60 - 14 378— 453 75.60— 90.60 455— 504 91.00—100.80 - 16 504— 756 100.80—151.20 504— 756 100.80—151.20 - 18 756—1005 151.20—201.00 756—1005 151.20—201.00 - 20 1005—1260 201.00—252.00 1005—1260 201.00—252.00 - 24 1512—1815 302.40—363.00 1512—1815 302.40—363.00 - 30 2117—2521 423.40—504.20 2117—2521 423.40—504.20 - - COMPARATIVE STATEMENT SHOWING THE VALUES OF PEARLS AT STATED TIMES - - Weight 1609[390] 1672[391] 1675[392] 1751[393] 1774[394] 1791[395] - Grains Thal. Kreutz. Livres £ s £ s £ s Lire - - 1 0 13 0 ½ 0 1 0 ⅓ 1½ - 2 0 52 2 0 2 0 4 0 2 6 - 3 1 47 5 0 6 0 9 0 7½ 13½ - 4 3 0 10 0 12 0 16 0 18 24 - 5 4 48 18 1 5 1 5 1 10 37½ - 6 6 52 28 2 10 1 16 2 5 54 - 7 9 13 38 4 10 2 9 3 1 73½ - 8 12 0 55 6 0 3 4 4 10 96 - 9 15 23 75 8 0 4 1 6 0 121½ - 10 18 52 100 10 0 5 0 8 5 150 - 11 22 48 130 12 0 6 1 9 15 242 - 12 27 175 14 0 7 4 288 - 13 31 48 16 0 8 9 13 15 338 - 14 36 52 270 18 0 9 16 392 - 15 42 13 21 10 11 5 21 0 450 - 16 48 380 25 0 12 16 512 - 17 54 13 30 0 14 9 27 10 578 - 18 60 52 500 35 0 16 4 648 - 19 67 48 37 10 18 1 722 - 20 75 650 40 0 20 0 37 10 800 - 22 90 52 50 0 24 4 52 10 1210 - 24 108 60 0 28 16 82 10 1440 - 26 126 52 33 16 99 0 1690 - 28 147 39 14 150 0 1960 - 32 192 51 4 225 0 2560 - 36 243 64 16 262 10 3240 - 40 300 80 0 300 0 4000 - 45 506 17 101 5 5062½ - 50 625 125 0 6250 - 60 900 180 0 9000 - 70 1225 245 0 12250 - 80 1600 320 0 16000 - 90 2025 405 0 20250 - 100 2500 500 0 25000 - - COMPARATIVE STATEMENT SHOWING THE VALUES OF PEARLS AT - STATED TIMES, REDUCED TO UNITED STATES CURRENCY - - Weight Grains 1609 1672 1675 1751 1774 1791 - - 1 $0.20 $0.12 $0.24 $0.09 $0.30 - 2 0.81 $0.80 0.48 0.96 0.50 1.20 - 3 1.82 1.90 1.44 2.16 1.87 2.70 - 4 3.24 3.80 2.88 3.84 4.50 4.80 - 5 5.06 6.84 6.00 6.00 7.50 7.50 - 6 7.28 10.64 12.00 8.64 11.25 10.80 - 7 10.92 14.44 21.60 11.76 15.25 14.70 - 8 12.96 20.90 28.80 15.36 22.50 19.20 - 9 16.40 28.50 38.40 19.44 30.00 24.30 - 10 20.25 38.00 48.00 24.00 41.25 30.00 - 11 24.50 49.40 57.60 29.04 48.75 48.40 - 12 29.16 66.50 67.20 34.56 57.60 - 13 34.22 76.80 40.56 68.75 67.60 - 14 39.69 102.60 86.40 47.04 78.40 - 15 45.56 103.20 54.00 105.00 90.00 - 16 51.84 144.40 120.00 61.44 102.40 - 17 58.52 144.00 60.36 137.50 115.60 - 18 65.61 190.00 168.00 77.76 129.60 - 19 73.10 180.00 86.64 144.40 - 20 81.00 247.00 192.00 96.00 187.50 160.00 - 22 98.01 240.00 116.16 262.50 242.00 - 24 116.64 288.00 138.24 412.50 288.00 - 26 136.89 162.24 495.00 338.00 - 28 158.76 188.16 750.00 392.00 - 32 207.36 245.76 1125.00 512.00 - 36 262.44 311.04 1312.50 648.00 - 40 324.00 384.00 1500.00 800.00 - 45 546.75 486.00 1012.50 - 50 675.00 600.00 1250.00 - 60 972.00 864.00 1800.00 - 70 1323.00 1176.00 2450.00 - 80 1728.00 1536.00 3200.00 - 90 2187.00 1944.00 4050.00 - 100 2700.00 2400.00 5000.00 - -Giving the pearl values in 1867, Emanuel[396] says: “It would be almost -useless to give any value for drop pearls, as when of large size and -fine quality they are of so rare occurrence as to command fancy prices; -still, as a slight guide, it may be mentioned that perfect white drop -pearls, of 80 to 100 grains, may be estimated at from £7 to £11 -[$35–$55] per grain; those of 50 to 80 grains at from £4 to £7 [$20–$35] -per grain, and those of 30 to 50 grains at from £3–£5 [$15–$25] per -grain; smaller sizes bring from 20s. to 60s. [$5–$15] per grain.” - -Emanuel also states that misshapen pieces called “baroque pearls” -(_perles baroques_), are sold by the ounce, the price varying from £10 -to £200 ($50–$1000) per ounce, depending on quality, color, and size. - - PRICES IN NEW YORK CITY IN 1878 - - Grains Value per grain Total value - - 1 $1.00 $1.00 - 2 1.83 3.66 - 3 2.75 8.25 - 4 3.60 14.40 - 5 4.03 20.15 - 6 4.69 28.14 - 7 6.32 44.24 - 8 6.87 54.96 - 9 7.42 66.78 - 10 8.25 82.50 - 11 9.62 105.82 - 12 10.45 125.40 - 13 11.68 151.84 - 14 12.55 175.70 - 15 14.20 213.00 - 20 19.70 394.00 - 24 24.75 594.00 - - HALF-PEARLS - I QUALITY. PER HUNDRED - - Diameter - Size No. Millimeters Inches 1873 1876 1878 1885 1908 - 4 $1.10 $0.85 $0.50 $1.55 - 5 1.20 .047 1.35 $0.70 1.00 .60 1.95 - 6 1.22 .048 1.80 .90 1.35 .70 2.90 - 7 1.24 .049 2.25 1.10 1.70 1.12 3.88 - 8 1.26 .049 2.70 1.35 2.00 1.80 5.27 - 9 1.28 .050 3.35 1.80 2.50 2.00 6.65 - 10 1.80 .071 4.50 2.25 3.40 3.00 9.15 - 11 1.83 .072 5.60 2.70 4.20 4.00 11.36 - 12 1.86 .073 8.00 3.35 5.90 5.00 13.86 - 13 1.90 .075 9.00 4.50 6.75 5.75 15.51 - 14 2.00 .078 11.00 5.60 8.40 6.75 17.50 - 15 2.10 .082 14.00 8.00 10.00 8.25 20.80 - 16 2.25 .088 17.00 9.00 12.50 10.50 25.00 - 17 2.40 .094 19.00 11.00 14.00 12.00 30.50 - 18 2.60 .102 23.00 14.00 17.00 14.50 37.40 - 19 2.75 .108 28.00 17.00 21.00 16.25 48.50 - 20 2.90 .114 33.00 19.00 24.00 18.25 61.00 - 22 3.05 .120 42.00 28.00 31.00 33.00 - 24 3.15 .124 53.00 38.00 39.00 48.00 - 26 3.30 .130 67.00 45.00 50.00 69.00 - 28 3.55 .140 101.00 56.00 75.00 98.00 - 30 3.90 .153 124.00 79.00 92.00 150.00 - - HALF PEARLS - II QUALITY. PER HUNDRED - - Size No. 1873 1876 1878 1885 1908 - 4 $0.55 $0.45 $0.30 $0.84 - 5 .70 $0.35 .50 .35 1.22 - 6 .90 .45 .70 .50 1.87 - 7 1.10 .55 .85 .80 3.05 - 8 1.35 .70 1.00 1.05 4.43 - 9 1.80 .90 1.35 1.45 5.82 - 10 2.25 1.10 1.70 1.80 8.32 - 11 3.35 1.35 2.50 2.60 10.53 - 12 4.00 1.80 3.00 3.00 12.75 - 13 4.50 2.25 3.40 3.75 14.41 - 14 5.60 3.35 4.20 4.25 15.51 - 15 6.75 4.00 5.00 4.75 18.00 - 16 9.00 4.50 6.75 5.25 20.80 - 17 10.00 5.60 7.50 6.00 26.35 - 18 11.00 6.75 8.40 7.00 31.90 - 19 14.00 9.00 10.00 7.75 41.60 - 20 17.00 10.00 12.50 8.75 52.70 - 22 20.00 14.00 15.00 - 24 27.00 19.00 20.00 - 26 34.00 23.00 25.00 - 28 51.00 28.00 38.00 - 30 62.00 40.00 46.00 - - HALF PEARLS - III QUALITY. PER HUNDRED - - Size No. 1876 1907 Size No. 1876 1908 - 4 $0.47 15 2.70 8.93 - 5 $0.25 .70 16 3.35 11.20 - 6 .35 1.11 17 4.00 13.90 - 7 .40 1.94 18 4.50 18.00 - 8 .45 2.77 19 5.60 22.20 - 9 .70 3.86 20 6.75 27.75 - 10 .80 4.99 22 9.00 40.00 - 11 .90 5.82 24 14.00 75.00 - 12 1.10 6.65 26 17.00 85.00 - 13 1.60 7.48 28 19.00 100.00 - 14 2.25 8.32 30 28.00 200.00 - - VALUE OF IRREGULAR PEARLS IN 1774[397] - - Pearls to the Value in English money Equivalent in Average for - ounce U. S. currency each pearl - - £ s. - - 500 3 0 $15.00 $0.03 - - 300 6 0 30.00 .10 - - 150 11 2 55.50 .37 - - 100 18 0 90.00 .90 - - 60 33 15 168.75 2.81 - - 30 75 0 375.00 12.50 - -The following values for the smaller oriental pearls are given in the -“Museum Brittanicum” of John and Andrew van Rymsdyck, 1778, p. 9. - - No. to the ounce Rix dollars Equivalent in U. Average for each - S. currency pearl - - 200 70 $75.60 $0.378 - - 300 50 54.00 .18 - - 900 10 10.80 .012 - - 2000 3 4.24 .00212 - - 4000 2½ 2.70 .006755 - - 8000 } 2 2.16 { .00027 - 10,000 } { .000216 - -Pio Naldi’s treatise of 1791 gives the following rule for estimating the -value of small, round pearls, weighing less than one carat or four -grains. As the carat value of four such pearls is given as five lire and -576 one-grain pearls were counted as one ounce, these two numbers were -used to determine the value of an ounce of small pearls. The product of -576 multiplied by 5 is 2880, and this number was then divided by 2000, -1000, 500, or whatever might be the number of pearls in a given ounce. -If there were 2000 pearls, the carat value would be 1.44 lire or $.29; -if there were 1000, the carat would be worth 2.88 lire or $.57; if 500, -5.76 lire or $1.15, etc. - -[Illustration: - - HALF-PEARLS: LOTS OF THREE DIFFERENT SIZES. - - BROOCH OF HALF-PEARLS AND ONYX. UNITED STATES, 1860 -] - -The same author[398] gives tables expressing the values of pearls not -perfectly spherical in form, which he designates as “perle dolce.” These -pearls he considers to be worth half the price of good round pearls; -that is to say, 2½ lire (about $.50) per carat for four weighing -together one carat. Where there are as many as three thousand of these -“perle dolce” in an ounce, the 2½ lire base is multiplied by 576, the -number of grains given to the ounce; this makes the value of an ounce of -one-grain pearls $288. This amount is then divided by 3000, and the -quotient, $.096, represents the value of one carat of these small -pearls. Multiplying this by 144 we obtain, as the value of an ounce of -such pearls, $13.82. An ounce consisting of two thousand would be worth -$20.73, while if there were but one hundred to the ounce it would be -valued at $414.72, or $4.15 for each pearl and $.72 per grain of weight. -In this latter case the pearls would average 5¾ grains. Another class of -pearls denominated by this author as “scaramazzi,” pearls of an -irregular form and with protuberances, are estimated in a similar way, -but at exactly half of the above values. The baroque pearls were not -considered to be worth even half as much as the “scaramazzi.” - -Scotch pearls (fresh-water) are mentioned by De Boot (1609, p. 88 _sq._) -among the other western pearls—Bohemian, etc. He remarks that they were -valued much less than the oriental pearls, but if they were of -especially pure color their value was greater, although they lacked the -silvery hue characteristic of the eastern pearl. Fine pearls of this -sort were valued on a carat base of one fourth of a thaler ($.27), so -that a forty-grain pearl was worth $27, and one of eighty grains, $108. -The author of the Bologna treatise, “Delle Gemme,” 1791, attributes the -lack of luster in the Scotch pearls to the presence of a dark mass in -the interior which interfered with the passage of light. He estimates -Scotch pearls to be worth one half the value of oriental pearls of -mediocre quality, provided the former are fairly good. - -A Scotch writer of the seventeenth century is more enthusiastic in -regard to these pearls; he mentions having paid one hundred rix dollars -for an exceptionally fine one, but he does not specify its weight. This -is the value given by De Boot for a pearl of this class weighing eighty -grains, as we have just mentioned. The Scotch writer asserts that he -could never sell a necklace of fine Scotch pearls in Scotland itself, as -every one wanted oriental pearls; he continues: “At this very day I can -show some of our own Scots Pearls as fine, more hard and transparent -than any Oriental. It is true that the Oriental can be easier matched, -because they are all of a yellow water, yet foreigners covet Scots -Pearls.” - -In Ceylon[399] and India, pearl-grading and valuing has received close -attention, and an elaborate system has been evolved by the pearl -merchants. This system has been in use for generations and possibly for -centuries. Although apparently very complicated, it is in reality quite -simple, if we only remember that the value of inferior pearls is -determined by their weight, whereas the value of superior pearls is -computed from the square of their weight. - -The pearls are first grouped according to the size, of which ten grades -are made. This is done by passing them successively through ten brass -saucer-like sieves or baskets (_peddi_), each about three and a half -inches in diameter and one inch deep. The holes in the bottom of each -sieve are of uniform size, but they are graduated in size for the -different baskets. The pearls are sifted in the basket with the largest -holes, and those which will not pass through are of the first size. The -pearls which pass through are then sifted in the second basket, and -those retained are of the second size; and so on through the entire -series of ten sieves or baskets. Those which pass through the tenth -sieve are known as _masi-túl_, or powder pearls; they are of little -value owing to their very small size, and are not subject to further -classification. Of course, the attached pearls or very irregular -baroques—the _oddumuttu_—are not subject to the sifting process, and are -valued independently of this. - -Sometimes in India, as well as in western countries, false measures are -used, and an oriental pearl merchant may have one set of sieves for use -in buying and another for selling. The rule for determining the proper -size of the holes in the first sieve is that they may pass pearls -weighing 20 to the _kalan̄chǔ_, whence this sieve is commonly known as -the “20 _peddi_.” The second sieve is the “30 _peddi_,” since it passes -pearls weighing 30 to the _kalan̄chǔ_. In the proper order the other -sieves respectively pass pearls requiring 50, 80, 100, 200, 400, 600, -800, and 1000 to the _kalan̄chǔ_. - -This use of sieves for grading the Ceylon pearls was mentioned by -Cleandro Arnobio, a writer of the latter part of the sixteenth century, -in his “Tesoro delle Gioie,” and he took his description from an older -writer, Garzia dell’ Horto. - -After the sifting, each of the ten graded lots of pearls are placed on -pieces of cloth for classification as to quality, shape, and luster. -This classification requires much skill and judgment on the part of the -valuer. Not only will two persons commonly fail to class a large lot of -pearls exactly alike, but one person is not likely to class the same lot -twice in precisely the same manner. - -[Illustration: - - A. B. Pearl nose rings. Baroda, India. - - C. East Indian earring of strings of pearls and table diamonds. - - Collection of Edmund Russell, Esq. - - D. E. Grape pendants. Oriental pearls. -] - -From long established custom, recognition is made of twelve classes into -which the ten grades or sizes of pearls are divided with respect to -shape and luster, the local names of these classes giving a fair -indication of their respective characteristics. These names are: - - 1 _Ani_, “best”: perfect in sphericity and luster, the true orient - pearl. - - 2 _Anatári_, “follower”: failing slightly in sphericity and luster. - - 3 _Masanku_ or _Masaku_: badly colored pearls, usually gray, - symmetrical, and with luster. - - 4 _Kaiyéral_, “the clasp of a necklace”: a dark-colored treble pearl, - not quite round. - - 5 _Machchakai._ - - 6 _Vadivu_, “beauty,” also “decreasing”: that which is strained or - sifted; found in the 100, 200, and 400 sieves. These small - pearls, regular in shape, and of good luster, are especially - favored in the East. - - 7 _Madanku_, “folded,” or “bent”: all pearls of _vadivu_ size that - are imperfect in form or color. - - 8 _Kǔrǔval_, “short”: deformed and double pearls; they may, however, - be of excellent luster. _Ani Kǔrǔval_: where two _áni_ are fused - together, but so formed that if separate they would be perfectly - spherical. _Písal Kǔrǔval_: where several pearls of good luster - and color are fused partially and irregularly together. _Pampara - Kǔrǔval_: a pearl grooved regularly, like a top. - - 9 _Kalippu_, “abundance,” or “rejected”: inferior to _Anatári_; a - good pearl, may be lens-shaped or elongated; usually flattened. - - 10 _Písal_, “torn”: a deformed pearl or cluster of small misshapen - pearls; of poor color and of little value. - - 11 _Kurál_: very misshapen and small. - - 12 _Túl_, “powder”: the seed-pearls, those retained by the 600, 800, - and 1000 sieves. - -In addition to the above designations, the following are also used: - - _Samadiam_: a pearl of a reddish hue; pear-shaped but of dull color. - - _Nimelai_: a nose-pearl, perfect skinned, and pear- or egg-shaped. - - _Sirippu_: a pearl grooved with irregular wrinkle-like furrows. - - _Kodai_, “brown”: like a nut, with no nacreous luster; formed of - prismatic shell; may be large, is usually spherical, and includes - pearls of various colors. This name is also used for white pearls - with black or brown marks. _Van Kodai_: a _kodai_ pearl with one - side nacreous. _Karunk Kodai_: a black or blue-black slag-like - pearl. - - _Masi-túl_, “ink-dust,” or “chalk-powder”: smaller than the 1000 - sieve. Generally used for medicinal purposes, or burnt and eaten - with areca-nut and betel by the natives. - - _Oddu_—or _Ottumuttu_, “shell-pearl”: an attached pearl or nacreous - excrescence on the outside of the shell. - -Of the twelve classes named above, the first four are known as the -_chevvǔ_, or superior classes; the next three as the _vadivu_, or -beautiful classes; and the last five as the _kalan̄chǔ_, or inferior -classes. The _chevvǔ_ pearls are found only in the first four sieves or -baskets; and for this reason these are known as the _chevvǔ peddi_ or -“chevvǔ baskets,” although they may also retain inferior pearls. A name -used to indicate the class of pearls found in the first four sieves is -_mel_ or _melmuttu_, “upper” or “superior pearl,” while _vadivu_ -designates those retained by the next three and _túl_ those of the last -three. - -After the pearls have been graded according to size and classified -according to quality, they are weighed. The unit of weight is the -_manchádi_, the seed of _Abrus precatorius_, a small, red berry of -practically uniform weight when ripe. H. W. Gillman of the Ceylon Civil -Service reports the weight of the _man̄chádi_ to be 3.35 grains troy. -Fractional parts of a unit are obtained by using a berry called -_kundumani_, grains of rice, etc., whose weights have been determined -beforehand. A brass weight—the _kalan̄chǔ_—is also employed; it equals -67 grains or 20 _man̄chádi_. - -However, choice pearls—those of the superior classes—are not valued in -this manner, but at so much per _chevvǔ_ of their weight, which is three -fourths of the square of the weight in _man̄chádi_. Thus, to find the -value of an _anatári_ pearl in the second sieve, if the weight be found -to be three _man̄chádi_, three fourths of the square of three, or 6¾, is -multiplied by the base value of the _anatári_ class. - -The actual process of the calculation of value is as follows: owing to -the small size of the pearls, many fractions enter into the -computations; to preserve uniformity it is customary to increase all -fractions so that each may have 320 as a denominator, this being a -common multiple of those that ordinarily arise in _chevvǔ_ calculations. -The weight in _man̄chádi_ of the pearls is increased to a fractional -figure having 320 as a denominator. Three fourths of the square of the -numerator of this fraction is divided by the number of pearls, and this -quotient is divided twice consecutively by 320, giving the _chevvǔ_ of -the weight. The market value then follows from the quoted price of the -pearls per _chevvǔ_ at the time. - -In actual practice, these computations are not made; but each merchant -provides himself with sets of tables showing the calculations for -different weights, analogous to the use of interest tables by bankers, -or of tables of logarithms by surveyors. Some of the merchants commit -these tables to memory, and at times may be heard reciting them quietly -to themselves to refresh the memory. - -If a pearl of a particular grade and class is of exceptional merit, the -merchant adds somewhat to the money value computed by the above process. -This applies especially to double pearls of the _kǔrǔval_ class, which -sometimes consist of two fine bouton pearls suitable for setting, but -not for stringing. - -Pearls of one of the inferior or _kalan̄chǔ_ classes are valued by -simple weight, at so much per _kalan̄chǔ_, the market price, of course, -differing for pearls of the various classes. The weight having been -ascertained, each in its class as before noted, the value is determined -by multiplying that weight by the current market price per unit of such -pearls, at so many rupees per _kalan̄chǔ_. - -[Illustration: - - NECKLACE CONTAINING 126,000 SEED-PEARLS. LOUIS XVI PERIOD - - Property of an American lady -] - -The star pagoda is used in calculating the values. This small gold coin -was current in south India in the early part of the last century. In the -computations it is considered to be worth three and a half rupees, -although its intrinsic value as a gold coin is about six rupees. - -It is considered probable that the London syndicate,[400] which has -lately leased the Ceylon pearl fisheries for a period of twenty years, -will do away with the complicated calculations employed for so many -generations, surviving all changes of administration, Portuguese, Dutch, -and British. This is only one of the many instances showing the tendency -of the British Government to abolish time-honored usages in India, -without regard to the wishes of its population; and, unimportant as many -of these changes may seem to us, they all serve to foster a spirit of -discontent that may lead to serious trouble. This conduct on the part of -Great Britain is all the stranger in view of the stubborn opposition of -that country to the adoption of the scientific and logical metric -system. - -In Bombay, the weight of pearls in tanks is made the basis of their -valuation; the tank equals 24 ratti or about 72 grains troy. The square -of the number of tanks is multiplied by 330 and the quotient divided by -the number of pearls; this gives the number of _chevvǔs_, or _chows_, as -they are sometimes called, and the market price of the _chevvǔs_ for a -given class of pearls shows their value. If, for instance, we have 56 -pearls of a certain quality, weighing 5 tanks, and the _chevvǔs_ of -these pearls is worth 14 rupees, the sum would be as follows: - - 5 × 5 × 330 × 14 - ———————————————— = 2062.5 rupees, or about $825. - 56 - -In this case, as in the other system of weighing which we have -mentioned, the _chevvǔs_ is only a nominal weight; but there is in India -a real weight unit which bears this name.[401] - -The high esteem in which the pearl was held by the Hindus is well -illustrated by the following statement from an old treatise on gems: “A -pearl weighing two kalan̄jas (about 180 grains) should not be worn even -by kings. It is for the gods, it is without equal.”[402] - -An interesting account of a great savant’s experience, in the early part -of the sixteenth century, regarding the value of pearls, is given by -Guillaume Budé[403] (1467–1540), the celebrated French Hellenist who -lived during the reign of Francis I and who is regarded as the founder -of the College de France. In his work entitled “De Asse,” he states that -he once inquired of a gem dealer in Paris whether the latter could -recall the weight of some remarkable pearl which had passed through his -hands. The dealer replied that he had seen one weighing 30 carats (120 -grains), whereupon another gem dealer, who was present, remarked that he -had in his possession one of 40 carats (160 grains). This pearl was sold -a few days later for 3000 gold crowns ($6750). On another occasion Budé -was told that a pearl of exquisite beauty weighing 30 carats, had been -sold to the Duchesse de Bourbon, daughter of Louis XI of France, for the -sum of 4000 gold crowns ($9000). - -In regard to the manner of computing the value of pearls Budé writes: “I -think the ratio of these prices can be calculated. When I asked a gem -dealer what was the value of a pearl of four carats [sixteen grains], -according to the formula, he replied: ‘I have seen such a pearl sell for -thirty gold crowns [$67.50].’ Whereupon I asked: ‘How much would you -estimate one weighing eight carats [thirty-two grains]?’ ‘At least two -hundred gold crowns [$450],’ he answered; and as I continued to ply him -with questions, gradually increasing the weight, he responded in such a -way that I could understand that the increase of the price bore not a -numerical, but a proportional relation to the weight; so that the above -mentioned eight-carat pearl, having double the weight of a four-carat -pearl, was valued at seven times as much. The same was true of a pearl -weighing twelve carats, twenty carats, and so on; the price augmenting -by a greater and greater increment as the weight increased.” - -In the “Coronae Gemma Noblissima” of Wilhelmus Eo (1621, pp. 32, 33), an -instance is given of the rapid changes that are possible in the worth of -a pearl. A large and beautiful pearl was brought to Nuremberg by a -merchant who had paid 500 florins for it; he soon found a purchaser -among the merchants there, who was willing to pay him 800 florins. This -latter merchant in his turn disposed of his gem for 1000 florins, and -shortly after it again changed hands twice, the first time at an advance -of 200 florins and the second at an advance of 300 florins. All this -happened within a few days. The writer tells us that the last purchaser, -who paid 1500 florins for the pearl, took it with him to Venice “where -the wealthy dames wear a great treasure of beautiful pearls as necklaces -upon their bare skin, and he will not have lost anything on his pearl -there.” - -In 1884, Mr. Edwin Streeter was asked by a member of a London syndicate -to proceed to the East, to value a large quantity of jewels, as a heavy -sum of money was about to be advanced to a certain Power, to provide the -sinews of war. On his way he was requested to stop at one of the -principal towns in Germany to purchase some jewels which had been valued -for probate but were not easy of sale in that market. The valuation -paper was shown to him, and after examining the ornaments, he agreed to -take them at the prices named. Among them was an old gold brooch of -Russian manufacture, valued at £4; in the center of this brooch was what -appeared to be a piece of hematite, but was in reality a fine, round, -black pearl, weighing 77 grains. The color had faded from exposure to -the sun. This pearl was brought to London, and the outer layer was taken -off, when a perfect black pearl of 67 grains was uncovered. This was -sold to a manufacturing jeweler in London for £400; but, having heard -that in Paris there was a pearl that would exactly match it, Mr. -Streeter bought it back again for £600, and then sold it at a large -profit to one of the Paris crown jewelers, who, in his turn, sold the -pair to a rich iron merchant for 50,000 francs (£2000 or $10,000). Since -then the sum of 100,000 francs (£4000 or $20,000) has been refused for -this pair of matchless black pearls. At present values they may be worth -double this sum. - -At different times the values assigned to the different forms and colors -of pearls have varied. For instance, in the French Encyclopédie of 1774 -(Vol. XII, p. 385), it is stated that pear-shaped pearls, although they -might be equally perfect and of the same weight as round pearls, were -valued much less than these. Even in the case of well-matched pairs, -their price was a third less than that of round pearls. - -As early as the sixteenth century it was not uncommon that jewelers who -had in their possession a fine pear-shaped pearl would have a replica of -it molded in lead, and then send the casts to the large cities of Europe -and the East. If a mate was found for it, the respective owners soon -came to terms, for such pearls command a much higher price together than -they do separately. - -An interesting story is told of no less a collector than the Duke of -Brunswick, who was so generous to the city of Geneva. For many years -every pear-shaped pearl from every land had been submitted to him for -examination. He always claimed the privilege of examining it alone for a -moment or two and in every instance he returned it. At last a new -pear-shaped pearl of marvelous size and beauty was heard of in a distant -country. It was sent to Germany, where the duke was visiting at that -time, to a local dealer who acted as agent for the owner. The price -demanded for it seemed excessive, but the duke took the pearl, stepped -aside for a moment, and said, quick as a flash, “The pearl is mine.” The -next day he showed it with a mate he had owned for many years and that -was a most faultless match. Through all the years of his search he had -never informed any one of his intention to match the pearl he already -owned. - -In 1879, at the time of the death of the father of Sultan Buderuddin of -the Sulu Islands, a box of large and fine pearls was among the treasures -he left behind him. Many of these disappeared, but some of them came -into the hands of Sultan Buderuddin and his mother. The former sold -those which he had inherited, in order to defray the expenses of a -pilgrimage to Mecca, in 1882. His mother, who exerted a great influence -over the conduct of affairs, retained a number of the pearls, and it was -always difficult to induce her to part with any of them. When, as very -rarely happened, she was persuaded to do so, she invariably got a higher -price for them than they would have commanded in London, because she was -never anxious to sell, and always said: “Why should I sell my pearls? If -the Spaniards come to attack us, I can put them in a handkerchief and go -into the hills; but if I had dollars I should need a number of men to -carry them.” We do not yet know what became of the stolen pearls. - -Many times has a dealer put nearly all that he possessed into a fine -pearl or necklace, frequently without a reward; often gradually buying -more and more, hoping for some great patron to relieve him. When the -client appears, there is happiness, but when he does not, there is woe. -This instance is well illustrated when Philip IV of Spain asked of the -merchant Gogibus: “How have you ventured to put all your fortune into -such a small object?” “Because I knew there was a king of Spain to buy -it of me,” was the quick reply. And Philip rewarded the faith of the -jeweler by purchasing the pearl. - -Caire and Dufie[404] state: - - We need have no fear that either the price or the use of pearls will - diminish when we consider the great demand for them both on account - of luxury and superstition. There is no Hindu who does not regard it - as a matter of religion that he should pierce at least one pearl on - the occasion of his marriage. This must be a new pearl which has - never been perforated. Whatever may be the mysterious signification, - this very ancient usage is, at least, very useful for the commerce - of pearls. - -In 1898, one of the writers had a long talk with his late chief, who -had, at that time, devoted sixty years of his life to the jewelry -profession. In the course of the conversation the latter remarked: “It -seems to me that pearls are too dear”; to which the writer rejoined: -“Have pearls ever gone down in price during your entire connection with -the jewelry profession?” The answer was: “No, they have always -advanced.” Whereupon the writer said: “I can give you statistics for two -hundred years preceding your earliest experience, which prove that -pearls constantly advanced in value during that period.” - -The following are the names given to the different kinds of pearls, -according to their origin. - -The term “oriental” designates those pearls that are found in the true -pearl-oyster, and have a marine or salt-water origin, being found either -in the ocean or one of its adjacent tributaries, and belonging to one of -the numerous species of the Margaritiferæ. - -The term “fresh-water” is given to those pearls that are found in the -fresh-water brooks, rivulets, rivers, or fresh-water lakes, and not in -salt water, and which belong to the Unionidæ. - -The term “conch” is applied to that variety of pearl which is usually -pink, or yellow, in color, and that is either found in the univalve -shell, known as the common conch (_Strombus gigas_), or in the yellow -shell (_Cassis madagascarensis_). - -The word “clam pearl” is used to designate those pearls that are found -in the common clam of the Atlantic coast, and are either black, dark -purple, purple, or mixed with white, more especially if they are boiled. - -“Placuna pearl” designates those pearls that are found in the Placuna, -or window-glass shell, in the East. They have a micaceous luster, are -rarely of much value, and are sold entirely in the Orient, almost -exclusively for medicinal purposes. - -“Oyster pearl” signifies those concretions that are found in the common -edible oyster (Ostrea). They are generally black, purple, or with a -mixture of black and white, or purple and white. They are devoid of -nacreous luster and possess neither beauty nor value. - -“Coque de perle” designates the globuse walls of the nautilus and -possibly other shells that have a pearly nacre; they are almost -hemispherical and are either round or long, having a pearly effect. - -“Abalone”: a name applied to those pearls that are found in the univalve -“ear-shell” or _awabi_, as it is called in Japan. They are generally -green, blue-green, or fawn-yellow, and have an intense red, flame-like -iridescence. They are rarely round, generally flat, or irregular, and -are occasionally worth several hundreds of dollars each. - -“Pinna pearls”: those pearls that are found in the Pinna, or wing-shells -of the Mediterranean and adjacent seas. These possess no orient, but are -more highly crystalline than any other pearls. They are almost -translucent and have a peculiar red or yellow color, and are of little -value except locally. - -“Cocoanut pearl”: this name is given to those pearls that are found in -the giant oyster or clam of the vicinity of Singapore; they are -erroneously called cocoanut pearls because they have the appearance of -the meat of the cocoanut. They are often of great size, but have no -commercial value. - -The following are special designations of the different varieties of -pearls according to their forms and appearance: - -Paragon: this term was formerly used to designate large and -exceptionally perfect or beautiful pearls, usually weighing over one -hundred grains. - -Round: when the pearl is absolutely spherical, as if turned on a lathe, -without any flattening or any indentations on the sides. - -Button or Bouton: if the pearl is domed on top and has either a flat or -slightly convex back. - -Pear-shaped: when the pearl is formed like a pear, terminating in a -point, and is either flat at the lower end or rounded. - -Drop-shaped: when the pearl is elongated like a pear, but is larger at -the lower end than a pear-shaped pearl. - -Egg-shaped: when ovate in form, rounded more or less at each end, or -formed like an egg. - -Cone-shaped: applied to pearls that are elongated and rounded with one -flat end, and have the form of a cone. - -Top-shaped: a name given to those pearls that are broad, flattened at -the top and rounded on the sides, terminating in a point, like a top. - -Seed-pearls is a name given to pearls that are round or irregular, and -weigh one fourth grain or even less. They are frequently so small that -18,000 are contained in a single ounce, and they are often sent from the -East in bunches of about a dozen or so of strings. - -Dust-pearls. When seed-pearls are very small they are known as -“dust-pearls”; they are really as fine as dust and have very little -value; still, their form is in many cases wonderfully perfect. - -Petal pearls are those which are somewhat flat, frequently more pointed -at one end than at the other, and have the appearance of a petal or -leaf. - -Hinge pearls are those pearls that are long, generally pointed at either -or both ends, and are found near the hinge part of the shell. They are -divided into two distinct forms, namely dog-tooth, and wing-shaped. - -Wing pearls: those that are elongated or irregular, resembling a wing or -part of a wing. - -Dog-tooth: applied to pearls with pointed ears, elongated, and which are -narrower than the wing pearls. - -Slugs: a name used for the very irregular, distorted pearls, frequently -made up of masses or groups of small pearls; usually without luster or -form, and of little value except for medicinal purposes. - -Nuggets: when the pearls are somewhat round, but are indented or -slightly irregular. - -Haystacks: when the pearls are either round or oval, with the top -considerably elevated. - -Turtlebacks: when the pearls are a trifle longer than they are wide, -with a domed surface not much elevated. This form is quite prevalent -among American pearls. - -Strawberry pearls: those that are round or elongated and entirely -covered with prickly points, somewhat resembling a strawberry or pickle. -It is believed that these irregular marks are frequently produced by -minute pearls. - -“Blister” and “Chicot” are names applied to those pearls that are found -embedded within a nacreous coating, often containing mud, water, or -imperfect mother-of-pearl. After these “blisters,” as they are termed, -are broken, and layer after layer has been removed from the contents, -very fine pearls have frequently been found. - -Peelers: a term applied to pearls having imperfect surfaces or skins -that may have some inner layers which are perfect. Pearls having opaque -bands or rings are rarely peeled with much success as this opaque layer -frequently extends to some depth. - -Cylindrical pearls: for pearls that have the form of a cylinder, being -elongated and flattened at each end. - -Hammer pearls: when pearls are long and somewhat rounded and assume the -shape of a hammer or barrel. These are rounded or domed at the side and -flattened at the ends. - -Baroque (Wart pearls in German): when pearls are not of any perfect form -such as round, pear, ovate, or any regular form, they are termed -baroque, and this term covers a large class of varieties, such as all -that follow (except seed- and half-pearls). - -Double, triple, or twin pearls are those that are made up of two or more -pearls united together in a single nacreous coating, showing, however, -that they are still separate pearls. - -Monster pearls: this name was formerly applied to very large, irregular, -pearly masses which either resembled some animal or were adapted to form -the head, trunk, or other part of an animal: these are also occasionally -called “Paragons.” - -Bird’s-eye: a name used for a pearl that has dull spots, giving it the -appearance of a bird’s-eye. - -“Ring-a-round” is a term applied to such pearls as are black, brown, -pink, or white, and have a circle running around the pearl itself of -some distinctive contrasting color, as white on black, pink on brown or -black on white. - -Embedded pearls are those that are partly or entirely surrounded by -mother-of-pearl, having been enveloped and passed outward from the -interior of the shell by the mollusk so that in time the pearl would -have been lost on the outside of the shell. These embedded pearls are -occasionally found in the manufacture of mother-of-pearl articles. When -the mother-of-pearl is split, the pearl will fall out from between the -layers. - -Half-pearls is the name given to such pearls as are round and -spherically domed, and are either somewhat flat or almost the shape of -one half of a whole pearl of the same diameter. They are usually made by -cutting off the best part of a hemispherical bright spot from a large -irregular pearl; frequently two to four cuttings are made from the -bright spots of a single pearl, each of the cuttings having the -appearance of half a pearl. - -The so-called Indian pearls have a faint rosy tint with much orient. -These are generally pearls from the Ceylonese fisheries that are sold -from the Bombay side. The term “Madras white” describes the whiter -varieties, there being a preference for these in Madras, while the rosy, -yellow, and darker shades are favored in Bombay. - -Australian pearls are generally a pure waxy white and lustrous, often -with a silver-white sheen, extremely brilliant and beautiful. - -Nearly all the Venezuela and Panama pearls have a faint golden-yellow -tint, very often extremely lustrous, and are especially desired by the -darker skinned people and brunettes. - -The preference at various times has varied with different peoples: in -China and India, golden-yellow and satin-yellow pearls are preferred; -from Panama we have the very white; in Bombay the yellow pearls from the -Persian Gulf are highly appreciated. - -Yellow pearls from other shells than the pearl-oyster are frequently -offered for sale in the East, where they are greatly appreciated, -although they find little favor in England. Some of these pearls are -attributed to the pearly nautilus (_Nautilus pompilius_). This may be -the case with those that have a pearly luster, but those that have the -appearance of porcelain, and are as bright as polished china, are -certainly not from this shell, but evidently from the large Melo or -other shells of that character. Some may come from the large conch -(_Cassis madagascarensis_). A yellow pearl, very perfect in form and -color, and weighing more than one hundred grains, was shown at the Paris -Exposition of 1889 and was valued at 50,000 francs. - -Wonderful golden-yellow pearls with a saffron tint are unusually -lustrous and beautiful. One of the most remarkable pearls of this -character is of a brilliant golden-yellow color which belongs to an -American lady, and weighs 30½ grains. These pearls are from Shark’s Bay, -West Australia, and only a limited number of them are found annually. - -Black pearls do not seem to have been regarded with any favor by the -ancients, and we find no mention of them by medieval writers. Only fifty -years ago a perfectly round, black pearl, weighing 8 grains, was sold -for £4 ($20); to-day this pearl would easily bring £100 ($500). Empress -Eugenie, the wife of Napoleon III, may be said to have brought them into -favor; she owned a splendid necklace of black pearls which was sold at -Christie’s, after the fall of Napoleon, for the sum of £4000 ($20,000). -Some time later, the Marquis of Bath bought, at Christie’s, the pearl -which formed the clasp of the necklace, paying £1000 ($5000) for it; he -destined it for the center of a bracelet. - -Greenish-black pearls are perhaps valued higher than any other colored -pearls, if they have the proper orient; this is probably partly owing to -their rarity. A bluish-black pearl possessing a fine orient commands -almost the same price as a pure black pearl. Those which are found in -the _Placuna placenta_ are often of a dull gray hue, while those -produced by the _Pinna squamosa_ are generally brown in color. - -Baroque pearls were formerly much worn and appreciated in Spain and -Poland. Their price varies greatly, according to their size, their -beauty, and also to their scarcity in any particular place. The pieces -of pearl detached from the shells—often half-pearl and half -mother-of-pearl, and called “de fantaisie”—are always very irregular in -form, and sometimes offer a certain resemblance to a part of the human -or animal form.[405] - -How is it that such quantities of jewels are continually brought from -the East, and such a wealth of them continues to exist there, when there -are now no very extensive mines that maintain a constant supply? The -reason is that from time immemorial, precious stones have been the form -in which wealth, in those lands, has been hoarded and preserved. Until -very recently, in the Orient, interest-bearing securities have been -unknown; and hence jewels have been sought and kept as an investment, -and sold only when money was needed for special purposes, as in times of -war, famine, or other emergency. - -Their small bulk made them easy to conceal and to transport, and hence -they were well adapted for such use. How long this condition will last, -is perhaps dependent only upon the introduction of interest-paying -investments, and of the new forms of Western civilization that involve -greater expenses and require means of income in excess of the older and -simpler conditions. - -The wealth of jewels possessed by Oriental monarchs, notables, and -dealers, has been the theme of story and tradition, time out of mind. We -of the West have been disposed to regard these tales as largely -exaggerated, and to some extent they may be; yet any one who has -witnessed an important social function or state occasion where East -Indian rajahs and nabobs are present, knows that the profusion of jewels -which they wear is simply astounding to our Western eyes. These objects -represent, moreover, the gatherings of generations and centuries; they -are heirlooms and ancestral treasures, priceless to their owners as the -pride of their houses; handed down from fathers to sons in long -succession; and they have also the investment feature already noted, in -that whenever necessity arises they can be turned into available funds. - -The manner of keeping and of selling such objects is also different from -ours. If it be a question of buying gems from an Eastern owner, the best -are never shown first, but on the contrary, the most inferior. The -purchaser must either be content with these, or else must prove clearly -that he is a substantial buyer or evince a knowledge and appreciation -that mark him as a judge of such objects. The order in which they are -produced is, first the poorest, then successively, poor, medium, fair, -good, fine, and at last the rare and wonderful prizes. - -In visiting an Oriental dignitary, his jewel-treasures are not all shown -at once, as at an American reception or an Indian durbar, or even as a -collector or connoisseur among us exhibits his cabinet, arranged for -choice display. The method is far different. The visitor may be shown a -few objects in the first day or hour; perhaps a few more later in the -day; some on the next day or the one following, and so on; and he may -remain a guest for weeks, and never see all, or the finest of the jewels -belonging to his host. When they are produced, moreover, they are not in -iron caskets or in gold or silver jewel-cases, covered or lined with -fine leather or with silk or satin. On the contrary, they are often in -old ginger jars, shabby boxes, tin cans, and all sorts of unsightly or -unpromising receptacles, which, when placed between the owner and his -guest, may well cause the latter to wonder. Nor is his surprise lessened -as the wrappings are unfolded, one after another, perhaps a dozen old -cloths, until the piece of jewelry or the splendid pearl is at last -brought to view, after having been hidden from sight in its manifold -wrappings for months or perhaps for years. - -But this method of keeping such treasures is not in reality so strange -as it appears. There are none of the provisions that we have for the -responsible safe-guarding of investments or valuable objects,—no -fire-proof safes, no banks, no deposit-vaults. Security is best attained -by concealment in unattractive and improbable receptacles, and by -dividing and distributing the treasured objects. The owner, too, must -learn to know his visitor quite well before he exhibits to him all, or -the best, that he possesses. Hence the oriental method, though so -peculiar to us, has been the best adapted to the conditions among those -peoples. - -[Illustration: - - Seed-pearls and gold; Chinese ornaments of the nineteenth century -] - -[Illustration: - - Complete set of seed-pearl jewelry in original case - - New York, 1860 -] - -As an illustration of the interest taken by Oriental potentates in the -collection of jewels, we quote an instance from Marco Polo, who, -centuries ago, wrote the following:[406] “Several times every year the -King of Maabar sends his proclamation through the realm that if any one -who possesses a pearl or stone of great value will bring it to him, he -will pay for it twice as much as it cost. Everybody is glad to do this, -and thus the King gets all into his own hands, giving every man his -price.” - -Great quantities of pearls, the result of centuries of accumulation, and -exceeding in splendor the collections of the present day, must have been -garnered up in many cities of the Orient during the period of their -prosperity. But these cities have disappeared, wrecked and ruined by -fire and sword, and no vestige of their former wealth remains with them. -Their treasures have been looted, hoarded, buried, or scattered to the -four ends of the Orient, frequently finding their way in former times to -Europe, but now more often to America, where fine gems always find a -generous buyer. - -In Syria, and some of the Oriental countries, until recently, and -perhaps at the present time, it has been the custom, when a native -wished to embark in the pearl business, for him to allow himself to -drift gradually into a state of vagrancy, becoming a veritable tramp for -fully a year. Then, with the money that he had himself or that which was -supplied by his backer, he would visit the pearl fisheries and shrewdly -acquire the gems to the best advantage, returning again as a vagrant; -for if it were known at any point along the route that he carried with -him sums of money his life would be in jeopardy, and he would probably -never reach the fisheries; or, if he did, the chances are that he would -never return. This may remind us of Marco Polo’s old coat, in which he -had concealed some valuable gems, the gift of the Grand Khan. His wife -heedlessly gave the coat to a beggar and it was only regained by a -clever stratagem. - -The product of the pearl fisheries, either that of entire fisheries -where they are managed by a company, or the gatherings of merchants, or -even the single gems which may be acquired by the smaller merchants, all -these usually find their way to the great markets, although occasionally -they change hands at once. In the East they are sent either to Bombay, -Calcutta, Madras or Colombo; frequently they are intended for a higher -market. Many of them remain in the East, for in the East to-day a fine -pearl is as much prized as ever, and there are those who love pearls as -much as did the King of Maabar in the time of Marco Polo. However, the -world over, there is a feeling that if things are sent to the greatest -market there will be an opportunity for disposing of them at the -greatest price. Therefore, the larger number of parcels of exceptionally -fine pearls are sent to the London market, a few of them going to Paris, -the cable, often within a few days after their arrival, informing the -sender of the acceptance or rejection of a parcel, or of a new offer -which is often accepted. In this market they are acquired by the -dealers, who frequently exhibit many times before the lot is purchased. - -Pearls from a fishery are in many cases of mixed quality; that is to -say, they are of different sizes and varying grades of perfection as -regards skin, color, and orient. These parcels are often sold directly -on offers to dealers, but generally they are sold by brokers who show -the various parcels to the dealers, each of the latter in turn making -his offer on that portion of the parcel which is of most value to him. -Thus a single dealer may want one pearl, a dozen, or even twenty or -more, to complete a great necklace, or else to add to, or improve the -necklace, by better graduation or by increasing the evenness of the -color. When the broker receives enough offers to give him the desired -price for the entire parcel, the sale is consummated, and each one who -has made an offer and who has sealed his particular parcel until his -offer is accepted or rejected, receives his portion. Pearls do not grow -in the form of necklaces, although they are frequently seen in this form -only, and to create a large necklace means not only the use of the -pearls of one fishery alone, but it often requires a selection from -pearls of various sizes, the product of many fisheries. - -It is needless to say that even the shrewdest dealers do not always -succeed in their purchases of lots which are to be broken up when the -proper number of bids are obtained. - -When the pearl revival came in 1898 there was a sudden and rapid upward -tendency in the prices, because at that time, in England, money could be -borrowed upon a very low rate of interest—as low as 3 per cent.,—and it -was a temptation to a number of young men to enter as dealers into the -pearl trade. The result was that a number of new stocks were created, -not for a regular, but for a speculative demand, and this tended to -advance the price spasmodically, rather than gradually, as it would have -risen by regular consumption. However, when the foreign market became -higher, the demand for pearls was not as great as had been anticipated, -and there was a sudden adjustment of prices and a readjustment of the -pearl stocks, resulting in the elimination of a certain number of -speculative dealers; and, notwithstanding the state of the fisheries, -pearls have not advanced so rapidly in the past two years as they did -from 1898 to 1905. - -More than go per cent. of the pearls of commerce, whether they are -round, perfect, half- or seed-pearls, are of oriental origin; that is, -pearls from the true pearl-oyster. About 8 per cent. are probably from -the fresh-water mussels, three fourths of which are from the United -States. - -American fresh-water pearls have had many prejudices to overcome, often -because of the natural indifference in regard to anything that is found -at home or is easily obtainable. It has been said that, in comparison -with foreign pearls, they had less specific gravity; that they were not -so hard, and that their luster was not as good. It is certain, however, -that the skin is generally smooth, and although they may not have so -peculiar an orient, their brilliancy equals that of any known pearls. -Sometimes they are translucent and either pink or of a faintly bluish -tint, like molten silver. More frequently their hue is white, rose, pale -yellow, or pale copper, deepening to copper red until they resemble the -most intense and highly polished copper button. - -According to the estimates of the value of European fresh-water pearls -given by seventeenth and eighteenth century writers, their worth was -considered to be one half that of oriental pearls of approximately the -same quality. Few European pearls, we feel sure, were ever found that -possessed the wonderful beauty and brilliancy of the pearls found either -in the Miami or the Mississippi and its many tributaries. - -So great a quantity of the poorer quality of pearls have been found, -principally in the Mississippi Valley, that a foreign dealer has bought -30,000 ounces of baroque pearls at $1 an ounce, and of the slightly -better grades fully 100,000 dollars’ worth were obtained in the year -1906. The exportation was strictly limited to the poorer qualities. When -pearls are worth from $1 to $6 a grain and upward, they are rarely sent -abroad, as the regular pearls of this quality are much appreciated by -Americans, and find a ready sale in the United States. The poor pearls -above mentioned were principally sent to New York, either from the local -fishermen, or else through the dealers in sweet-water shells, in lots of -a fraction of an ounce, or in bags weighing a number of pounds. Thirty -thousand ounces would equal 18,180,000 grains. - -After all the fine pearls have been selected—buttons, baroques, -turtle-backs, haystacks, wings, petals and other pearls that can be used -in any way as a jewel on this side of the water—the balance of the -material is sold by the ounce, varying in price from $1 to $5. These are -shipped to Germany, France, and Austria, where they are again selected -for cheaper forms of jewelry than are made in the United States. Of -these pearls the baroques and slugs go mainly to Germany, while the -somewhat finer ones are sent to France, where they are used in artistic -but inexpensive work, such as flowers and other imitative forms, and in -_art nouveau_ jewelry. Some, again, are shipped to Algiers, Morocco, and -Egypt, for the decoration of saddles, garments, etc., and quantities go -to India to be used for medicinal purposes. In this way all the material -is utilized and even the poorest is not wasted. No better proof can be -required of the wide-spread appreciation of the pearl among all the -races of mankind. - -So extensive has become the finding of American pearls that great -quantities have been gathered together of all varieties. At the time of -this writing there are many large single lots of these pearls, slightly -irregular, and not of fine quality, but yet of sufficient regularity of -size to be termed baroques. At one time such quantities were gotten -together that single papers of pearls, weighing one fourth, one half, -one, two or three grains each, contained more than 10,000 grains, and -quantities of the wing and dog-tooth varieties weighing as much as -20,000 grains were inclosed in a single paper. - -So prolific has been the yield of these common American pearls that the -markets of Europe and Asia have almost been flooded with them. In 1906, -a single shipment of 3500 ounces, troy (equaling over 2,100,000 grains), -were sent abroad, at prices varying from $1 to $15 per ounce, according -to the quality. This alone would represent a worth of $30,000 at one -time. - -The turtleback is a form quite prevalent among American pearls, and they -are often matched in pairs slightly resembling each other and weighing -from 10 to 100 or more grains for each pair. Some of them are lustrous -and many are of very good color and regular in form. Although differing -but little in shape, they naturally are much less expensive than a finer -formed pearl, and many of them have been sold for link buttons, and more -especially for earscrews. Although they formerly sold for 50 cents a -grain, they are now held at from $1 to $8 per grain. - -In regard to the prices of some of the finer American pearls, one of 15 -grains, of wonderful brilliancy, luster, and perfection, was sold for -more than $2500–$166 a grain, or a base value of over $11 a grain. Two -extraordinarily well-matched button pearls, weighing a trifle over 30 -grains, were held at about $3500, or $115 a grain, a base value of about -$8 a grain. - -At the time of this writing there are for sale in the United States a -pair of button earrings, almost round, not of absolutely perfect color, -weighing about 140 grains, the price being $6000; a round, slightly -ovate pearl, not of the finest color, weighing 85 grains, held at $3500; -and a wonderful pearl with a rich, faintly pink luster, round, but -slightly button on each side, weighing about 44 grains, and beautiful as -are American pearls, is held at a fanciful valuation of over $6000. - -The cupidity of many of the American pearl finders and pearl dealers -cannot be exceeded even by that of the foreign pearl finder in any other -land, and this is shown by the variety of materials that from time to -time are sold to the unsuspecting public, or that are sent to pearl -dealers in the large cities. This is surprising and suggests either that -the sender believes the pearl dealers are not familiar with these -deceptions, or else that he himself has been imposed upon, and is -innocent in his commercial deceit. Among the notable examples are, -first, spheres made out of the various shells, either from a good part -of the material or from hinge-material, or else from the spot where the -mussel is attached, these pieces of the shell being rounded and -polished; such spheres vary in color from white to pink or yellow, just -as the shell itself may have been colored. Second, the pupils of -fish-eyes. Third, imitation pearls. Fourth, yellow or brown translucent -or transparent masses of hinge-binding material having no greater -hardness than horn, and about the same appearance. The most interesting, -however, are the absolutely beautiful, smooth spheres of anthracite -coal, which admits of a rich polish and has a peculiar luster; these -they attempt to pass off as black pearls. - -It is interesting to note that in Arkansas a negro sold a very valuable -pearl for a few dollars, under the persuasion of a white man, who, it is -said, resold the pearl for nearly a hundred times more than what he paid -for it. The local authorities investigated the matter; the case was -brought to court, and the negro received a large advance on the price -that had originally been paid him. - -If a list were kept of the thousand and one different methods of -wrapping American pearls for shipment to the larger cities, it would -show how much ingenuity is displayed in environments that frequently -differ very much from each other. A box that has contained the pills -that relieved him of fever, ague, and other ills due to swamps and damp -climates, serves a secondary purpose for the fortunate finder of a pearl -in forming a receptacle in which he can ship it to the greater market. -Sometimes they are sewed in leather cut from gloves and shoes, or in -strips of cloth, generally of the humbler varieties, such as calico or -blue jean; in other cases they are wrapped in tissue-paper and -newspaper; and occasionally they are packed in boxes made by hollowing -out a bit of wood, a cover being nailed over the opening. In almost -every instance they have been treated with a certain degree of care. - -The majority of conch pearls which are carried by individuals to New -York, London, or Paris, are generally brought in small papers or bits of -cloth, each pearl being wrapped separately. Usually, there are a few -white ones, a few yellow, a few pale pink, occasionally a few of a very -beautiful rich pink, and once in a great while a fine, large pearl -appears. Many of these pearls, commonly the inferior ones, are sold in -the West Indies directly to the tourists who wish to purchase something -in the country through which they are traveling, with the result that -better prices are generally obtained than would have been secured if the -pearls had been sent to the great markets. - -The tariff on pearls at present operative in the United States is so -indefinite as to have led to much serious misinterpretation and -misunderstanding, as well as to an endless chain of lawsuits, often -resulting in serious loss to the dealer or client who imports. As a -consequence of the enforced outlay of large sums for unexpected and -additional duties, the importer, who was both ready and willing to pay -what seemed to him a just duty, often found that, where he had quoted a -price to a customer, he was a loser by the transaction; and if, to -escape this loss, he endeavors to dispute the payment of the duty, he -becomes involved in an expensive and occasionally unsuccessful lawsuit. -On the other hand, a private buyer who has paid all that he feels he can -afford at the time for a necklace, expecting to pay a duty of 10 per -cent. and interpreting the law to mean a duty of 10 per cent., may be -called upon to pay a duty of 60 per cent., or have the notoriety of a -public lawsuit, because the pearls have been strung, or because it is -held that they had recently or at some former time been assembled as a -necklace. In other words, if the pearls constituting such a necklace are -bought at various times from various people, either here or in Europe, -and not as a necklace, the duty is held to be 10 per cent., but if they -are sent in one shipment, a duty of 60 per cent. is levied. As it is -held that pearls assembled in the form of a necklace have a greater -value than before they were so assembled, the purchaser might naturally -expect to pay the 10 per cent. duty on this higher value, but instead of -this a 60 per cent. duty is demanded on the higher assembled value. - -The ambiguity of this clause of the tariff is such that a logical ruling -should be made by some superior official such as the Secretary of the -Treasury. As the law is now interpreted, a pearl worth $20,000 can be -brought in with a duty of 10 per cent.; the addition of a simple gold -wire makes it a piece of jewelry, with a duty of 60 per cent. It would -seem that an amendment might be made to the tariff by which an importer, -whether a private buyer or dealer, could be called upon to pay a 60 per -cent. duty on a high valuation of the setting of the ring, brooch, or -jewel, such as $20, $25 or $50; while the contents of the ring or -ornament, whether a pearl, diamond, emerald, or a collection of stones, -should pay a duty of only 10 per cent. This duty would sufficiently -protect the jewelry industry, and would at the same time prevent the -levying of an unjust and unexpected impost upon a fine pearl or gem of -any kind. - -It is eminently desirable that those residing in the United States who -purchase pearls in foreign countries, should, if possible, consult with -the United States consul in the city where they make their purchase, in -case they wish to bring the pearls into the United States. In this way a -proper declaration can be made, they will be correctly instructed as to -the duties upon the pearls, whether unstrung, strung, or set, and they -will thus avoid all complications when they reach the United States. Of -course, this may not be necessary should the firm with which they are -dealing be able to attend to the matter for them. - -It must not be forgotten that the duty of 25 per cent. on precious -stones, which was imposed during Cleveland’s administration, was enacted -for the purpose of obtaining an increased revenue for the government, -and there is no doubt but that the time was one of great financial -stress. Yet even with the duty two and a half times as high as in the -previous years, only a small fraction was added to the income of the -Government. But one adequate explanation can be given of this remarkable -decrease in the recorded imports, more especially when we consider that -legitimate dealers could, at that time, buy precious stones in New York -City for less than it cost them to purchase them abroad and pay the -duty. It seems, therefore, that a 10 per cent. rate is calculated to -produce the best and most satisfactory results in every way. - -As examples of the difficulties encountered in the attempt to arrive at -a proper classification of pearls we cite the following cases which have -been the subjects of recent litigation: In 1901, two very valuable -collections of pearls were brought to this country. One of these -consisted of 45 drilled pearls weighing in all 672⅛ grains and entered -at $60,734; the other, of 39 pearls, having an aggregate weight of 678¾ -grains and entered at $63,070. At first a duty of 20 per cent. ad -valorem was imposed upon these pearls under Section 6 of the Tariff Act, -treating them as “unenumerated articles partly manufactured,” according -to the rule that had been followed since the enactment of the present -tariff. This was protested, and the case was brought before the Board of -Appraisers.[407] Subsequent to the protest, however, the collector -reliquidated the entry of the 45 pearls and imposed upon them a duty of -60 per cent. ad valorem, as pearls set or strung. This was done in view -of Judge Lacombe’s decision in another notable case which had been taken -shortly before to the Circuit Court of Appeals.[408] This decision was -to the effect that pearls in any form not especially covered by -paragraphs 434 or 436 of the Tariff Act should be referred to one or the -other of those paragraphs, by similitude, according to the provisions of -Section 7 of the Act. - -The testimony taken before the Board of Appraisers revealed the fact -that each of the collections of pearls had been inclosed in a handsome -silk-lined morocco case, with a groove running through the center; in -this groove the pearls were laid, the largest one in the middle and the -others disposed on either side, graduated according to their size; the -row or series having the effect of a necklace, although the pearls were -unstrung. The importer testified that this arrangement was only made in -order to enable him to judge of the size and quality of the pearls, and -evidence was given showing that it was necessary to rebore some of them -and to ream out the holes before any use could be made of the pearls in -jewelry. Nevertheless, the appraisers adhered to their opinion that -these gems had been selected especially to form a necklace, and that the -time and labor requisite for the assembling of a carefully matched and -graduated series of pearls suitable for a necklace constituted the main -factor in its production, since the cost of stringing it was trifling; -they, therefore, considered that such a series of pearls was dutiable, -by similitude, under paragraph 434 of the Tariff Act as jewelry. An -application was made to the Circuit Court of the Southern District of -New York for a review of the appraisers’ ruling,[409] the judge decided -against the petitioner,[410] and an appeal was then taken from his -decision. On December 12, 1904, the Circuit Court of Appeals decided -that the pearls were dutiable, by similitude, at 10 per cent. ad -valorem, under Section 7, paragraph 436, and the excess of duty -collected was refunded. - -Another case has to do with a collection of 37 pearls, entered at -$220,000, brought to New York in January, 1906. Duty to the amount of -$22,000 (10 per cent. ad valorem) was paid by the importer, but the -entry was liquidated at 60 per cent. and $110,000 additional duty -demanded. This was paid and a protest was made to the Board of General -Appraisers, who decided in favor of the petitioner. The Government -appealed and the case[411] was tried in the United States Circuit Court -on February 24 of this year (1908). It was shown that the pearls had -been worn several times in Paris as a necklace, but the defense held -that, as they were loose when imported and were not worth more -collectively than separately, this was not material. The judge decided -for the Government and an appeal has been taken in June, 1908. - -[Illustration: - - PERSIAN PRINCESS AND LADIES IN WAITING - - From a Persian illuminated manuscript of the eighteenth century, in - the library of Robert Hoe, Esq. -] - -The proper classification of half-pearls has also been a matter of -controversy. This question was brought before the Board of General -Appraisers in New York on a protest[412] entered in 1897 against the -imposition of a duty of 20 per cent. on several lots of so-called -half-pearls imported during that year. This duty was imposed under -Section 6 of the Tariff Act, providing for a duty of 20 per cent. on -“unenumerated partly manufactured articles.” The petitioner claimed that -half-pearls were dutiable at 10 per cent. ad valorem, “either directly -or by similitude or component of chief value, under paragraph 436, or as -precious stones, under paragraph 435 of the Tariff Act.” After hearing -the testimony of a number of competent and reliable experts connected -with some of the leading houses dealing in precious stones and pearls, -the appraisers decided that the evidence showed that pearls, being the -product of animal secretion, could not properly be denominated stones, -and that they were not in fact so designated commercially. At the same -time, half-pearls could not be looked upon as “pearls in their natural -state,” since time and labor had been expended in their production; it -was, therefore, evident that paragraph 436 did not apply to them. For -this reason the original ruling was reaffirmed. - -In 1902 a duty of 60 per cent. was levied on an assorted lot of -half-pearls under a new ruling which brought them by similitude under -the provisions of paragraph 434 of the Tariff Act, providing a duty of -60 per cent. on “jewelry ... including ... pearls set or strung.” A -protest was entered against this ruling also.[413] In the meanwhile -Judge Lacombe had given the opinion to which we have alluded above, and -the Board of Appraisers upheld the duty of 60 per cent., basing their -decision upon the fact that the material of half-pearls was similar to -that of pearls in their natural state or of pearls set or strung, thus -satisfying the requirements as to similitude of Section 7 of the Tariff -Act. The same section provides that, in case two or more rates of duty -shall be applicable to any imported article, it shall pay duty at the -highest rate, and therefore the 60–per cent. rate applying to pearls set -or strung was imposed, instead of the 10–per cent. rate on pearls in -their natural state. In both of these cases an application for a review -was made to the United States Circuit Court.[414] - - DUTIES ON PEARLS IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES, MARCH, 1908 - - Amount in - money of the U. S. - Basis. country. currency. - - Great Britain Free - - British India Free - - Australia Free - - New Zealand Free - - Canada, precious stones (pearls), - polished but not set, pierced, or - otherwise manufactured ad val. 10% - - Austro-Hungary, unset 100 - kilogr. 60 kr. $24.00 - - Belgium, unenumerated. - - Bulgaria, precious stones (pearls) in - the natural state, polished, cut, or 75 lev - engraved, but not mounted kilogr. (francs) 14.25 - - Denmark, unenumerated. - - France Free - - Germany, wrought (smoothed, polished, 100 - perforated), unset kilogr. 60 marks 14.40 - - Unset, but strung on textile threads - or tape for the purpose of packing 100 - and transportation kilogr. 100 marks 24.00 - - Greece Free - - Holland, unenumerated. - - Italy, precious stones (pearls) - wrought hectogr. 14 lire 2.66 - - Montenegro, precious stones (pearls) {min. 10% - ad val. {max. 15% - - Norway, precious stones (pearls) {min. 2^{50} - kilogr. krone .66 - - {max. 3 - „ .80 - - Portugal, unenumerated. - - Portuguese S. E. Africa (Quilimane, - Chinde and Zambesia) Export Duty ad val. 6% - - Portuguese India, real pearls or - seed-pearls ad val. ½% - - Rumania kilogr. 20 lei 3.80 - - Russia, loose or threaded funt 10 rubles 5.00 - - Finland Free - - Servia, threaded for facilitating - their preservation or sale kilogr. 50 dinars 9.50 - - Threaded for special uses kilogr. 70 dinars 15.30 - - Spain, loose or mounted hectogr. 25 pesetas 4.75 - - Sweden, not set Free - - Switzerland, not mounted 100 - kilogr. 50 francs 9.75 - - Turkey, unset 3 piasters - gramme (gold) - - Egypt (on all imports) ad val. 8% - - China (on all unenumerated imports) ad val. 5% - - Japan ad val. 60% - - Persia, Export Duty ad val. 5% - - Import Duty, precious stones, rough - or cut, including fine pearls ad val. 25% - - Morocco (on all imports) ad val. 2½% - - Guatemala, unenumerated. - - Salvador, precious stones (pearls) 10 pesos, - unmounted kilogr. nom. val. 9.60 - - Nicaragua, precious stones (pearls) 100 pesos, - kilogr. „ „ 96.00 - - Honduras 5 pesos, - ½ kilogr. „ „ 4.80 - - Costa Rica, unset 100 colones, - kilogr. „ „ 96.00 - - Panama ad val. 15% - - Mexico, unset 100 pesos, - kilogr. „ „ 96.00 - - United States, not strung, not set ad val. 10% - - Strung, set, or not, and split - pearls sorted as to either size, - quality, or shape ad val. 60% - - Philippine, unset ad val. 15% - - Argentine Republic, precious stones - (pearls) ad val. 5% - - Bolivia appraisal 3% - - Brazil (natural) ad val. 2% - - Chili ad val. 5% - - Colombia, precious stones (pearls) set - in jewelry ad val. 10% - - Ecuador, precious stones (pearls), set 50 sucres, - or not set kilogr. nom. val. 48.00 - - Paraguay, unset ad val. 2% - - Peru, unset appraisal 3% - - Uruguay 13% on eval - gramme of 1 peso .12 - - Venezuela kilogr. 10 bolivars 1.90 - - Cuba, not set hectogr. $7.50 - - surtax of 25% - - Dominican Republic 6 pesos, - ounce nom. val. 5.76 - -The only changes from the customs lists as they existed in the tariffs -of 1896 are as follows: - - 1896 1908 - Portugal 3% ad val. unenumerated - Mexico 50 pesos per carat 100 pesos per kilogram - Nicaragua 5 pesos per libra 100 pesos per kilogram - Haiti 20% ad val. unenumerated - San Domingo 3.60 pesos per ounce 6 pesos per ounce - Argentina 36 pesos per gram precious stones 5% ad val. - Austro-Hungary 24 florins per 100 kilogr. 60 kroner per 100 kilogr. - -In the Parliament of 1727–1732, the duty on pearls and precious stones -was abolished in England. We give facsimiles of the title-page and last -leaf of the report of this enactment. - -[Illustration: - - Anno Regni - _GEORGII_ II. - REGIS - _Magnæ_, _Britanniæ_, _Franciæ_, & _Hiberniæ_, - SEXTO. - - At the Parliament Begun and Holden at _Westminster_, the Twenty third - Day of _January, Anno Dom. 1727_. In the First Year of the Reign of - our Sovereign Lord __GEORGE__ the Second, by the Grace of God, of - _Great Britain_, _France_, and _Ireland_, King, Defender of the - Faith, &_c._ - - And from thence continued by several Prorogations to the Sixteenth Day - of _January_, 1732, being the Sixth Session of this present - Parliament. - - _LONDON_, - Printed by _John Baskett_, Printer to the King’s most - Excellent Majesty. 1732. - - 108 Anno Regni Sexto Georgii II. Regis. - -[Sidenote: After _10 April, 1733_, Diamonds and all other precious - Stones may be imported or exported free from Duty.] - -Diamonds, precious Stones, Jewels, and Pearls of all Sorts, shall pass -outwards, without Warrant or Fee, may it therefore please your most -Excellent Majesty that it may be enacted, and be enacted by the King’s -most Excellent Majesty, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Lords -Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament -assembled, and by the Authority of the Same, That from and after the -Tenth Day of April, which shall be in the Year of our Lord One thousand -seven hundred and Thirty three, all Diamonds, Pearls, Rubies, Emeralds, -and all other precious Stones and Jewels, shall pass inwards without -Warrant or Fee, in the Manner as they now pass outwards, and free from -the Payment of any Duty granted to his Majesty, his Heirs, or -Successors; and it shall and may be lawful for any Person or Persons to -import or export the same, in the Ship or Vessel whatsoever; and Law, -Custom, or Usage to the contrary in any wise notwithstanding, subject -nevertheless to the Proviso herein after contained. - -[Sidenote: Proviso as to the _East India_ Company.] - -Provided always, That nothing herein contained shall extend to annul or -make void the Duty granted to his Majesty for the Use of the united -Company of Merchants of =England= trading to the =East Indies=, by an -act passed in the Ninth and Tenth Years of the Reign of his late Majesty -King =William= the Third, for such Pearls, Diamonds, and other precious -Stones or Jewels, as shall be imported into this kingdom from any Place -within the Limits of the Charter granted to the said Company, or to take -away or alter any Privileges, Profits, or Advantages, granted to or now -held or enjoyed by the said Company. - - FINIS. - -] - -The total value of diamonds and precious stones imported into the United -States during the period from 1867 to 1906 inclusive, was as follows: - - Glaziers’ (except 1873–83) $2,215,972 - - Dust 6,407,599 - - Rough or uncut (included with diamonds and other stones, - 1891–96) 74,045,291 - - Set (not specified before 1897) 36,170 - - Unset (not specified before 1897) 124,615,662 - - Diamonds and other stones, not set 207,138,629 - - Set in gold or other metal 17,799 - - Pearls (from 1903) 7,809,261 - - ———————————— - - Total $422,286,383 - - CLASSIFIED STATEMENT OF THE IMPORTS OF PEARLS INTO THE UNITED STATES - FROM 1891 TO 1907 INCLUSIVE - - Pearls Pearls, Pearls in Pearls split - including pearls natural state, etc. - strung but not not strung or - set set - - Year 10% 10% 10% 20% - - 1891 $11,711 - - 1892 32,023 - - 1893 6,926 - - 1894 12,978 - - 1895 $283,018 - - 1896 583,214 - - 1897 392,867 - - 1898 $491,060 $205,998 - - 1899 1,412,952 389,899 - - 1900 1,163,382 432,528 - - 1901 929,247 1,173,339 - - 1902 1,896,322 1,314,368 - - 1903 2,835,936 7,220 - - 1904 1,680,615 2,908 - - 1905 1,626,476 - - 1906 2,072,561 218 - - 1907 1,593,498 - - ——————— —————————— ——————————— —————————— - - $63,638 $1,259,099 $15,702,049 $3,526,478 - - NOTE. Previous to 1891 pearls were classified with “jewelry and - precious stones,” and it was not until 1895 that most of them were - reported separately. - -There are several things that are essential in pearl buying, and one of -the most important of these is that the light in which the pearls are -selected shall be absolutely pure daylight, with no reflections from the -side or from above that can enhance or detract from the color of the -pearl. This must be carefully considered, as it is not uncommon—more -especially in certain parts of Europe—that jewelers have for their -selling-offices rooms sumptuously fitted up with hangings of different -colors, and sometimes with ground glass windows, provided with heavy -silk hangings, so that artificial light becomes a necessity to make the -article sold plainly visible. In absolutely pure daylight, more -especially with an unclouded sky—on such days as are probably more -frequent in the United States than in some of the European countries—it -is possible to see the exact tint or color of the pearls; that is, -whether it is really a pure white with a tinge of pink or an orient -tending to cream-white, or whether it is more or less tinted with what -is considered a crude or red color in a pearl. Besides this, in a pure -light it is possible to see whether the pearl is brilliant, and to -estimate the exact degree of its brilliancy; whether there are any -cracks, scratches, or mars on the surface; and, lastly, whether the form -is entirely regular. If one should select two necklaces, one absolutely -perfect and the other having slight blemishes as to color or brilliancy, -or with breaks, marks, or irregularities, these two necklaces would be -scarcely distinguishable from each other in artificial light, or in -daylight which had been partly confused with artificial light; although -the differences between the two would signify that the former was worth -two or three times as much as the latter. - -At great receptions, large, and apparently magnificent pearls are -frequently seen, which are really of inferior quality, and yet, owing to -the absence of pure daylight, they can easily be mistaken for perfect -specimens by any one not especially familiar with pearls. Indeed, if the -royalties of Europe should wear all the pearls belonging to the crown -jewels at the same time, in a palace or hall lighted with candles, gas, -or even with some types of electric light, they would frequently seem to -have a quality which many of them do not and never did possess. It is, -therefore, essential for the buyer to use every precaution in reference -to the light in which he examines his purchase. And we may add that it -is just as essential that he should know the dealer from whom he buys; -for, sometimes, after a few weeks or months, cracks or blemishes develop -that were not apparent at first, more especially when the pearls have -been “improved” for a prospective purchaser. - -A test to ascertain the quality of pearls is quaintly expressed in a -work published in 1778, as follows: - - How to know good pearls. To discover the hidden Defects and Faults - of a Pearl and to know whether she is speckled or broken or has any - other imperfections, the best way is to make trial of it by the - Reverberation of the Sun-beams; for by this means your eye will - penetrate into the very Centre of the Pearl and discover the least - defect it has; you will then see whether it be pure, or has any - spots or not, and consequently you may the better guess its - value.[415] - -If you can cause a ray of sunlight or of electric light to fall on a -pearl, the light will penetrate it and show any specks, inclosed -blemishes or impurities. This can probably best be done by wrapping -about the pearl a dark cloth of velvet or other material and having the -ray fall slantingly, whereby the defects are much more clearly shown -than if the ray be allowed to fall directly upon the gem. - -A pearl necklace valued at $200,000, shown at one of our recent great -expositions, was to all appearances a remarkably beautiful collection, -and it was only when the intending purchaser took them from their velvet -bed and held them in his hands that he realized that there was not a -perfect pearl in the entire collection. It must have taken more than a -week of study for the clever dealer to arrange them so that the best -part, sometimes the only good part of each pearl, should be where the -eye would fall upon it. After they had been turned in the hands a few -seconds, not one perfect specimen was visible. - -The demand for pearls has been so great, and the enhancement of value so -rapid, that the greatest ingenuity has been employed in presenting the -best part of the gems to view, as well as in many other ways. The result -is that when pearls are to be used as borders or as a gallery on a comb -or brooch, they are pierced in such a way that only the best side shall -be outward, so that the general effect produced is that of a perfect row -of pearls; but a careful examination may show that two thirds or three -fourths of them are irregular, and bear abrasion marks, indentations, or -other imperfections. - -Following the analogy of the well-known precious stones—the diamond, the -ruby, the sapphire, the emerald and those of less importance—the pearl -is equally potent in creating great and permanent values for itself in -catering to the human love of adornment; and though these large values -may be greatly in excess of the original price that it commanded in the -native oriental market, yet the increased valuation gives profitable -livelihood to hundreds of thousands of persons. These embrace the -dealers who sell the original pearls in lots, those who clean and treat -them, others who drill and string them, and others again who handle them -in setting jewelry of all kinds, and also the large number of dealers -throughout the entire world who sell either the jewelry or the unmounted -pearls. Directly connected with the industry in localities where the -fisheries are pursued are a sufficient number of persons to populate a -city the size of Boston, and to these we may safely add an equal number -as herein noted, aggregating about 1,000,000 people whose livelihood is -directly dependent upon the production and traffic of the pearl -industry, and who for lack of it would be forced to seek some other -employment. Brought thus to a concrete form, one may readily grasp the -important bearing which the pearl has in a comprehensive estimate of the -complexity of the world’s civilization as we know it to-day. - - - - - XIV - - TREATMENT AND CARE OF PEARLS - - - - - XIV - TREATMENT AND CARE OF PEARLS - - -The pearl is at the height of its perfection when taken from the shell; -from that moment it never improves. When it is drawn from the depths of -the ocean by the hand of man and given to the charmed gaze of the world, -it is as complete and perfect in its way as the most beautiful work of -art, and, whether as tiny as the point of a pin or as large as a marble, -it is always a perfect, fully formed individual; it is always in its -maturity. - -Who found the first pearl? When did he discover it, and what were his -emotions? Was it found by primitive man? Very likely it was discovered -by chance in a mother-of-pearl shell cast up by the sea, or perhaps in a -mussel in a brook. If this happened in an oriental country, the native -must have already seen many equally remarkable objects, endowed with -life, while the pearl could charm him only by its luster and purity. -But, besides the impression produced by its beauty, it must have aroused -in the soul of the discoverer the sensation of wonder which every new -and lovely object excites when seen for the first time. That primitive -man appreciated the pearl is evidenced by the fact that it is found in -the mounds and graves of the American continent, from the State of Ohio -to Peru in South America. - -Almost all pearls are in perfect condition for setting when they are -found; all that needs to be done is to rub them with a damp or moist -cloth or with a powder of finely pulverized small or broken pearls, and -they are then ready for the succeeding processes. If there are any -blemishes, these can be removed by peeling or “faking,” although few -fine pearls require any such treatment; and then the gems may be -drilled, strung, and set, and all that is necessary for their -preservation is due care and attention. - -Pearls are frequently injured in opening the shells or in removal of the -outer layers around the true pearly nacre. Both the Chinese and the Sulu -fishermen are very clever in the art of pearl peeling and pearl -improving. This method is called “faking,” although it is a perfectly -legitimate operation. All it requires is a very sharp knife, a set of -files, and a powder obtained by grinding pearls or pearl shells. This -powder is placed upon a buffer of leather or cloth to polish such parts -of a layer as may not have been entirely removed. The Chinese are -unusual adepts in pearl peeling and have been frequently known to sell -as true pearls scales that they have removed, after filling these scales -or peelings with wax or shellac, and strengthening them by cementing -them on a piece of mother-of-pearl. They are then set with the convex -side up and the edges carefully covered so as to conceal the deception. -The Chinese are also very expert in removing layers of mother-of-pearl -from an encysted or buried pearl, taking off layer after layer with the -greatest care, and with a delicacy of touch that enables them to realize -the moment when the pearl itself has been reached, rarely injuring the -latter, although the coating is almost as hard as the inclosed pearl. - -Peeling is employed to remove a protuberance or acid stain, to smooth a -surface broken by abrasion, or to take off a dead spot produced by -careless wearing of the pearls and allowing them to rub against one -another. There are many instances where, by careful peeling, a perfect -layer and skin have been brought to light, and where irregular or broken -pearls, or those with a blemish, have been rendered much more valuable -by a good peeler. But in many other cases the pearl has not only been -reduced in value, but even rendered altogether worthless, when it had a -dead center or was pitted with clay or other impurities. - -If a pearl has been injured by coming in contact with the acids -frequently used in medicine, the surface may become roughened; or it may -be scratched by being rubbed against a stone in case of a fall or other -accident. If the surface only is injured, it can be restored to its -original beauty with only a slight loss of weight by carefully peeling -off the outer layers. - -In skinning or peeling a pearl, a magnifying glass, or preferably a -fixed lens, such as is used by engravers, is of great assistance, and a -sharp knife, or, better still, the sharpened edge of a steel file, is a -very essential instrument. Gloves are often worn by the peeler so that -no perspiration shall reach the pearl and cause it to slip in the hand -while it is being manipulated, and thus have a layer or more injured by -the knife. - -[Illustration: - - Drilling a pearl by means of the bow-drill -] - -[Illustration: - - Thin layers of pearl removed by peeling (faking) -] - -[Illustration: - - Examples of properly and poorly drilled pearls -] - -[Illustration: - - Side view of same pearls -] - - PEARL DRILLING - -Streeter mentions a very interesting incident in regard to a genuine -black pearl. This pearl, set with diamonds, was shown in a jeweler’s -window; but after exposure in this way for some time to the sun’s rays, -the brilliant black luster disappeared and gave place to a dull, grayish -hue. When the pearl was removed from its setting, it was seen that the -part which had not been exposed to the light was of as good color as -when first removed from the shell. It was finally determined to skin off -the outer layer, an operation which was performed with so much success -that the original brilliant black hue was fully restored, proving that -the action of the sunlight had only changed the color of the surface. We -may add that the pearl, although it was shown in the sun, may never have -had a good “skin” or layer exposed; or the layer which was not perfect -may have been affected by an exudation of the wearer produced by illness -or medicine. - -When pearls are of a poor yellow or dull brown tint, unscrupulous -dealers sometimes intrust them to an operator who drills them almost -entirely through, cracks the skin slightly and impregnates them with a -solution of nitrate of silver; this affects the outer layers of the -pearls, and, after its decomposition, the metallic silver is deposited, -and they become absolutely black. The effect is sometimes hastened by -exposing them to the fumes of nitrate of silver. These pearls are then -rubbed up or slightly polished and may retain a good appearance for a -number of years. The upper layers, however, which have been injured by -the chemicals used in the coloring, often scale off, and the poor and -unattractive color beneath appears. This is sometimes not detected until -years after and when the dealer from whom they were purchased has been -forgotten. The breaks or cracks which have been made can readily be -detected by means of a pocket lens, if the observer is at all -experienced. In many cases the outer layer of the pearl has been colored -a good black, although scarcely any crack is visible. - -Frequently, when a small knob or protuberance appears in the pearl, or -when it has adhered to another pearl or to the shell itself, this -protuberance is polished off, and the pearl is drilled at this point. -This portion of the surface, however carefully polished, will never have -the true orient, but it is placed in the necklace in such a way that it -is completely hidden. Often pearls become scratched through rough usage, -or by the knife used in opening the shells. These are occasionally -polished by means of pearl-powder, or else the entire outer layer is -removed, the new skin beneath appearing absolutely bright and perfect. -It sometimes happens that a pearl will have a good luster, but a -slightly roughened skin. This is at times polished down; but an -experienced eye easily detects that it has been tampered with. Yellowish -pearls are sometimes bleached by means of strong bleaching substances -such as chlorine or other powerful reagents, which, although they may -whiten the pearl, cause it to become very friable, as the animal -substance becomes more brittle. Pearls treated in this way frequently -wear off, layer by layer, until fully one half of the pearl is worn out -of the setting. When pearls are stained yellowish from the exudations of -the skin, grease, or other impurities, they can be cleaned by putting -them in moist caustic magnesia and allowing it to dry on them. When this -is removed, the pearls will often be found much purer in color than -before. - -In various parts of the world certain dubious methods have been used for -restoring the beauty of pearls which have grown dim. In India they are -rubbed in boiled rice. Some persons have even fed them to a chicken -fastened in a coop; after the lapse of an hour or two the chicken is -killed, and the pearls rescued from their temporary lodging-place, where -they have been somewhat restored by the digestive juices of the fowl. - -Some curious tests applied to pearls are given us in a Hindu treatise on -gems by Buddhabhatta. For instance, we read: “If the purchaser conceives -a doubt as to the genuineness of a pearl, let him place it during one -night in a mixture of water and oil with salt, and heat it. Or let him -wrap it in a dry cloth and rub it with grains of rice; if it do not -become discolored, it should be regarded as genuine.”[416] It is -needless to state that these tests would be either useless or injurious. - -If the reader is the owner of a pearl or of a pearl necklace and feels -that the pearls need treatment, any attempt to follow the directions -given by many ancient writers would infallibly result in their injury or -destruction. - -Pearl drilling is a most delicate operation. It is necessary that the -drill points should have the proper shape,—that is, should not be too -tapering, but slightly blunt at the end, and turning somewhat in a -V-shape,—it is also important that the drill should be revolved with -perfect regularity, so as not to jar or jolt the pearl, as this is -likely to lead to the cracking of the pearl or to the breaking of the -drill. This latter happens not infrequently, and is due either to the -structure of the pearl, the clogging of the drill, or to encountering a -hard grain of sand inclosed in the pearl. Should the drill break in the -pearl, it can best be removed by drilling from a point directly -opposite, and slowly forcing the broken drill outward. This process -requires great care in the regulation of the speed, and great exactness -of direction in order to meet the broken drill accurately. - -Pearl drilling was formerly a laborious process, and it was scarcely -possible for a driller to perforate more than from forty to fifty pearls -per day by means of the bow-drill operated by hand. Now, by the use of a -modern machine, 1500 pearls of average size can be drilled without any -difficulty in the same time. - -Some of the most successful drilling of fine pearls is done by means of -the bow- or fiddle-drill. The arm of this is made either of steel or of -wood, with a strong cord stretched across it in the style of an archer’s -bow. The drill is inserted in the end of a brass circular disk with a -V-shaped groove on its edge, to admit of the string being passed -entirely around it like a pulley, so that when the drill is placed on -anything and held at the other side, and the bow is moved up and down, -the wheel with the drill-end rotates rapidly. - -If the pearl is not properly secured, if the drill point is too -irregular, if it is not properly centered, or if it is too rapidly -rotated at the start, one or more layers of the pearl are likely to be -broken, giving an irregular, ragged appearance. If, again, the drill is -rotated too rapidly as it is leaving the other side of the pearl, one or -more layers are occasionally forced off, and this in turn will produce a -break on the pearl. It happens not infrequently that pearls are broken -away on the surfaces at both drill holes if the workman is careless. - -As pearls have become more valuable, only the most efficient workmen are -employed in drilling them. Whereas formerly a drill hole would be half a -millimeter in diameter, at present it is much smaller, and such drilling -requires the greatest skill in manipulation. The use of these very fine -drill holes is due principally to the fact that pearls have become so -valuable that the slightest loss, even the fraction of a grain, would -amount to a considerable sum in a necklace of large pearls. - -When a pearl has been perforated with a very fine drill hole, the hole -may be enlarged somewhat by using a slender copper wire, the fineness of -the drill hole itself, charged with either diamond-dust, emery, or sand. -When the wire thus charged is drawn in and out, the drill hole can be -enlarged to any desired size. - -A large pearl is held in the hand or secured in a wooden block, or else -it is held in a small pair of forceps with a rounded, cup-shaped -receptacle at the end, which is usually lined with chamois leather and -is pierced with a hole through the center. This hole serves as a guide -for the drill, directing it while the pearl is being perforated. -Adjustable cups or forceps with cup-like ends of every size are -necessary, according to the size of the pearl; and in order that it may -be properly seen, it is requisite that the pearl should always be larger -than the cup in which it is placed. - -The poorest part or spot is selected to form the beginning of the drill -hole. The pearl is placed in a pair of calipers with a circular disk, -one end of the caliper being placed on the spot to be pierced, the other -end naturally touching exactly opposite, the pearl absolutely centering -it. As these caliper ends have been rubbed with either rouge, lampblack, -or some colored substance that will readily rub off, these two spots of -color remain on the pearl and serve as a guide for the driller. The -drill end is then placed on the pearl, and the bow moved up and down; -and so rapid is this work that five pearls weighing fifteen grains each -can be drilled with the greatest care in less than one hour’s time. Of -small pearls, weighing about one grain, as many as fifty have been -drilled in less than one hour by the hand-drill method. - -Many of the thinnest and best drills are made out of thin steel needles. -These are ground flat by means of a small carborundum wheel, so as to -have two flat sides. They are then thin pointed, and with a V-shaped -edge. These prevent the drill from clogging up, allowing the fine dust -to pass upward and outward readily, and the hard steel almost invariably -penetrates the central core of the pearl, no matter how hard or tough -this may be. The needle-drill is then secured in a small chuck attached -to the brass revolving wheel. Some recommend lubricating a drill with -milk when it is employed for piercing a pearl, but a well-made drill, -that allows the dust to escape as it is formed, does not require this -treatment. The drill should always be made to revolve quite slowly so -that no unnecessary heat may be generated by friction to injure the -color of the pearl and also to avoid the possibility of the drill -becoming clogged by the pearl-dust. - -By means of centering calipers or markers, the driller, especially in -the drilling of a large pearl, will generally drill first from one end, -and then reverse the pearl and drill from the other end, meeting -absolutely in the center. This prevents the breaking of the outer layer -of the pearl. A skilful workman can, by turning the pearl, so operate -the calipers that the true center can be obtained, even if the pearl is -not absolutely round, and the drill holes so centered that the -irregularity of the pearl is less apparent. - -When the pearl has been half drilled through from one side, considerable -caution is necessary in drilling from the other, that when the two drill -holes are about meeting the drill be not revolved too rapidly, as the -clogging is likely to crack the pearl or break the drill. If the pearl -is only to be drilled one fourth or one half through, the depth can -always be gaged by watching the drill-end, first, by measuring the -drill-end itself, and, secondly, by noting to what part of it -pearl-powder adheres. - -Pearls are more easily manipulated than any other gems. They are also -more easily damaged. Still, when properly treated by the workman, there -is no material that offers him more satisfactory results than the pearl, -if good judgment be used. - -Drillers occasionally find that when the drill reaches the center of the -pearl, there is a sharp click, the pearl often breaking at this point. -This is evidently due to the fact that a harder kernel may exist in the -center, such as a tiny grain of sand, which can turn the drill point; or -else the resistance may cause the tiny drill to break. - -When a pearl is cracked by a blow or by some accident, it is customary -to drill it at the end of the largest crack; this method prevents the -crack from extending in that direction. These fissures are sometimes -partly filled by means of a solution, and may not be visible at the time -when the pearl is bought, but they are liable to appear later. - -To illustrate the difference in the care used in drilling, we have -selected eight pearls from a paper of poor ones, and reproduce two views -of them, one to show the irregularity of the pearls, and the other to -show the varying size of the drill holes. Those on the left were drilled -by an artist, while those on the right show the work of an inexperienced -driller. - -At present pendant pearls are never drilled entirely through, and rarely -more than half way. But in the Orient, and even in Europe from the -fourteenth to the sixteenth century, they were often entirely pierced; -even pear-shaped pearls were entirely drilled through, with a metal edge -projected below for safety. Frequently old pearls, and more especially -oriental pearls, have been entirely drilled through, as are often large -oriental rubies, diamonds, and sapphires. When these are set, the holes -are either plugged with pearl shell and polished smooth, or a tiny ruby -or diamond is set in a metal rim fitting entirely into the drill hole or -only slightly projecting. This is well instanced in the portrait of -Marguerite of France (1553–1615), in which the artist Delpech shows all -the pear-shaped pearls worn by the French queen entirely pierced. - -Frequently, where pearls have been drilled by oriental workmen, the -drill holes are exceedingly large, five or six times the width of the -silk string; in fact often from one to two millimeters in diameter. In -the search to supply the great demand, many oriental pearls have been -secured which formerly were strung to an oriental jewel by means of a -thick wire; it is necessary to close this aperture, as the pearl would -lie unevenly on the string. This is done by introducing a -mother-of-pearl plug, through which a new drill hole is made. Unless the -pearls are unstrung, this is rarely visible; but not infrequently the -plug drops out. In other cases the pearl has been drilled not only from -end to end, but also from the side, and this third hole is filled with a -plug of mother-of-pearl and polished over so as to hide the blemish from -the buyer. It is also no uncommon thing for a purchaser to find, after a -year, that cracks begin to develop where none apparently existed at the -time of his purchase, or they were so minute as to be considered of no -consequence. - -One of the earliest references to drilling pearls was made by Rugerus, a -monk who lived in the eleventh century. He says: - - Pearls are found in the sea-shell and shells of other waters; these - are perforated with a fine steeled instrument which is fixed in - wood, having a small wheel of lead, also another wood in which it - may be turned, to which a strap must be placed by which it may be - revolved. But should it be necessary that the aperture of any pearl - be made larger, a wire may be placed in the opening with a little - fine sand, one end of which may be held in the teeth, the other in - the left hand, and by the right the pearl is conducted upwards and - downwards, and in the meantime sand is applied, that the apertures - may become wider. Sea-shells are also cut into pieces and are filed - as pearls, sufficiently useful upon gold, and they are polished as - above.[417] - -In “The Toy Cart,” a Hindu drama by Sudrake, who lived about the -beginning of the Christian era, there is a description of a jeweler’s -workshop attached to the house of a courtezan. He says: “Some set rubies -in gold, some string gold beads on colored thread, some string pearls, -some grind lapis lazuli, some cut shells and some grind and pierce -coral.”[418] - -The Chinese and Korean method of drilling pearls differs materially from -that of the Occident. A pear-shaped pearl is frequently drilled -horizontally and secured by wire or silk, and not drilled -perpendicularly, as with us, to have a metal wire or peg fastened into -it. If the orientals drill a pearl perpendicularly, the hole is -generally carried entirely through it, and a gold knot, which is used as -a bead, is placed at the lower end, and sometimes a tiny gem is set in -this peg, or else the pearl is secured either by some projection below, -or by means of a bit of enamel, or some other object may be attached to -the gold or wire below it. Button pearls, especially those of the -abalone, are drilled horizontally through the base and secured to the -ornament, or to the silk or other material on which they are sewed, by -means of a thread or wire; or else they may be drilled from below by -means of two sloping holes forming a V, the thread or wire being passed -upward until it strikes the angle, and then passed outward again through -the other branch of the hole. Many fine, round, and pear-shaped pearls -of oriental origin may be seen with this end closed either with a speck -of pearl, a diamond, or a ruby. - -A most interesting and careful description of the methods of drilling -pearls was given by James Cordiner in his valuable volume, “A -Description of Ceylon,” published in London in 1807, pages 64–66. - -[Illustration: - - Scraping ends of silk threads for stringing pearl necklace -] - -[Illustration: - - Stringing a pearl collar in sections; cleaning and reaming out a pearl -] - -[Illustration: - - Sliding a pearl along the string in pearl stringing -] - -[Illustration: - - Tying a knot between pearls in pearl stringing -] - - PEARL STRINGING - - The next operation which claims attention is the drilling of the - pearls. I neglected to inspect this part of the business; but have - been informed that much admiration is excited, both by the dexterity - of the artist, and the rude simplicity of the machinery which he - employs. A block of wood, of the form of an inverted cone, is raised - upon three feet about twelve inches from the ground. Small holes or - pits of various sizes are cut in the upper flat surface, for the - reception of the pearls. The driller sits on his haunches close to - this machine, which is called a vadeagrum. The pearls are driven - steady into their sockets by a piece of iron with flat sides, about - one inch and a half in length. A well tempered needle is fixed in a - reed five inches long, with an iron point at the other end, formed - to play in the socket of a cocoanut shell, which presses on the - forehead of the driller. A bow is formed of a piece of bamboo and a - string. The workman brings his right knee in a line with the - vadeagrum, and places on it a small cup, formed of part of a - cocoanut shell, which is filled with water to moderate the heat of - friction. He bends his head over the machine, and applying the point - of the needle to a pearl sunk in one of the pits, drills with great - facility, every now and then dexterously dipping the little finger - of his right hand in the water, and applying it to the needle, - without impeding the operation. In this manner he bores a pearl in - the space of two or three minutes; and in the course of a day - perforates three hundred small or six hundred large pearls. The - needle is frequently sharpened with oil on a stone slab, and - sometimes, before the operation is performed, is heated in the flame - of a lamp. - - The large pearls are generally drilled first, in order to bring the - hand in to work with more ease on those of a smaller size; and - pearls less than a grain of mustard-seed are pierced with little - difficulty. - - After the pearls have been drilled, they must be immediately washed - in salt and water, to prevent the stains which would otherwise be - occasioned by the perforating instrument. - -A quaint description of pearl drilling was given by Anselmus de Boot in -1609.[419] - - Since all are not aware of the manner in which pearls are - perforated, I wish here to give an account of the method. The - handle. A, is held with the left hand, and then the handle, B, of - the bow is pushed back and forth with the right hand, so that there - is a reciprocal movement of the lance AC. The extreme end, C, has a - needle, not so sharp as to come to a point, but slightly blunted. - The needle is placed on the pearl which is to be perforated. If the - pearls are too small to be held, they are fastened in the case, D, - with a small hammer of soft wood, lest they should slip. The board - is inclosed on every side by strips of wood so that the water which - comes from the pearls shall not flow off. The bow being moved, the - needle penetrates and pierces the pearl and it is not corroded by - the water. - -A mythical story, but a pleasant one, is told of a great pearl collector -who had owned a wonderful pear-shaped pearl for many years and had -absolutely failed to find any match for it. After years of fruitless -search he was at last rewarded by finding an absolutely perfect mate. He -took this to his favorite jeweler in one of the great capitals of -Europe, and ordered the new gem to be pierced to match the other so that -both could be set. The jeweler called a small German boy from an -adjoining workshop, simply saying, “Jakey, drill this pearl to match the -other.” The collector was dumfounded that no caution should be given to -the boy when so important a piece of work was intrusted to his care. -Scarcely had the boy left the room when the collector inquired of the -jeweler, almost in consternation, “How can you trust so valuable a pearl -to so small a boy without a word of caution?” To this the dealer -replied: “Jakey is the most careful pearl driller I have ever known. I -know that there will be no failure in the drilling. I have never -cautioned him about such work. He never has drilled a pearl wrong. Had I -warned him of the value of the gem or told him how important a piece of -work he was doing, he probably would have become nervous and, as a -result, your pearl would have been cracked.” The conversation had -scarcely been completed before Jakey returned with the pearl as -beautifully drilled as the original one which it matched. - -In the Orient and elsewhere, when it is considered desirable to mount a -pearl so that it shall not turn, especially when only one part of the -pearl is perfect and that is to remain outside, the drill hole is -sometimes made square, that is to say, drilled round and then reamed out -with a small saw until it becomes square, when a square wire is -inserted; or else the pearl is first drilled with a tiny round hole and -this is then reamed out until it is triangular, when a triangular wire -is introduced. This method is sometimes used for studs or ring-settings. - -In setting pearls with points or claws on the wire or band of a ring, -the pearls are drilled only half way through. A gold pin is then -inserted, and sometimes a thread is cut into the pearl itself; it is -secured by means of gum mastic or some other strong gum. Occasionally, -to add greater strength, a side pin is put in, so that the pearl is -drilled with two bits of metal, which penetrate the one side in a -perfectly straight line and the other at an angle of about twenty-five -or thirty degrees (this is called side-pegging). This gives more -strength and firmness to the pearl itself, and prevents it from twisting -or twining and becoming loose. Sometimes the pearl hole is drilled so -that the opening is that of a screw-thread, in order to hold it to the -earring, the stud, or the ring. The gold pin which is inserted to attach -the pearl to the ring or stud has a screw-thread also, and the peg or -pin is screwed on as well as secured. - -An ingenious method, termed “keying,” for securing the peg in pearls to -be set on rings or studs, consists in drilling a hole half through the -pearl and then two smaller holes or grooves on each side of the first. -Cutting tools of a T-shape are now introduced into the aperture and -worked about until the pearl is undercut all around, so that when a peg -with a cross-piece is inserted, the latter can be turned within the -pearl until it sets at right angles with the widest part of the -aperture. In this way the peg is permanently secured and cannot slip -out. - -The fact that in recent years more pearls have appeared in necklaces -that are irregularly bored, that the bore holes are so large that they -are plugged with mother-of-pearl, or that one meets with pearls in which -a plug has been placed in the side immediately in the center between the -two drill holes, is due to the fact that the great demand has resulted -in the destruction of many oriental ornaments in which the pearls were -drilled in various ways, as well as in the destruction of the different -Magyar and other semi-official jewels of eastern Europe. - -The most primitive known drills were the flint drills, made by the North -American Indians by chipping chert or flint-like minerals to a fine -point. With these rude instruments a large, irregular hole was made, -which generally measured several times the diameter of the fine drill -hole made by a modern pearl driller with an improved drill. The Indians -are also said to have used hot copper drills for boring holes. - -The earliest, and still a very general and perhaps the best way of -drilling pearls, is by means of the bow- or fiddle-drill. This method -has been used in a more or less perfected form by all the aboriginal -peoples of the New World from Iceland to Tierra del Fuego. But as none -of these peoples were familiar with fine, hard steel, they scarcely ever -succeeded in making drill holes as fine as those that can be produced by -the use of tempered steel. By the latter means, pearls half an inch in -diameter are often drilled entirely through with an aperture no larger -than a thin bit of straw. - -The largest and finest pearls are frequently drilled with the smallest -holes, as the slightest loss in weight means a diminution in value. -Then, too, a pearl with a small drill hole is not so liable to shift on -the string, and thus is less likely to cut the silk thread which holds -the pearls together. - -It would be difficult to enumerate all the tricks to which some jewelers -now resort in order to utilize every fragment of a pearl they can lay -their hands on. Some of them are wonderfully clever at reconstruction, -but to the woman who loves pearls, nothing can take the place of the -soft, beautiful, round gem, with its natural surface. - -In sorting pearls for the smaller necklaces, it is customary to open up -a number of dozen bunches of the East Indian pearls as they are sent -from the East, strung, the ends fastened together in bunches, and then -sealed. These pearls are placed on a table and are first arranged -according to color and luster on the sorting board. They are then -grouped according to size and graduation, the greatest care being -exercised in the selection for color, luster, and form. In this way ten -necklaces may be re-strung into ten others, the necklaces probably being -improved as regards selection, or else better arranged for the uses to -which the jeweler wishes to put them. - -In the case of the larger necklaces, it frequently requires many years -of selection and arrangement before one becomes perfect enough to pass -the criticism or suit the fancy of the jeweler. - -We have no record as to when the first pearl necklace was strung, nor -have we a definite record of the first use of silk for stringing a -necklace. The earliest illustration that we have been able to obtain of -the use of pearls in the form of a necklace is the one from Susa, in -which the pearls were secured with gold. A Syrian necklace, dating about -one or two centuries before Christ, was strung by means of a bronze -wire. We will endeavor to give a few facts on the interesting process of -preparing pearls for wearing. - -Pearl stringing is an art, easy as the process may seem, and it is -interesting to note the precision, care, and delicacy with which the -pearl stringer performs his task. The first step is to grade the pearls -according to their size and color, so that they may produce the best -possible effect. The largest and finest pearl is placed in the center; -alongside of this, on each side, are laid the two pearls next in size -which are the most nearly alike in form and hue; and so on to the end of -the necklace. This grouping requires both experience and judgment, and -is of great importance, since the value of the pearls is often -considerably enhanced by a proper arrangement. A skilful stringer is -able to grade them so cleverly that only a trifling difference will be -found in the weight of the two halves of a necklace. - -The stringing process consists in securing the end pearl by a knot to -the diamond, pearl, or other clasp which may be used. When a necklace is -being strung, the thread is passed through the metal eye, or pearl, or -other object that serves as a clasp. It is then tied with one knot, -passed through the next pearl, and knotted between that and the second -pearl, and sometimes between the second and the third, thus making the -joint doubly secure. The other pearls are then strung in their order, a -knot being placed after each fifth, fourth, third, or second pearl, or, -should there not be enough to give a proper length to the necklace, -between each single pearl. The deftness with which the knot is tied so -as not to hold the pearl too tightly, and risk the breaking of the -thread, and the precision with which forty, fifty, and even sometimes -several hundred knots are made on a single string, is a pleasing -operation to witness, and requires the greatest care and nicety of -touch. If knots are made frequently between the pearls, there is less -danger of losing them should the thread break, as only one or two can -fall off; sometimes, indeed, when the drill holes are very small, the -silk thread, waxed or unwaxed, fits so closely that the pearl does not -become detached even when the thread breaks. - -The thread used is invariably of silk of the highest standard of purity, -strength, and texture, undyed, and not containing any chemicals. Two or -three of these threads are held together, then with a knife the edges -are very carefully scraped till the combined material of the three -threads is less than the thickness of one. Some use a needle to scrape -or fray to a sharp point. Then this point is stiffened by means of -“white glue,” the best material of this kind being pure gum arabic -dissolved in water. A little of this is rubbed on the pointed threads. -It stiffens in a moment, then the pearls are passed on, one after the -other. If the pearls to be strung are already on a necklace, this -process is simplified by the unknotting of the end of the necklace to be -re-strung; two or three of the pearls are slid on to the new string, the -ends or points of the new necklace thread are twisted together with the -old ends and the pearls are simply transferred. - -Frequently the holes have been drilled so as to leave the rims rather -sharp; in this way the thread may be frayed out or even cut. This sharp -edge can easily be removed by careful reaming. Silk of pure quality is -the best material known for stringing pearls. A series of experiments -were made with every available fiber of sufficient durability from every -quarter of the globe, but silk alone was found to possess the strength, -the flexibility, and the smoothness necessary to permit a very fine set -of threads to pass through an opening as small as the drill hole of a -pearl. In the case of a long chain or sautoire, more than three hundred -pearls will be strung on a single row, one of over eighty inches in -length containing over three hundred pearls, and it requires a degree of -neatness and patience that few possess to do this in exactly the right -way, so that the thread may not be cut, that the pearls may not be too -tightly strung, and that the ends shall be carefully attached at the -clasp, so that the necklace may hang well and there may be no danger of -the ends breaking loose. - -According to the frequency with which it is worn, a necklace should be -re-strung every three, six, or twelve months. The proper time for -re-stringing can generally be determined by the stretching of the thread -so that it can be seen either between the pearls or at either end, -giving the impression that one or more pearls are missing. A newly -strung necklace is taut. - -Where a collar is from thirteen to fourteen inches in length, there are -frequently twenty-three rows of pearls, kept straight by four jeweled -bars, and sometimes from ten to twenty-five pearls in a section between -a bar. This would mean that there are more than two thousand pearls in a -collar of small pearls. When one considers that at each bar and at the -catch and clasp of the collar it is necessary to make a knotting, it is -not surprising that it requires from three to four days’ time of a very -expert pearl stringer to string or re-string such a pearl collar. A -splendid example of such a twenty-three-row collar is that belonging to -Señora Diaz, wife of the President of the Republic of Mexico.[420] - -Frequent stringing may sometimes serve as a protection for pearls, as, -if wax is used, the drill hole is likely to become coated with wax from -the thread, and this prevents the absorption by the pearl of -perspiration or moisture of any kind through the thread. Indeed, the -thread itself, when waxed, does not readily absorb moisture, and as the -interior of the pearl also becomes waxed, this serves to protect it from -the absorption of humidity of any kind. - -In making pearl necklets or muff-chains, a piece of gold wire of the -proper strength and pliability is taken. This wire is passed through the -hole of the pearl and then cleverly bent into a loop on each side and -firmly soldered. It is important that the wire should be very slightly -smaller than the dimension of the hole in the pearl so that it may fit -closely. Sometimes, instead of this method, a ring is soldered to one -end of the wire before this is passed through the pearl, the other end -being then secured in the manner described above. Still another method -is occasionally employed; in this a piece of the wire is bent into a -ring, but not quite closed, the aperture being just large enough to -admit the wire that has traversed the pearl; in this way the wire can be -introduced into the opening in the ring, which grips it tightly, and is -then soldered to it. In many cases two small rings are strung on the -wire on each side of the pearl before the loops are made, so that they -interpose between the latter and the pearl itself. This serves to -protect the sides of the pearl, as there is otherwise some danger that -the hole may become chipped or ragged; the same result can be obtained -if small caps, closely fitting the pearl, are used instead of the rings. -This is, however, only possible when the pearl is quite round, and in -this case the effect produced is often very attractive. - -[Illustration: - - NECKLACE OF SEED-PEARLS. UNITED STATES. CIVIL WAR PERIOD. -] - -Many of the pearls set as rings and studs are no longer set in points, -but are set upon a peg, or are “pegged,” as it is termed. Setting a -pearl in claws generally hides more than one half of the entire sphere. -But if the pearl is not properly secured upon the peg, it will -occasionally fall off. However, this can be obviated to a great extent -by attaching the pearl to a double peg which keeps it from turning and -also prevents its falling off. Pearls have occasionally been damaged -with the shellac used, or when the gold peg on which the pearl is placed -was too hot. - -In mounting very small pearls as link chains so as to form a continuous -pearly rope without any break in the way of gold links, occasionally -V-shaped cavities are drilled into each end of the pearl, and the -setting itself is hidden in this V-shaped cavity. This is only done -where the pearls are small and not of great value. - -The jeweler, in setting pearls, must use the greatest possible care, -first, in cutting away the settings, as they are fastened to the pearl, -not to scratch or mar it; and then, when he files the settings, not to -allow the file to touch the pearl, as both the steel tool and the file -would injure it. He must particularly avoid placing the pearl too close -to a diamond, ruby, or other precious stone; for, even if the pearl only -slightly touches the gem against which it is set, a knock of the hand -may mar the pearl’s surface. More especially, as pearls are set at -present, “pegged” and without points, it is of the greatest importance -that they be worn in such a way that they may not touch the unexposed -edges of any precious stones, as this also would injure the pearls. For -lack of this precaution fine pearls have frequently been harmed. - -A large jewelry firm has under consideration the following pearl order: -Any workman who in any way mutilates a pearl by filing, imperfect -drilling or shaping, or in any way affects the shape of a pearl, without -the authority of the foreman, will be called upon to pay for the same. - -As pearls are natural objects, any change of the same to fit the -setting, or for attachment to any gold object, mutilates the gem and -greatly affects its value. If belonging to a customer, this frequently -means its replacement, often at a great cost to the jeweler. - -Pearl “blisters” frequently have the appearance of being empty; they are -generally filled with a fluid, either water or the product of animal and -vegetable decomposition. These contents usually emit a peculiar and -unpleasant odor. As the exterior of the inclosure gradually wears away -and disappears, the contents of the blister are slowly absorbed by the -shell itself, and any organic or insoluble substances are deposited on -its inner surface. - -Thus, when a shell shows any protuberance on this surface, the peeler -will cut or scrape away a portion of the decaying shell behind the spot. -Should he discover the hole of a borer, he lays the shell aside; but if -he finds it to be perfect at this spot, it is evident that the inclusion -came from within, and frequently it turns out to be an included pearl. -This is removed by breaking the shell, or by cutting around the -protuberance very near to its edge, and then breaking away the shell. -The pearl is often visible, and layer after layer of the covering mass -is removed with the greatest care by the peeler, who is rewarded by -bringing to light pearls of various qualities, and frequently those of -great value. - -An instance in which, by opening a pearl blister, the speculator -received a good reward is given by Streeter, who says: “The _Harriet_ -had the good luck to find, in 1882, a pearl 103 grains in weight, which -was inclosed in a huge blister. It was a fine _bouton_, of splendid -color in the upper portion, but a trifle chalky below. This was -attributed to the admission of salt water into the shell through a hole -made by a borer which happened to pierce the shell just where the pearl -lay, and had penetrated the latter for almost a quarter of an inch.” - -Sometimes pearl masses are hollow. Barbot[421] mentions that a French -merchant residing in Mexico, having bought one of these pieces from a -fisherman at a low price, resolved to satisfy his curiosity by finding -out what was inside. He split it in two parts and was agreeably -surprised to find a pearl weighing 14¼ carats (57 grains), so round, of -such good water, and such fine orient, that he sold it in Paris for -nearly 5000 francs ($1000) in 1850. - -Seed-pearl work was introduced into the United States, about seventy -years ago, by Henry Dubosq, who had studied the methods employed in -Europe and has been succeeded in this industry by his son, Augustus -Dubosq. The father bought a large quantity of English seed-pearl -jewelry, brought it to this country, and hired a number of girls to take -it apart carefully and re-string it with white horsehair, to learn how -it was made. With no more teaching, he established an industry that has -already lasted for three score and ten years. - -Seed-pearl jewelry was most in vogue from the year 1840 to 1860. It was -generally sold in sets, in a case consisting of a collar, two bracelets, -two earrings, a small brooch, and a large spray or corsage ornament. If -the object was almost round, occasionally there was a larger central -pearl, weighing from one to five grains, usually a button pearl; or, if -the ornament was elongated, there were generally three larger pearls. -These sometimes possessed a fairly good luster. Seed-pearl jewelry was -at one time so popular, and the values were so small in this country, -that a $1000 seed-pearl set formed a principal feature of the Tiffany -exhibit at the International Exposition held at the Crystal Palace, New -York, in 1855. - -[Illustration: - - MOTHER-OF-PEARL SHELL FROM TAHITI - - Illustration of a mother-of-pearl shell, showing where a blister has - been cut out. In this instance a large pear-shaped pearly blister - appeared almost in the center of the shell. A dealer removed this by - means of a saw, and was surprised to find that the mother-of-pearl, - instead of remaining intact, parted in two pieces. Between these two - pieces was a mass of green and white calcareous matter. The two - upper figures show the pearly side and the outside of the shell - whence the blister was cut. The figures below show the inside and - outside of each half of the blister and the earthy matter inclosed. - - - A is the pearl sawn from the shell. - - B is the piece of pearl that parted from the back of this pearly mass. - - C and F are two views of the included calcareous matter. - - D is the reverse of A, showing the cavity. - - E is the reverse of B; originally A rested on B. - - - There was no indication of any hollow space, or that the mass was not - perfect. -] - -Seed-pearl tiaras sell for from $75 to $200 or $300 each. The work is -almost entirely done by girls, either German or of German origin. As -labor is higher and pearls have advanced in price, none of the old work -could now be duplicated for the amount it cost twenty or thirty years -ago. The stringing of the pearls on the English scroll means probably -twelve hours of continuous work. An efficient pearl worker receives -$3.50 a day, which consists of not more than eight hours, as, owing to -the very trying character of the work, clear daylight is necessary to -see the holes in the small pearls and in the mother-of-pearl shell. - -The foundation of all seed-pearl work is mother-of-pearl. The shell is -brought in thin plates, measuring from one and one half to two and one -half inches square. One of the most popular and attractive patterns is -the English scroll. If a design is to be repeated, a brass figure is -made. For the fabrication of a brooch, for instance, a design is first -made by drawing on a paper or cardboard; then a brass plate or pattern -is cut out, leaving spaces wherever there are to be no pearls. After -this a slab of stock mother-of-pearl, nearest the size of the brass -plate, is selected, and is sawn out, using the brass plate as a guide -for the outlines. The mother-of-pearl is then pierced wherever a pearl -is to be secured, and the pearls for its embellishment are chosen, and -are strung onto the mother-of-pearl outlines with a special horsehair -thread. All the work that remains for the jeweler is the addition of a -pin or catch on the back. A representation is given of the designs, the -brass plate, the mother-of-pearl, the horsehair, the pearls, and the -completed brooch made by this model. - -Fine horsehair is used for stringing seed-pearls, because the holes -drilled in them are usually too small to admit of the use of silk, and -it is very important that what is known as pulled hair, taken from a -living horse, should be used, as otherwise the hair is too brittle. This -hair, in bunches of from eight to fourteen inches in length, is sold at -an average price of $1.50 a pound, and frequently only one ounce is -selected for use from the entire pound. - -All the pearls used by the seed-pearl workers are purchased in strings -and bunches; the finest are those known as the Chinese seed-pearls; they -are drilled and strung in bunches, weighing three ounces, and are worth -$40 an ounce. They are drilled with so fine an aperture that silk will -not pass through the pearl, and only horsehair can be used. The Indian -Madras pearls, however, have a larger drill hole and can be strung with -silk; they are at present worth from eight to fifteen cents a grain, -that is, $48 to $90 per ounce. - -Immense quantities of these very minute pearls are also used in bunches -or strings, sometimes as many as twenty or thirty strings being grouped -together and either bound straight or else twisted into veritable ropes -of pearls. - -Seed-pearls are sold by the ounce, a single ounce frequently containing -as many as 9000,—that is, fifteen pearls to the pearl grain or sixty to -the carat,—selling for from $48 to $60 an ounce. Naturally, some of -these pearls are even smaller than this, but the average is maintained -by those that are a little larger. - -Pearls as small as 100 to a diamond carat are drilled and used in -seed-pearl work. Diamonds, rubies, and even sapphires, however, are cut -in brilliant form when they are as small as 250 to 300 to the carat, or -45,000 to the ounce. The price of these small pearls, however, is only -from eight to fifteen cents per carat, whereas diamonds of this size are -worth from $200 to $300, their value being three times that of those -weighing one sixteenth to one eighth carat each. This is due to the fact -that the labor expended in cutting the smaller diamonds is much greater -than that bestowed upon the pearls, which simply require drilling and -not cutting. - -“Half-pearl,” as we have mentioned, is the name given to such pearls as -are round and spherically domed and are either somewhat flat or almost -the shape of one half of a whole pearl of the same diameter. They are -produced in two ways: some are cut away as hemispheres from the inner -surface of the shell of the pearl-mussel, but more usually they are the -better portions of defective whole pearls which are sawn or split by -hand into two “halves” with a minute saw, the defective part being -rejected altogether or classified as inferior half-pearl, while the -better half is classified as a I or II quality half-pearl. Frequently a -fine specimen is obtained from an elongated pearl, and sometimes two, -three, or even four half-pearls are secured from the various bright -parts of a round pearl. In splitting half-pearls, the pearl to be -operated upon is held by hand in a kind of grooved vice or pincers and -sawn through with a very fine saw; this process is at once simple, -rapid, and of insignificant cost. - -Only pearls which cannot be cut are filed. In this process the poorer -side of the pearl in question is laid upon the file, and the operator -takes a piece of ordinary hard wood, so formed that he can grasp it -firmly in his hand, presses it down upon the pearl, and rubs the latter -on the file, removing all but the good side. In this way a half-pearl is -produced. - -The smaller half-pearls are from .5 to .75 millimeters in diameter, and -an ordinary ounce of half-pearl material will number 18,000. Of the -manufactured half-pearls there are, on an average, 20,528 to an ounce. - -The half-pearl industry is largely carried on in Idar, on the Nahe -River, and in Oberstein, in the Duchy of Oldenburg, Germany. The pearls -are usually purchased from London or Paris houses in lots valued up to -$12,000 or more, although some of the firms buy directly from India. In -Idar about one hundred people are employed in this industry. Frequently -it is pursued m the home of the manufacturer, who may employ from one to -a dozen or more workers. These generally include a sorter or arranger, -and a marker to indicate the part of the pearl which should be sawn off. -There is also a trimmer or one who finally adjusts the pearls. - -An unusually clever bit of deception was practised by an American pearl -fisher who had found two pearl blisters of almost identical size. Both -of these blisters were hollow, and were alike in form. The pearl dealer -very cleverly polished down both sides, rounded off the edges, cemented -the two backs together, and except for a tiny edge they had all the -appearance of a drop pearl that was fairly perfect on both sides. It -required but a little heating to separate the parts and show the -deception. - -In setting half-pearls, they are generally selected from large lots with -great care as to their being of uniform size. A circular place for the -setting is often drilled with a steel drill, either for several or for a -single one. The half-pearl is frequently placed on one or more tiny -disks of paper, to give it the exact height in the setting, and the edge -of gold is rubbed up against the pearl, which is thus secured in its -place; or else tiny edges of gold are left projecting between each -pearl. These are pressed down after the pearl is in place. This process -requires great delicacy and skill and is frequently employed in the -decoration of pearl lockets and watches. In some of the cheaper work, -the half-pearls are cemented into the shallow disks that were drilled -for them, but frequently they are secured by metal points skilfully -raised out of the disks in which the pearls are set, and then pressed -down to hold the latter in place. Although apparently frailly set, it is -surprising that half-pearl ornaments have been owned for more than a -century, scarcely a pearl dropping out; and even if one or two pearls -should be lost from the piece of jewelry, the expense of replacing them -is not very great. They are often not as safely set when they are -mounted with diamonds, rubies, or other stones, more especially in -rounded rings or bracelets. - -In drilling gold for the setting of half-pearls, where the hole must not -be carried right through the metal, a so-called “pearl drill” is used. -This is designed to cut a hole with a flat base in comparatively thin -layers of metal without disfiguring the opposite side, a task that can -easily be accomplished if care be taken not to drill deeper than is -strictly necessary for the safe adjustment of the pearl. For the -construction of this drill a piece of round steel wire of suitable size -is chosen; this is hammered flat at one end and then filed away at each -side, leaving a small spike standing in the center, which projects a -little beyond the cutting edges and acts as a pivot on which the drill -revolves. The steel on both sides of this spike is filed down to a fine -edge, care being taken to preserve the horizontal line, so that when the -spike is embedded in the metal both cutting edges come into play -simultaneously. If the drill is in good condition, it does its work very -rapidly, since it is used in an upright drill-stock, whose weight gives -a uniform and constant pressure. A good range of sizes of this drill -should be kept ready for use, so that one may be found to suit the -dimensions of any given pearl. This is essential in order to make an -opening just large enough to hold the gem, so that it may fit tightly, -without the necessity of reaming out the hole. - -Half-pearls were frequently used with the most pleasing effect in the -decoration of antique watches. A number of remarkable examples of this -type are among the collection of antique watches of Henry Walters of -Baltimore. This collection had been acquired by Tiffany & Co. after the -sale of the San Donato Palace, the watches having been withdrawn from -the prince’s collection by his sister sometime before the sale. - -In mounting pearls on gold, a white paste is sometimes employed in -half-pearl mounting, which is called by the French jewelers _gouache_. -This substance contains white lead, and its use is liable to be -injurious to the workmen, cases of lead colic having been recently -recognized as thus produced. This subject has lately (1907) been brought -forward at the Société Médicale des Hôpitaux in Paris. The cases were at -first mistaken for appendicitis, but proved to be well-marked cases of -lead poisoning. They had not been reported previously, and are evidently -not frequent, those noted being confined to instances in which the -employees had carelessly been in the habit of removing an excess of the -paste with the tongue. - -Pearls that are constantly worn with judicious care do not seem to -deteriorate in any way. By judicious care we mean that pearls should not -be dropped or thrown down violently or placed on any substance which is -likely to act injuriously on the surface of the pearl itself. - -Strings of pearls should never be dipped into water or solutions of any -kind, because the string which passes through them is likely to absorb -and to draw the liquid into the pearl, and as the pearl is made up of -many concentric layers, it is quite possible that, through capillary -action, some liquid, either pure, or stained with a foreign substance, -might be brought into the pearl, which would in this way eventually -become discolored. Rings and brooches containing half-pearls frequently -change color from this cause; but contact with the skin, or with lace, -or with fabrics which are not stained with certain chemical solutions, -seems to have no injurious effect upon pearls. - -[Illustration: - - Ladies’ sewing case and scissors inlaid with half-pearls - - Eighteenth Century -] - -[Illustration: - - Watch incrusted with half-pearls - - Paris Exposition, 1900 -] - -[Illustration: - - Snuff-box, ivory inlaid with fresh-water pearls - - Eighteenth Century. Collection, Metropolitan Museum of Art -] - -[Illustration: - - Watch incrusted with half-pearls - - Paris Exposition, 1900 -] - -[Illustration: - - Miniature of Catherine Emilie Peake, by Richard Cosway. Gold frame, - surrounded by half-pearls. Eighteenth Century -] - -[Illustration: - - Watch incrusted with half-pearls - - Paris Exposition, 1900 -] - -It is quite possible that in some instances where pearls which have been -inherited are thought to have changed and lost their beauty, this belief -has been owing to an exaggerated opinion of their quality on the part of -those who expected to inherit them and who never had the opportunity to -examine them carefully. In other words, in many cases where pearls are -believed to have lost their luster, to have died, or partly died, there -seems, from the personal observation of the writer, to be little doubt -that they never were really fine pearls, and that no change had actually -taken place in them. That pearls change but slightly is evidenced by the -fact that a splendid necklace belonging to the Empress Eugenie, which -was purchased about the year 1860, is in as good condition to-day as -when it first passed into the hands of the unfortunate empress of the -Second Empire. Many of the pearls in the royal treasury in Vienna that -belonged to Maria Theresa, and those that were disposed of at the sale -of the French crown jewels in 1886, as well as the pearls that are in -the imperial collection at St. Petersburg, do not seem to show any -appreciable evidence of age. - -The pearl is of a lower hardness than any of the precious or -semiprecious stones, and almost as soft as malachite, though not so -friable or liable to break as is that mineral; nevertheless, it is in -many ways one of the most indestructible of natural objects of the low -hardness. Still, pearls, and especially fine pearls, require some care; -but, if the same attention is accorded them as would be given to a fine -piece of lace, velvet, or other fabric, or to a fine jewel, they will -last for a number of generations. If, however, pearls are worn at all -times without removal, if they are worn in the bath, if they are thrown -on a dressing-table, dropped on the floor, or otherwise ill-treated, if -they are worn on dusty automobile rides, in bicycle riding, or during -other gymnastic or violent exercise, it is inevitable that their sides -will rub together and wear one another away. If they are worn in the -bath or in swimming, the silk string which holds them, should it become -soaked, may draw some of the water, accompanied perhaps with dust and -perspiration, through the drill hole into the center of the pearl, and -this is likely to be absorbed in turn by the various layers of the -pearl, in some instances undoubtedly affecting the color, changing it to -a yellow or a gray. It would be well not to wear pearls under the -exceptional conditions above mentioned; and, if they are carefully wiped -at times, so as to remove any perspiration or dust, their color is not -likely to be affected for a long period of time. - -Dr. George Harley writes in the “Proceedings of the Royal Society,” -March 1, 1888, p. 463: - - On one occasion being desirous to crush into powder a split-pea - sized pearl, we folded it between two plies of note-paper, turned up - the corner of the carpet, and placing it on the hard, bare floor, - stood upon it with all our weight. Yet, notwithstanding that we - weigh over twelve stone, we failed to make any impression whatever - upon the pearl, and even stamping upon it with the heel of our boot - did not suffice so much as to fracture it. It was accordingly given - to the servant to break with a hammer, and on his return he informed - us that on attempting to break it with the hammer against the pantry - table, all he succeeded in doing was to make the pearl pierce - through the paper and sink into the wooden table, just as if it had - been the top part of an iron nail, and that it was not until he had - given it a hard blow with the hammer against the bottom of a - flat-iron that he succeeded in breaking it. - -As the foregoing and other notes had appeared on this subject, the -author was led to observe that pearls are possessed of greater -durability than is generally supposed. In order to demonstrate this -satisfactorily, he took a number of American pearls and placed them upon -different kinds of woods, such as white and yellow pine, white oak, -teak, ash, cherry, chestnut, and rosewood. He then stood upon them, thus -bringing a weight of more than two hundred pounds to bear upon them by -means of his heel. The pearls were driven into the different woods, with -the single exception of the rosewood, which offered greater resistance -so that the pearl only entered partly. In but one instance did a pearl -suffer by a slight scaling off. This shows the strength of the many -concentric layers, both mineral and vegetable. - -This does not signify that pearls should be stepped upon, trodden upon, -or thrown about, as it is not unlikely that a pearl would crack if it -should fall from some height upon a hardwood or stone floor. - -It is believed by many that wrapping pearls in dyed velvets or in fatty -woolen materials, and locking them up in safe-deposit vaults, may -slightly change them. On the other hand, there is no doubt that sunlight -will bleach a pearl, and hence it is that wearing them in the light and -air cannot injuriously affect them. - -For cleaning pearls, first rub them with a cloth dipped in alcohol -diluted with warm (not hot) water, or in a weak solution of soap and -water, then dip another cloth in clean water and rub the pearls until -they are dry. Be careful not to leave them wet. Either salt, rice, -pearl-powder, or some exceedingly soft substance may aid in cleaning -them, but no abrasive such as ground pumice, electro-silicon, or any -powder that is sold as a polishing powder, should be used. - -[Illustration: - - EVOLUTION OF A SEED-PEARL BROOCH - - Mother-of-pearl plate Brass model Pearl brooch completed - Design of brooch Mother-of-pearl sawn out -] - -[Illustration: - - Seed-pearls, Indian strings White horsehair for stringing -] - -There are many things that will cause injury to pearls. Occasionally -they are affected by the wearer having exudations from the skin induced -by some disease or else by acids which pass out through the pores with -the perspiration. A smoky atmosphere in which a sulphuric acid is -present owing to sulphur in the coal, violent usage such as knocking -severely, or dropping—all of these will in time cause more or less -injury to a pearl, more especially to one of the whiter varieties; but -it is believed that those of a yellowish cast are not so susceptible. -Diderot mentioned this as early as 1765. - -The “life” of a pearl is said to be fifty, one hundred, and perhaps even -one hundred and fifty years; they certainly last for several -generations. It has been asserted, without any particular authority, -that pearls from the Pacific Ocean and those from Mexico do not last as -long as those from the Orient, but this statement is questionable. - -If there be any foundation for the belief that it is not well to lock -pearls in a safe-deposit box, this is probably owing to the fact that -the absolute exclusion from the air may cause the drying out of the -organic constituent of the pearl. This may be obviated by putting the -pearls in a piece of linen absolutely free from any chemical, at the -same time placing with them a bit of blotting-paper or fiber-paper -saturated with water; the whole should then be wrapped up in paraffin -paper, which will prevent the evaporation of the moisture. - -Many sentimental recitals have appeared in the press during the last ten -years in regard to the dying of pearls. In connection with this there is -a beautiful though mythical story to the effect that Carlotta, wife of -the ill-fated Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico, was the possessor of a -large collection of pearls which had died, and that these pearls had -been placed in a casket and sunk in the depths of the Adriatic, opposite -the beautiful but unhappy palace home, Miramar, in the hope that the -salt water would revive and restore their original luster. When, -however, the time came to bring up the pearls from the sea, it was found -that the casket had, in some way, broken loose from the chains, and all -trace of it was lost. It is needless to state that there was absolutely -no foundation for this romantic tale; indeed, these very pearls were -afterward sold. Furthermore, pearls have never lived, and hence they can -never die. They do, however, decay, if exposed to influences which -destroy either the calcareous or the animal layer of the pearl itself. -This is due to many causes: first, overheating, sometimes through the -inexperience of a pearl driller; secondly, undue exposure to heat in the -washing of a pearl necklace; thirdly, exposure to acids or acid fumes. -Apparently there seems to be some foundation for the belief that if they -are confined in safe-deposit boxes, probably in contact with wool or -with the colored velvets of jewel-cases, the skin of the pearl may be -more or less affected. There is no question that in the oriental -fisheries so-called dead pearls have been found in the shell itself, -probably owing to some disease of the pearl-oyster; and they have also -appeared in the fresh-water pearl fisheries of the United States, where -the pearls have been too long boiled in the opening of the shell, or -where they have been swallowed and have passed through the body of some -ruminant, such as a hog, etc. - -[Illustration: - - Facsimile letter of M. Gaston Mogeaud, Director of the Louvre, Paris, - stating that the Madame Thiers’ pearls are in perfect condition, and - have never been in better health. -] - -[Illustration: - - MADAME THIERS’S PEARL NECKLACE, BEQUEATHED TO THE LOUVRE MUSEUM, PARIS -] - -Probably about no necklace has more been printed than about the famous -necklace of Madame Thiers, now in the Louvre Museum of Paris. Article -after article has gone over the face of the earth, stating that the -pearls in this necklace were dying, and that a record was being kept of -the slow death that was overtaking them. Through the courtesy of the -director of the museum, M. Gaston Mogeaud, we are permitted to reproduce -the following statement from a letter, showing very clearly that there -is absolutely no truth in the assertion, and that this necklace has in -no way suffered, or is likely to suffer, for many years to come. - -“The necklace of Madame Thiers has caused much ink to flow, to such an -extent that, a few months ago, the minister ordered an examination to be -made by three expert jewelers, who have found that the pearls are in -perfect condition, and have never been in better health.” - -For assuring the safety of jewels there are the primitive methods such -as are used in the East Indies, of hiding pearls in out-of-the-way -places, where they often escape detection; or else they may be protected -by means of an armored room, like the gem-room that contained the -wonderful collection of the Duke of Brunswick when he resided in Paris. -Decoy necklaces have even been made to represent the original, and so -placed that they were taken away by the highwayman or stolen by the -burglar under the belief that he was stealing the jewels; while in other -cases the pearls have been carried in receptacles that would not be -taken for jewel-caskets, a device resorted to by some travelers. - -A word in regard to the former system of strong boxes or small safes for -the home. These protect from fire and from the ordinary thief, but they -have sometimes not proved so invulnerable to the expert cracksman. Quite -recently a jewel chest has been devised which can be placed in a trunk -and carried from city to city by the owner. It is provided with an -exceedingly sensitive electrical apparatus, by means of which a loud -burglar alarm is set off should the chest be lifted even one -thirty-second of an inch or jarred ever so slightly. This alarm is set -automatically when the owner turns the key, and if once started, it will -ring for a couple of hours, stopping only when the box is unlocked, thus -preventing the carrying away of what is otherwise a portable box. - -Lastly, there are the more advanced methods, in use during the past two -centuries, such as taking the jewels to a banker and allowing him to -place them in his vault, where they are guarded as well as are his own -belongings, but not always with the security of the modern safe-deposit -vaults, where the gems are absolutely under the control of the owner, -and can frequently be obtained at any hour of the day; or as safely kept -as they are when deposited in the safe deposit of the jeweler, in whose -establishment they can be cleaned, repaired, added to, or changed -without risking their removal to another building. - - - - - XV - - PEARLS AS USED IN ORNAMENTS AND DECORATION - - - - - XV - PEARLS AS USED IN ORNAMENTS AND DECORATION - - - And the necklace, - An India in itself, yet dazzling not. - - BYRON, _Marino Faliero_. - -The brilliant diamond and the love of its possession has captivated many -to such a degree that it has often been the cause of intrigue and -bloodshed; and national history has been influenced by its acquisition -or retention. The pearl, however, though the most quiet of gems, has, in -its own way, found favor in the sight of emperors and empresses, kings -and queens, generals, nobles, and priests; and even savages have admired -its quiet, stately dignity. - -The following pages are devoted to a description of the various -ornamental uses of the pearl in different times and countries. -Naturally, many of the famous pearls in the following chapter, if -considered purely as ornaments, might have found a place here. - -The Egyptians of olden times do not appear to have used fine pearls, -although they probably knew of them on account of the proximity of the -Red Sea. M. J. de Morgan, the explorer, says: “In the tombs of Dashour I -have never seen any; the only ones that I know of in Egyptian jewelry -belong to the Ptolemaic period and are mounted in Greek style.”[422] - -This statement is confirmed by Dr. William F. Petrie, the well-known -Egyptologist, who writes under date of July 26, 1907: “The pearl was -often used in Roman jewelry in Egypt, but I do not know of any instance -of it in pure Egyptian work. The Romans pierced it and hung it by gold -wire on earrings. They also made glass, pearl-like beads, called _luli_ -by the modern natives. These beads are made by silvering glass beads and -then flashing over them another coat of glass.” - -Among specimens of the late Egyptian work we may note here some objects -in the Louvre: - -A pleasing decoration on gold wire is a necklace in the collection of -the Egyptian Gallery. In this very small pearls are used as a connective -decoration for the points of leaves, and to hold the leaves and -ornaments is a gold wire which is secured by bending. This piece -comprises 104 pearls, a greater number than is contained in any other -object of antiquity found in Egypt. - -An Egyptian pendant of unknown origin is also shown in this collection. -At the lower end is a bull’s head, caparisoned, and the tip of each horn -is fitted with a ball like the _embolados toros_ of the Spanish -bull-fights. The rein is double, and above this there are two rondelles -of an unidentified material; then comes a rondelle of lapis lazuli, and -after this a rondelle of gold. The whole is strung with twisted gold -wire. The center stone is an hexagonal amethyst, evidently a crystal, -the two faces of which had been polished and incised. One of these faces -represents a priest with a staff of office, and the other a priest -holding an incense-burner with the hieroglyph of the altar. With one -hand he is offering the two sacrifices, the mineral and the vegetable; -in the other he holds a garland of flowers or leaves. Above this is an -Oriental pearl somewhat worn and abraded. All these are secured by a -twisted gold wire, to which four tiny gold beads of graduated size are -affixed at the top of the pendant. - -There are six other pendants and earrings in the Egyptian Gallery, all -of which contain pearls, and in most instances these pearls have been -drilled and suspended by metal wires, unless they are used as an -ornament facing outward. In four instances they are secured by a peg of -gold. - -The Assyrian and Persian bas-reliefs show that the sovereigns and great -personages of those countries adorned themselves profusely with pearls. -They wore them not only in their jewelry, but also on their garments and -even in their beards![423] The coins of the Persian kings also bear -testimony to the use of the gem in ancient Persia, since the sovereigns -are represented wearing tiaras ornamented with triple rows of -pearls.[424] The same may be said of the imperial Roman diadem from the -time of Caracalla (188–217 A.D.). - -One of the most interesting of all ancient pearl necklaces,[425] -containing more pearls than any other that has been found, and in a -better state of preservation, is the Susa necklace now in the Persian -Gallery of the Louvre Museum. It consists of three rows, each containing -72 pearls, so that there are 216 in all. Ten gold bars, formed of three -small disks, each about five millimeters in diameter, divide the -necklace into nine equal sections; at each end there is a disk, ten -millimeters in diameter, to which the three strands are secured. If -there was any other setting, it has evidently disappeared, although it -is quite possible that there may only have been a string at each end, as -in the East Indian necklaces. - -[Illustration: - - ANTIQUE ORNAMENTS OF PEARLS - - No. 1. Gold pin from Paphos, Island of Cyprus, mounted with large - marine and small fresh-water pearl, now in British Museum. - - Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Gold earrings and pins set with pearls, now - in the Egyptian Gallery of the Louvre, Paris. - - No. 9. Pearl and gold necklace found at Susa, Persia, now in the - Louvre, Paris. -] - -This ornament was found on the site of the ancient Susa or Shushan by M. -J. de Morgan, February 10, 1901, in a bronze sarcophagus, which -contained the skeleton of a woman, adorned with a great number of gold -ornaments set and incrusted with precious stones. M. de Morgan gives -_circa_ 350 B.C. as the probable date of these objects. The pearls were -much deteriorated. About 238 were found, but many of them crumbled away -when they were touched. M. de Morgan considers that the necklace was of -the type of the “dog-collar” of to-day, and he believes that it -originally comprised from 400 to 500 pearls. - -According to a personal communication from M. P. Cavvadias, of the -Société Archéologique d’Athènes, there are no pearls on the ancient -ornaments preserved in the National Museum at Athens. This is hardly -surprising in view of the fact that the greater part of these ornaments -belong to the archaic period of Greek art; that is to say, to a time -when the pearl was evidently unknown to the Greeks. - -The fact that we do not find more evidence of the use of pearls in -Greece at a later period need cause no surprise, when we consider how -many of the treasures of Greek art have disappeared in the course of -more than twenty centuries. There can be no question that they were -known and used as ornaments at an early time, as we can infer from the -description of them by Theophrastus and later Greek authors. - -Dr. Edward Robinson of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and other -authorities on Greek art and archæology, maintain that the Arethusa -necklace, and other ornaments of that time, depicted on coins, etc., -were meant to represent gold ornaments, as it is believed by many that -pearls were unknown in Greece at that period. - -One of the most interesting specimens showing the use of a pearl in -ancient times is a very beautiful pearl pin from Paphos, on the Island -of Cyprus, which is mounted with a large marine pearl, probably the -largest antique pearl ever found, measuring fourteen millimeters in -diameter, and weighing about 70 grains. This, unfortunately, has been -very much abraded and worn away, although more than half of the pearl is -still present. It is surmounted by a small fresh-water pearl, four -millimeters in diameter, weighing about two grains and in a much better -state of preservation. This unusually interesting example of prehistoric -pearl is in the Greek and Roman department of the British Museum, and we -are able to show it by the courtesy of the keeper of that department, -Dr. Charles Hercules Read. - -In excavations made last spring (1907), in the Hauran district in Syria, -Azeez Khayat found a number of loose pearls which had formed a necklace. -The tomb in which they were discovered was cut in the rock, and appeared -to be of Roman origin. The pearls were still attached to the old bronze -wire with which they had been strung. Mr. Khayat also mentions the -finding of a pearl pin, and a single earring bearing a pearl, in a -rock-tomb at Cæsarea, in Syria. Rock-cut tombs from ten to twelve feet -in depth are frequently discovered, and they probably date from the -beginning of the Christian era. - -The habit was so common of using pearls as a base to throw up the -brilliance of other gems, that we may, perhaps, believe even in -Caligula’s slippers of pearls, with rubies and emeralds set upon them -like flowers. - -The Roman ladies had a special favor for pearls as earrings, and it was -one of their consuming ambitions to possess exceptionally fine specimens -for this purpose. They preferred pear-shaped pearls, and often wore two -or three of them strung together. They jingled gently as they moved -about—a fitting accompaniment, it may be said, to their graceful -movements—and from this jingling the name _crotalia_, or “rattles,” was -applied to them. - -The description given by Pliny of the pearl ornaments of Lollia Paulina -is the principal claim which the wife of Caligula has on our interest. - - I myselfe have seen Lollia Paulina when she was dressed ... so beset - and bedeckt all over with hemeraulds and pearles, disposed in rewes, - ranks, and courses one by another; round about the attire of her - head, her cawle, her borders, her perruke of hair, her bongrace and - chaplet; at her ears pendant, about her neck in a carcanet, upon her - wrest in bracelets, & on her fingers in rings; that she glittered - and shone againe like the sun as she went. The value of these - ornaments she esteemed and rated at forty million Sestertij[426] and - offered openly to prove it out of hand by her bookes of accounts and - reckonings. Yet were not these jewels the gifts and presents of the - prodigall prince her husband, but the goods and ornaments from her - owne house, fallen to her by way of inheritance from her - grandfather, which he had gotten together even by the robbing and - spoiling of whole provinces. See what the issue and end was of those - extortions and outrageous exactions of his: this was it. That M. - Lollius, slandered and defamed for receiving bribes and presents of - the kings in the East; and being out of favor with C. Cæsar, sonne - of Augustus, and having lost his amitie, dranke a cup of poison, and - prevented his judiciall triall: that forsooth his neece Lollia, all - to be hanged with jewels of 400 hundred thousand Sestertij, should - be seene glittering, and looked at of every man by candle-light all - a supper time.[427] - -[Illustration: - - TYSZKIEWICZ BRONZE STATUETTE OF APHRODITE, SHOWING EARRINGS OF PEARL - AND GOLD OF EARLY GREEK PERIOD - - Now in Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Mass. -] - -And the taste of the Roman ladies for pearls has perpetuated itself in -Italy, though other of the luxurious habits which in their case -accompanied it, have long since died out. The women of Florence even now -are not content if they do not possess a necklet of pearls, and this -generally forms the marriage portion of the middle-class women. It is -thought, just as it was in ancient Rome, that this gives an air of -respectability, and forms a sure protection from insult in the street or -elsewhere. - -One of the earliest illustrations showing a pearl earring is the one in -the ear of Julia, the daughter of Titus, incised on a splendid -aquamarine in the Bibliothèque Nationale. This gem was formerly in the -Treasury of St. Denis, and is considered to belong to the Carlovingian -period.[428] - -So large and heavy were the earrings worn in Rome that there were women -known as _auriculæ ornatrices_, special doctresses whose sole occupation -was the healing of ear tumors and of injured or infected ears. In a -similar way, at the present day, we have the ear piercer, whose -vocation, however, is rapidly becoming useless because of the ingenious -modern devices for holding the pearls to unpierced ears; and we must -consider this eminently desirable when we think of the ear-piercing -outfits of the former jeweler, who never disinfected his apparatus, and -when we recall the fact that it was always expected that the ear would -swell, first, from the crude awl that was used, and, secondly, from the -unsterilized instruments. - -That the Romans believed in decorating the statues of their goddesses -with pearls and dedicating them as offerings, is evidenced by the gift -of Cleopatra’s pearl, which was cut in halves to make earrings for the -Venus of the Pantheon; and by the buckler of British pearls for the -statue of Venus Genetrix, given by Julius Cæsar. Quite a number of -statues and busts of the Roman period, and some of an earlier time, have -the ears pierced for the reception of earrings, and it is highly -probable that pearls were used for this decoration. Among these are the -busts of Pallas and Juno Lanuvina in the Vatican; that of Eirene, a -marble copy of a work of Cephisdotus, in the Glyptothek, Munich, and the -Venus de Medici in the Uffizi, Florence. - -Pottier[429] mentions several other Greek statues which show that -earrings were used for their adornment; as, for example, the winged -Victory of Archernos, in Delos; the head of one of the caryatids found -at Delphi, a cast of which is in the Louvre; the archaic Aphrodite of -the Villa Ludovisi; the Athena from the frieze of the temple at Ægina; -the Venus of Milo, etc. In other instances the ornament was simply -painted on the ear as is shown in the Aphrodite in white marble which -has been found in Marseilles. This may also have been the case in the -frieze at Olympia. The earrings used in these statues were usually metal -disks entirely covering the lobe of the ear. We have, however, many -representations of pearl earrings in the paintings at Pompeii, and on -cameos and coins. These show us several of the types mentioned by Pliny -and other authors; still, they are smaller and more unpretentious than -we might expect in view of the well-known luxury of the Roman ladies in -this respect. The greater part of the earrings represented show a pearl -suspended from a single wire; there are some, however, with three -pearls, one above the other,[430] and a few bearing several pearls -loosely hung together, answering to the description of the _crotalia_. -Others, again, bear pear-shaped pearls or _elenchi_.[431] It is a -singular fact that scarcely any of the busts of Roman women are -ornamented with earrings, but it is quite possible that the cause for -this must be sought in the desire of the artist to dispense with -unimportant details which might detract from the general effect he -wished to produce. We may note, however, four female figures in the -Gallerie des Empereurs in the Louvre Museum, with the ears pierced for -the reception of earrings (Nos. 1195, 1202, 1230, and 1269). - -[Illustration: - - Pearl earrings from Herculaneum and Pompeii -] - -Many numismatists, among them Dr. F. Louis Comparette,[432] believe that -the necklaces and earrings represented on Greek coins from the fifth -century B.C. are intended to represent pearl ornaments, since the -personages depicted are in all cases female divinities, goddesses, or -nymphs, held in great veneration in the city where the coins were -minted, and it is almost certain that the artist intended to portray the -choicest and most beautiful of gems as an adornment for the beautiful -head of the city’s patron. - -The Syracusan coins, by Euvenetus, minted in the early part of the fifth -century B.C., and bearing the head of Arethusa, seem to be the earliest -coins showing a neck and ear ornament. This was later imitated on the -Greek and Greco-Roman coins. A coin of Sulla shows a double necklace, -one strand consisting of round beads and the other of pendants. The -later coins almost always represent the goddesses with neck and ear -ornaments. Some of the latter, however, resembling amphoræ, are neither -round nor pear-shaped. - -In view of the great fondness of the Romans for pearls, it is not -surprising that many of these gems have been found in the excavations at -Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Capodimonte. The collection of earrings -preserved in the Naples Museum is especially noteworthy. Here we can see -earrings consisting of a simple golden hoop, from which hangs a wire -bearing a single pearl; others in which a cross-bar is attached to the -hoop, and at each end of this bar is a loosely hung wire with a pearl at -its extremity, this earring suggesting the _crotalia_ mentioned by Pliny -(see Fig. A); and still others wherein the pearls are strung directly on -the hoop. The cross-bars are of various designs, sometimes entirely -smooth, and again shaped like a cornice or a pediment; in other cases we -have an earring with two pearls on a wire, then a pierced transparent -stone, and beneath that, two pearls terminating the large drop. A few of -the earrings are more elaborate, as, for example, one represented in -Fig. B which was found in Pompeii, March 8, 1870. Here there is an -emerald in the center, surrounded by gold rays, between which were set -eight pearls, two of which are now missing; above is a small pearl. The -single earring shown in Fig. D came from Herculaneum, and bears a -circlet of thirteen pearls, alternating with rubies and other stones; -beneath there is a link from which depends a pearl about seven and a -fifth millimeters in diameter, and weighing nearly twelve grains. The -fact that we know the latest date to which these pearls can be assigned, -namely, 79 A.D., renders them peculiarly interesting and valuable from a -historical point of view. Naturally, many of them are calcined or -otherwise damaged, but others are fairly well preserved as to form, -although the luster has departed from them. There are twenty-seven -earrings in the collection, and the pearls number about one hundred. No -great pearls were found. - -In the Roman excavations, and in those of other early remains, many -objects are found in which there may be a sapphire, an emerald, or -several other stones, pierced, and pendant on a gold wire, with a blank -space between, showing that something was there originally. This object -has apparently decomposed and fallen away. We may reasonably suppose -that it was either a pearl or a glass bead, and it is unlikely that -glass would be used in connection with the more precious materials. This -pearl or glass may have been affected by the organic acids or the acids -resulting from the decomposition of the body with which the ornament was -buried for a score of centuries. - -Among the ancient jewels containing pearls which are preserved in the -Hermitage at St. Petersburg, we may mention a broken gold ring with a -roughly cut turquoise and two pendants, each set with two pearls -separated by a garnet. This object was found in southern Siberia during -the reign of Peter the Great, and may belong to the second century -before Christ. Also may be noted a pair of gold earrings, with an -engraved six-rayed star, in the center of which a pearl is set, while -below hang three pendant sticks, two of which have a pearl at the -extremity. These earrings were found in 1892 in a tomb situated close to -the site of the ancient town of Chersonesus, in the Crimea. As a coin of -the Emperor Gordianus III (224–244 A.D.) was discovered in the same -tomb, we may assign the earrings to the first half of the third century -A.D. - -Beside another pair of earrings, one of which is set with a pearl, and -two pearl-headed pins, all from the neighborhood of Tiflis, in the -Crimea, we may especially refer to an earring made of a plain, thick, -golden wire, on which seven pearls are threaded; one of these occupies -the center and the others are grouped around it. This earring was -purchased in 1903 by the Russian Imperial Archæological Commission from -a collector residing at Odessa; it is said to have been found on the -site of the ancient Greek colony of Olbia, but we have no definite -external or internal evidence to sustain this view. - -We may also note the gold necklace and earrings[433] containing pearls -found near the site of Olbia during the reign of Napoleon III, and now -in the collection of the Roman, Campana. These objects are especially -interesting owing to the fact that the pearls are drilled and a gold cap -is set on each side. - -A pair of pearl earrings were found in a tomb on Mount Mithridates, near -Kertch, in the Crimea. These earrings probably belong to the third or -fourth century of our era. Of the four pearls which originally adorned -the cross-bars, only one has been preserved. Another pair of earrings -was discovered in the same place. It is probable that they were -ornamented with pearls in a similar way, but the latter have entirely -disappeared. - -[Illustration: - - ANTIQUE PEARL ORNAMENTS - - - No. 1. Gold earring with turquoise top. Two pearls, two garnets, and - two pearls. Found in southern Siberia in 1726; believed to be of the - second century, A.D. - - No. 2. Brass earring with one pearl and glass beads. Fourth century, - A.D. - - No. 3. Brass dress pin. Sphere of amber, surmounted by a pearl. Found - near village of Mzchet Caucasus. Fourth century, A.D. - - No. 4. Carnelian dress pins with pearl tops. Early Christian. - - No. 5. Gold earring, hook and eye type. From Olbia, the site of an - ancient Greek colony. Fourth century, A.D. - - Nos. 1 to 5 are from the collection of the Imperial Hermitage in St. - Petersburg. - - Nos. 6–8–9. Pearl and gold earrings, Greek, from the Island of Cyprus. - Second century, A.D. - - No. 7. Roman brooch (pearls and gold), found in the river Thames, - England. Ninth century, A.D. -] - -Gabriele Bremond states in his “Viaggi di Egitto,” _Lib._ I, c. 30, that -it was a Mohammedan custom to embroider baldachins and carpets of -precious metals with pearls. This use is especially typified in a -baldachin of gold embroidered with pearls which is over the sepulcher of -Mohammed at Mecca.[434] - -When the Mohammedans captured the Persian city Ctesiphon, in 637, they -collected an immense booty. Each of the 60,000 soldiers received the -value of 12,000 dirhems ($1560), a total of $93,600,000. Among the -treasures sent to Caliph Omar (581–644), in Medina, was a crown, perhaps -that of Khusrau I (499–579), which Tabari says was studded with 1000 -pearls each as large as a bird’s egg.[435] There was also a wonderful -carpet 450 feet long and 90 broad, with a border of emeralds, rubies, -sapphires, and pearls, representing luxuriant foliage and beautiful -flowers. Tabari states that it was called the “Winter Carpet,” because -“the Persian kings used it in winter when there was no longer verdure or -flowers, for whoever was seated on this carpet thought he looked out -upon a garden or a green field.”[436] - -On the occasion of the marriage of the Caliph Al-Mamun (786–833) with -the daughter of Hassan Sahal, all the grandees of Al-Mamun received -slaves of both sexes as presents from the bride’s father. The -preliminary negotiations were held at Fomal Saleh, and the road -traversed by the bride and bridegroom to reach Bagdad, a distance of one -hundred miles, was covered with mats of cloth of gold and silver. We are -told that the bride wore on her head-dress a thousand pearls, each of -which is said to have been of enormous value.[437] - -Describing the birthday festival of Kublai Khan (_circa_ 1275 A.D.), -Marco Polo says: “The Great Kaan dresses in the best of his robes, all -wrought with beaten gold; and full 12,000 Barons and Knights on that day -came forth dressed in robes of the same colour, and precisely like those -of the Great Kaan, except that they are not so costly; but still they -are all of the same colour as his, and are also of silk and gold. Every -man so clothed has a girdle of gold; and this as well as the dress is -given him by the Sovereign. And I will aver that there are some of these -suits decked with so many pearls and precious stones that a single suit -shall be worth full 10,000 golden bezants [about $25,000].”[438] - -In the Kan period, in China, the dead bodies of the emperors were -embalmed and wrapped in a garment ornamented with pearls. They were then -inclosed in a case of jade.[439] - -Speaking of the jewels of the King of Maabar, or what is now known as -the Coromandel Coast, Marco Polo tells us: “It is a fact that the king -goes as bare as the rest, only round his loins he has a piece of fine -cloth and round his neck he has a necklace entirely of precious -stones,—rubies, sapphires, emeralds, and the like, insomuch that this -collar is of great value. He wears also hanging in front of his chest -from the neck downwards, a fine silk thread strung with 104 large pearls -and rubies of great price. The reason why he wears this cord with the -104 great pearls is (according to what they tell) that every day, -morning and evening, he has to say 104 prayers to his idols. Such is -their religion and custom; and thus did all the kings his ancestors -before him, and they bequeathed the string of pearls to him that he -should do the like.”[440] - -A favorite East Indian amulet is known as the “Nao-ratna” or -“Nao-ratan,” and consists of “nine gems”: in former times the pearl, -ruby, topaz, diamond, emerald, lapis lazuli, coral, sapphire, and a -stone, not identified, called the gomeda. At the present time these -stones are generally the coral, topaz, sapphire, ruby, flat diamond, cut -diamond, emerald, hyacinth, and carbuncle. This talisman may suggest the -Urim and Thummin or sacred oracle of the Jews, which was said to have -been taken from Jerusalem in 615 A.D. by Khusrau II, the Sassanian -Persian king. - -The East Indian custom for persons of quality was to wear a pearl -between two colored stones in each ear, that is, either between two -rubies or two emeralds; and Tavernier noted, about 1670, that there was -no person of any consideration in those regions who did not wear, in -each ear, a pearl set between two colored stones. Another favorite -ornament for women in India is a girdle elegantly embroidered, bearing a -large pendant pearl in front, where it is fastened.[441] - -A necklace of twenty-seven pearls bears in India the name of _nakshatra -mālā, nakshatras_ (originally “stars”) being the name of the -twenty-seven divisions of the Hindu zodiac.[442] - -In the Indian jewels often a small spot of enamel is fastened or melted -on to a gold wire, and then one or several pearls are hung upon it; or -beads of some gems, as sapphire, ruby, emerald, or even glass, may be -added or alternated with pearls. Then the enamel stop-piece is turned -down and the other end of the gold wire is twisted on to the setting, -loosely, in such a manner as to swing freely. It is the effect of these -dozens or even hundreds of swinging drops that add such grace and -elegance to East Indian jewelry. - -[Illustration: - - EAST INDIAN NECKLACE OF PEARLS, TABLE DIAMONDS, GLASS BEADS, GOLD AND - ENAMEL - - Property of an American lady -] - -In China, such precious stones as the ruby, sapphire—both blue and -yellow—the emerald, and the pink tourmaline, are not facetted, as with -us, but are generally polished in conformity to the shape of the bead or -other ornament, and never have a lathe-turned or cut appearance; they -are either set in cabochon or as beads, rounded, oval, or elongated. All -these forms, and the colors used by the Chinese, lend themselves well to -combinations with pearls; and hence pearls are often found in Chinese -jewelry, especially in those ornaments which are flexible and graceful, -in which the pearls and gems are strung on wire and allowed to swing -freely with a gentle tinkle when the wearer moves. This is not unlike -the setting of such gems in ancient Roman times. An admirable example is -shown and described in Bushell’s “Chinese Art” (Vol. II, plate 108, page -90). In this head-dress of a Manchu lady, there are combined with the -pearls, jadeite, amethyst, amber, and coral, on a gilt silver openwork, -with blue kingfisher feathers. This great cap of state is an admirable -example of pure Chinese design and workmanship. The pendant strings of -pearls are occasionally relieved by a bit of carved jade, carnelian or -coral, especially the latter. Another example, the “cap of state” has -silver-gilt openwork and immortelles (Taoist symbols), and is much -enhanced in beauty by a decoration or inlay of plates of the beautiful -blue feathers of the kingfisher, which are used so extensively and -effectively in Chinese jewelry. The pearls are scattered at intervals -over the cap, and ten strings of them hang from the sides of it. This is -believed to be of Manchu origin by Dr. Stephen W. Bushell, the great -Chinese scholar, to whom we are indebted for the use of the -illustration. We are also told that young ladies in China wear a sort of -crown constructed of pasteboard, covered with silk. This is adorned with -pearls, diamonds, and other jewels.[443] - -The pearls on many Chinese ornaments were generally strung upon silk, -often with half a dozen or a dozen seed-pearls above and below the large -pearl, to hold the latter in place, and also to add a softness to the -whole jewel. The end pendant pearl, even if pear-shaped, was usually -pierced entirely through, and a wire that was worked through it was -flattened out, and this gold head was again ornamented in some way. A -Chinese pendant from the China-Japan war-loot offers an excellent -illustration of this kind of pearl-setting. This was preserved in a -double box of finely carved gold. - -The rosaries containing 104 pearls, which are used to-day, were -mentioned centuries ago by Marco Polo, and an excellent pearl string of -this kind has been in the Russian Treasury at Moscow for over two -hundred years. Dr. Stewart Culin, the archæologist, who has paid much -attention to Chinese customs, informs us that the black and white -counters made for use in games by the Chinese are called black and white -pearls. - -Dr. T. Nishikawa writes us in 1908 that pearls were used in Japan for -ornamental purposes more than a thousand years ago. Large abalone pearls -are found in images of Buddha made in 300 A.D. Fresh-water pearls, -usually from Dipsas and Unio, were also used. A beautiful color-print -was made by Hoku’ai of the first pearl, called “tide-jewel” by the -Japanese. - -Most interesting pearls are those in a brooch in the British Museum, -which was discovered in 1839 while excavating a sewer opposite Ludgate -Hill in Thames Street, at the depth of about nine feet, in a -dark-colored artificial stratum of earth, unaccompanied by any remains -that could aid in throwing light upon its history. It is four inches and -a half in circumference, and is composed of a circular compartment an -inch and a quarter in diameter, set with variegated enamel, representing -a full-faced head and bust, with a crown on the head, and the drapery of -a mantle, formed of threads of gold effectively arranged so as to mark -the features of the face and the folds of the drapery; this is inclosed -in a border of rich gold filigree work, set at equal distances with four -pearls.[444] Dr. Charles Roach Smith attributes this brooch to the time -of King Alfred, and supposes it to have been executed in England by a -foreign artist. He only ventures a conjecture that the head might be -that of King Alfred. - -Crowns, both ancient and modern, are richly ornamented with pearls. We -shall treat of the crown of the Holy Roman Empire and of the imperial -Austrian crown in the following chapter. One of the most interesting and -ancient is the famous crown of Khusrau II (reigned 590–638), made in the -latter part of the sixth century, which was brought to light by Shah -Abbas after a thousand years of concealment in an obscure fortress among -the mountains of Lauristan. It does not contain diamonds among its -ornaments, but is incrusted with pearls and rubies.[445] - -From the representation given on the cup of Khusrau, the throne of the -Sassanian Persian kings appears to have been as large as a couch; it was -supported by four winged animals, whose model had been borrowed by the -Sassanians from their ancestors, and it was covered with an embroidered -stuff thrown over mattresses and cushions. If we may believe Tabari -(“Chronicles,” trans. by Zotenberg, Vol. II, p. 304), this throne was of -gold, enriched with precious stones, and surmounted by a crown of gold -and pearls, so heavy that the sovereign could not wear it, and therefore -had it suspended above his head.[446] - -One of the crowns in the Hermitage at St. Petersburg was discovered in -1864 in a tumulus near Novo-Tcherkask, with many other valuable objects, -all of which had apparently been buried with some important personage. -This crown resembles somewhat that of Reccesvinthus in the treasure of -Guerrazar, although some portions of it seem to belong to the period of -the Roman empire. The conjecture has been made that the crown may have -been worn by a queen since it is decorated with a finely executed bust -of a woman in amethyst. The crown itself is of pure gold, and was -bordered with two rows of pearls, which have disappeared, leaving only -the small disks to which they were attached; besides these, it was -ornamented with a number of uncut precious stones. The date of this -object cannot be exactly determined, although the consensus of opinion -is that it belongs to about the third century after Christ. Possibly the -bust and some other portions, which appear to be of Greco-Roman -workmanship, are of this period, while the rest of the crown was -executed one or two centuries later; it is about seven inches in -diameter and two in height.[447] - -Toward the end of the year 1858 a French officer who lived in Spain, -while making some excavations on a property he owned there, discovered -fourteen small gold crowns. They were taken to the Spanish mint and are -said to have been melted for bullion. New excavations on the same spot -brought to light eight other crowns of considerable weight, of the -finest workmanship, and incrusted with precious stones, pearls, etc. -There is no doubt that these crowns were buried in the early years of -the eighth century, when the Arabs, led by Tarik, invaded Spain and -forced the Gothic dynasty to take refuge in the north of Europe. The -importance of this discovery is very great, since it gives us positive -evidence of the development of the goldsmith’s art in Spain at that -early period. An inscription proves that one of the crowns was dedicated -in the second half of the seventh century, and it is one of the few -authentic memorials we possess of that epoch. In February, 1859, the -eight crowns were purchased by the French government and placed in the -Musée de Cluny. Two other crowns found in the same place were added in -1860, and complete the collection. - -The largest of these crowns is that of the Gothic king, Reccesvinthus, -who was King of Spain from 649 to 672. It is composed of a wide band of -solid gold, ten centimeters wide and twenty-one centimeters in diameter -(about four and eight inches respectively). This band, which opens by -means of a hinge, is surrounded by two borders of gold set with the red -stones of Caria, called “gemmae alabandenses,” and the band itself is -studded with thirty large oriental sapphires of the greatest beauty. -Thirty fine pearls of appropriate size alternate with the sapphires on a -ground incrusted with the red stones above mentioned. From twenty-three -small gold chains depend large letters in cloisonné, and also incrusted, -forming the sentence: RECCESVINTHUS REX OFFERET. Each letter has a gold -pendant with a pearl from which hangs a pear-shaped sapphire. - -The crown is suspended from four chains, converging to a double floral -ornament of solid gold, adorned with twelve sapphire pendants. This -ornament, the leaves of which are open, is surmounted by a capital of -rock crystal, then comes a ball of the same material, and the whole is -terminated by the gold center to which the four chains are attached. - -The cross, which is suspended underneath the crown by a gold chain, is -remarkable for its elegance and its richness. It is of solid gold and is -inlaid with six very fine sapphires and eight large pearls, each of -which is mounted in relief with claws. At the back, the cross still -bears the wire by which it was attached to the royal mantle. The inside -of the crown is quite smooth; the outside is composed of elegant -fleurettes in openwork, the leaves being filled with the same species of -red carnelian mentioned above. There are thirty sapphires, all of the -finest water, and a few of them show the natural facetted -crystallization; the two principal ones, placed in the center of the -band, are thirty millimeters in diameter. The pearls are of an -exceptional size, and only a few of them have been injured by time. The -total number on the crown, cross, and top ornament, is seventy, thirty -of which are unusually large. The chains are each composed of five -openwork ornaments with an enamel paste inlaid in the gold edge. A close -examination of the crown shows that it had been worn before the king -presented it to some church. - -The royal Hungarian crown given to St. Stephen by the pope in the year -1000 A.D., when Hungary became an empire, is one of the most ancient -crowns in existence. It contains 320 pearls and was procured in -Byzantium. It was pledged to the emperor, Frederick IV, by Queen -Elizabeth of Hungary, probably about 1440. - -[Illustration: - - CROWN OF RECCESVINTHUS AND OTHER GOTHIC CROWNS OF THE SEVENTH CENTURY - - From the treasure of Guarrazar, near Toledo - - Musée de Cluny, Paris -] - -In the cathedral of Prague (the metropolitan church of St. Vitus) there -may be seen the crown which was made by the order of Charles IV (1378) -out of four pounds, ten and a quarter ounces of gold. It is adorned with -twenty-nine pearls, forty-seven rubies, twenty sapphires, and -twenty-five emeralds. The value of the gold and gems was estimated at -$10,000 in 1898, which is probably less than it would be worth to-day. -The sacred crown worn by St. Wenceslaus was inserted within the crown of -Charles IV at the instance of Queen Blanca. The golden scepter and the -golden orb are of very beautiful workmanship. The scepter has six -rubies, eight sapphires, and thirty-one pearls. There may also be seen -in the treasury a gilded monstrance, in the style of the Renaissance, -studded with pearls and precious stones, a gift of the princely family -of Schwarzenberg. Within the same cathedral, in the tabernacle of the -chapel of St. Ludmilla, wife of the first Duke of Bohemia, is the head -of that saint, bearing a crown studded with 1800 pearls.[448] - -The crown of Vladimir, with its singular and thoroughly Russian form, is -preserved in the treasury of the Kremlin at Moscow, and has been used at -the coronation of all the Russian emperors. It has borne the name of the -crown or cap of Monomachus from the reign of Ivan IV. Although, to judge -from this designation, the crown was probably executed in the twelfth or -thirteenth century, there is a legend to the effect that it was sent, in -988, from Byzantium by the ruler as a gift to St. Vladimir. It is -executed in filigree work, and is surmounted by a plain cross with four -pearls at the extremities; between these pearls are set a topaz, a -sapphire, and a ruby. The crown itself is ornamented with four emeralds, -four rubies, and twenty-five pearls from Ormus, set in gold. The cap has -a bordering of sable fur, and is lined with red satin. (See Maskell, -“Russian Art,” London, 1884, p. 125.) - -The imperial state crown of her Majesty Queen Victoria, was made in the -year 1838 by Messrs. Rondell and Bridge, with jewels taken from old -crowns, and others furnished by command of her Majesty. It consisted of -diamonds, pearls, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds, set in silver and -gold. It had a crimson velvet cap with ermine border, and was lined with -white silk. Its gross weight was thirty-nine ounces five pennyweights -troy. The lower part of the band above the ermine border consisted of a -row of 129 pearls, and the upper part of a row of 112 pearls; between -these rows, in the front of the crown, was a large sapphire (partly -drilled) purchased for the crown by his Majesty George IV. In the front -of the crown, and in the center of a diamond Maltese cross, was the -famous ruby said to have been given to Edward, Prince of Wales (the -Black Prince), by Don Pedro, King of Castile, after the battle of -Nájera, near Vittoria, 1367 A.D. This ruby was worn in the helmet of -Henry V at the battle of Agincourt, 1415 A.D. It was pierced quite -through, after the eastern custom, the upper part of the piercing being -filled up by a small ruby. From the Maltese cross issued four imperial -arches composed of oak leaves and acorns, thirty-two pearls forming the -acorns. From the upper part of the arches were suspended four large -pendant, pear-shaped pearls with rose diamond cups.[449] Writing in -1850, Barbot, the French jeweler, placed the value of this crown at -$600,000. - -The crown of St. Edward, the official crown of England, is used at each -coronation.[450] The original crown of this name was destroyed by the -republicans in 1649, but at the time of the coronation of Charles II, -another crown was made to take its place, under the direction of Sir -Robert Viner. As far as can be known, this crown was an exact copy of -the older one, which was worn by Edward the Confessor, and perhaps even -by King Alfred. The crown in use at present is of gold, richly studded -with pearls and precious stones of various kinds: diamonds, rubies, -emeralds, and sapphires. There is a mound of gold on top, and on this a -cross of gold ornamented with very large oval pearls, one attached to -the top and the two others pendant from the ends of the cross. The -present arrangement of the jewels cannot date back earlier than 1689, as -the crown was found to be despoiled of them at the time of the accession -of William and Mary. Those now in the crown are acknowledged to be -inferior to the former ones. - -The orb or mound which is placed in the king’s hand immediately after -his coronation, is a ball of gold, six inches in diameter, surrounded by -a band of the same metal ornamented with roses of diamonds set around -other precious stones, and bordered with pearls. It is surmounted by a -cross, embellished with four larger pearls at the angles near its -center, and three others at the ends. The orb, including the cross, is -eleven inches high, and it is figured on the coins of many of the -English kings, who are represented holding it in their left hands. - -The regalia of Scotland,[451] consisting of the crown, scepter, and -sword of state, are preserved in the castle of Edinburgh. It is not -certainly known at what time this crown was executed. At the coronation -of Robert Bruce (1274–1329) a simple circlet of gold was used; this fell -into the hands of the English after the battle of Methven in 1306. In -1307 Edward I issued a pardon at the request of his “beloved Queen -Margarate,” to a certain Galfredus de Coigniers, who was said to have -concealed and kept “a certain coronet of gold with which Robert the -Bruce, enemy and rebel of the King, had caused himself to be crowned in -our own Kingdom of Scotland.” - -[Illustration: - - Photograph by W. & D. Downey, London - - HER MAJESTY, QUEEN ALEXANDRA OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, EMPRESS OF - INDIA -] - -Sir Walter Scott, in his account of the regalia, gives it as his opinion -that the present crown was probably made for Robert Bruce at a later -date, and that it was used at the coronation of his son, David II -(1324–1376). The style of workmanship indicates a fourteenth-century -origin. The crown was originally open and was arched over by James V -(1512–1542). As Scott notes, this was done to many royal crowns in the -fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, in order to assimilate them to the -type of the old imperial crowns. - -The following description is slightly abridged from that given by Sir -Walter Scott: - - The lower part consists of two circles, the undermost much broader - than that which rises over it; both are of the purest gold and the - uppermost is surmounted by a range of _fleur-de-lis_ interchanged - with crosses _fleurées_, and with knobs or pinnacles of gold topped - with large pearls; this produces a very rich effect. The under and - broader circle is adorned with twenty-two precious stones, betwixt - each of which is interposed an oriental pearl. The stones are - topazes, amethysts, emeralds, rubies and jacinths; they are not - polished by the lapidary, or cut into facets in the more modern - fashion, but are set plain, in the ancient style of jewellers’ work. - The smaller circle is adorned with small diamonds and sapphires - alternately. These two circles, thus ornamented, seem to have formed - the original Diadem or Crown of Scotland, until the reign of James - V, who added two imperial arches rising from the circle, and - crossing each other, closing at the top in a mound of gold, which - again is surmounted by a large cross _patée_ ornamented with pearls - and bearing the characters J.R.V. These additional arches are - attached to the original crown by tacks of gold, and there is some - inferiority in the quality of the metal. - - The bonnet or tiara worn under the crown was anciently of purple, - but is now of crimson velvet, turned up with ermine—a change first - adopted in the year 1695. The tiara is adorned with four superb - pearls set in gold, and fastened in the velvet which appears between - the arches. The crown measures about nine inches in diameter, - twenty-seven in circumference, and about six and a half in height - from the bottom of the lower circle to the top of the cross. - -The scepter, made by order of James V at the time he added the arches to -the crown, is a slender silver rod about thirty-nine inches long. An -antique capital of embossed leaves supports three small figures -representing the Virgin Mary, St. Andrew, and St. James, above which is -a crystal ball, surmounted by an oriental pearl. - -The regalia have passed through many vicissitudes. After the execution -of Charles I, his son Charles II was crowned King of Scotland at Scone -on January 1, 1651. On the advance of the parliamentary army into -Scotland, the regalia were placed in the care of the Earl Mareschal who -preserved them in his castle of Dunrottar, and here they were kept until -the castle was besieged and on the point of falling into the hands of -the English. In this extremity, they were rescued by Christian Fletcher, -wife of the Rev. James Granger, minister of Kinneff. She obtained -permission from the English general to pay a visit to the Lady Mareschal -and succeeded in carrying off the regalia. Her husband buried them in -the church of Kinneff, just in front of the pulpit. When they were -brought to light again after the Restoration, an Act of Parliament was -passed which, after reciting Christian Fletcher’s services in the -matter, stated: “Therefore, the King’s Majestie, with advice of his -estates in Parliament, doe appoint Two Thousand Merks Scots to be -forthwith paid unto her by his Majestie’s thresaurer, out of the -readiest of his Majestie’s rents, as a testimony of their sense of her -service.” - -In 1707, after the union of England and Scotland, it was considered -wiser to remove the regalia from public view, since they were calculated -to arouse memories of the old Scotch monarchy. These precious objects -were therefore inclosed in a chest, which was their usual receptacle, -and locked up in the crown-room, a strong vaulted apartment in Edinburgh -Castle. There the regalia remained until 1817, when, as doubts had been -expressed as to their existence, a commission of investigation was -appointed, one of the members being Sir Walter Scott. The chest—which -had probably been the jewel-safe of the Stuarts—was forced open, and the -regalia were found within, just as they had been deposited in 1707. - -An imperial German crown does not exist; a design has been made and -accepted, but at the present date, 1907, it has not yet been executed. -On festive occasions, when the imperial insignia are necessary, the -Prussian insignia are used, especially the Prussian royal crown. This -consists of a circlet of gold set with thirteen diamonds. On this are -five leaves, each composed of three larger diamonds and a smaller one, -and four prongs, each bearing a diamond and above it a large pearl. From -the five leaves start the same number of semicircular arches, tapering -toward the central point, where they unite. Each of these is set with -ten diamonds of decreasing size. On the center rests an imperial globe. -It consists of a large Indian-cut sapphire,—the counterpart of the one -on the Austrian imperial crown, evidently dating from the time of the -Crusades,—and above it rises a chaplet ornamented with diamonds. The -crown has a lining of purple velvet reaching to the arches. Between the -arches are eight pearl pendants of an average weight of 80 grains; they -are 25 millimeters in length, and have a fine, brilliant white color, -although they are not perfectly regular in form. - -In addition there belongs to the regalia a pearl necklace of three rows; -the first consists of thirty-seven pearls averaging 28 grains each; the -second of thirty-nine pearls averaging 34 grains, and the third of -forty-five pearls averaging 39 grains. There is also a guard chain of -114 pearls, averaging 20 grains, making a total of 2280 grains for the -chain. These pearls are also of irregular form.[452] - -The crown jewels of the Sultan Abdul-Aziz (1830–1876) were of immense -richness and value. At the exhibition in Vienna, 1873, many of these -were exhibited in a building created specially for the purposes of -display and protection. They were in five compartments, in what might be -termed five impregnable fire-proof safes of a peculiar construction. -Among other interesting objects was the armor of Sultan Murad I -(1319–1389), the founder of the Ottoman empire in Europe. This armor is -of the most delicate oriental workmanship. Diamonds, pearls, and rubies -are worked broadcast over it with exquisite taste.[453] - -In Germany and Austro-Hungary there are many valuable ecclesiastical -ornaments, some of which possess great interest for the history of early -German art. They also serve to show the appreciation of the pearl even -in the Dark Ages and the Early Renaissance period. - -One of the most curious productions of early German art is a reliquary -in the form of a sack, which is from Enger near Herford, and is -exhibited in the Kunstgewerbe Museum in Berlin. It is set with cameos -and pearls; several of the latter have dropped out; a few, however, -remain in their setting. According to a very probable tradition, this -reliquary was given by Charlemagne to the Saxon duke, Wittekind, on the -occasion of his baptism in 785. It is of very rude and primitive -workmanship and, if we accept the tradition, it is not unlikely that it -was executed at Aix-la-Chapelle.[454] - -An interesting example of German art, from the time of Archbishop Egbert -of Treves (977–993), is a frame now in the Beuth-Schinkel Museum, at -Charlottenburg. This was probably the framework of a portable altar. It -is decorated with a simple geometrical design in the three primary -colors, and has four polished stones and four pearls on the outer border -of gold filigree. Another example of the art of Treves at the time of -Archbishop Egbert is the Echternacher Codex. The gold-plated cover is a -worthy product of the school: ivory, enamel, and mosaic are combined in -its decoration with rows of pearls. Among the representations of many -saints, appears the figure of the Empress Theophanu, daughter of the -Greek emperor, Romanos II, with the inscription “Theophaniu imp.” -Opposite is a youthful figure, probably that of her son, Otho III. It -seems likely that the work was executed, at the command of the empress, -between 983 and 991.[455] - -In the cathedral of Treves is the portable altar known as the altar of -St. Andrew. This was primarily a reliquary and secondarily an altar. In -memory of the relic of the sandal of St. Andrew, which was greatly -prized by Archbishop Egbert, this altar bears the representation of a -foot executed in wood and covered with plates of gold. The front of the -case is divided into three fields; that in the middle containing a -Byzantine lion in gold relief, and the others the symbols of the four -evangelists in enamel work. The border is formed of rectangular pieces -of enamel and smaller ones of gold, and it is set with round stones -alternating with half-pearls; the ends are covered with filigree and -enamel work wherein are embedded strings of pearls. A coin of Justinian -II is set in the middle of the back of the case and is surrounded by a -wreath of larger pearls.[456] - -A gold cross, the work of Rogkerus Theophilus, is in the Kunstgewerbe -Museum in Berlin, and comes from Herford. The frame, which is of wood, -is covered with plates of gold; at the extremities and in the center are -groups of precious stones surrounded by pearls; at the base is a fine -Augustan cameo with a wreath of pearls; the entire cross is covered with -filigree work and decorated with pearls in groups of threes. The -arrangement of the precious stones, and the enhancement of their beauty -by means of the circles of pearls, are highly artistic. As a work of -Rogkerus, this cross must have been executed at the very end of the -eleventh century and it may be regarded as one of the finest examples of -the art of this period.[457] - -A very rich collection of ecclesiastical ornaments is contained in the -treasury of the cathedral of Gran in Hungary.[458] One of the most -interesting objects is a reliquary in the form of a Latin cross, which -is of great historical and artistic value. An inventory made after 1528 -describes it briefly: “crux aurea continens lignum vitae” (a gold cross -containing the wood of life). Although this reliquary probably belongs -to the end of the twelfth century, the inventory of 1659 describes it as -a gift of King Stephen, and proceeds to say that the kings of Hungary -took their coronation oath upon it. This custom has been preserved to -the present day, and Emperor Francis Joseph, on the occasion of his -coronation as King of Hungary, June 8, 1867, swore, upon this cross, to -uphold the constitution and the laws of the land. The cross is decorated -with plates of gold in filigree design, and has four en cabochon cut -sapphires and eighteen oriental pearls. - -The greatest treasure of the collection is known as the cross of -Corvinus, King of Hungary, and is decorated with a great number of -pearls.[459] It is a remarkable example of early Italian Renaissance -art. The entire structure is about twenty-eight inches high; the -pedestal is triangular and ornamented with pearls and precious stones; -three sphinxes bearing shields with the arms of Corvinus support a disk -from which springs a triangular support sloping outward; on the three -sides are mythological figures. Upon this base rests the chapel, a light -Gothic structure with the figure of the Saviour bound to a pillar in the -center, and the busts of three prophets in the niches outside. Above all -is the crucifix, on each side of which are figures of the Blessed Virgin -and of St. John. Around the base and about each division of this -elaborate design is a row of pearls; the Gothic chapel is surmounted by -a close-set row, and each of its six pinnacles terminates in an oval -pearl. The cross itself has fifteen large pearls disposed in twos and -threes, and many smaller ones. There are at least two hundred pearls on -the whole structure. - -Another cross, with the arms of the primate, George Szolepchényi, and -bearing the date 1667, is of pure design and richly decorated with -pearls and precious stones.[460] It is quite possible that this cross, -which seems to belong to a better period, was bought by the archbishop, -who afterward added his arms. There are thirteen oriental pearls, three -at the top, three at the end of each of the arms, and four at the -intersection. This cross was used as an “instrumentum pacis,” for the -kiss of peace, on solemn occasions such as coronations. - -We may also note the pendant with the image of the Virgin Mary as -patroness of Hungary, which is of gold enamel and has two pendant pearls -and a sapphire, and likewise the pectoral cross of the primate, Emerich -Losy; this is of gold, decorated with green, blue, and black enamel, and -has three pendant pear-shaped pearls, one quite large, as well as -thirty-four smaller round pearls. - -Among the many valuable and interesting objects in the treasury of the -house and chapel of Maria Loretto am Hradschin,[461] at Prague, there is -a monstrance of silver-gilt, thirty-seven and a half inches high and -fifteen and three quarter inches wide. It dates from the beginning of -the eighteenth century, and is not a harmonious whole, but only a -combination of different ornaments of precious stones, corals, and -several hundred pearls of various sizes. All these are the devotional -offerings of now unknown givers, and many of the pieces are of artistic -workmanship. This monstrance owes its origin to Josef von Bilin, who was -a monk of the Capuchin order and a sacristan of Maria Loretto. On -account of the many pearls which adorn it, it is known by the name of -the “Pearl Monstrance.” - -Another monstrance of Arabic gold, of the year 1680, is twenty inches -high and is studded with fifty-one pearls, of which twenty-nine surround -the disk, while the remainder are on the plate and the base. There are -also two crowns of silver-gilt for the statues of the Virgin and of the -Infant Jesus. The larger of these crowns has eighteen diamonds, a ruby, -and 102 pearls set in two rows; while the smaller has nineteen diamonds -and a great number of pearls; both crowns are made up of the offerings -of the faithful. - -In a historic description of the pearls in the treasury of the Kremlin, -Margeret, a Burgundian captain (“Estat de l’empire de Russie,” 1649), -says that the treasury was “full of all kinds of jewels, principally -pearls, for they are worn in Russia more than in the rest of Europe. I -have seen fifty changes of raiment for the emperors around each of which -there were jewels for a bordering, and the robes were entirely bordered -with pearls, some with a border of pearls measuring a foot, half a foot, -or four inches in width. I have seen dozens of bed-coverings embroidered -with pearls.”[462] - -In the treasury of the celebrated Troiza Monastery near Moscow, there is -an immense collection of ornamental objects for ecclesiastical use, the -value of which has been estimated at many millions of rubles. Here may -be seen miters and bishops’ crooks—many of them of solid gold and set -with precious stones—Bibles and missals in golden bindings, priestly -vestments, altar-cloths, etc., all literally covered with pearls. There -is also a dish filled with large pearls of enormous value.[463] - -The use of fresh-water pearls in one of the most interesting -ecclesiastical objects of antiquity is shown in the “Shrine of St. -Patrick’s Gospels,” which is in the Dublin Museum. It was purchased by -the Irish Royal Academy in 1845 for £300 ($1500). This shrine, known as -the “domnach airgid,” is of Irish manufacture and was perhaps made in -the eleventh or twelfth century. It was found in the neighborhood of -Clones, in County Monaghan, and is ornamented with three bosses which -contained uncut crystals, and are decorated with figures of grotesque -animals and traceries enameled in blue paste; between these may be seen -representations of four horsemen. On each of the four corners there was -a fresh-water pearl, one of which still remains in its setting. -According to George Petrie, LL.D., in his “Christian Inscriptions in the -Irish Language,” the shrine bears an inscription to the effect that it -was made by John O’Barrdan at the instance of John O’Carbry, Abbot of -Clones, who died in 1353. - -[Illustration: - - CROWN OF ST. EDWARD - - The official crown of England -] - -Dr. R. F. Scharff informs us that there is also in the Dublin Museum a -modern Celtic gold brooch, presented to Queen Victoria on the occasion -of her visit to Ireland in 1849, and containing a pearl of beautiful -luster, discovered in Lough Esk, which is in the western part of -Ireland. Dr. Scharff says that this pearl is undoubtedly from the -_Margaritifera margaritifera_. - -Mr. W. Forbes Howie of Dublin writes that the shrine of O’Donnel, made -in 1084, originally contained pearls. It still retains some pieces of -amber and coral. Mr. Howie believes that fresh-water pearls were freely -used in the decoration of ancient Irish shrines. - -The inventories of jewels and ornaments belonging to the kings and -queens of France, to the nobility, and to the treasures of the -Sainte-Chapelle, in Paris, and of the abbey and church of St. Denis, all -mention a large number of objects decorated with pearls.[464] The more -important of these are given below. - -The following ornaments decorated with pearls are mentioned in the -inventory of Louis, Duke of Anjou, which was made _circa_ 1360:[465] - - A large silver-gilt foot for a vase or chalice, resting upon six - lions couchant, and set with groups of four pearls with a garnet in - the middle. - - A half girdle of gold with a hinge bearing two ornaments, one a - balas set between two eagles. Between the ornaments is a gold bar - set with eight pearls in two rows. In front is a clasp with a large - sapphire in the middle, surrounded by two balases and two sapphires - alternating with pearls. - - A gold brooch having a balas-ruby in the middle, and at each side - four sapphires and four clusters each of five quite large pearls. - - A gold brooch of a very pretty design, with five balas-rubies, two - sapphires, and eight very round pearls weighing about four carats - each. At each end of the brooch is a flat pearl weighing about five - carats. - -There is in the Bibliothèque Nationale[466] in Paris, the original -record of the execution of the testament of the Comte de Montpensier, -son of the Duc de Berri. This document was written in 1398, and it -mentions that the sale of the jewels and plate of the count produced the -sum of “2390 livres tournois 11 sols 3 deniers [about $8265].” In the -record we have a description of “a large gold cup, weighing 5 marcs, 7 -ounces, 1 gros [nearly 3 lbs.], whereon there is a crown of precious -stones.” The decoration of the cup comprised thirty large pearls, six -balas-rubies, and four sapphires, and we are told that the Duc de Berri -retained it for his own use. - -An early mention of the use of pearls in rings occurs in the inventory -of the Duc de Berri,[467] to whom we have just referred. This inventory, -which was made in 1416, notes a gold ring with black enamel, set with a -pearl called “the great pearl of Berri.” - -The inventory of the personal property of Marguerite, Countess of -Flanders, the mother of the Duke of Burgundy, was made in 1405.[468] In -this inventory we have a list of an immense number of ornamental objects -of every sort and kind, and everything, from the ducal crown to the -smallest trinket, is garnished with pearls. In most cases the number of -pearls is given, and we find that no less than 4494 are enumerated. -Evidently the duchess was ever ready to honor the precious gem to which -she owed her name, and fully recognized its poetical significance. The -following are a few of the more noteworthy ornaments in the inventory: - - The circlet of the great crown, composed of eight sections; four of - which each comprise sixteen pearls, four diamonds, and four - balas-rubies, with a sapphire in the center; the four others contain - sixteen pearls, four diamonds, and four sapphires, with a balas-ruby - in the center; beside this there are two pearls in each section. - Also, eight large fleurons of the great crown, four of which bear - each twenty-three pearls, five diamonds, three balas-rubies and a - sapphire, and the other four each twenty-three pearls, five - diamonds, four sapphires, and a balas-ruby; and eight small fleurons - of the said crown garnished each with a pearl, a sapphire, and a - balas-ruby. The whole is valued at 8724 florins ($22,682). - - A gold cap with ten large ornaments fashioned like brooches, five of - which are each of six pearls and a balas-ruby, and the other five - each of five pearls and two balas-rubies, and between each ornament - there is a balas-ruby. This is appraised at 2159 florins ($5613). - - A head-dress garnished with balas-rubies and sapphires and tassels - of large pearls, each of six pearls, and with a row of larger - balas-rubies, larger sapphires and larger pearls. This was estimated - at 2030 florins ($5278). - - A gold necklace, enameled white and green, garnished with nine - rubies, thirteen diamonds and thirteen pearls, with a clasp of three - small rubies, and three large pearls with one large diamond in the - center. The worth of this necklace is given as 1923 florins ($5000). - - The jewels and ornamental objects in this inventory are appraised at - the sum of 56,129 florins,—about $145,000,—equivalent to a much - larger sum to-day in consideration of the greater purchasing power - of money in the fifteenth century. - -In 1480, during the reign of Louis XI, an inventory was made of the -objects preserved in the treasury of the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris.[469] -We select the following items from this inventory: - - A very beautiful cross, covered with gold, bearing on one side a - crystal reliquary which contained a piece of the True Cross. On - supports attached to the cross were images of the Virgin Mary and of - St. John, each holding a reliquary. The cross itself rested on a - square silver-gilt base bearing the images of the four evangelists. - The ornamentation consisted of fifty large Scotch pearls and 142 - small ones, intermixed with garnets and emeralds; there were also - many balas-rubies and sapphires of different sizes. The inventory - says: “The goldsmith Nicholas Roet declares that the stones are - genuine and that the pearls are from Scotland.” - - Another gold cross, resting on a silver-gilt base which bore the - arms of France and Burgundy, was decorated with fourteen sapphires, - twenty balas-rubies, and twenty-four Scotch pearls. On the base were - the figures of St. Louis and of the queen, kneeling in prayer. - - Still another cross, covered with gold and of Venetian workmanship, - bore thirty-nine pearls, twenty-seven balas-rubies, and four - sapphires. A clasp attached to this cross was set with four large - perforated pearls surrounded by small emeralds and sapphires. - - A silver-gilt ornament, consisting of a golden image of St. Louis - seated on a silver throne and holding in his hand a reliquary - decorated with twelve pearls, six emeralds, and six Alexandrian - rubies. The crown of the image was set with four large oriental - pearls, three balas-rubies, etc. - - An ivory image of the Virgin Mary, supported by a silver-gilt base - with the arms of France. This base was borne by four lions. On the - head of the Virgin was a crown of gold adorned with eight large, - round, oriental pearls and four small ones, as well as four emeralds - and four balas-rubies. On the breast of the image was a very large, - square emerald. - - A splendid miter studded with good-sized pearls and decorated with - emeralds, rubies, sapphires, and balas-rubies. The pendants were - covered with seed-pearls and precious stones. - - A fine chasuble of Indian satin lined with crimson taffeta and - covered with lilies, birds, unicorns, etc., embroidered in gold and - pearls. It was also adorned with small clusters of pearls and with - two shields bearing the arms of France and Navarre, quartered. - - A beautiful copy of the gospels with covers of gold, ornamented with - fourteen large sapphires, thirteen balas-rubies, two cameos, and - eighty-nine good-sized pearls. - -The following items are taken from the inventory of the treasury of the -abbey of St. Denis, made in 1534, during the reign of Francis I. This -record is in the Bibliothèque Nationale, in Paris:[470] - - A crown of gold, with four fleurons, garnished with several - balas-rubies, emeralds, sapphires, and pearls; valued at 59,980 - crowns (about $135,000). - - A golden cross and within it a piece of the True Cross which - belonged to “Jeanne d’Evreux, royne de France et de Navarre,” - valued, with the pearls that decorate it, at 345 crowns ($776). - - A wooden chest containing eleven cases in which were many precious - stones and large and small pearls, both oriental and Scotch; valued - at 1858 crowns ($4180). - - A number of priestly vestments embroidered with seed-pearls are - inventoried at 1200 crowns ($2700). - - A blue satin chasuble bordered with pearls is valued at 350 crowns - ($787). - - An altar-table, set in the “grand altar,” is described as - elaborately decorated with “arches and pillars and images of gold” - in low relief, and garnished with precious stones and pearls. The - value is given as 1203 crowns ($2700). - - Another altar-table similarly ornamented is valued at 2645 crowns - ($5850). Above this table was a great cross of gold with a silver - border, called the “cross of St. Eloysius” (the patron saint of - goldsmiths); this was valued at 2291 crowns ($5154). - - Over the sarcophagus containing the body of St. Denis, there was “a - large tabernacle of wood-work resembling a church, with a lofty nave - and low arches.” In this nave and in the transepts there were three - representations of sarcophagi; the whole was covered with gold, - precious stones, and pearls, and was valued at 7275 crowns - ($16,368). - - The head of St. Denis, incased in gold, was borne by two silver-gilt - angels, while a third held a small shrine containing a portion of - the jaw-bone of the saint. All these objects were studded with - precious stones and pearls, and were valued at 5622 crowns - ($12,650). - - There were also in the treasury several miters covered with - “ounce-pearls” and decorated with gold and silver bands; on this - field several larger pearls were set. One of these miters is valued - at 964 crowns ($2169) and another at 509 crowns ($1135). - - The total value of the articles inventoried is 185,500 crowns (at - least $417,375). - -Inventories of the property of the dukes of Lorraine, dated 1544, 1552, -and 1614, mention a number of pearl ornaments. In the inventory of 1544, -made about the time of the accession of Francis I of Lorraine, we read -of “a very fine case of silver-gilt around which are thirteen personages -in gold, and on the lock three balases and five pearls.” The inventory -of 1552, made while Charles II was duke, mentions “a cap of crimson -velvet whereon there are large pearls,” and another cap “entirely -covered with pearls.” It is, however, in the inventory of 1614, made a -few years after the accession of Henry II of Lorraine, that we find the -greatest number of items relating to pearls. An estimate of the value of -the rings and jewels was “faicte du commandement de son Altèze par -jouailliers et Lapidaires et Espertz dudit ars.” All these jewels were -to remain forever the property of the Duchy of Lorraine. Among the items -relating to pearls, the following are worthy of note: - - A gold collar with seven settings, each containing one large diamond - and two large pearls. The diamond in the center was believed to - weigh fifteen carats, and the collar was valued at 35,000 crowns - (about $70,000). - - Another collar contained seven diamonds and sixteen pearls set in - pairs, and was considered to be worth 19,750 crowns (about $40,000). - - A collection of one hundred large pearls, some weighing twenty - grains, some twenty-four, some twenty-eight, and a few thirty-two - grains, were estimated at 12,000 crowns ($24,000). - - A large pearl, very nearly pear-shaped and almost as large as a - pigeon’s egg, was set down at 2000 crowns ($4000). - - A very fine pear-shaped pearl weighing forty-eight grains was valued - at 800 crowns ($1600). - - Another pear-shaped pearl weighing about thirty-two grains was - placed at 500 crowns ($1000). - - Four other pear-shaped pearls, nearly as large as the one above - mentioned, were estimated at 300 crowns ($600), while a round “pearl - of Seville” was valued at only fifty crowns ($100). - - Six clusters of pearls, each containing two of fourteen grains, and - four of eight grains, were thought to be worth 700 crowns ($1400). - - A large chalice was decorated with seven large oriental emeralds and - eight clusters, each composed of fourteen fine, round pearls, six of - twelve grains and eight of eight grains; the whole valued at 2400 - crowns ($4800). - - A hat ornament composed of eleven fine rubies and ten large, round - pearls, each weighing twelve grains, was estimated at 800 crowns - ($1600). - - A similar ornament, composed of thirteen rubies and fourteen pearls, - partly flat and partly round, was placed at 2000 crowns ($4000). - - A collar set with seven fine rubies and the same number of round - pearls, each weighing twelve grains, and with seven other pendant - pearls, was valued at 550 crowns ($1100). - - There was also a bed called the “bed of pearls,” which was - elaborately decorated with ornamentation in gold and richly studded - with pearls. - -The inventory made in 1634 of the ornaments, etc., contained in the -abbey of St. Denis, offers some new material and a fuller description of -a few of the objects mentioned in the inventory of 1534. The most -noteworthy entries are given below: - - A golden scepter upon a staff of wood. The scepter bears the figure - of Charlemagne seated upon a throne; at the corners are two lions - and two eagles (one of the latter was lacking in 1634). The figure - holds a scepter in its right hand, and a globe surmounted by a cross - in its left; on its head is a crown with a large, round, oriental - pearl valued at 200 livres ($135). The throne rested on a - fleur-de-lys, beneath which was a ball of gold ornamented with eight - oriental pearls. Around the throne was the inscription: “Sanctus - Carolus Magnus Italia Roma Gallia Germania,” and three clusters of - three pearls each. The value of this scepter was given at 3300 - livres, or about $2200. - - The reliquary of the hand of St. Thomas. Two angels, resting on a - silver-gilt base, bore the crystal receptacle containing the relic. - The ornamentation consisted of eight clusters of four large pearls - each, with a small diamond in the center. On the hand was a gold - band bearing the inscription: “Hic est manus beati Thomae apti. quam - misit in latus domini nostri Jesu Christi.” On the hand was a - pontifical ring set with a large sapphire. The reliquary also bore - the images of St. John the Baptist, of St. Thomas, and of the Virgin - Mary. It was valued at 5590 livres, or about $3700. - - A vessel made of a porphyry resembling jasper and embellished with - forty-six pearls; estimated at 1500 livres ($1000). - - A cope given by Anne of Bretagne, Queen of France, and bearing six - scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary embroidered in gold and - pearls; the whole bordered with pearls and gold of Cyprus. On the - cope were the letters A and S, and the words “plutost mourir.” There - were two ounces of pearls. Valued at 2000 livres ($1350). - - A vase of rock crystal, of antique workmanship, with a cover and - base of silver-gilt; the top decorated with a band of amethysts, - garnets, and sapphires, alternating with Scotch and oriental pearls. - On the base are various precious stones and twenty-three Scotch and - oriental pearls, and the inscription “Hoc vas sponsa dedit Anor. - regi Ludovico.” This vase was given by Eleanor of Aquitaine to her - husband, Louis VII of France (1137–1180), by whom it was bestowed - upon Suger, Abbot of St. Denis (1082–1152). The goldsmith work and - decoration belong to the time of Suger. The vase is now in the - Louvre. - - A chalice of agate, with two handles, and engraved with the figures - of men, animals, and birds. It stood on a foot of gold adorned with - sixteen sapphires, forty-four pearls, and twenty-two clusters of - fourteen pearls each. This chalice rested upon a paten of porphyry - decorated with seven fishes inlaid in gold, and with a bordering of - pearls and precious stones disposed around the edge. Both together - valued at 25,000 livres (about $16,000). - -[Illustration: - - THE EMPRESS DOWAGER OF CHINA - - From a portrait painted by Miss Katharine A. Carl -] - - A vase of agate with a foot of silver-gilt, and furnished with a - cover and a spout in the form of a serpent, both of silver-gilt. - Around the base an inscription: “Dum libare deo gemmis debemus et - auro, Hoc ego Sugerus offero vas domino” (Since we should pour - libations to God out of gems and gold, I, Suger, offer this vessel - to the Lord). This vase, which is now in the Louvre and is of - sardonyx, was enriched with many precious stones and with nineteen - Scotch and oriental pearls. The value given was 1500 livres (about - $1000). - - A book beginning: “Kyrie Eleison,” with covers of wood, one overlaid - with gold and the other with silver. On the golden cover was an - ivory crucifix, and images, in ivory, of the Virgin Mary and of St. - John. The cross was bordered with seed-pearls, as were the diadems - of the images. The cover was also decorated with an engraved - crysolite, an engraved peridot, and with sapphires, emeralds, and - garnets.[471] - -A curious item regarding the use of pearls in embroidery is contained in -one of the inventories of the dukes of Burgundy, made in 1414; this -reads as follows: - - The sum of 276 livres 7 sols 6 deniers tournois (about $960), the - price of 960 pearls destined to ornament a dress; along the sleeves - are embroidered the words of the song “Madame, je suis joyeulx,” and - the notes are also marked along the sleeves. On each sleeve are 264 - pearls which help in forming the notes of the said song, numbering - 142; that is to say, a square made of four pearls for each - note.[472] - -Mention is made in two old French documents of the use of pearls from -Compiegne in ornamentation. In the “Inventaire de la royne Clémence,” in -1328, we read of “a cock covered with precious stones and bearing a -pearl of Compiègne”; and in the “Comptes Royaux,” under date of 1353, -appears this item: “For four pearls, oriental, Scotch and of Compiègne, -for the said arm-chair, 48 crowns.” As these pearls could not have been -found in Compiègne, we may suppose that there was a market for their -sale in that place, which gave rise to the designation.[473] - -The English authority and writer on early English silver, F. Alfred -Jones, communicated, under date of September, 1907, that pearls were -rarely used in old English plate; in fact, any such embellishments were -of exceedingly infrequent occurrence. They are, however, frequently -mentioned in the inventory of the marvelous collection of gold plate -dispersed by Charles I of England, which may have dated from the time of -the looting of the churches and monasteries by Henry VIII. - -The following items are from the inventories of Philip II of Spain and -of Margarita, wife of Philip III. The original documents are in the -Austrian archives. - - A golden cup which came from England. Around the foot was a wreath - of fifteen fleurons, each containing pearls, and also four St. - Andrew’s crosses comprising eighteen pearls each. The interior of - the cup showed scenes from the life of St. George and was studded - with pearls, while thirty-one pearl pendants hung from the edge. - 11,897 reals (about $1700).[474] - -Some curious jewels, belonging to Queen Margarita, wife of Philip III of -Spain, were entered in an inventory made in 1611. - - An imperial eagle, full of diamonds, that came from England, with - two pendants of two pearls, which could be unhooked from the said - eagle and were worn by her Majesty at two masks as earrings. Valued - at 77,000 reals (about $11,000). - - Gold earrings, enameled in various colors, with seven diamonds in - each one and three pendant pearls, two small ones of equal size and - the other shaped like a pear. Valued at 1320 reals ($188).[475] - -In the older Spanish jewelry pearls were frequently entirely pierced -through, as if they had been worn in necklaces; and if hung as drops of -one to three or more, they were strung on a wire, the upper end usually -forming an ornament, and they were kept from falling off below by -flattening the lower end of the wire, this flattening acting as a stop. -These styles have a marked resemblance to the oriental methods elsewhere -described, and suggest the derivation of the early Spanish pearl -mounting from the Moorish occupation of the country. If they were set -singly on any part of the jewel, they were put on a wire peg fastened to -it, and then the end of the wire which projected was hammered flat to -keep the pearl in place. Excellent examples of these styles are the -Spanish earrings in the collection of the Hispano-American Museum of New -York. The same method was used in Transylvania in the seventeenth -century with remarkably artistic effect. - -The pearls of the Virgin of the Rosary in the church of St. Domingo, -Lima, were famous. It is believed that they were sold in the war of -independence. Those of the monstrance in the sanctuary of the cathedral -of Lima were sold during the last war with Chile. The monstrance of the -cathedral of Cuzco still shows pearls and emeralds, but they are of -small size. - -A lady who left a great fortune in pearls to the church of Nazareno and -the House of the Poor of the church of St. Peter, Lima, was Doña Maria -Fernandez de Córdoba, from the family of Borda, grandmother to the -minister of Peru in Washington. She was a descendant of Hernan Cortés -and of Pizarro by her ancestor Carmen Cortés. - -The pearls of Lima figure prominently in the history of the Peruvian -families. The war of independence, which ended in 1822, was followed by -the suppression of the entailed estates; this forced a division of the -family fortunes, and it became necessary to sell the family jewels in -Europe. Thither went all the famous pearls of the Peruvian aristocracy, -whose luxury is proven by the fact that in 1780 there were in Lima no -less than two thousand private carriages. - -One of the most remarkable uses of Bohemian pearls was that of a large -triptych owned by Count Moritz of Lobkowitz and Duke of Raudnitz. It -measured six or more feet in height. The entire borders were ornamented -with pearls. The center of the triptych represented the ascension of -Christ on a chariot drawn by lambs. In the panel to the right was the -Angel Gabriel, and to the left the Virgin Mary praying. The borders and -lettering were magnificently embroidered and decorated in Bohemian -pearls. This object probably dated from the sixteenth or early part of -the seventeenth century. It was estimated by one of the authors to -contain at least one hundred thousand pearls. - -Madame Zelie Nuttal, the great Maya scholar, personally writes that -pearls are not mentioned either as articles of tribute or of decoration -in ancient Mexican codices; possibly a lack of fine, hard instruments -with which to drill holes in pearls may have caused them to be -comparatively little used in personal adornment. Neither do they appear -to have been found incrusted in prehistoric objects, and we have no -written evidence of their having been used in this way. We do not know -of any instances of the wearing of pearls by the Indian women, but the -women of the higher classes used to wear them profusely, more especially -drop-earrings and pendants. Madame Nuttal also communicates as follows: - - Bernadino de Sahagun states: “There are also pearls in New Spain, - and they are familiar to everybody. They are named epyollotti,[476] - which means the heart of the shell, because they are formed in the - shell of the oyster.” In Molina’s dictionary “seed-pearls” are named - “piciltic epyollotti,” which means “water-stars,” a poetical name, - composed of the word a = att = water, and cittallin = star. The - latter name leads us to infer the possibility that the “star-skirt, - or skirt of, or with stars,” the “cittallin icue” of the living - image of the goddess “Tlamateculitti” was decorated with _pearls_, - although it is only described (Book II, chap. 36) as being “of - leather, cut into strips at the bottom (forming a fringe), at the - end of each of which hung a small shell named ‘cueclitti’ which - reproduced a sound when she walked.” As it is stated that this - “star-skirt” was worn over “a white one” it seems as though it must - have been of the kind, represented in codices and sculptures, made - of openwork and netlike, and studded with round objects—possibly - pearls—at the crossings or in the centers of the open spaces. - -Oil-paintings of the madonnas represent them with robes richly -embroidered with pearls, and wearing “ropes of pearls.” The Virgin of -the Rosario, in the church at Santo Domingo, Mexico, was noted for her -pearls, and there is a small oil-painting of this virgin, in which she -is depicted with a wealth of pearls. - -In the Bohemian National Exposition, held at Prague in 1891, Count -Schwarzenberg exhibited four embroideries, each fourteen by eight -inches. They were embroidered with Bohemian pearls found on his domains -a century or more previous, and contained many thousands of pearls. - -In Hungary pearls have always been the favorite jewels, especially among -the aristocracy, and they have served to adorn the national costume of -both men and women. A century ago nearly every family of distinction -owned a necklace, but most of the pearls were small and of indifferent -quality. Since that time fine pearls have become more usual, and many -wealthy Hungarian families have acquired beautiful pearls of good size -and excellent quality, and many splendid necklaces can now be seen in -Hungary. The following are some of the finest: - - A necklace of three large rows, owned by the Archduke Joseph and - valued at one million francs. - - A still larger necklace in the possession of Prince Nicholas - Esterhazy; this, however, is an entailed heirloom, and may not be - parted with without the king’s permission. - - A very fine necklace of five rows, also an entailed heirloom, owned - by Count Maurice Esterhazy. - - A large necklace, possessed by Countess Alois Karoly, wife of the - late ambassador in London. This is another entailed heirloom; its - value is at least a million and a half francs. - - An unusually large necklace of four rows, such as one rarely sees, - owned by the Countess Wenkheim. The pearls are white, and have a - good shape, but not much brilliancy. The average size of these - pearls is approximately twenty-four grains. - - An equally large necklace consisting of a single row, averaging - twenty-six grains, in the possession of Countess Louis Batthyani. - - There are a great many other necklaces of fine quality, worth from - 300,000 francs down to 100,000 francs, belonging to families such as - those of Count Joseph Hunyadi, Countess Festetics-Hamilton, Count - Landor Nako, Peer Leo Lanczi, Count Albert Apponyi, Mr. Eugene - Dreher, Madame Emma de Bachrach, etc., etc. Indeed, almost every - wealthy family of the better class owns a necklace worth up to - 100,000 francs and over. - -[Illustration: - - PEARL ORNAMENTS OF THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES - - Hungarian Aigret Earring, Hungary - Earrings, Nijni-Novgorod Spanish earring -] - -The portraits of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries -afford us many interesting evidences regarding the various forms of -jewelry in which pearls were used. Indeed, had we no other records, -these pictures alone would prove the great popularity of the gem as an -ornament. - -In the finely executed portrait of the Duchess Anne de France, she wears -a coronet with three pearls at each point. It seems to be made up of -three large pearls, set on a row of pearls circling the entire top of -her head, beneath which is a row of great emeralds, and then another row -of pearls. Flaring downward and entirely covering the side of her head -near the ear, are two rows of pearls with a row of fine emeralds between -them, the rows of pearls deflecting slightly downward until the chin -line is reached, and then turning back and slightly upward, meeting at -the back. As in the crown cap, the same severe decoration in pearls is -the main feature, and is repeated on each side of the robe, the front of -which is of ermine. Beginning on a line with the shoulder is a broad -band of pearls and emeralds set in gold which extends below her waist. -At the top of this are six pearls set in a straight line. Then from the -end of this line, dropping straight down, is a row on each side. Between -the two rows is a gem, then two great pearls and another gem, then two -more pearls, this being repeated to below the waist. The ermine is held -at her waist by a trefoil reversed; that is, two pearls above and one -below a great gem, and then a trefoil reversed below this. This portrait -is dated 1498 and is on a triptych in the cathedral of Moulins. - -Quite unique is the pearl decoration in a picture of St. Barbara, -painted by an artist of the French school, and dated 1520, which is in -the National Museum of Budapest. This artist uses pearls with the utmost -severity of taste and richness. Beginning a trifle above the center of -her forehead is an emerald ornament, and on each side there extend to -the back of her head three rows of pearls, not placed exactly one row -above the other, but the rows intertwined with each other. The whole is -enriched by a great string of pearls about her neck. The effect produced -is extremely artistic and beautiful. - -Catharine de’ Medici wore two rows of pearls on her bonnet, and a quaint -necklace in sections of two rows of four pearls, with a large pearl -between; a pear-shaped pendant on a Renaissance jewel; a row of pearls -around her low-cut bodice, and a girdle of jewels alternating with -pearls, which extended to the lower end of her gown. In addition to all -this, she wore a bracelet of jewels with a pearl set between each -ornament. This artistic combination is best shown in her portrait in the -Uffizi, Florence (No. 726), painted by an unknown artist. - -One of the most unique, rich, and chic collections of pearls, and one -worn with unusual grace, is that of the Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia, -shown in the fine portrait of her by Coello Sanchez. In this portrait -her hat shows the plumes embroidered with slanting rows of three, four, -and five pearls. In the center of the hat is an ornament shaped like a -flower, with seven large pearl petals surrounding a great pearl center. -The hat is tilted to one side showing her hair on the left, while a -little to the right of the center of her forehead, and touching it, -there hangs from her hair a great pear-shaped pearl, which adds a -wonderful amount of character to the jeweling of her head. Around her -neck is a high fluted ruff; below which is a collar of large gems -relieved by an ornament of two pearls placed between each gem. The same -interesting motive is carried out in a girdle of gems which comes down -very low to her waist, terminating in a large jeweled heart ornament. -The painting shows sixteen remarkable pearls in the collar, and -thirty-six pearls in the jeweled girdle. - -A very interesting collection of portraits was exhibited last spring -(1907) at the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. The pictures are -contained, in some instances, in old illuminated manuscripts, while in -others they are contemporary crayon sketches. Many pearl decorations are -represented, and we give a few of the most important. - - The portrait of Anne de Bretagne (1476–1514), wife of Louis XII, - from the “Heures d’Anne de Bretagne,” illuminated by Jean - Bourdichon, represents the queen kneeling; she wears a collar - ornamented with groups of four pearls alternating with precious - stones. - - A crayon sketch of Françoise de Foix, Comtesse de Châteaubriant - (1490–1537), who became the mistress of Francis I, shows her wearing - a hood or coif ornamented with forty oval pearls. She also wears a - necklace of sixty fine round pearls. - - Diane de Poitiers (1499–1566), granddaughter of Charles VII and - Agnes Sorel, is represented with a head-dress similar to that worn - by the Comtesse de Châteaubriant . It has a border of sixty round - pearls. This crayon is of the time of Jean Clouet. - - A portrait of Philip Strozzi (1541–1582) who, although an Italian, - had the rank of colonel-général in the French army, is interesting - as an illustration of the wearing of earrings by the men of this - period. The fine round pearl which hangs from his ear strikes us now - as a curious ornament for a warrior. - - A crayon sketch of Gabrielle d’Estrées (d. 1599), mistress of Henri - IV, is attributed to the hand of Daniel Dumonstier. Here may be seen - a splendid pearl necklace, which apparently consists of six - sections, each comprising three rows of eight round pearls, the - sections being connected with each other by a large oval pearl. The - necklace, which hangs down over the bosom, is fastened by a clasp in - the form of a four-leaved clover, from which depend two other - sections similar to those described above, and terminating in an - oval pearl pendant. - - The portrait of the Duchesse de Montpensier (1627–1693), the “Grande - Mademoiselle” of Mme. de Sévigné’s letters, is from the “Maximes de - nostre salut,” dedicated to the duchess by the author, M. de la - Serre, and is attributed to Nicolas Jarry. It represents the duchess - wearing a beautiful necklace of round pearls and a large pear-shaped - pearl earring, while another pear-shaped pearl depends from a clasp - which serves to loop up her fichu on the shoulder. - -A fine example of the Renaissance style existing in the sixteenth -century is that of a gold and enamel necklace of Italian workmanship, -embellished with pearls. This necklace was presented to the Louvre -Museum by Don A. de Rotschildt. The two-pearl motive is carried out -exquisitely, two pearls appearing in a small connecting ornament between -two larger enameled and engraved gold plaques, which represent scenes -from the life of our Saviour. - -At the exposition of 1900 there was shown in the Russian Pavilion, a -most interesting collection of jewelry of decidedly oriental character, -dating from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century. These jewels were -said to have belonged to the Emir of Bokhara. They differed slightly -from the East Indian in character, and generally consisted of -combinations of pearls, rubies, and emeralds, the three colors of these -gems predominating. One of the most interesting of the necklaces, -acquired by J. Gelatley, Esq., shows an arrangement of the pearls which -is peculiarly attractive and decorative. - -The heraldic significance of pearls has at times been very important. -While in the eighteenth century the crowns of the French nobles were -surmounted with silver points, it appears that in the sixteenth century -they were provided with pearl points. According to Rudolphus,[477] the -dukes wore a leaf crown of eight leaves, with or without as many -commingled pearl points; the marquises a crown of four leaves with -twelve pearl points, or with four groups of three pearls set one over -the other; and the counts, a pearl crown which sometimes had four pearls -in each corner, one above the other. The viscounts wore a gold ring set -with four pearls, and the barons a gold ring entwined with pearls. - -The same is true of the English coronets. Instead of the pearls which -they bore at an earlier period, silver balls are now used on those of -the English barons, viscounts, earls, and marquises. This change -probably owed its origin to the desire on the part of the sovereigns to -confine the official use of pearls and other precious stones to -themselves. The rules at the coronation of Edward VII forbade the use of -pearls except as a special royal privilege. The earl’s coronet has eight -balls raised on points, with gold strawberry leaves between the points. -The marquis wears one with four gold strawberry leaves and four silver -balls alternating, the latter raised above the rim.[478] - -A pearl and gold ring, formerly belonging to Washington, is now in the -possession of Vice-Chancellor E. B. Learning, of Camden, N. J. It bears -in the center a lock of Washington’s hair under a conical glass, around -which is a setting of blue and white enamel with a square of red at each -corner. The whole is surrounded by a circle of thirteen pearls. This -ring was presented by Washington to Lieutenant Richard Somers prior to -the latter’s departure on the expedition against the Algerine pirates in -Tripoli, in the course of which he lost his life. Before his departure -he left the ring with his sister, Sarah Keen. Vice-Chancellor Leaming’s -paternal grandmother inherited it as heir to Somers’s estate, and from -her it descended successively to her son and grandson. The lock of -Washington’s hair is admitted to be one of only three now existing, of -the other two, one is at Washington’s headquarters at Newburg and the -other in the museum at Boston. The ring was exhibited at the Centennial -Exposition in 1876. - -And what a wealth of pearls was seen at the marriage of the late Emperor -Frederick III of Germany with Princess Victoria, in 1858! The wedding -gift of the bridegroom consisted of a necklace of thirty-six enormous -pearls, three superb ones in the middle, and graduated in size toward -the ends. From her mother, Queen Victoria, the bride received a diamond -necklace and three massive brooches set with unusually large pearls; and -from Prince Albert, a magnificent hair-net of pearls, diamonds, and -emeralds. The king and queen of Prussia presented a diadem of brilliants -surrounded with a splendid circlet of pearls. On the day of her entry -into Berlin, the queen bestowed on the bride a costly brooch of pearls -and diamonds, representing a bouquet, the leaves of which consisted of -diamonds, while the flowers themselves were of pear-shaped pearls of -large size, one weighing 160 grains, and fourteen of them weighing 600 -grains together. - -One of the most splendid and best known collection of pearls, and one -worn with as much grace as any in Europe, consists of those owned by the -dowager Queen Margherita of Italy, whose name signifies pearl, and who -has always been fond of the ocean jewel. Her husband, King Humbert, made -her many presents of this regal gem. A photograph, signed by the queen -and sent to us for this volume by her gracious courtesy, shows her -wearing her magnificent twelve strings of pearls, a pearl bracelet, and -a pearl tiara with pear-shaped pearl tips. - -[Illustration: - - MARGHERITA, DOWAGER QUEEN OF ITALY -] - -At the coronation of Edward VII and Queen Alexandra, beside her -coronation crown, the latter wore many of her richest and most beautiful -jewels. These consisted of seven immense rows of pearls, each -twenty-four to thirty inches in length, hanging below five large neck -circlets of diamonds and a great corsage ornament which covered her -entire bodice; and beneath part of this was a splendid ornament of -diamonds with large, pear-shaped pearls. - -A careful study of the decorations conferred by potentates and -governments shows that the pearl is rarely used in the ornamentation of -these marks of distinction. A notable exception is that given by the -Siamese government. This decoration is known as the nine-jewel Siamese -decoration, and bears a large center pearl. It is only conferred on nine -members of the royal Siamese family, including his Majesty the King of -Siam. The central pearl represents the king and the eight other jewels -surrounding it the members of his family. It is strange that Siam should -find so much significance in white, as is illustrated by the white -elephant, and also by the use of the white pearl for this order. - -The Order of Christ, the chief Portuguese order, has a long cross -enameled in bright red surcharged with a white cross and bordered with -fine pearls. The effect is both striking and beautiful. - -The order of the crown of India is a jeweled badge with a device -composed of the imperial cipher, E. R. and I., in diamonds, pearls, and -turquoises, set within a border of pearls and surmounted by the imperial -crown.[479] - -A remarkable pearl necklace was recently the subject of litigation in -England. It was the property of the late Duchess of Sermonata, an -Englishwoman who married an Italian. She was a daughter of the late Lord -Howard de Walden, one of the wealthiest of the English nobility. The -duchess was in the habit of investing all her spare cash in pearls, and -it seems that she chose a very good form of investment, since pearls -have increased in value to a greater extent even than diamonds during -the same period. Of the ten rows of which this necklace consisted, six -were deposited for safekeeping in a London bank and the other four were -in Florence at the time of the death of the duchess. She had bequeathed -the gems at the bank to her niece, Miss Henrietta Ellis, and had left -directions that, if her pearl necklace was in London when she died, it -should be sent to her Italian executors. All the jewels are now claimed -by these executors, while Miss Ellis contends that it was the intention -of the duchess to leave to her the pearls in the hands of the London -bankers. The necklace consisted at one time of ten rows; the first, -thirteen and a half inches long, comprised forty-one pearls; the second, -fourteen inches in length, thirty-nine pearls; the third, fourteen and a -half inches, forty-three pearls; the fourth, seventeen inches, -forty-seven pearls; the fifth, seventeen and a half inches, forty-nine -pearls; the sixth, nineteen and a half inches, fifty-five pearls; the -seventh, twenty-one inches, sixty-six pearls; the eighth, twenty-three -and a half inches, seventy pearls; the ninth, twenty-six inches, -eighty-two pearls; the tenth, twenty-nine and a half inches, ninety-one -pearls. The total number of pearls is 583, and the necklace is valued at -$150,000. - -A widely advertised necklace of large size was shown in the English -section of the Paris Exposition of 1900. This necklace consisted of -forty-six pearls weighing 1596 grains, and was valued at $450,000. It -was loaned by an English gentleman now dead, and was returned to him at -the close of the exposition and later dispersed. - -In regard to the possession of pearls by families in the United States, -we may safely say that there is not a letter in the alphabet under which -we cannot find the names of from one to a dozen families, owning single -strings or collections from the value of $10,000 to $200,000, or even -more. If one is a wearer of jewels, pearls are an absolute necessity; -indeed, they are as essential and indispensable for the wealthy as are -houses, horses, and automobiles. At no period in the world’s history -have pearls been more widely distributed; and some of those of to-day -are finer in quality and orient, and also more carefully matched, than -those in the great collections of the past. Of course there are -exceptions, where royal personages have been careful observers and have -used good taste, but it is a question whether there have ever been more -critical or better buyers, as far as selection is concerned, than are -many American men and women who have purchased this gem. - -One of the largest pearl necklaces in the United States is in the -possession of an American lady. There are perhaps thirty pearls in the -necklace, weighing in all about 1400 grains; the largest pearl weighs -nearly 120 grains. There is also one of 75 grains and one of 70 grains, -the others graduating down to 20 grains. - -[Illustration: - - COLLECTION OF BLACK PEARLS BELONGING TO AN AMERICAN LADY -] - -With increasing wealth, and a demand for rich rather than gaudy or showy -jewelry, there is nothing that commends itself so highly as the pearl, -which acts as a foil to the diamond, emerald, ruby, and sapphire, and at -the same time harmonizes with them and in fact with all the colored -stones. The true pearl, as it increases in size and beauty, becomes -proportionately more rare and costly; and yet it differs from other -jewels in the fact that they are mined in the depths of the earth, and -their existing quantity is speculative, while the home of the pearl is -much more accessible, and it is possible to make an estimate of the -number of pearls in course of growth. Pearls, however, are forming all -the time, while other gems are perhaps to-day as they were ages before -the advent of man. Nevertheless, even if pearls were cultivated as they -should be, and people cared for the mollusks as the oyster-gatherer does -for his crop—by planting it, guarding it and gathering it -systematically—still, the ever-increasing demand would more than balance -the greater supply. As we have said, at no time since pearls were worn -have they enjoyed such favor; and while they have always increased in -value, this increase has never been so rapid as in the past ten years. -They are jewels which can be worn by young or old, and which adapt -themselves to every fabric that man or woman can use for attire; whether -they are white, gray, or black, they are never obtrusive, but always -have a refining effect. Round as the globe upon which we live, they will -probably be worn and appreciated as long as life exists upon this -sphere. - -It is interesting to note the change of taste and the difference of -opinion, at various epochs, in regard to the respective merits of -pear-shaped and round pearls. In the Roman period the pear-shaped pearls -were more highly valued; in the eighteenth century round pearls were -esteemed the more valuable, while at the present day they are both on -about the same basis. - -With the progressive twentieth century taste for independence in -fashion, our modern ladies take from every epoch what they think will -best suit their superrefined beauty. Therefore we are not surprised to -find in their jewel-cases the long earrings and large brooches adorned -with seed-pearls, similar to those worn by their grandmothers of the -early Victorian period. Although these jewels cannot be considered very -beautiful according to the artistic standard of to-day, they, -nevertheless, lend to their wearers a certain quaint dignity and -piquancy which is very attractive. - -As an instance of modern pearl-wearing by a lady of the present century, -we may note a portrait in which there is a simple necklace of large -pearls; over this a collar of twenty-three rows of pearls with a diamond -centerpiece, and to relieve the severity, a sautoir, which is made up of -alternate pearls and diamonds, and pearl earrings. No better -illustration can be given than the portrait of Señora Carmen Romero -Rubio de Diaz, wife of President Porfirio Diaz of Mexico, which, by her -courtesy, we are able to figure. - -The gathering of a great necklace is not the work of a day; it often -requires many years. Such necklaces are frequently held for a long time -by dealers or by a number of people who are interested in their sale, -and whenever one or more pearls can be purchased which form a better -graduation or which are of better color or more perfect, they are -usually purchased to improve the necklace if the price is a proper one. - -In the early sixties, when most American women aspired to owning a pair -of diamond earrings, it was not uncommon for ladies to start with a -hundred, two hundred, five hundred, or a thousand-dollar pair, and, for -a dozen years to come, to add an annual sum of one hundred, two hundred -or five hundred dollars to increasing the size of these by exchanging -them with the dealer at the cost price and paying the difference between -the value of the pair that had been purchased and that of the new pair. -In this way ladies who never would have thought of spending five -thousand dollars for a pair of earrings, virtually made a savings-bank -of the jewels. This is frequently done with pearls. A small necklace or -a few pearls will be purchased; these are added to annually or at such -times as the owner may have spare savings or gifts to invest. It is not -uncommon for a family to buy a pearl for a daughter on her first -birthday, and each succeeding year add one pearl to this, so that she -may first wear one pearl, then two, then three, and by the time the -young lady makes her début in society, a good start has been made toward -a pearl necklace. It was the custom of King Humbert of Italy to present -his queen, Margherita, with one fine pearl every year, and with this -succession of annual gifts she possessed one of the finest collections -in Europe. - -In the portraits of the four daughters of the present Czarina of Russia, -the Grand Duchesses Tatiana, Olga, Maria, and Anastasia, we can see that -their pearl necklaces were built up gradually, as that of the eldest -daughter is notably longer than those of her younger sisters. These -pearls were annual gifts from the Czar and Czarina and from others of -the imperial family. - -There are few ornaments worn by man or woman that have not at one time -or another been bepearled, either with large or small pearls, with one -pearl or many pearls, with pearls of high or low degree, and no object -is ever made the less rich by the addition of the peerless gem of the -ocean depths. - -As the prices of pearls have increased, naturally the single objects -containing them have also become more costly. It is not unusual to see -rings with pearls each costing from $5000 to $10,000, $20,000, and even -$30,000 and over, the pearls not infrequently being in button form. - -Rings are occasionally made up of one white and one black oriental -pearl, and if a pink one is combined with these, it is either a -fresh-water or a conch pearl. Such rings sell for $5000, $8000, $10,000 -and $15,000 each. - -Pendant pearls, either round, ovate, drop, or pear-shaped, sell from -$5000 to $10,000, $20,000, $50,000, and even $100,000. - -The prices for one or two choice pearls worn for the adornment of a -man’s shirt-front are $2000, $3000, $5000, and even $10,000. - -[Illustration: - - SENORA CARMEN ROMERO RUBIO DE DIAZ, WIFE OF PRESIDENT PORFIRIO DIAZ OF - MEXICO -] - -In link buttons, slightly ovate, button or round pearls are used, the -link being made up of one white and one black pearl, costing $2000, -$3000, $5000, and even $20,000 a set. - -It is not unusual for a man to wear a scarf-pin set with a round, ovate, -or pear-shaped pearl costing $2000, $5000, $10,000, $15,000, and even -$30,000. - -For men’s scarf-pins, a variety of colors are frequently selected, such -as a white oriental, a pink American, a pink conch, or a gray and black -oriental pearl. - -Single pearl necklaces sell for $1000, $2000, $5000, $8000, $10,000, -$15,000, $20,000, $50,000, $100,000, $250,000, and $500,000 necklaces -are not unknown. - -Tiaras sell for $10,000, $20,000, $50,000, and $100,000. - -Waistcoat buttons, sometimes made up of baroque pearls, cost from $200 -to $500; sometimes, however, when fine pearls are used, the price paid -for a set of five or six buttons is as high as $10,000. - -It is scarcely possible to mention all the various forms in which the -pearl has been worn: whether as a spray of many small pearls or a few -large ones, either round, ovate, or pear-shaped for aigrets; in points -on crowns, used either for ornamental or heraldic purposes; for the -decoration of the orbs, scepters, and crowns of kings and emperors; for -forming an edging on bonnets, caps, fillets, or diadems; in pendant -form, usually consisting of one, although sometimes of three or four -pendants in rows and lines to ornament the side of the face; or one, -two, three, or a bunch together to adorn the ear; as a single pearl on a -wire or a group of them, as worn in the nose of the East Indian beauty; -as a single, two, three, or many-rowed necklace to grace the lady, the -queen, and the empress; or else in six, ten, to twenty or more rows with -a tiny gold jeweled bar, or a large diamond center, in the form of -collars; as a long chain from four to ten feet long to hang from the -neck to the waist, or else to be worn once, twice, or thrice around the -neck, hanging down and then encircling the waist in the form of a -sautoir; either as a single drop, consisting of an ovate or pear-shaped -pearl or a number of them together in the form of a pendant combined -with diamonds; as a single pearl surrounded with pearls or diamonds for -buttons to adorn my lady’s crown; in rows, or combined with jewels and -enamel, in the form of a bow-knot with long bunches of pearls, for -shoulder bars; either as one pearl alone or alternating with gold wire, -with jewels, or with many pearls, in endless forms, as bracelets; either -as a single row, two rows or alternate rows in infinite variety on -bodices, as worn in the past more than at the present; in a single row -on ornamenting metal, enamel, or jewelwork in the form of girdles; in -five hundred forms for rings; as an embroidery or in rows pendant on -slippers; and, finally, as a stole. These are only a few of the uses to -which a lady can put pearls. - -By men, pearls are worn to adorn the shirt, to wear in the scarf, as -link buttons, as waistcoat buttons, or as a fob. The pearls used in this -way are sometimes quite as expensive as any of those worn by the ladies. - -Ecclesiastics, for more than two thousand years, have appreciated the -richness of bepearling. In Russia we find pearls decorating crosses, -missal covers, vestments, bindings on books, chalices and crook-tops; -they are employed as borders to ikon frames, or for the decoration about -the Madonna and Child. In Persia we find pearl-embroidered rugs, -pillows, and bolsters. Half-pearls are used in quaint decorations for -watches, snuff-boxes, miniatures, and portrait frames. Even saddles and -horse-trappings in the East do not escape the charm and beauty of the -pearl. Even the English coronation spoon is known for the pearls which -ornament it. - -Of the many forms of earrings that have come down to us, none is simpler -or daintier than a single pearl worn as an ear-screw, or partly or -entirely strung on a thin gold wire. Another dainty style is three -pearls, worn one below the other as in ancient Rome, known as a triclum; -or the round pearl with a pear-shaped pendant or bunches of pearls known -as crotalia, also worn in ancient times. - -A pearl necklace is usually clasped either by a round or ovate pearl, -drilled so that the catch and snap are contained within the pearl -itself, or else by a pearl surrounded by diamonds, rubies, or other -gems. Such a clasp frequently serves to bind from two to fifteen rows of -pearls, the first or smaller row encircling the neck, and each row in -turn being larger until the fifteenth row reaches to the bosom or even -to the waist. - -Pearl collars are usually made up of four, six, ten, twenty, and even -twenty-five rows; often of very small pearls, generally fitting closely -to the neck. The pearls are held in position either by four gold, -diamond, or jeweled bars, or frequently the entire front of the collar -is occupied by a large diamond ornament. - -In ancient times, pearls were a favorite decoration of crosses; -frequently an entire cross was made up of pearls, either of a single or -a double row. Many portraits dating from the fifteenth to the -seventeenth century show the cross used in connection with a necklace, -this either starting from the top of the cross or from each side at the -end of each arm. Sometimes from below the arms and the lower part of the -cross there hung pendant either round or pear-shaped pearls. We have -other instances where at the top, the cross was attached to a pearl -necklace, while below each of the two arms there hung a pearl, and from -the lower part of the cross a double necklace again reached to the back -of the neck. Frequently a festoon collar will be made up of five rows of -pearls, each of a graduated length, and pendant on each a diamond. -Recently pearls have been drilled and invisibly joined by fine platinum -links, so as to form a continuous ribbon or even a collar two inches -wide; occasionally, a Greek border or some other design, of larger -pearls or of diamonds, rubies, sapphires or other gems, is interwoven. -This constitutes a veritable, smooth pearl cloth, or pearl mesh, very -beautiful and also comfortable to wear. Indeed, a purse, measuring five -by six inches, has been made of this cloth of pearls. - -[Illustration: - - Jade jar inlaid with pearls set with fine gold - - Heber R. Bishop Collection, Metropolitan Museum of Art -] - -[Illustration: - - Japanese decoration set with pearls - - Order of the crown of the First Class. Metropolitan Museum of Art -] - -Dust-pearls, too minute to drill, and numbering over 100,000 to the -ounce, were used, in the latter part of the eighteenth and the early -part of the nineteenth centuries, for the embellishment of the hair-work -then so much in favor and which was placed under glass. Where foliage -was represented the leaves were made of the most minute seed-pearls, -graduated in size and set on an outline of enamel or white paint, the -pearls being cemented to the outline. This added a softness to the -hair-work and other decoration. - -As long as the pearl has been known, there has been a desire to obtain -possession of one in some of its degrees of perfection, and for this -reason many attempts have been made to prepare something that might pass -for a pearl or even suggest a pearl. Sometimes the mother-of-pearl shell -has, naturally, a protuberance, either round or pear-shaped, which, if -cut off and highly polished may resemble an imperfect pearl; and this -operation is often so cleverly performed that, at the first glance, this -object may pass for a true pearl. In Russia, and especially in Bohemia, -they have gone farther than this. They have cut out a bit of -mother-of-pearl shell, leaving a piece of the natural shell for the top, -or the part that will be visible, and rounding off the rest of the -surface so as to give it a pearly effect. These objects are of trifling -value and are used in necklaces and earrings, and in the ornamentation -of icons and miniature frames and even as beads. Glass with either an -exterior or interior coating of a nacreous substance is sometimes made -absolutely round, while at other times it is made with many -imperfections so as to resemble either a marine baroque or a fresh-water -irregular pearl. The North American Indian, as described elsewhere, has -coated little balls of clay with a powder made from a pearl-bearing -fresh-water mussel and then baked them. - - - - - XVI - - FAMOUS PEARLS AND COLLECTIONS - - - - - XVI - FAMOUS PEARLS AND COLLECTIONS - - - The kingdom of heaven is like unto a merchant man, seeking goodly - pearls: who, when he had found one pearl of great price, went and - sold all that he had and bought it. - - _St. Matthew_, XIII, 45, 46. - -In the course of twenty centuries many pearls and pearl collections have -become famous, either because of their intrinsic value or else through -historic associations. An attempt is made here to list briefly the more -important of these. While we have purposely omitted any mention of the -pearl collections in private hands at the present time, some of which -are more valuable than many of those noted in the following pages, we -have, nevertheless, given the principal sales of pearls at auction -during the past twenty years. Many specimens of remarkable size and -beauty have changed hands in this way, more especially in England. - - -CLEOPATRA PEARLS. Next to that “pearl of great price,” mentioned by -Christ, probably the most famous of all pearls were the two which Pliny -records as having been worn in the ears of Cleopatra, “the singular and -onely jewels of the world and even Nature’s wonder.” This writer does -not note their size, but estimates their value at sixty million -sestertii. We have already quoted the passage in which Pliny relates how -one of these pearls was dissolved and swallowed by Cleopatra in order to -win a wager she had made with Antony. After the death of that queen the -other pearl “was cut in twaine, that in memoriall of that one halfe -supper of theirs, it should remaine unto posterite, hanging at both the -eares of Venus at Rome in the temple of Pantheon.”[480] Budé estimated -the value of the pearl dedicated to Venus at 250,000 _escus_ of -gold.[481] - -Another famous pearl mentioned by Pliny was the one which Julius Cæsar -presented to Servilia, mother of Brutus, the value of which he notes as -six million sestertii.[482] - - -PEROZ PEARL. The historian Procopius,[483] of the sixth century, tells -of a magnificent pearl which belonged to Peroz, or Firuz (459–484), one -of the Sassanian kings of Persia. In the course of his disastrous battle -with the White Huns, in which both he and his sons perished, Peroz, -having a presentiment of the misfortune about to befall him, took the -pearl from his right ear and cast it away, lest any one should wear it -after him. This pearl is described as being “such as no king had ever -worn up to that time.” Procopius, however, thinks it more probable that -the ear of Peroz was cut off in the combat, and he states that the -emperor (Zeno, 426–491) was very anxious to buy the gem from the Huns, -but that all search for it was in vain. Nevertheless, a rumor was -current that it was recovered later, but that another pearl was -substituted for it and sold to Kobad, a successor of Peroz. - -A different version is given by Panciroli,[484] who quotes Zonaras, a -Byzantine historian of the twelfth century, as his authority. According -to this version Justinian the Great, who succeeded to the throne -forty-three years after the death of Peroz, offered one hundred pounds -of gold (about $25,000) for the pearl, but the barbarians refused to -part with it, preferring to keep it as a memorial of Persian folly. On -the coins of Peroz he is represented wearing an earring with three -pendants, one of which may have been this wonderful pearl. - - -CHARLES THE BOLD. One of the greatest jewels of the fifteenth century -was that belonging to Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy (1433–1477). -According to notes and drawings[485] made in 1555 by J. J. Fugger of -Nuremberg, who was the banker jeweler of his generation, this consisted -of a large pyramid diamond five eighths of an inch square at the base, -with the apex cut as a four-rayed star in relief; surrounding this were -three rectangular pyramid-shaped rubies and three magnificent -pear-shaped pearls, and a large ovate pearl was suspended from the -lowest ruby. The pear pearls are described as measuring half an inch in -diameter and must have weighed about sixty grains each. This magnificent -jewel was probably the most celebrated in Europe during the fifteenth -century. According to Comines, on the defeat of the Grand Duke and the -plundering of his baggage by the Swiss at Granson in 1476, the ornament -was found by a careless soldier who tossed it away, but retained the -gold box containing it. On second thought, he searched for and recovered -the jewel and sold it to a priest for one florin, and the ecclesiastic -sold it to a Bernese government official for the sum of three florins. -Some years later this jewel, together with the ducal cap of Charles the -Bold, which was covered with pearls, and bore a plume case, set with -diamonds (points), alternating with pearls and balas-rubies, was sold by -the Bernese government to Jacob Fugger, as related by J. J. Fugger in -the manuscript above noted, “for no more than 47,000 florins.” In the -vain hope that it would be purchased by Emperor Charles V, grandson of -Charles the Bold, Fugger held the jewel for many years, but he broke up -the cap and reset the stones in it for Maximilian II. The brooch was -finally sold to Henry VIII of England just before his death, and it -passed to his daughter and successor, Bloody Mary, who presented it to -her Spanish bridegroom, Philip. Thus, after seventy-six years, the jewel -was restored to a descendant of the original owner. This history has -been given at some length owing to its illustration of the manner in -which great pearls were easily lost on battle-fields and were passed -about from one country to another. - -[Illustration: - - GAIKWAR OF BARODA, 1908 -] - - -TARAREQUI PEARLS. The early American fisheries yielded several -magnificent pearls, many of which eventually became part of the imperial -Spanish jewels. Prominent among these was the _Huerfana_ or _Sola_. -According to Gomara, this was secured in 1515 from the Indians at -Tararequi, in the Gulf of Panama, in a large collection which weighed -880 ounces. It was pear-shaped and weighed thirty-one carats. Gomara -states that this pearl was purchased from Gaspar de Morales, leader of -the Spanish expedition, by a merchant, for the sum of 12,000 castilians. -“The purchaser could not sleep that night for thinking on the fact that -he had given so much money for one stone, and sold it the very next day -to Pedrarias de Avila, for his wife Donna Isabel de Bovadilla”; and -afterward it passed to Isabella, wife of Emperor Charles V (1500–1558). -It was remarkable for its luster, color, and clearness, as well as for -its size. Another large pearl in this collection weighed twenty-six -carats. - - -OVIEDO PEARL. As already noted on page 237, in his “Historia natural y -general de las Indias,” published at Toledo in 1526, Gonzalo de Oviedo -wrote of having purchased at Panama a pearl weighing twenty-six carats -for which he paid 650 times its weight in fine gold, and which he -claimed was the “greatest, fairest and roundest” that had ever been seen -at Panama. Probably this was the twenty-six-carat pearl obtained at -Tararequi by Gaspar de Morales in 1515. At 650 times its weight in gold -the value of this pearl would be $2294.54; representing a base of $.2124 -per grain; but at a base of $5 per grain the same pearl would be worth -$54,080, equaling 15,320 times its weight in gold. - - -TEMPLE OF TALOMECO. Among great collections of pearls, some writers -would place that described by Garcilasso de la Vega as having been found -by De Soto and his followers in 1540 in the Temple of Talomeco near the -Savannah River in America.[486] According to Garcilasso, the quantity of -pearls there was so great that 300 horses and 900 men would not have -sufficed for its transportation, vastly excelling every other if not all -other collections in the history of the world. Unfortunately the -accuracy of this account has not been unquestioned. - - -LA PEREGRINA. Most celebrated among the early American pearls was La -Peregrina (the incomparable), or the Philip II pearl, which weighed 134 -grains. According to Garcilasso de la Vega, who says that he saw it at -Seville in 1597,[487] this was found at Panama in 1560 by a negro who -was rewarded with his liberty, and his owner with the office of alcalde -of Panama. Other authorities note that it came from the Venezuelan -fisheries in 1574. It was carried to Spain by Don Diego de Temes, who -presented it to Philip II (1527–1598). Jacques de Treco, court jeweler -to the king, is credited with saying that it might be worth 30,000, -50,000 or 100,000 ducats, as one might choose to estimate, for in fact -it was so remarkable as to be beyond any standard valuation. If we can -credit Garcilasso, at one time this pearl decorated the crown of the -Blessed Virgin in the church of Guadeloupe, which was resplendent with -gems.[488] A contemporaneous account[489] notes that it was worn at -Madrid by Queen Margarita, wife of Philip III, at the fêtes given in -celebration of the treaty of peace between that country and England in -1605. - - -CHARLES II PEARL. Somewhat similar to the foregoing was the pearl of -Charles II of Spain (1661–1700), which was presented to that monarch by -Don Pedro de Aponte, Conde del Palmer, a native of the Canaries. This -gem was found in 1691, or more than a century after La Peregrina. These -two pearls were nearly equal in size, and for many years they were worn -as earrings by the successive queens of Spain. It is reported that they -were destroyed in 1734, when a large portion of the old palace at Madrid -was burned.[490] - -[Illustration: - - MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS - - The property of the Earl of Leven and Melville. About 1559–1560 -] - -The jewels of the Spanish crown have passed through so many vicissitudes -that it is not surprising that but few of them remain in the Spanish -treasury. After the overthrow of the Spanish monarchy by the French in -1808, Ferdinand VII, during the time of his exile, disposed of many of -these jewels. It is asserted that, after the deposition of Queen -Isabella, in 1868, the crown jewels were divided between herself and her -sister, the pious Duchesse de Montpensier, and a considerable portion -was eventually distributed among the numerous descendants of the latter. -It is also stated that there is no mention of the Spanish crown jewels -during the reign of King Amadeus, the first sovereign of the restored -monarchy. There are, however, great quantities of pearls and other gems -belonging to the various madonnas in the Spanish churches, as, for -example, Nuestra Señora de Atocha, Cavadonga and others. - - -PEARLS OF MARY STUART. The pearls owned by the unfortunate Mary Queen of -Scots (1542–1587) were among the most beautiful in Europe. Inventories -of these[491] show great _bordures de tour_ of large pear pearls with -_entredeux_ of round pearls, long ropes of pearls strung like beads on a -rosary, carcans or broad belts set with pearls, and a large number of -loose pearls. Many of these appear in the portraits of this popular -queen; but probably the most remarkable exhibition of them is in the -portrait now owned by the Earl of Leven and Melville,[492] which appears -to agree fairly well with the inventories of her jewels, although this -portrait is not wholly free from impeachment as to its accuracy and -contemporaneousness. - -After the downfall of the queen, most of her jewels were sold, pawned, -or lost by theft. A number of them passed into the possession of Queen -Elizabeth in 1568, in a manner not wholly satisfactory to lovers of -justice. Some of these were described in a letter dated May 8, 1568, and -addressed to Catharine de’ Medici by Bodutel de la Forest, the French -ambassador at the English court, as “six cordons of large pearls, strung -as paternosters; but there are about twenty-five separate from the -others much larger and more beautiful than those which are strung. They -were first shown to three or four jewelers and lapidaries of this city, -who estimated them at three thousand pounds sterling, and who offered to -give that sum; certain Italian merchants who viewed them afterwards -valued them at 12,000 _escus_, which is the price, as I am told, this -queen [Elizabeth] will take them at. There is a Genevese who saw them -after the others and estimated them as worth 16,000 _escus_ -[$24,000].”[493] - -Catharine de’ Medici, who was a mother-in-law of Mary Stuart, was very -anxious to obtain these pearls; but the ambassador wrote on May 15, -1568, that he had found it impossible to purchase them; for, as he had -told her from the first, they were intended for the gratification of the -Queen of England, who had purchased them at her own price, and was even -then in possession of them.[494] - - -QUEEN ELIZABETH’S PEARLS. Although in her youth she is said to have had -a distaste for personal decorations, in her later years Queen Elizabeth -entertained an extravagant fondness for pearls. In speaking of her -portraits, Horace Walpole says: “A pale Roman nose, a head of hair -loaded with crowns and powdered with diamonds, a vast ruff, a vaster -fardingale, and a bushel of pearls, are features by which everybody -knows at once the pictures of Queen Elizabeth.”[495] And to the end, her -love for them was unabated, for in the last tragi-comic scene of her -life, to meet the Angel of Death himself, she was dressed up in her most -splendid jewels with great pearl necklaces and earrings and pendants, as -Paul Delaroche so successfully pictured in his remarkable painting in -the Louvre. - -The faded waxwork effigy of her, long preserved in Westminster Abbey in -that curious collection of effigies[496]—the “Ragged Regiment,” as -Walpole called them—has a coronet of large spherical pearls in wax, long -necklaces of them, a great pearl-ornamented stomacher, pearl earrings -with large pear-shaped pendants, and even broad, pearl medallions on the -shoe-bows. In accordance with that singular custom which prevailed from -the time of Henry V (1422), to that of Queen Anne (1714),[497] this -effigy lay on her coffin at the funeral and caused, says Stow in his -Chronicle, “such a general sighing, groning, and weeping, as the like -hath not beene seene or knowne in the memory of man.” A contemporaneous -poet wrote that when the corpse with the effigy passed down the Thames -to lie in state at Whitehall, - - Fish wept their eyes of pearl quite out, - And swam blind after. - - -GRESHAM PEARL. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth, Sir Thomas Gresham, -the merchant prince, was credited with possessing a pearl valued at -£15,000, which he reduced to powder and drank in a glass of wine to the -health of the queen, in order to astonish the Spanish ambassador, with -whom he had laid a wager that he would give a more costly dinner than -could the Spaniards.[498] No other information regarding this pearl -seems available. The valuation certainly appears excessive when compared -with that of some other pearls of that period. - -We quote an item from Burgon,[499] taken from the manuscript journal -kept by Edward VI: - - 25 [April, 1551]. A bargaine made with the Fulcare for about 60,000 - l. that in May and August should be paid, for the deferring of it. - First, that the Foulcare should put it off for ten in the hundred. - Secondly, that I should buy 12,000 marks weight at 6 shilinges the - ounce to be delivered at Antwerpe, and so conveyed over. Thirdly, I - should pay 100,000 crowns for a very faire juel of his, four rubies - marvelous big, one orient and great diamount, and one great pearle. - - -RUDOLPH II PEARLS. The scientific, art-loving, but eccentric Rudolph II -(1552–1612), Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, gathered about him at -Prague a great collection of jewels and wealth of all sorts. The values -of his pearls and precious stones, of the gold and silver articles, was -estimated by the archæologist, Jules Cæsar Boulenger, at seventeen -millions of gold florins, which was a very considerable sum at that -time, as appears when we consider that one hundred gold florins annually -was deemed a good salary for an official at the emperor’s court. De Boot -mentions a pearl belonging to Rudolph II which weighed “thirty carats -and cost as many thousands of gold pieces.” It is quite likely that this -was the one noted by Gomara as coming from the Gulf of Panama,[500] and -which Rudolph probably inherited from his grandfather, Emperor Charles -V. The pearl bought by Oviedo in Panama, prior to 1526, may be one of -the principal decorations of the imperial crown of Austria. - -We read in that curious and interesting book, “The Generall Historie of -the Turkes,” by Richard Knolles,[501] that Abbas the Great, Shah of -Persia (1557–1628), after having defeated the Turks in many battles, -desired to form an alliance with Emperor Rudolph II, and to induce him -to break his engagements with the Turks. To this end Shah Abbas, in 1610 -sent an embassy to Prague, with many valuable gifts for the emperor, -among which were “three orientall pearles exceeding big.” It has been -conjectured, and it is also claimed, that these may be three of the -eight pear-shaped pearls which are now to be seen in the crown of -Rudolph II. One of the largest pearls in the Austrian crown, as we have -stated, is most probably the Oviedo pearl. - - -CHARLES I PEARL. Admirers of Vandyke’s pictures of Charles I (1600–1649) -readily recall the pearl pendant from his right ear, which appears in -nearly all of his portraits by that artist. Janin wrote: “This pearl in -the ear of his majesty was greatly coveted, and as soon as his head had -fallen, the witnesses of the dreadful scene rushed forward, ready to -imbue their hands in his blood in order to secure the royal jewel.” It -seems more probable that the martyr king would have left this gem in the -hands of a trusty friend for his family than to the risk of injury by -the ax and to be torn from his mutilated head by a scrambling mob. - - -OWING to their control of the great fisheries, the most valuable -collections of pearls have been held by eastern monarchs, and -particularly by those of India and Persia. It has been estimated that -one third of the portable wealth of these countries is in jewels. Most -Orientals are as suspicious of interest in their jewels as they are of -inquiry regarding their harems, imagining, doubtless, that the interest -conceals a sentiment of cupidity, hence it is not practicable to give a -minute description of them. However, several travelers have recorded -glowing accounts of collections which they have examined, which read -much like a description of Aladdin’s palace in the Arabian Nights. Among -these, some of the greatest are the - - -PEARLS DESCRIBED BY TAVERNIER. For accounts of remarkable pearls in -eastern countries in the seventeenth century, we are indebted to that -well-informed old French jeweler, Tavernier, one of the most remarkable -gem dealers the world has ever known. He made numerous journeys to -Persia, Turkey, Central Asia, and the East Indies, gaining the -confidence of the highest officials and trading in gems of the greatest -value. After amassing a large fortune and purchasing a barony near Lake -Geneva, he died at Moscow in 1689 while on a mercantile trip to the -Orient, at the age of eighty-four years. His “Voyages,” published in -1676–1679, reveal a critical knowledge of gems, a remarkable insight -into human nature, and the absence of any intention to impart misleading -information. - -In the first English edition of his travels, published in 1678, -Tavernier gave sketches of five of the principal pearls which came under -his careful observation. - -Figure 1 of Tavernier’s diagram shows what he considered “the largest -and most perfect pearl ever discovered, and without the least defect.” -The weight of this pear-shaped gem does not appear to have been noted, -but from the sketch it may be estimated at about 500 grains. Tavernier -states that the bloodthirsty Shah Sofi, King of Persia, purchased it in -1633 from an Arab who had just received it from the fisheries at El -Katif. “It cost him 32,000 tomans, or 1,400,000 livres of our money, at -the rate of 46 livres and 6 deniers per toman ($552,000).”[502] - -[Illustration: - - QUEEN ELIZABETH OF ENGLAND -] - -[Illustration: - - ELIZABETH OF FRANCE -] - -Very much smaller but more beautiful than this great pearl, was the one -which Tavernier saw in 1670 at Ormus in the possession of the Imam of -Muscat, who had recently recovered the Muscat peninsula from the -Portuguese. The jeweler stated that although this weighed only twelve -and one sixteenth carats (forty-eight and a quarter grains),[503] and -was not perfectly round, it surpassed in beauty all others in the world -at that time. It was so clear and lustrous as to appear translucent. At -the conclusion of a grand entertainment given by the Khan of Ormus, at -which Tavernier was present, the Prince of Muscat drew this gem from a -small purse suspended about his neck, and exhibited it to the company. -The Khan of Ormus offered 2000 tomans (about $34,500) for it, but the -owner would not part with his treasure. Tavernier states that later the -prince refused an offer of 40,000 _escus_ ($45,000) from Aurangzeb, the -Great Mogul of India.[504] - -Figure 3 in the diagram represents a pear-shaped pearl of fifty-five -carats (220 grains) which Tavernier sold to Shaista Khan, uncle of the -Grand Mogul. Although of large size and good shape, this was deficient -in luster. According to the jeweler, this pearl was from the Island of -Margarita on the Venezuelan coast, and was the largest ever carried from -Occident to Orient. - -Tavernier listed among the Great Mogul’s jewels a large olive-shaped -pearl, perfect in form and luster. The weight was not noted, but from -the sketch which he gave (see Fig. 4) it may be estimated at about 125 -grains. It formed the central ornament of a chain of emeralds and -rubies, which the Mogul sometimes wore about his neck. He also listed a -round pearl of perfect form (see Fig. 5). The weight of this also is not -noted, but from the sketch it may be estimated at 110 grains. This was -the largest perfectly spherical pearl known to Tavernier. Its equal had -never been found, and for that reason it was kept with the unmounted -jewels. - -Among the other pearl treasures of the Great Mogul, Tavernier noted the -following: - -(a) Two grand, pear-shaped pearls, one weighing about seventy -ratis,[505] a little flattened on both sides, and of beautiful water and -good form. (b) A button-shaped pearl, weighing from fifty-five to sixty -ratis, of good form and good water. (c) A round pearl of great -perfection, a little flat on one side and weighing fifty-six ratis; this -had been presented to the Great Mogul by Shah Abbas II, King of Persia. -(d) Three round yellowish pearls weighing from twenty-five to -twenty-eight ratis each. (e) A perfectly round pearl, thirty-five and a -half ratis, white and perfect in all respects. This was the only jewel -purchased by the Great Mogul himself, the others being inherited or -coming to him as presents. (f) Two pearls perfectly shaped and equal, -each weighing twenty-five and a quarter ratis. (g) Also two chains, one -of pearls and rubies of different shapes pierced like the pearls; the -other of pearls and emeralds, round and bored. All of these pearls were -round and ranged in weight from ten to twelve ratis each.[506] - - -PEACOCK THRONE. The famous Takht-i-Tâ’ûs, or “Peacock Throne,” at Delhi -doubtless contained the greatest accumulation of gems in the seventeenth -century. It was completed, in the eighth year of his reign (1044 A.H., -1634 A.D.) by Shah Jehan, greatest of Mogul sovereigns, who likewise -built the Taj Mahal at Agra, one of the most beautiful edifices ever -designed by man. Abd-al-Hamid, of Lahore, in his Pâd-shâh-nâmah, “Book -of the King,” composed prior to 1654, writes as follows:[507] - - In the course of years many valuable gems had come into the imperial - jewel house, each one of which might serve as an ear-drop for Venus - or as an adornment for the girdle of the Sun. Upon the accession of - the emperor, it occurred to him that, in the opinion of far-seeing - men the acquisition of such rare jewels and the keeping of such - wonderful brilliants could render but one service, that of adorning - the throne of the empire. They ought, therefore, to be put to such a - use that beholders might benefit by their splendour and that majesty - might shine with increased brilliancy. - -As described by Tavernier in 1676, great quantities of pearls were used -in the ornamentation of this throne, the arched roof, the supporting -pillars, the adjacent sun-umbrellas, being well covered with these gems, -many of them of great value. The choicest one was pear-shaped, yellowish -in color, and weighed about fifty carats (200 grains);[508] this was -suspended from a great ruby which ornamented the breast of the peacock. -“But that which in my opinion is the most costly thing about this -magnificent throne is that the twelve columns supporting the canopy are -surrounded with beautiful rows of pearls, which are round and of fine -water, and weigh from 6 to 10 carats each [24 to 40 grains].”[509] The -total value of the jewels entering into the ornamentation was estimated -at 160,500,000 livres or $60,187,500; and the present value of the -throne as it stands in the shah’s palace at Teheran, whither it was -carried by Nadir Shah from the sack of Delhi in 1739, even though -divested of many of its most valuable gems, is estimated at -$13,000,000.[510] The designer of the Peacock Throne was Austin de -Bordeaux, who also planned the magnificent Taj Mahal. He was named by -Shah Jehan, “Jewel-Handed,” and received a salary of two thousand rupees -a month. - - -SHAH’S “TIPPET.” Sir Harford Jones Brydges’ description of the jewels of -the Shah of Persia at Teheran is of particular value, since he had -formerly dealt in jewels and was an expert in such matters. He says: - - I was particularly struck with the king’s tippet, a covering for - part of his back, his shoulders and his arms, which is only used on - the very highest occasions. It is a piece of pearl work of the most - beautiful pattern; the pearls are worked on velvet, but they stand - so close together that little, if any, of the velvet is visible. It - took me a good hour to examine this single article, which I have no - fear of saying can not be matched in the world. There was not a - single pearl employed in forming this most gorgeous trapping less in - size than the largest marrow-fat pea I ever saw raised in England, - and many—I should suppose from 150 to 200—the size of a wild plum, - and throughout the whole of these pearls, it would puzzle the best - jeweler who should examine them most critically to discover in more - than 4 or 5 a serious fault. The tassel is formed of pearls of the - most uncommon size and beauty; and the emerald which forms the top - of the tassel is perhaps the largest perfect one in the world.... - For some days after I had seen these jewels, I attempted to make an - estimate of their value, but I got so confused in the recollection - of their weight and the allowance to be made in some of them for - their perfection in water and color, that I gave it up as - impossible. I cannot, however, think I shall much mislead if I say - that on a moderate, perhaps a low calculation, their value cannot be - less than fifteen millions [sterling?] of our money.[511] - - -SHAH’S PEARLS IN 1820. Nearly a century ago the elaborate state costume -of the Shah of Persia was described by the English artist, Sir Robert -Ker Porter. In this description he mentioned particularly the pearls in -the tiara, the pear-shaped pearls of immense size with which the plumes -were tipped, the two strings of pearls—“probably the largest in the -world”—which crossed the king’s shoulders, and the large cushion incased -in a network of beautiful pearls against which he reclined.[512] - - -PEARLS OF THE GAIKWAR OF BARODA. Among the greatest jeweled treasures of -India are those of the present Mahratta Gaikwar of Baroda, who has -precedence over all the rulers in India at all functions, and is one of -the most prominent and enlightened of the Indian princes. He governs a -province of about 8225 square miles and 2,415,396 inhabitants in the -northwestern part of India, 248 miles north of Bombay. Most of these -treasures, whose value is estimated at a dozen million dollars, were -collected by his predecessor, Mahratta Khandarao, who lived in barbaric -splendor, and they are rarely worn by the present gaikwar. These -treasures include a sash of one hundred rows of pearls, terminating in a -great tassel of pearls and emeralds; seven rows of superb pearls whose -value is estimated at half a million dollars; a litter set with -seed-pearls, quantities of unstrung pearls, and more remarkable yet, a -shawl or carpet of pearls, which closely resembles the “tippet” at -Teheran described by Brydge. This carpet is said to be ten and one half -feet long by six feet wide, and to be made up of strings of pearls, -except that a border, eleven inches wide, and also center ornaments, are -worked out in diamonds. Some writers assert that this costly ornament -was originally intended by the late Mahratta Khandarao as a covering for -the tomb of Mohammed. Others state that it was designed as a present for -a woman of whom he was enamoured, but that the British resident -interfered, claiming that the wealth of Baroda was not sufficient to -warrant such an expensive gift on the part of the ruler. This ornament -is now retained among the regalia at Baroda, and is probably the most -costly pearl ornament in the world, its value being estimated at several -million dollars. - - -SUMMER PALACE IN 1860. Many superb pearls were among the precious -objects in the Yuen-Min-Yuen or Summer Palace in Pekin at the time of -its capture by the European forces in 1860. Numbers of these were lost -in the confusion of the sacking and plunder, when the soldiers’ pockets -were filled and the floors were strewn with jewels, beautiful objects of -gold and silver, rich silks and furs, carved jade, lapis lazuli, etc. -Some of the pearls found their way to Europe, and especially to France -and England. They were of good size and luster and were mostly yellowish -in color. Unfortunately, many were crudely drilled with large holes, and -had been strung on gold wires by which they were attached to the idols -they decorated at the time they were stolen. More than one hundred, each -over thirty grains in weight, were received in England, and sold at an -average of nearly one thousand dollars. - -[Illustration: - - PEARL CARPET OR SHAWL OF THE GAIKWAR OF BARODA -] - -A similar booty came from the spoliation during the war between China -and Japan in 1894, and during the Boxer outbreaks of 1901, and -quantities of pearls, often large and of fine color, but a little the -worse for wear, were brought to the United States and Europe by the -soldiers and officials, and also by traders and travelers who obtained -them in China. The pendant figured is one of these objects. - - -THE GOGIBUS PEARL. This famous pearl, said to have been the largest in -Europe, weighed no less than 126 carats (504 grains). It was pear-shaped -and of fine orient, and was brought from the West Indies, in 1620, by -François Gogibus, a native of Calais, who sold it to Philip IV of Spain. -As no match could be found for this magnificent gem, it was mounted as a -button in the royal cap.[513] - - -LA REINE DES PERLES. The large round pearl of the French crown jewels -which is listed in the inventory of 1791 at 200,000 francs, was -purchased in 1669[514] for the sum of 40,000 livres, from a gem dealer -named Bazu, who had traveled in the East at about the time of -Tavernier’s voyage. In the inventory of 1691, it is described as “a -virgin pearl, perfect, round, and of fine water,” weighing 27½ carats -and valued at 90,000 livres. When the greater part of the jewels were -stolen from the Garde-Meuble in 1792, we are told that the thieves took -a pearl inclosed in a gold box on which was written: “The queen of -pearls.” This was most probably the one we have described and there is -reason to believe that this same pearl came later into the possession of -the Zozima brothers, and was called La Pellegrina. - - -LA RÉGENTE. This name was bestowed upon a big, ovate pearl which was in -the collection of the French crown jewels. This pearl, which weighs 337 -grains, was furnished in November, 1811, by the court jewelers, Messrs. -Noitat, for a tiara, worn by Marie Louise, Empress of France. By order -of the emperor, Napoleon III, the pearl was taken out of the tiara and -mounted, in August, 1853, by the Paris jeweler Lemounier into a brooch. -This great brooch, with “La Régente” as the central gem, was bought by -Faberge & Company of St. Petersburg, Russia, for the Princess -Youssoupoff at the “Vente des Diamants de la Couronne” in 1887. - - -LA PELLEGRINA. For nearly a century there has been in Russia one of the -most lovely pearls in the world; this is La Pellegrina, formerly owned -by the Zozima brothers of Moscow, who were antiquarians of note in St. -Petersburg. In 1818 a small book of forty-eight pages was written about -this beautiful gem by G. Fischer de Waldheim, vice-president of the -Imperial Medico-Chirurgical Academy, probably the only book ever devoted -to a single pearl. According to this writer, La Pellegrina was purchased -at Leghorn by one of the Zozima brothers from an English admiral who had -just returned from India. It combines all the requisites of perfection: -it is absolutely spherical and has never been pierced; its luster, its -silvery sheen, make it appear almost transparent, and for a pearl of -this high grade, it is of remarkable size, weighing 111½ grains. - -The Zozima brothers retained it in a sea-urchin shell mounted in gold -and with a convex lens as cover; this was contained in a silver box, and -this in turn in another box studded with gems. Although the lens -enlarged the appearance of the pearl, it detracted from its beautiful -form, giving it an oval shape. But when removed from the triple -inclosure, it rolled about like a globule of quicksilver, and surpassed -that metal in whiteness and brilliancy. - - Everything that is beautiful and perfect takes such possession of - the beholder that words become insufficient to express his feelings; - and that is what happened to me in the case of La Pellegrina of - Zozima. One must have seen an object of this kind in order to - appreciate the impression it makes. As an evidence of this, I shall - note the last visit which I made to the owner in company with - several distinguished persons. - - After having examined many curious medals and coins, and also some - pearls which exceeded in size the one of which I treat, and after - they had received their due meed of admiration, La Pellegrina - appeared, rolled upon a sheet of paper by the owner’s little finger. - Attention and admiration was depicted on every face; a perfect - silence reigned. It was only when the pearl had been removed very - carefully lest it should slip away, and was again triply enclosed, - that we recovered the power of speech and could unanimously express - our admiration.[515] - -As it had been stated that this pearl was in the possession of the -Princess Youssoupoff, Mr. Henry W. Hiller of New York, who was in St. -Petersburg, courteously made inquiries and was successful in obtaining a -view of the two splendid pear-shaped pearls. These are almost exactly -alike, but neither of them can well be La Pellegrina, since this is a -round pearl; possibly the one on the right may be La Peregrina.[516] - -[Illustration: - - THE HOPE PEARL. WEIGHS 1800 GRAINS - - Actual size -] - -The owner of La Pellegrina in 1818, Z. P. Zozima, died in Moscow at a -great age, in 1827. He was a Greek dealer in curiosities and gems, who -had resided in Moscow for a long time, and had many clients among the -nobility of Russia. It is stated that a few months before his death the -best pieces of his collection, including La Pellegrina, were stolen from -him by a compatriot. - - -MOSCOW PEARL, 1840. The German traveler, Johann Georg Kohl (1808–1878), -in the account of his travels in Russia, relates an interesting incident -connected with a beautiful pearl in the Imperial Treasury. Shortly -previous to 1840, a rich Moscow merchant died in a convent, whither he -had retreated after the manner of the wealthy pious ones of his nation. -Feeling the approach of age, he had given up the toils of business to -his sons. His wife was dead, and the only beloved object which even in -the cloister was not separated from him was a large, beautiful, oriental -pearl. This precious object had been purchased for him by some Persian -or Arabian friend at a high price, and, enchanted by its water, -magnificent size, and color, its perfect shape and luster, he would -never part with it, however enormous the sum offered. He himself -inhabited an ordinary cell in the convent; but this object of his love -reposed on silk in a golden casket. It was shown to few persons, and -favorable circumstances and strong recommendations were necessary to -obtain such a favor. A Moscow resident reported the style and manner of -the ceremony. On the appointed day he went with his friends to the -convent, and found the old gentleman awaiting his guests in his holiday -clothes. Their reception had something of solemnity about it. The old -man went into his cell and brought out the casket in its rich covering. -He spread white satin on the table, and, unlocking the casket, let the -precious pearl roll out before the enchanted eyes of the spectators. No -one ventured to touch it, but all burst into acclamations, and the old -man’s eyes gleamed like his pearl. After a short time it was returned to -the casket. During his last illness, the old gentleman never let the -pearl out of his hand, and after his death it was with difficulty taken -from his stiffened fingers. - -There seems to be a great similarity between the description of this -pearl and that of La Pellegrina, although we have been unable to verify -our surmise as to their identity. - - -THE HOPE PEARL. In the first half of the last century, Henry Philip -Hope, a London banker, brought together a great collection of gems, -among which were many pearls. The most famous of these was the -often-described Hope pearl, one of the largest known; the value of -which, however, is not in proportion to its size, owing to its irregular -formation. As described in the catalogue of the Hope collection, -published in 1839, this oriental pearl is of an irregular pear-shape, -weighs 1800 grains, or three ounces, measures two inches in length, and -in circumference four and one half inches at the broadest and three and -one fourth inches at the narrowest end. The color at the larger end is -of a bronze or a dark green copper tint, this gradually clearing into a -fine white luster for within one and one half inches of the smaller end. -This baroque pearl was firmly attached to the shell, and it yet shows -the point of attachment, which has been polished so as to correspond to -the remaining portion. It is attractively mounted, the smaller end being -capped with an arched crown of red enameled gold set with diamonds, -rubies, and emeralds.[517] After remaining in the Hope jewel collection -at the South Kensington Museum for many years, it was sold at auction, -at Christie’s, in 1886, when that collection was placed on the market. -This pearl is now held by Messrs. Garrard & Company of London, at the -price of £9000. - -The Hope collection also contained about 148 pearls of good form. -Notable among these were the following: (a) a conical pearl weighing -151 grains, cream-white in color, from Polynesia; (b) a bouton pearl -of 124 grains, bluish-white at the top and encircled by a dark bronze -color; (c) an oval cream-colored pearl, weighing ninety-four grains, -from the South Seas; (d) an eighty-nine-grain, roughly spherical -pearl, one side bluish and the other of a light bronze; (e) an -eighty-five-grain, acorn-shaped, bluish-white pearl, with a band of -opaque white near the base; (f) an oval conch pearl, pink in general -color and somewhat whitish at the ends, weighing eighty-two and one -fourth grains; (g) another conch pearl, seventy-seven and one half -grains, button-shaped, yellowish white with a slight shade of pink; -(h) a seventy-six-and-one-half-grain drop-shaped pearl of a -_chatoyant_ aspect, of white color shaded with red, purple, and green; -and (i) a pear-shaped Scottish pearl of thirty-four and three fourths -grains, of a milky bluish caste, slightly tinged with pink. - - -VAN BUREN PEARLS. Among the collections of the United States National -Museum are two pendant pearls each weighing about thirty grains, and a -necklace containing 148 pearls with an aggregate weight of 700 grains. -These were presented in 1840 to President Van Buren by the Imam of -Muscat. They were deposited in the vaults of the Treasury Department, -where they remained until a few years ago, when, by the order of the -Secretary of the Treasury, they were transferred to the custody of the -National Museum where they now are. - -[Illustration: - - HER GRACE, THE DUCHESS OF MARLBOROUGH -] - - -THIERS NECKLACE. In the galleries of the Louvre at Paris may be seen a -pearl necklace formerly owned by the wife of President Thiers -(1797–1887), consisting of 145 pearls in three rows. The weights of the -three largest individual pearls are fifty-one, thirty-nine, and -thirty-six grains, respectively. The aggregate weight is 2079 grains, -and the value at the time of their deposit was estimated at 300,000 -francs. This is on a base of $2.02; at a higher valuation the figures -would be: - - $148,947 = $71.64 per grain; base, $5 - 238,315 = 114.63 per grain; base, 8 - -the last being very probably nearer to the correct value of the necklace -at the present time. - - -TIFFANY QUEEN PEARL. Doubtless the most famous pearl ever found within -the limits of the United States, and likewise one of the choicest, is -the well-known “Queen Pearl,” found in Notch Brook near Paterson, New -Jersey, in 1857.[518] In form it is a perfect sphere, and weighs -ninety-three grains. The history of the discovery and of the sale of -this beautiful gem is set forth on page 260. - - -THE BAPST PEARLS. Very practical is the account given by Streeter of a -pair of magnificent spherical pearls exhibited at the Paris Exhibition -in 1878 by Messrs. Bapst of Paris. One of these pearls—then weighing 116 -grains—was purchased by Mr. Streeter in 1877, and by him sold to a -leading merchant of London, who skilfully removed a blemish on it, -reducing it to 113¾ grains in weight. After holding it for some months, -it occurred to him that it would match a pearl sold by Hunt and Roskell -to Dhuleep Singh about fifteen years previously. On comparison, the two -were found to match perfectly, one weighing 113¾ and the other 113¼ -grains. The two were eventually sold early in 1878 “for £4800, which was -even then much below their value, and to-day they would be worth -£10,000. They were exhibited in the great Paris Exposition in 1878, -where they attracted universal attention, and were pronounced by -connoisseurs to be the most extraordinary pair of pearls ever seen in -Europe. They were sold from the exhibition to an individual for a very -large sum.”[519] - - -THE “SOUTHERN CROSS.” The “Southern Cross” is an unusual pearl or rather -cluster of pearls which attracted much attention twenty years ago. It -consists of nine attached pearls forming a Roman cross about one and one -half inches in length, seven pearls constituting the shaft or standard, -while the arms are formed by one pearl on each side of the second one -from the upper end. The luster is good, but the individual pearls are -not perfect spheres, being mutually compressed at the point of juncture -and considerably flattened at the back. If separated, the aggregate -value of the individual pearls would be small, and the celebrity of the -ornament is due almost exclusively to its form. This striking formation -was exhibited at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition at London in 1886, -and later at the Paris Exhibition in 1889, where it was the center of -interest, and obtained a gold medal for the exhibitors. It is reported -that an effort was made to bring about its sale at £10,000, the owners -suggesting that it was especially appropriate for presentation to Leo -XIII, on the occasion of his jubilee in 1896. The writers have been -unable to obtain information as to its present location. - -Much information relative to the “Southern Cross” was volunteered by -Henry Taunton in the very interesting account of his wanderings in -Australia. He presents apparently reliable statements showing that it -was found on March 26, 1883, off Baldwin Creek in Lat. 17° S. and Long. -122° E., by a boy named Clark, in the employ of James W. S. Kelly, a -master pearler. When delivered to Kelly, it was in three distinct -pieces, but the boy reported that it was in one piece when he found it a -few hours before. Kelly sold it in the three pieces in which he received -it for £10 to a fellow pearler named Roy; Roy sold it for £40 to a man -named Craig, and he sold it to an Australian syndicate. - -However, according to Taunton’s positive statement, there were only -eight pearls in the cluster when it was sold by Kelly in 1883, and to -make it resemble a well-proportioned cross—the right arm being -absent—another pearl of suitable size and shape was subsequently secured -at Cossack and attached in the proper place to the others, which, in the -meantime, had been refastened together by diamond cement, thus making -three artificial joints in the present cluster. “As if to assist in the -deception, nature had fashioned a hollow in the side of the central -pearl just where the added pearl would have to be fitted; and—the whole -pearling fleet with their pearls and shells coming into Cossack about -this time—it was no difficult matter to select a pearl of the right size -and with the convexity required. The holder paid some ten or twelve -pounds for the option of selecting a pearl within given limits; and then -once more, with the aid of diamond cement and that of a skilful ‘faker,’ -this celebrated gem was transformed into a perfect cross.”[520] - - -MORGAN-TIFFANY COLLECTION. Probably the most interesting assortment of -American pearls is the Morgan-Tiffany Collection in the American Museum -of Natural History, New York. The excellence of this collection lies, -not in the high cost of any individual pearl, but in its illustrating in -a comprehensive manner the great variety, colors, and forms of American -pearls. Not only are the many varieties of fresh-water pearls -represented, but likewise abalone pearls from the Pacific coast, conch -pearls from the Gulf of Mexico, and a good assortment of pearly -concretions from edible oysters and clams of the Atlantic coast. - -This collection contains 557 species of white and colored Unio pearls, -four multicolored, five mallet-shapes, 166 baroques, thirty-nine hinge -pearls, twenty pearlaceous masses, thirty-four clam (Venus) pearls, -fifteen abalone pearls, eleven conch pearls, and twelve oyster (Ostrea) -pearls. The collection was exhibited in two parts, the first at the -Paris Exposition of 1889, and the second at the Paris Exposition of -1900. On each occasion a gold medal was awarded. - - -COUNT BATTHYANI’S PEARL. A curious history is connected with a beautiful -black pearl[521] which was at one time in the possession of Count Louis -Batthyani, the premier of the revolutionary government of Hungary. The -count was shot in 1849, by the orders of a court-martial, and on the eve -of his execution he gave the pearl, which he had worn mounted on a -scarf-pin, to his trusty and faithful valet. The latter left it to his -son, who, when in straightened circumstances, sought to raise money upon -the pearl. The pawnbroker of the small town was distrustful of its value -and took it to Budapest for appraisal. There the suspicions of the -authorities were aroused, an investigation was ordered, and it was -finally discovered that the pearl had been stolen one hundred and fifty -years before from the English crown. The English government redeemed it -for the sum of £2500 ($12,500). How it came into the possession of Count -Batthyani is a mystery; probably he purchased it from some antiquarian. - -In 1900 there was shown in Paris one of the most important black pearls -of any time, a pear-shaped pearl of forty-nine grains, of a most -wonderful black color with a green sheen, as perfectly formed as though -it had been turned out of a lathe; it did not terminate in a point at -the small end, but was slightly flattened. It was so beautiful an object -that it almost seemed it should never be drilled for mounting. This -pearl ultimately sold for more than $30,000, and it is probably the -finest black pearl that has ever reached the European markets. - -According to a personal communication from E. Z. Steever, governor of -the District of Sulu, the largest pearl that he has seen in the islands -belongs to the sultan, and is now in the possession of Hadji Butu, -former prime minister. It is an oblate spheroid, there being a trifling -difference between the two diameters. The upper hemisphere is very -beautiful; the lower one has a few minute, black specks which are -superficial and could be easily removed, the pearl not having been -treated since it was taken from the oyster. This pearl measures five -eighths of an inch at its greatest diameter and is said to weigh twelve -carats (forty-eight grains). Hadji Butu informed Governor Steever that -the sultan had refused $25,000 for the pearl in Singapore. - -The Nordica pearl is the finest abalone of which we have any record. It -weighs 175 grains, is a drop pearl of a greenish hue, with brilliant red -fire-like flashes, and serves as a pendant to the famous collection of -colored pearls belonging to the beloved and admired American prima -donna, Madam Nordica. - -At the International Exposition in Paris in 1889, Mr. Alphonse Falco, -president of the Chambre Syndicale, exhibited a round pearl, white and -lustrous, weighing seventy grains, and valued at 50,000 francs. - -Augusto Castellani, the well-known Italian jeweler of Rome, in the year -1868, during the Papal regime, executed a crown for King Victor Emmanuel -II. This crown was destined for the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, in -Jerusalem, and on it is a pearl which, although slightly irregular, is -as large as the famous Gogibus pearl. - -A remarkable golden-yellow pearl from Shark’s Bay, West Australia, is in -the possession of a New York lady; it weighs thirty and one half grains, -is perfectly round, and is without a flaw or blemish. - - -CROWN JEWELS OF FRANCE. The collection of gems known as the Crown Jewels -of France owed its origin to Francis I (1494–1547). While in Bordeaux, -on his way to meet his bride, Eleanor of Austria, sister of Emperor -Charles V, Francis created by letter patent the Treasure of the Crown -Jewels, giving to the state a number of his most valued diamonds, under -the condition that at each change of sovereign a careful inventory -should be made. The original collection consisted of six pieces of -jewelry valued at 272,242 “_écus soleil_,” or about $700,000. The crown -jewels have passed through many vicissitudes in the course of time. A -number of the gems were at various times pledged as security for loans -made in France and Italy, and it is said that in 1588, during the reign -of Henry III, all the jewels disappeared from the royal treasury. Henry -IV strove to regather the scattered ornaments, but it was only in the -reign of Louis XIV that the collection became really important. At the -time of the French Revolution, in 1791, an inventory was made by the -order of the National Assembly. - -[Illustration: - - THE MADAM NORDICA COLLECTION OF COLORED PEARLS - - The Nordica drop pearl weighs 175 grains -] - -The jewels were then deposited in the Garde-Meuble, where they were -exposed to public view. Either they were very carelessly guarded, or the -guardians were in collusion with a band of thieves, for the room wherein -they were kept was entered on five successive nights, and when the theft -was finally discovered only about 500,000 francs’ ($100,000) worth of -the gems remained. Many of the most valuable objects were, however, -traced and recovered. Napoleon I, when he became emperor, made every -effort to enrich the treasure, and purchased gems to the value of -6,000,000 francs ($1,200,000), and subsequent rulers added to the -collection on various occasions. - -At the time of the official inventory in 1791 the entire collection of -pearls was estimated at about 1,000,000 francs ($200,000). The finest -specimen in the collection was a splendid round pearl weighing 109¼ -grains[522] and estimated at 200,000 francs ($40,000), or $366 per -grain, on a base of $3.35. Then came two pear-shaped pearls of a fine -orient and well-matched, weighing respectively 117¾ and 113 grains, and -valued at 300,000 francs ($60,000) or $260 per grain, on a base of -$2.25. In addition to the above there were twenty-five separate round -pearls which had constituted the necklace of the queen; they ranged in -weight from 36 to 165½ grains, and were valued at about 90,000 francs -($18,000). Beside the pear-shaped pearls to which we have alluded, there -were two other pairs, each valued at 32,000 francs ($6400) for the two -pearls; they averaged about 100 grains in weight. In addition to these -there were two weighing respectively 175½ and 205¼ grains, each valued -at 20,000 francs ($4000), and seven others ranging in weight from 92½ to -167 grains and valued at from 10,000 to 15,000 francs ($2000 to $3000). -The best oval pearl was one weighing seventy-six and one half grains and -estimated at 20,000 francs ($4000); there were two others, one of -ninety-three grains, valued at 12,000 francs ($2400), and one of 121 -grains, valued at 10,000 francs ($2000). We may also mention an -egg-shaped pearl weighing 145¼ grains, estimated as worth 10,000 francs -($2000), and a button pearl of 198 grains entered at 15,000 francs -($3000). Beside these separate pearls there were eleven strings -comprising 310 pearls, weighing in all 6778 grains and valued at but -29,400 francs (about $6000). The average per pearl was 95 francs ($19), -less than one dollar a grain. - -These pearls, according to their beauty, would now be worth from four to -six times the valuation here given, so that the two large pear-shaped -pearls of the French crown may be worth to-day $200,000 and the great -round pearl from $100,000 to $250,000. - -Many of these pearls were a century old. They were collected at a time -when not as much attention was paid to their absolute perfection and -beauty as at the present time, for there probably never has been a -period when rare and perfect pearls, diamonds, or rubies have been -appreciated so much more highly than those of mediocre quality. - - RECAPITULATION - - Weight in grains Value - No. Average Total Francs U. S. currency - Round Pearls 1 109¼ 200,000 $40,000 - 3 79 238½ 29,000 5,800 - 11 77¼ 804½ 37,300 7,460 - 7 64½ 450½ 19,400 3,880 - 14 53¾ 753¼ 23,100 4,620 - 43 34½ 1488½ 16,100 3,220 - Pear-shaped 2 115⅜ 230¾ 300,000 60,000 - 4 99¼ 397½ 64,000 12,800 - 6 163⅛ 978¾ 92,000 18,400 - 8 114¼ 914¼ 55,000 11,000 - 47 42¼ 1989¾ 24,600 4,920 - Oval 3 27 290½ 42,000 8,400 - 9 72½ 654¼ 20,100 4,020 - 11 43 473¾ 5,000 1,000 - Egg-shaped 1 145¼ 10,000 2,000 - Irregular 12 39½ 475¼ 7,300 1,460 - Button 1 198 15,000 3,000 - 6 66¼ 398 4,900 980 - Baroque 4 37½ 150¾ 1,500 300 - Strings 310 21⅞ 6778 29,400 5,880 - ——- ——— ——————— ——————— ———————— - 503 35⅜ 17,919¼ 995,700 $199,140 - -[Illustration: - - GRAND PEARL DIADEM OF THE FRENCH CROWN JEWELS - - Containing 212 pearls weighing 2452 grains, and 1990 diamonds weighing - 74 27–32 carats. Worn by the Empress Eugénie -] - -After the downfall of Napoleon III and the proclamation of the French -Republic, the jewels were inventoried, and, by a law passed December 10, -1886, it was decreed that a large part of the treasure should be sold at -public auction. The sale was held in the Pavilion de Flore, a part of -the Palace of the Tuileries, on May 12, 1887, and, very naturally, all -the principal gem dealers and collectors were represented. A number of -remarkable pearl ornaments were among the objects offered at this sale, -one of the most beautiful being a diadem of an exceptionally artistic -openwork design, adorned with large, round pearls and surmounted by a -row of magnificent pear-shaped pearls. The total number of pearls in -this diadem was 212, and their weight 2452 grains. It was sold for the -sum of 78,000 francs ($15,600). The coronet which accompanied the diadem -comprised 274 pearls, weighing 984 grains; the design was similar to -that of the diadem, but the points consisted of a round and a -pear-shaped pearl in alternation. This ornament realized the sum of -30,000 francs ($6000). A large brooch of very elaborate and beautiful -design, beside a number of smaller pearls, comprised four fine, -pear-shaped pendants, weighing 100 grains each, and two choice bouton -pearls, and had in the center the famous pearl known as “La Régente,” -which was purchased in 1811 for 40,000 francs ($8000). This splendid -ornament brought the sum of 176,000 francs ($35,200). Four other -brooches each contained seven pearls and many brilliants, the -twenty-eight pearls having a total weight of 1496 grains, an average of -more than fifty-three grains. Each brooch had two pearls surrounded with -brilliants, and five large, pear-shaped pearls set as pendants. They -were sold to different purchasers at prices ranging from 18,500 francs -($3700) to 43,000 francs ($8600), the four together realizing 113,500 -francs ($22,700). - -Six pearl necklaces were also offered. One of forty-seven pearls -weighing 698 grains was sold for 34,600 francs ($6920), and two others, -each consisting of fifty-eight pearls, with a total weight of 524 and -400 grains respectively, brought the sum of 22,300 francs ($4460) and -15,000 francs ($3000). Another necklace composed of thirty-eight round -pearls and nine pear-shaped pendants, the total weight being 1612 -grains, sold for 74,300 francs ($14,860). The two finest necklaces were -broken up into a number of separate lots. One of them, consisting of 362 -pearls and weighing in all 5808 grains,—an average of a trifle over -sixteen grains,—was offered in four lots which together brought 295,800 -francs ($59,160). The other necklace comprised 542 pearls weighing 6752 -grains, and was disposed of in eight lots, realizing in all 331,800 -francs ($66,360). Two bracelets adorned with 202 pearls and a number of -small brilliants were purchased for the sum of 90,200 francs ($18,040). -The total amount realized for the pearl ornaments was 1,261,500 francs -($252,300). There are several American ladies who own single strings of -pearls which are of more value than the whole pearl parure of the -Empress Eugénie. - -Pearl parure of the crown jewels of France, worn by the Empress Eugénie, -and sold at the Tuileries, May 12, 1887. - -A diadem containing 212 pearls, weighing 2452 grains. - -A coronet with 274 pearls, weighing 984 grains. - -Four brooches, each containing four large pearls, two round, two -pear-shaped, and three smaller ones, weighing in all 1496 grains. - -A larger brooch comprising four large pear-shaped pearls, each weighing -100 grains. In the center is the pearl called “La Régente.” - -Two necklaces each consisting of forty-seven pearls, with an aggregate -weight of 698 and 1612 grains, respectively. - -Two bracelets with 202 pearls, weighing 2000 grains. - -Five buttons, three with nine and two with ten pearls. - -A necklace of 542 pearls, weighing 6752 grains. - -Another necklace of 362 pearls, weighing 5808 grains. - -Two other necklaces, each containing fifty-eight pearls, the total -weight being 400 and 524 grains, respectively. - - SUMMARY OF THE PRINCIPAL PEARL ORNAMENTS FORMING THE PEARL PARURE OF - THE FRENCH CROWN JEWELS SOLD AT PALACE OF THE TUILERIES IN MAY, 1887 - - Designation No. of pearls Aggregate weight Amount rec’d - grains francs - - 1 necklace 362 5,808 295,800 - - 1 necklace 542 6,752 331,800 - - 1 necklace 47 698 34,600 - - 1 necklace 58 524 22,300 - - 1 necklace 58 400 15,000 - - 1 necklace 47 1,612 74,300 - - 2 bracelets 202 2,000 90,200 - - 1 large diadem 212 2,452 78,000 - - 1 coronet 274 984 30,000 - - 1 brooch 45 1,200 176,000 - - 4 brooches 28 1,496 113,500 - - ———— —————— ———-———-— - - Total 1875 23,926 1,261,500 - - -IMPERIAL AUSTRIAN SCHATZKAMMER. The weights and values of the great -gathering of pearls of the imperial Austrian Schatzkammer were carefully -estimated by one of the authors and by his friends, and it is the first -attempted inventory ever published.[523] - -The imperial crown of the Holy Roman Empire, preserved in the treasury -of the imperial Burg at Vienna, and known as the crown of Charlemagne, -has in front seventeen pearls weighing 424 grains, of which two weigh -fifty-six grains each. The remaining fifteen pearls average 20.8 grains. -The values of these pearls are as follows: - - Base - $2.50 $5.00 $7.50 - 15 pearls, 20.8 grains $16,224 $32,448 $48,672 - 2 56–grain pearls 15,680 31,360 47,040 - ——————— ——————— ——————— - Total $31,904 $63,808 $95,712 - -[Illustration: - - THE IMPERIAL AUSTRIAN CROWN - - Made by order of Emperor Rudolph II, in 1604 -] - -At the back of the crown there are eighteen pearls, weighing 180 grains. -One of these has a weight of twenty-six grains; the remaining seventeen -average 9.058 grains. The values estimated are as follows: - - Base - $2.50 $5.00 $7.50 - 17 pearls, 9.058 grains $3,487.55 $6,975.10 $10,462.65 - 1 pearl of 26 grains 1,690.00 3,380.00 5,070.00 - ——————— ——————— ——————— - Total $5,177.55 $10,355.10 $15,532.65 - -The pearls in the cross surmounting the crown have a weight of -thirty-six grains. - -The imperial cross is profusely ornamented with pearls in front, while -the back consists simply of silver-gilt. There are three strings of -pearls in the front running in each direction. The total weight of the -pearls is 4092 grains; one weighing sixty-four grains, and the smallest -two grains. - -The crucifix of the Golden Fleece is ornamented only in front with -pearls; these have a weight of but 136 grains. - -The imperial Austrian regalia, dating from the time of Emperor Rudolph -II, are also in the imperial Burg; some of the emperor’s jewels were -sold at auction in Prague in 1728. - -The crown is adorned with two rows of pearls, weighing respectively 960 -and 840 grains; between these rows are pearls having a total weight of -440 grains, while the ornaments and eight large drops weigh 2052 grains. -The largest pearl on this crown weighs 104 grains. It is drop-shaped and -belonged to Rudolph II; it is slightly uneven and the color, although -white, is not that of a new pearl, but this pearl has a positive history -of three hundred and six years, and at the present time is probably the -oldest known unchanged pearl with a direct and authentic record. - -The imperial orb is studded with pearls weighing in all 1560 grains. -Four of these weigh forty grains each, the others are of lesser size, -the smallest weighing ten grains. The scepter is adorned with pearls to -the weight of 300 grains. - -In addition to these insignia and regalia there are in the treasury two -magnificent pearl necklaces, deposited by Empress Maria Theresa in 1765. -The first consists of a single string of 114 large-sized pearls with the -“Baden Solitaire,” a diamond of 30 carats, as a clasp. Three of these -pearls weigh from 92 to 100 grains each, and the whole string has a -total weight of 3400 grains. This would give us the following values, -the pearls averaging 29.82 grains. - - Base - $2.50 $253,432.12 - 5.00 506,864.24 - -The other necklace contains 121 pearls of a total weight of 3788 grains, -arranged in three rows; these pearls average 31.3 grains, the largest -weighing forty grains and the smallest ten grains. The necklace has a -diamond clasp of 14–1⁄32 carats. The pearls are worth: - - Base - $2.50 $296,450 - 5.00 592,900 - 7.50 889,350 - -Two bracelets with brilliant clasps, belonging to the same set, and -consisting of 240 medium-sized pearls weighing 2800 grains and averaging -11⅔ grains, have the following values: - - Base - $2.50 $81,658.80 - 5.00 163,317.60 - 7.50 244,976.40 - -There is also a pendant of six pearls, weighing 300 grains and averaging -fifty grains; these pearls are worth: - - Base - $2.50 $37,500 - 5.00 75,000 - 7.50 112,500 - -Another necklace, bequeathed to the treasury by the late Empress -Caroline Augusta, consists of eighty-six pearls disposed in two rows, -the largest pearl weighing seventy-two grains and the smallest eight -grains. The total weight is 2600 grains and the average, 30.2. This -necklace is worth: - - Base - $2.50 $196,088.60 - 5.00 392,177.20 - 7.50 588,265.80 - -Still another necklace is composed altogether of black pearls, of which -there are thirty, the largest weighing forty-eight grains and the -smallest ten. The total weight of this necklace is 1040 grains, an -average of 34.66 grains for each pearl. On a base of $5 this necklace is -worth $180,150. - -The diamond crown of the empress bears pearls to the total weight of -2000 grains; among them are four weighing 100 grains each. These pearls -alone, on a $5 base, would be worth $200,000. - -[Illustration: - - THE GREAT SÉVIGNÉ OF THE FRENCH CROWN JEWELS - - Containing “The Regent Pearl,” weighing 337 grains, and four - pear-shaped pearls of 100 grains each; also 100 carats of diamonds -] - -The total weight of the pearls in all these ornaments is 35,816 grains, -equal to four and a half pounds, avoirdupois, and they are worth from -$2,000,000 to $4,000,000. - -The so-called crown of Charlemagne bears the inscription: “Chuonradus -Rex Dei gratia Romanorum Imperator Aug.” It is believed to be a work of -the twelfth century and originally the royal crown of Conrad III, king -of the Germans (1093–1152), the first Hohenstaufen.[524] The arch is -said to have been added to adapt this royal crown for use in the -expected coronation of Conrad as emperor. He died, however, while making -preparations for his journey to Rome. - -The imperial vestments used in the coronation ceremonies of the Holy -Roman Empire, were produced in the celebrated Hôtel de Tirâz, at -Palermo. Roger II, King of Sicily (1096–1154), after a victorious -campaign in Greece, brought back with him to Sicily a number of skilled -silk-weavers and embroiderers, whom he established at Palermo. The -imperial mantle is of a brilliant purple and bears an inscription, -embroidered in gold and pearls, stating that the garment was made in the -royal manufactory in the year 1133. Two pearl-embroidered -representations of a lion, who has stricken down a camel and is about to -tear it to pieces, also appear on this mantle. This symbol of royal -power was used frequently by the Saracens, and it is said that Richard -Cœur de Lion had this design embroidered on his saddlecloths.[525] - -A fine collection of large baroque pearls is preserved in the Grüne -Gewölbe (Green Vaults) in the palace at Dresden, which contains the -treasures of the royal family of Saxony. Most of these were mounted -during the eighteenth century by J. M. Dinglinger (1665–1731), the -famous goldsmith to the Saxon Elector, King Augustus II of Poland, and -who is sometimes called the German Cellini. A splendid specimen of his -work is a vase of Egyptian jasper in the shape of a shell, bearing a -representation of Hercules fighting with the Nemæan lion; this bears -reference to the immense personal strength and power of Augustus II, -whose portrait is painted in enamel on a mirror at the back. The -pedestal is adorned with a great many precious stones, pearls, and -enamel paintings in the shape of cameos representing the twelve labors -of Hercules. A dragon is studded with emeralds and its back is formed of -pearls, with a large sardonyx in the middle. Hercules and the lion are -in enamel. - -In the same collection may be seen the figure of a dwarf made by -Ferbecq, who was one of the goldsmiths of King Augustus. The body of the -dwarf is formed of a baroque pearl, which is studded with small -diamonds. His sleeves and trousers are in black and green enamel; his -hat is also of green enamel and on it is a string of diamonds. In his -right hand the dwarf holds a spit and in his left a roast. On his left -shoulder he bears a goose, the upper part of whose body is formed of a -pearl; at his right side hangs a bottle also formed of a pearl. The -gilded pedestal is ornamented with white enamel work on a pink ground. -Above and below, it is set with white and yellow diamonds. Another -figure, similarly formed of a large baroque pearl ornamented with gold -and diamonds, shows a drunken vintager and his dog; and an exceedingly -grotesque, ornamented baroque is said to bear a striking resemblance to -Señor Pepe, the court dwarf of Charles II of Spain. - -Exhibited at the Palace of Rosenberg at Copenhagen, are similar designs -in which large baroques form the principal part of fish, birds, dragons, -mermaids, etc. Prominent among them is the figure of a skater, executed -by the jeweler, Diederichsen; it is said that this was made for -Frederick VII, who died before it was accepted, and in 1895 it was -presented to the museum. - -A beautiful and costly figure of this nature was completed a year or two -ago by the court jeweler, Alfred Dragsen, of Copenhagen. This is nearly -four inches in height, and represents a female snake-charmer. A very -long baroque pearl forms the body from the shoulders to the knees, and -the head, arms, and the legs below the knees are of gold. The figure is -ornamented with a diamond-studded garland, ruby necklace and earrings, -and garters set with similar gems, a red enameled girdle ornamented with -pearls, and golden anklets with black pearls. With a flute she charms a -serpent twined about her body and grasped with the other hand. - -What is said to be the finest collection of black pearls in all Europe -is that belonging to the Duchess of Anhalt Dessau, Germany. It consists -of three large caskets of black pearls that have taken a century to -collect. It is traditional in the family that these pearls are never to -be sold except as their last possession, since they know they will -always find a purchaser. - -A collection of pearls had been kept for many years in the Monte de -Piedad of Mexico City, which it was claimed had been pawned by a friend -of the Empress Carlotta, in order to provide her with money at the time -of the assassination of Emperor Maximilian. These pearls were contained -in a necklace and a pearl and diamond tiara, which were sewn upon -cardboard covered with black velvet, and had the appearance of not -having been disturbed for many years. The necklace consisted of old -pearls, both of the so-called Madras and Panama varieties; in the center -was a large diamond medallion from which pear-shaped pearls were -suspended. It is believed that these pearls were part of Empress -Carlotta’s marriage portion, and that they came from the Austrian crown -jewel collection. None of them possessed much quality with the exception -of one, a large pear-shaped pearl which was set at the base of the -necklace and weighed eighty-four grains. The drilling of this pearl was -of a very old style, being of that type in which a tube is inserted in -the drill hole, through which a gold wire passes to hold the pearl; a -diamond is then set at the base of the tube to disguise the drill mark. -It is, however, possible that the pearl came from the East Indies, where -large drill holes are usual. - -[Illustration: - - MADAM NORDICA -] - -The pearls were sent in bond to the United States as a collection, and -then to Europe, where they were sold separately, the pear-shaped pearl -appearing again in the New York market in 1906. There has been some -doubt as to these really being Carlotta’s pearls, but the Mexican -account is fairly consistent, and it satisfactorily disposes of the -newspaper romance in which it was claimed that Carlotta had taken these -pearls with her to Europe and that they had been buried in a casket in -the Adriatic Sea. - - -RECENT AUCTION SALES. In England and in France, more than in the United -States, great auction sales of jewels are common. They are held in -London, principally at Christie’s, originally a coffee house, -established in 1880; and in Paris, at the Hôtel Drouot. Good prices are -generally realized, as the buyers of the entire continent attend these -great sales. The purchases are usually made by dealers who frequently do -not neglect each other’s interests if private buyers are present. No -matter how great may be the amount involved, no matter whether the -collections consist of paintings, furniture, or jewels, there are always -buyers, to a much greater extent than in the United States. The price -for fine jewels may naturally vary a trifle in the different markets, -according to the conditions of payment. It must evidently make an -appreciable difference whether almost the entire amount is paid in cash -or whether a credit of thirty days is extended, or one for a much longer -period, in some countries for as long as one, two, or even three years. - -While in the United States such sales of valuable jewels are very -unusual, it has been a custom in England and in France for many years, -in the settlement of estates, to sell not only the furniture, -bric-à-brac, etc., but also the jewels. Sales of this kind are naturally -calculated to attract not only the dealers, but also many rich -collectors and connoisseurs, and as they are frequently widely -advertised, and London and Paris are, at the most, but one to two days’ -journey from all parts of Europe, many people attend, most of the -private buyers being represented by their agents. By means of these -sales many heirlooms, which have been handed down from generation to -generation, often pass into the possession of strangers. In the matter -of jewels, it has been frequently noticed that dealers are in the -majority of cases the ultimate buyers, and it has also been inferred -that when an outsider participates in the bidding, the prices are -advanced to such an extent that it does not often appear profitable for -him to buy in the face of such competition. All manner of people have -had their estates disposed of in this way, and the list of these sales -during the past twenty years is a striking one: royalty, nobility, -merchants, and people in many other conditions of life find a place in -it. - -It is not an infrequent custom in London for solicitors to advance money -on jewels, and when the payments are not forthcoming these jewels are -sold. Hence, many sales appear at the larger auction rooms in which no -name is given, the owners frequently being people of high degree. - - On July 19, 1892, a necklace containing eighty-five graduated pearls - of unusual size and quality, the property of the late H. W. F. - Bolchow, M.P., was sold in London for the sum of £2500 ($12,500). - Another necklace of 146 fine graduated pearls disposed in two rows, - brought £2400 ($12,000); a single-row necklace of eighty-five pearls - realized £1600 ($8000), and one of 118 pearls in two rows £1660 - ($8300). - - An exceptionally fine pearl necklace which belonged to her Grace the - late Caroline, Duchess of Montrose, mother of the present Duke of - Montrose, was sold at Christie’s on April 30, 1895. The necklace - comprised 362 graduated pearls, arranged in seven rows of - forty-four, forty-seven, forty-eight, forty-nine, fifty-two, - fifty-eight, and sixty-four pearls, respectively. The amount - realized for this ornament was £11,500 ($57,500). - - On July 9, 1901, a pearl necklace, advertised as the property of “a - French lady of rank,” and several other valuable pearl ornaments, - were offered at Christie’s. It is supposed by many that these jewels - belonged to Madame Humbert. The necklace was composed of six rows of - graduated pearls consisting of fifty-five, sixty-one, sixty-seven, - seventy-three, seventy-nine, and eighty-nine pearls, respectively, a - total of 424, all of good color and luster. A London dealer - considers that they owed their value mainly to skilful matching and - fineness of color; they are perhaps a century old. As may be - supposed, there were many bidders who competed eagerly for - possession of this fine ornament, and it was at last adjudged for - the sum of £20,000 ($100,000). While this was, up to that date, a - record price in an auction room, it was by no means an exceptional - figure for private sales; indeed, at about the time this necklace - was sold, a London dealer disposed of another for £34,000 - ($170,000). - - A necklace, the property of the late Lady Matheson of the Lews, was - sold at Christie’s, March 5, 1902. Well-matched and graduated round - pearls, to the number of 233, were disposed in four rows, and strung - with seed-pearls between. This necklace, which had been presented to - Lady Matheson at the time of her marriage in 1843 by Sir Jamsetjee - Jejeebhoy, Bart., brought the sum of £6800 ($34,000). - - A pearl necklace, containing fifty-three fine and graduated pearls, - was sold in London, June 9, 1902, for the sum of £2250 ($11,250). - Another necklace of sixty-eight fine round pearls, one of which - formed the clasp, brought £1580 ($7900). A beautiful pearl and - brilliant pendant of open scroll design, with a large, round white - pearl in the center, and a large, pear-shaped black pearl as drop, - realized £800 ($4000), and a pearl collar of ten rows of round - pearls brought £820 ($4100). A noteworthy offering at this sale was - a rope of 135 pearls, an heirloom sold under the will of Lady - Marianna Augusta Hamilton. These pearls had been given to Lady - Augusta Anne Cockburn in 1769 on the occasion of her marriage to Sir - James Cockburn, Bart., by her godmother, Augusta, Duchess of - Brunswick, sister to George III. The rope was sold for £900 ($4500). - - The pearls of Lady Dudley were sold at Christie’s on July 4, 1902. - Among them was a magnificent necklace of forty-seven slightly - graduated round pearls, of large size and unusually brilliant - orient; their gross weight was 1090 grains. This necklace brought - the sum of £22,200 ($111,000). A single pear-shaped pearl of the - finest orient mounted with a diamond cap, as a pendant, and weighing - 209 grains, was sold for £13,500 ($67,500). A rope of 222 graduated - round pearls of the highest quality, weighing 2320 grains was - purchased for £16,700 ($83,500), and a pearl and brilliant tiara - brought £10,300 ($51,500). The entire casket of thirty-one lots - realized £89,526 ($447,630). - - At the sale of the jewels of Mlle. Wanda de Boncza, at the Hôtel - Drouot, Paris, December 6, 1902, a fine necklace was disposed of for - the sum of 150,000 francs ($30,000), and a rope of 100 small pearls - realized 38,100 francs ($7620); the proceeds of the entire sale of - these jewels were 1,249,578 francs ($249,915). - - Among the Aqualia jewels, sold in London in 1903, was a pearl - necklace that brought £4480 ($22,400). - - The jewels of the late Marquis of Anglesey, an enthusiastic jewel - and art collector, were disposed of at Christie’s on May 4 and 5, - 1904. At the time of his death, the marquis was supposed to be a - bankrupt, but the value of the gems which he had purchased had - increased so rapidly that the sale realized the sum of £22,988 10s. - ($114,942), more than enough to cover all the obligations of the - estate. Of this amount a magnificent drop pearl, mounted as a - scarf-pin, brought £4000 ($20,000); another drop pearl of the finest - orient, weighing 105½ grains, but slightly cracked, was sold for - £3700 ($18,500). Four other drop-shaped pearls, mounted as - scarf-pins, were sold for £5220 ($26,100), one of them bringing - £1720 ($8600). A single bouton pearl, used as a coat fastener, - realized £980 ($4900), and a pearl trefoil was purchased for £580 - ($2900). One fine large bouton pearl, set as a stud, was disposed of - for £3000 ($15,000), and another somewhat smaller bouton, also set - as a stud, brought £1600 ($8000). - - A splendid necklace comprising forty-nine well-matched and graduated - pearls of fine quality, weighing 563½ grains, was sold in London on - June 29, 1905, for the sum of £4700 ($23,500). At the same sale a - necklace of thirty-two graduated pearls, weighing about 890 grains, - brought £2600 ($13,000). - - On July 20, 1905, a pearl necklace comprising forty-five graduated - pearls of fine orient, with a cabochon ruby clasp, the gross weight - being 832 grains, was sold in London for £3150 ($15,750). - - A fine pearl and brilliant pendant was disposed of at the sale in - London, February 21, 1906, of the stock of Mr. E. M. Marcoso. This - pendant was composed of one large white brilliant, weighing 18–1⁄32 - carats, and a drop-shaped pearl weighing 75¾ grains. The ornament - brought the sum of £2050 ($10,250). - - A pearl necklace composed of 285 well-matched and graduated pearls - disposed in five rows was sold in London on June 13, 1906, for the - sum of £10,000 ($50,000). At the same sale a three-row necklace, - with 213 graduated and matched pearls of fine orient, brought £3200 - ($16,000), and a rope of 237 fine pearls realized £2800 ($14,000). - - Among the jewels disposed of at a sale in London on July 11, 1906, - may be mentioned a five-row pearl necklace of 445 graduated oriental - pearls which was sold for £2500 ($12,500). Three other necklaces - were offered at the same sale; one of fifty-five matched and - graduated pearls of fine quality bringing £3400 ($17,000); one of - fifty-seven pearls, £2700 ($13,500), and the other of 219 - well-matched and graduated pearls realizing £2350 ($11,750). Still - another necklace of 417 matched and graduated pearls arranged in - five rows was sold for £4800 ($24,000). A splendid pearl drop, of - the finest orient, brought £1650 ($8250), and a pearl rope of 191 - oriental pearls, arranged so as to form three single-row necklaces, - realized the sum of £3700 ($18,500), three fine black pearls, - mounted as studs, were sold for £1000 ($5000). The most important - necklace was reserved for the end of the sale; this was composed of - forty-seven large oriental pearls, and was purchased for the sum of - £10,000 ($50,000). - - At the sale of the Massey-Mainwaring collection at Christie’s on - March 18, 1907, a five-row pearl necklace consisting of 471 - graduated pearls, with a bouton pearl in the center, was sold for - £4600 ($23,000). - - Another collection, sold at Christie’s, April 15, 1907, was the - property of the late Mrs. Lewis-Hill, and the proceeds of the first - day’s sale reached the heretofore unapproached total of £94,805 - ($474,025), thus exceeding by $26,395 the amount obtained in one day - by the sale of Lady Dudley’s jewels. Among the valuable pearls in - this collection, we may mention a pair of large bouton pearl - earrings, with small diamond tops, which brought £1180 ($5900). The - enthusiasm and interest of the assembly were aroused by a necklace - of forty-five large, graduated pearls of fine orient, with a bouton - pearl and brilliant cluster snap; after spirited bidding this was - bought for £6100 ($30,500). The greatest event of the day, however, - was the appearance of a splendid rope of 229 pearls of very good - form, well-matched and graduated. The opening bid was £10,000 - ($50,000) and after a warm contest the pearls were finally acquired - for the sum of £16,700 ($83,500). A necklace consisting of fifteen - graduated drops, each formed of one bouton pearl, one brilliant, and - one pear-shaped pearl drop, depending from a narrow band of small - diamonds, drew forth a bid of £5000 ($25,000) and was finally - awarded for the sum of £12,200 ($61,000). A pearl rope of 183 - graduated and well-matched pearls realized £7200 ($36,000), and a - fine pair of pearls set as earrings brought £3400 ($17,000). The - crowded auction room, the keen competition among the bidders, and - the amount obtained for these jewels are good indications of the - firmness of the market at the present time. - -[Illustration: - - Copyright, 1907, by Theo. C. Marceau, N. Y. - - MRS. GEORGE J. GOULD -] - - At the sale of the jewels of Lady Henry Gordon-Lennox, held at - Christie’s on May 12, 1907, a splendid necklace was offered. It - comprised 287 graduated pearls of the finest orient, disposed in - five rows, with a large circular pearl. This magnificent ornament - was sold for £25,500 ($127,500). - - On July 11, 1907, a splendid necklace of forty-nine graduated - pearls, of fine luster and carefully matched, was sold at auction by - Debenham and Storr of London, for the sum of £5600 ($28,000). At the - same sale a single-row necklace of forty-five pearls brought £5300 - ($26,500), and a rope of oriental pearls realized £4500 ($22,500). - - At the auction sale of the collection of the late Bishop Bubics of - Hungary, among other objects, a very handsome saber pouch was - offered, of the style worn by the Hungarian hussars. It was of green - silk and richly embroidered with hundreds of pearls of varying - sizes. After a spirited competition this pouch was sold to Prince - Esterhazy for 13,500 crowns ($2700). Some time after the sale a - letter from the late bishop was found, containing the statement that - he had borrowed the ornament from the jewel-room of the Princess - Esterhazy. Naturally, Prince Esterhazy was not called upon to pay - the amount of his bid. It is a gratification to know that at least - one of the remarkable Magyar jeweled ornaments has escaped the - cupidity of enterprising jewelers who have broken up so many of - these ornaments for the gems which they contained. - - A BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE PRINCIPAL GREAT PEARLS OF HISTORY - - Weight - - Charles the Bold’s Pearls. Three, each about 60 grains - - Gomara Pearl, 31 carats 124 grains - - Oviedo Pearl, 26 carats - - (probably the Morales or Pizarro Pearl) 104 grains - - La Peregrina 134 grains - - Charles II’s Pearl, (nearly equal to La Peregrina) - - Morales and Pizarro Pearl, 26 carats 104 grains - - Rudolph II’s Pearl, 30 carats 120 grains - - Tavernier’s Pearls: - - Shah Sofi’s Pearl (estimated) 500 grains - - Imam of Muscat’s Pearl, 12–1⁄16 carats 48¼ grains - - Shaista Khan Pearl, 55 carats 220 grains - - Great Mogul’s Pearls: - - Peacock Throne Pearl 200 grains - - Two pear-shaped, one about 70 ratis 186.2 grains - - Olive-shaped pearl (estimated) 125 grains - - One button-shaped, 55–60 ratis 146.3–159.6 grains - - One round pearl, 56 ratis (gift of the Shah - Abbas II) 148.9 grains - - Round pearl (estimated)[526] 110 grains - - Three yellowish pearls, 25–28 ratis 66.5–74.5 grains - - One perfectly round pearl, 35½ ratis 94½ grains - - Two perfectly shaped and equal, each 25¼ ratis 67.1 grains - - La Reine des Perles 109¼ grains - - Pearls of Maria Theresa’s Necklace (three) 92–100 grains - - La Régente (now owned by Princess Yousoupoff) 337 grains - - La Pellegrina 111½ grains - - The Ynaffit, pear-shaped 143⅛ grains - - Hope Pearl, drop-shaped baroque 1800 grains - - Also in the Hope Collection: - - Conical pearl 151 grains - - Bouton pearl 124 grains - - Oval pearl 94 grains - - Roughly spherical pearl 89 grains - - Acorn-shaped pearl 85 grains - - Oval conch pearl 82¼ grains - - Button-shaped conch pearl 77½ grains - - Drop-shaped pearl 76½ grains - - Pear-shaped Scotch pearl 34¾ grains - - Van Buren Pearls: - - Two, each about 30 grains - - Also necklace 148 pearls 700 grains - - Tiffany Queen Pearl, American 93 grains - - Black bouton earring-pearl 88 grains - - White bouton earring-pearl 93 grains - - Bapst Pearls, two 113¼ and 113¾ grains - - Round pearl of Paris Exposition of 1889 70 grains - - Mme. Nordica’s Pearl (abalone) 175 grains - - Great Bahama Conch Pearl 138¼ grains - - The Queen Conch Pearl 90 grains - - W. H. Moore’s Pearl (Arkansas pearl, brown) 122½ grains - - Shark’s Bay Pearl, golden yellow 30½ grains - - Rudolph II Crown Pearl, 26 carats 104 grains - - Carlotta’s Pearl, pear-shaped 84 grains - - Marquis of Anglesey’s Pearl, drop-shaped 105½ grains - - Black pear-shaped pearl (Lower California) 49 grains - - - - - XVII - - THE ABORIGINAL USE OF PEARLS, AND THEIR DISCOVERY IN MOUNDS AND GRAVES - - - - - XVII - THE ABORIGINAL USE OF PEARLS, AND THEIR DISCOVERY IN MOUNDS AND GRAVES - - -The use of pearls by the aborigines of the territory now comprised in -the United States is proven by their appearance in the mounds and -certain graves of pre-Columbian date. This is of great interest in view -of the unique system of burial and the great variety of objects buried -with the pearls. It is evident from the quantities discovered in some of -the mounds that a very great number of pearls, many of large size, must -have been owned by these aborigines, and they were evidently quite -expert in the art of drilling them. Pearls must have been freely used -for ornamental purposes, and it is clear that many rivers in this region -must have produced them in great numbers, when we consider that in all -probability the mussels were taken only as they were required for food -or for bait in fishing, and had probably reached their full growth. - -It is not unlikely that pearls were used on this continent for a long -period, and they may have been in use centuries before any employment -was made of them in Europe. In the age of the mound-builders there were -as many pearls in the possession of a single tribe of Indians as existed -in any European court. We have no means of ascertaining the precise date -of any of these burials, and there are no historical records relating to -this region, such as were kept in Mexico as well as in Europe and Asia. -No trace has been found of the employment of pearls, either for -decoration or ornament, by the aborigines of Europe or Asia; either they -did not use them or else the pearls have entirely passed away in the -course of twenty or more centuries. We do know, however, that neither -pearls nor Unio shells were used by any of the lake-dwellers of -Switzerland or the adjacent countries. - -Many eminent archæologists have investigated the finding and history of -the pearls of the mound-builders of Ohio and Alabama, especially Squier -and Davis, F. W. Putnam, Warren K. Moorehead, C. C. Jones, W. C. Mills, -and Clarence B. Moore. The discoveries made up to 1890 were fully -treated by one of the writers in several pamphlets (one of them, “Gems -and Precious Stones of North America”). - -It is not unlikely that the Indians of the Atlantic coast may have known -of pearls from the common clam as well as from the edible oyster. The -former may have often contained pearls weighing from fifty to one -hundred grains each, as at that period the mollusks were permitted to -attain their full growth, and perhaps were not eaten except when they -were as small as little-neck clams; the larger ones were sought for the -purple spot which held the muscle, and was used for wampum. We have no -record of the finding of pearls in any graves north of Virginia, as the -many graves opened in the past century have failed to reveal them, nor -has the use of pearls been mentioned by any of the early writers. They -may have been worn, but if so they have passed away or may have been -mistaken for ashes if they had decrepitated. - -The first English settlers found the Indians of the tidewater region of -what now constitutes the Middle States using pearls quite freely and -esteeming them among their favorite treasures and ornaments. Captain -John Smith, and all the early chroniclers of the Virginia colony, have -given many accounts of this aboriginal use of pearls. - -In view of the general interest awakened by the tercentenary of the -founding of Jamestown, and the exposition in commemoration thereof, the -“American Anthropologist” devoted its first number for 1907 principally -to topics relating to the Virginia Indians.[527] Among these articles is -one of much interest by Mr. Charles C. Willoughby, of the Peabody Museum -at Cambridge, Massachusetts, dealing with the tribes occupying tidewater -Virginia at the time of the first colonization, their habits and -customs, their distribution, and their subsequent history of diminution -and almost of extinction. These were a branch of the Algonquian stock, -and extended as far south as the Neuse River in North Carolina. To the -south and west they were hemmed in by tribes of Iroquoian and Siouan -race, and on the north they were separated from other hostile Indians by -the Potomac River and Chesapeake Bay. The powerful confederacy under -Powhatan comprised some thirty tribes or “provinces,” covering most of -the tidewater region of Virginia proper. To the greater chiefs, John -Smith states that tribute was paid, consisting of “skinnes, beads, -copper, pearle, deere, turkies, wild beasts and corne.”[528] Many other -references in this article confirm and illustrate this general -statement, especially regarding pearls, both as to their use by the -living and their deposit with the remains of the dead. - -In the account given of the native clothing, the outer mantles are -described, made usually of deerskin with the hair removed, and bordered -with a fringe. These were often “couloured with some pretty work, ... -beasts, fowle, tortayses, or such like imagery,”[529] or adorned with -shells, white beads, copper ornaments, pearls, or the teeth of -animals.[530] Strachey describes a wonderful cloak made of feather-work, -belonging to an Indian princess, the wife of a deposed chief, Pipisco; -with it she wore “pendants of great but imperfect couloured and worse -drilled pearles, which she put into her eares,” besides a long necklace -made of copper links.[531] - -With regard to such ornaments, Mr. Willoughby says (p. 71) that “the -ears of both sexes were pierced with great holes, the women commonly -having three in each ear, in which were hung strings of bones, shell, -and copper beads, copper pendants, and other ornaments. Captain Amidas -met the wife of a chief who wore in her ears strings of pearl beads as -large as ‘great pease’ which hung down to her middle.[532] The husband -of this woman wore five or six copper pendants in each ear. It was a -common custom for the men to wear a claw of a hawk, eagle, turkey, or -bear, or even a live snake as an ear ornament.” - -“Bracelets and neck ornaments of various kinds of beads were common. -Beads of copper seem to have been most highly valued in the early -colonial period. These were made of ‘shreeds of copper, beaten thinne -and bright, and wound up hollowe,’ and were sometimes strung alternately -with pearls which were occasionally stained to render them more -attractive.[533] Beads of polished bone or shell were strung into -necklaces either alone or with perforated pearls or copper beads. Some -of these chains were long enough to pass several times around the neck. -Necklaces of such construction as to be easily identified were worn by -messengers as a proof of good faith. Powhatan gave Sir Thomas Dale a -pearl necklace, and requested that any messenger sent by Dale to him -should wear it as a guaranty that the message was authentic.”[534] - -“Pearls of various shapes and sizes were comparatively common, but -symmetrical pearls of uniform size were more rare. Strachey writes of -having seen ‘manie chaynes and braceletts (of pearls) worne by the -people, and wee have found plentie of them in the sepulchers of their -kings, though discoloured by burning the oysters in the fier, and -deformed by grosse boring.’ One of Hariot’s companions obtained from the -Indians about five thousand pearls, from which a sufficient number of -good quality and of uniform size were obtained to make a ‘fayre chaine, -which for their likenesse and uniformitie in roundnesse, orientness and -pidenesse of many excellent colours, with equalitie in greatnesse, were -verie fayre and rare.’[535] - -“Those who have examined the thousands of pearls from the Ohio mounds, -to be mentioned later, can readily understand these conditions. The -pearl beads from the mounds vary in diameter from about an eighth of an -inch to nearly an inch, the great majority being small and irregular, -although there are many among them of good form and value. It is -probable that most of the Virginia pearls were obtained from the -fresh-water mussel (Unio)”; not unlikely from the common marine clam -(_Venus mercenaria_), or the common oyster (_Ostrea virginica_). - -As regards the burial of pearls with the dead and their use in religious -rites, curious and quite full accounts are given by Strachey, Smith, -Hariot, and Beverley.[536] There was a “temple,” also occupied as a -residence by one or more priests, in the territory of every chief. This -building was usually some eighteen or twenty feet wide, and varied in -length from thirty to one hundred feet, with an entrance at the eastern -end, and the western portion partitioned off with mats to form a sort of -sanctuary or “chancel.” Within this were kept the dried bodies of -deceased chiefs, and an image of the god, called Okee, made in the shape -of a man, “all black, dressed with chaynes of perle.” Full descriptions -of these idols and their manufacture are given by Hariot and Beverley, -also of the process of preserving the remains of the chiefs.[537] After -the body had been disemboweled, the skin was laid back and the flesh was -cut away from the bones. When this operation was completed, the -skeleton, held together by its ligaments, was again inclosed in the -skin, and stuffed with white sand, or with “pearle, copper, beads, and -such trash sowed in a skynne.”[538] It was then dressed in fine skins -and adorned with all sorts of valuables, including strings of pearls and -beads. The same kinds of treasures were also deposited in a basket at -the feet of the mummy. - -Captain Smith describes the temple of Powhatan, at Uttamussack, which -was in charge of seven priests, and was held in great awe by “the -salvages.” At a place called Orapaks, was also his treasure-house, fifty -or sixty yards long, frequented only by priests, where he kept a great -amount of skins, beads, pearls, and copper, stored up against the time -of his death and burial. A vivid account is given of the four grotesque -images that stood guard at the corners of this building, all made “evill -favouredly according to their best workmanship.”[539] - -The use of pearls as ornaments, and their deposit with the remains of -chiefs and persons of distinction, have already been described as -familiar among the Indian tribes of tidewater Virginia, in the notes -above cited from early explorers and colonists. It is a curious -circumstance, however, that this habit does not appear to have extended -in that part of the country much beyond the dominions of Powhatan, as no -pearls have been noted in the Indian graves in Maryland. This statement, -in reply to a letter of special inquiry, is made by Dr. P. R. Uhler, of -the Peabody Institute of Baltimore, who has been making very careful -studies of all aboriginal remains in that region, for the Maryland -Academy of Sciences. - -It would seem from this and other evidence, that the use and -appreciation of pearls must have been in some way a tribal matter, -familiar to some and not to others, of the Indian peoples. In the -Mississippi Valley, the ancient population known as the mound-builders, -by some regarded as a distinct and earlier race, and by others as of -true Indian stock, although much more advanced in arts and culture, have -left in their mounds most remarkable quantities of pearls. But here -again, the same feature appears, that these treasures are not found -wherever there are mounds, but only in certain regions. Of these, by far -the most celebrated is that of the Scioto and Miami valleys, in Ohio. -Outside of these, no large amounts have been found, and only at a few -localities are they met with at all. - -The valleys of the Miami and Scioto rivers and their tributaries contain -many remarkable mounds and “earthworks,” which have attracted much -attention, and have been more or less explored at different times, with -increasing care and thoroughness as archæological science has advanced. -It may be well to give a brief, general account of these investigations -and some leading features of the mounds as a whole, before going into -particulars as to the occurrence of pearls. - -The first important and scientific study of these remarkable structures -was that conducted in the early forties by Dr. Edwin H. Davis and Mr. E. -George Squier, and published in their celebrated and standard work -entitled “Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley,” issued by the -Smithsonian Institution in 1848. This book and the “Correspondence” in -regard to the mounds by the same writers, published in 1847, were the -first works issued by the Smithsonian Institution. - -According to Squier and Davis,[540] two quarts of pearls were originally -deposited in one of these mounds. The writers consider that the pearls -were probably derived from the fisheries in the southern waters, and -they regard their presence in the Ohio mounds as a proof of “an -extensive communication with southern and tropical regions and a -migration from that direction.” - -A number of pearls or pearl beads from the Ohio mounds and which -formerly belonged to the Squier and Davis collection, are now in the -Blackmore Museum at Salisbury, England. According to a communication -from Dr. H. P. Blackmore, director of the museum, these pearls, which -originally formed five necklaces, have been much injured by the action -of fire at the time the bodies of those interred in the mounds were -burned. Mr. Blackmore considers that the greater part of the pearl beads -are of mother-of-pearl cut from some large shell, made into a round -shape and perforated, but, after very careful examination, he is of the -opinion that about ten may be classed as natural pearls. Their present -color is a dull, leaden gray, rather lighter than the “black pearl” of -commerce. The size of these pearls or beads varies from four millimeters -to twenty millimeters in diameter. One of the necklaces consists of -thirty-three beads well graduated, but of a dead white color from the -action of the earth. - -A quarter of a century later, when the Centennial Exposition was in -preparation, the Smithsonian Institution undertook the formation of a -public exhibit illustrating American archæology, and engaged Prof. F. W. -Putnam, of Cambridge, Massachusetts, to open and examine some of the -most remarkable of the mounds described by Squier and Davis. These -explorations were continued for some years, partly for the government -and partly for the Peabody Museum of Archæology at Cambridge, and their -results were exhibited at the Columbian Exposition in 1893. The mounds -explored were chiefly in the valley of the Little Miami, and -particularly those known as the Turner group. - -A very important series of explorations was also carried on by Mr. -Warren K. Moorehead, covering the years from 1887 to 1893, largely in -preparation for the Columbian Exposition. These investigations were -mainly in the Scioto valley, in the counties of Ross, Franklin, and -Pickaway, Ohio. Among the most important results then obtained were -those from the mounds of the “Porter” and “Hopewell” groups, in Ross -County. - -Since that time, much valuable work has been done by Mr. Moorehead and -others, and particularly under the auspices of the Ohio State -Archæological and Historical Society. The latest and most complete -investigation was made for this society in 1903, by its curator, Prof. -William C. Mills, in the Harness mound, seven miles north of -Chillicothe, Ohio, near the Scioto River, in Ross County. This locality -had been previously explored in part, by Professor Putnam in 1885, and -Mr. Moorehead in 1896; it was now systematically examined down to the -original surface at every point. - -Squier and Davis divided these ancient monuments into four classes: (1) -Altar mounds, which contain what appear to be altars, and are also -called hearths, of stone or hardened clay; (2) Burial mounds, containing -human bones; (3) Temple mounds, with neither altars nor bones, but -seeming to have had some special religious significance; and (4) -Anomalous mounds, including “mounds of observation” and others of mixed -or uncertain character. The burials are found to be of two kinds, simple -interment and cremation; and these are sometimes met with in the same -mound. - -This classification has been generally followed in describing these -ancient structures, although the whole subject is obscure and difficult, -from our ignorance of the purposes and conditions of their formation. In -many of the mounds of the first two classes especially, not only have -pearls been found, but quantities of interesting and remarkable objects, -many of which have been brought from distant points, and prove clearly -the existence of an extensive intertribal commerce at a remote period. -Galena from Illinois and Wisconsin, mica from North Carolina, obsidian -from beyond the Rocky Mountains, and sea-shells from the Gulf coast, are -among these objects, and particularly native copper from Lake Superior, -from which many articles were fashioned by hammering. Pearls are -extremely abundant, and were at first supposed to have been brought from -the coast, and may have been the pearls of the common clam and the -common oyster, the pearls being found in opening the mollusks for food; -but the recent development of pearl hunting in the western rivers, where -the fresh-water mussels (Unios) are so abundant and produce such -beautiful pearls, shows that these treasures were undoubtedly gathered, -partly, if not wholly, in the region where the mounds exist. The -enormous numbers found are, indeed, no source of surprise, as such -quantities of pearls have been obtained, for over twenty years past, -from the same regions. The mollusks are still abundant in all the -streams of the Mississippi Valley, except where they have been reduced -or exterminated by the reckless methods of pearl hunting employed where -the “pearl fever” has prevailed. - -It is quite possible that the fresh-water Unios were not sought for -their pearls alone, but were also used as food, and perhaps as bait for -fishing. They were evidently gathered in great quantities, as is shown -by the old heaps of shells found along the banks of streams at many -points; and doubtless there are multitudes of such heaps that have never -been observed. They are known as far north as Idaho, as communicated by -Dr. Robert N. Bell, State mineralogist, and they extend still farther -north, as noted by Dr. Harlan I. Smith, in his “Preliminary Notes on the -Archæology of the Yakima Valley.”[541] He says: “Small heaps of -fresh-water clam-shells were examined, but these being only about five -feet in diameter and as many inches in depth, are hardly to be compared -to the immense shell-heaps of the coast.” - -These Unio shell-heaps are frequent in the South, and some of the -Spanish chroniclers of De Soto’s expedition in 1540–1541, describe the -gathering and cooking of the mussels, and the finding of occasional -pearls therein. The same writers also give glowing accounts of the -pearls possessed by the natives. Some of these accounts may be -exaggerated, but they cannot be wholly so. It would seem that some of -the pearls may have come from marine shells, and others from those of -the rivers and streams; but there are few pearl-producing shells on our -own coasts, and it is not very likely that there was any trade or -intercourse with the West Indian Islands, where marine pearls occur -freely. - -Albert H. Pickett, in his “History of Alabama,” refers to the accounts -of De Soto’s historian, Garcilasso de la Vega, and holds that the pearls -which he noted were evidently from the Unios of Alabama. “Heaps of -mussel shells,” he says, “are now to be seen on our river banks wherever -Indians used to live. They were much used by the ancient Indians for -some purpose, and old warriors have informed me that their ancestors -once used the shells to temper the clay with which they made their -vessels. But as thousands of the shells lie banked up, some deep in the -ground, we may also suppose that the Indians in De Soto’s time, -everywhere in Alabama, obtained pearls from them. There can be no doubt -about the quantity of pearls found in this State and Georgia in 1540, -but they were of a coarser and more valueless kind than the Spaniards -supposed. The Indians used to perforate them and string them around -their necks and arms like beads.”[542] - -The use of fragments of these shells in tempering the clay for pottery, -alluded to in the preceding paragraph, is well known. Prof. Daniel S. -Martin describes an old village site in South Carolina, near the -Congaree River, a few miles south of the city of Columbia, where the -ground had been plowed, and along the furrows the soil was gleaming with -brilliant pearly fragments of Unio shells, intermingled with bits of -pottery. - -Mr. Clarence B. Moore discovered pearls pierced for stringing in several -of the mounds at Moundville, Alabama. He also found a sheet-copper -pendant, elongated oval in outline, with an excised repoussé decoration, -embracing a swastika within a circle, and a triangle. This pendant, -which lay near the skull of burial No. 132, bears a perforated pearl -nearly seven millimeters in diameter and weighing about nine grains; it -is fastened to the pendant by a piece of vegetable fiber that passes -through the pearl. With another burial (No. 162), the skeleton of an -adult, was an elliptical gorget of sheet-copper decorated with a -pearl.[543] In a personal communication Mr. Moore states that all the -pearls found by him in the mounds were very much disintegrated by the -lapse of time; he also writes that he has never found any shells -immediately with the pearls, although masses of Unio shells were often -met with in the mounds. He believes the shell-fish had been used for -food. - -Unio shell-heaps exist likewise on the shores of the inland lakes of -Florida, and in middle Georgia and Alabama; and several of them on the -banks of the Savannah River, above Augusta, are fully described by -Colonel Charles C. Jones.[544] He says: “In these relic-beds no two -parts of the same shell are, as a general rule, found in juxtaposition. -The hinge is broken, and the valves of the shell, after having been -artificially torn asunder, seem to have been carelessly cast aside and -allowed to accumulate.” - -Thus, in addition to the historical evidence, physical proof is abundant -of the pearl fisheries of the aboriginal tribes of the South. In order -to ascertain the precise varieties of shells from which the southern -Indians obtained their pearls, Colonel Jones invited an expression of -opinion from a number of scientists whose studies rendered them familiar -with the conchology of the United States. Their responses throw -considerable light upon this inquiry, though with some curious -variation. - -Prof. William S. Jones, of the University of Georgia, says that he has -seen small pearls in many of the Unios found in that State. - -Prof. Jeffries Wyman, on the other hand, after a careful and extensive -series of excavations in the shell-heaps of Florida, failed to find a -single pearl. “It is hardly probable,” he remarks, “that the Spaniards -could have been mistaken as to the fact of the ornaments of the Indians -being pearls, but in view of their frequent exaggerations, I am almost -compelled to the belief that there was some mistake; and possibly they -may not have distinguished between the pearls and the shell beads, some -of which would correspond with the size and shape of the pearls -mentioned by the Spaniards.” - -Prof. Joseph Jones, whose investigations throw much valuable light upon -the contents of the ancient tumuli of Tennessee, says: “I do not -remember finding a genuine pearl in the many mounds which I have opened -in the valleys of the Tennessee, the Cumberland, the Harpeth, and -elsewhere. Many of the pearls described by the Spaniards were probably -little else than polished beads cut out of large sea-shells and from the -thicker portions of fresh-water mussels, and prepared so as to resemble -pearls. I have examined thousands of these, and they all present a -laminated structure, as if carved out of thick shells and sea conchs.” -This point will be referred to again. - -Dr. Charles Rau[545] writes: “I learned from Dr. Samuel G. Bristow, who -was a surgeon in the Army of the Cumberland during the Civil War, that -mussels of the Tennessee River were occasionally eaten ‘as a change’ by -the soldiers of that corps, and pronounced no bad article of diet. -Shells of the Unio are sometimes found in Indian graves, where they had -been deposited with the dead, to serve as food during the journey to the -land of spirits.” - -Dr. Brinton saw on the Tennessee River and its tributaries numerous -shell-heaps consisting almost exclusively of the _Unio virginianus_ -(Lamarck). In every instance he found shell-heaps close to the -water-courses, on the rich alluvial bottom-land. He says: “The mollusks -had evidently been opened by placing them on a fire. The Tennessee -mussel is margaritiferous, and there is no doubt but that it was from -this species that the early tribes obtained the hoards of pearls which -the historian of De Soto’s exploration estimated by bushels, and which -were so much prized as ornaments.”[546] - -A source has recently been pointed out whence small pearls, and perhaps -some fine specimens, could have been obtained by the Indians of Florida, -and in considerable quantities. In the Unios of some of the fresh-water -lakes of that State, there were found not less than 3000 pearls, most of -them small, but many large enough to be perforated and worn as beads. -From one Unio there were taken eighty-four seed-pearls; from another, -fifty; from a third, twenty, and from several, ten or twelve each. The -examinations were chiefly confined to Lake Griffin and its vicinity. It -is said that upon one of the isles in Lake Okeechobee are the remains of -an old pearl fishery, and it is proposed to open the shells of this -lake, which are large, in hopes of finding pearls of superior size and -quality. - -The use of the pearl as an ornament by the southern Indians, and the -quantities of shells opened by them in various localities, make it seem -strange that it is not more frequently met with in the relic-beds and -sepulchral tumuli of that region; but, after exploring many shell- and -earth-mounds, Colonel Charles C. Jones failed, except in a few -instances, to find pearls.[547] A few were obtained in an extensive -relic-bed on the Savannah River, above Augusta, the largest being four -tenths of an inch in diameter, but all of them blackened by fire. Many -of the smaller mounds on the coast of Georgia do not contain pearls, -because at the period of their construction the custom of burning the -dead appears to have prevailed very generally; hence, it may be that the -pearls were either immediately consumed or so seriously injured as to -crumble out of sight. - -This absence of pearls tends somewhat to confirm the opinion that beads -made from the thicker portions of shells that were carved, perforated, -and brilliant with nacre, were regarded by the imaginative Spaniards as -pearls. More minute investigation, however, will doubtless reveal the -existence of pearls in localities where the pearl-bearing shells were -collected. Perforated pearls have been found in an ancient -burying-ground located near the bank of the Ogeechee River, in Bryan -County, Georgia; and many years ago, after a heavy freshet on the Oconee -River, which laid bare many Indian graves in the neighborhood of the -large mounds on Poullain’s plantation, fully a hundred pearls of -considerable size were gathered. - -It seems quite clear that many of the pearls reported by the early -Spanish voyagers were really such, although it is well known also that -shell beads have been found in mounds in connection with pearls; but the -numbers found in Ohio, by Professor Putnam, Mr. Moorehead, and others, -leave no room for doubt in this matter. That the Indians of the South -also had these pearls, both drilled and undrilled, is beyond question. - -The same fact comes to view, however, in these various accounts, that -has been alluded to already, _viz._, that the use of pearls among the -aborigines appears to have been local, and probably tribal. All the -fresh waters of North America contain Unios, especially in the -Mississippi basin and in the South, and all the Unios are more or less -pearl-bearing; but it is only at certain points that pearls are found -deposited in ancient graves, sometimes, however, in extraordinary -quantities. - -Father Louis Hennepin relates that the Indians along the Mississippi -wore bracelets and earrings of fine pearls, which they spoilt, having -nothing to bore them with but fire. He adds: “They gave us to understand -that they received them in exchange for their calumets from nations -inhabiting the coast of the great lake to the southward, which I take to -be the Gulph of Florida.”[548] - -The statement here made, that the Indians perforated their pearls only -“with fire,” evidently refers to the use of a heated copper wire, or -point, as mentioned by Pickett and others of the early explorers. This -point is of importance, as apparently indicating a marked difference -between the Indians met with by the first European visitors, and the -mound-building people of an earlier time, among whom the perforation was -made with small stone drills. On this point, a recent letter from Prof. -Wm. C. Mills, who has conducted the very full exploration of the Harness -mound in Ohio, is of interest. He describes the small and -carefully-wrought flint drills, which he found, and believes to have -been made and used for this purpose. In size and form they answer all -requirements; they are delicate little implements, somewhat T-shaped or -gimlet-shaped, an inch and a quarter long; the narrow boring part is -about an inch in length and tapers from one eighth of an inch to quite a -fine point; the wider upper end is abruptly expanded into the transverse -handle, which is about a quarter of an inch thick, _i.e._, lengthwise of -the instrument, and half an inch in span, _i.e._, across, so as to give -a good hold for the fingers to rotate the drill, just as in an ordinary -gimlet. - -Passing now to the actual discoveries of pearls in the mounds of the -Mississippi Valley, these will be reviewed in the order of the -successive explorations in which they were made known. As already -stated, the only region where any large amounts have been encountered, -is that of the Scioto and Miami valleys in Ohio. Even here, pearls are -found only at certain points, and though the numbers are great, the -graves which contain them are few. They were apparently buried only with -the remains of individuals of especial distinction, probably either -chiefs or eminent medicine men. The accounts of recent explorations in -these mounds bring to mind very forcibly the statement before cited from -Captain John Smith, as to Powhatan’s treasure-house, where all his most -valued articles, including pearls, were collected and kept, in -preparation for his death and burial. Pearls appear also to have been -used only by the more cultured tribes, and were kept in the larger and -more prosperous communities exclusively. They are confined to the great -“mound groups,” and are not found in isolated mounds. The tumuli of -northern Ohio, the hill mounds, and the village sites along the smaller -streams, have yielded practically none. - -According to the manner of burial, the pearls vary greatly in their -present condition. Where they have been placed with cremated bodies, -they are, of course, much damaged, being blackened and largely -decomposed. Otherwise, although injured in color and luster, the mere -fact of burial in the ground has not entirely ruined them. They are -generally perforated, so as to be strung or attached to garments, and -traces of both these methods of use are sometimes clearly shown. - -The term “pearl beads,” often employed by writers, is uncertain in -meaning; as it may refer either to actual pearls, bored so as to be -strung, or to imitations thereof made from pearly shell. With regard to -this point, although such quantities have been obtained, there seems to -have been very little close examination as to their structure, which -would at once indicate the facts, according as the minute layers of the -pearly material are concentric or not. The only distinct testimony is -that we have cited above from Prof. Joseph Jones,[549] who states that -he has examined large numbers, and found them to be apparently cut from -shells. He makes the suggestion that they may have been carved from the -thicker portions of the fresh-water Unios. This is not only probable, -but would go far to solve the mystery of the enormous numbers found, as -compared with anything known of the yield of genuine pearls by these -mollusks, even with all the pearl hunting of recent years. An -interesting fact bearing directly on this question is the discovery in -the Taylor mound, at Oregonia, Warren County, Ohio, of several Unio -shells in which had been made a circular hole, two thirds of an inch in -diameter, either for some ornamental use of the shell or to extract -pieces to be shaped into beads. These may have been made in either of -two ways. Firstly, by breaking pieces of the shell from one of the -valves, as a lapidary “roughs out” a piece of gem material before he -begins to grind it into shape; or, secondly, by cutting out a circular -disk of shell by means of a hollow copper drill or a hollow reed, just -as they perforated hard pieces of quartz or granite for pipes, or as -they trephined circular disks from the skulls. Decorated disks of Unio -shell were also found in the same mound. If the ancient people made -beads in this manner, there is little difficulty in accounting for the -quantities described, especially in connection with the evident -gathering of Unios on a large scale, as shown by the widely distributed -shell-heaps already described. They certainly did make beads from -various marine shells, and these are found with the pearl beads in many -of the mounds, as particularly noted by Professor Jones, cited above, -and by others. - -In the recent exploration of the Harness mound, by Professor Mills, a -very curious discovery was made of imitation pearls of a kind never -before met with; these were made of clay, modeled apparently after the -larger natural pearls associated with them, and after being baked hard, -had been “covered with a flexible mica,” so as to resemble pearls.[550] -The mica was a silvery mica that may have been burned and would -pulverize into a gray powder with a pearly luster, as almost all micas -are too resilient to be attached in any other way. - -Taking up now the history of pearl discovery in the mounds, the first -definite record goes back to about 1844, when perforated pearls were -found by Dr. Edwin H. Davis[551] on the hearths of five distinct groups -of mounds in Ohio, and sometimes in such abundance that they could be -gathered by the hundred. They were generally of irregular form, mostly -pear-shaped, though perfectly round ones were also found among them. The -smaller specimens measured about one fourth of an inch in diameter, but -the largest had a diameter of three quarters of an inch. - -The next great discovery of these Unio pearls was in the Porter group of -mounds, in the Little Miami Valley, explored by Prof. Frederick W. -Putnam, and Dr. Charles L. Metz, who procured over 60,000 pearls, nearly -two bushels, drilled and undrilled, undoubtedly of Unio origin; all of -them, however, decayed or much altered, and of no commercial value. In -1884 these scientists examined the Marriott mound, where they found -nearly one hundred Unio shells, and among other objects of special -interest six canine teeth of bears, that were perforated by a lateral -hole near the edge at the point of greatest curvature of the root, so -that by passing a cord through this, the tooth could be fastened to any -object or worn as an ornament. Two of these teeth had a hole bored -through near the end of the root on the side opposite the lateral -perforation, and the hole countersunk in order to receive a large -spherical pearl, about three eighths of an inch in diameter. When the -teeth were found, the pearls were in place, although chalky from decay. -Upward of 250 pearl beads were found here, concerning which they say: -“The pearl beads found in the several positions mentioned are natural -pearls, probably obtained from the several species of Unios in the Ohio -rivers. In size they vary from one tenth of an inch to over half an inch -in diameter, and many are spherical. They are neatly drilled, and the -larger from opposite sides. These pearls are now chalky, and crumble on -handling, but when fresh they would have formed brilliant necklaces and -pendants.”[552] - -[Illustration: - - Necklace of fresh-water pearls and cut shell beads, from Mound No. 25 -] - -[Illustration: - - Bear-tooth inlaid with fresh-water pearl from the neck of skeleton No. - 209, Mound 23 -] - -[Illustration: - - Perforation in charred, cut fresh-water pearl; weight, 5569 grams -] - -[Illustration: - - Perforated fresh-water pearl; weight, 22,955 grams -] - - FRESH-WATER PEARLS FROM HOPEWELL GROUP OF MOUNDS, ROSS COUNTY, OHIO - -It is easy to see, even at a glance, that most of those in this great -deposit of 60,000 are true pearls. Many are very irregular in form, and -quite a number are the elongated, somewhat feather-shaped, “hinge -pearls,” that are found in the region of the hinge teeth of Unios. A -large and interesting exhibit of these is shown in the Field Museum of -Natural History, Chicago. But thousands of spherical pearls were also -obtained, from the “altars” or “hearths” of mounds belonging to the -first division of Squier and Davis’s classification, above noted. From -the Turner group, in Clermont County, in the Little Miami Valley, -Professor Putnam obtained for the Peabody Museum as much as half a -bushel of pearls of this character. As these had been exposed to fire, -nearly all were blackened, some cracked, and all greatly impaired.[553] - -The next great series of explorations were those conducted by Mr. W. K. -Moorehead in the Scioto Valley, in the counties of Ross, Franklin and -Pickaway, Ohio. He opened and examined a number of mounds, and found -pearls or pearl beads in ten or twelve of them, but the larger deposits -were confined to certain limited districts, which seem to have been -occupied by tribes more advanced in culture and in traffic than the -rest. In these, the pearls and also objects of other kinds brought from -a distance, are principally found. The scattered mounds, not associated -with any village or community sites, have few of these valuable objects. - -But even where they are found freely, pearls were apparently used or -possessed by only a few individuals. Mr. Moorehead investigated in all -117 burial mounds, containing about 1400 skeletons. Pearls were met with -in only seven of these mounds, and in connection with but twenty-two -skeletons. These, however, yielded a total of 2600 pearls, apparently -from Unios, the numbers found with single skeletons varying from 18 to -602, an average of 118. It thus appears that in Mr. Moorehead’s -researches, pearls were found in about one mound out of seventeen, and -in these, with about one skeleton out of eight. - -From “altar mounds,” pearls have been in some cases taken in vast -numbers. Professor Putnam’s discoveries are mentioned above; and Mr. -Moorehead obtained tens of thousands from two altars or hearths in the -Hopewell group, which will be described hereafter. - -When found in the burial mounds with skeletons, pearls are generally -seen to have been placed at the wrists or ankles, or about the neck, or -in the mouth. Sometimes they are found on copper plates, and -occasionally they show evidence of having been sewn or attached to a -garment. Particulars on these points will be given further on. Mr. -Moorehead has also found bears’ teeth, set with pearls, as Putnam and -Metz did in the Marriott mound, lying with or near skeletons. - -In the case of the altar mounds, there seems to have been a different -procedure, not a burial, but a great funeral sacrifice in honor of some -very distinguished person, in which treasures of every kind, including -great stores of pearls, were consumed, or meant to be. Of this, Mr. -Moorehead says, in a letter to the author: “In the case of all altar -offerings, a fire had been kindled ... and all these things were heaped -upon it. They were utterly ruined, save a few; ... those at the top were -not so much affected as those at the bottom.” - -Mr. Moorehead’s investigations already mentioned were in the years 1888 -to 1891 inclusive; he next took up especially the remarkable Hopewell -groups of mounds, in 1891–1892, and explored these extensively for the -archæological exhibit at the World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893, at -Chicago.[554] This was his most important and elaborate investigation, -and will be described in some detail. In 1896, he made a partial -exploration of the Harness mound near Chillicothe, which has been fully -completed more recently by Prof. William C. Mills, and will also be -described further on. - -The investigations made in the Hopewell group of mounds were recorded by -Mr. Moorehead in a series of articles in the “Antiquarian.”[555] He -gives a general account of the remarkable region of ancient remains in -Ross County, Ohio. The State archæological map shows the “mound belt,” -as a strip of country some fifteen miles wide and one hundred miles -long, extending through the Scioto Valley, from about Columbus to -Portsmouth. The ancient works noted on this map, though not all that -exist there, yet number over 900 mounds, 24 village sites, 36 circles of -earth and stone, 87 other inclosures and works of similar character, and -31 sites of gravel or kame burials. Five groups of mounds in particular -exist in Ross County, all of them showing a “high culture” state. “All -of the lower Scioto Valley,” says Mr. Moorehead, “was occupied by a -mound-building tribe ranking higher in intelligence and numerically -stronger than that of any other section of the whole Ohio region.” Among -the many remarkable ancient works in that part of the country, the five -groups in Ross County are the most important, and among these, the -Hopewell group is preëminent. The first published notice of them, which -appeared in 1820, was by Mr. Caleb Atwater.[556] Squier and Davis -examined and described them in the years 1844–1846, and obtained large -and notable collections from them which are now in England, in the -Blackmore Museum at Salisbury, as not enough interest in such matters -then existed in America to induce the purchase and retention of these -valuable treasures. From that time until 1891, when Mr. Moorehead began -his explorations there, no one had paid much attention to these mounds, -all published accounts being derived from those of Squier and Davis. -They described them under the name of Clark’s works, from the owner of -the farm within which they lie; but the property has since passed into -the possession of Mr. M. C. Hopewell. From this fact, yet more from his -kind and intelligent interest in the work of exploration, his name has -been given to the group. - -The Hopewell works are situated on the north fork of Paint Creek, about -one third of a mile from the stream. The intervening space is low -bottom-land, and the works stand upon a terrace about twenty feet high, -from which again there is a rather steep rise of thirty or forty feet -more, to the general level of the country. They consist of a nearly -quadrangular inclosure, about half a mile in length (strictly 2800 -feet), and half as much in width, occupying the entire breadth of the -terrace. At its eastern end, this large inclosure opens into a second -and smaller one, an exact square of 850 feet. Within the main inclosure -are one or more village sites, a number of separate mounds, and -especially a group of several connected elevations, together known as -the Effigy mound, these being much the highest and most conspicuous, and -themselves surrounded by a semicircular inclosure. The whole suggests a -defensive work, or “walled town”; but the wall, although strongly and -carefully built, partly of stones and partly of hard clay, is so -low—only from four to six feet in height—that it could not have been a -very formidable obstacle to a vigorous assault; and, moreover, the whole -is overlooked and “commanded” from the bluff above it. The mounds, as -Squier and Davis examined them, were pronounced to be mainly of the -sacrificial or “altar” type. Since their very full and accurate account -was published, time and the hand of man have reduced and almost -obliterated portions of the wall and some of the smaller mounds, while -the creek has slightly shifted its course. When they wrote their -description, it was a little nearer than it is now; and they then -expressed the belief that it had formerly washed the base of the terrace -where the works are located. - -Mr. Moorehead’s exploring party, aided by Dr. H. T. Cresson, began -operations at this notable group of mounds in August, 1891, and -continued them through about seven months, without interruption, much of -the time in severe winter weather. The work was carried on under -authority of the Anthropological Department of the Columbian Exposition -of 1893, at Chicago. All the most interesting and important of the very -extensive body of relics obtained was displayed there; and the whole -remains as a permanent exhibit in the Field (Columbian) Museum of -Natural History. - -The Hopewell group comprises in all some twenty larger and smaller -mounds within the general inclosure, besides a few unimportant ones -outside of it, and the main connected group in the special inclosure -near the center. These latter form together what is known as the Effigy -mound, a name based upon its general resemblance to a reclining human -figure; but it is not constructed on a human or animal design, as are -the effigy mounds properly so called. After working for a time upon some -of the others, and finding much interesting material, Mr. Moorehead set -his men to work upon the Effigy mound, and spent most of his time and -effort upon that remarkable structure, of which he made a very thorough -and systematic exploration. - -The Effigy mound is about 500 feet long and 220 feet wide, and rises 23 -feet above the general surface at its highest point. It proves to belong -to the fourth class of Squier and Davis, those of mixed character, with -both altars and burials, as it contained three large altars and as many -as 175 skeletons, nearly all of adults. - -Reviewing now the entire exploration of the Hopewell group, the first -mound opened, known as No. 17, was of considerable size, nearly ninety -feet in diameter, and was notable for a layer of mica—some 3000 -sheets—that extended almost entirely through it. It contained a rude -altar, with ashes and bones, some copper implements, bone needles, -sharks’ teeth, and nearly 200 pounds of bright galena. The next -examined, No. 18, contained several decayed skeletons, and a good -example of an “altar,” together with ornaments cut from human skulls. -The next, No. 19, had an altar of earth, partially hardened by heat, -which was taken out entire and boxed. It was roughly cubical, about -three feet each way. In the “bowl,” or concavity, on the top of it, were -various minor implements, with some galena and mica, etc. The next -attacked was a large mound, No. 2, which had been partly opened by -Squier and Davis, nearly fifty years before. It is remarkable for its -immense store of roughly chipped flint disks, over 8000 in number, of -which 600 were taken out by Squier and Davis, and most of the remainder -by Mr. Moorehead. It would seem to have been a place of storage for -partly worked material of this kind, to preserve it from the hardening -effect of long exposure to the air. - -Several other mounds yielded little of importance, save that from the -soil on the site of No. 1, which had been obliterated, were taken a -number of fragments of bone, curiously ornamented with finely carved -patterns. Two others, Nos. 4 and 5, had peculiarly constructed altars, -of which an extended account is given. - -The first discovery of pearls by Squier and Davis was made in their -mound No. 9, now obliterated by a railroad. With the pearls, they report -as found on the top of a small altar, broken instruments of obsidian, -cut patterns of mica, vestiges of cloth, etc. - -Mr. Moorehead’s first discovery of pearls was in a small but interesting -mound, No. 20, about forty feet in diameter. It had been reduced by -plowing to only some two feet in height; and its contents would ere long -have been broken into and scattered by the same process. This was -strictly a burial mound, and soon yielded five skeletons, one of them -being that of a child, nine or ten years of age. With these bones were -numerous objects: two large shells made into cups for drinking, several -copper articles and ornaments, among them a broad copper bracelet -encircling the right wrist, and several hundred pearl and shell beads -and small shells. The same mound yielded later some other children’s -remains, but with no important objects. A finely polished pipe and two -bear’s teeth coated with copper were also found. - -Mr. Moorehead points out the evidences of a long occupation of this site -by a cultured tribe, who had commerce with the South and West more than -with the North or East. - -Work was then begun, in the latter part of September, on a large and -important mound known as the Oblong (No. 23), 155 feet long by 100 feet -wide, with an elevation at present of 14 feet, and originally of perhaps -20 feet. This mound yielded thirty-nine skeletons, lying at depths -varying from eight and three fourths to eleven feet below the present -surface, nearly on the base-line of the mound. Some of these were -surrounded by boulders, others were much charred, and a good deal of -variety exists in their condition, all of which Mr. Moorehead describes -particularly. All manner of relics and objects were obtained, including -pearl beads and a splendid copper ax of seventeen pounds’ weight, of -course entirely too large for any practical use, and hence plainly a -ceremonial object or badge of some high distinction. Among the most -remarkable of the many interesting objects discovered here were the -large canine teeth of bears,[557] which had not only been drilled -through near the base of the root for suspension, like many others, but -had also been partly drilled at the middle of one side, and a large -pearl inserted into the cavity. These singular ornaments were found at -the neck of a skeleton, and had evidently been worn as pendants. It will -be remembered that almost identical specimens were found by Professor -Putnam in the Marriott mound in the Miami Valley.[558] The one here -figured is now in the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, with -most of the other Hopewell material. - -Another somewhat similar example of the taste and art of the same -people, also preserved in the Field Museum, came from the mound known as -No. 25. This consisted of a large figure of a bird, in hammered copper, -fifteen and seven eighths inches long, with a pearl inserted to form the -eye. The head is quite expressive, and the tail-feathers well -represented, although the wings and the general proportions are rude. -This is shown about one third of the actual length. - -The Effigy mound was next examined. The first trial shafts proved it to -be evidently of human construction, and not of glacial origin, as some -had supposed. One or two open cuts were then begun, using teams with a -large shovel until indications of burials were found, when the further -work would be carried on by hand, with extreme care. - -After about two weeks, in which time several skeletons were unearthed, -with some shells, beads, and copper ornaments, a burial of extraordinary -character was reached on November 14. Here was lying a skeleton which -the newspapers soon reported as “The King of the Mound-Builders.” It was -much decayed, but was covered and surrounded with a wealth of relics. -The skull was surmounted by a tall cap or helmet of copper, from which -extended a wonderful pair of antlers, exactly imitating those of a deer, -but made of wood and covered with copper. The whole skeleton, to quote -the words of Mr. Moorehead, “glittered with mica, pearl, shell, and -copper.” Plates of the latter were above, beneath, and around it, with -bears’ and panthers’ teeth, etc., and over 1000 beads, many of them of -pearl. The succeeding month, during which the last cut was finished down -to the base-line, and a third one much advanced, revealed numerous -skeletons, with abundant objects of the same general kind, including a -remarkable separate deposit of copper articles of curious workmanship, -ornaments of cut mica, and one of cannel coal, fragments of meteoric -iron and celts made therefrom, and “many thousand pearl and shell -beads.” The latest trophy here unearthed was another enormous ax of -copper, nearly two feet in length, unparalleled in the world. - -The first altar was next reached; it was about four by five feet, and -some six inches deep, and had an immense variety of objects upon it and -around it, nearly all entirely ruined by the fire. Among them were pearl -beads. - -The largest altar had been not only heaped with all sorts of valuables, -but they had been piled around it so as to form a sloping mass of twelve -feet or more in diameter at the base. Among these was a layer of mica -plates of extraordinary size, eighteen or twenty inches in diameter. It -is not easy even now to obtain sheets of mica of such dimensions, in any -quantity. Carvings and effigies in bone and slate, rock crystal -arrow-heads, obsidian knives, etc., etc., damaged and broken by heat, -were cemented together by half-melted copper. The pearl and shell beads -taken out amid the ashes are estimated at not less than 100,000. - -The Effigy mound, “a place for ceremony, for sacrifice, for burial,” as -Mr. Moorehead calls it, thus combining the character of the first three -classes distinguished by Squier and Davis, is seen not to have been -constructed at one time, but to have developed gradually through perhaps -a long period. The several altars, the more important burials, the store -of copper objects, each was surmounted by a small and separate mound. -“These may have been built on the level dance or ceremonial floors, from -time to time. When the entire floor was covered, the people brought -large quantities of earth and gravel, heaped it on top of the irregular -contour of the small mounds, and this formed the present Effigy.” - -The population that occupied the main inclosure was apparently not very -large, as compared with some other of the important earthworks, such as -Fort Ancient, or Madisonville. From the distribution of village-site -debris, Mr. Moorehead estimates that there could have been only from two -hundred to three hundred lodges, even if these were all occupied at the -same time. But the indications of traffic and of art show that it must -have been a community advanced in culture beyond most of its neighbors. -Mr. Moorehead believes it to have been a sort of capital among a body of -allied or affiliated tribes who made and occupied the similar earthwork -towns of the “mound belt,”—a center of production and distribution of -art objects, and a place for the holding of great religious ceremonials. -It may be noted, however, that the art was developed in certain -directions and not in others wherein it might be expected. In hammered -copper-work and in drilling, it was most remarkable, in the latter -extending even to the perforation of quartz crystals, but of pottery -there is little, and that not very choice—a striking contrast to the -abundant and elaborately ornamental potter’s art of the tribes in the -Southwest. - -Tonti, the historian of La Salle’s expedition, in the eighteenth -century, states that La Salle actually saw mound-dwellers among southern -tribes of Indians, living very much as the Ohio mound-builders must have -done, and quite untouched as yet by any contact with the whites. Tonti -describes the dwellings, made of sun-dried mud and with dome-shaped -roofs of cane; two of them were larger and better constructed than the -rest, one the chief’s house and the other a temple, both about forty -feet square. The latter held the bones of deceased chieftains, and was -surmounted by three rude, wooden eagles. In the center was apparently “a -kind of altar,” where was maintained a perpetual fire of logs, watched -by two aged men. A recess, to which strangers were not admitted, -contained the treasures of the tribe, especially pearls from the Gulf, -as he was told. The chief returned the visit of La Salle, coming in -great state, with attendants, one of whom bore a disk of copper, -supposed to represent the sun, the chief’s great ancestor.[559] The -wooden eagles recall the large copper bird taken from mound No. 25 at -Hopewell; and the copper disk carried before the chief suggests a -similar use for some of the large objects of the same metal. The whole -account is extremely interesting in its resemblance to the Ohio remains. - -The most complete study of these ancient structures is that of the -Harness mound, not far distant from the Hopewell, conducted under the -direction of the Ohio State Archæological and Historical Society, in -1905, by their curator and librarian, Prof. William C. Mills.[560] - -The Harness group contains within and about it fourteen mounds; the -works as a whole were described by Squier and Davis, on page 56 of their -great report (“Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley,” 1848), and -have been frequently mentioned and pictured for their striking form,—a -large and perfect circle, opening at one side into a smaller circle and -also into an exact square. They are located, like the Hopewell, in Ross -County, and stand on a terrace of the Scioto River, nearly a mile from -its eastern bank, and about eight miles south of Chillicothe. - -The square inclosure measures 1080 feet on each side, and the diameters -of the two circles are about 1600 feet for the larger and 650 feet for -the smaller. In general character, this group closely resembles the -Hopewell: there is the same low wall or embankment, some four feet high, -though without any ditch as at Hopewell, and the same problem as to its -object. A number of small mounds are placed here and there, and one -large and important one recalls the Effigy, though it is somewhat less -in size and much more regular in form. In 1846, when Squier and Davis -examined it, unfortunately most of the ground was covered with woods; -but these are gone, and the works have since been much reduced by -tillage and partly obliterated by railroad and other constructions. - -The one large mound is named for the recent owner of the property, Mr. -Edwin Harness; the present owner, his son, Mr. John M. Harness, aided -and facilitated the explorations in every way. This fact, as also in the -case of Mr. Hopewell, stands in pleasing and honorable contrast to the -narrow policy of some land-owners, who refuse permission for any such -work, even when the structures are upon unused and valueless ground. - -The large mound is an almost perfect oval in form, 160 feet long and -some 80 feet across at its widest point, which is about one third of the -way from the northern end; in height it is nearly 20 feet, or was before -its recent removal. It was partly explored by Squier and Davis in 1846, -and quite extensively by Professor Putnam in 1885, and, unlike the -Effigy mound, had been repeatedly opened and examined in a small way by -both official and unofficial explorers. In 1896, Mr. W. K. Moorehead -took up the work where Professor Putnam had stopped, and carried it -considerably further, under the auspices of the Ohio Archæological and -Historical Society; and the same body, in 1905, commissioned Mr. Mills -to resume and complete the examination, removing the entire structure -down to its base. - -The Harness mound, unlike the Effigy, was for burial purposes only. -There must have been nearly two hundred. Squier and Davis found one of -these, and possibly another which they mistook for an “altar”; and they -state their belief that the mound probably contained other burials which -their two pits had not revealed. Professor Putnam encountered 12 -burials, Mr. Moorehead 27, and the final exploration 133, making a total -of 174. Besides these, an unknown number have been disturbed and removed -by occasional explorers. Of the 174 recorded, only ten had been buried -without being burned; the rest were all cremated, some where they were -laid, but most of them elsewhere, and the ashes brought and placed in -the grave. This was in all cases carefully prepared, within a small -inclosure of logs, the decayed and charred remains of which are clearly -traceable. The entire mound itself had been outlined with posts set in -the ground. the holes and impressions remaining as evidence of the fact. - -Mr. Mills outlines the history of this mound, in a way that recalls Mr. -Moorehead’s views as to the gradual growth of the Effigy. It began as a -place for the holding of funeral rites and the deposit of the dead, -marked out by lines of posts, which show that it was from time to time -enlarged. Finally, when the place was substantially filled, earth and -gravel were deposited over the whole, and slabs of stone (particularly -noted by Squier and Davis) were laid around it, upon the lower part of -the slope. - -Much description is given of the separate graves or burial chambers, -which are of several types, and of the various details of the cremated -and uncremated interments. The mound is rich in relics, although none of -the profuse sacrificial accumulations of the “altars” were encountered, -this being a mound of burial only. The relics are of the same kind, in -general, as those found in the Hopewell group, and to specify them in -detail would be only repetition. From the 133 graves opened in Mr. -Mills’s final investigation, no less than 1200 specimens were obtained -for the museum of the Archæological Society at Columbus. Among these -were artefacts of Lake Superior copper (and some pieces of native -silver), large shells from the Gulf, galena, obsidian, and much mica, -both in “blocks” and cut into ornaments, all showing the same range of -aboriginal commerce as already described at Hopewell. In reference to -pearls, the following are the principal observations: - -Beads made from Unio pearls were very abundant everywhere in the Harness -mound, as also beads of shell. They are found in such position as to -show that they were strung and worn around the neck or wrists. One -burial (No. 100) had some 2100 pearl beads, all rather small, and some -of them perfectly round. Several hundred were obtained, however, that -ranged from one quarter to one half an inch in diameter. A number of -these are shown of natural size. The larger pearls, instead of being -bored through for beads, are frequently somewhat flattened by grinding, -and then pierced with two holes so as to attach them to a fabric. Very -large ones were sometimes set in copper,—a style of work never observed -before. Mr. Mills says of this: “Large and select pearls were flattened -upon one side by grinding, and then placed upon a circular disk of -copper a little larger than the pearl. The edges were then turned (up) -around the pearl, holding it in place. Not only were pearls set in this -way, but various pieces of shell cut in a circular form.” Fine examples -of this unique style of jewelry, of natural size, and another copper -setting of like character, from which the pearl has been lost, are shown -in plates facing pages 499 and 510. - -More curious still is the discovery of imitation pearls, made of clay, -and apparently modeled from real ones as they reproduce all the -irregularities of form of the true pearls. They could easily have been -made more nearly spherical, as the beads cut from shell are so regular -as to look as though made by machinery. These somewhat irregular clay -imitations, found with the genuine pearls, were first coated with a -pulverent mica and then burned so as to preserve a pearly appearance. - -Other forms of art work were abundantly represented in the Harness -mound, such as carvings and decorations in stone and bone; a variety of -textile fabrics, of which remnants are preserved when they were in -contact with plates of copper, the salts of the metal having penetrated -the fabric and prevented its entire decay; very skilful work in copper, -and to some extent in native silver and meteoric iron; and numerous -fragments of pottery, more or less ornamental with simple impressed -patterns. The “culture,” as a whole, appears to have been equal, and -very similar, to that of the Hopewell community, and these are regarded -as having been the most advanced among the Ohio mound-builders; while -the term “Fort Ancient culture” is applied to a somewhat lower grade in -the matter of arts, which has its chief illustration among the builders -and occupants of that celebrated work. By such researches, thus minutely -and systematically conducted, there is now beginning to be possible -something like a classification of these ancient unknown tribes, which -will doubtless be developed more fully, as investigation shall be -extended and its results combined and compared. - -As to pearls in the mounds of Illinois, we are informed by the veteran -archæologist, Dr. J. F. Snyder, that in 1889 he found the skeletons of -three adult Indians at the base of a small mound on the bluffs of the -Sangomon River in Cass County. These skeletons were in a squatting -posture; artefacts—such as greenstone celts, a bicave stone and a heavy -pipe—had only been deposited with one of them. Around each wrist and -ankle of this skeleton were perforated beads made from _Marginella_ -shells, and resting on the sternum was a solitary pearl which had -evidently formed the center of a necklace of the same small marine -shells. Although much decayed, it still retained something of its -original luster. It was spherical, measured approximately seven eighths -of an inch in diameter, and was perforated through the middle. Dr. -Snyder also states that at the base of one of the large mounds he opened -in 1895, in Brown County, on the west side of the Illinois River, he -discovered a number of the large canine teeth of the bear, perforated at -the roots, so as to be used for necklaces. On the convex side of each -tooth were from two to four pits about one third of an inch in diameter, -and the same in depth, in which gems had been inserted. Two small pearls -were still in place. Near by were the remains of another necklace -composed of alternate pearls and bone beads; the latter were oblong and -perforated lengthwise. Eight of the pearls were recovered, ranging in -diameter from one half to one third of an inch, and pierced through the -center, but all were very badly injured by the action of fire. - -Mr. David I. Bushnell, who has excavated the McEvers mound in Montezuma, -Pike County, Illinois, for the Missouri Historical Society, found in -this mound a cyst containing a skeleton six feet in height and also a -skull reposing on a bundle of bones near which lay forty-five pearls, -one of them weighing fifty-two grains and still showing a beautiful -luster. Almost all the objects discovered in the mound will be presented -to the Missouri Historical Society. The large pearl would be worth from -$12,000 to $15,000 if it were in perfect condition. - -We learn from Mr. Richard Herrmann, founder of the Herrmann Museum of -Natural History, Dubuque, Iowa, that on the top of the high cliff from -Eagle’s Point to its end at McKnight’s Spring, there were formerly a -great many mounds which were long ago examined by government experts. -Many ancient ornaments were found in these mounds, among them a string -of pearls, greatly damaged from having been buried for a long -period.[561] Mr. Herrmann believes that these pearls were taken from the -Mississippi River by the mound-builders. - -Enough has been said, in this general sketch, to give some idea of the -extent to which pearls, largely those from the fresh-water Unios, were -gathered and used by the native tribes of North America, from the -ancient mound-builders of the Ohio Valley to the Indians encountered by -the explorers and colonists of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. - -The love of pearls shown by the Indians was as noteworthy as was their -devotion to their dead and the superstitious mystery which enshrouds -their funeral rites; for, when the human sacrifice was consummated, the -act was performed in as earnest a spirit of devotion as was shown by -Abraham in his readiness to sacrifice Isaac, and the Indians evidenced -an almost pathetic sentiment either of reverence, duty, or supernatural -dread. - -Dr. J. Walter Fewkes writes that in none of his excavations has he ever -noted pearls. Haliotis shells, conch shells, and fragments of the same -have been found in the great ruins at Casa Grande, Arizona. - -Dr. Charles Hercules Read, director of the Department of Archæology of -the British Museum, states that the Mexican mosaic masks in the Christy -collection, which are pre-Columbian in origin, and probably date -hundreds of years in advance of the conquest, prove of special interest -from the fact that five of them contain an inlay of mother-of-pearl -shell. The first of these is a plain mask in which the eyes are of -mother-of-pearl; the second is a dagger having the details of -feather-work in mother-of-pearl; the third, a circular shield center -having the eyes, teeth, fingers, and toes of the figures in -mother-of-pearl; the fourth, a helmet with small pieces of pearl-shell -representing collars around the necks of rattlesnakes; and the fifth is -a jaguar in the side of which are similar inlays. These masks are -described by Dr. Read in “Archæologia,” Society of Antiquaries, London, -Vol. LIV, p. 383; in this volume the objects are shown in color. Dr. -Read communicates that the pearl jaguar seems to be of more recent -execution, but he believes the first four to be original. He is not -entirely sure that these objects contain the true mother-of-pearl, the -substance having changed so much as to make a decision doubtful even if -it were extracted. He states, however, that it is a pearly, nacreous -shell, resembling that of the ordinary pearl-oyster. In these masks are -also other shells, among them a red shell, probably a spondylus, almost -as red as coral. The mother-of-pearl is of special interest as it is -quite possible that the shell itself was known, and it may be that -pearls also formed part of a commerce that existed between the coast and -the interior. - -[Illustration: - - Group of charred, cut fresh-water pearls; more than 100,000 found in - mounds -] - -[Illustration: - - Finger-shaped piece of lignite inlaid with fresh-water pearl -] - -[Illustration: - - Copper bird, 15⅞ inches long with eye of fresh-water pearl -] - - FRESH-WATER PEARLS FROM HOPEWELL GROUP OF MOUNDS, ROSS COUNTY, OHIO - -We are informed by Mr. E. P. Dieseldorf, of Coban, Republic of -Guatemala, that he has never observed pearls in the pre-Columbian graves -in Guatemala; he had, however, frequently found marine shells, whole, -and elaborated in connection with jadeite beads. - -In a personal communication, Mr. Thomas Gann, of Yucatan, states that, -in excavating a mound at San Antonio, near the mouth of the Rio Hondo, -in Yucatan, he uncovered a small stone cyst or chamber, containing two -perforated, pear-like ornaments of considerable size, together with -portions of a human skeleton, painted pottery, etc. He also states that -ornaments such as beads, gorgets, and ear-pendants, made from the pearly -shell of both the oyster and the conch, are of common occurrence in many -sepulchral mounds in British Honduras and in Yucatan, and he notes the -fact that pink conch pearls are found in considerable numbers at the -present day along the coast of British Honduras. There is no especial -fishing for pearls, and they are found only incidentally in conchs which -have been gathered for food. These pearls are sold by fishermen in -Balize at prices varying from two or three dollars to twenty or thirty -apiece. In size they range from that of a large pin’s head to that of a -small pea. - -Mrs. Marie Robinson Wright informs us that she has never found pearls in -the Bolivian graves, although they are quite plentiful in Bolivia -to-day, and hundreds of them are offered in the markets. The pretty -girls wear them as earrings and in their _topos_. - -There is no doubt that pearls existed long before the advent of man, -both in the fresh-water and in the marine form. This is more clearly -evidenced by Sir Charles Lyell, who calls attention to the fact that the -fresh-water mussel (_Unio littoralis Gray_), formerly found in abundance -at Grays Thurrock, Essex, no longer exists in England, but occurs in -France, showing that not only had this mollusk been unseen by any -Englishman, but that the form had become extinct in an entire country. -Thus, both the pearl shell of the ocean and the pearl-mussel of the -river, for many centuries produced pearls, which passed away with the -shell itself. - -A great number of fossil Unios were collected by Barnum Brown from the -Laramie clays, 130 miles northwest of Miles City, Montana. The shells -were found in a bed situated about 180 feet above the Fort Pierre shales -and, therefore, well above the recognized cretaceous strata. These -shells were in fairly good condition and retained the nacreous coloring -to a considerable extent. As some of them resemble the modern species, -it seems that the same designations might be applied to them. - -Prof. R. P. Whitfield, one of our greatest palæontologists, who has -carefully examined these fossil shells, suggests that they are probably -the progenitors of the species of Unios and fresh-water mussels that now -inhabit the Mississippi and Wisconsin rivers and their tributaries, and -he proposes the following names for some of them, indicating at the same -time the living species with which he compares them: _Unio biæsopoides_, -_Unio æsopoides_ and _Unio æsopiformis_, all resembling _U. æsopus_ -Green; _Unio letsoni_ = _U. cornutus_ Barnes; _Unio cylindricoides_ = -_U. cylindricus_ Say; _Unio gibbosoides_ = _U. gibbosus_ Barnes; _Unio -pyramidatoides_ = _U. pyramidatus_ Lea; _Unio retusoides_ = _U. retusus_ -Lam.; _Unio verucosiformis_ = _U. verrucosus_ Barnes. - -Although it is almost certain that these ancient Unios were -pearl-bearing, Professor Whitfield informs us that, in a period of fifty -years of palæontological research, he has never found a fossil pearl. - -We are informed by Sophus Müller, Director of the Royal Danish Museum of -Antiquities at Copenhagen, that no Danish ornaments containing pearls -have been found dating from an earlier period than 1000 B.C.; he also -states that no fresh-water pearls have ever been discovered in the -Danish graves. - -Dr. H. Ulmann, director of the great Swiss Landesmuseum at Zurich, and -Dr. Otto Leiner, director of the Rosengarten Museum at Constance, -personally communicated to us that no pearls exist in either of the -collections of these great museums, nor to their knowledge have any been -discovered in the lake-dwellings or the prehistoric graves of either -Switzerland or Baden. This may either be due to conditions favorable to -the dissolution of the pearl by the action of the ooze on the lake -bottom, or else to the entire absence of knowledge of them on the part -of a people who were familiar with many materials, since the museum -collections even show jade implements of a number of types. - -Dr. Leiner, whose father was curator of the Rosengarten Museum before -him, informs us that at Bodman on Lake Constance there were found a -large number of bored cylinders, from one fourth of an inch to one inch -in length, made out of limestone. They were used for necklaces, somewhat -in the style of our Indian wampum, and were either worn alone or in -connection with bored cylinders made of the tuff-rock and also of -encrinite stems. - -Dr. Leiner also asserts that he has never seen _Unio margaritifera_ in -Lake Constance; nor was there any evidence of shells, broken or -otherwise, observed by him in the excavations in the lake-dwellings. - -The curator of the Rhodesia Museum, Bulawayo, South Africa, states that -in Rhodesia, in the vicinity of Bulawayo, beads made out of the shell of -the common Unio or fresh-water mussel (_Unio verreauxi_) have been -observed in the graves, although pearls themselves have never been found -with them in any burials. - - - ADDENDA - - One of the authors used every endeavor in 1893 and 1894 to have a - bill passed by Congress for the regulation of pearl-fishing in the - United States. These efforts were frustrated by the influence of the - local pearl fishers. An attempt has now been made to preserve the - industry in Illinois, where the legislature has this spring passed a - bill for its regulation. - - The first section of the bill provides: - - It shall be unlawful for any person or persons to take or catch, by - any means whatever, in any of the navigable waters within the - jurisdiction of this State, any mussel, fresh-water clam or - shell-fish from the first day of October to the first day of April - (both dates inclusive) of each succeeding year. - -The bill imposes upon any one who violates these provisions a fine of -not less than $25, nor more than $100, or imprisonment in the county -jail for a term not exceeding one year, or else both fine and -imprisonment at the discretion of the court. - -Another section provides that any one not a resident of Illinois, who -takes clams, shell-fish, or mussels, without procuring a license, shall -be subject to a fine of not less than $50, nor more than $100, or to -imprisonment for one year, or to both penalties. The licenses may be -procured on application and payment of $50 for each vessel to be -employed, and they expire on the first day of October following their -issuance. The amount received for these licenses is to be turned over to -the State Treasurer at the end of each month and placed to the credit of -the State Fish Protective Fund. No boat having more than two bars, each -not exceeding sixteen feet in length, shall be used for this fishery, -and the space separating the hooks on these bars is not to be less than -eight inches. - -Miss Carl, the artist who painted the portraits of the Empress and that -of the Dowager Empress of China, states that she wears a diamond ring. -When she shows this she apologizes for wearing it, stating that it had -been given to her by the Viceroy, Li Hung Chang, saying that she, -herself, sees no beauty in the sparkle of the diamond; for her there is -more beauty in the soft, quiet tones of the pearl than in the brilliancy -of the diamond. - -During the Boxer War in China, the looting was carried on to so great an -extent, that a French hotel-keeper is said to have obtained a basket of -pearls, which he bought for a trifle, and which are said to have netted -him very nearly $1,000,000. - - - - - BIBLIOGRAPHY - - - - - BIBLIOGRAPHY[562] - - -ALBERTUS MAGNUS, _Bishop of Ratisbon_ - - Le libro de le pietre preciose e de le loro u(ir)tude (Old Italian - version of the De lapidibus). 14th century MS., vellum, 44ff. 4to. 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Nachrichtsblatt der Deutschen - Malakozoologischen Gesellschaft, pp. 29–40. _Frankfurt_, 1884. - -ROSNEL (PIERRE DE) - - Le Mercure Indien, ou le Trésor des Indes ... Seconde partie, dans - laquelle est traitté des pierres préciouses et des perles, ... avec un - traitté sommaire des autres pierres moins précieuses. _Paris_, 1672. - 4to. - -ROTHSCHILD (M. D.) - - A Hand-book of Precious Stones. _New York_ and _London_, 1890. 12mo. - -ROUGEMONT (LOUIS DE) - - The Adventures of Louis de Rougemont, as Told by Himself. - _Philadelphia_, 1900. 8vo. - -RUEUS (FRANCISCUS) - - De Gemmis aliquot, iis praesertim quarum divus Joannes Apostolus in - sua Apocalypsi meminit. _Parisiis_, 1547. 8vo. - -RUMPH (GEORG EVERHARD) - - Thesaurus imaginum piscium, testaceorum, ut et cochlearum, accedunt - conchylia, conchæ univalviæ et bivalviæ denique mineralia. _Lugduni - Batavarum_, 1711. Fol. - -RUSCHENBERGER (WILLIAM S. 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XXI, pp. - 905–911. _New York_, April, 1892. - - Pearl-diving and Its Perils. “The Cosmopolitan,” VOL. XVIII, pp. - 564–572. _New York_, March, 1895. - - The World’s Rough Hand: Toil and Adventure at the Antipodes. _New - York_, 1899. 12mo. - - Working Under Water: the Story of an Amateur Pearl Fisher. “The - Outlook,” VOL. LXI, pp. 124–129. _New York_, January 14, 1899. - -WILLIAMS (CHARLES) - - Silvershell; or the Adventures of an Oyster. _London_, 1856. 8vo. - -WILSON (D.), _Colonel_ - - Pearl Fisheries in the Persian Gulf. - - Journal of the Royal Geographic Society of London, VOL. III, pp. - 283–286. _London_, 1834. - -WOHLBEREDT (O.) - - Nachtrag zur Molluskenfauna des Königreiches Sachsen. Nachrichtsblatt - der deutschen Malakozoologischen Gesellschaft, pp. 97–104. - _Frankfurt_, 1899. - -WOLF (JOHANN CHRISTOPH) - - Reise nach Zeilan. Nebst einem Berichte von der holländischen - Regierung zu Jaffanapatnam. 2 vols. _Berlin_ und _Stettin_, 1782–84. - 8vo. - -WOODWARD (HENRY) - - Parasitical Animals in _Meleagrina margaritifera_ of Australia. - Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1886, pp. 176–177. - - -ZIMMERN (HELEN) - - Stories in Precious Stones. _London_, 1873. 8vo. - -ZWEMER (S. M.) - - Arabia: the Cradle of Islam. _New York_, 1900. 8vo. - - - - - INDEX - - - - - INDEX - - - Abalone pearls, 55, 78, 148, 280, 291, 351, 414 - - Abbas the Great, 455 - - Abdul-Aziz, 421 - - Aberdeenshire, Scotland, 164, 166 - - Aboriginal use of pearls, 485–513 - - Abortive ova theory, 42 - - Abraham and Sarah, 7 - - Accidents to divers, 117, 138, 144, 197, 203, 208, 247, 249 - - Acid stains, 376 - - Acosta, José de, 232 - - Aden, Arabia, 37, 142 - - Aden, Gulf of, 80, 140 - - Adirondack, New York, 266 - - Adour River, France, 171 - - Adrian, Pope, 313 - - Africa, 65, 140, 153–156 - - Age of mollusks, 74, 108, 171 - - Ago Bay, Japan, 292 - - Aitken, E. H., 133 - - Alabama, 492, 493 - - Alasmodon arcuata, 73 - margaritifera, 281 - - Albertus Magnus, 311 - - Alexander the Great, 319 - - Alexander VI, 24 - - Alexander Severus, 10 - - Alexandra, Queen, 165, 418 - (plate), 438 - - Alexandria, 320 - - Alexandria shell, 69 - - Alfonso X, 311 - - Alfred the Great, 414 - - Algonquin Indians, 486 - - America, 225–282, 294 - - America, Prehistoric, 23, 485–512 - - American Museum of Natural History, 266, 467 - - Amsterdam, Diamond Merchants of, 325 - - Anania of Shiraz, 329 - - Ancients, Pearls among the, 3–12 - - Anglesey, Marquis of, 479 - - Angoulème, Duchess of, 170 - - Anhalt Dessau, Duchess of, 476 - - Anjou, Duke of, 425 - - Annan River, Scotland, 164 - - Anne de Bretagne, 436 - - Anne de France, Duchess, 435 - - Anodonta cygnea, 42, 168 - - Antwerp, Chamber of Commerce of, 327 - - Apparatus of capture, 166, 181, 268–270. - See Dredges, Scaphanders. - - Apple River, Wisconsin, 262 - - Aqualia jewels, 479 - - Aqua perlata, 311 - - Archangel, Russia, 181, 184 - - Areca-nut, 310 - - Arethusa necklace, 405 - - Aristotle, 95 - - Arizona, 510 - - Arkansas, 259, 263, 264, 270, 276, 361 - - Arkansas River, 263, 264 - - Arlington, Tenn., 263 - - Arnobio, Cleandro, 344 - - Arnold, Sir Edwin, 41, 85 - - Arthurian legends, 304 - - Artificial pearls, 41, 285–293 - - Aru Islands, 206, 220 - - Ashburnham missal, 17 - - Assyria, Pearls in, 6, 404 - - Atax ypsilophorus, 43 - - Atharvaveda, 4, 301 - - Athens National Museum, 405 - - Atwater, Caleb, 500 - - Auction of oysters, 120 - - Auction of pearls, 470–472, 477–481 - - Augsburg, Germany, 320 - - Australia, 30, 58, 65, 68, 199–212, 291, 294, 466 - - Austria, Fisheries of, 178–179 - - Austrian Schatzkammer, 472–474 - - Awabi. See Abalone. - - Aztecs, Pearls among the, 23 - - - Bacon, Francis, 313 - - Baden, Germany, 177 - - Baegert, Jacob, 244 - - Bagdad, 88, 98, 335, 411 - - Bagge, J. P., 287 - - Bahama Islands, 278 - - Bahrein Islands, 85, 88–90 - - Balapur, India, 133 - - Baldknob, Arkansas, 276 - - Banda, 221 - - Banks, Edgar J., 5 - - Bann River, Ireland, 165 - - Bantam Lake, Conn., 266 - - Bapst pearls, 465 - - Barbot, Charles, 337, 390 - - Baroda, Gaikwar of, 460 - - Baroque pearls, 30, 31, 59, 265, 272, 353, 359, 464, 475, 476 - - Baroque pearls, Values of, 337, 340, 343, 355 - - Barthema, Lodovico, 86 - - Base value for pearls, 330–333 - - Basilica of St. Mark, 17, 59 - - Bassein Coast, India, 139 - - Bath, Marquis of, 355 - - Batthyani, Count Louis, 467 - - —— Countess Louis, 434 - - Bavaria, 171–173, 294 - - Bazaruto Islands, 153, 156 - - Beads, 403, 497, 498, 508 - - Beckmann, Johann, 287 - - Bede, 160 - - Bell, Robert N., 492 - - Benjamin of Tudela, 37, 86 - - Benzoni, Girolamo, 231 - - Berri, Duc de, 426 - - Beuth-Schinkel Museum, Charlottenburg, 421 - - Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, 407, 425, 428, 436 - - Biedma, Louis Hernandez de, 253, 257 - - Bird’s-eye pearls, 56, 353 - - Birdwood, Sir George, 319 - - Birmingham, Jewelers’ and Goldsmiths’ Association of, 327 - - Blackmore, H. P., 490 - - Blackmore Museum, 490, 500 - - Black pearls, 29, 60, 241, 349, 355, 376, 467, 476 - - Black River, Arkansas, 264, 273 - - Black Rock, Arkansas, 264, 276 - - Bleaching pearls, 377, 396 - - Blister pearls, 58, 353 - - Blue-point shell, 72 - - Boats, 91, 112, 136, 141, 166, 205, 218, 234 - - Bober River, Germany, 175 - - Bohemia, Austria, 178 - - Bohemian pearls, 433, 434 - - Bolchow, H. W. F., 478 - - Bolivia, 511 - - Bologna treatise of, 1791, 331, 338, 342, 343 - - Bombay, 88, 89, 98, 156, 347, 354, 357 - - Bombay Presidency, 132 - - Bombay shell, 69, 143 - - Boncza, Mlle. Wanda de, 479 - - Boot, Anselmus de, 40, 311, 331, 338, 343, 382, 455 - - Bordeaux, Austin de, 459 - - Borneo, 221, 297 - - Boston Museum of Fine Arts, 11, 12, 307 - - Bouchon-Brandely, G., 193, 195, 290 - - Bourbon, Duchess of, 348 - - Bouton, Louis, 291 - - Bouton pearls, 56, 57, 352. - See Button pearls - - Bracelets, 474 - - Brazil, 282 - - Breeding pearls, 296–298 - - Bremond, Gabriele, 411 - - Brhatsamhita of Varâhamihira, 334 - - Bridal presents, Pearls as, 170 - - Brinton, D. G., 494 - - Bristow, Samuel G., 494 - - British Honduras, 511 - - British Isles, 11, 159–168 - - British Museum, 11, 20, 67, 405, 414, 510 - - Brooch, 471 - - Broome, Australia, 205 - - Brown, Barnum, 511 - - Browning, Robert, 303 - - Bruce, Robert, 418 - - Brunswick, Duke of, 349, 399 - - Brydges, Sir Harford Jones, 459 - - Bubics, Bishop, 481 - - Buckhorn shell, 73 - - Buckingham, Duke of, 24 - - Buckland, F. T., 165 - - Budapest National Museum, 435 - - Buddha images, 288–289 - - Buddhabhaṭṭa, 310, 335, 378 - - Budé, Guillaume, 348 - - Bulawayo, South Africa, 513 - - Bullhead shell, 73 - - Bunyan, John, 79 - - Burgundy family, 21, 431 - - Burkill, F. H., 136 - - Burma, 135 - - Bushell, Stephen W., 413 - - Bushnell, David I., 509 - - Butterfly shell, 73 - - Button manufacture, 72, 264, 269, 271 - - Button pearls, 352, 360, 470 - - Buttons, Link, 443 - - Buying pearls, 369 - - Byron, Lord, 403 - - Byssus, 66, 76 - - Byzantine coins, 15 - - Byzantium, 320 - - - Cæsar, Julius, 10, 11, 159, 329, 449 - - Cæsarea, Syria, 406 - - Calcutta, 357 - - California, 280, 281 - - California, Gulf of, 69, 241–251, 294 - - Caligula, 9 - - Caliph Al-Mamun, 411 - - Cambridge, Mass., 490 - - Camden, William, 37, 160 - - Canada, 281 - - Candarin, weight, 322 - - Caniapuscaw, Canada, 281 - - Carat, 321–329, 331, 333 - - Carborel, José, 242 - - Care of pearls, 394–395 - - Caribbean Sea, 225 - - Carl, Miss, 513 - - Carlotta, Empress of Mexico, 397, 476 - - Caroline Augusta, Empress, 474 - - Caroline, Queen, 29 - - Carpets embroidered with pearls, 411 - - Carthage, Tenn., 263, 276 - - Carupano, Venezuela, 234 - - Cassis madagascarensis, 351, 354 - - Castellani, Alexandro, 185 - - Castellani, Augusto, 468 - - Catharine de’ Medici, 24, 435, 453 - - Catharine of Russia, 184 - - Cavvadias, M. P., 405 - - Ceram, 221 - - Ceylon, 4, 29, 31, 45, 60, 81, 87, 99–128, 293, 343–347, 383 - - Ceylon Company of Pearl Fishers, 110, 125, 127 - - Chank, 78 - - Chardin, Jean, 94 - - Charente River, France, 171 - - Charlemagne, 16, 472, 475 - - Charles I of England, 431, 456 - - Charles II of Spain, 452 - - Charles IV, Crown of, 416 - - Charles V, Buckle of, 24 - - Charles VI of France, 313 - - Charles the Bold, 21 - - Charles the Bold’s jewel, 450 - - Charlotte, Queen, 29 - - Chauveton, Urbain, 38, 232 - - Che-kiang, China, 288 - - Chesapeake Bay, 267 - - Chicago, Ill., 275, 499, 500 - - Chicot, 58, 353 - - Chillicothe, Ohio, 491, 500, 506 - - China, 4, 5, 19, 145–146, 285, 288, 302, 413 - - Chinese pearl ornaments, 413 - - Christ, 7, 304 - - Christie’s Auction House, 477–481 - - Chung-kwan-o, China, 290 - - Church of the Holy Sepulchre, 468 - - Clam pearl. See Venus, 351, 486 - - Cleaning pearls, 375, 377, 378, 396 - - “Cleanness,” the poem, 21 - - Cleopatra, 10, 55, 314, 315, 407, 449 - - Clinch River, Tenn., 263 - - Clinton, Tenn., 263, 276 - - Clodius, 315 - - Coche Island, Venezuela, 231, 233 - - Cockburn, Lady Augusta Anne, 479 - - Cocoanut pearls, 78, 351 - - Cofaciqui, 253, 254, 257, 267 - - Coins, ancient, 404, 450 - - Collar, Pearl, 444 - - Colombia, 233, 239, 282 - - Colombo, 357 - - Color of pearls, 60, 61, 97, 124, 166, 184, 221, 241, 261, 267, 273, - 321, 351, 354, 359, 362, 467 - - Colorado River, 261 - - Columbus, Christopher, 23, 225, 226, 228, 321 - - Columbus, Diego, 229 - - Columbus, Ohio, 500 - - Commerce in pearls, 319–321 - - Commission des Instruments et Travaux, 326 - - Comparette, F. Louis, 408 - - Compiègne, France, 431 - - Composition of pearls, 52, 314 - - Comyn, Tomas de, 213 - - Conch pearls, 55, 77, 278, 279, 351, 361, 464 - - Conchiolin, 44, 51, 61 - - Cone-shaped pearls, 352 - - Congaree River, 492 - - Connecticut, 266 - - Connemara, Ireland, 165 - - Constantinople, 15, 320 - - Conway River, Wales, 37, 160, 161, 168 - - Copenhagen, 476 - - Coque de perle, 59, 351 - - Coral, 412 - - Cordiner, James, 104, 116, 382 - - Cordoba, Maria Fernandez de, 433 - - Coronation orb, English, 418 - - Cortés, Hernando, 241 - - Corvinus, Cross of, 423 - - Cossack, Australia, 205, 466 - - Costa Rica, 239, 282 - - Coxe, Daniel, 258, 263 - - Cracks in pearls, 271, 321, 381 - - Crawfurd, John, 213 - - Cresson, H. T., 501 - - Crosses of pearls, 444 - - Crowfoot drag, 269 - - Crowns, 15, 24, 414–420, 455, 472–475 - - Crown jewels of France, 56, 461, 468–472 - - Crusades, 19, 320 - - Crystalline pearls, 54, 55, 351 - - Cubagua Island, Venezuela, 228, 229, 231, 233 - - Culin, Stewart, 414 - - Cultching, 294 - - Culture pearls, 41, 75, 148, 288–293 - - Cumana, Venezuela, 228, 233, 234 - - Cumberland River, 263, 494 - - Cupid and Psyche, 307 - - Curtis, William E., 282 - - Cuzco, Cathedral of, 432 - - Cylindrical pearls, 56, 353 - - Czarina of Russia, _Frontispiece_ - - Czarina of Russia, Daughters of the, 442 - - - Dahlak Islands, 142 - - Danube River, 18, 171, 177, 179 - - Dark Ages, 17, 21, 320, 421 - - Davenport, Charles B., 292 - - Davis, Edwin H., 485, 489, 498 - - Death of pearls, 397, 399 - - Debenham & Storr, 481 - - Dee River, Scotland, 164 - - Denmark, 179, 512 - - Dennis, James T., 6 - - Dennys, N. B., 297 - - Denton, Sherman F., 266 - - Depletion of pearl beds, 31, 106, 132, 148, 164, 169, 175, 180, 206, - 233, 261, 277, 294 - - Dew-drop origin of pearls, 36–39, 60 - - Diamonds, 21, 28, 29, 30, 79, 259, 321, 330, 334, 369, 371, 392, 403, - 412, 439, 442 - - Diane de Poitiers, 436 - - Diaz, Carmen Romero Rubio de, 441 - - Diederichsen, 476 - - Diemerbroeck, 94 - - Dieseldorf, E. P., 511 - - Dieulafait, Louis, 337 - - Dinglinger, J. M., 475 - - Dipsas plicatus, 75, 146, 288 - - Distomum duplicatum, 42 - margaritarum, 43 - somateriæ, 43 - - Divers, Characteristics of, 91, 93, 113, 131, 134, 137, 143, 149, 194, - 207, 217, 238, 246 - - Diving-bell, 239, 245, 247 - - Diving, Limit of, 93, 94–96, 195, 208, 219, 249 - - Diving, Method of, 92, 114, 128, 132, 138, 142, 146, 194, 201–203, 207, - 219, 230, 236, 246, 249 - - Diving-stones, 92 - - Dixon washing machine, 123, 125 - - Dog-tooth pearls, 352, 360 - - Donnan, James, 93 - - Don River, Scotland, 163, 164 - - Doon River, Scotland, 163, 164 - - Double pearls, 57, 353 - - Dragon and pearl, 302 - - Dragsen, Alfred, 476 - - Dredging for pearl-oysters, 115, 146, 218, 231, 234 - - Dreher, Julius D., 196 - - Dresden, Germany, 475 - - Drilling pearls, 378–385, 477, 492, 496 - - Drinking dissolved pearls, 314 - - Drop-shaped pearls, 352 - - Druggists’ pearls, 75 - - Dublin Museum, 424, 425 - - Dubois, Raphael, 43, 44, 55, 71 - - Dubosq, Augustus, 390 - - Dubosq, Henry, 390 - - Dubuque, Iowa, 510 - - Dudley, Lady, 479 - - Durand, L. E., 88 - - Dust-pearls, 56, 352, 445 - - Durability of pearls, 395–398 - - Dutch Indies, 202, 220 - - Dyeing pearls, 377 - - - Earn River, Scotland, 164 - - Ear-piercing, 407 - - Earrings, 403, 404, 407–410, 444 - - East Africa, Fisheries of, 153–156 - - East African Pearl Company, 154 - - East Indian pearl jewelry, 412 - - Ebert, Frank M., 267 - - Ecclesiastical ornaments, 16, 17, 160, 421–424, 444 - - Echternacher Codex, 421 - - Ecuador, 282 - - Edgcumbe, Sir Robert, 153, 155 - - Edibility of pearl mollusks, 66, 171, 210, 250, 280, 494 - - Edward VI of England, 455 - - Edward VII of England, 438 - - Edward, the Black Prince, 417 - - Effigy mound, 502, 504, 505 - - Egbert, Archbishop of Treves, 421 - - Egg-shaped pearls, 56, 240, 352, 470 - - Egypt, Pearls in ancient, 6, 403 403–404 - - Eldorado explorers, 252 - - Elgin, Lord, 126 - - Eligius or St. Eloi, 16 - - Elizabeth of England, 24, 453, 454 - - Elizabeth of Russia, 182, 183 - - El Katif, 457 - - Elster River, Saxony, 173 - - Emanuel, Harry, 337, 340 - - Embedded pearls, 57, 353, 376 - - Emeralds, 330, 372, 412, 439 - - Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 145 - - Empress Dowager of China, 431 (plate) - - Enriching a drink with pearls, 314 - - Entrecolles, F. X. de, 285, 286 - - Eo, Wilhelmus, 348 - - Espiritŭ Santo Island, Mexico, 248, 293 - - Esterházy, Count Maurice, 434 - - Esterházy, Prince Nicholas, 434, 481 - - Esthonia, Russia, 182, 183 - - Etowah River, Georgia, 267 - - Eugénie, Empress, 30, 164, 260, 307, 355, 395, 471 - - Europe, Fisheries of, 168–185 - - European pearl-bearing mollusks, 75, 160, 164, 170, 184 - - - Fabricius, Dionysius, 182 - - Fake pearls, 361 - - Falco, Alphonse, 468 - - Farsan Islands, Red Sea, 142 - - Fashion for pearls, 21, 30, 31, 329, 354, 439, 440 - - Ferbecq, 475 - - Ferguson, A. M., 117 - - Ferranz, Ivens, 153 - - Fertility of pearl mollusks, 67, 74 - - Feuchtwanger, Lewis, 336 - - Fever, Pearl hunting, 276 - - Fewkes, J. Walter, 510 - - Field Museum of Natural History, 499, 501, 503 - - Filippi, Filippo de, 42 - - Findhorn River, Scotland, 164 - - Finland, Russia, 182, 183, 290 - - Finot, Louis, 334 - - Fishermen, Characteristics of, 91, 268, 275. - See Divers. - - Fishermen, Total number of, 80 - - Fishing boats, 112, 113, 136, 141 - - Flavor of pearls, 313, 315 - - Flint River, Georgia, 268 - - Florence, Italy, 24, 407 - - Florida, 257, 262, 268, 278, 493 - - Foix, Françoise de, 436 - - Fontaneda, Hernando, 256, 257 - - Forms of pearls, 55–60, 351–354 - - France, 17, 169–171 - - Francis I of France, 468 - - Frederick, Cæsar, 101 - - Frederick III of Germany, 438 - - French crown jewels, 56, 461, 468–472 - - Fresh-water pearls, 16, 18, 30, 72–75, 146, 159–185, 252–282, 351, 359 - - Froehner, 12 - - Fugger, J. J., 450 - - Fukura, Japan, 293 - - Funeral rites, use of pearls, 133 - - - Gabrielle d’Estrées, 436 - - Gambier Islands, 190, 192 - - Gann, Thomas, 511 - - Garde-Meuble, Paris, 461 - - Garner, Robert, 43 - - Garrard & Co., 464 - - Gemelli-Careri, 238 - - Gemmen Münzen Cabinet, 12 - - General Pearl and Coral-Fishing Association of London, 245 - - Genoa, Italy, 24, 320 - - Gentleman of Elvas, 253 - - Georgia, 267, 492, 495 - - German East Africa, 154 - - German Federation of Jewelers, 326 - - German ornaments, Antique, 421–422 - - Germany, 171–178, 294 - - Giant clam, 53, 76, 144, 296 - - Giard, Alfred, 43 - - Gieger, Malachias, 312 - - Gillman, H. W., 346 - - Gimma, Giacinto, 213 - - Gironde River, 171 - - Glyptothek, Munich, 407 - - Godron, D. A., 169 - - Goethe, 305 - - Gogibus pearl, 350, 461 - - Gollancz, 20 - - Gomara, Francisco Lopez de, 226, 235, 451, 455 - - Gonzalez, President, 247 - - Goode, John Mason, 94 - - Gordon-Lennox, Lady Henry, 481 - - Gould, Mrs. George J., 480 (plate) - - Grain, Pearl, 322–327, 330–334 - - Gran, Cathedral of, 422 - - Grass River, N. Y., 266 - - Graves, Aboriginal, 253, 485–512 - - Great pearls of history, 481, 482 - - Greece, 8, 11, 307, 405, 409 - - Greene, Robert, 253 - - Greenland, 179 - - Gresham, Sir Thomas, 314, 454 - - Grimshaw, Beatrice, 197 - - Grüne Gewölbe, 59, 175, 475 - - Guadeloupe, Church of, 452 - - Guatemala, 511 - - Guidius, Joannes, 28 - - Guillaume, M., 325 - - - Hafiz, 47 - - Hale, Edward E., 241 - - Half-pearl making, 392, 394 - - Half-pearls, 354, 364, 444 - - Half-pearls, values, 340–341 - - Haliotidæ, 78 - - Haliotis gigantea, 148 - - Hammer pearls, 353 - - Hampton Court, 22 - - Hanover, Germany, 176 - - Hapsburg family, 23 - - Hardy, R. W. H., 245 - - Hariot, Thomas, 257, 488 - - Harley, Geo., 54, 396 - - Harness, John M., 506 - - Harness mound, 491, 496, 500, 506–509 - - Harpeth River, Tenn., 494 - - Harris, Israel H., 261 - - Haupt, Paul, 6 - - Hawkins, Sir Richard, 38 - - Haystack pearls, 56, 353, 360 - - Healing qualities of pearls, 314 - - Hebrew literature, 6, 7 - - Hedenberg, Frederick, 290 - - Heikow, Lake of, Manchuria, 147 - - Heirlooms, 434, 477, 479 - - Hennepin, Father Louis, 495 - - Henry V, 417, 454 - - Henry VIII, 22, 431, 451 - - Heraldic significance, 437 - - Herculaneum, pearls from, 409 - - Herdman, W. A., 45, 46, 155, 287, 290 - - Hermitage, St. Petersburg, 11, 410, 415 - - Herrick, Robert, 285 - - Herrmann, Richard, 509 - - Hesse, 177 - - Hessling, Theodore von, 52, 172, 176, 181 - - Hiller, Henry W., 462 - - Hindus, 4, 301, 307, 309, 347, 350, 382 - - Hinge pearls, 59, 352 - - Hispano-American Museum, 432 - - Holbein, Hans, 22 - - Holberg, 179 - - Holland, Philemon, 314 - - Holy Roman Empire, 472, 475 - - Home, Sir Everard, 42 - - Homer, 8 - - Hope pearls, 59, 463–464 - - Hope, Henry Philip, 463 - - Hopewell mounds, 490, 500–505 - - Hopewell, M. C., 501 - - Hornell, James, 45, 117, 127 - - Horsehair threads, 391 - - Hôtel de Tiraz, Palermo, 475 - - Hôtel Drouot, 477–479 - - Howe, Sir Everhard, 42 - - Howell, David, 259, 260 - - Howie, W. Forbes, 425 - - Humbert, Mme., 478 - - Humboldt, Alexander von, 23, 233 - - Hungary, Pearls in, 179, 422, 423, 434, 481 - - Hunt & Roskell, 465 - - Hunyadi, Count Joseph, 434 - - Hussock, Eugene, 282 - - - Iberville, Pierre, 258 - - Ibn Batuta, 86, 94 - - Ibo Archipelago, 153, 155 - - Iciaha, 255, 259 - - Idaho, 492 - - Idar, Germany, 392 - - Ille River, 170 - - Illinois, 270, 274, 276, 509 - - Illinois River, 264 - - Ilz River, Bavaria, 172 - - Imam of Muscat, 457, 464 - - Imitation pearls, 29, 61, 279, 286, 361, 376, 382, 403, 445, 490, 497 - - India, 3, 18, 128–133, 293, 309, 343–347, 354, 385 - - Indiana, 276 - - Indications of pearls, 71, 74, 165 - - Ingram, David, 256 - - Inspection of reefs, 108, 130, 155, 174 - - International Committee of Weights and Measures, 326 - - Inventories of jewels, 425–431, 469, 470, 472 - - Investments in pearls, 456 - - Iowa, 276, 291 - - Ireland, 17, 162, 165 - - Irregular pearls, Value of, 342 - - Isabella, Clara Eugenia, 436 - - Isabella, Queen, 453 - - Isar River, Bavaria, 172 - - Isidorus of Charace, 85 - - Isla River, 163, 164 - - - Jackson, A. V. Williams, 3, 5 - - Jackson, Lowis d’A., 323, 347 - - Jade, 412 - - Jahn, J. G., 173 - - Jameson, H. L., 43, 44, 67 - - Japan, 70, 147, 292, 296, 302, 309 - - Japanese divers, 137, 207, 208 - - Jeffries, David, 331, 338 - - Jesuits, 242, 244, 251, 258 - - Jiddah, Arabia, 140, 142 - - Jolo, Philippine Islands, 218 - - Jones, Charles C., 485, 493, 495 - - Jones, F. Alfred, 431 - - Jones, Joseph, 493, 497 - - Jones, William S., 493 - - Jordanus, Friar, 100 - - Joseph, Archduke, 434 - - Josephine, Empress, 170 - - Jouchanan ibn Massouiah, 95 - - Juan, Griego, Venezuela, 234 - - Julia, daughter of Titus, 407 - - Juppel River, Prussia, 176 - - Justinian the Great, 450 - - - Kaempfer, Engelbert, 147, 296 - - Kalidasa, 4 - - Karachi, India, 133 - - Károly, Countess Alois, 434 - - Kawall, H., 182 - - Kelaart, E. F., 43, 127 - - Kelly, James W. S., 466 - - Kentucky, 262 - - Khayat, Azeez, 406 - - Khusrau crown, 411, 414 - - Kimmerly, 297 - - King of the Mound-Builders, 504 - - Knolles, Richard, 455 - - Kohl, Johann Georg, 184, 463 - - Koran, 7 - - Kosseir, Arabia, 142 - - Kremlin, Moscow, 417, 424 - - Krishna, 4, 306 - - Küchenmeister, F., 43 - - Kunstgewerbe Museum, Berlin, 421, 422 - - Kunz, George F., 328, 527, 528 - - - Labrador, 281 - - La Bruyère, Jean de, 169 - - La Crosse, Wisconsin, 295 - - Laminæ of pearls, 53, 54 - - Lamnitz River, Bavaria, 171 - - Lampsilis, 73 - alatus, 73 - - La Paz, Mexico, 245, 248, 251 - - La Pellegrina, 461–463 - - La Peregrina, 452, 462 - - Laplanders, 184 - - La Régente, 56, 461, 471 - - La Reine des Perles, 461, 469 - - La Salle, Robert, 505 - - Lea, Isaac, 290 - - Lead poisoning, 394 - - Learning, E. B., 438 - - Lease of pearl beds, 125–127, 135, 246, 247 - - Leavenworth, Indiana, 276 - - Le Bec, Henry, 94, 104 - - Lefevre and Curtis, 295 - - Lehigh River, Penn., 259 - - Leiner, Otto, 512 - - Levin and Melville, Earl of, 453 - - Lewis-Hill, Mrs., 480 - - License to fishermen, 204, 217, 233, 240, 282 - - Lima, Cathedral of, 432 - - Lingah shell, 68, 98, 99, 141 - - Linnæus, 41, 181, 286, 288 - - Linnean Society of London, 286 - - Linschoten, J. H. van, 86, 101 - - Lister and Mandel, Norway, 180 - - Lister, Martin, 170 - - Litchfield County, Conn., 266 - - Little Miami River, Ohio, 261, 262 - - Livonia, Russia, 182 - - Lobkowitz, Count Moritz, 433 - - Loch Dochert, Scotland, 163 - - Lollia Paulina, 406 - - London, 358, 477 - - London Society of Arts, 288 - - Longevity of pearls, 79, 473, 478 - - Loreto, Mexico, 245, 251 - - Lorraine, Dukes of, 428, 429 - - Lorraine, Germany, 169, 170 - - Louvre Museum, Paris, 5, 11, 59, 398, 403–405, 408, 430, 437, 454, 465 - - Love for pearls, 7, 9, 184, 304, 347, 463, 510 - - Lovell, Robert, 312 - - Lower California, 241, 247 - - Lower California Pearl Fishing Company, 247 - - Lüneburg, Germany, 176 - - Luster of pearls, 51, 52, 78, 293 - - Lyell, Sir Charles, 511 - - - Maabar, King of, 412 - - Macassar, 70, 221 - - McEvers mound, 509 - - Macgowan, D. T., 288 - - MacGregor, David, 165 - - McGregor, Iowa, 272, 276 - - Madras, 129–130, 354, 357 - - Mahavansa, 4 - - Maine, 265 - - Malabar fisheries, 132 - - Malay Archipelago, 30, 67, 70, 201, 212–221, 296 - - Malcolm, Sir John, 89 - - Manama, Persian Gulf, 90 - - Manar, Gulf of, 65, 67, 99–131 - - Manchuria, 146, 147 - - Manila, 70, 221 - - Mani-Málá, 310 - - Manlius, 9 - - Mannheim Natural History Society, 177 - - Manta, Ecuador, 282 - - Maple-leaf shell, 73 - - Marbach, Austria, 179 - - Marbodus, Bishop of Rennes, 160 - - Margaret, 305 - - Margaret, Pearl of Bohemia, 305 - - Margaret Tudor, Queen, 308 - - Margaret, wife of James III, 22 - - Margarita, wife of Philip III, 432, 452 - - Margarita Island, Venezuela, 229, 233, 457 - - Margaritarii, 320 - - Margaritiferæ, 67, 351 - - Margaritifera, 296 - carcharium, 70, 200 - margaritifera, 68, 155, 164, 184, 190, 200, 214, 221, 425 - cumingi, 44, 69 - erythræensis, 69, 140 - mazatlanica, 69, 248 - persica, 69 - martensi, 70, 148, 292 - maxima, 70, 133, 200, 214, 221 - panasisæ, 148 - radiata, 70, 234 - vinesi, 248 - vulgaris, 44, 67, 68, 98, 134, 155 - - Margherita, Queen of Italy, 438, 442 - - Marguerite of Flanders, 426 - - Marguerite of France, 381 - - Maria Loretto, Prague, 423 - - Maria Louise, Empress of France, 461 - - Maria de’ Medici, 24, 308 - - Maria Theresa, 24 (plate), 179, 395, 473 - - Marichchikadde, Ceylon, 109 - - Marketing pearls, 349–351, 356–362 - - Marlborough, Duchess of, 465 - - Marquesas Islands, 189 - - Marriott mound, 498 - - Martial, 10 - - Martin, Daniel S., 492 - - Martyr, Peter, 38 - - Mary Stuart, 24, 453 - - Maryland, 267, 489 - - Massachusetts, 265 - - Massey-Mainwaring collection, 480 - - Massoudi, 86 - - Massowah, Egypt, 142 - - Matched pearls, 349 - - Matheson, Lady, 478 - - Maturity of Unios, 74 - - Maurus, Rabanus, 304 - - Medici, Lorenzo de, 313 - - Medicinal use of pearls, 18, 133, 308–314, 351, 360 - - Mediterranean Sea, 67, 185, 293 - - Megasthenes, 11, 85 - - Melbourne, Australia, Chamber of Commerce, 327 - - Meleagrina margaritifera, 204, 205 - - Melville Island, 190 - - Meredith, Owen, 306 - - Mergui Archipelago, 70, 133–139, 221 - - Metric carat, 325–327 - - Metropolitan Museum of Art, 11, 405 - - Metz, Charles L., 498 - - Mexico, 23, 29, 30, 60, 69, 241–252, 433, 476 - - Miami Valley, 489 - - Middendorf, Alexander von, 184 - - Mikimoto, Kokichi, 292, 293 - - Milan, Cathedral of, 17 - - Miller, Hugh, 167 - - Mills, William C., 491, 496, 500, 506 - - Milman, Hugh, 206, 211 - - Milton, John, 87, 189, 307 - - Mingti, Emperor of China, 145 - - Missals, Decoration of, 16, 17 - - Mississippi clams, 72–74 - - Mississippi River, 258, 264, 271, 272, 273, 359 - - Mississippi Valley, 30, 252, 262 - - Missouri Historical Society, 509 - - Mitsukuri, K., 292 - - Möbius, Karl, 43, 176, 178 - - Mogeaud, Gaston, 398 - - Mogul, Great, 457 - - Moldau River, Austria, 178, 179 - - Mongareva, 192 - - Monster pearls, 353 - - Montana, 512 - - Monte de Piedad, 476 - - Monterey, Cal., 280 - - Montpensier, Comte de, 425 - - Montpensier, Duchesse de, 437 - - Montrose, Duchess of, 478 - - Moore, Clarence B., 485, 492 - - Moore, Thomas, 37, 241 - - Moore, W. H., Pearl of, 482 - - Moorehead, Warren K., 485, 490, 499–507 - - Moosehead Lake, Maine, 265 - - Morales, Gaspar de, 236 - - Moravians, 259 - - More, Sir Thomas, 22 - - Mörenhout, 192 - - Morgan, J. de, 403, 405 - - Morgan, J. Pierpont, 17 - - Morgan-Tiffany Collection, 266, 467 - - Moro Province, 215 - - Moscow, 461, 463 - - Moscow Pearl, 1840, 463 - - Mother-of-pearl, 6, 53, 69, 70, 80, 198, 201, 220, 238, 245 - - Moulins, Cathedral of, 435 - - Mound pearls, 485–511 - - Moundville, Ala., 493 - - Mulege, Mexico, 243, 245, 251 - - Müller, Sophus, 512 - - Munshi, Kadir, 51 - - Murad I, 421 - - Muscat, Arabia, 156 - - Muscatine, Iowa, 271, 276 - - Musée de l’Hôtel de Cluny, 16, 415 - - Mya margaritifera, 287 - - Mystic River, Conn., 266 - - Mystical properties, 301–308 - - Mytilidæ, 75 - - Mytilus crasitesta, 148 - edulis, 43, 44, 160, 168 - smaragdinus, 131 - - - Nacre, 51, 53, 54, 66, 70, 288, 289 - - Nadenäs, Norway, 180 - - Naldi, Pio, 331, 338, 342, 343 - - Nao-ratna, 412 - - Naples Museum, 409 - - Napoleon I, 469 - - Napoleon III, 461, 470 - - Narahari, 78, 308 - - Narvaez, Pánfilo, de, 256 - - Nassau, Bahamas, 279 - - Nautilus, 59, 351 - - Nautilus pompilius, 78, 214, 354 - - Nawanagar, India, 132 - - Nearchus, 85 - - Necklace, Accumulating a, 442 - - Necklaces, Method of valuing, 331–333 - - Necklace, pearl, 273, 362, 365, 386–388, 404, 439, 443, 471, 473, 478, - 480 - - Neisse River, Russia, 176 - - Nero, 9 - - Nesbit, Alexander, 17 - - New Brunswick, Canada, 281 - - New Cadiz, Venezuela, 229 - - New Caledonia, 189, 193, 194 - - New Guinea, 67 - - New Jersey, 259, 261, 290 - - Newport, Arkansas, 276 - - New York City, 260, 262 - - New York State, 266 - - Niggerhead shell, 72 - - Nigger hunting, 201 - - Nineveh Obelisk, 6 - - Nino, Pedro Alonso, 228 - - Nishikawa, T., 293, 309, 414 - - Nith River, Scotland, 164 - - Nitsche, Hinrich, 173, 174 175 - - Nonesuch Pond, Mass., 265 - - Nordica, Mme., 468, 476 (plate) - - Nordica pearl, 468 - - North Carolina, 298 - - Norway, 180 - - Nose rings, 443 - - Notch Brook, N. J., 259, 260 - - Notice of fishery, 108, 110, 111, 130 - - Nova Scotia, Canada, 281 - - Nuclei of pearls, 41, 52, 55, 58, 60, 288, 289, 380 - - Nuggets, 353 - - Nuremberg, 320, 348 - - Nuttal, Mme. Zélie, 433 - - - Oberstein, Germany, 393 - - Ocklocknee River, Fla., 268 - - Ocmulgee River, Ga., 268 - - Oconee River, Ga., 268, 495 - - Oder River, Prussia, 175 - - Odet River, France, 170 - - Oelsnitz River, Bavaria, 171 - - Ogeechee River, Ga., 495 - - Ohio, 261, 489 - - Ohio Archæological and Historical Society, 490, 506–508 - - Ohio River, 264 - - Okeechobee Lake, Fla., 494 - - Olonetz, Russia, 182, 183 - - Oman Coast, Arabia, 142 - - Omura, Gulf of, 147 - - Oostanaula River, Ga., 267 - - Opening pearl mollusks, 122, 139, 198, 209, 250, 255, 271, 273 - - Oppert, Jules, 85 - - Order of Christ, 439 - - Order of Crown of India, 439 - - Oregonia, Ohio, 497 - - Oriental collections of pearls, 355–357 - - Oriental pearls, 351, 359 - - Orient or luster, cause of, 53, 54 - - Origen 159 - - Origin of pearls, 35–48 - - Ormus, Island of, 86, 87, 457 - - Ortega, Iturbide, 242 - - Osio, Manuel, 242 - - Ostrea, 53, 66, 351, 467 - edulis, 77 - virginica, 77, 488 - - Ottoman crown jewels, 421 - - Ounce-pearls, 360 - - Ourejenaya Palata, Moscow, 17 - - Oviedo y Valdes, 229, 237, 451, 455 - - Oyster, edible, 77 - - Oyster pearls, 351 - - - Palermo, 475 - - Palgrave, W. G., 90 - - Panama, 23, 56, 60, 69, 235–241, 451, 452 - - Pancake shell, 73 - - Panciroli, 450 - - Papeiti, 189, 198 - - Papers of pearls, 358, 360, 361, 386 - - Paphos pin, 405 - - Paragon pearls, 56, 352 - - Parasitic formation of pearls, 42–46, 295 - - Parasitic stage of Unios, 73, 295 - - Paris, 358, 477 - - Paris, Académie des Sciences, 291 - - Passau, Bavaria, 172, 179 - - Peabody Museum of Archæology, 486, 490 - - Peacock Throne, 458 - - Pearl blisters, 389, 390 - - Pearl-caps, 184, 185 - - Pearl carpet of Baroda, 460 - - Pearl cloth, 445 - - Pearl coast, 231 - - Pearl collar, 388 - - Pearl-culture, 177, 285–296 - - Pearl, derivation of word, 19, 20 - - Pearl drills, 380, 383, 385, 394 - - Pearl-dust, 380 - - Pearl forms, 295 - - Pearl-grading, 343–347 - - Pearl Islands, Panama, 239 - - Pearl mesh, 445 - - Pearl monstrance, 424 - - Pearl of Great Price, 7 - - Pearl River, N. Y., 266 - - “Pearl,” the poem, 20, 51 - - Pearls, Annual product of, 79, 80 - - Pearls as investments, 350, 355 - - Pearls as tears, 307 - - Pearls as wedding gifts, 306–307 - - Pearls, Bibliography of, 517–538 - - Pearls, Qualities of perfection in, 321, 336, 344, 370–372 - - Pearly nautilus, 78 - - Pear-shaped pearls, 56, 349, 352, 382, 456, 470 - - Pecatonica River, Wisconsin, 262 - - Pecten yezocusis, 148 - - Pedrarias, 236 - - Peelers, 353 - - Peeling pearls, 58, 375–377 - - Pegging pearls, 388 - - Pelly, Sir Lewis, 88 - - Penang, 221 - - Pendants, 404, 442, 474 - - Pennant, Thomas, 163 - - Pennsylvania, 259, 261, 266 - - Penrhyn, 189, 193 - - Perazolli, A., 143 - - Percival, Robert, 94, 104 - - Periplus of the Erythræan, 100 - - Perlbach River, Bavaria, 171 - - Perle dolce, 343 - - Perna, 155 - - Peroz Pearl, 450 - - Persia, 5, 31, 85–99, 404 - - Persian Gulf, 65, 67, 85–99 - - Perthshire, Scotland, 165, 166 - - Peru, 238 - - Peruvian aristocracy, 433 - - Petal pearls, 352, 360 - - Petrie, George, 425 - - Petrie, William F., 403 - - Phenicians, 319 - - Philip II of Spain, 431, 451, 452 - - Philip IV of Spain, 350 - - Philippine Commission, 217 - - Philippine Islands, 213, 217 - - Philo, 9 - - Philostratos, 285 - - Pickett, Albert H., 492 - - Piebald pearls, 60 - - Piercing pearls, 350. - See Drilling pearls. - - Pigeons, 169 - - Pigopitta, 213 - - Pinna nobilis, 155 - - Pinna pearls, 55, 75, 351 - squamosa, 355 - - Pirate coast, 88, 89, 91 - - Pirningerbach, Austria, 179 - - Pisa, 24 - - Placuna pearls, 296, 310, 311, 351 - - Placuna placenta, 45, 76, 127, 132, 148, 221, 355 - - Plagiola securis, 73 - - Pleurobema œsopus, 73 - - Pliny, 3, 8, 9, 10, 11, 36, 38, 55, 85, 159, 314, 315, 406, 409, 449 - - Poland, 355 - - Polishing pearls, 377 - - Polo, Marco, 19, 100, 116, 310, 357, 411, 414 - - Pomaré, Queen, 192, 198 - - Pompeiian pearls, 409 - - Pompey, 9 - - Pooto, China, 289 - - Port Darwin, Australia, 205 - - Port Kennedy, Australia, 205 - - Porter group of mounds, 490, 498 - - Porter, Sir Robert Ker, 459 - - Portuguese East Africa, 156 - - Portuguese Order of Christ, 439 - - Pottier, M., 407 - - Powder pearls, 344, 345 - - Powhatan, 486, 487 - - Prague, 416, 423, 434, 455 - - Prague, Association of Jewelers and Goldsmiths of, 327 - - Prairie du Chien, Wis., 262, 272, 275, 276 - - Prince Edward Island, Canada, 281 - - Procopius, 11, 450 - - Prussian regalia, 420 - - Ptolemy, 85 - - Putnam, F. W., 485, 490, 498 - - Puton, Ernest, 169 - - - Quackenbush, Jacob, 260 - - Quadrula ebena, 72 - heros, 74 - plicata, 72 - undulata, 72 - wardi, 73 - - Quahog, 77 - - Quebec, Canada, 281 - - Queen Mary Pearl, 275 - - Queen Pearl, 260, 465 - - Queensland, Australia, 199, 206 - - Queiss River, Prussia, 176 - - Quelpaerd Island, 149 - - - Ramayana, 4 - - Randell & Bridge, 417 - - Ratnagiri, India, 132 - - Rau, Charles, 494 - - Rau, Sebaldus, 95 - - Rawlinson, Sir Henry, 6 - - Read, Charles Hercules, 405, 510 - - Réaumur, 40 - - Reccesvinthus, Crown of, 16, 415–416 - - Redding, Sir Robert, 162 - - Red Sea, 31, 67, 69, 139–144, 285 - - Reed River, Florida, 256, 257 - - Regalia, 418–420, 443, 460, 473 - - Regen River, Bavaria, 172 - - Regulation of fishery, 193, 197, 204, 211, 218, 277 - - Renaudot, 18 - - Reues, Francis, 169 - - Rhode Island, 259 - - Rhodesia Museum, 513 - - Ribeiro, Joano, 94 - - Richard II, 22 - - Rigveda, 4 - - Ring-a-round pearls, 56, 353 - - Rings with pearls, 438, 442 - - Robinson, Edward, 12, 405 - - Rock Island, Ill., 271 - - Rock River, 262, 274 - - Rogkerus. See Rugerus. - - Rome, Georgia, 267 - - Rome, Pearls in ancient, 8, 9, 12, 320, 406–410 - - Rondelet, Gulielm, 40 - - Rosales, Manuel Laudecta, 233 - - Rosaries, 413 - - Rosenberg Palace, Copenhagen, 59, 476 - - Rosengarten Museum, Constance, 512 - - Rosnel, Pierre de, 306, 338 - - Rotschildt, Don A. de, 437 - - Round pearls, 352, 470 - - Royal fifth, 243, 244 - - Rubies, 79, 330, 371, 392, 412, 417, 439 - - Rückert, Friedrich, 35 - - Rudolph II, 24, 455, 473 - - Rugerus, 381, 423 - - Rundell, Bridge & Rundell, 233 - - Rupprecht, Prince, 302 - - Russia, 463 - - Russian Jewesses, 184 - - Russian Treasury at Moscow, 414 - - Rymsdyck, J. & A. van, 342, 371 - - - Saddle decorations, 360, 444 - - Sadi, Shaikh, 37 - - Safe-guarding pearls, 357, 399, 400 - - Sahayun, Bernadino de, 433 - - St. Augustine, 304 - - St. Barbara, 435 - - St. Denis, Paris, 425, 429, 430 - - St. Domingo, Lima, 432 - - St. Edward’s crown, 418 - - St. Francis River, Ark., 263, 264 - - St. Francisville, Ill., 276 - - St. Jerome, 10 - - St. Ludmilla, 417 - - St. Margaret Ætheling, 305 - - St. Margaret of Antioch, 305 - - St. Petersburg, 462 - - St. Stephen’s crown, 416 - - Sainte-Chapelle, Paris, 425, 427 - - Sales of pearls, 477–481 - - Salisbury, England, 490 - - Sand shells, 73 - - Sandius, Christopher, 39 - - San José Island, Mexico, 248 - - San José Island, Panama, 239 - - San Miguel, Panama, 239 - - San Vitale, Ravenna, 15 - - Sanskrit literature, 4, 36 - - Santa Barbara, Cal., 280, 281 - - Santo Domingo, Mexico, 434 - - Santos, João dos, 153 - - Sapphire, 371, 412, 439 - - Satsuma, Japan, 147 - - Saumaise, Claude de, 9 - - Savannah River, 253, 452, 493, 495 - - Saville, H. M., 282 - - Saxony, Fisheries of, 173–175 - - Scaphander, 137, 171, 196, 203, 234, 240, 247, 282 - - Scarf-pins, 443 - - Schärding, Austria, 179 - - Scharff, R. F., 425 - - Schleswig-Holstein, 178 - - Schmerler family, 174, 177, 178 - - Schulz, Aurel, 154 - - Schuylkill River, Penn., 266, 267 - - Schwarzbach River, Russia, 183 - - Schwarzenberg, Count, 178, 434 - - Schwarzenberg family, 178 - - Schwesnitz River, Bavaria, 171 - - Scioto River, Ohio, 491, 506 - - Scioto Valley, Ohio, 489 - - Scotch pearls, 17, 160–164, 167, 319, 343, 427, 464 - - Scotland, 17, 160–167 - - Scott, Sir Walter, 35, 305, 419 - - Scriptural references, 6, 7, 449 - - Season, Fishery, 89, 109, 114, 141, 206, 240, 246, 250, 271, 277 - - Seed-pearls, 18, 56, 124, 221, 273, 309, 337, 342, 352, 391 - - Seed-pearl jewelry, 390–392 - - Selangs, 134, 139 - - Selling pearls, 276, 356, 361 - - Seneca, 10 - - Sermonata, Duchess of, 439 - - Servia, 304 - - Servilia pearl, 10, 449 - - Setting pearls, 384, 388, 389, 393 - - Seugne River, France, 171 - - Seurat, L. G., 44 - - Seven Sisters of Sleep, 310 - - Shabl Abdullah, 306 - - Shah Jehan, 458 - - Shah’s pearls in 1820, 459 - - Shah’s tippet, 459 - - Shakspere, 35, 122, 314, 319 - - Shark-charmers, 115, 116 - - Sharks, 117, 138, 144, 208, 249 - - Shark’s Bay, Australia, 57, 60, 70, 200, 211, 468 - - Shelley, P. B., 212, 278 - - Shell-heaps, 492 - - Shells, Commercial varieties, 69, 70, 72, 73, 124, 141, 143, 221 - - Shells, Product of, 80, 99 - - Shells, Sweet-water, 264 - - Shepaug River, Conn., 266 - - Shrine of St. Patrick’s Gospels, 424 - - Shuangtze, 302 - - Shu King, 5 - - Siam, Gulf of, 149 - - Siamese decoration, 439 - - Sibbald, Robert, 161 - - Siberia, Fisheries of, 147 - - Sieves (peddi) for pearls, 344 - - Silesia, Germany, 175 - - Silk threads for pearls, 387 - - Silva-Tierra, Father, 242 - - Simmonds, Vane, 291 - - Simpson, James J., 155 - - Sinaloa, Mexico, 244, 248 - - Singapore, 135, 149, 220 - - Size of pearls, 328, 344 - - Slaney River, Ireland, 162 - - Slugs, 272, 275, 352, 360 - - Smith, Captain John, 486 - - Smith, Charles Roach, 414 - - Smith, Harlan I., 492 - - Smith, Sir J. E., 287 - - Smithsonian Institution, 490 - - Smithville, Tenn., 263, 276 - - Snail shell, 139, 148 - - Snyder, J. F., 509 - - Sofala, Africa, 106, 153 - - Sokotra Islands, 142 - - Solomon, 301 - - Solubility of pearls, 55 - - Sonnapore mussels, 132 - - Sonora, Mexico, 241, 244, 245, 248, 251 - - Sorting pearls, 385 - - Soto, Hernando de, 253, 255, 452 - - Sources of pearls, 65–81 - - Sourindro Mohun Tagore, 309 - - South America, 65, 282 - - South Carolina, 492 - - Southern Cross, 57, 466, 467 - - South Kensington Museum, 464 - - South Sea Islands, 29, 30, 189–198 - - Spain, 327, 355 - - Spanish crown jewels, 452 - - Spanish jewelry, 432 - - Specific gravity of pearls, 52 - - Spenser, Edmund, 161 - - Spey River, Scotland, 164 - - Spherical pearls, 55, 56 - - Springs, Fresh-water, 96 - - Squier, E. George, 485, 489, 490 - - Stang-Alla River, France, 170 - - Statistics of fisheries, 80, 88, 91, 98, 100, 103, 105, 126, 136, 143, - 246 - - Stavanger, Norway, 180 - - Stearns, Frederick E., 279 - - Steever, E. Z., 468 - - Steinbach River, Germany, 177 - - Steir River, France, 170 - - Stilicho pearls, 12 - - Stock-book for pearls, 324 - - Stoddard, C. W., 194 - - Strachey, William, 487, 488 - - Strawberry pearls, 56, 353 - - Streeter, E. W., 214, 349, 390, 465 - - Stringing pearls, 386–388 - - Strombus gigas, 77, 278, 351 - - Strozzi, Philip, 436 - - Structure of pearls, 51–55 - - Stupefying mollusks, 292 - - Suakin, Egypt, 140 - - Sudbury River, Mass., 265 - - Suetonius, 10, 159 - - Sugar River, Wisconsin, 262 - - Sultan of Sulu, 215, 217, 220, 350, 468 - - Sulu Archipelago, 70, 213, 214–220, 350, 468 - - Sumptuary laws, 10, 25–28 - - Susa necklace, 386, 404, 405 - - Sweden, 180, 286, 290 - - Sweetness of pearls, 305 - - Sydney, Australia, 201 - - Sydney shell, 70 - - Symphynota complanata, 73 - - Syracusan coins, 409 - - Syria, Pearls in ancient, 386, 406 - - Syrian pearl merchants, 357 - - - Tabari, 411, 415 - - Tablegram Lake, Ceylon, 127 - - Tacitus, 159 - - Tahiti, 189, 190, 196, 290 - - Talmud, 7 - - Talomeco, Temple of, 254, 452 - - Taoists, 302 - - Tararequi pearls, 236, 451 - - Tariff on pearls, 362–369 - - Tasso, Torquato, 153 - - Taunton, Henry, 58, 202, 466 - - Tavernier, J. B., 56, 60, 87, 97, 147, 172, 331, 412, 456 - - Tavernier pearls, 456–458 - - Taylor mound, 497 - - Tay River, Scotland, 163, 164 - - Tears, Pearls as, 35, 307–308 - - Teheran, Persia, 458, 459 - - Teifashi, Ahmad ibn, 335 - - Teith River, Scotland, 164 - - Teixeira, Pedro, 40, 103, 242 - - Temple of Talomeco, 254, 452 - - Tennessee, 262, 263, 276, 494 - - Tennessee River, 263, 494 - - Tennyson, Alfred, 305 - - Terron, Juan, 255 - - Texas, 261, 262 - - Theft of pearls, 118, 123, 210, 232 - - Theodora, Mosaic of, 15 - - Theophrastus, 8, 405 - - Thiers necklace, 398, 465 - - Three-ridge shells, 72 - - Thursday Island, 205, 207 - - Thurston, Edgar, 131 - - Tiana, Captain, 216 - - Tiaras, 443 - - Tiffany & Co., 394 - - Tiffany, Charles L., 260, 276, 350 - - Tiffany Queen Pearl, 260, 465 - - Tomaco, 235 - - Tonti, 505 - - Top-shaped pearls, 352 - - Torres Straits, 199, 201, 210, 211 - - Transylvania, 432 - - Treves, Cathedral of, 422 - - Tridacna gigas, 53, 76, 144, 296 - - Triptych, 433 - - Tritigonia verrucosa, 73 - - Troiza Monastery, Moscow, 424 - - Tuamotu Islands, 29, 189, 190, 196, 198, 294 - - Turbinella rapa, 78 - - Turbo marmoratus, 139 - - Turner group of mounds, 490, 499 - - Turtleback pearls, 56, 353, 360 - - Tuticorin, India, 128, 130 - - Twynam, Sir William, 117 - - Tyszkiewicz statuette, 12 - - - Uelzen, Germany, 176 - - Uffizi, Florence, 12, 407, 436 - - Uhler, P. R., 489 - - Ulloa, Antonio de, 238 - - Ulmann, H., 512 - - Ungava, Canada, 281 - - Unio complanata, 73, 265 - dahuricus, 75, 146 - littoralis, 511 - margaritifera, 513 - mongolicus, 75, 146 - sinuatus, 170 - verreauxi, 513 - virginianus, 494 - - Unionidæ, 72, 351 - - Unios, 59, 72–74, 259, 261, 268, 272, 290, 291, 294 - - United States, 252–278, 291 - - United States National Museum, 290, 494 - - University of Moscow, 59 - - Unripe pearls, 61 - - Urim and Thummim, 412 - - Uzaramo, Africa, 154 - - - Vaca, Cabeza de, 256 - - Values of pearls, 273, 274, 275, 279, 281, 282, 329–349, 350, 361, 470, - 474 - method of computing, 331–335, 346–348 - - Van Buren pearls, 464 - - Van Dort, K., 149 - - Vatican, 407 - - Vaughan, Rice, 338 - - Vedas, 3, 4, 301 - - Veerapandianpatanam, 130 - - Vega, Garcilasso de la, 253, 254, 452 - - Venezuela, 23, 31, 38, 70, 225–235, 354, 457 - - Venice, 24, 25–27, 320, 348 - - Venus, 306, 467 - - Venus de Medici, 407 - - Venus de Milo, 408 - - Venus Genetrix, 159, 407 - - Venus mercenaria, 77, 488 - - Venus of the Pantheon, 407, 449 - - Venus, Statues of, 10, 11 - - Venus, Temple of, 9 - - Vermont, 262 - - Vernatti, Sir Philiberto, 94 - - Verrazano, Juan, 256 - - Victor Emanuel II, 468 - - Victoria, Association of Manufacturing Jewelers of the Colony of, 327 - - Victoria crown, 417 - - Victoria, Princess, 438 - - Victoria, Queen, 163, 167, 425 - - Vienna, 395, 472 - - Vilshofen, Finland, 290 - - Vils River, Bavaria, 171 - - Vincennes, Indiana, 276 - - Vinegar, 315 - - Virgin pearls, 308 - - Virginia, 486, 488, 489 - - Vitellius, 10 - - Vladimir crown, 417 - - Vogtland, Saxony, 173 - - Volga River, Russia, 181 - - Vologne River, France, 169, 170 - - Von Middendorf, 184 - - Vosges mountains, 169 - - - Wabash River, 264, 265 - - Waddesden collection, 59 - - Wahibis of Pirate Coast, 89 - - Waistcoat buttons, 443 - - Waizkirchen, 179 - - Waldheim, G. Fischer de, 461 - - Walk, How Unios, 74 - - Walpole, Horace, 454 - - Walters, Henry, 394 - - Washington, George, 438 - - Washington, State of, 262 - - Water-telescopes, 141, 194, 268, 278 - - Waynesville, Ohio, 261 - - Webster, John, 307 - - Wedding gifts of pearls, 476 - - Weighing pearls, 321–329, 346 - - Weights of pearls, 56, 251, 327, 330, 481, 482 - - Welker, Landreth, 177 - - Wellsted, J. R., 88, 93, 142 - - Wenkheim, Countess, 434 - - West Indies, 278 - - Westminster Abbey, 454 - - White Cart River, Scotland, 161 - - White Main River, Germany, 176 - - White River, Arkansas, 263, 264 - - Whitfield, R. P., 512 - - Whittier, J. G., 252 - - Wijayo, King, 4 - - Willoughby, Charles C., 486, 488 - - Window-glass shell, 76. - See Placuna. - - Wing pearls, 352, 359 - - Wire threads for pearls, 388 - - Wisconsin, 262, 276 - - Wohlberedt, O., 173 - - Women as fishermen, 149, 155, 189, 264 - - Wordsworth, Wm., 305 - - World’s Columbian Exposition, 490, 500, 501 - - Worms, Parasitical, 43–45 - - Wottawa River, Austria, 178, 179 - - Wright, Marie Robinson, 511 - - Wyman, Jeffries, 493 - - Wynne, Sir Richard, 161 - - - Xavier, St. Francis, 131 - - X-ray examination, 71 - - - Yaqui Indians, Mexico, 242, 243, 246 - - Yellow pearls, 97, 98, 212, 351, 354, 377, 468 - - Youssoupoff, Princess, 461, 462 - - Ythan River, Scotland, 164 - - Yucatan, 511 - - Yu Shun Yang, 290 - - - Zanzibar, 156 - - Zonaras, 450 - - Zozima pearl, 461, 462 - - Zwemer, S. M., 35 - ------ - -Footnote 1: - - See pp. 301, 302. - -Footnote 2: - - See Jacobi, “Das Ramayana,” Bonn, 1893. - -Footnote 3: - - Geiger, “Dipavansa und Mahavansa, die beiden Chroniken der Insel - Ceylon,” Erlangen, 1901. - -Footnote 4: - - Legge, “The Shu King,” Oxford, 1879, pp. 67, 69. - -Footnote 5: - - See p. 404. - -Footnote 6: - - Rawlinson, “Cuneiform Inscriptions of Babylonia and Assyria,” London, - 1850, p. 38. - -Footnote 7: - - Gen. R. xl. 6. This story also exists somewhat altered in Arabic - literature; see Weill’s “Biblical Legends of the Mussulmans,” New - York, 1846. - -Footnote 8: - - Sale, “Preliminary Discourse to the Quran,” London, 1882, Vol. I, pp. - 153–159. - -Footnote 9: - - _Lib._ XXIII, c. 6. - -Footnote 10: - - “Plinianæ Exercitationes in Solinum,” 1629, pp. 822–4. - -Footnote 11: - - “Historia naturalis,” _Lib._ IX, c. 59. - -Footnote 12: - - _Ibid._, _Lib._ XXXVII, c. 2. - -Footnote 13: - - _Ibid._, _Lib._ IX, c. 53. - -Footnote 14: - - _Ibid._, _Lib._ XXXIII, c. 3. Also Böttiger, “Sabina oder - Morgenscenen,” Leipzig, 1803, Vol. I, p. 158. - -Footnote 15: - - Martial, “Epigrammata,” VIII, 81. - -Footnote 16: - - Seneca, “De beneficiis,” _Lib._ VII, c. 9. - -Footnote 17: - - Pliny, “Historia naturalis,” _Lib._ IX, c. 35. - -Footnote 18: - - Equivalent to 1,875,000 ounces of silver, worth about $1,300,000 at - the present time, but of far greater value in Roman days. - -Footnote 19: - - “Divus Julius Cæsar,” c. 50. - -Footnote 20: - - “Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et Romaines,” Paris, 1904, Vol. - III, pp. 1595–6. - -Footnote 21: - - See p. 449. - -Footnote 22: - - Froehner, “La Collection Tyszkiewicz,” Munich, 1892. - -Footnote 23: - - See p. 415. - -Footnote 24: - - Renaudot, “Ancient Accounts of India and China by Two Mohammedan - Travelers,” London, 1733, p. 98. - -Footnote 25: - - “The Book of Ser Marco Polo,” London, 1871, Vol. II, p. 275. - -Footnote 26: - - Analogous to the uniform European word for this gem, is the extension - of the Sanskrit form, _mukta_, from Persia to the Sulu Islands. In - Tamil, the word for pearl is _mootthoo_; in Hindustani, it is - _mootie_; in Cingalese, _mootoo_; and in Malay, _mutya_ or _mootara_. - (Ainslie, “Materia Indica,” London, 1826, Vol. I, pp. 292–297.) - -Footnote 27: - - Gollancz, “Pearl, an English Poem of the Fourteenth Century,” London, - 1891. - -Footnote 28: - - Sachs, “Kaiserchronik,” Vol. IV, p. 261. - -Footnote 29: - - Staudenraus, “Chronik der Stadt Landshut,” 1832, Vol. I, p. 172. - -Footnote 30: - - Jones, “History and Mystery of Precious Stones,” London, 1880, p. 135. - -Footnote 31: - - Humboldt, “Personal Narrative of Travels to the New Continent,” - London, 1822, Vol. II, p. 273. - -Footnote 32: - - See p. 473. - -Footnote 33: - - Yriarte, “Autour des Borgia,” Paris, 1891, pp. 136, 137. - -Footnote 34: - - See Yriarte, “Venice,” Paris, 1878, p. 236. - -Footnote 35: - - _Ibid._, pp. 252, 253. - -Footnote 36: - - Guidius, “De Mineralibus,” Frankfort, 1627, p. 74. - -Footnote 37: - - _Ibid._, p. 73. - -Footnote 38: - - _Ibid._, pp. 75–77. - -Footnote 39: - - Croker, “Lord Hervey’s Memoirs,” London, 1848, Vol. I, pp. 88, 89. - -Footnote 40: - - “The Naturall Historie of C. Plinius Secundus,” London, 1601, Book IX, - ch. 35. - -Footnote 41: - - “Travels of Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela,” Gerrans’s edition, London, - 1783, p. 23. - -Footnote 42: - - “Camden Britannia,” 2d edition, London, 1722, Vol. II, p. 801. - -Footnote 43: - - _Ibid._, Vol. II, p. 1003. - -Footnote 44: - - Richard Eden edition, London, 1577, 10th ch. of 3rd Decade, fol. - 148_a_. - -Footnote 45: - - Hawkins, “Voyage to the South Sea in 1593,” London, 1847, p. 133. - -Footnote 46: - - Benzoni, “Novæ Novi Orbis Historiæ,” Geneva, 1578, pp. 161–163. - -Footnote 47: - - “Philosophical Transactions,” 1674, No. 101, p. 11. - -Footnote 48: - - Goldsmith, “History of the Earth and Animated Nature,” 1774, Vol. VI, - p. 54. - -Footnote 49: - - Rondelet, “Universæ Aquitilium Historiæ Pars Altera,” Lugduni, 1554. - -Footnote 50: - - “Gemmarum et Lapidum Historia,” Hanoviæ, 1609. - -Footnote 51: - - “The Travels of Pedro Teixeira,” Hakluyt Society, p. 180. - -Footnote 52: - - “Memoires de l’Académie des Sciences,” 1717, pp. 177–194. - -Footnote 53: - - Grill, in “Abhandlungen der Königlichen Schwed. Akademie der - Wissenschaften,” Vol. XXXIV, p. 88, 1772. - -Footnote 54: - - “Philosophical Transactions,” 1826, Pt. III, pp. 338–341. - -Footnote 55: - - “Sull’origine delle Perle. II Cimento, revista di Scienze,” Torino, - 1852, Vol. I, pp. 429–439. - -Footnote 56: - - “Memorie della Reale Academia delle Scienze di Torino,” 1855, Vol. XV, - pp. 331–358; 1857, Vol. XVI, pp. 419–442, and 1859, Vol. XVIII, pp. - 201–232. - -Footnote 57: - - Müller’s “Archiv für Anatomie,” 1856, pp. 269–281. - -Footnote 58: - - “Die echten Perlen,” Hamburg, 1858. Dr. Möbius died in Berlin, on - April 26, 1908. He was born at Eilenburg, in Saxony, in 1825. - -Footnote 59: - - “Report on the Natural History of the Pearl Oyster of Ceylon,” - Trincomali, 1859. - -Footnote 60: - - “Journal of the Linnean Society,” Vol. XI, pp. 426–428. - -Footnote 61: - - “Société de Biologie, Séance du 29 décembre, 1903.” - -Footnote 62: - - “Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences,” Vol. 133, pp. 603–605, - Oct. 14, 1901. - -Footnote 63: - - “Proceedings of the Zoölogical Society of London,” Vol. I, pp. - 140–166. - -Footnote 64: - - “Proceedings of the Zoölogical Society of London,” 1902, pp. 148–150. - -Footnote 65: - - “Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences,” Paris, 1903, Vol. - CXXXVII, pp. 611–613. - -Footnote 66: - - Seurat, “Observation sur l’évolution de l’Huitre perlière des Tuamotu - et des Gambier,” 1904. - -Footnote 67: - - “Pearl Oyster Fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar,” London, 1903, Vol. I, - p. 11. - -Footnote 68: - - Hornell, “Report on the _Placuna placenta_ Pearl Fishery of Lake - Tampalakamam,” Colombo, 1906. - -Footnote 69: - - “Pearl Oyster Fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar,” London, 1903, Vol. I, - p. 10. - -Footnote 70: - - Harley, “Proceedings of the Royal Society,” Vol. XLIII, p. 461. - -Footnote 71: - - “Die Perlenmuscheln,” Leipzig, 1859, pp. 294, 295. - -Footnote 72: - - Harley, “Proceedings of the Royal Society of London,” Vol. XLV, p. - 612. - -Footnote 73: - - “Historia Naturalis,” _Lib._ IX, c. 35. This is also referred to by - Macrobius in Saturnaliorum conviviorum _Lib._ II, c. 13. - -Footnote 74: - - Now in the French crown brooch in the possession of the Princess - Youssoupoff of Russia. - -Footnote 75: - - See p. 465. - -Footnote 76: - - Taunton, “Australind,” London, 1903, p. 224. - -Footnote 77: - - “Tavernier’s Travels,” London, 1889, Vol. II, p. 115. See p. 97. - -Footnote 78: - - See “Report of the Royal Society,” Oct. 13, 1688. - -Footnote 79: - - Neither is there any special significance in the popular terms - “clams,” “mussels,” etc., as applied to the pearl-bearing species of - the rivers. The “clams,” or Unios of the Mississippi Valley, resemble - neither the long clams (_Mya_) nor the round clams (_Venus_) of the - Atlantic coast; the mussels of the fresh-water lakes are quite - distinct from the edible ones of brackish waters, and the Pinna oyster - and the giant clam (_Tridacna_) have little resemblance to the - mollusks with which these terminal names are commonly associated. - -Footnote 80: - - Jameson, “On the identity and distribution of the mother-of-pearl - oysters; with a revision of the subgenus _Margaritifera_.” Proceedings - of the Zoölogical Society of London, Vol. L, 1901, pp. 372–394. - -Footnote 81: - - Vassel, “Sur la Pintadine du Golfe de Gabes, Comptes Rendus Assoc. - Franç.,” 1896, pp. 458–466. - -Footnote 82: - - See “Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences,” Paris, 1904, Vol. - CXXXVIII, pp. 301, 302. - -Footnote 83: - - See p. 288. - -Footnote 84: - - Garbe, “Die Indischen Mineralien,” Leipzig, 1882. - -Footnote 85: - - Gray’s Elegy. - -Footnote 86: - - In 1905, the Ceylon pearl yield approximated $2,000,000 in value. - -Footnote 87: - - Including African coast. - -Footnote 88: - - Including Sharks Bay. - -Footnote 89: - - Oppert, “L’Ambre jaune chez les Assyriens.” - -Footnote 90: - - Holland’s edition of 1601, p. 254. - -Footnote 91: - - Reinaud, “Mémoire sur l’Inde,” Paris. 1849 - -Footnote 92: - - “Travels of Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela,” London, 1783. - -Footnote 93: - - Lee, “Ibn Batuta,” 1829, p. 65. - -Footnote 94: - - “The Travels of Lodovico di Barthema, 1503 to 1508,” London, 1863, p. - 95. - -Footnote 95: - - “Discours of Voyages into ye Easte and West Indies,” London, 1598, - folio, ch. 84. - -Footnote 96: - - See p. 457, for Tavernier’s description of this gem. - -Footnote 97: - - Tavernier, “Travels in India,” London, 1889, Vol. II, p. 108. - -Footnote 98: - - Wellsted, “Travels in Arabia,” London, 1838, Vol. I, ch. 17, pp. 264, - 265. - -Footnote 99: - - In report to the Government of Bombay, dated December 15, 1865. - -Footnote 100: - - Schlagintweit, “Nachrichtsblatt der deutschen Gesellschaft,” - Frankfurt-am-Main, 1883, pp. 153–156. - -Footnote 101: - - Malcolm, “Sketches of Persia,” London, 1827, p. 27. - -Footnote 102: - - “Personal Narrative of Journey through Arabia,” London, 1865, p. 100. - -Footnote 103: - - Lord Curzon reports 4500 boats, and some other authorities state 5000, - but this probably includes a number of tenders. - -Footnote 104: - - For this and some other data on the pearling fleet of Bahrein we are - indebted to the kindness of Dr. S. M. Zwemer, who has spent many years - at the Bahrein Islands as a missionary. - -Footnote 105: - - “Reports by the Superintendent of the Fishery and the Inspector of the - Pearl Banks,” Colombo, 1887. - -Footnote 106: - - Wellsted, “Travels in Arabia,” London, 1838, Vol. I, p. 266. - -Footnote 107: - - “Histoire de l’Isle de Ceylon,” Amsterdam, 1701, ch. 22, p. 169. - -Footnote 108: - - “An Account of the Island of Ceylon,” London, 1803, ch. 3, p. 91. - -Footnote 109: - - “Asiatic Researches,” London, 1798, Vol. V, p. 402. - -Footnote 110: - - Chardin, “Voyages en Perse,” Paris, 1811, Vol. III, p. 363. - -Footnote 111: - - Sprat, “History of the Royal Society,” London, 1667, p. 169. - -Footnote 112: - - Philosophical Transactions for 1669, No. 43, p. 863. - -Footnote 113: - - Diemerbroeck, “Anatome Corporis Humani,” Ultrajecti, 1672. - -Footnote 114: - - Sixth American Edition, New York, 1835, Vol. I, p. 239. - -Footnote 115: - - Reinaud, “Fragments Arabes,” Paris, 1845, p. 126. Lee, “Ibn Batuta,” - London, 1829, p. 65. - -Footnote 116: - - A Christian physician who lived in the time of the Khalif Wathek - Billa, about 842 A.D. - -Footnote 117: - - “Specimen Arabicum,” Traiecti ad Rhenum, 1784, p. 64. - -Footnote 118: - - _Ibid._, p. 65. - -Footnote 119: - - Writers describing the early pearl fisheries on the American coast, - and especially at Cubagua on the present coast of Venezuela, also - reported very lengthy stays. In 1526, Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y - Valdés wrote: “The thing that causeth men most to marvel is to - consider how many of them can remain at the bottom for the space of - one whole hour, and some more or less, according to expertness.” - (“Natural Historia de las Indias,” Toledo, 1526.) About 1588, the - Jesuit priest José de Acosta wrote: “I did see them make their - fishing, the which is done with great charge and labor of the poor - slaves, which dive 6, 7, yea 12 fathoms into the sea...; but yet the - labor and toil is greatest in holding their breath, sometimes a - quarter, yea, half an hour together under water.” (Acosta, “Natural - and Moral History of the Indies,” Hakluyt Society, 1880, p. 227.) - -Footnote 120: - - Tavernier, “Travels in India,” Ball edition, Vol. II, pp. 114, 115. - -Footnote 121: - - London, 1812, p. 55. - -Footnote 122: - - See _infra._, p. 125. - -Footnote 123: - - “The Book of Ser Marco Polo,” London, 1871, Vol. II, pp. 267, 268. - -Footnote 124: - - Jordanus, “Mirabilia Descripta,” Hakluyt Society, 1863, p. 28. - -Footnote 125: - - “The Voyage of John Huyghen van Linschoten to the East Indies,” - Hakluyt Society, 1884, Vol. II, pp. 133–135. - -Footnote 126: - - “Hakluyt’s Voyages,” Vol. V, Glasgow, 1904, pp. 395–397. Benjamin - Franklin states that the Mediterranean divers, finding the light below - obscured by the surface waves, used to let a little oil out of their - mouths at intervals, which, rising to the surface, smoothed the - waters. This might be a suggestion to modern marine and fresh-water - pearl fishers. - -Footnote 127: - - “The Travels of Pedro Teixeira,” Hakluyt Society, 1902, pp. 174–181. - -Footnote 128: - - “Asiatic Researches,” London, 1798, pp. 393, _et seq._ - -Footnote 129: - - “The Island of Ceylon,” 1803, ch. 3. - -Footnote 130: - - “Description of Ceylon,” 1807, Vol. II, pp. 36–78. - -Footnote 131: - - In 1881, the number of days was the same—47, the season extending from - March 4 to April 27. In 1891 there were 40 working days, in 1904 there - were 33, in 1903 there were 36, and in 1906 there were 36 days of - actual fishing. - -Footnote 132: - - See Reinaud’s “Fragments Arabes,” Paris, 1845, p. 125. - -Footnote 133: - - “Pearl Oyster Fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar,” 5 vols., London, - 1903–1906. - -Footnote 134: - - Tavernier, “Travels in India,” Vol. II, ch. 21. - -Footnote 135: - - See pp. 110, 111. - -Footnote 136: - - The report of the Chief of Police at the 1905 fishery states: “In the - camp there were 40,000 to 50,000 persons, of whom it may be said that - not less than a tenth were gamblers, vagrants, and rogues, who, - without occupation in their own country, made their way to - Marichchukkadi with the hope of making money to gamble in oysters.” - (“Reports on the Pearl Fisheries for 1905,” Colombo, p. 17.) - -Footnote 137: - - In 1906 there were 473 boats employed; in 1905, 318; in 1857, 1858, - 1859, and 1863, over 400 boats reported for employment. - -Footnote 138: - - Some years ago, notably in the early sixties, each and every boat was - required to have ten divers, thus making a total of 23 persons in each - boat. (See Vane’s “Report on Ceylon Pearl Fisheries,” 1863.) - -Footnote 139: - - _Supra._, p. 100. - -Footnote 140: - - Hornell, “Reports on the Pearl Fisheries of 1904,” Colombo, p. 31. - -Footnote 141: - - “Reports on the Pearl Fishery for 1904,” p. 7. - -Footnote 142: - - “Reports on the Pearl Fishery for 1905,” p. 23. - -Footnote 143: - - _Ibid._, p. 22. - -Footnote 144: - - “The Book of Ser Marco Polo,” London, 1871, Vol. II, p. 267. - -Footnote 145: - - Cordiner, “Description of Ceylon,” Vol. II, p. 52. - -Footnote 146: - - “Reports on the Pearl Fisheries of 1904,” p. 17. - -Footnote 147: - - _Ibid._, p. 17. - -Footnote 148: - - _Ibid._, p. 34. - -Footnote 149: - - “Royal Asiatic Society Proceedings,” 1887–1888, p. 100. - -Footnote 150: - - “Reports on the Pearl Fisheries of 1905,” p. 40. - -Footnote 151: - - _Ibid._, p. 24. - -Footnote 152: - - “Reports on the Pearl Fishery for 1904,” Colombo, p. 6. - -Footnote 153: - - “Colonial Sessional Papers,” 1904, Colombo, p. 653. - -Footnote 154: - - “Colonial Sessional Papers,” 1906, Colombo, p. 330. - -Footnote 155: - - “Reports on the Pearl Fisheries for 1905,” Colombo, p. 25. - -Footnote 156: - - Ordinance No. 8 of 1906. - -Footnote 157: - - “Ceylon Sessional Papers,” 1906, p. 328. - -Footnote 158: - - _Ibid._, pp. 333, 335. - -Footnote 159: - - “Ceylon Sessional Papers,” 1906, p. 650. - -Footnote 160: - - The Government Commission has interdicted the fishing for this year - (1908), as experts have reported the pearl-oysters were not plentiful - enough and were also immature, being only five years old. The next - fishery will be in 1909. - -Footnote 161: - - Kelaart, “Report on the Tablegram Pearl-Oysters,” Trincomali, 1857, 6 - pp. - -Footnote 162: - - Hornell, “Report on the _Placuna placenta_ Pearl Fishery of Lake - Tampalakamam,” Colombo, 1906. - -Footnote 163: - - Jardine, “Report Relating to the Mergui Pearl Fisheries,” Rangoon, - 1894, p. 6. - -Footnote 164: - - Nisbet, “Burma Under British Rule and Before,” Westminster, 1901, Vol. - I, p. 362. - -Footnote 165: - - Nisbet, “Burma Under British Rule and Before,” Vol. I, p. 363. - -Footnote 166: - - See Proverbs xxxi, 1. - -Footnote 167: - - Hesse, “Der Zoologische Garten,” Dec. 1, 1898. - -Footnote 168: - - Wellsted, “Travels in Arabia,” London, 1838, Vol. II, p. 238. - -Footnote 169: - - _Ibid._, Vol. I, pp. 268, 269. - -Footnote 170: - - “Bolletino della Società d’esplorazione commerciale in Africa,” Milan, - June, 1898. - -Footnote 171: - - Von Hessling, “Die Perlenmuscheln,” Leipzig, 1859, p. 6. - -Footnote 172: - - See p. 288 for an account of the methods. - -Footnote 173: - - Statist. “Beschreibung des chines. Reiches,” 1842, Vol. II, p. 11. - -Footnote 174: - - Ranft, “Vollständige Beschreibung des russischen Reiches,” Leipzig, - 1767, p. 415. - -Footnote 175: - - Witsen, “Nord en Oost Tartarye,” 1705. p. 762. - -Footnote 176: - - Tavernier, “Travels in India,” Ball edition, London, 1889, Vol. II, - pp. 113, 114. - -Footnote 177: - - One candareen equals 5.72 grains. - -Footnote 178: - - One koban equals 66 cents. - -Footnote 179: - - $4200. - -Footnote 180: - - Kaempfer, “History of Japan,” 1728, Vol. I, pp. 110, 111. - -Footnote 181: - - _Ibid._, Vol. I, p. 139. - -Footnote 182: - - Joao dos Santos, “Ethopia Oriental,” Lisbon, 1609, Vol. i, c. 27. - -Footnote 183: - - Lisbon Geographical Society Report, January, 1903. - -Footnote 184: - - “Britanniam petiisse spe margaritarum, quarum amplitudinem - conferentem, interdum sua manu exegisse pondus.” “Divus Julius - Caesar,” c. 47. - -Footnote 185: - - “Naturall Historie,” Holland edition, London, 1601, _Lib._ IX, c. 35. - -Footnote 186: - - “Vita Agricolæ,” c. 12. - -Footnote 187: - - Giles’s edition, London, 1840, p. 6. - -Footnote 188: - - Joyce. “Social History of Ancient Ireland.” New York. 1903. Vol. II, - p. 227. - -Footnote 189: - - Nicolai, “Anglia Sacra,” Vol. II, p. 236. Also “Alberti Magni Opera - Omnia,” ed. Augusti Borgnet, Paris. 1890, Vol. V., p. 41. - -Footnote 190: - - “Histoire de l’Orfèvrerie-Joaillerie.” Paris, 1850, p. 46. De Laborde, - “Emaux,” Paris, 1852, Vol. II, p. 437. - -Footnote 191: - - Camden. “Britannia.” 2nd edition, London, 1722, Vol. II, p. 802. - -Footnote 192: - - Macpherson, “Annals of Commerce,” Vol. II, p. 131. - -Footnote 193: - - Sibbald, “Hist. Nat. Scotiae,” 1684, Vol. III, p. 27. - -Footnote 194: - - Camden, “Britannia,” London, 1695, p. 924. - -Footnote 195: - - London, 1777, Vol. II., p. 24. - -Footnote 196: - - “History of Cumberland,” London, 1794, Vol. I, p. 573. - -Footnote 197: - - Joyce. “Social History of Ancient Ireland,” New York, 1903, Vol. II, - p. 227. - -Footnote 198: - - “Transactions of the Royal Society of London, for 1693,” Vol. XVIII, - No. 198, pp. 659–663. - -Footnote 199: - - Pennant, “Tour in Scotland,” Chester, 1771. - -Footnote 200: - - London “Times,” December 24, 1863. - -Footnote 201: - - Hugh Miller, “My Schools and Schoolmasters,” 1852, p. 201. - -Footnote 202: - - Puton, “Mollusques terrestres et fluviales des Vosges: Le Département - des Vosges, statistique, historique, et administrative, par Henri - Lepaye et Ch. Charton,” Nancy, 1845, 8vo, 2 vols., Vol. I. - -Footnote 203: - - Godron, “Les perles de la Vologne, et le Château-sur-Perle.” “Mémoires - de l’Académie de Stanislas, 1869,” Nancy, 1870, pp. 10–30. - -Footnote 204: - - Volcyr, “Cronicque abrégée par petits vers huytains des Empereurs, - Roys, et Ducz d’Austraisie,” etc., Paris, 1530. - -Footnote 205: - - Reues, “De Gemmis aliquot,” etc., Tiguri, 1566, p. 47. - -Footnote 206: - - Claude de la Ruelle, “Les pourtraicts des ceremonies, ... et pompe - funèbres faitez au corps de feu Charles III, Duc de Lorraine,” etc. - Nancy, 1609. - -Footnote 207: - - Lister, “Journey to Paris in the year 1698,” London, p. 143. - -Footnote 208: - - Durival, “Description de la Lorraine et du Barrois,” Nancy, 1779, Vol. - I, p. 280. - -Footnote 209: - - Bonnemere, “Les perles fines de l’Ouest de la France,” “Revue des - sciences naturelles de l’Ouest,” 1899, Vol. III, p. 97–99. - -Footnote 210: - - “La Nature,” 1899, pp. 347, 348. - -Footnote 211: - - Von Hessling, “Ueber die Erzeugung künstlicher Perlen,” “Gelehrte - Anzeigen der Münchener Akademie,” 1856, Vol. II, p. 159. - -Footnote 212: - - Weinmann, “Bresslauer Naturgeschichten,” 1725. - -Footnote 213: - - Tavernier, “Travels in India,” 1889, Vol. II, p. 113. - -Footnote 214: - - Von Hessling, “Die Perlenmuscheln,” Leipzig, 1859, p. 179. - -Footnote 215: - - “Beiträge zur Naturkunde des Herzogthums Celle,” Halle, 1766, Pt. I, - p. 70. - -Footnote 216: - - Von Hessling, “Die Perlenmuscheln,” p. 180. - -Footnote 217: - - Möbius, “Die echten Perlen,” Hamburg, 1858., p. 47. - -Footnote 218: - - Jahn, “Voigtländische Perlenfischerei,” p. 165; Von Hessling, “Die - Perlenmuscheln,” p. 182. - -Footnote 219: - - Von Hessling, “Die Perlenmuscheln,” p. 182. - -Footnote 220: - - “Die echten Perlen,” p. 48. - -Footnote 221: - - Gesner, “De aquatilibus,” Tiguri, 1560. - -Footnote 222: - - Bohuslai Balbini, “Miscellanea historica regni Bohemiæ,” Prague, 1679, - Vol. I, p. 73. - -Footnote 223: - - “Allg. Zeitung,” Nov. 1, 1858, No. 305. - -Footnote 224: - - Von Hessling, “Die Perlenmuscheln,” Leipzig, p. 178. - -Footnote 225: - - Holberg, “Danmarks Riges Historie,” Reicharot edition, 1743, Vol. II, - p. 632. - -Footnote 226: - - Thaaruys, “Versuch einer Statistik der dänischen Monarchie,” - Copenhagen, 1795, Pt. I, p. 416. - -Footnote 227: - - Jahn, “Voigtländische Perlenfischerei,” p. 175; and Von Hessling, “Die - Perlenmuscheln,” p. 189. - -Footnote 228: - - Pontoppidan, “Versuch einer natürlichen Historie von Norwegen,” - Copenhagen, 1754, Vol. II, p. 309. - -Footnote 229: - - Olaus Magnus, “Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus,” Antwerp, 1562, - c. 6, p. 192. - -Footnote 230: - - Linnæus, “Lach. Lapponica,” Vol. II, pp. 104–107. - -Footnote 231: - - See “Abhandlungen der Schwedischen Akademie,” 1742, Vol. IV, p. 240; - 1759, Vol. XXI, p. 136, and 1762, Vol. XXIV, p. 64. - -Footnote 232: - - “Die Perlenmuscheln,” Leipzig, 1859, p. 194. - -Footnote 233: - - Kawall, “La pêche des perles en Livonie,” “Annales de la Société - Malacologique de Belgique,” 1872, Vol. VII, pp. 38–46. - -Footnote 234: - - Dionysius Fabricius, “Scriptor rerum Livonicarum,” 1612, Vol. II, p. - 440. - -Footnote 235: - - G. F. Mylius, “Memorabilium Saxoniae subterraneae,” Leipzig, - 1709–1718, Vol. II, p. 20. - -Footnote 236: - - Charles Zeze, “Considerations sur les lièvres blancs en Livonie,” - 1749, p. 52. - -Footnote 237: - - A. H. Hupel, “Nouvelles topographiques de Livonie et d’Esthionie,” - 1774, Vol. I, p. 134. - -Footnote 238: - - “Die Perlenmuscheln,” Leipzig, p. 196. - -Footnote 239: - - Baer and Helmersen, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss des russischen Reiches,” - St. Petersburg, 1845, Vol. XI, pp. 143, 144. - -Footnote 240: - - Kohl, “Reisen in Südrussland,” 2nd edition, Leipzig, 1846, Vol. I, p. - 15. - -Footnote 241: - - “Voyage aux Iles du Grand Océan,” Paris, 1838; also “Le - Correspondant,” March 10, 1906. - -Footnote 242: - - “La Peche et la Culture des Huitres Perlières à Tahiti; Pêcheries de - l’Archipel Tuamotu,” Paris, 1885. - -Footnote 243: - - Seurat, “L’huitre perlière,” Paris, 1900, p. 133. - -Footnote 244: - - Lucatt, “Rovings in the Pacific from 1837 to 1849,” London, 1851, Vol. - I, p. 245. - -Footnote 245: - - “Bulletin United States Fish Commission,” Vol. V, p. 293. - -Footnote 246: - - Alexander, “Report United States Fish Commission,” Vol. XXVII, p. 764. - -Footnote 247: - - “Tahiti et les Colonies Françaises de la Polynésie,” Paris, 1887, p. - 173. - -Footnote 248: - - “Report on Pearl Fisheries of North Queensland,” Brisbane, 1890. - -Footnote 249: - - Garran, “Australasia Illustrated,” Sydney, 1892, Vol. II, p. 886. - -Footnote 250: - - Gill, “Life in the Southern Isles,” London, 1876, p. 294. - -Footnote 251: - - “Australind,” London, 1900, pp. 233–239. - -Footnote 252: - - 45 Victoriæ, No. 2. - -Footnote 253: - - 50 Victoriæ, No. 2. - -Footnote 254: - - 55 Victoriæ, No. 29. - -Footnote 255: - - 50 Victoriæ, No. 7. - -Footnote 256: - - 55 Victoriæ, No. 29. - -Footnote 257: - - “Departmental Commission on Pearl Shell and Bêche-de-Mer Fisheries,” - Brisbane, 1897. - -Footnote 258: - - “Report on the Fishing Industry for the Year 1905,” Perth, 1906, pp. - 4–7. - -Footnote 259: - - During the month of June, 1908, a severe storm destroyed a pearling - fleet, with a loss of 40 vessels and 270 lives. - -Footnote 260: - - “Report of Departmental Commission on Pearl Shell and Bêche-de-Mer - Fisheries,” Brisbane, 1897. - -Footnote 261: - - 55 Victoriæ, No. 29. - -Footnote 262: - - To this should be added the output of Sharks Bay, amounting to £2000 - in 1906, making a total of $450,000. - -Footnote 263: - - See pp. 70 and 200. - -Footnote 264: - - Comyn, “State of the Philippine Islands,” London, 1820, pp. 38, 39. - -Footnote 265: - - “Storia Naturale delle Gemme,” Naples, 1730. Vol. I, p. 461. - -Footnote 266: - - Crawfurd, “History of the Indian Archipelago,” Edinburgh, 1820, Vol. - III, p. 445. - -Footnote 267: - - Act No. 51, June 7, 1904. - -Footnote 268: - - A letter from the Bureau of Insular Affairs, dated November 20, 1906, - states: “It is proposed by the officials of the Moro province to amend - the regulations so that, under certain restrictions, vessels of - foreign build may engage in pearl fisheries.” - -Footnote 269: - - Act No. 43, amended June 7, 1904. - -Footnote 270: - - “Historia general de las Indias,” by Francisco Lopez de Gomara, 12mo, - 1554, pp. 104–106 b. - -Footnote 271: - - Herrera, “Historia general de los hechos de los Castellanos en las - islas y Tierra Firme del Mar Oceano,” Dec. iii, Book VII, ch. 3. - -Footnote 272: - - Herrera, “Descripcion de las Indias Occidentales,” Dec. iv, Book VI, - ch. 12. - -Footnote 273: - - Humboldt’s “Personal Narrative,” Vol. II, p. 273. - -Footnote 274: - - Translated from “Historia del Mondo Nuovo,” Geneva, 1578. - -Footnote 275: - - Translation of Chauveton’s Notes to Benzoni’s “Historia del Mondo - Nuovo,” Geneva, 1578, fol. 170. - -Footnote 276: - - _Ibid._, fol. 168. - -Footnote 277: - - “Natural and Moral History of the Indies,” Hakluyt Society, London, - 1880, p. 228. - -Footnote 278: - - Humboldt, “Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of - the New Continent, 1799–1804.” - -Footnote 279: - - Findlay, “Directory for the Navigation of the Pacific Ocean,” London, - 1851, Vol. I, p. 217. - -Footnote 280: - - Rosales, “Gran Recopilación de Venezuela,” Caracas, 1889. - -Footnote 281: - - Gomara, “Historia general de las Indias,” 1554, pp. 268, 269 b. - -Footnote 282: - - 111½ ounces of gold; present value about $2300. - -Footnote 283: - - Gemelli-Careri, “Giro del Mondo,” Venezia, 1719, p. 240. - -Footnote 284: - - Ulloa, “Relación historica del viage á la América meridional,” Madrid, - 1748. - -Footnote 285: - - “Ulloa’s Voyage to South America,” translated by J. Adams, London, - 1758. - -Footnote 286: - - Hakluyt’s “Voyages,” Glasgow, 1904, Vol. IX, pp. 318, 319. - -Footnote 287: - - Clavigero, “Storia della California,” Venezia, 1789, Vol. I, p. 161. - -Footnote 288: - - Venegas, “Noticia de las Californias,” Madrid, 1757, p. 454. - -Footnote 289: - - Clavigero, “Historia de la Baja antigua California.” Esteva, “Boletin - de la Sociedad Mexicana de Geographia y Estadistica,” Vol. X, pp. - 673–697. - -Footnote 290: - - Pedro Alvarado, “Historia California,” Vol. I, p. 10. - -Footnote 291: - - Baegert, “Nachrichten von der Amerikanischen Halbinsel Californien,” - Mannheim, 1772. - -Footnote 292: - - Arch. Cal. Prov. St. Pap. xvi. Ben. Mil. xvi, xvii, xviii. - -Footnote 293: - - Hardy, “Travels in Mexico,” London, 1829, pp. 231–238. - -Footnote 294: - - Diguet, “Bulletin de la Société Centrale d’Aquiculture,” Paris, 1895, - Vol. VII, pp. 1–18. - -Footnote 295: - - Esteva, “Memoria sobre la Pesca de la Perla,” “Boletin de la Sociedad - Mexicana de Geographía,” Vol. X, pp. 681–688. - -Footnote 296: - - Lassepas, “Historia de la Baja California,” Mexico, 1859, p. 65. - -Footnote 297: - - Pujol, “Estudio Biológico sobre la ostra Avicula margaritiferus,” - “Boletin de la Sociedad de Geographía,” Epoc. 2, Vol. III, p. 139 _et - seq._ - -Footnote 298: - - Diguet, “Bulletin de la Société Centrale d’Aquiculture,” 1895, Vol. - VII. - -Footnote 299: - - Lassepas, “Historia de la Colonizaciónde la Baja California,” Mexico, - 1859. - -Footnote 300: - - “Recueil des pièces sur la Floride,” Paris, 1841. - -Footnote 301: - - “Relaçam verdadeira dos Trabalhos q ho gouernador dō Fernādo de Souto - e certos fidalgos portugueses passarom no descobrimēto da provincia da - Frolida. Agora nouamente feita per hū fidalgo Deluas.” - -Footnote 302: - - “La Florida del Ynca,” Lisbon, 1605. - -Footnote 303: - - One arroba = twenty-five pounds’ weight. - -Footnote 304: - - “Discovery of Florida,” Hakluyt Society, 1851, Vol. IX, p. 181. - -Footnote 305: - - _Ibid._, p. 50. - -Footnote 306: - - “Discovery of Florida,” Hakluyt Society, 1851, Vol. IX, p. 60. - -Footnote 307: - - Bernard Shipp, “The History of Hernando de Soto and Florida from 1512 - to 1568,” Philadelphia, 1881, 8vo, p. 364. - -Footnote 308: - - Bernard Shipp, “The History of Hernando de Soto and Florida from 1512 - to 1568,” Philadelphia, 1881, 8vo, p. 369. - -Footnote 309: - - _Ibid._, p. 372. - -Footnote 310: - - “Relation of Alvar Nunez Cabeça de Vaca,” translated by Buckingham - Smith, New York, 1871. - -Footnote 311: - - Bernard Shipp, “History of Hernando de Soto and Florida,” - Philadelphia, 1881, p. 586. - -Footnote 312: - - Hakluyt, “The Principall Navigations, Voiages, and Discoveries of the - English Nation,” London, 1589. - -Footnote 313: - - “Purchas’s Pilgrims,” London, 1625, Vol. IV, p. 179. - -Footnote 314: - - Hakluyt’s “Voyages,” Glasgow, Vol. VIII, p. 357. - -Footnote 315: - - P. F. X. de Charlevoix, “History of New France,” New York, 1900, p. - 129. - -Footnote 316: - - “Voyage of Father Gravier in 1700 From the Country of Illinois to the - Mouth of the Mississippi,” Cleveland, 1900, p. 141. - -Footnote 317: - - Coxe, “A Description of the English Province of Carolana, by the - Spaniards call’d Florida, and by the French La Louisiane, as also of - the Great and Famous River Meschacebe or Missisipi,” London, 1722, pp. - 82, 83. - -Footnote 318: - - “Allgemeine Handelszeitung,” Leipzig, April, 1789, p. 218. - -Footnote 319: - - “Frank Leslie’s Magazine,” New York, May 23, 1857, Vol. III, pp. - 384–386. - -Footnote 320: - - “Gems and Precious Stones of North America,” by George F. Kunz, New - York, 1889–1892, pp. 211–257. “The Fresh-Water Pearls of the United - States,” Washington, 1898, 50 pages and plates. - -Footnote 321: - - “Neue Zeit,” in Ausland, 1858, No. 8, p. 192. - -Footnote 322: - - See p. 258. - -Footnote 323: - - Illinois State has passed a bill to regulate pearl fishing. See - Addendum on p. 513. - -Footnote 324: - - Philostratus, “Vita Apollonii,” _Lib._ III, c. 57, edit. Olearii, p. - 139. Also see Konrad von Gessner, “Historiæ natura,” _Lib._ IV, p. - 634. - -Footnote 325: - - Vol. XXII, pp. 425–437. - -Footnote 326: - - Pulteney, “General View of the Writings of Linnæus,” London, 1805. - -Footnote 327: - - “Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London,” October, 1905. p. 26. - -Footnote 328: - - Pearl: an excrescence on the inside of a shell when the outside has - been perforated. - -Footnote 329: - - Beckmann, “History of Inventions,” London, 1846, Vol. I, p. 263. - -Footnote 330: - - London, 1821, p. 48. - -Footnote 331: - - “Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London,” October, 1905, p. 29. - -Footnote 332: - - See Grill, “Abhandlungen der königlichen Schwedischen Akademie der - Wissenschaften auf das Jahr 1772,” Leipzig, Vol. XXXIV, pp. 88–90. - -Footnote 333: - - “Journal of the Society of Arts,” Vol. II, pp. 72–75. - -Footnote 334: - - “Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London,” October, 1905, p. 28. - -Footnote 335: - - “La Pèche et la Culture des Huitres Perlières à Tahiti,” Paris, 1885. - -Footnote 336: - - “Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences,” Vol. CXXVII, pp. 828–830. - -Footnote 337: - - See p. 73. - -Footnote 338: - - Kæmpfer, “History of Japan,” London, 1728, Vol. I, pp. 110–112. - -Footnote 339: - - “Notes and Queries,” 3rd Series, Vol. II, p. 228. - -Footnote 340: - - “Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,” - Singapore, 1878, Vol. I., pp. 31–37. - -Footnote 341: - - “Jewelers’ Review,” May 10, 1892. - -Footnote 342: - - Bloomfield, “Hymns of the Atharvaveda,” Oxford, 1897, p. 62. - -Footnote 343: - - Macgowan, “Journal of the Society of Arts,” Vol. II, p. 73. - -Footnote 344: - - Pfirzmaier, “Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften,” Wien, 1868, - Vol. LVII, p. 623. - -Footnote 345: - - Translated from Klenn, “Culturgeschichte,” Leipzig, 1852, Vol. X, p. - 318. - -Footnote 346: - - Tennyson, “Idylls of the King.” - -Footnote 347: - - “Opera omnia,” Paris, 1864, Vol. V, p. 473. - -Footnote 348: - - W. & G. Audsley, “Handbook of Christian Symbolism,” London, 1865, p. - 140. - -Footnote 349: - - “Lucile,” Pt. II, c. 6, st. 16. - -Footnote 350: - - “Le Mercure Indien, ou le Trésor des Indes,” Paris, 1672, p. 160. - -Footnote 351: - - Many Greek scholars maintain that this is a knotted cord or fillet; - but this view is contested by others. - -Footnote 352: - - Edited by Jibananda Vidyasagara, Calcutta, 1877. - -Footnote 353: - - Edited by Vidyasagara, 1873. - -Footnote 354: - - Garbe, “Die Indischen Mineralien.” Narahari’s “Raganighantu,” Varga - XIII, Leipzig, 1882, p. 74. - -Footnote 355: - - Ainslie, “Materia Indica,” London, 1826, Vol. I, p. 292. - -Footnote 356: - - “Maṉi-málá,” Calcutta, 1881, p. 871. - -Footnote 357: - - “Maṉi-málá,” Calcutta, 1879, p. 315. - -Footnote 358: - - Finot, “Les Lapidaires Indiens,” Paris, 1896, p. 15. - -Footnote 359: - - “Materia medica of India and their Therapeutics,” Bombay, 1903, p. 98. - -Footnote 360: - - “Alberti Magni Opera omnia,” ed. Augusti Borgnet, Paris, 1890, Vol. V, - p. 41. - -Footnote 361: - - “Lapidario del Rey D. Alfonso X,” Codice original, Madrid, 1881, p. 4. - -Footnote 362: - - De Boot, “Gemmarum et Lapidum Historia,” Hanover, 1609, _Lib._ II, c. - 38, p. 87. - -Footnote 363: - - Margaritologia, Monachii, 1637. - -Footnote 364: - - Lovell, “Panmineralogicon,” Oxford, 1661, pp. 77, 78. - -Footnote 365: - - Jones, “Credulities Past and Present,” London, 1880, p. 166. - -Footnote 366: - - “Speculum lapidum,” Venice, 1502, p. 37. - -Footnote 367: - - Yriarte, “Florence,” Paris, 1881, p. 39. - -Footnote 368: - - Bacon, “Historia Vitæ et Mortis,” Londini, 1623, p. 100. - -Footnote 369: - - Grew, Nehemiah, “Musæum Regalis Societatis,” London, 1681, p. 145. - -Footnote 370: - - “A Queen’s Delight,” London, 1671, pp. 75, 76. - -Footnote 371: - - “Hamlet,” Act V, sc. 2. - -Footnote 372: - - W. J. Lawson, “History of Banking,” London, 1850, pp. 24, 25. - -Footnote 373: - - “The Naturall Historie of C. Plinius Secundus,” _Lib._ IX, c. 35. This - anecdote is mentioned also by Macrobius (_Circa_ 400 A.D.) in - “Saturnaliorum conviviorum libri septem,” _Lib._ II, c. 13. - -Footnote 374: - - See p. 55. - -Footnote 375: - - “The Naturall Historie of C. Plinius Secundus,” _Lib._ IX, c. 35. - -Footnote 376: - - See the epitaph of Tutichylus “qui fuit margaritarius,” Orelli, 4076. - -Footnote 377: - - Lowis d’A. Jackson, “Modern Metrology,” London, 1881, p. 370. - -Footnote 378: - - Grimm, “Deutsches Wörterbuch,” Leipzig, 1873, Vol. V, p. 205. - -Footnote 379: - - Guillaume, “Les récents progrès du système métrique,” Paris, 1907, pp. - 62–66, “La réforme du carat.” - -Footnote 380: - - William Hallock and Herbert T. Wade. “Outlines of the Evolution of - Weights and Measures and the Metric System,” New York, 1906, p. 25. - -Footnote 381: - - “A New English Dictionary,” Oxford and New York, 1893, Vol. II, Pt. I, - p. 105. - -Footnote 382: - - Buteonis, “Opera Geometrica,” Lugduni, 1554, pp. 88–96. - -Footnote 383: - - See “Edelsteinkunde,” Wilhelm Rau, Leipzig, 1907, p. 137. - -Footnote 384: - - “Les Lapidaires Indiens,” Paris, 1896. - -Footnote 385: - - The guñja was one fifth of a mâsaka and equaled about 2¼ grains. - -Footnote 386: - - Finot, “Les Lapidaires Indiens,” Paris, 1896, p. 22. - -Footnote 387: - - “Fior di Pensieri sulle Pietre Preziose di Ahmed al Teifascite,” text - and translation by Antonio Raineri, Florence, 1818, pp. 8, 9. - -Footnote 388: - - Charles Barbot, “Traite Complète des Pierres Précieuses,” Paris, 1858, - p. 467. - -Footnote 389: - - Emanuel, “Diamonds and Precious Stones,” 2nd edition, London, 1867, p. - 6. - -Footnote 390: - - Anselmi de Boot, “Gemmarum et Lapidum Historia,” Hanoviae, 1609, pp. - 88–90. - -Footnote 391: - - De Rosnel, “Le Mercure Indien,” Paris, 1672, Pt. III, pp. 17, 18. - -Footnote 392: - - Rice Vaughan, “A Discourse of Coin and Coinage,” London, 1675, p. 241. - -Footnote 393: - - David Jeffries, “A Treatise on Diamonds and Pearls,” London, 1751, pp. - 128–141. - -Footnote 394: - - “Encyclopédie de Diderot et d’Alembert,” Neuchâtel and Paris, 1774, - Vol. XII, p. 385. - -Footnote 395: - - Pio Naldi, “Delle Gemme e delle Regole per Valutarle,” Bologna, 1791, - p. 207. - -Footnote 396: - - Emanuel, “Diamonds and Precious Stones,” London, 1867, p. 197. - -Footnote 397: - - “L’Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences,” Neuchâtel and - Paris, 1774, Vol. XII, p. 385. - -Footnote 398: - - “Delle Gemme,” etc., 1791. - -Footnote 399: - - See “Report to the Government of Ceylon on the Pearl Oyster Fisheries - of the Gulf of Manaar,” by W. A. Herdman, F.R.S., Pt. V, London, 1906, - pp. 34–36. - -Footnote 400: - - See pp. 124–127. - -Footnote 401: - - See “Modern Metrology,” Lowis d’A. Jackson, London, 1882, p. 369. - -Footnote 402: - - From “Navaratnapariska,” in Finot, “Les Lapidaires Indiens,” p. 158. - -Footnote 403: - - Guillielmi Budaei, “De Asse,” Venice, 1522, _Lib._ V, pp. 67, 68. - -Footnote 404: - - Caire and Dufie, “La Science des Pierres Précieuses appliquée aux - Arts,” Paris, 1833. - -Footnote 405: - - Charles Barbot, “Traité Complète des Pierres Précieuses,” Paris, 1858, - pp. 464, 465. - -Footnote 406: - - “The Book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian.” Trans. and ed. by Col. - Henry Yule, London, 1871, Vol. II, p. 275. - -Footnote 407: - - General Appraisers 5146 (Treasury Department 23748). - -Footnote 408: - - December 6, 1901; 112 Fed. Rep. 672. - -Footnote 409: - - Suit No. 3328. - -Footnote 410: - - Dec. 29, 1903. - -Footnote 411: - - Suit No. 4974. - -Footnote 412: - - General Appraisers 4166. - -Footnote 413: - - General Appraisers 5148. - -Footnote 414: - - Suits Nos. 2781 and 3324. - -Footnote 415: - - John and Andrew van Rymsdyk, “Museum Brittanicum,” London, 1778, p. 8, - note. - -Footnote 416: - - Finot, “Les Lapidaires Indiens,” Paris, 1896, p. 24. - -Footnote 417: - - “An Essay upon Various Arts, in Three Books by Theophilus, called also - Rugerus, Priest and Monk, Forming an Encyclopedia of Christian Art of - the Eleventh Century.” Translated, with notes, by Robert Hendrie. - London, 1847. - -Footnote 418: - - “Indian Art,” by Sir George C. M. Birdwood (South Kensington Museum - Art Books), Pt. II, pp. 188, 248. - -Footnote 419: - - Anselmi de Boodt, “Gemmarum et Lapidum Historia,” Hanover, 1609. - _Lib._ II, c. 40, “Quomodo margaritae perforuntur,” p. 91. - -Footnote 420: - - See portrait facing page 442. - -Footnote 421: - - Charles Barbot, “Traité Complète des Pierres Précieuses,” Paris, 1858, - pp. 464, 465. - -Footnote 422: - - “Délégation en Perse,” Paris, 1905, Vol. VIII, p. 52. - -Footnote 423: - - De Morgan, “Délégation en Perse,” Paris, 1905, Vol. VIII, p. 52. - -Footnote 424: - - Imhoof-Blumer, “Porträtköpfe auf antiken Münzen,” pl. 7, figs. 12 sqq. - -Footnote 425: - - See “Délégation en Perse,” Vol. VIII. “Recherches Archéologiques.” - Paris, 1905, third series, pp. 51–2, pl. 5. - -Footnote 426: - - Equivalent to about 1,250,000 ounces of silver; Hardouin says - 7,600,000 francs. - -Footnote 427: - - “Naturall Historie,” London, 1601, _Lib._ IX, c. 35. - -Footnote 428: - - MS. Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, 2089, XLVII, No. 12. - -Footnote 429: - - “Dictionnaire des Antiquites Grecques et Romaines,” ed. by Deremberg - and Saglio: Art. “Inaures” by Pottier, Paris, 1899, Vol. III, pp. - 440–447. - -Footnote 430: - - Babelon, “Cab. des Antiq.,” pl. 33, fig. 3. - -Footnote 431: - - Duruy, “Hist. des Romains,” Vol. I, p. 511. - -Footnote 432: - - Custodian of the coin collection of the Philadelphia Mint. - -Footnote 433: - - Imperial Museum of Archæology, St. Petersburg, Russia. - -Footnote 434: - - “Della Storia Naturale delle Gemme delle Pietre e di tutti i - Minerali,” Giacinto Gimma, Naples, 1730. - -Footnote 435: - - Tabari, “Chronique,” translated by Zotenberg, Paris, 1869, Vol. II, p. - 304. - -Footnote 436: - - _Ibid._, Vol. III, p. 417. - -Footnote 437: - - Alexander, “The History of Women,” London, 1782, Vol. II, p. 136. - -Footnote 438: - - “The Book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian,” trans. and ed. by Col. - Henry Yule, London, 1871, Vol. I, p. 343. - -Footnote 439: - - De Mély, “Les Lapidaires Chinois,” Paris, 1896, p. 178. - -Footnote 440: - - “The Book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian,” trans. and ed. by Col. - Henry Yule, London, 1871, Vol. II, p. 275. - -Footnote 441: - - Alexander, “The History of Women,” London, 1782, Vol. II, p. 172. - -Footnote 442: - - Max Müller, “Rig-Veda Samhita,” 1862, Vol. IV, p. 64. - -Footnote 443: - - Alexander, “The History of Women,” London, 1782, Vol. II, p. 171. - -Footnote 444: - - From a letter of Charles Roach Smith, Esq., F. S. A., to John Gage - Rokewode, F. R. S. “Archæologia,” Vol. XXIX, p. 70. - -Footnote 445: - - Augustus C. Hamlin, “Leisure Hours Among the Gems,” Boston, 1884, p. - 22. - -Footnote 446: - - Dieulafoy, “L’art antique de la Perse,” Paris, 1884. Pt. V, p. 137. - -Footnote 447: - - See Maskell, “Russian Art” (South Kensington Museum Handbooks), - London, 1884, pp. 83, 84; also “La Russie Méridionale,” by - Reinach-Kondakoff-Tolstoy, pp. 489, 490. - -Footnote 448: - - “Die Domkirche bei St. Veit in Prag,” Prague, 1890, pp. 13, 19, 21. - -Footnote 449: - - Abridged from a description by Professor Tennant. - -Footnote 450: - - Davenport Debrett, “Dictionary of the Coronation,” London, p. 52. - -Footnote 451: - - Sir Walter Scott, “Description of the Regalia of Scotland,” Edinburgh, - 1869. - -Footnote 452: - - Communicated by Prof. H. Schumacher of Bonn and Johann Wagner & Sohn, - Jewelers of the German Court. - -Footnote 453: - - W. Jones, “Crowns and Coronations,” London, 1883, p. 425. - -Footnote 454: - - Otto von Falke and Heinrich Frauberger, “Deutsche Schmelzarbeiten des - Mittelalters,” Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1904, p. 2. - -Footnote 455: - - Otto von Falke and Heinrich Frauberger, “Deutsche Schmelzarbeiten des - Mittelalters,” Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1904, pp. 6, 7. - -Footnote 456: - - _Ibid._, p. 9. - -Footnote 457: - - _Ibid._, p. 16. - -Footnote 458: - - Josef Dankó, “Aus dem Graner Domschatz,” Gran, 1880, pp. 64–66. - -Footnote 459: - - Josef Dankó, “Aus dem Graner Domschatz,” Gran, 1880, pp. 67–70. - -Footnote 460: - - _Ibid._, pp. 74, 75. - -Footnote 461: - - “Katalog der Schatzkammer von Maria Loretto am Hradschin zu Prag,” - Prague, 1891, pp. 34, 40. - -Footnote 462: - - Maskell, “Russian Art” (South Kensington Museum Handbooks), London, - 1884, pp. 119, 120. - -Footnote 463: - - Baedeker, “Russland,” Leipzig, 1888, p. 317. - -Footnote 464: - - One of the authors has in his possession twenty manuscript volumes of - these inventories. They are careful copies from the originals, most of - which are in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. These copies were - executed for M. E. Molinier, a conservator of the Louvre Museum, and - were disposed of after his death in 1906. The values in the money of - the times are usually given, and we have endeavored where possible to - indicate the equivalent in United States currency, taking account of - the progressive changes in the French monetary standard. - -Footnote 465: - - “Inventaire des Joyaux de Louis Duc d’Anjou,” In De Laborde’s “Emaux,” - Paris, 1853, Vol. II. - -Footnote 466: - - Bibliothèque Nationale. MS. fr. 6542 (suppt. 4622) parchemin original, - 13 pp. in folio. - -Footnote 467: - - De Laborde, “Emaux,” Paris, 1853, Vol. II, p. 437. - -Footnote 468: - - “Inventaire des Biens de Marguerite de Flandre,” Bibliothèque - Nationale coll., Moreau, 1725 (Mouchet 5). - -Footnote 469: - - Bibl. Nat. MS. Latin. 9941 (suppt. 1656), folio, parchment, 40 leaves. - -Footnote 470: - - Bibliothèque Nationale MS. fr. 18766 (S. Germain fr. 910) 40 ff. Bound - in green velvet. - -Footnote 471: - - Bibl. Natl. MS. français, 4611, folio, pp. 433 in parchment. - -Footnote 472: - - “Inventaires des Ducs de Bourgogne,” De Laborde, “Emaux,” Vol. II, p. - 438. - -Footnote 473: - - See De Laborde. “Emaux,” Paris, 1853, Vol. II, p. 437. - -Footnote 474: - - “Jahrbuch der kunsthistorischen Sammlungen des allerhöchsten - Kaiserhauses,” Vienna, 1895, Vol. XIV, Pt. II, p. 52. “Inventories of - Philip II” (1598–1607). - -Footnote 475: - - _Ibid._, Vol. XIX, Pt. II, p. 170. - -Footnote 476: - - From _eptli_—shell, and _yollott_—heart, _i.e._, life. - -Footnote 477: - - “Heraldic. Curios.,” Pars III, c. 8, p. 12. - -Footnote 478: - - Debrett, “Dictionary of the Coronation,” p. 127. - -Footnote 479: - - “Illustrated London News,” April 13, 1878, p. 347. - -Footnote 480: - - Pliny, “Naturall Historie,” London, 1601, _Lib._ IX, c. 35. - -Footnote 481: - - Budé, “De Asse,” Paris, 1514. - -Footnote 482: - - Pliny, “Historia Naturalis,” _Lib._ IX, c. 35. - -Footnote 483: - - “Historia,” _Lib._ I, c. 4, ed. Niebuhr, Bonnae, 1833. - -Footnote 484: - - Panciroli, “Rerum Memorabilium, libri duo,” Frankfort. 1660, Pt. I, p. - 44. We have been unable to find this statement in the Annals of - Zonaras; it was possibly derived from some gloss or annotation. - -Footnote 485: - - Published by Lambeccius in “Bibliotheca Cæsarea,” Vol. II, p. 516. - -Footnote 486: - - See p. 254 for Garcilasso’s description. - -Footnote 487: - - Garcilasso, “Historie des Incas, Rois du Pérou,” Amsterdam, 1704, Vol. - II, p. 352. - -Footnote 488: - - _Ibid._, p. 351. - -Footnote 489: - - Miscel. Academ. Nat. Curios, Dec. 1, Ann. II, obs. 288. - -Footnote 490: - - “Hawkins’ Voyages,” Hakluyt Society, 1878, p. 315 note. - -Footnote 491: - - See Robertson, “Inventaires de la Royne d’Ecosse,” Bannatyne Club, - 1863. - -Footnote 492: - - See Lang, “Portraits and Jewels of Mary Stuart,” Edinburgh, 1906. - -Footnote 493: - - Teulet, “Relations politiques de la France et de l’Espagne avec - l’Ecosse,” Vol. II, p. 352. - -Footnote 494: - - Teulet, “Relations,” etc., p. 364. - -Footnote 495: - - Walpole, “Anecdotes of Painting in England,” London, 1849, Vol. I, p. - 151. - -Footnote 496: - - An interesting account of this collection was given in a little book, - now quite rare, published in London in 1793 by John Roberts, entitled - “A View of the Waxen Figures in Henry VII’s Chapel.” - -Footnote 497: - - Bolton, “Curious Relics of English Funerals,” Boston, 1894, p. 233. - -Footnote 498: - - Lawson, “History of Banking,” London, 1750, pp. 24, 25. - -Footnote 499: - - Burgon, “The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham,” London, 1839, Vol. - I, p. 69. - -Footnote 500: - - See p. 451. - -Footnote 501: - - London, 1631, p. 1297. - -Footnote 502: - - Tavernier, “Travels in India,” London, 1889, Vol. II, p. 130. - -Footnote 503: - - Tavernier used the Florentine carat, which equaled 3.04 grains troy. - -Footnote 504: - - Tavernier, “Travels in India,” London, 1889, Vol. II, p. 110. - -Footnote 505: - - One _rati_ equaled seven eighths of the Florentine carat, or 2.66 - grains troy. - -Footnote 506: - - Tavernier, “Travels in India,” London, 1889, Vol. I, pp. 397–399. - -Footnote 507: - - Sir Henry Miers Elliot, “The Mohammedan Period as described by Its Own - Historians,” Vol. V. of “The History of India,” ed. by A. V. W. - Jackson, New York, 1907, p. 324. - -Footnote 508: - - See Fig. 2 of Tavernier’s diagram. - -Footnote 509: - - Tavernier, “Travels in India,” trans. by V. Ball, London, 1889, Vol. - II, p. 384. - -Footnote 510: - - Benjamin, “Persia,” p. 73. - -Footnote 511: - - Brydges, “An Account of the Transactions of His Majesty’s Mission to - the Court of Persia, in the Years 1807–1811,” London, 1834, p. 383. - -Footnote 512: - - Porter, “Travels in Georgia, Armenia, Ancient Babylon,” etc., London, - 1821, Vol. I, p. 325. - -Footnote 513: - - Robert de Berquen, “Les Merveilles des Indes Orientales et - Occidentales,” Paris, 1661, p. 78 b. - -Footnote 514: - - Bibl. Nat. MS. “Mélanges de Colbert,” Tome 218, p. 14. - -Footnote 515: - - De Waldheim, “Essai sur la Pellegrina,” p. 48. - -Footnote 516: - - See p. 452. - -Footnote 517: - - Hertz, “Catalogue of the Collection of Pearls and Precious Stones - Formed by Henry Philip Hope, Esq.,” London, 1839. - -Footnote 518: - - “Gems and Precious Stones of North America,” New York, 1892, Pl. VIII, - p. 229. - -Footnote 519: - - Streeter, “Pearls and Pearling Life,” London, 1886, pp. 295, 296. - -Footnote 520: - - Taunton, “Australind,” London, 1900, p. 231. - -Footnote 521: - - Austrian Court Journal, 1899. - -Footnote 522: - - See p. 461. - -Footnote 523: - - The senior author was permitted to handle these treasures in 1899. - -Footnote 524: - - Winckler, “Die Reichskleinodien,” Berlin, 1872, p. 17. - -Footnote 525: - - _Ibid._, p. 9. - -Footnote 526: - - As this pearl was brought from the East later on, it may be the same - as the Reine des Perles, stolen from the French crown jewels in 1791. - It is evidently the same as the La Pellegrina of the Zozima brothers - (1814) and later stolen from them, reappearing as the pearl described - by Kohl, in 1840, first in the possession of a Russian merchant and - then later in the Russian Treasury. - -Footnote 527: - - “American Anthropologist,” Lancaster, Pa., Vol. IX, No. 1, Jan.–March, - 1907, pp. 57–86. - -Footnote 528: - - “True Travels,” Richmond edition, 1819, p. 144. - -Footnote 529: - - Strachey, “Historie of Travaile into Virginia Britannia,” Hakluyt - Society, London, 1849, p. 65. - -Footnote 530: - - Smith, _op. cit._, p. 130. - -Footnote 531: - - Strachey, _op. cit._, p. 57. - -Footnote 532: - - Smith, _op. cit._, p. 83. - -Footnote 533: - - Strachey, _op. cit._, p. 67. “The ‘blue’ or ‘violet-colored’ pearls - shown in White’s original drawings are probably stained pearls.” These - were most probably the dark purple pearls of the round clam or quohog - of the coast, although it is possible that they were only glass beads. - -Footnote 534: - - Smith, _op. cit._, Pt. II, p. 19. - -Footnote 535: - - Thomas Hariot, “A Brief and True Report of the New Found Land of - Virginia,” Holbein edition, p. 11. - -Footnote 536: - - Willoughby, “American Anthropologist,” Lancaster, Pa., Vol. IX, No. 1, - January, 1907, pp. 61, 62. - -Footnote 537: - - Beverley, “History of Virginia,” 1722, pp. 167, 186. - -Footnote 538: - - Strachey, _op. cit._, p. 89. - -Footnote 539: - - Smith, _op. cit._, p. 143. - -Footnote 540: - - Squier and Davis, Smithsonian “Contributions to Knowledge,” Vol. I, - 1848, p. 283. - -Footnote 541: - - “Science,” April 6, 1906, Vol. XXIII, No. 588. - -Footnote 542: - - “History of Alabama,” Charlestown, 1851, Vol. I, p. 12. - -Footnote 543: - - “Moundville Revisited,” Reprint from the Journal of the Academy of - Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, 1907, Vol. XIII, pp. - 398–403. - -Footnote 544: - - “Antiquities of the Southern Indians,” New York, 1873, p. 483; also, - “Monumental Remains of Georgia,” Savannah, 1861, p. 14. - -Footnote 545: - - “Ancient Aboriginal Trade in North America,” Report of the Smithsonian - Institution for 1872, p. 38 of the author’s reprint. - -Footnote 546: - - See “Artificial Shell Deposits in the United States,” in the Report of - the Smithsonian Institution for 1866, p. 357. - -Footnote 547: - - “Antiquities of Southern Indians,” p. 490. - -Footnote 548: - - Transactions of the Philosophic Society for 1693. - -Footnote 549: - - See p. 494. - -Footnote 550: - - “Exploration of the Edwin Harness Mound,” Columbus, O., press of F. J. - Heer, 1907, p. 76. - -Footnote 551: - - “Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley,” Squier & Davis, - Washington, 1848, p. 232. - -Footnote 552: - - “Explorations in Ohio,” from the Eighteenth Report of the Peabody - Museum, Cambridge, 1886, p. 462. - -Footnote 553: - - Collection of Peabody Museum of Archæology, Cambridge, Mass. - -Footnote 554: - - Now in the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Ill. - -Footnote 555: - - “American Archæologist,” May, 1897, to May, 1898. - -Footnote 556: - - “Archæologia Americana,” 1820, p. 182. - -Footnote 557: - - See p. 499. - -Footnote 558: - - See p. 498. - -Footnote 559: - - “La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West,” Parkman, p. 281. - -Footnote 560: - - William C. Mills, “Explorations of the Edwin Harness Mound, Columbus, - O.”; press of Fred. J. Heer, 1907. “Ohio Archæological and Historical - Quarterly,” Vol. XVI, No. 2. - -Footnote 561: - - Herrmann, “Mound-builders of the Mississippi Valley,” pp. 92, 93. - -Footnote 562: - - A large number of these works are in the library of George F. Kunz. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES - - - 1. P. 153, changed “o, Jerusalem Delivered” to “Tasso, Jerusalem - Delivered”. - 2. P. 235, changed “a snort distance” to “a short distance”. - 3. Silently corrected typographical errors and variations in spelling. - 4. Archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings retained as printed. - 5. Footnotes were re-indexed using numbers and collected together at - the end of the last chapter. - 6. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. - 7. 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