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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 1227: Sewage and sewerage of farm homes - -Author: George Warren - -Release Date: September 5, 2020 [EBook #63131] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA FARMERS' BULLETIN NO. 1227 *** - - - - -Produced by Tom Cosmas from files generously made available -by USDA through The Internet Archive. All are placed in -the Public Domain. - - - - - - -</pre> - - - - -<div class="figcenter illowe17_125" id="cover" style="max-width: 20em; margin-bottom: 4em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/cover.png" alt="USDA Farmers' Bulletin 1227: Sewage and Sewerage of Farm Homes, by George M. Warren" /> - - -<div class="bbox tdc smaller"> -United States Department of Agriculture<br /> -Farmers' Bulletin No. 1227<br /> -<br /> -SEWAGE and<br /> -SEWERAGE<br /> -of FARM<br /> -HOMES</div> -</div> - - -<div class="bbox" style="max-width: 25em; padding: 6px; margin-bottom: 4em;"> -<div class="dropcap">D</div> - -<p><span class="hidden">D</span>ISPOSAL OF FARM SEWAGE in a clean manner -is always an important problem. The aims -of this bulletin are twofold—(1) to emphasize basic -principles of sanitation; (2) to give directions for -constructing and operating home sewerage works -that shall be simple, serviceable, and safe.</p> - -<p>Care in operating is absolutely necessary. No installation -will run itself. Continued neglect ends in -failure of even the best-designed, best-built plants. -If the householder is to build and neglect, he might -as well save expense and continue the earlier practice.</p> - -<table class="smaller" style="width: 100%;" summary="data"> -<tr class="bdt"> - <td class="tdl">Washington, D. C.</td> - <td class="tdr">January, 1922<br />Revised October, 1928</td> -</tr> -</table> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>[ 1 ]</span></p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h1 class="nobreak">SEWAGE AND SEWERAGE<br />OF FARM HOMES</h1> - -<hr class="r20" /> - -<p class="tdc"><span class="smcap">George M. Warren</span>,</p> - -<p class="tdc">Hydraulic Engineer, Bureau of Public Roads</p> - -<hr class="r20" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr smaller">Page.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Introduction</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">3</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Sewage, sewers, and sewerage defined</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SEWAGE_SEWERS_AND_SEWERAGE_DEFINED">1</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Nature and quantity of sewage</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#NATURE_AND_QUANTITY_OF_SEWAGE">2</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Sewage-borne diseases and their avoidance</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SEWAGE-BORNE_DISEASES_AND_THEIR_AVOIDANCE">2</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">How sewage decomposes</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#HOW_SEWAGE_DECOMPOSES">5</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Importance of air in treatment of sewage</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#IMPORTANCE_OF_AIR_IN_TREATMENT_OF_SEWAGE">7</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Practical utilities</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PRACTICAL_UTILITIES">8</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Septic tanks</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SEPTIC_TANKS">21</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Grease traps</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#GREASE_TRAPS">43</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">General procedure</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#GENERAL_PROCEDURE">45</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The main purpose of home sewerage works is to get rid of sewage -in such way as (1) to guard against the transmission of disease -germs through drinking water, flies, or other means; (2) to avoid -creating nuisance. What is the best method and what the best outfit -are questions not to be answered offhand from afar. A treatment -that is a success in one location may be a failure in another. In -every instance decision should be based upon field data and full -knowledge of the local needs and conditions. An installation -planned from assumed conditions may work harm. The householder -may be misled as to the purification and rely on a protection that is -not real. He may anticipate little or no odor and find a nuisance -has been created.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="SEWAGE_SEWERS_AND_SEWERAGE_DEFINED">SEWAGE, SEWERS, AND SEWERAGE DEFINED</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Human excrements (feces and urine) as found in closets and privy -vaults are known as night soil. These wastes may be flushed away -with running water, and there may be added the discharges from -washbasins, bathtubs, kitchen and slop sinks, laundry trays, washing -vats, and floor drains. This refuse liquid product is sewage, -and the underground pipe which conveys it is a sewer. Since -sewers carry foul matter they should be water-tight, and this feature -of their construction distinguishes them from drains removing -relatively pure surface or ground water. Sewerage refers to a -system of sewers, including the pipes, tanks, disposal works, and -appurtenances.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>[ 2 ]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="NATURE_AND_QUANTITY_OF_SEWAGE">NATURE AND QUANTITY OF SEWAGE</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Under average conditions a man discharges daily about 3½ ounces -of moist feces and 40 ounces of urine, the total in a year approximating -992 pounds.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Feces consist largely of water and undigested or -partially digested food; by weight it is 77.2 per cent water.[2] Urine -is about 96,3 per cent water.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> Practical Physiological Chemistry, by Philip B. Hawk, 1916, pp. 221, 359.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> Agriculture, by P. H. Storer, 1894, vol. 2, p. 70.</p></div> - -<p>The excrements constitute but a small part of ordinary sewage. -In addition to the excrements and the daily water consumption of -perhaps 40 gallons per person are many substances entering into -the economy of the household, such as grease, fats, milk, bits of food, -meat, fruit and vegetables, tea and coffee grounds, paper, etc. This -complex product contains mineral, vegetable, and animal substances, -both dissolved and undissolved. It contains dead organic matter -and living organisms in the form of exceedingly minute vegetative -cells (bacteria) and animal cells (protozoa). These low forms of -life are the active agents in destroying dead organic matter.</p> - -<p>The bacteria are numbered in billions and include many species, -some useful and others harmful. They may be termed tiny scavengers, -which under favorable conditions multiply with great rapidity, -their useful work being the oxidizing and nitrifying of dissolved -organic matter and the breaking down of complex organic solids to -liquids and gases. Among the myriads of bacteria are many of a -virulent nature. These at any time may include species which are -the cause of well-known infectious and parasitic diseases.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="SEWAGE-BORNE_DISEASES_AND_THEIR_AVOIDANCE">SEWAGE-BORNE DISEASES AND THEIR AVOIDANCE</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Any spittoon, slop pail, sink drain, urinal, privy, cesspool, sewage -tank, or sewage distribution field is a potential danger. A bit of -spit, urine, or feces the size of a pin head may contain many hundred -germs, all invisible to the naked eye and each one capable of producing -disease. These discharges should be kept away from the food -and drink of man and animals. From specific germs that may be -carried in sewage at any time there may result typhoid fever, tuberculosis, -cholera, dysentery, diarrhea, and other dangerous ailments, -and it is probable that other maladies may be traced to human waste. -From certain animal parasites or their eggs that may be carried in -sewage there may result intestinal worms, of which the more common -are the hookworm, roundworm, whipworm, eelworm, tapeworm, and -seat worm.</p> - -<p>Sewage, drainage, or other impure water may contain also the -causative agents of numerous ailments common to livestock, such as -tuberculosis, foot-and-mouth disease, hog cholera, anthrax, glanders, -and stomach and intestinal worms.</p> - -<p>Disease germs are carried by many agencies and unsuspectingly -received by devious routes into the human body. Infection may -come from the swirling dust of the railway roadbed, from contact -with transitory or chronic carriers of disease, from green truck -grown in gardens fertilized with night soil or sewage, from food -prepared or touched by unclean hands or visited by flies or vermin, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[ 3 ]</span> -from milk handled by sick or careless dairymen, from milk cans and -utensils washed with contaminated water, or from cisterns, wells, -springs, reservoirs, irrigation ditches, brooks, or lakes receiving the -surface wash or the underground drainage from sewage-polluted soil.</p> - -<p>Many recorded examples show with certainty how typhoid fever and -other diseases have been transmitted. A few indicating the responsibilities -and duties of people who live in the country are cited here.</p> - -<p class="smaller">In August, 1889, a sister and two brothers aged 18, 21, and 23 years, -respectively, and all apparently in robust health dwelt together in a -rural village in Columbiana County, Ohio. Typhoid fever in particular -virulent form developed after use of drinking water from a badly polluted -surface source. The deaths of all three occurred within a space of 10 -days.</p> - -<p class="smaller">In September and October, 1899, 63 cases of typhoid fever, resulting -in 5 deaths, occurred at the Northampton (Mass.) insane hospital. This -epidemic was conclusively traced to celery, which was eaten freely in -August and was grown and banked in a plot that had been fertilized in the -late winter or early spring with the solid residue and scrapings from a -sewage filter bed situated on the hospital grounds.</p> - -<p class="smaller">Some years ago Dr. W. W. Skinner, Bureau of Chemistry, Department of -Agriculture, investigated the cause of an outbreak of typhoid fever in -southwest Virginia. A small stream meandered through a narrow valley -in which five 10-inch wells about 450 feet deep had been drilled in -limestone formation. The wells were from 50 to 400 feet from the stream, -from which, it was suspected, pollution was reaching the wells. In a pool -in the stream bed approximately one-fourth mile above the wells several -hundred pounds of common salt were dissolved. Four of the wells were cut -off from the pump and the fifth was subjected to heavy pumping. The water -discharged by the pump was examined at 15-minute intervals and its salt -content determined over a considerable period of time. After the lapse of -several 15-minute intervals the salt began to rise and continued to rise -until the maximum was approximately seven times that at the beginning of -the test, thus proving the facility with which pollution may pass a long -distance underground and reach deep wells.</p> - -<p class="smaller">Probably no epidemic in American history better illustrates the dire -results that may follow one thoughtless act than the outbreak of typhoid -fever at Plymouth, Pa., in 1885. In January and February of that year the -night discharges of one typhoid fever patient were thrown out upon the -snow near his home. These, carried by spring thaws into the public water -supply, caused an epidemic running from April to September. In a total -population of about 8,000, 1,104 persons were attacked by the disease and -114 died.</p> - -<p>Like plants and animals, disease germs vary in their powers of -resistance. Some are hardy, others succumb easily. Outside the body -most of them probably die in a few days or weeks. It is never certain -when such germs may not lodge where the immediate surroundings -are favorable to their life and reproduction. Milk is one of the common -substances in which germs multiply rapidly. The experience at -Northampton shows that typhoid-fever germs may survive several -months in garden soil. Laboratory tests by the United States Public -Health Service showed that typhoid-fever germs had not all succumbed -after being frozen in cream 74 days. (Public Health Reports, -Feb. 8, 1918, pp. 163-166.) Ravenel kept the spores of anthrax -immersed for 244 days in the strongest tanning fluids without perceptible -change in their vitality or virulence. (Annual Report, State -Department of Health, Mass., 1916, p. 494.)</p> - -<p><b>Unsafe practices.</b>—Upon thousands of small farms there are no -privies and excretions are deposited carelessly about the premises. -A place of this character is shown in <a href="#fig1">figure 1</a>. Upon thousands of -other farms the privy is so filthy and neglected that hired men and -visitors seek near-by sheds, fields, and woods. A privy of this character -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[ 4 ]</span> -is shown in <a href="#fig2">figure 2</a>. These practices and conditions exist in -every section of the country. They should be abolished.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig1" style="max-width: 29em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig1.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—One of many farms lacking the simplest sanitary convenience</div> -</div> - -<p>Deserving of severe censure is the old custom of conveying excrements -or sewage into abandoned wells or some convenient stream. -Such a practice is indecent and unsafe. It is unnecessary and is -contrary to the laws of most of the States.</p> - -<p>Likewise dangerous and even more disgusting is the old custom of -using human excrement or sewage for the fertilization of truck land. -Under no circumstances should such wastes be used on land devoted -to celery, lettuce, radishes, cucumbers, cabbages, tomatoes, melons, -or other vegetables, berries, or low-growing fruits that are eaten raw. -Disease germs or particles of soil containing such germs may adhere -to the skins of vegetables or fruits and infect the eater.</p> - -<p>Upon farms it is necessary to dispose of excretal wastes at no great -distance from the dwelling. The ability and likelihood of flies -carrying disease germs direct to the dinner table, kitchen, or pantry -are well known. Vermin, household pets, poultry, and live stock may -spread such germs. For these reasons, and also on the score of odor, -farm sewage never should be exposed.</p> - -<p><b>Important safety measure.</b>—The farmer can do no other one thing -so vital to his own and the public health as to make sure of the continued -purity of the farm water supply. Investigations indicate -that about three out of four shallow wells are polluted badly.</p> - -<p>Wells and springs are fed by ground water, which is merely natural -drainage. Drainage water usually moves with the slope of the -land. It always dissolves part of the mineral, vegetable, and animal -matter of the ground over or through which it moves. In this way -impurities are carried into the ground water and may reach distant -wells or springs.</p> - -<div class="figright illowp44" id="fig2" style="max-width: 12.5625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig2.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—The rickety, uncomfortable, - unspeakably foul, dangerous - ground privy. Neglected by the - owner, shunned by the hired man, - avoided by the guest, who, in - preference, goes to near-by fields - or woods, polluter of wells, meeting - place of house flies and disease - germs, privies of this character - abide only because of man's indifference</div> -</div> - -<p>The great safeguards are clean ground and wide separation of the -well from probable channels of impure drainage water. It is not -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[ 5 ]</span> -enough that a well or spring is 50 or 150 feet from a source of filth -or that it is on higher ground. Given porous ground, a seamy ledge, -or long-continued pollution of one plat of land, the zone of contamination -is likely to extend long distances, particularly in downhill -directions or when the water is low through drought or heavy pumping. -Only when the surface of the -water in a well or spring is at a -higher level at all times than any -near-by source of filth is there assurance -of safety from impure seepage. -Some of the foregoing facts are shown -diagrammatically in <a href="#fig3">Figure 3</a>. <a href="#fig4">Figure 4</a> is typical of those insanitary, -poorly drained barnyards that are -almost certain to work injury to wells -situated in or near them. Accumulations -of filth result in objectionable -odor and noxious drainage. <a href="#fig5">Figure 5</a> -illustrates poor relative location of -privy, cesspool, and well.</p> - -<p>Sewage or impure drainage water -should never be discharged into or -upon ground draining toward a well, -spring, or other source of water supply. -Neither should such wastes be -discharged into openings in rock, an -abandoned well, nor a hole, cesspool, -vault, or tank so located that pollution -can escape into water-bearing earth -or rock. Whatever the system of -sewage disposal, it should be entirely -and widely separated from the water -supply. Further information on locating -and constructing wells is given in -Farmers' Bulletin 1448-F, Farmstead -Water Supply, copies of which may -be had upon request to the Division -of Publications, Department of Agriculture.</p> - -<p>Enough has been said to bring home to the reader these vital -points:</p> - -<p class="smaller">1. Never allow the farm sewage or excrements, even in minutest quantity, -to reach the food or water of man or livestock.</p> - -<p class="smaller">2. Never expose such wastes so that they can be visited by flies or other -carriers of disease germs.</p> - -<p class="smaller">3. Never use such wastes to fertilize or irrigate vegetable gardens.</p> - -<p class="smaller">4. Never discharge or throw such wastes into a stream, pond, or abandoned -well, nor into a gutter, ditch, or tile drainage system, which naturally must -have outlet in some watercourse.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[ 6 ]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig3" style="max-width: 27.9375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig3.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>—How an apparently good well may draw foul - drainage. Arrows show direction of ground water movement. <i>A-A</i>, Usual - water table (surface of free water in the ground); <i>B-B</i>, water table - lowered by drought and pumping from well <i>D</i>; <i>C-C</i>, water table further - lowered by drought and heavy pumping; <i>E-F</i>, level line from surface of - sewage in cesspool. Well <i>D</i> is safe until the water table is lowered to - <i>E</i>; further lowering draws drainage from the cesspool and, with the water - table at <i>C-C</i>, from the barn. The location of well <i>G</i> renders it unsafe - always.</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig4" style="max-width: 27.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig4.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>—An insanitary, poorly drained barnyard. (Board of Health, Milwaukee.) - Liquid manure or other foul drainage is sure to leach into wells situated in or - near barnyards of this character</div> -</div> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="HOW_SEWAGE_DECOMPOSES">HOW SEWAGE DECOMPOSES</h2> -</div> - - -<p>When a bottle of fresh sewage is kept in a warm room changes occur -in the appearance and nature of the liquid. At first it is light in -appearance and its odor is slight. It is well supplied with oxygen, -since this gas is always found in waters exposed to the atmosphere. -In a few hours the solids in the sewage separate mechanically according -to their relative weights; sediment collects at the bottom, and a -greasy film covers the surface. In a day's time there is an enormous -development of bacteria, which obtain their food supply from the dissolved -carbonaceous and nitrogenous matter. As long as free oxygen -is present this action is spoken of as aërobic decomposition. There is -a gradual increase in the amount of ammonia and a decrease of free -oxygen. When the ammonia is near the maximum and the free oxygen -is exhausted the sewage is said to be stale. Following exhaustion -of the oxygen supply, bacterial life continues profuse, but it -gradually diminishes as a result of reduction of its food supply and -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[ 7 ]</span> -the poisonous effects of its own wastes. In the absence of oxygen the -bacterial action is spoken of as anaërobic decomposition. The sewage -turns darker and becomes more offensive. Suspended and settled -organic substances break apart or liquefy later, and various foul-smelling -gases are liberated. Sewage in this condition is known as -septic and the putrefaction that has taken place is called septicization. -Most of the odor eventually disappears, and a dark, insoluble, -mosslike substance remains as a deposit. Complete reduction of this -deposit may require many years.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig5" style="max-width: 28.5625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig5.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>—Poor relative locations of privy, cesspool, and well. (State Department of - Health, Massachusetts.) Never allow privy, cesspool, or sink drainage to escape - into the plot of ground from which the water supply comes</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="IMPORTANCE_OF_AIR_IN_TREATMENT_OF_SEWAGE">IMPORTANCE OF AIR IN TREATMENT OF SEWAGE</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Decomposition of organic matter by bacterial agency is not a -complete method of treating sewage, as will be shown later under -"Septic tanks." It is sufficient to observe here that in all practical -methods of treatment aeration plays a vital part. The air or the -sewage, or both, must be in a finely divided state, as when sewage -percolates through the interstices of a porous, air-filled soil. The -principle involved was clearly stated 30 years ago by Hiram F. Mills, -a member of the Massachusetts State Board of Health. In discussing -the intermittent filtration of sewage through gravel stones too -coarse to arrest even the coarsest particles in the sewage Mr. Mills -said: "The slow movement of the sewage in thin films over the -surface of the stones, with air in contact, caused a removal for some -months of 97 per cent of the organic nitrogenous matter, as well -as 99 per cent of the bacteria."</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[ 8 ]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PRACTICAL_UTILITIES">PRACTICAL UTILITIES</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Previous discussion has dealt largely with basic principles of -sanitation. The construction and operation of simple utilities embodying -some of these principles are discussed in the following order: -(1) Privies for excrements only; (2) works for handling wastes -where a supply of water is available for flushing.</p> - - -<h3>PIT PRIVY</h3> - -<p><a href="#fig6">Figure 6</a> shows a portable pit privy suitable for places of the -character of that shown in <a href="#fig1">figure 1</a>, where land is abundant and -cheap, and in such localities has proved practical. It provides, at -minimum cost and with least attention, a fixed place for depositing -excretions where the filth can not be tracked by man, spread by -animals, reached by flies, nor washed by rain.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp93" id="fig6" style="max-width: 25.6875em;"> - <a href="images/fig6lrg.png"><img class="w100" src="images/fig6.png" alt="" /></a> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>—Portable pit privy. For use where land is abundant and cheap, but unless - handled with judgment can not be regarded as safe. The privy is mounted on - runners for convenience in moving to new locations<br />Click on image to view larger size.</div> -</div> - -<p>The privy is light and inexpensive and is placed over a pit in the -ground. When the pit becomes one-half or two-thirds full the privy -is drawn or carried to a new location. The pit should be shallow, -preferably not over 2½ feet in depth, and never should be located in -wet ground or rock formation or where the surface or the strata slope -toward a well, spring, or other source of domestic water supply. -Besides standing on lower ground the pit should never be within 200 -feet of a well or spring. Since dryness in the pit is essential, the -ground should be raised slightly and 10 or 12 inches of earth should -be banked and compacted against all sides to shed rain water. The -banking also serves to exclude flies. If the soil is sandy or gravelly, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[ 9 ]</span> -the pit should be lined with boards or pales to prevent caving. The -standard galvanized or black enameled wire cloth having 14 squares -to the inch. The whole seat should be easily removable for cleaning. -A little loose absorbent soil should be added daily to the accumulation -in the pit, and when a pit is abandoned it should be filled -immediately with dry earth mounded to shed water.</p> - -<p>A pit privy for use in field work, consisting of a framework of -½-inch iron pipe for corner posts connected at the top with ¼-inch -iron rods bent at the ends to right angles and hung with curtains of -unbleached muslin, is described in Public Health Report of the -United States Public Health Service, July 26, 1918.</p> - -<p>A pit privy, even if moved often, can not be regarded as safe. -The danger is that accumulations of waste may overtax the purifying -capacity of the soil and the teachings reach wells or springs. -Sloping ground is not a guaranty of safety; the great safeguard lies -in locating the privy a long distance from the water supply and as -far below it as possible.</p> - - -<h3>SANITARY PRIVY</h3> - -<p>The next step in evolution is the sanitary privy. Its construction -must be such that it is practically impossible for filth or germs to -be spread above ground, to escape by percolation underground, or to -be accessible to flies, vermin, chickens, or animals. Furthermore, it -must be cared for in a cleanly manner, else it ceases to be sanitary. -To secure these desirable ends sanitarians have devised numerous -types of tight-receptacle privy. Considering the small cost and the -proved value of some of these types, it is to be regretted that few -are seen on American farms.</p> - -<p>The container for a sanitary privy may be small—for example, a -galvanized-iron pail or garbage can, to be removed from time to -time by hand; it may be large, as a barrel or a metal tank mounted -for moving; or it may be a stationary underground metal tank or -masonry vault. The essential requirement in the receptacle is permanent -water-tightness to prevent pollution of soils and wells. -Wooden pails or boxes, which warp and leak, should not be used. -Where a vault is used it should be shallow to facilitate emptying -and cleaning. Moreover, if the receptacle should leak it is better -that the escape of liquid should be in the top soil, where air and -bacterial life are most abundant.</p> - -<p>Sanitary privies are classified according to the method used in -treating the excretions, as dry earth, chemical, etc.</p> - - -<h3>DRY-EARTH PRIVY</h3> - -<p><b>Pail type.</b>—A very serviceable pail privy is shown in Figures <a href="#fig7">7</a> and <a href="#fig8">8</a>. -The method of ventilation is an adaptation of a system that -has proved very effective in barns and other buildings here and -abroad. A flue with a clear opening of 16 square inches rises from -the rear of the seat and terminates above the ridgepole in a cowl or -small roofed housing. Attached to this flue is a short auxiliary duct, -4 by 15 inches, for removing foul air from the top of the privy. In -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[ 10 ]</span> -its upper portion on the long sides the cowl is open, allowing free -movement of air across the top of the flue. In addition, the long -sides of the cowl are open below next to the roof. These two openings, -with the connecting vertical air passages, permit free upward -movement of air through the cowl, as indicated by the arrows. The -combined effect is to create draft from beneath the seat and from the -top of the privy. The ventilating flue is 2 by 8 inches at the seat -and 4 by 4 inches 5 feet above. The taper slightly increases the -labor of making the flue, but permits a 2-inch reduction in the length -of the building.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig7" style="max-width: 25.9375em;"> - <a href="images/fig7lrg.png"><img class="w100" src="images/fig7.png" alt="" /></a> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>—Pail privy. Well constructed, ventilated, and screened. With proper care is sanitary - and unobjectionable<br />Click on image to view larger size.</div> -</div> - -<p>In plan the privy is 4 by 4½ feet. The sills are secured to durable -posts set about 4 feet in the ground. The boarding is tight, and all -vents and windows are screened to exclude insects. The screens may -be the same as for pit privies or, if a more lasting material is desired, -bronze or copper screening of 14 squares to the inch may be used. -The entire seat is hinged, thus permitting removal of the receptacle -and facilitating cleaning and washing the underside of the seat and -the destruction of spiders and other insects which thrive in dark, unclean -places. The receptacle is a heavy galvanized-iron garbage can. -Heavy brown-paper bags for lining the can may be had at slight -cost, and their use helps to keep the can clean and facilitates emptying. -Painting with black asphaltum serves a similar purpose and -protects the can from rust. If the contents are frozen, a little heat -releases them. Of nonfreezing mixtures a strong brine made with -common salt or calcium chloride is effective. Two and one-half to 3 -pounds of either thoroughly dissolved in a gallon of water lowers the -freezing point of the mixture to about zero. Denatured alcohol or -wood alcohol in a 25 per cent solution has a like low freezing point -and the additional merit of being noncorrosive of metals. The can -should be emptied frequently and the contents completely buried in -a thin layer by a plow or in a shallow hand-dug trench at a point -below and remote from wells and springs. Wherever intestinal disease -exists the contents of the can should be destroyed by burning -or made sterile before burial by boiling or by incorporation with a -strong chemical disinfectant.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[ 11 ]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="fig8" style="max-width: 26.4375em;"> - <a href="images/fig8lrg.png"><img class="w100" src="images/fig8.png" alt="" /></a> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>—Pail privy<br />Click on image to view larger size.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[ 12 ]</span></p> - -<div class="figleft illowp49" id="fig9" style="max-width: 10.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig9.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>—A well-ventilated privy in Montana</div> -</div> - -<p>A privy ventilated in the manner before described is shown in -<a href="#fig9">Figure 9</a>. The cowl, however, is open on four sides instead of two -sides as shown in Figures <a href="#fig7">7</a> and <a href="#fig8">8</a>. The working drawings (figs. -<a href="#fig7">7</a> and <a href="#fig8">8</a>) show that the construction of a privy of the kind is not -difficult. <a href="#fig10">Figure 10</a> gives three suggestions whereby a privy may -be conveniently located and the approach -screened or partially hidden by -latticework, vines, or shrubbery.</p> - -<p><b>Vault type.</b>—A primitive and yet -serviceable three-seat dry-earth privy -of the vault type is shown in <a href="#fig11">Figure 11</a>. This privy was constructed in -1817 upon a farm at Westboro, Mass. -The vault, made of bricks, was 6 feet -long by 5 feet wide, and the bottom -was 1 foot below the surface of the -ground. The brickwork was laid in -mortar, and the part below the ground -surface was plastered on the inside. -The outside of the vault was exposed -to light and air on all four sides. -Across the long side of the vault in -the rear was a door swinging upward -through which the night soil was removed -two or three times a year, -usually in the spring, summer, and -fall and hauled to a near-by field, -where it was deposited in a furrow, -just ahead of the plow.</p> - -<p>Especial attention is called to the shallowness of the vault and the -lightened labor of cleaning it out. The swinging door at the rear -facilitated the sprinkling of dry soil or ashes over the contents of the -vault, thus avoiding the necessity of carrying dirt and dust into the -building and dust settling upon the seat. This privy was in use for -nearly 100 years without renewal or repairs. When last seen the -original seat, which always was kept painted, showed no signs of -decay. Modern methods would call for a concrete vault of guaranteed -water-tightness,<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> proper ventilation and screening, and hinging -the seat.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Directions for mixing and placing concrete to secure water-tightness are contained in -Farmers' Bulletin 1279-F, "Plain concrete for farm use," and Farmers' Bulletin 1572-F, -"Making Cellars Dry."</p></div> - -<p>Working drawings for a very convenient well-built two-seat vault -privy are reproduced in Figures <a href="#fig12">12</a> and <a href="#fig13">13</a>. The essential features -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[ 13 ]</span> -are shown in sufficient detail to require little explanation. With -concrete mixtures of 1:2:3 (1 volume cement, 2 volumes sand, 3 -volumes stone) for the vault and 1:2:4 for the posts there will be -required a total of about 2 cubic yards of concrete, taking 3½ barrels -of cement, 1 cubic yard of sand, and 1½ cubic yards of broken stone -or screened gravel. The stone or gravel should not exceed 1 inch -in diameter, except that a few cobblestones may be embedded where -the vault wall is thickest, thus effecting a slight saving of materials.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp41" id="fig10" style="max-width: 18.9375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig10.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>—Screening the approach to a privy. <i>A</i>, Raised platform - with lattice sides, suitable for short distances, convenient, and easily - cleared of snow; <i>B</i>, walk hidden by latticework; <i>C</i>, walk inclosed by an arbor</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[ 14 ]</span></p> - - -<h3>CHEMICAL CLOSET</h3> - -<div class="figleft illowp43" id="fig11" style="max-width: 15.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig11.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>—A primitive vault privy in Massachusetts. - Note the tight, shallow, easily cleaned vault. <i>A</i>, - Brick vault 5 by 6 feet, bottom about 1 foot in the - ground; <i>B</i>, water-tight plastering; <i>C</i>, rowlock - course of brick; <i>D</i>, door hinged at top; <i>E</i>, door - button; <i>F</i>, three-pane window hinged at top; - <i>G</i>, passageway</div> -</div> - -<p>A type of sanitary privy in which the excrements are received directly -into a water-tight receptacle containing chemical disinfectant -is meeting with considerable favor for camps, parks, rural cottages, -schools, hotels, and railway stations. These chemical closets,<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> as they -are called, are made in -different forms and are -known by various trade -names. In the simplest -form a sheet-metal receptacle -is concealed in a -small metal or wooden -cabinet, and the closet is -operated usually in much -the same manner as the ordinary -pail privy. These -closets are very simple and -compact, of good appearance, -and easy to install or -move from place to place. -In another type, known as -the chemical tank closet, -the receptacle is a steel -tank fixed in position underground -or in a basement. -The tank has a -capacity of about 125 gallons -per seat, is provided -with a hand-operated agitator -to secure thorough -mixing of the chemical -and the excretions, and -the contents are bailed, -pumped, or drained out -from time to time.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> Among publications on chemical closets are the following: "Chemical closets," Reprint -No. 404 from the Public Health Reports, U. S. Public Health Service, June 29, 1917, pp. -1017-1020: "The chemical closet," Engineering Bulletin No. 5, Mich. State Board of -Health, October, 1916; Health Bulletin, Va. Department of Health, March, 1917, PP. -214-219.</p></div> - -<p>Chemical closets, like -every form of privy, -should be well installed, -cleanly operated, and frequently -emptied, and the -wastes should receive safe -burial. With the exception -of frequency of emptying, -the same can be said -of chemical tank closets. With both forms of closet thorough ventilation -or draft is essential, and this is obtained usually by connecting -the closet vent pipe to a chimney flue or extending it well above the -ridgepole of the building. The contents of the container should -always be submerged and very low temperatures guarded against.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[ 15 ]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp95" id="fig12" style="max-width: 33.625em;"> - <a href="images/fig12lrg.png"><img class="w100" src="images/fig12.png" alt="" /></a> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>—Two-seat vault privy<br /> - Click on image to view larger size.</div> -</div> - -<p>As to the germicidal results obtained in chemical closets, few data -are available. A disinfecting compound may not sterilize more than -a thin surface layer of the solid matter deposited. Experiments by -Dr. Alvah H. Doty with various agents recommended and widely -used for the bedside sterilization of feces showed "that at the end of -20 hours of exposure to the disinfectant but one-eighth of an inch of -the fecal mass was disinfected."<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> Plainly, then, to destroy all bacterial -and parasitic life in chemical closets three things are necessary: -(1) A very powerful agent; (2) permeation of the fecal mass by the -agent; (3) retention of its strength and potency until permeation is -complete. The compounds or mixtures commonly used in chemical -closets are of two general kinds: First, those in which some coal-tar -product or other oily disinfectant is used to destroy germs and -deodorize, leaving the solids little changed in form; second, those of -the caustic class that dissolve the solids, which, if of sufficient -strength and permeating every portion, should destroy most if not -all bacterial life. Not infrequently the chemical solution is intended -to accomplish disinfection, deodorization, and reduction to a liquid or -semiliquid state. Ordinary caustic soda, costing about $1 in 10-pound pails, -has given good results.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> Annual Report, Mass. State Board of Health, 1914, p. 727.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[ 16 ]</span></p> - -<p>A simple type of chemical closet is shown in <a href="#fig14">Figure 14</a>, and the -essential features are indicated in the notation. These closets with -vent pipe and appurtenances, ready for setting up, retail for $20 and -upward. A chemical tank closet, retailing for about $80 per seat, is -shown in <a href="#fig15">Figure 15</a>.</p> - -<p>The Department of Agriculture occasionally receives complaints -from people who have installed chemical closets, usually on the score -of odors or the cost of chemicals.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig13" style="max-width: 34.1875em;"> - <a href="images/fig13lrg.png"><img class="w100" src="images/fig13.png" alt="" /></a> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>—Two-seat-vault privy. Note the shallow, water-tight, easily cleaned concrete vault<br /> - Click on image to view larger size.</div> -</div> - - -<h3>DISINFECTANTS AND DEODORANTS</h3> - -<p>Disinfection is the destruction of disease germs. Sterilization is -the destruction of all germs or bacteria, both the harmful and the -useful. Antisepsis is the checking or restraining of bacterial -growth. Deodorization is the destruction of odor. Unfortunately -in practice none of these processes may be complete. The agent may -be of inferior quality, may have lost its potency, or may not reach -all parts of the mass treated. A disinfectant or germicide is an -agent capable of destroying disease germs; an antiseptic is an agent -merely capable of arresting bacterial growth, and it may be a dilute -disinfectant; a deodorant is an agent that tends to destroy odor, but -whose action may consist in absorbing odor or in masking the original -odor with another more agreeable one.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> Those desiring more explicit information on disinfectants and the principles of -disinfection are referred to U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin 926, "Some -Common Disinfectants," and 954, "The Disinfection of Stables." and to publications of -the U. S. Public Health Service.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[ 17 ]</span></p> - -<p>Of active disinfecting agents, heat from fire, live steam, and boiling -water are the surest. The heat generated by the slaking of quicklime -has proved effective with small quantities of excreta. Results -of tests by the Massachusetts State Board of -Health<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> show that the preferable method consists -in adding sufficient hot water (120° to 140° -F.) to cover the excrement in the receptacle, -then adding small pieces of fresh strong quicklime in amount equal -to about one-third of the bulk of water and excrement combined, -covering the receptacle, and allowing it to stand 1½ hours or longer.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> Annual Report, Mass. State Board of Health, 1914, pp. 727-729.</p></div> - -<table summary="Chemical Closet"> -<tr> - <td> - <div class="figcenter illowe6_5" id="fig14"><img class="w100" src="images/fig14.png" alt="" /></div> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>—Chemical - closet. <i>A</i>, Water-tight sheet-metal - container; <i>B</i>, metal - or wooden cabinet; - <i>C</i>, wooden or composition seat ring; - <i>D</i>, hinged cover; <i>E</i>, - 3 or 4 inch ventilating - flue extending 18 inches above - roof or to a chimney; - <i>F</i>, air inlets</div> - </td> - <td> - <div class="figcenter illowe14_875" id="fig15"><img class="w100" src="images/fig15.png" alt="" /></div> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>—Chemical tank closet. <i>A</i>, Tank, 2 feet - 3 inches by 4 feet 2 inches <sup>5</sup>⁄<sub>64</sub>th-inch iron, - seams welded; capacity, 125 gallons; <i>B</i>, 14-inch - covered opening for recharging and emptying - tank; <i>C</i>, 12-inch galvanized sheet-metal tube; - <i>D</i>, 4-inch sheet-metal ventilating pipe extending - above ridgepole or to a chimney; <i>E</i>, agitator - or paddle</div> - </td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>Among chemical disinfectants a strong solution of sodium hydroxide -(caustic soda) or potassium hydroxide (caustic potash, lye) is -very effective and is useful in dissolving grease and other organic -substances. Both chemicals are costly, but caustic soda is less expensive -than caustic potash and constitutes most of the ordinary -commercial lyes. Chlorinated lime (chloride of lime, bleaching -powder) either in solution or in powdered form is valuable. For -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[ 18 ]</span> -the disinfection of stools of typhoid-fever patients the Virginia -State Board of Health<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> recommends thoroughly dissolving ½ -pound of best chlorinated lime in 1 gallon of water and allowing -the solution to cover the feces for at least 1 hour. The solution -should be kept in well-stoppered bottles and used promptly, certainly -within 2 or 3 days. Copper sulphate (blue vitriol, bluestone) -in a 5 per cent solution (1 pound in 2½ gallons of water) is a good -but rather costly disinfectant. None of the formulas here given -is to be construed as fixed and precise. Conditions may vary the -proportions, as they always will vary the results. The reader should -remember that few, if any, chemical disinfectants can be expected -fully to disinfect or sterilize large masses of excrement unless the -agent is used repeatedly and in liberal quantities or mechanical -means are employed to secure thorough incorporation.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> Health Bulletin, Va. State Board of Health, June, 1917, pp. 277-280.</p></div> - -<p>Among deodorants some of the drying powders mentioned below -possess more or less disinfecting power. Chlorinated lime, though -giving off an unpleasant odor of chlorine, is employed extensively. -Lime in the form of either quicklime or milk of lime (whitewash) -is much used and is an active disinfectant. To prepare milk of lime -a small quantity of water is slowly added to good fresh quicklime -in lumps. As soon as the quicklime is slaked a quantity of water, -about four times the quantity of lime, is added and stirred thoroughly. -When used as a whitewash the milk of lime is thinned as -desired with water and kept well stirred. Liberal use of milk of -lime in a vault or cesspool, though it may not disinfect the contents, -is of use in checking bacterial growth and abating odor. To give the -best results it should be used frequently, beginning when the vault or -cesspool is empty. Iron sulphate (green vitriol, copperas) because -of its affinity for ammonia and sulphides is used as a temporary -deodorizer in vaults, cesspools, and drains; 1 pound dissolved in 4 -gallons of water makes a solution of suitable strength.</p> - - -<h3>PREVENTION OF PRIVY NUISANCE</h3> - -<p>The following is a summary of simple measures for preventing a -privy from becoming a nuisance:</p> - -<p class="smaller">1. Locate the privy inconspicuously and detached from the dwelling.</p> - -<p class="smaller">2. Make the receptacle or vault small, shallow, easy of access, and water-tight.</p> - -<p class="smaller">3. Clean out the vault often. Do not wait until excrement has accumulated -and decomposition is sufficiently advanced to cause strong and foul odors.</p> - -<p class="smaller">4. Sprinkle into the vault daily loose dry soil, ashes, lime, sawdust, ground -gypsum (land plaster), or powdered peat or charcoal. These will absorb liquid -and odor, though they may not destroy disease germs.</p> - -<p class="smaller">5. Make the privy house rain-proof; ventilate it thoroughly, and screen all -openings.</p> - - -<h3>OBJECTION TO PRIVIES</h3> - -<p>All the methods of waste disposal heretofore described are open to -the following objections:</p> - -<p class="smaller">1. They do not take care of kitchen slops and liquid wastes incident to a -pressure water system.</p> - -<p class="smaller">2. They retain filth for a considerable period of time, with probability of -odors and liability of transmission of disease germs.</p> - -<p class="smaller">3. They require more personal attention and care than people generally are -willing to give.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[ 19 ]</span></p> - -<p>By far the most satisfactory method yet devised of caring for -sewage calls for a supply of water and the flushing away of all -wastes as soon as created through a water-tight sewer to a place -where they undergo treatment and final disposal.</p> - - -<h3>KITCHEN-SINK DRAINAGE</h3> - -<p>A necessity in every dwelling is effective disposal of the kitchen-sink -slops. This necessity ordinarily arises long before the farm -home is supplied with water under pressure and the conveniences -that go with it. Hence the first call for information on sewage disposal -is likely to relate merely to sink drainage. This waste water, -though it may not be as dangerous to health as sewage containing -human excrements, is still a menace to the farm well and capable of -creating disagreeable odor.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig16" style="max-width: 25.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig16.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>—How to waste kitchen-sink drainage. <i>A</i>, Sink; - <i>B</i>, waste pipe; <i>C</i>, trap; <i>D</i>, clean-out; <i>E</i>, box filled with hay, - straw, sawdust, excelsior, coke, or other insulating material; <i>F</i>, 4-inch - vitrified sewer-pipe, hubs uphill, and joints made water tight for at - least 100 feet downhill from a well; <i>G</i>, 4-inch vitrified sewer pipe, - hubs downhill, joints slightly open, laid in an 18-inch bed of coarse - sand, gravel, stone, broken brick, slag, cinders, or coke; <i>H</i>, strip of tarred - paper on burlap or a thin layer of hay, straw, cornstalks, brush, or sods, - grass side down; <i>I</i>, 12 inches of natural soil; <i>J</i>, stone-filled pit. - As here illustrated, water is drawn by a pitcher or kitchen pump (<i>K</i>) - through a 1¼ or 1½ inch galvanized-iron suction pipe (<i>L</i>) from a - cistern (<i>M</i>). The suction pipe should be laid below frost and on a smooth - upward grade from cistern to pump and be provided with a foot valve (<i>N</i>) - to keep the pump primed. If a foot valve is used, pump and pipe must be - safe from frost or other means than tripping the pump be provided for - draining the system</div> -</div> - -<p>The usual method of disposing of sink slops is to allow them to -dribble on or beneath the surface of the ground close to the house. -Such drainage should be taken in a water-tight carrier at least 100 -feet downhill from the well and discharged below the surface of the -ground. Every sink should be provided with a suitable screen to -keep all large particles out of the waste pipe. An approved form of -sink strainer consists of a brass plate bolted in position over the outlet -and having at least 37 perforations not larger than one-fourth -inch in diameter. Provided a sink is thus equipped and is given -proper care and the land has fair slope and drainage, the waste water -may be conducted away through a water-tight sewer and distributed -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[ 20 ]</span> -in the soil by means of a short blind drain. A simple installation, -consisting of a kitchen-sink and pump and means of disposal as -described, is shown in <a href="#fig16">Figure 16</a>.</p> - - -<h3><a id="CESSPOOLS"></a>CESSPOOLS</h3> - -<p>Where farms have water under pressure an open or leaching cesspool -is a common method of disposing of the sewage. Ordinary -cesspools are circular excavations in the ground, lined with stone or -brick laid without mortar. They vary from 5 to 10 feet in diameter -and from 7 to 12 feet in depth. Sometimes the top is arched and -capped at the ground surface by a cover of wood, stone, or cast-iron. -At other times the walls are carried straight up and boards or planks -are laid across for a cover, and the entire structure is hidden with a -hedge or shrubbery.</p> - -<p>Except under the most favorable conditions the construction and -use of a cesspool can not be condemned too strongly. They are only -permissible where no other arrangement is possible. Leaching cesspools -especially are open to these serious objections:</p> - -<p>1. Unless located in porous soil, stagnation is likely to occur, -and failure of the liquid to seep away may result in overflow on -the Surface of the ground and the creation of a nuisance and a -menace.</p> - -<p>2. They retain a mass of filth in a decomposing condition deep in -the ground, where it is but slightly affected by the bacteria and air -of the soil. In seeping through the ground it may be strained, but -there can be no assurance that the foul liquid, with little improvement -in its condition, may not pass into the ground water and pollute -wells and springs situated long distances away in the direction of -underground flow.</p> - -<p>For the purpose of avoiding soil and ground-water pollution cesspools -have been made of water-tight construction and the contents -removed by bailing or pumping. Upon the farm, however, this type -of construction has little to recommend it, for the reason that facilities -for removing and disposing of the contents in a clean manner are -lacking.</p> - -<p>In some instances cesspools have been made water-tight, the outflow -being effected by three or four elbows or <b>T</b> branches set in the -masonry near the top, with the inner ends turned down below the -water surface, the whole surrounded to a thickness of several feet -with stone or gravel intended to act as a filtering medium. Tests of -the soil water adjacent to cesspools of this type show that no reliance -should be placed upon them as a means of purifying sewage, the -fatal defects being constant saturation with sewage and lack of air -supply. To the extent that the submerged outlets keep back grease -and solid matters the scheme is of service in preventing clogging of -the pores of the surrounding ground.</p> - -<p>Where the ground about a cesspool has become clogged and water-logged, -relief is often secured by laying several lines of drain tile -at shallow depth, radiating from the cesspool. The ends of the pipes -within the cesspool should turn down, and it is advantageous to surround -the lines of pipe with stones or coarse gravel, as shown in -<a href="#fig16">Figure 16</a> and discussed under "<a href="#SEPTIC_TANKS">Septic tanks.</a>" In this way not only -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[ 21 ]</span> -is the area of percolation extended, but aeration and partial purification -of the sewage are effected.</p> - -<p>Where a cesspool is located at a distance from a dwelling and there -is opportunity to lead a vent pipe up the side of a shed, barn, or any -stable object it is advisable to do so for purposes of ventilation. -Where the conditions are less favorable it may be best, because of -the odor, to omit any direct vent pipe from the cesspool and rely for -ventilation on the house sewer and main soil stack extending above -the roof of the house.</p> - -<p>Cesspools should be emptied and cleaned at least once a year and -the contents given safe burial or, with the requisite permission, wasted -in some municipal sewerage system. After cleaning, the walls and -bottom may be treated with a disinfectant or a deodorant.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="SEPTIC_TANKS">SEPTIC TANKS</h2> -</div> - -<p>A tight, underground septic tank with shallow distribution of the -effluent in porous soil generally is the safest and least troublesome -method of treating sewage upon the farm, while at the same time -more or less of the irrigating and manurial value of the sewage may -be realized.</p> - -<p>The late Professor Kinnicutt used to say that a septic tank is -"simply a cesspool, regulated and controlled." The reactions described -under the captions "<a href="#HOW_SEWAGE_DECOMPOSES">How sewage decomposes</a>" and "<a href="#CESSPOOLS">Cesspools</a>" -take place in septic tanks.</p> - -<p>In all sewage tanks, whatever their size and shape, a portion of -the solid matter, especially if the sewage contains much grease, floats -as scum on the liquid, the heavier solids settle to form sludge, while -finely divided solids and matter in a state of emulsion are held in -suspension. If the sludge is retained in the bottom of the tank and -converted or partly converted into liquids and gases, the tank is called -a septic tank and the process is known as septicization. The process -is sometimes spoken of as one of digestion or rotting.</p> - -<p><b>History.</b>—Prototypes of the septic tank were known in Europe -nearly 50 years ago. Between 1876 and 1393 a number of closed -tanks with submerged inlets and outlets embodying the principle of -storage of sewage and liquefaction of the solids were built in the -United States and Canada. It was later seen that many of the early -claims for the septic process were extravagant. In recent years -septic tanks have been used mainly in small installations, or, where -employed in large installations, the form has been modified to secure -digestion of the sludge in a separate compartment, thus in a measure -obviating disadvantages that exist where septicization takes place in -the presence of the entering fresh sewage.</p> - -<p><b>Purposes.</b>—The purposes of a septic tank are to receive all the farm -sewage, as defined on <a href="#SEWAGE_SEWERS_AND_SEWERAGE_DEFINED">page 1</a>, hold it in a quiet state for a time, thus -causing partial settlement of the solids, and by nature's processes -of decomposition insure, as fully as may be, the destruction of the -organic matter.</p> - -<p><b>Limitations.</b>—That a septic tank is a complete method of sewage -treatment is a widespread but wrong impression. A septic tank -does not eliminate odor and does not destroy all organic solids. On -the contrary, foul odors developed, and of all the suspended matter in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[ 22 ]</span> -the sewage about one-third escapes with the effluent, about one-third -remains in the tank, and about one-third only is destroyed or reduced -to liquids and gases. The effluent is foul and dangerous. It may -contain even more bacteria than the raw sewage, since the process -involves intensive growths. As to the effects upon the growth and -virulence of disease germs little is known definitely. It is not believed -that such germs multiply under the conditions prevailing in a -septic tank. If disease germs are present, many of their number -along with other bacteria may pass through with the flow or may be -enmeshed in the settling solids and there survive a long time. Hence -the farmer should safeguard wells and springs from the seepage or -discharges from a septic tank as carefully as from those of cesspools.</p> - -<p><b>Further treatment of effluents.</b>—The effluent of a septic tank or any -other form of sewage tank is foul and dangerous. Whether or not -the solids are removed by screening, by short periods of rest, as in -plain or modified forms of settling tanks, or by longer quiescence, -as in septic tanks, the effluent generally requires further treatment -to reduce the number of harmful organisms and the liability of -nuisance. This further treatment usually consists of some mode of -filtration. In the earliest example of such treatment the sewage -was used to irrigate land by either broad flooding or furrow irrigation. -By another method the sewage is distributed underground by -means of drain tile laid with open joints, as illustrated in Figures -<a href="#fig27">27</a> and <a href="#fig30">30</a>.</p> - -<p>Artificial sewage filters are composed of coarse sand, screened -gravel, broken stone, coke, or other material, and the sewage is -applied in numerous ways. Since, filtration is essentially an oxidizing -process requiring air, the sewage is applied intermittently in -doses.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> Artificial filters of various types are well described and illustrated in Public Health -Bulletin No. 101, "Studies of Methods for the Treatment and Disposal of Sewage—The -Treatment of Sewage from Single Houses and Small Communities." U. S. Public Health -Service, December, 1919.</p></div> - -<p>If properly designed and operated, filters of sand, coke, or stone -are capable of excellent results. Under the most favorable conditions -it is unwise to discharge the effluent of a sewage filter in the -near vicinity of a source of water supply. Under farm conditions -filters are usually neglected or the sewage is improperly applied, -resulting in the clogging and befouling of sand filters and the discharge -from stone filters of an effluent which is practically as dangerous -and even more offensive than raw sewage. Moreover unless the -filters are covered there are likely to be annoying odors, and there -is always the possibility of disease germs being carried by flies where -sewage is exposed in the vicinity of dwellings. Hence it seems more -practical for the farmer, avoiding the expense of earth embankments -or masonry sides and bottom for a filter bed, to waste the tank -effluent beneath the surface of such area of land as is most suitable -and available. This method of applying sewage to the soil or subsoil -is often spoken of as subirrigation, but subsoil distribution of -sewage is different in principle and practice from subirrigation for -the increase of crop yields. Subirrigation is rarely successful unless -the land is nearly level, the topsoil porous and underlaid with an -impervious stratum to hold the water within reach of plant roots,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[ 23 ]</span> -and unless a relatively large quantity of water is used and the work -is skillfully done. On the other hand, the quantity of sewage on -farms being small, it may be wasted in hilly ground, which should be -as porous, deeply drained, and dry as possible.</p> - -<p><b>Parts of a system.</b>—The four parts of a septic-tank installation with -subsurface distribution of the effluent are outlined in <a href="#fig17">Figure 17</a>: (1) -The house sewer from house to tank; (2) the sewage tank consisting -of one or more chambers; (3) the sewer from tank to distribution -field; (4) the distribution field, where the sewage is distributed and -wasted, sometimes called the absorption field. These parts will be -discussed in the order named, although the last should have the first -consideration.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig17" style="max-width: 25.0625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig17.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span>—Parts of a septic-tank installation</div> -</div> - -<p><b>House sewer.</b>—The length will vary with the slope of the ground -and position of buildings, well, and distribution field. Fifty to 100 -feet is a fair length; a greater is still more sanitary. Wherever possible -the house sewer should be laid straight in line and grade. <a href="#fig18">Figure 18</a> -shows how this work may be done. Suppose the distance from -A to E be 100 feet; that grade boards be set 25 feet apart crosswise -of the trench at A, B, C, D, and E; that the ground at A be 4 feet -lower than at E; that the top of the sewer be 2½ feet below the -surface of the ground at A and 4½ feet below the surface of the -ground at E; the fall of the sewer between A and E is 2 feet -(4 + 2½ - 4½ = 2). If the fall in 100 feet be 2 feet, in 25 feet it is -one-fourth as much, or 6 inches. Hence, grade board B is 6 inches -higher than grade board A, C is 6 inches higher than B, and so on -to E. The top edges when all the boards are set with a carpenter's -level and fastened in position should be in line. The grade thus -established may be any convenient height above the top of the proposed -sewer, and the measuring stick used to grade the pipe is cut -accordingly. This height is usually a certain number of whole feet. -Fixing the line of the sewer is a mere matter of setting nails in the -top edges of boards A and E directly over the center of the proposed -sewer and tightly stretching a fish line or grade cord; nails should -be set where the cord crosses boards B, C, and D.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[ 24 ]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig18" style="max-width: 24.5625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig18.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>—Setting line and grade for house sewer. To the observer at A the top edges of - the grade boards appear as one; the half-driven nails are set to line</div> -</div> - -<p>If the cellar or basement contains plumbing fixtures, the house -sewer should enter 1 to 2 feet below the cellar floor. If all plumbing -fixtures are on the floors above, the sewer may enter at no greater -depth than necessary to insure protection from frost outside the cellar -wall. Digging the trench and laying the pipe should begin at the -tank or lower end. The large end of the pipes, called the hub, should -face uphill, and the barrel of each pipe should have even bearing -throughout its length. Sufficient earth should be removed from beneath -the hubs to permit the joints to be made in a workmanlike -manner.</p> - -<p>The house sewer may be vitrified salt-glazed sewer pipe, concrete -pipe, or cast-iron soil pipe. The latter, with poured and calked lead -joints makes a permanently water-tight and root-proof sewer, which -always should be used where the vicinity of a well must be passed; -4, 5, or 6-inch pipe may be used, depending mainly on the fall and in -less degree on the quantity of sewage discharge. As a measure of -economy the 4-inch size is favored for iron pipe. If vitrified pipe is -used, either the 5 or 6-inch size is preferable, as these sizes are made -straighter than the 4-inch size and are less liable to obstruction. Of -the two the 5-inch size is preferable. The fall in 100 feet should -never be less than 2 feet for 4-inch size, 1½ feet for 5-inch size, 1 -foot for 6-inch size.</p> - -<p><a id="fig19"></a><a href="#fig19">Figure 19</a> shows methods of making good joints. <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>, <i>E</i>, -<i>F</i>, and <i>G</i> are ordinary sewer pipe joints; <i>H</i>, cast-iron soil pipe.</p> - -<div class="figleft illowp40" style="max-width: 17.1875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig19.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>—How to make good joints. See text for directions - and specifications</div> -</div> - -<p class="smaller"><i>A</i> shows the use of a yarning iron to pack a small strand of jute into the -joint space, thus centering the pipes and preventing the joint filler running -inside. The joint surfaces should be free of dirt and oil. The jute is cut in -lengths to go around the pipe; a small strand is soaked in neat Portland cement -grout, then twisted and wrapped around the small end of the pipe to be pushed -into the hub of the last pipe laid. After the pipe is pushed home the jute is -packed evenly to a depth of not over ½ inch, leaving about 1½ inches for the -joint filler. Old hemp rope or oakum dipped in liquid cement or paper may be -used, in place of jute, and the packing may be done with a thin file or piece -of wood.</p> - -<p class="smaller"><i>B</i> shows the use of a rubber mitten or glove to force Portland cement mortar -into the joint space. The mortar should be thoroughly and freshly mixed in the -proportion of one volume of cement to one volume of clean sand and should be -pressed and tamped to fill the joint completely.</p> - -<p class="smaller"><i>C</i> shows a section of finished joint. The fresh mortar should not be loosened -or disturbed when laying the next pipe.</p> - -<p class="smaller"><i>D</i> shows method of pouring a joint with grout, which is quicker, cheaper, and -better than using a rubber mitten. A flexible sheet-metal form or mold, oiled -to prevent the grout sticking, is clamped tightly around the joint and is completely -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[ 25 ]</span> -filled with grout consisting of equal parts of Portland cement and clean -sand mixed dry, to which water is added to produce a creamy consistency. The -pipes should not be disturbed and the form should not be removed for 24 hours.</p> - -<p class="smaller"><i>E</i> shows a section of grouted joint, well rounded out, strong, and tight.</p> - -<p class="smaller"><i>F</i> shows the use of a pipe jointer for pouring a hot filler. The pipe jointer -may be an asbestos or rubber runner or collar or a piece of garden hose clamped -around the pipe leaving a small triangular opening at the top. The jointer is -pressed firmly against the hub, and any small openings between the jointer and -pipe are smeared with plastic clay to prevent leakage of the filler. A clay dike -or funnel about 3 inches high built around the triangular opening greatly aids -rapid and complete filling of the joint space. The filler may be a commercially -prepared bituminous compound or molten sulphur and fine sand. The former -makes a slightly elastic joint; the latter a hard unyielding joint. With good -workmanship both kinds of joint are practically water-tight and root-proof, -and cost about the same as cement mortar joints. The filler is heated in an iron -kettle over a wood, coke, or coal fire. It should be well stirred, and when at a -free running consistency should be poured with a ladle large enough to fill the -joint completely at one operation. As soon as the compound cools the jointer -is removed. Sulphur-sand filler is made by mixing together dry and melting -equal volumes of ordinary powdered sulphur and very fine clean sand, preferably -the finest quicksand. A 5-inch sewer pipe joint requires from three-tenths -to nine-tenths of a pound (according to the kind of pipe) of sulphur, -worth 3 to 5 cents per pound, and a like quantity of sand. From ½ to 1½ -pounds of bituminous filler are required for a 5-inch pipe joint.</p> - -<p class="smaller"><i>G</i> shows section of finished joint.</p> - -<p class="smaller"><i>H</i> shows the use of a pouring ladle in making lead joints in cast-iron soil pipe. -This pipe is in lengths to lay 5 feet, and the metal of the barrel is ¼ inch thick. -The joint is yarned with dry jute or oakum, as described above, and is poured -full with molten, soft, pig lead to be afterwards driven tightly with hammer and -calking tools. About ¾ pound of lead for each inch in diameter of pipe is -required. Prepared cements of varying composition have proved effective and, -as they require no calking, are economical. Among the best is a finely ground, -thoroughly mixed compound of iron, sulphur, slag, and salt.</p> - -<p class="smaller"><i>I</i> is a homemade pipe jointer or clay roll for use in pouring molten lead. A -strand of jute long enough to encircle the pipe and the ends to fold back, leaving -an opening at the top, is covered with clay moistened, rolled and worked to form -a plastic rope about 1 inch in diameter. The jointer gives the very best results -but must be frequently moistened and worked to keep the clay soft and pliable. -The jointer shown in <i>F</i> is frequently used for pouring lead joints.</p> - -<p>Obstructions in house sewers are frequent. Among the causes -are broken pipes, grade insufficient to give cleansing velocities, newspaper, -rags, garbage, or other solids in the sewage, congealing of -grease in pipes and main running traps (house sewer traps), and -poor joint construction whereby rootlets grow into the sewer and -choke it. Good grade and good construction with particular care -given to the joints, will avert or lessen these troubles. The sewer -should be perfectly straight, with the interior of the joints scraped -or swabbed smooth. When the joint-filling material has set, the -hollows beneath the hubs should be filled with good earth free of -stones, well tamped or puddled in place. It is important that like -material be used at the sides of the pipe and above it for at least -1 foot. The back filling may be completed with scraper or plow. -No running trap should be placed on the house sewer, because it -is liable to become obstructed and it prevents free movement of air -through the sewer and soil stack. Conductors or drains for rain -or other clean water should never connect with the house sewer, -but should discharge into a watercourse or other outlet.</p> - -<p>Where obstruction of a house sewer occurs, use of some of the -simple tools shown in <a href="#fig20">Figure 20</a> may remedy the trouble. It is not -likely that farmers will have these appliances, except possibly some -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[ 26 ]</span> -of the augers; but some of them can be made at home or by a blacksmith, -and most of them should be obtainable for temporary use from -a well-organized town or city sewer department. The purpose of -the several tools shown is indicated in the notation.</p> - -<p><b>The tank.</b>—The septic tank should be in an isolated location at least -50 to 100 feet from any dwelling. This is not always possible, -because of flat ground, but in many such instances reasonable distance -and fall may be secured by raising both the house sewer and -tank and embanking them with earth. Cases are known where tanks -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[ 27 ]</span> -adjoin cellar or basement walls and the top of the tank is used as a -doorstep; in other cases tanks have been constructed within buildings. -Such practices are bad. It is difficult to construct an absolutely -water-tight masonry tank, and still more difficult to make it proof -against the passage of sewer odors.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp72" id="fig20" style="max-width: 26.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig20.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>—Sewer-cleaning tools—how to use them. <i>A</i>, Ordinary 1½ or 2 inch auger - welded to a piece 1¾-inch extra strong wrought pipe about 5 feet long: the stem - is lengthened by adding other pieces of pipe with screw couplings, and is fitted - with a pipe handle; all cleaning work should proceed upstream; <i>B</i>, twist or open - earth auger; <i>C</i>, ribbon or closed earth auger; <i>D</i>, spiral or coal auger; <i>E</i>, ship - auger; <i>F</i>, root cutter; <i>G</i>, sewer rods, with hook coupling, usually of hickory or - ash 1 or 1¼ inches in diameter and 3 or 4 feet long; <i>H</i>, gouge for cutting obstructions; - <i>I</i>, scoop for removing sand or similar material; <i>J</i>, claw, and <i>K</i>, screw, for - removing paper and rags; <i>L</i>, scraper; <i>M</i>, wire brush for removing grease, drawn - back and forth with a wire or rope; <i>N</i>, homemade wire brush (for a 5-inch sewer - use a 1½-inch wooden pole to which is securely tacked a piece of heavy rubber, - canvas, or leather belting or harness leather 5½ by 8 inches, spirally studded, as - shown, with ordinary wire nails 1½ inches in length)</div> -</div> - -<p>In Northern States, particularly in exposed situations, it is desirable -to have the top of the tank 1 to 2 feet underground, thus promoting -warmth and uniformity of temperature in the sewage. In -Southern States this feature is less important, and the top of the -tank may be flush with the ground. Every tank should be tightly -covered, for the reasons above stated and to guard against the spread<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[ 28 ]</span> -of odors, the transmission of disease germs by flies, and accidents to -children.</p> - -<p>Considerable latitude is allowable in the design and construction -of septic tanks. No particular shape or exact dimensions can be -presented for a given number of people. One family of 5 persons -may use as much water as another family of 10 persons; hence the -quantity of sewage rather than the number of persons is the better -basis of design. Exact dimensions are not requisite, for settlement -and septicization proceed whether the sewage is held a few hours -more or a few hours less. As to materials of construction, some form -of masonry, either brick, building tile, rubble, concrete, or cement -block, is employed generally. Vitrified pipe, steel, and wood have -been used occasionally.</p> - -<div class="figleft illowp100" id="fig21" style="max-width: 17.3125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig21.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>—One-chamber septic tank—does nothing more - than a tight cesspool. Brick construction, heavily - plastered inside; size suitable for 180 to 280 gallons - of sewage daily (nominally 4 to 7 persons)</div> -</div> - -<p>A plant for use all year round should have two chambers, one to -secure settlement and septicization of the solids and the other to -secure periodic discharge -of the effluent -by the use of an automatic -sewage siphon. -The first chamber is -known as the settling -chamber, the second as -the siphon or dosing -chamber. The siphon -chamber is often omitted -and the effluent is -allowed to dribble away -through subsurface tile, -as illustrated in <a href="#fig16">Figure -16</a>. The latter procedure -is not generally -advised, but may be -permissible where the -land slopes sharply or has long periods of rest, as at summer houses -and camps.</p> - -<p>The septic tanks shown in this bulletin are designed to satisfy the -following conditions:</p> - -<p>1. Water consumption of 40 gallons per person per day of 24 -hours.</p> - -<p>2. A detention period of about 24 hours; that is, the capacity of the -settling chamber below the flow line is approximately equal to the -quantity of sewage discharged from the house in 24 hours.</p> - -<p>3. Where a siphon chamber is provided, its size is such that the -dose of sewage shall be approximately equal to 20 gallons per person; -that is, the capacity of the siphon chamber between the discharge -and low-water lines is roughly equal to the quantity of sewage discharged -in 12 hours.</p> - -<p>A simple one-chamber brick tank suitable for a household discharging -180 to 280 gallons of sewage daily is shown in <a href="#fig21">Figure 21</a>. A -small two-chamber tank constructed of 24-inch vitrified pipe, suitable -for a household discharging about 125 gallons of sewage daily, is -shown in <a href="#fig22">Figure 22</a>. A typical two-chamber concrete tank is shown -in <a href="#fig23">Figure 23</a>. Excepting the submerged outlet, all pipes within the -tank and built into the masonry are cast-iron soil pipe with cast-iron -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[ 29 ]</span> -fittings. Vitrified or concrete sewer pipe and specials are generally -used, as they are frequently more readily obtainable and a slight -saving in first cost may be effected. Cast iron is less liable to be -broken in handling or after being set rigidly in masonry, and the -joints are more easily made water-tight. The submerged outlet is -midway of the depth of liquid in the settling chamber. The inside -depth of the siphon chamber is the drawing depth of the siphon -plus 1 foot 5 inches.</p> - -<p>The following table gives the principal dimensions with quantities -of materials for four sizes of tank as illustrated in <a href="#fig23">Figure 23</a>:</p> - - -<p class="caption3nb"><a id="Dimensions_Table"></a> - <i>Dimensions and quantities for septic tanks.</i></p> - -<table class="smaller" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="bdt bdb" rowspan="2">Number of persons.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" rowspan="2">Quantity of sewage in 24 hours.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt" colspan="12">Settling chamber.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb">Capacity below flow line.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" colspan="2">Length.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" colspan="2">Depth.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" colspan="2">Width.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb">W.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" colspan="2">X.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb">Y.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb">Z.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Galls.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Galls.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Ft.</i></td> - <td><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Ft.</i></td> - <td><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Ft.</i></td> - <td><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Ft.</i></td> - <td><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>In.</i></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>5</td> - <td class="bdl">180-280</td> - <td class="bdl">240</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td>0</td> - <td class="bdl">5</td> - <td>0</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td>0</td> - <td class="bdl">6</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td>0</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td class="bdl">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>10</td> - <td class="bdl">320-480</td> - <td class="bdl">420</td> - <td class="bdl">5</td> - <td>0</td> - <td class="bdl">5</td> - <td>6</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td>6</td> - <td class="bdl">6</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td>3</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td class="bdl">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>15</td> - <td class="bdl">520-680</td> - <td class="bdl">620</td> - <td class="bdl">5</td> - <td>6</td> - <td class="bdl">6</td> - <td>0</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> - <td>0</td> - <td class="bdl">8</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td>6</td> - <td class="bdl">5</td> - <td class="bdl">8</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdb">20</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">720-960</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">860</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">6</td> - <td class="bdb">0</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">6</td> - <td class="bdb">6</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">3</td> - <td class="bdb">6</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">8</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">2</td> - <td class="bdb">9</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">5</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">8</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="vsmall"> </div> - -<table class="smaller" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="bdt bdb" rowspan="2">Number of persons.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" rowspan="2">Quantity of sewage in 24 hours.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt" colspan="10">Siphon chamber.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" rowspan="2">Concrete.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" rowspan="2">Cement.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" rowspan="2">Sand.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" rowspan="2">Stone.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" colspan="2">Reinforcement in top slab (strip of heavy stock fencing).</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" colspan="2">Length.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" colspan="2">Depth.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" colspan="2">Width.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb">A.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb">B.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb">C.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb">D.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb">Length.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb">Width.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Galls.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Ft.</i></td> - <td><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Ft.</i></td> - <td><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Ft.</i></td> - <td><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Cu. Yd.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Bbls.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Cu. Yd.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Cu. Yd.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Ft.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>In.</i></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>5</td> - <td class="bdl">180-280</td> - <td class="bdl">5</td> - <td>0</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td>8</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td>0</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td class="bdl">15</td> - <td class="bdl">18¼</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> - <td class="bdl">4½</td> - <td class="bdl">1⅓</td> - <td class="bdl">2⅔</td> - <td class="bdl">10</td> - <td class="bdl">32</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>10</td> - <td class="bdl">320-480</td> - <td class="bdl">8</td> - <td>0</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td>8</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td>6</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td class="bdl">15</td> - <td class="bdl">20¼</td> - <td class="bdl">4¼</td> - <td class="bdl">6¼</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td class="bdl">3¾</td> - <td class="bdl">14</td> - <td class="bdl">39</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>15</td> - <td class="bdl">520-680</td> - <td class="bdl">8</td> - <td>8</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td>10</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> - <td>0</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td class="bdl">17</td> - <td class="bdl">20¼</td> - <td class="bdl">6⅔</td> - <td class="bdl">9¾</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> - <td class="bdl">6</td> - <td class="bdl">15⅔</td> - <td class="bdl">47</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdb">20</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">720-960</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">10</td> - <td class="bdb">0</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">2</td> - <td class="bdb">10</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">3</td> - <td class="bdb">6</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">4</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">4</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">17</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">20¼</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">8</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">12</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">3½</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">7</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">17½</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">56</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p><b>Siphons.</b>—Reference has already been made to the vital importance -of air in sewage filtration. If the spaces within a filter or soil are -constantly filled with water, air is excluded, and the action of the -filtering material is merely that of a mechanical strainer with its -clogging tendency. The purpose of a siphon is twofold: (1) To secure -intermittent discharge, thus allowing a considerable period of -time for one dose to work off in the soil and for air to enter the soil -spaces before another flush is received; (2) to secure distribution -over a larger area and in a more even manner than where the sewage -is allowed to dribble and produce the conditions of the old-fashioned -sink drain—namely, a small area of water-logged ground.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[ 30 ]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig22" style="max-width: 25.375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig22.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span>—Two-chamber septic tank, simple and inexpensive, constructed of 24-inch - vitrified sewer pipe, size suitable for 125 gallons of sewage daily (nominally 3 - persons). <i>A</i>, House sewer; <i>B</i>, settling chamber, made of double <b>T</b> branch and - one length of straight pipe, each 3 feet long and 2 feet in diameter, supported by 4 - inches of concrete, all joints made water-tight; <i>C</i>, submerged outlet, consisting of a - metal <b>T</b> slipped into the sewer-pipe branch; <i>D</i>, wire screen ¼-inch mesh; <i>E</i>, siphon - chamber made of one <b>T</b> branch 3 feet long and 2 feet in diameter; <i>F</i>, siphon; - <i>G</i>, 3-inch overflow; <i>H</i>, sewer to distribution field; <i>I</i>, tight cover with lifting ring; - <i>J</i>, concrete protection around sewer-pipe hubs</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig23" style="max-width: 24.875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig23.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>—Typical two-chamber concrete septic tank. (See table for dimensions and - quantities for different sizes)</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[ 31 ]</span></p> - -<p>Three types of sewage siphon are shown in <a href="#fig24">Figure 24</a>. In all, the -essential principle is the same: A column of air is entrapped between -two columns of water; when the water in the chamber rises to a -predetermined height, called the discharge line, the pressure forces -out the confined air, destroying the balance and causing a rush of -water through the siphon to the sewer. The entire operation is automatic -and very simple. The siphons shown are commercial products -made of cast-iron; they have few parts and none that move, and the -whole construction is simple and durable. The table (<a href="#fig24">fig. 24</a>) lists -stock sizes adapted to farm use. Manufacturers furnish full information -for setting their siphons and putting them in operation. For -example, take type 2, <a href="#fig24">Figure 24</a>: (1) Set siphon trap (<b>U</b>-shaped -pipe) plumb, making E (height from floor to top of long leg) as -specified; (2) fill siphon trap with water till it begins to run out at -B; (3) place bell in position on top of long leg, and the siphon is -ready for service. Do not fill vent pipe on side of bell.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig24" style="max-width: 25.1875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig24.png" alt="" /> - -<table class="smaller" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="bdb" colspan="5">Type 2<br />INCHES</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Diameter of siphon</i></td> - <td class="bdl">A</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">4</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Diameter of outlet</i></td> - <td class="bdl">B</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">4</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Drawing depth</i></td> - <td class="bdl">C</td> - <td class="bdl">13</td> - <td class="bdl">15</td> - <td class="bdl">14</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">17</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Depth to floor</i></td> - <td class="bdl">D</td> - <td class="bdl">16¼</td> - <td class="bdl">18¼</td> - <td class="bdl">17¼</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">20¼</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Height above floor</i></td> - <td class="bdl">E</td> - <td class="bdl">7¼</td> - <td class="bdl">9¼</td> - <td class="bdl">8¾</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">11¾</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Clearance under bell</i></td> - <td class="bdl">F</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Inside bottom of outlet, to discharge line</i></td> - <td class="bdl">G</td> - <td class="bdl">20½</td> - <td class="bdl">22½</td> - <td class="bdl">22¾</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">25¾</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Discharge line, to top of wall</i></td> - <td class="bdl">H</td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl bdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Depth of outlet sump</i></td> - <td class="bdl">I</td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl bdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Length and width of outlet sump</i></td> - <td class="bdl bdb">J</td> - <td class="bdl bdb"></td> - <td class="bdl bdb"></td> - <td class="bdl bdb"></td> - <td class="bdl bdb bdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td rowspan="6"><i>Diameter of carrier (R),<br />and minimum fall (S)<br />in feet per 100 feet</i><br /> - <div class="figcenter illowe12_875" id="fig24t"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig24t.png" alt="" /> - </div> </td> - <td class="bdl bdt">R</td> - <td class="bdl bdt">4</td> - <td class="bdl bdt">4</td> - <td class="bdl bdt">4</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdr">4</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl">S</td> - <td class="bdl">2 ft.</td> - <td class="bdl">2 ft.</td> - <td class="bdl">7 ft.</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">8 ft.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl bdt">R</td> - <td class="bdl bdt">5</td> - <td class="bdl bdt">5</td> - <td class="bdl bdt">5</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdr">5</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl">S</td> - <td class="bdl">1½ ft.</td> - <td class="bdl">1½ ft.</td> - <td class="bdl">2 ft.</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">2½ ft.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl bdt">R</td> - <td class="bdl bdt">6</td> - <td class="bdl bdt">6</td> - <td class="bdl bdt">6</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdr">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl bdb">S</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">1 ft.</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">1 ft.</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">1 ft.</td> - <td class="bdl bdb bdr">1 ft.</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<table class="smaller" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="bdb" colspan="5">Type 3<br />INCHES</td> - <td></td> - <td class="bdb">Type 1<br />INCHES</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Diameter of siphon</i></td> - <td class="bdl">A</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">4</td> - <td> </td> - <td class="bdl bdr">4</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Diameter of outlet</i></td> - <td class="bdl">B</td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl bdr"></td> - <td></td> - <td class="bdl bdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Drawing depth</i></td> - <td class="bdl">C</td> - <td class="bdl">13</td> - <td class="bdl">15</td> - <td class="bdl">14</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">17</td> - <td></td> - <td class="bdl bdr">5</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Depth to floor</i></td> - <td class="bdl">D</td> - <td class="bdl">17</td> - <td class="bdl">17</td> - <td class="bdl">19</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">22</td> - <td></td> - <td class="bdl bdr">15</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Height above floor</i></td> - <td class="bdl">E</td> - <td class="bdl">13</td> - <td class="bdl">13</td> - <td class="bdl">15</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">18</td> - <td></td> - <td class="bdl bdr">19</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Clearance under bell</i></td> - <td class="bdl">F</td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl bdr"></td> - <td></td> - <td class="bdl bdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Inside bottom of outlet, to discharge line</i></td> - <td class="bdl">G</td> - <td class="bdl">19</td> - <td class="bdl">21</td> - <td class="bdl">20</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">25</td> - <td></td> - <td class="bdl bdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Discharge line, to top of wall</i></td> - <td class="bdl">H</td> - <td class="bdl">6</td> - <td class="bdl">6</td> - <td class="bdl">8</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">8</td> - <td></td> - <td class="bdl bdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Depth of outlet sump</i></td> - <td class="bdl">I</td> - <td class="bdl">13</td> - <td class="bdl">13</td> - <td class="bdl">11</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">12</td> - <td></td> - <td class="bdl bdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Length and width of outlet sump</i></td> - <td class="bdl bdb">J</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">18</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">19</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">19</td> - <td class="bdl bdb bdr">18</td> - <td></td> - <td class="bdl bdb bdr"></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="pmt2 pmb2 smaller">[Transcriber Note: The data for Type 1 Siphon has been added to the table.]</div> - - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>—Three types of sewage siphon. The table gives dimensions for setting standard - 3 and 4 inch siphons; also the appropriate size and grade of the sewer to carry - the siphon discharge</div> -</div> - -<p>The overhead siphon, type 3, <a href="#fig24">Figure 24</a>, may be installed readily in -a tank already built by addition of an outlet sump. If properly set -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[ 32 ]</span> -are handled, sewage siphons require very little attention and flush -with certainty. Like all plumbing fixtures they are liable to stoppage -if rags, newspaper, and similar solids get into the sewage. If -fouling of the sniffing hole or vent prevents the entrance of sufficient -air into the bell to lock the siphon properly, allowing sewage to -dribble through, the remedy is to clean the siphon. Siphons are for -handling liquid; sludge if allowed to accumulate will choke them.</p> - -<p><b>Submerged outlet.</b>—The purpose of a submerged outlet is to take -the outflow from a point between the sludge at the bottom and the -floating solids or scum. The outlet in <a href="#fig23">Figure 23</a> may be readily made -of sheet metal by a tinsmith. Wrought iron or steel pipe with elbows -or light lead pipe may be used, the pipe being set in the concrete and -left in place. Sometimes a galvanized wire screen (¼-inch mesh) is -fitted over the inner end to prevent large solids leaving the settling -chamber and possibly clogging the siphon or distribution tile. If a -screen is used it should be easily removable for cleaning.</p> - -<p><b>Manhole frame and cover.</b>—The frame and cover shown in <a href="#fig23">Figure 23</a> -are stock patterns made of cast-iron and weighing about 250 pounds -per set. The cover is 21 inches in diameter; it is tight and, on account -of its weight, is unlikely to be disturbed by small children. -The frame or rim is about 7 inches high and 31 inches in longest -diameter. If desired, light cast-iron cistern or cesspool covers obtainable -from plumbing supply houses, homemade slabs of reinforced -concrete (see <a href="#fig25">Figure 25</a>), or wooden covers (see <a href="#fig21">Figure 21</a>) may be used.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig25" style="max-width: 24.8125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig25.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>—Homemade reinforced concrete covers. (1) Slabs placed crosswise permit uncovering - the whole tank for cleaning, but as inspection is somewhat difficult, cleaning is the - more likely to be neglected; (2) manhole, 18 inches square; cover, 22 by 22 by 3 inches - thick, easy to make and to slide or lift from the opening</div> -</div> - -<p><b>Overflow.</b>—The purpose of an overflow is to pass sewage to the distribution -field should the siphon stop working. The overflow (<a href="#fig23">fig. -23</a>) is a 3-inch riser pipe with top 3 inches above the discharge line -and the bottom calked or cemented into the side outlet of a <b>T</b> branch. -The run of the <b>T</b> branch should correspond with the size of the sewer -from the tank to the distribution field. If this sewer is 4-inch pipe, -a 4 by 3 inch <b>T</b> branch is used, the 4-inch spigot end of the siphon -being calked or cemented into the branch, as shown in <a href="#fig23">Figure 23</a>; if -the sewer is 5-inch, a 5 by 3 inch <b>T</b> branch is used and connected to -the siphon with a 5-inch to 4-inch reducer (in vitrified specials the -equivalent is a 4-inch to 5-inch increaser); if the sewer is 6-inch, a -6 by 3 inch <b>T</b> branch is used and connected to the siphon with a 6-inch -to 4-inch reducer.</p> - -<p><b>Concrete work.</b>—Before excavation for the tank is begun, two -wooden forms should be built for shaping the inside of the settling -and siphon chambers. In most instances the ground is fairly firm, -so that the lines of excavation may conform to the outside dimensions -of the tank, the back of the walls being built against the earth. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[ 33 ]</span> -The forms may be made of square-edged boards, braced and lightly -nailed, as shown in <a href="#fig26">Figure 26</a>. The forms should have no bottom. -If it is desired to lay the sides and covering slab in one operation, -the top of the forms must be boarded over. All pipe and manhole -openings should be accurately placed and cut. The faces of the -forms may be covered with paper or smeared with soap or grease to -facilitate removal later.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp67" id="fig26" style="max-width: 24.875em;"> - <a href="images/fig26lrg.png"><img class="w100" src="images/fig26.png" alt="" /></a> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>—Forms for concrete work—how to use them<br /> - Click on image to view larger size.</div> -</div> - -<div style="width: 30em; margin: 0 auto;"> -<p class="smaller hanging">1 Make the forms as shown and to the dimensions required by <a href="#fig23">Figure 23</a> - and the table on p. 29; nails to be driven from the inside and left - projecting for drawing with a claw hammer.</p> - -<p class="smaller hanging">2. Excavate to lines 6 or 8 inches, as may be required, outside of the - forms and to the depths required for both chambers.</p> - -<p class="smaller hanging">3. Pour settling chamber floor and place form thereon.</p> - -<p class="smaller hanging">4 Pour settling chamber walls to level of siphon chamber excavation, - inserting submerged outlet pipe at the proper height. 5. Block siphon - and short pipes to correct line and grade, and fill with concrete - around the trap.</p> - -<p class="smaller hanging">6. Pour siphon chamber floor, and place the form - thereon.</p> - -<p class="smaller hanging">7 Continue pouring all walls to their full height, inserting the inlet - pipe when the concrete reaches that elevation.</p> - -<p class="smaller hanging">8. Do not remove forms till the concrete is hard; with favorable - weather, forms for walls only may be removed in 1 to 2 days; forms - supporting a cover slab should remain 1 to 2 weeks.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[ 34 ]</span></p> - -<p>The ground should next be excavated to the proper depth for -placing the floors in both chambers. The settling chamber floor, -being the lower, should be placed first. Effort should be made to -secure water-tight work, a feature of especial importance where -leakage might endanger a well or spring. A concrete mixture of -1:2:4 is generally preferred (1 volume cement, 2 volumes sand, 4 -volumes stone). The ingredients should be of best quality and thoroughly -mixed. The concrete should be poured promptly and worked -with a spade or flat shovel to make the face smooth and eliminate -pockets or voids within the mass.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> Before the settling chamber floor -has hardened the form should be set upon the floor and the concrete -work continued up the sides. The pipe form for the submerged -outlet should be set. When the side walls of the settling chamber -have reached the bottom of the excavation for the siphon chamber, -the siphon trap with its connecting branch and short piece of pipe -should be set to proper line and grade and blocked in position. The -floor of the siphon chamber should now be poured and the form for -that chamber placed thereon, leaving a 6-inch or 8-inch space (according -to the thickness of the division wall) between the ends of -the two forms. Pouring of all side walls and the top slab should -continue without stop, making the entire structure a monolith.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> See footnote, p. 12. For more detailed information on form and concrete work the -reader is referred to U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin 1480-F, "Small -Concrete Construction on the Farm."</p></div> - -<p><b>Steel reinforcement.</b>—To stiffen the cover slab and guard against -cracking, a little steel should be embedded in the concrete about 1 -inch above the inside top. For this purpose a strip of heavy stock -fencing is convenient and inexpensive. The line wires should be not -less than No. 10 gauge (about ⅛ inch) and the stay wires not less -than No. 11 gauge. The reinforcement should be cut at manholes and -fastened around manhole openings. If desired a standard wire-mesh -reinforcement weighing about one-third of a pound per square foot -may be used. Another alternative is to use 14-inch round rods, -spacing the crosswise rods 6 inches apart and the lengthwise rods -12 inches apart. Poultry netting should not be used, because of -its lightness.</p> - -<p><b>Sewer from tank to distribution field.</b>—The length of this sewer -depends on the situation of the field and the fall to it. The size of -the sewer depends on the fall that can be obtained and the size of -siphon. The table in <a href="#fig24">Figure 24</a> shows the minimum fall at which -4-inch, 5-inch, and 6-inch sewers should be laid to take the discharge -of the 3-inch and 4-inch siphons specified. The line and grade -should be set in the same manner as for the house sewer (see <a href="#fig18">fig. 18</a>) -and the construction should be as specified under that caption.</p> - -<p><b>Distribution field.</b>—The distribution field or area is a sewage filter, -and its selection and the manner of preparing it largely determine -the success of subsoil disposal of sewage. As a rule farm land is -not the best filtering material. It is too fine grained and fertile. -Its tendency is to hold water too long, to admit insufficient air, to -clog when even small quantities of sewage are applied. Hence the -distribution area should be of liberal size—on the average 500 square -feet for each person served. It should be dry, porous, and well -drained—qualities that characterize sandy, gravelly, and light loam -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[ 35 ]</span> -soils. It should be devoid of trees and shrubbery, thus giving sunlight -and air free access. It should be located at least 300 feet downhill -from a well or spring used for domestic water supply. Preferably -it should slope gently, but sharp slopes are not prohibitive. -Subsoiling the area is always desirable.</p> - -<p>Clay and other compact, impervious soils require special treatment. -Less sewage can be applied to them, and hence it is well to -have the area larger than 500 square feet per person. Clay should -be subsoiled as deep as possible with a subsoil plow. In some instances -dynamite has been of service in opening up the ground to -still greater depth. Drainage and aeration should be further promoted -by laying tile underdrains, as outlined in <a href="#fig17">Figure 17</a> and shown -in more detail in <a href="#fig29">Figure 29</a>.</p> - -<p>After the construction work the distribution areas should be raked -and seeded with thick-growing grass. Grass is a safe crop; its water -requirement is high, and it affords considerable protection from frost. -Suitable grasses are redtop, white clover, blue grass, and Bermuda -grass. The area may be pastured or kept as grass land.</p> - -<p><b>Distribution system.</b>—Poor distribution of the sewage and failure to -protect the joints of the distribution tile account for most of the -failures. Each flush of the siphon should be so controlled that every -part of the field will receive its due proportion. The distribution -tile must be so laid that loose dirt will not fall or wash into the open -joints.</p> - -<p>Different methods of dividing the flush and laying out the distribution -tile are shown in Figures <a href="#fig27">27</a> and <a href="#fig30">30</a>. Layouts 1, 2, and 3, -<a href="#fig27">Figure 27</a>, are suitable for flat or gently sloping areas and are -planned for the shallow siphon chambers tabulated on <a href="#Dimensions_Table">page 29</a>. -Layout 4, <a href="#fig27">Figure 27</a>, is suitable for steep slopes. In all four layouts -use is made of one or more <b>V</b> branches (not <b>Y</b> branches) to divide -the flow equally among the several lines. <b>V</b> branches, sometimes -called breeches, should be leveled with a carpenter's level crosswise -the ends of the legs, thus insuring equal division of the flow.</p> - -<p>The size and length of distribution tile and the spacing of the lines -or runs admit of considerable variation in different soils. Water -sinks rapidly in gravels and sands, and hence larger tile and shorter -length are permissible than in close soils. Lateral movement is slow -in all soils, but extends farther in gravels and sands than in close -soils. In average soils the effect on vegetation 5 feet away from the -line is practically nil.</p> - -<p>From these considerations, with the siphon dose 20 gallons per -person, it is usually a safe rule to provide 50 feet of 3-inch tile for -each person served and to lay the lines 10 feet apart. Such provision -gives a capacity within the bore of the tile lines about equal -to the siphon dose, and as some sewage is wasted at each joint a -reasonable factor of safety is provided. A spacing of 10 feet will, -it is believed, permanently prevent the extension of lateral absorption -from line to line, provided the area is fairly well drained. As between -3-inch and 4-inch tile the smaller size costs less and is better -calculated to taper the dose to small proportions. Four-inch tile is -less likely to get out of alignment or to become clogged; a length -of 28 feet has the same capacity in the bore as 50 feet of 3-inch.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[ 36 ]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp49" id="fig27" style="max-width: 25.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig27.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span>—Methods of laying distribution system: Methods 1, 2, and 3 for - flat or gently sloping land; method 4 for steep slopes (see also <a href="#fig30">Figure 30</a>); - <i>A</i>, direction of slope; <i>B</i>, contour of field; <i>C</i>, sewer from tank, - preferably size 5 inch, though 4 or 6 inch may be used, depending on - the fall and the size of the siphon (see table, <a href="#fig24">fig. 24</a>); <i>D</i>, <b>V</b>-branch - set to divide the flow exactly; <i>E</i>, reducer, to 4 inches; <i>F</i>, ⅛ bend, - 4-inch; <i>G</i>, increaser, from 4 inches; <i>H</i>, increaser, 3 to 4 inches; <i>I</i>, - reducer, 4 to 3 inches; <i>J</i>, distribution tile, 3-inch; <i>K</i>, distribution - tile, 4-inch</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[ 37 ]</span></p> - -<p>Good-quality drain tile in 1-foot lengths or second-quality sewer -pipe in 2-foot lengths may be used. The lines are generally laid in -parallel runs, but may be varied according to the topography. Layouts -1, 2, and 3, <a href="#fig27">Figure 27</a>, for flat or gently sloping land, run with -the slope; layout 4, for steep slopes, runs back and forth along the -contour in a series of long flat sweeps and short steep curves. The -grade of the runs and sweeps should be gentle, rarely more than -10 or 12 inches in 100 feet. In layouts 1, 2, and 3, <a href="#fig27">Figure 27</a> especially, -it is desirable that the last 20 feet of each run should be laid -level or given a slight upward slope, thus guarding against undue -flow of sewage to the lowest ends of the system.</p> - -<p>The runs should be laid no deeper than necessary to give clearance -when plowing and prevent injury from frost. Ten inches of earth -above the top of the tile is sufficient generally throughout the southern -half of the United States and 18 inches generally in the North, -but if the field is exposed or lacks a thick heavy growth of grass, the -cover should be increased to 3 to 6 feet near the Canadian line. -Where frost goes down 5 to 7 feet, it is better to lay the tile at -moderate depth and cover the runs with hay, straw, or leaves -weighted down, removing the covering in the spring.</p> - -<p>Making the joints of the distribution tile demands especial attention. -For a short distance on the upper end of each run the tile -should be laid with ends abutting; the joint opening should be increased -gradually to one-eighth inch and this increased to one-fourth -in the last 20 feet of the run. All joints should be protected against -the entrance of loose dirt. Four methods are shown in <a href="#fig28">Figure 28</a>. -The lower end of each run should be closed with a brick or flat -stone; or, what is better, an elbow or <b>T</b> branch may be placed on the -end and vented above the surface of the ground, improving the flow -of sewage, the ventilation of pipes, and the aeration of the soil.</p> - -<p>If the distribution tile must be laid in clay or other close, poorly -drained soil, special treatment is necessary. A common method is -to subsoil and underdrain the area thoroughly, as shown in <a href="#fig29">Figure 29</a>. -It is not always possible to run the underdrain in lines between the -distribution lines as shown in Figures <a href="#fig17">17</a> and <a href="#fig29">29</a>, but it is a desirable -thing to do, as the sewage must then receive some filtration through -natural soil.</p> - -<p>In some instances it is sufficient to lay the distribution tile on a continuous -bed, 8 to 12 inches thick, of coarse gravel, broken stone, or -brick, slag, coke, or cinders and complete the refill as shown in Figure -<a href="#fig16">16</a> or <a href="#fig29">29</a>.</p> - -<p><a href="#fig30">Figure 30</a> shows two other methods of controlling the flow on steep -slopes and diverting proper proportions to the several lateral distributors -laid along the contour of the field. This work can not be -effected properly with <b>T</b> or <b>Y</b> branches; the flow tends to shoot -straight ahead, comparatively little escaping laterally. To overcome -this difficulty recourse is had to diverting boxes, of which two types -are shown in <a href="#fig30">Figure 30</a>. These boxes involve expense, but permit -inspection and division of the flow according to the needs. They may -be built of brick, stone, concrete, or even wood.</p> - -<p>Type 1 consists of a single box, into which all the lateral distributors -head. It will be noted that the laterals enter at slightly different -elevations, the two opposite the inlet sewer being the highest, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[ 38 ]</span> -the next two slightly lower, and the next two the lowest. This staggering -of the outlets, in a measure, offsets the tendency of the flow -to shoot across and escape by the most direct route.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig28" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig28.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>—Four methods of protecting open joints in distribution lines—an all-important - work. Sketches show cross-section and longitudinal views; the depth from the surface - of the ground to the top of the tile is about 10 inches</div> -</div> - -<div style="width: 30em; margin: 0 auto;"> -<p class="smaller hanging">1. <i>A</i>, Subsoiled ground; <i>B</i>, 3 or 4 inch drain tile; <i>C</i>, strip of tarred paper about 6 -inches wide and extending three-fourths the distance around the tile, allowing sewage -to escape at the bottom; <i>D</i>, coarse sand, gravel, broken stone or brick, slag, cinders, or -coke, the coarsest material placed around the tile (where the ground is naturally very -porous and well drained, special filling in the trench may be omitted); <i>E</i>, natural soil.</p> - -<p class="smaller hanging">2. Drain tile covered with a board laid flat, leaving the entire joint open.</p> - -<p class="smaller hanging">3. Drain tile laid in stoneware gutter pieces and the joint covered with stoneware caps; -gutter and cap pieces are inexpensive commercial products; their radius is longer than -that of the outside of the tile, thus leaving open most of the joint space; the gutter aids -in keeping the tile in line.</p> - -<p class="smaller hanging">4. Vitrified sewer pipe with hubs facing downhill; the spigot end should be centered in -the hub with a few small chinks or wedges.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig29" style="max-width: 25.1875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig29.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>—-Close soils should be deeply subsoiled and underdrained. Porous, well-drained, - air-filled soil is absolutely necessary. <i>A</i>, Subsoiled ground; <i>B</i>, 3 or 4 inch distribution - tile; <i>C</i>, depth variable with the climate, 1¼ to 3½ feet; <i>D</i>, 4-inch underdrain; <i>E</i>, depth - such as would prepare land for good crop production, generally 3½ to 4 feet; <i>F</i>, stone - or other coarse material; <i>G</i>, gravel grading upward to coarse sand; <i>H</i>, loose soil</div> -</div> - -<p>Type 2 calls for one or more diverting boxes, according to the number -of lateral distributors, and readily permits of wasting sewage at -widely separated elevations and distances. The outlet pipes enter -the box at slightly different elevations, for the reason already stated. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[ 39 ]</span> -With either type, should the outlets not be set at the right elevations, -partial plugging of the holes and a little experimenting will enable -one to equalize or proportion the discharges.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp71" id="fig30" style="max-width: 26.3125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig30.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>—Two systems of distribution on steep slopes—use of diverting box. <i>A</i>, Direction - of slope; <i>B</i>, contour of field; <i>C</i>, 4, 5, or 6 inch sewer from tank; <i>D</i>, diverting - box; <i>E</i>, 3-inch or 4-inch distribution tile</div> -</div> - -<p><b>Sewage switch.</b>—The clogging of filters and soils after long-continued -application of sewage has been previously referred to. It -is, therefore, desirable to arrange the distribution system in two units -with a switch between them, so that one area may drain and become -aerated while the other is in use. This procedure is especially desirable -where the soil is close and the installation of considerable -size. It adds to the life and effectiveness of the distribution area and -permits use of a plant in case it is necessary to repair, extend, or -relay the tile in either unit.</p> - -<p>Arrangement in two units does not necessarily mean doubling the -amount of tile and the area required in a single field. However desirable -that may be, expense or lack of suitable ground will often -prevent. With open sands and gravels and the assumed siphon dose -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[ 40 ]</span> -of 20 gallons per person, 15 to 20 feet of 4-inch tile in each unit for -each person will usually suffice. With more compact soil it is advisable -to more nearly double the requirements previously described. -Two simple types of switch are shown in <a href="#fig31">Figure 31</a>. The switch -should be turned frequently, certainly as often as is necessary to prevent -saturation or bogginess of either area.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp97" id="fig31" style="max-width: 25.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig31.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>—Two simple types of sewage switch. <i>A</i>, Sewer from tank; <i>B</i>, switch box; - <i>C</i>, cover; <i>D</i>, blade or stop board (in the left-hand box the direction of flow is controlled - by placing the blade in alternate diagonal position; in the right-hand box the stop - works in iron guides cast integral with a short piece of light-weight pipe set in the - masonry; if desired the guides may be wood, fastened to the masonry with expansion - bolts); <i>E</i>, sewer to distribution area; <i>F</i> (right-hand box), alternate position of outlets - or additional outlets if required</div> -</div> - -<p><b>A complete installation.</b>—The general layout and working plans of -a complete installation built in 1915-16 are shown in <a href="#fig32">Figure 32</a>. -The plant is larger than those heretofore considered, and involves -several additional features. The settling chamber below the flow line -has a capacity of 1,000 gallons, and on a basis of 40 gallons per -person per day would serve 25 people.</p> - -<p>For many years sewage had been discharged through two 4-inch -sewers to a cesspool in the rear of the house. The proximity of the -well made it unsafe, and the overflow of the cesspool dribbled over -the low portion of the garden and barnyard, cheating nuisance.</p> - -<p>The first step was to make borings with a soil auger in the pasture -400 or 500 feet from the house. The borings showed a heavy clay -soil to a depth of about 4 feet, underlaid with a sandy stratum only -a few inches in thickness. It was decided to locate the distribution -area in the pasture and to aid the seepage of sewage by digging -numerous filter wells through the clay to the sandy stratum. Levels -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[ 41 ]</span> -were taken and a contour plan prepared to serve for laying out the -plant and establishing the grades.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp58" id="fig32" style="max-width: 25.1875em;"> - <a href="images/fig32lrg.png"><img class="w100" src="images/fig32.png" alt="" /></a> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>—A complete installation for a large rural home. General layout on a contour - plan and construction drawings. Note abandonment of old cesspool near the well and - garden and removal of sewage to a lower and safer location in the pasture, where the - treatment is subsurface distribution, aided by numerous filter wells about 4 feet deep - filled with coarse gravel. Note that sludge is removed from the bottom of the settling - chamber by opening the gate on the sludge drain<br /> - Click on image to view larger size</div> -</div> - -<p>The septic tank is built in one corner of the barnyard, and a 5-inch -sewer connects it with the old 4-inch sewers to the cesspool. All -sewer-pipe joints were poured with a flexible jointing compound. -The settling chamber is of hopper shape at the bottom, and a 4-inch -sludge drain with gate provides for the gravity removal of sludge. -The lower end of the sludge drain is above the surface of the ground -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[ 42 ]</span> -and 9 feet below the flow line. The end is protected by a small retaining -wall, and the sludge is readily caught in barrels and hauled -out on the land for burial. The outlet is low enough to drain the -settling chamber completely. If it is desired merely to force out the -sludge, the drain may be brought to the surface under a head of 3 to -5 feet, discharging the sludge into a trench or drying bed, to be applied -later to the land. A 2-inch waste pipe about mid-depth of the -settling chamber permits drawing off the cleared portion of the sewage -to the siphon chamber and from thence through another 2-inch -waste pipe into the 6-inch sewer leading to the distribution field.</p> - -<p>The 4-inch siphon has a drawing depth of 33 inches, and as the -siphon chamber is 4 feet wide by 6 feet long the dose is about 500 -gallons. The siphon cost $35. The 6-inch sewer to the switch box -falls about 6 inches in 50 feet. The distribution field was thoroughly -subsoiled, and about 800 feet of 3-inch tile was laid in each unit. At -intervals of 25 feet along the distribution trenches 6-inch holes were -dug through the clay stratum with a posthole digger. These holes -were filled with stone and constitute the filter wells previously mentioned. -All tile lines are surrounded with stone and coarse gravel, -and the ground has been trimmed to give a uniform cover of 12 -inches. All work was done by day labor in a thorough manner. As -the men were doing other work at the same time the actual cost is not -known, but it is believed the installation cost about $700.</p> - -<p><b>Cost data.</b>—Reliable cost figures are difficult to estimate. Labor, -materials, freight, haulage, and other items vary greatly in different -localities. The septic tank shown in <a href="#fig21">Figure 21</a> contains about 1,000 -bricks and is estimated to cost $60 complete. The septic tank shown -in <a href="#fig23">Figure 23</a> for 5 persons is estimated to cost $135; for 10 persons, -$170; for 15 persons, $240; for 20 persons, $280. In Maryland, in -1916, the cost of installing a septic tank similar to that shown in -<a href="#fig23">Figure 23</a> (for 5 people), including 86 feet of 5-inch house sewer -(55 feet of cast-iron pipe passing a well, and 31 feet of vitrified pipe) -and 214 feet of second-quality 4-inch sewer pipe in the distribution -area, was as follows:</p> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Excavation, labor</td> - <td class="tdr">$7.50</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Materials delivered</td> - <td class="tdr">46.60</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Three-inch siphon, including freight</td> - <td class="tdr">15.75</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Construction, labor</td> - <td class="tdr">28.00</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Supervision</td> - <td class="tdr">5.00</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Total</td> - <td class="tdr bdt">102.85</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The quotations in the following table will be found useful in -making estimates of cost:</p> - -<p class="tdc"><i>Cost per foot of pipe and drain tile</i></p> - -<p class="tdc">(Approximate retail prices, Washington, D. C., February, 1928)</p> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="bdt bdb" rowspan="2">Kind of pipe.</td> - <td class="bdt bdb bdl tdc" colspan="4">Size, in inches.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdb bdl tdc">3</td> - <td class="bdb bdl tdc">4</td> - <td class="bdb bdl tdc">5</td> - <td class="bdb bdl tdc">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td><p class="hanging">Extra heavy cast-iron soil pipe</p></td> - <td class="bdl">$0.23</td> - <td class="bdl">$0.31</td> - <td class="bdl">$0.40</td> - <td class="bdl">$0.48</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>Vitrified salt-glazed sewer pipe</td> - <td class="bdl"> .15</td> - <td class="bdl"> .15</td> - <td class="bdl"> .22½</td> - <td class="bdl"> .22½</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdb">Clay or shale drain tile</td> - <td class="bdl bdb"> .06</td> - <td class="bdl bdb"> .07</td> - <td class="bdl bdb"> .10</td> - <td class="bdl bdb"> .13</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[ 43 ]</span></p> - -<p>The cost of cast-iron fittings may be roughly estimated as follows; -Bends, one and one-half times the price of straight pipe; <b>T</b>-branches, -two times the price of straight pipe; reducers, average of the prices -of straight pipe at each end. The cost of clay bends, <b>T</b>-branches, -reducers, and increasers may be roughly estimated at four times the -price of straight pipe.</p> - -<p><b>Operation.</b>—Attention must be given to every plant to insure success. -Unusual or excessive foulness should be investigated. No -chemicals should be used in a septic tank; garbage, rags, newspaper, -and other solids not readily soluble in water should be kept out of -sewers and tanks. The plant should be inspected often, noting particularly -if the siphon is operating satisfactorily. If scum forms -in the settling chamber it should be removed, and the sludge should -be bailed or pumped out yearly. Frequently tanks are not cleaned -out for three or four years, resulting in large quantities of solid -matter going through to the distribution system and clogging it. -Clogging may occur in the tile or in the adjacent soil. In either -case the tile should be dug up, cleaned, and relaid. In some cases -it has been found advantageous to relay the tile between the former -lines. When sewage is applied to fairly porous land at the slow -rate here recommended and the plant is well handled the tile lines -should operate satisfactorily for many years. Liming heavy soils -tends to loosen and keep them sweet.</p> - -<p><b>Field data.</b>—As a basis for outlining or designing a suitable installation -the following data should be known:</p> - -<p class="smaller"> 1. State, town, and whether in or near an incorporated municipality.</p> - -<p class="smaller"> 2. Usual number of persons to be served.</p> - -<p class="smaller"> 3. Average daily consumption of water in gallons.</p> - -<p class="smaller"> 4. Kind and depth of well, depth to water surface.</p> - -<p class="smaller"> 5. Character of soil, whether sandy, gravelly, loamy, clay, or muck.</p> - -<p class="smaller"> 6. Condition of soil as to drainage.</p> - -<p class="smaller"> 7. Character of subsoil.</p> - -<p class="smaller"> 8. Character of underlying rock and, if known, its depth below the -surface.</p> - -<p class="smaller"> 9. Depth to ground water at both house and field where sewage is to -be distributed.</p> - -<p class="smaller">10. Minimum winter temperature and approximate depth to which frost -goes.</p> - -<p class="smaller">11. Number and kind of buildings to be connected with the sewer.</p> - -<p class="smaller">12. Number and kind of plumbing fixtures in each building.</p> - -<p class="smaller">13. Whether plumbing fixtures are to be put in the basement.</p> - -<p class="smaller">14. Depth of basement floor below ground.</p> - - -<p>A plan to scale or a sketch with dimensions showing property lines, -buildings, wells, springs, and drainage outlets should be furnished. -The direction of surface drainage should be indicated by arrows. -The slope of the land (vertical fall in a stated horizontal distance) -should be given or if possible a contour plan (showing lines of -constant elevation) should be furnished.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="GREASE_TRAPS">GREASE TRAPS</h2> -</div> - -<p>Farm sewage may contain from 10 to 30 pounds of grease and fats -per person per year. This grease, originating mainly in the kitchen-sink, -hinders septic action and clogs pipes, filters, and soils. Half -the grease may be stopped by a septic tank, but the remainder goes -into the distribution system, interfering with its action. A grease -trap is a device for separating the grease from other wastes. The -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[ 44 ]</span> -need for it may be lessened by carefully depositing waste greases and -fats with the garbage; but one should always be installed if the -kitchen is carelessly managed or discharges quantities of greasy -water as at institutions, hotels, boarding houses, and bakeshops.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp77" id="fig33" style="max-width: 26.1875em;"> - <a href="images/fig33lrg.png"><img class="w100" src="images/fig33.png" alt="" /></a> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>—Three types of grease trap. <i>A</i>, Ready-made grease trap; vitrified, salt-glazed - earthenware; stock sizes: 10-inch diameter by 24 inches, 12-inch diameter by 24 inches, - 15-inch diameter by 24 inches. <i>B</i>, Homemade grease trap; concrete or well-plastered - brickwork; elbow, cross, and increaser to be recessed drainage fittings. <i>C</i>, Type of - grease trap used at United States Army camps<br /> - Click on image to view larger size</div> -</div> - -<p>A grease trap should have several times the capacity of the greatest -quantity of greasy water discharged into it at one time, in order -that the entering water shall be well cooled and the grease congealed. -The solidified grease rises to the surface of the water in the trap and -is retained therein. A dishpan of greasy water (2½ to 3 gallons) is -the largest quantity likely to be discharged at one time from an ordinary -kitchen-sink, hence the grease trap should have not less capacity -than 7 or 8 gallons. <a href="#fig33">Figure 33</a> shows three types of grease traps -suitable for farm use. In each the outlet pipe has small clearance -at the bottom. This feature, together with the <b>V</b>-shaped hopper bottom, -tends to create a scouring velocity and thus prevent the accumulation -of coffee grounds and other solid wastes in the bottom of the -trap. A grease trap should be close to the sink it is intended to serve, -but not within the kitchen, on account of objectionable odors when -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[ 45 ]</span> -the trap is opened to remove grease. It is good practice to place the -trap in the cellar or basement, where it is safe from frost yet close -to the source of grease.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="GENERAL_PROCEDURE">GENERAL PROCEDURE</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Do not waste money by digging and partly constructing, afterwards -seeking information. Prepare a plan and work from it. Get -in touch with your county agricultural and home demonstration -agents. Advice may be obtained also from extension workers, State -agricultural colleges, State and local boards of health, the United -States Public Health Service, and the United States Department of -Agriculture. Do not guess distances and levels. Use a measuring -tape and some type of level—engineer's, architect's, drainage, hand, -or carpenter's. Study this bulletin, and design, lay out, and construct -in accordance therewith. Remember to: (1) Isolate the septic tank— -locate it 50 to 100 or more feet from any dwelling and, if practicable, -to the leeward of prevailing summer breezes; (2) locate the cesspool -or sewage-distribution field downhill from the well or spring, and, if -possible, 300 feet therefrom; (3) select dry, porous, deeply drained -ground for disposal of all sewage; (4) do not apply more sewage to a -given area of land than can be thoroughly absorbed and oxidized; (5) -lay sewers straight and below the reach of frost, ventilate them thoroughly, -and make the joints water-tight and root-proof.</p> - -<p>Makeshift methods, materials, or devices should be avoided or used -sparingly. Do not place a vent pipe in the top of a cesspool or -septic tank if near a dwelling. Siphon chamber and siphon may be -omitted in those rare instances where it is feasible to discharge into -salt water or into a large stream already badly polluted. Disposal -of sewage in a running stream should be a last resort. Such practice -endangers water supplies downstream, and unless the volume and -velocity of flow are good nuisance may be created in the vicinity. -Do not neglect inspection and operation. Clean out settling tanks -yearly or oftener. All pipe lines below ground should be marked -with iron or stone markers to facilitate examination, repair, or -extension of the system.</p> - -<p>There is a general but erroneous belief that the cost of sewerage -is little in the city but almost prohibitive in the country. All personal -and Realty properties in one eastern city represent a valuation -of $10,382 per home, which pays $355 for sewers outside the cellar -wall. An average farm in a Middle West State represents a valuation -of $17,259. Is not the farmer justified in the small outlay required -to dispose of the farm sewage? Because of the issuance of -bonds and the apportionment of sewer assessments for a series of -years the city dweller may have his burden distributed over a long -period. The farmer does not pay interest on these obligations, and -sewer work can be done more cheaply in the country than in the city.</p> - -<p>Safe disposal of farm sewage is not a passing fad but a vital necessity. -Besides being an asset a good sewerage installation greatly -promotes the wholesomeness and healthfulness of the farm. Moreover -the benefits are far-reaching, because farm products go into -every home, and farm and urban populations mingle freely.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[ 46 ]</span></p> - -<p class="caption3">ORGANIZATION OF THE<br /> -UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE</p> - -<p class="tdc">January 6, 1930</p> - -<hr class="r20" /> - -<table summary="list"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Secretary of Agriculture</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Arthur M. Hyde.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Assistant Secretary</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">R. W. Dunlap.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Director of Scientific Work</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A. F. Woods.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Director of Regulatory Work</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Walter G. Campbell.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Director of Extension Work</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. W. Warburton.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Director of Personnel and Business Administration.</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">W. W. Stockberger.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Director of Information</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">M. S. Eisenhower.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Solicitor</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">E. L. Marshall.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Weather Bureau</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Charles F. Marvin</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Bureau of Animal Industry</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">John R. Mohler</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Bureau of Dairy Industry</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">O. E. Reed</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Bureau of Plant Industry</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">William A. Taylor</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Forest Service</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">R. Y. Stuart</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Bureau of Chemistry and Soils</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">H. G. Knight</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Bureau of Entomology</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. L. Marlatt</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Bureau of Biological Survey</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Paul G. Redington</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Bureau of Public Roads</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Thomas H. MacDonald</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Bureau of Agricultural Economics</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Nils A. Olsen</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Bureau of Home Economics</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Louise Stanley</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Plant Quarantine and Control Administration</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Lee A. Strong</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Grain Futures Administration</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">J. W. T. Duvel</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Walter G. Campbell</span>, <i>Director of Regulatory Work, in Charge</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Office of Experiment Stations</i></td> - <td class="tdl">————, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Office of Cooperative Extension Work</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. B. Smith</span>, <i>Chief</i>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Library</i></td> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Claribel R. Barnett</span>, <i>Librarian</i>.</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p class="tdc pmt4 bdb">U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930</p> - -<table style="width: 100%; padding-bottom: 4em;" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td><div class="tdl">For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C.</div></td> - <td><div class="tdc">——</div></td> - <td><div class="tdr">Price 10 cents</div></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<hr class="full" /> - - -<div class="transnote"> - -<p class="caption3">Transcriber Note</p> - -<p>Minor typos have been corrected. Illustrations were moved to prevent -splitting paragraphs. <a href="#fig19">Figure 19</a> was moved adjacent to the directions and -specifications on <a href="#fig19">Page 24</a>. Due to space considerations in the text only -version, emphasis of column headers were sometimes eliminated and some of -the tables were rearranged. Produced from files generously made available -by USDA through The Internet Archive. All resultant materials are placed -in the Public Domain.</p> - -</div> - - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 1227: -Sewage and sewerage of farm home, by George Warren - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA FARMERS' BULLETIN NO. 1227 *** - -***** This file should be named 63131-h.htm or 63131-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/1/3/63131/ - -Produced by Tom Cosmas from files generously made available -by USDA through The Internet Archive. All are placed in -the Public Domain. - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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