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diff --git a/old/63131-0.txt b/old/63131-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 42844f1..0000000 --- a/old/63131-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2400 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 1227: Sewage and -sewerage of farm homes, by George Warren - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 1227: Sewage and sewerage of farm homes - -Author: George Warren - -Release Date: September 5, 2020 [EBook #63131] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA FARMERS' BULLETIN NO. 1227 *** - - - - -Produced by Tom Cosmas from files generously made available -by USDA through The Internet Archive. All are placed in -the Public Domain. - - - - - - - - - -Transcriber Note - -Text emphasis denoted by _Italics_ and =Bold=. Whole and fractional parts -of numbers as 123-4/5. - - - U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE - - FARMERS' BULLETIN No. 1227 - - - SEWAGE AND SEWERAGE OF FARM HOMES - - -DISPOSAL OF FARM SEWAGE in a clean manner is always an important problem. -The aims of this bulletin are twofold--(1) to emphasize basic principles -of sanitation; (2) to give directions for constructing and operating home -sewerage works that shall be simple, serviceable, and safe. - -Care in operating is absolutely necessary. No installation will run -itself. Continued neglect ends in failure of even the best-designed, -best-built plants. If the householder is to build and neglect, he might as -well save expense and continue the earlier practice. - - Washington, D. C. Issued January, 1922 - Revised October, 1928 - - - - -SEWAGE AND SEWERAGE OF FARM HOMES - - -George M. Warren, Hydraulic Engineer, Bureau of Public Roads - - - - -CONTENTS - - - Page - - Introduction 1 - - Sewage, sewers, and sewerage defined 1 - - Nature and quantity of sewage 2 - - Sewage-borne diseases and their avoidance 2 - - How sewage decomposes 5 - - Importance of air in treatment of sewage 7 - - Practical utilities 8 - - Septic tanks 21 - - Grease traps 43 - - General procedure 45 - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -The main purpose of home sewerage works is to get rid of sewage in such -way as (1) to guard against the transmission of disease germs through -drinking water, flies, or other means; (2) to avoid creating nuisance. -What is the best method and what the best outfit are questions not to be -answered offhand from afar. A treatment that is a success in one location -may be a failure in another. In every instance decision should be based -upon field data and full knowledge of the local needs and conditions. -An installation planned from assumed conditions may work harm. The -householder may be misled as to the purification and rely on a protection -that is not real. He may anticipate little or no odor and find a nuisance -has been created. - - - - -SEWAGE, SEWERS, AND SEWERAGE DEFINED - - -Human excrements (feces and urine) as found in closets and privy vaults -are known as night soil. These wastes may be flushed away with running -water, and there may be added the discharges from washbasins, bathtubs, -kitchen and slop sinks, laundry trays, washing vats, and floor drains. -This refuse liquid product is sewage, and the underground pipe which -conveys it is a sewer. Since sewers carry foul matter they should be -water-tight, and this feature of their construction distinguishes them -from drains removing relatively pure surface or ground water. Sewerage -refers to a system of sewers, including the pipes, tanks, disposal works, -and appurtenances. - - - - -NATURE AND QUANTITY OF SEWAGE - - -Under average conditions a man discharges daily about 3½ ounces of moist -feces and 40 ounces of urine, the total in a year approximating 992 -pounds.[1] Feces consist largely of water and undigested or partially -digested food; by weight it is 77.2 per cent water.[2] Urine is about 96,3 -per cent water.[2] - -[1] Practical Physiological Chemistry, by Philip B. Hawk, 1916, pp. 221, -359. - -[2] Agriculture, by P. H. Storer, 1894, vol. 2, p. 70. - -The excrements constitute but a small part of ordinary sewage. In -addition to the excrements and the daily water consumption of perhaps -40 gallons per person are many substances entering into the economy of -the household, such as grease, fats, milk, bits of food, meat, fruit and -vegetables, tea and coffee grounds, paper, etc. This complex product -contains mineral, vegetable, and animal substances, both dissolved and -undissolved. It contains dead organic matter and living organisms in the -form of exceedingly minute vegetative cells (bacteria) and animal cells -(protozoa). These low forms of life are the active agents in destroying -dead organic matter. - -The bacteria are numbered in billions and include many species, some -useful and others harmful. They may be termed tiny scavengers, which under -favorable conditions multiply with great rapidity, their useful work -being the oxidizing and nitrifying of dissolved organic matter and the -breaking down of complex organic solids to liquids and gases. Among the -myriads of bacteria are many of a virulent nature. These at any time may -include species which are the cause of well-known infectious and parasitic -diseases. - - - - -SEWAGE-BORNE DISEASES AND THEIR AVOIDANCE - - -Any spittoon, slop pail, sink drain, urinal, privy, cesspool, sewage -tank, or sewage distribution field is a potential danger. A bit of spit, -urine, or feces the size of a pin head may contain many hundred germs, -all invisible to the naked eye and each one capable of producing disease. -These discharges should be kept away from the food and drink of man -and animals. From specific germs that may be carried in sewage at any -time there may result typhoid fever, tuberculosis, cholera, dysentery, -diarrhea, and other dangerous ailments, and it is probable that other -maladies may be traced to human waste. From certain animal parasites or -their eggs that may be carried in sewage there may result intestinal -worms, of which the more common are the hookworm, roundworm, whipworm, -eelworm, tapeworm, and seat worm. - -Sewage, drainage, or other impure water may contain also the causative -agents of numerous ailments common to livestock, such as tuberculosis, -foot-and-mouth disease, hog cholera, anthrax, glanders, and stomach and -intestinal worms. - -Disease germs are carried by many agencies and unsuspectingly received by -devious routes into the human body. Infection may come from the swirling -dust of the railway roadbed, from contact with transitory or chronic -carriers of disease, from green truck grown in gardens fertilized with -night soil or sewage, from food prepared or touched by unclean hands -or visited by flies or vermin, from milk handled by sick or careless -dairymen, from milk cans and utensils washed with contaminated water, or -from cisterns, wells, springs, reservoirs, irrigation ditches, brooks, -or lakes receiving the surface wash or the underground drainage from -sewage-polluted soil. - -Many recorded examples show with certainty how typhoid fever and other -diseases have been transmitted. A few indicating the responsibilities and -duties of people who live in the country are cited here. - - In August, 1889, a sister and two brothers aged 18, 21, and 23 years, - respectively, and all apparently in robust health dwelt together in a - rural village in Columbiana County, Ohio. Typhoid fever in particular - virulent form developed after use of drinking water from a badly polluted - surface source. The deaths of all three occurred within a space of 10 - days. - - In September and October, 1899, 63 cases of typhoid fever, resulting - in 5 deaths, occurred at the Northampton (Mass.) insane hospital. This - epidemic was conclusively traced to celery, which was eaten freely in - August and was grown and banked in a plot that had been fertilized in the - late winter or early spring with the solid residue and scrapings from a - sewage filter bed situated on the hospital grounds. - - Some years ago Dr. W. W. Skinner, Bureau of Chemistry, Department of - Agriculture, investigated the cause of an outbreak of typhoid fever in - southwest Virginia. A small stream meandered through a narrow valley - in which five 10-inch wells about 450 feet deep had been drilled in - limestone formation. The wells were from 50 to 400 feet from the stream, - from which, it was suspected, pollution was reaching the wells. In a pool - in the stream bed approximately one-fourth mile above the wells several - hundred pounds of common salt were dissolved. Four of the wells were cut - off from the pump and the fifth was subjected to heavy pumping. The water - discharged by the pump was examined at 15-minute intervals and its salt - content determined over a considerable period of time. After the lapse of - several 15-minute intervals the salt began to rise and continued to rise - until the maximum was approximately seven times that at the beginning of - the test, thus proving the facility with which pollution may pass a long - distance underground and reach deep wells. - - Probably no epidemic in American history better illustrates the dire - results that may follow one thoughtless act than the outbreak of typhoid - fever at Plymouth, Pa., in 1885. In January and February of that year the - night discharges of one typhoid fever patient were thrown out upon the - snow near his home. These, carried by spring thaws into the public water - supply, caused an epidemic running from April to September. In a total - population of about 8,000, 1,104 persons were attacked by the disease and - 114 died. - -Like plants and animals, disease germs vary in their powers of resistance. -Some are hardy, others succumb easily. Outside the body most of them -probably die in a few days or weeks. It is never certain when such germs -may not lodge where the immediate surroundings are favorable to their life -and reproduction. Milk is one of the common substances in which germs -multiply rapidly. The experience at Northampton shows that typhoid-fever -germs may survive several months in garden soil. Laboratory tests by the -United States Public Health Service showed that typhoid-fever germs had -not all succumbed after being frozen in cream 74 days. (Public Health -Reports, Feb. 8, 1918, pp. 163-166.) Ravenel kept the spores of anthrax -immersed for 244 days in the strongest tanning fluids without perceptible -change in their vitality or virulence. (Annual Report, State Department of -Health, Mass., 1916, p. 494.) - -=Unsafe practices.=--Upon thousands of small farms there are no privies -and excretions are deposited carelessly about the premises. A place of -this character is shown in figure 1. Upon thousands of other farms the -privy is so filthy and neglected that hired men and visitors seek near-by -sheds, fields, and woods. A privy of this character is shown in figure 2. -These practices and conditions exist in every section of the country. They -should be abolished. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.--One of many farms lacking the simplest sanitary -convenience] - -Deserving of severe censure is the old custom of conveying excrements or -sewage into abandoned wells or some convenient stream. Such a practice is -indecent and unsafe. It is unnecessary and is contrary to the laws of most -of the States. - -Likewise dangerous and even more disgusting is the old custom of using -human excrement or sewage for the fertilization of truck land. Under -no circumstances should such wastes be used on land devoted to celery, -lettuce, radishes, cucumbers, cabbages, tomatoes, melons, or other -vegetables, berries, or low-growing fruits that are eaten raw. Disease -germs or particles of soil containing such germs may adhere to the skins -of vegetables or fruits and infect the eater. - -Upon farms it is necessary to dispose of excretal wastes at no great -distance from the dwelling. The ability and likelihood of flies carrying -disease germs direct to the dinner table, kitchen, or pantry are well -known. Vermin, household pets, poultry, and live stock may spread such -germs. For these reasons, and also on the score of odor, farm sewage never -should be exposed. - -=Important safety measure.=--The farmer can do no other one thing so vital -to his own and the public health as to make sure of the continued purity -of the farm water supply. Investigations indicate that about three out of -four shallow wells are polluted badly. - -Wells and springs are fed by ground water, which is merely natural -drainage. Drainage water usually moves with the slope of the land. It -always dissolves part of the mineral, vegetable, and animal matter of the -ground over or through which it moves. In this way impurities are carried -into the ground water and may reach distant wells or springs. - -The great safeguards are clean ground and wide separation of the well -from probable channels of impure drainage water. It is not enough that -a well or spring is 50 or 150 feet from a source of filth or that it is -on higher ground. Given porous ground, a seamy ledge, or long-continued -pollution of one plat of land, the zone of contamination is likely to -extend long distances, particularly in downhill directions or when the -water is low through drought or heavy pumping. Only when the surface of -the water in a well or spring is at a higher level at all times than any -near-by source of filth is there assurance of safety from impure seepage. -Some of the foregoing facts are shown diagrammatically in Figure 3. Figure -4 is typical of those insanitary, poorly drained barnyards that are almost -certain to work injury to wells situated in or near them. Accumulations -of filth result in objectionable odor and noxious drainage. Figure 5 -illustrates poor relative location of privy, cesspool, and well. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.--The rickety, uncomfortable, unspeakably foul, -dangerous ground privy. Neglected by the owner, shunned by the hired man, -avoided by the guest, who, in preference, goes to near-by fields or woods, -polluter of wells, meeting place of house flies and disease germs, privies -of this character abide only because of man's indifference] - -Sewage or impure drainage water should never be discharged into or upon -ground draining toward a well, spring, or other source of water supply. -Neither should such wastes be discharged into openings in rock, an -abandoned well, nor a hole, cesspool, vault, or tank so located that -pollution can escape into water-bearing earth or rock. Whatever the system -of sewage disposal, it should be entirely and widely separated from the -water supply. Further information on locating and constructing wells is -given in Farmers' Bulletin 1448-F, Farmstead Water Supply, copies of which -may be had upon request to the Division of Publications, Department of -Agriculture. - -Enough has been said to bring home to the reader these vital points: - -1. Never allow the farm sewage or excrements, even in minutest quantity, -to reach the food or water of man or livestock. - -2. Never expose such wastes so that they can be visited by flies or other -carriers of disease germs. - -3. Never use such wastes to fertilize or irrigate vegetable gardens. - -4. Never discharge or throw such wastes into a stream, pond, or abandoned -well, nor into a gutter, ditch, or tile drainage system, which naturally -must have outlet in some watercourse. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.--How an apparently good well may draw foul -drainage. Arrows show direction of ground water movement. _A-A_, Usual -water table (surface of free water in the ground); _B-B_, water table -lowered by drought and pumping from well _D_; _C-C_, water table further -lowered by drought and heavy pumping; _E-F_, level line from surface of -sewage in cesspool. Well _D_ is safe until the water table is lowered to -_E_; further lowering draws drainage from the cesspool and, with the water -table at _C-C_, from the barn. The location of well _G_ renders it unsafe -always] - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.--An insanitary, poorly drained barnyard. (Board of -Health, Milwaukee.) Liquid manure or other foul drainage is sure to leach -into wells situated in or near barnyards of this character] - - - - -HOW SEWAGE DECOMPOSES - - -When a bottle of fresh sewage is kept in a warm room changes occur in the -appearance and nature of the liquid. At first it is light in appearance -and its odor is slight. It is well supplied with oxygen, since this gas -is always found in waters exposed to the atmosphere. In a few hours the -solids in the sewage separate mechanically according to their relative -weights; sediment collects at the bottom, and a greasy film covers the -surface. In a day's time there is an enormous development of bacteria, -which obtain their food supply from the dissolved carbonaceous and -nitrogenous matter. As long as free oxygen is present this action is -spoken of as aërobic decomposition. There is a gradual increase in the -amount of ammonia and a decrease of free oxygen. When the ammonia is near -the maximum and the free oxygen is exhausted the sewage is said to be -stale. Following exhaustion of the oxygen supply, bacterial life continues -profuse, but it gradually diminishes as a result of reduction of its food -supply and the poisonous effects of its own wastes. In the absence of -oxygen the bacterial action is spoken of as anaërobic decomposition. The -sewage turns darker and becomes more offensive. Suspended and settled -organic substances break apart or liquefy later, and various foul-smelling -gases are liberated. Sewage in this condition is known as septic and the -putrefaction that has taken place is called septicization. Most of the -odor eventually disappears, and a dark, insoluble, mosslike substance -remains as a deposit. Complete reduction of this deposit may require many -years. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Poor relative locations of privy, cesspool, and -well. (State Department of Health, Massachusetts.) Never allow privy, -cesspool, or sink drainage to escape into the plot of ground from which -the water supply comes] - - - - -IMPORTANCE OF AIR IN TREATMENT OF SEWAGE - - -Decomposition of organic matter by bacterial agency is not a complete -method of treating sewage, as will be shown later under "Septic tanks." It -is sufficient to observe here that in all practical methods of treatment -aeration plays a vital part. The air or the sewage, or both, must be in a -finely divided state, as when sewage percolates through the interstices -of a porous, air-filled soil. The principle involved was clearly stated -30 years ago by Hiram F. Mills, a member of the Massachusetts State Board -of Health. In discussing the intermittent filtration of sewage through -gravel stones too coarse to arrest even the coarsest particles in the -sewage Mr. Mills said: "The slow movement of the sewage in thin films over -the surface of the stones, with air in contact, caused a removal for some -months of 97 per cent of the organic nitrogenous matter, as well as 99 per -cent of the bacteria." - - - - -PRACTICAL UTILITIES - - -Previous discussion has dealt largely with basic principles of sanitation. -The construction and operation of simple utilities embodying some of -these principles are discussed in the following order: (1) Privies for -excrements only; (2) works for handling wastes where a supply of water is -available for flushing. - - -PIT PRIVY - -Figure 6 shows a portable pit privy suitable for places of the character -of that shown in figure 1, where land is abundant and cheap, and in such -localities has proved practical. It provides, at minimum cost and with -least attention, a fixed place for depositing excretions where the filth -can not be tracked by man, spread by animals, reached by flies, nor washed -by rain. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Portable pit privy. For use where land is abundant -and cheap, but unless handled with judgment can not be regarded as safe. -The privy is mounted on runners for convenience in moving to new locations] - -The privy is light and inexpensive and is placed over a pit in the ground. -When the pit becomes one-half or two-thirds full the privy is drawn or -carried to a new location. The pit should be shallow, preferably not -over 2½ feet in depth, and never should be located in wet ground or rock -formation or where the surface or the strata slope toward a well, spring, -or other source of domestic water supply. Besides standing on lower ground -the pit should never be within 200 feet of a well or spring. Since dryness -in the pit is essential, the ground should be raised slightly and 10 or -12 inches of earth should be banked and compacted against all sides to -shed rain water. The banking also serves to exclude flies. If the soil -is sandy or gravelly, the pit should be lined with boards or pales to -prevent caving. The standard galvanized or black enameled wire cloth -having 14 squares to the inch. The whole seat should be easily removable -for cleaning. A little loose absorbent soil should be added daily to the -accumulation in the pit, and when a pit is abandoned it should be filled -immediately with dry earth mounded to shed water. - -A pit privy for use in field work, consisting of a framework of ½-inch -iron pipe for corner posts connected at the top with ¼-inch iron rods bent -at the ends to right angles and hung with curtains of unbleached muslin, -is described in Public Health Report of the United States Public Health -Service, July 26, 1918. - -A pit privy, even if moved often, can not be regarded as safe. The danger -is that accumulations of waste may overtax the purifying capacity of the -soil and the teachings reach wells or springs. Sloping ground is not a -guaranty of safety; the great safeguard lies in locating the privy a long -distance from the water supply and as far below it as possible. - - -SANITARY PRIVY - -The next step in evolution is the sanitary privy. Its construction must -be such that it is practically impossible for filth or germs to be spread -above ground, to escape by percolation underground, or to be accessible to -flies, vermin, chickens, or animals. Furthermore, it must be cared for in -a cleanly manner, else it ceases to be sanitary. To secure these desirable -ends sanitarians have devised numerous types of tight-receptacle privy. -Considering the small cost and the proved value of some of these types, it -is to be regretted that few are seen on American farms. - -The container for a sanitary privy may be small--for example, a -galvanized-iron pail or garbage can, to be removed from time to time by -hand; it may be large, as a barrel or a metal tank mounted for moving; -or it may be a stationary underground metal tank or masonry vault. The -essential requirement in the receptacle is permanent water-tightness to -prevent pollution of soils and wells. Wooden pails or boxes, which warp -and leak, should not be used. Where a vault is used it should be shallow -to facilitate emptying and cleaning. Moreover, if the receptacle should -leak it is better that the escape of liquid should be in the top soil, -where air and bacterial life are most abundant. - -Sanitary privies are classified according to the method used in treating -the excretions, as dry earth, chemical, etc. - - -DRY-EARTH PRIVY - -=Pail type.=--A very serviceable pail privy is shown in Figures 7 and 8. -The method of ventilation is an adaptation of a system that has proved -very effective in barns and other buildings here and abroad. A flue with -a clear opening of 16 square inches rises from the rear of the seat and -terminates above the ridgepole in a cowl or small roofed housing. Attached -to this flue is a short auxiliary duct, 4 by 15 inches, for removing foul -air from the top of the privy. In its upper portion on the long sides the -cowl is open, allowing free movement of air across the top of the flue. -In addition, the long sides of the cowl are open below next to the roof. -These two openings, with the connecting vertical air passages, permit free -upward movement of air through the cowl, as indicated by the arrows. The -combined effect is to create draft from beneath the seat and from the top -of the privy. The ventilating flue is 2 by 8 inches at the seat and 4 by 4 -inches 5 feet above. The taper slightly increases the labor of making the -flue, but permits a 2-inch reduction in the length of the building. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Pail privy. Well constructed, ventilated, and -screened. With proper care is sanitary and unobjectionable] - -In plan the privy is 4 by 4½ feet. The sills are secured to durable posts -set about 4 feet in the ground. The boarding is tight, and all vents and -windows are screened to exclude insects. The screens may be the same as -for pit privies or, if a more lasting material is desired, bronze or -copper screening of 14 squares to the inch may be used. The entire seat -is hinged, thus permitting removal of the receptacle and facilitating -cleaning and washing the underside of the seat and the destruction of -spiders and other insects which thrive in dark, unclean places. The -receptacle is a heavy galvanized-iron garbage can. Heavy brown-paper bags -for lining the can may be had at slight cost, and their use helps to keep -the can clean and facilitates emptying. Painting with black asphaltum -serves a similar purpose and protects the can from rust. If the contents -are frozen, a little heat releases them. Of nonfreezing mixtures a strong -brine made with common salt or calcium chloride is effective. Two and -one-half to 3 pounds of either thoroughly dissolved in a gallon of water -lowers the freezing point of the mixture to about zero. Denatured alcohol -or wood alcohol in a 25 per cent solution has a like low freezing point -and the additional merit of being noncorrosive of metals. The can should -be emptied frequently and the contents completely buried in a thin layer -by a plow or in a shallow hand-dug trench at a point below and remote from -wells and springs. Wherever intestinal disease exists the contents of -the can should be destroyed by burning or made sterile before burial by -boiling or by incorporation with a strong chemical disinfectant. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Pail privy] - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.--A well-ventilated privy in Montana] - -A privy ventilated in the manner before described is shown in Figure 9. -The cowl, however, is open on four sides instead of two sides as shown -in Figures 7 and 8. The working drawings (figs. 7 and 8) show that the -construction of a privy of the kind is not difficult. Figure 10 gives -three suggestions whereby a privy may be conveniently located and the -approach screened or partially hidden by latticework, vines, or shrubbery. - -=Vault type.=--A primitive and yet serviceable three-seat dry-earth privy -of the vault type is shown in Figure 11. This privy was constructed in -1817 upon a farm at Westboro, Mass. The vault, made of bricks, was 6 feet -long by 5 feet wide, and the bottom was 1 foot below the surface of the -ground. The brickwork was laid in mortar, and the part below the ground -surface was plastered on the inside. The outside of the vault was exposed -to light and air on all four sides. Across the long side of the vault -in the rear was a door swinging upward through which the night soil was -removed two or three times a year, usually in the spring, summer, and fall -and hauled to a near-by field, where it was deposited in a furrow, just -ahead of the plow. - -Especial attention is called to the shallowness of the vault and the -lightened labor of cleaning it out. The swinging door at the rear -facilitated the sprinkling of dry soil or ashes over the contents of the -vault, thus avoiding the necessity of carrying dirt and dust into the -building and dust settling upon the seat. This privy was in use for nearly -100 years without renewal or repairs. When last seen the original seat, -which always was kept painted, showed no signs of decay. Modern methods -would call for a concrete vault of guaranteed water-tightness,[3] proper -ventilation and screening, and hinging the seat. - -[3] Directions for mixing and placing concrete to secure water-tightness -are contained in Farmers' Bulletin 1279-F, "Plain concrete for farm use," -and Farmers' Bulletin 1572-F, "Making Cellars Dry." - -Working drawings for a very convenient well-built two-seat vault privy -are reproduced in Figures 12 and 13. The essential features are shown in -sufficient detail to require little explanation. With concrete mixtures of -1:2:3 (1 volume cement, 2 volumes sand, 3 volumes stone) for the vault and -1:2:4 for the posts there will be required a total of about 2 cubic yards -of concrete, taking 3½ barrels of cement, 1 cubic yard of sand, and 1½ -cubic yards of broken stone or screened gravel. The stone or gravel should -not exceed 1 inch in diameter, except that a few cobblestones may be -embedded where the vault wall is thickest, thus effecting a slight saving -of materials. - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Screening the approach to a privy. _A_, Raised -platform with lattice sides, suitable for short distances, convenient, -and easily cleared of snow; _B_, walk hidden by latticework; _C_, walk -inclosed by an arbor] - - -CHEMICAL CLOSET - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.--A primitive vault privy in Massachusetts. Note -the tight, shallow, easily cleaned vault. _A_, Brick vault 5 by 6 feet, -bottom about 1 foot in the ground; _B_, water-tight plastering; _C_, -rowlock course of brick; _D_, door hinged at top; _E_, door button; _F_, -three-pane window hinged at top; _G_, passageway] - -A type of sanitary privy in which the excrements are received directly -into a water-tight receptacle containing chemical disinfectant is meeting -with considerable favor for camps, parks, rural cottages, schools, hotels, -and railway stations. These chemical closets,[4] as they are called, are -made in different forms and are known by various trade names. In the -simplest form a sheet-metal receptacle is concealed in a small metal or -wooden cabinet, and the closet is operated usually in much the same manner -as the ordinary pail privy. These closets are very simple and compact, -of good appearance, and easy to install or move from place to place. In -another type, known as the chemical tank closet, the receptacle is a -steel tank fixed in position underground or in a basement. The tank has a -capacity of about 125 gallons per seat, is provided with a hand-operated -agitator to secure thorough mixing of the chemical and the excretions, and -the contents are bailed, pumped, or drained out from time to time. - -[4] Among publications on chemical closets are the following: "Chemical -closets," Reprint No. 404 from the Public Health Reports, U. S. Public -Health Service, June 29, 1917, pp. 1017-1020: "The chemical closet," -Engineering Bulletin No. 5, Mich. State Board of Health, October, 1916; -Health Bulletin, Va. Department of Health, March, 1917, PP. 214-219. - -Chemical closets, like every form of privy, should be well installed, -cleanly operated, and frequently emptied, and the wastes should receive -safe burial. With the exception of frequency of emptying, the same can -be said of chemical tank closets. With both forms of closet thorough -ventilation or draft is essential, and this is obtained usually by -connecting the closet vent pipe to a chimney flue or extending it well -above the ridgepole of the building. The contents of the container should -always be submerged and very low temperatures guarded against. - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Two-seat vault privy] - -As to the germicidal results obtained in chemical closets, few data are -available. A disinfecting compound may not sterilize more than a thin -surface layer of the solid matter deposited. Experiments by Dr. Alvah -H. Doty with various agents recommended and widely used for the bedside -sterilization of feces showed "that at the end of 20 hours of exposure -to the disinfectant but one-eighth of an inch of the fecal mass was -disinfected."[5] Plainly, then, to destroy all bacterial and parasitic -life in chemical closets three things are necessary: (1) A very powerful -agent; (2) permeation of the fecal mass by the agent; (3) retention of -its strength and potency until permeation is complete. The compounds or -mixtures commonly used in chemical closets are of two general kinds: -First, those in which some coal-tar product or other oily disinfectant is -used to destroy germs and deodorize, leaving the solids little changed in -form; second, those of the caustic class that dissolve the solids, which, -if of sufficient strength and permeating every portion, should destroy -most if not all bacterial life. Not infrequently the chemical solution -is intended to accomplish disinfection, deodorization, and reduction to -a liquid or semiliquid state. Ordinary caustic soda, costing about $1 in -10-pound pails, has given good results. - -[5] Annual Report, Mass. State Board of Health, 1914, p. 727. - -A simple type of chemical closet is shown in Figure 14, and the essential -features are indicated in the notation. These closets with vent pipe and -appurtenances, ready for setting up, retail for $20 and upward. A chemical -tank closet, retailing for about $80 per seat, is shown in Figure 15. - -The Department of Agriculture occasionally receives complaints from people -who have installed chemical closets, usually on the score of odors or the -cost of chemicals. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Two-seat-vault privy. Note the shallow, -water-tight, easily cleaned concrete vault] - - -DISINFECTANTS AND DEODORANTS - -Disinfection is the destruction of disease germs. Sterilization is -the destruction of all germs or bacteria, both the harmful and the -useful. Antisepsis is the checking or restraining of bacterial growth. -Deodorization is the destruction of odor. Unfortunately in practice none -of these processes may be complete. The agent may be of inferior quality, -may have lost its potency, or may not reach all parts of the mass treated. -A disinfectant or germicide is an agent capable of destroying disease -germs; an antiseptic is an agent merely capable of arresting bacterial -growth, and it may be a dilute disinfectant; a deodorant is an agent that -tends to destroy odor, but whose action may consist in absorbing odor or -in masking the original odor with another more agreeable one.[6] - -[6] Those desiring more explicit information on disinfectants and the -principles of disinfection are referred to U. S. Department of Agriculture -Farmers' Bulletin 926, "Some Common Disinfectants," and 954, "The -Disinfection of Stables." and to publications of the U. S. Public Health -Service. - -Of active disinfecting agents, heat from fire, live steam, and boiling -water are the surest. The heat generated by the slaking of quicklime has -proved effective with small quantities of excreta. Results of tests by the -Massachusetts State Board of Health[7] show that the preferable method -consists in adding sufficient hot water (120° to 140° F.) to cover the -excrement in the receptacle, then adding small pieces of fresh strong -quicklime in amount equal to about one-third of the bulk of water and -excrement combined, covering the receptacle, and allowing it to stand 1½ -hours or longer. - -[7] Annual Report, Mass. State Board of Health, 1914, pp. 727-729. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Chemical closet. _A_, Water-tight sheet-metal -container; _B_, metal or wooden cabinet; _C_, wooden or composition seat -ring; _D_, hinged cover; _E_, 3 or 4 inch ventilating flue extending 18 -inches above roof or to a chimney; _F_, air inlets] - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Chemical tank closet. _A_, Tank, 2 feet 3 inches -by 4 feet 2 inches 5/64th-inch iron, seams welded; capacity, 125 gallons; -_B_, 14-inch covered opening for recharging and emptying tank; _C_, -12-inch galvanized sheet-metal tube; _D_, 4-inch sheet-metal ventilating -pipe extending above ridgepole or to a chimney; _E_, agitator or paddle] - -Among chemical disinfectants a strong solution of sodium hydroxide -(caustic soda) or potassium hydroxide (caustic potash, lye) is very -effective and is useful in dissolving grease and other organic substances. -Both chemicals are costly, but caustic soda is less expensive than -caustic potash and constitutes most of the ordinary commercial lyes. -Chlorinated lime (chloride of lime, bleaching powder) either in solution -or in powdered form is valuable. For the disinfection of stools of -typhoid-fever patients the Virginia State Board of Health[8] recommends -thoroughly dissolving ½ pound of best chlorinated lime in 1 gallon of -water and allowing the solution to cover the feces for at least 1 hour. -The solution should be kept in well-stoppered bottles and used promptly, -certainly within 2 or 3 days. Copper sulphate (blue vitriol, bluestone) -in a 5 per cent solution (1 pound in 2½ gallons of water) is a good but -rather costly disinfectant. None of the formulas here given is to be -construed as fixed and precise. Conditions may vary the proportions, as -they always will vary the results. The reader should remember that few, -if any, chemical disinfectants can be expected fully to disinfect or -sterilize large masses of excrement unless the agent is used repeatedly -and in liberal quantities or mechanical means are employed to secure -thorough incorporation. - -[8] Health Bulletin, Va. State Board of Health, June, 1917, pp. 277-280. - -Among deodorants some of the drying powders mentioned below possess -more or less disinfecting power. Chlorinated lime, though giving off an -unpleasant odor of chlorine, is employed extensively. Lime in the form -of either quicklime or milk of lime (whitewash) is much used and is an -active disinfectant. To prepare milk of lime a small quantity of water is -slowly added to good fresh quicklime in lumps. As soon as the quicklime -is slaked a quantity of water, about four times the quantity of lime, is -added and stirred thoroughly. When used as a whitewash the milk of lime is -thinned as desired with water and kept well stirred. Liberal use of milk -of lime in a vault or cesspool, though it may not disinfect the contents, -is of use in checking bacterial growth and abating odor. To give the best -results it should be used frequently, beginning when the vault or cesspool -is empty. Iron sulphate (green vitriol, copperas) because of its affinity -for ammonia and sulphides is used as a temporary deodorizer in vaults, -cesspools, and drains; 1 pound dissolved in 4 gallons of water makes a -solution of suitable strength. - - -PREVENTION OF PRIVY NUISANCE - -The following is a summary of simple measures for preventing a privy from -becoming a nuisance: - -1. Locate the privy inconspicuously and detached from the dwelling. - -2. Make the receptacle or vault small, shallow, easy of access, and -water-tight. - -3. Clean out the vault often. Do not wait until excrement has accumulated -and decomposition is sufficiently advanced to cause strong and foul odors. - -4. Sprinkle into the vault daily loose dry soil, ashes, lime, sawdust, -ground gypsum (land plaster), or powdered peat or charcoal. These will -absorb liquid and odor, though they may not destroy disease germs. - -5. Make the privy house rain-proof; ventilate it thoroughly, and screen -all openings. - - -OBJECTION TO PRIVIES - -All the methods of waste disposal heretofore described are open to the -following objections: - -1. They do not take care of kitchen slops and liquid wastes incident to a -pressure water system. - -2. They retain filth for a considerable period of time, with probability -of odors and liability of transmission of disease germs. - -3. They require more personal attention and care than people generally are -willing to give. - -By far the most satisfactory method yet devised of caring for sewage -calls for a supply of water and the flushing away of all wastes as soon -as created through a water-tight sewer to a place where they undergo -treatment and final disposal. - - -KITCHEN-SINK DRAINAGE - -A necessity in every dwelling is effective disposal of the kitchen-sink -slops. This necessity ordinarily arises long before the farm home is -supplied with water under pressure and the conveniences that go with it. -Hence the first call for information on sewage disposal is likely to -relate merely to sink drainage. This waste water, though it may not be -as dangerous to health as sewage containing human excrements, is still a -menace to the farm well and capable of creating disagreeable odor. - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.--How to waste kitchen-sink drainage. _A_, Sink; -_B_, waste pipe; _C_, trap; _D_, clean-out; _E_, box filled with hay, -straw, sawdust, excelsior, coke, or other insulating material; _F_, 4-inch -vitrified sewer-pipe, hubs uphill, and joints made water tight for at -least 100 feet downhill from a well; _G_, 4-inch vitrified sewer pipe, -hubs downhill, joints slightly open, laid in an 18-inch bed of coarse -sand, gravel, stone, broken brick, slag, cinders, or coke; _H_, strip -of tarred paper on burlap or a thin layer of hay, straw, cornstalks, -brush, or sods, grass side down; _I_, 12 inches of natural soil; _J_, -stone-filled pit. As here illustrated, water is drawn by a pitcher or -kitchen pump (_K_) through a 1¼ or 1½ inch galvanized-iron suction pipe -(_L_) from a cistern (_M_). The suction pipe should be laid below frost -and on a smooth upward grade from cistern to pump and be provided with a -foot valve (_N_) to keep the pump primed. If a foot valve is used, pump -and pipe must be safe from frost or other means than tripping the pump be -provided for draining the system] - -The usual method of disposing of sink slops is to allow them to dribble -on or beneath the surface of the ground close to the house. Such drainage -should be taken in a water-tight carrier at least 100 feet downhill from -the well and discharged below the surface of the ground. Every sink should -be provided with a suitable screen to keep all large particles out of the -waste pipe. An approved form of sink strainer consists of a brass plate -bolted in position over the outlet and having at least 37 perforations not -larger than one-fourth inch in diameter. Provided a sink is thus equipped -and is given proper care and the land has fair slope and drainage, -the waste water may be conducted away through a water-tight sewer and -distributed in the soil by means of a short blind drain. A simple -installation, consisting of a kitchen-sink and pump and means of disposal -as described, is shown in Figure 16. - - -CESSPOOLS - -Where farms have water under pressure an open or leaching cesspool is a -common method of disposing of the sewage. Ordinary cesspools are circular -excavations in the ground, lined with stone or brick laid without mortar. -They vary from 5 to 10 feet in diameter and from 7 to 12 feet in depth. -Sometimes the top is arched and capped at the ground surface by a cover of -wood, stone, or cast-iron. At other times the walls are carried straight -up and boards or planks are laid across for a cover, and the entire -structure is hidden with a hedge or shrubbery. - -Except under the most favorable conditions the construction and use of -a cesspool can not be condemned too strongly. They are only permissible -where no other arrangement is possible. Leaching cesspools especially are -open to these serious objections: - -1. Unless located in porous soil, stagnation is likely to occur, and -failure of the liquid to seep away may result in overflow on the Surface -of the ground and the creation of a nuisance and a menace. - -2. They retain a mass of filth in a decomposing condition deep in the -ground, where it is but slightly affected by the bacteria and air of -the soil. In seeping through the ground it may be strained, but there -can be no assurance that the foul liquid, with little improvement in -its condition, may not pass into the ground water and pollute wells and -springs situated long distances away in the direction of underground flow. - -For the purpose of avoiding soil and ground-water pollution cesspools have -been made of water-tight construction and the contents removed by bailing -or pumping. Upon the farm, however, this type of construction has little -to recommend it, for the reason that facilities for removing and disposing -of the contents in a clean manner are lacking. - -In some instances cesspools have been made water-tight, the outflow being -effected by three or four elbows or =T=-branches set in the masonry near -the top, with the inner ends turned down below the water surface, the -whole surrounded to a thickness of several feet with stone or gravel -intended to act as a filtering medium. Tests of the soil water adjacent to -cesspools of this type show that no reliance should be placed upon them as -a means of purifying sewage, the fatal defects being constant saturation -with sewage and lack of air supply. To the extent that the submerged -outlets keep back grease and solid matters the scheme is of service in -preventing clogging of the pores of the surrounding ground. - -Where the ground about a cesspool has become clogged and water-logged, -relief is often secured by laying several lines of drain tile at shallow -depth, radiating from the cesspool. The ends of the pipes within the -cesspool should turn down, and it is advantageous to surround the lines -of pipe with stones or coarse gravel, as shown in Figure 16 and discussed -under "Septic tanks." In this way not only is the area of percolation -extended, but aeration and partial purification of the sewage are effected. - -Where a cesspool is located at a distance from a dwelling and there is -opportunity to lead a vent pipe up the side of a shed, barn, or any stable -object it is advisable to do so for purposes of ventilation. Where the -conditions are less favorable it may be best, because of the odor, to omit -any direct vent pipe from the cesspool and rely for ventilation on the -house sewer and main soil stack extending above the roof of the house. - -Cesspools should be emptied and cleaned at least once a year and the -contents given safe burial or, with the requisite permission, wasted in -some municipal sewerage system. After cleaning, the walls and bottom may -be treated with a disinfectant or a deodorant. - - -SEPTIC TANKS - -A tight, underground septic tank with shallow distribution of the effluent -in porous soil generally is the safest and least troublesome method of -treating sewage upon the farm, while at the same time more or less of the -irrigating and manurial value of the sewage may be realized. - -The late Professor Kinnicutt used to say that a septic tank is "simply a -cesspool, regulated and controlled." The reactions described under the -captions "How sewage decomposes" and "Cesspools" take place in septic -tanks. - -In all sewage tanks, whatever their size and shape, a portion of the solid -matter, especially if the sewage contains much grease, floats as scum on -the liquid, the heavier solids settle to form sludge, while finely divided -solids and matter in a state of emulsion are held in suspension. If the -sludge is retained in the bottom of the tank and converted or partly -converted into liquids and gases, the tank is called a septic tank and the -process is known as septicization. The process is sometimes spoken of as -one of digestion or rotting. - -=History.=--Prototypes of the septic tank were known in Europe nearly 50 -years ago. Between 1876 and 1393 a number of closed tanks with submerged -inlets and outlets embodying the principle of storage of sewage and -liquefaction of the solids were built in the United States and Canada. It -was later seen that many of the early claims for the septic process were -extravagant. In recent years septic tanks have been used mainly in small -installations, or, where employed in large installations, the form has -been modified to secure digestion of the sludge in a separate compartment, -thus in a measure obviating disadvantages that exist where septicization -takes place in the presence of the entering fresh sewage. - -=Purposes.=--The purposes of a septic tank are to receive all the farm -sewage, as defined on page 1, hold it in a quiet state for a time, thus -causing partial settlement of the solids, and by nature's processes of -decomposition insure, as fully as may be, the destruction of the organic -matter. - -=Limitations.=--That a septic tank is a complete method of sewage -treatment is a widespread but wrong impression. A septic tank does not -eliminate odor and does not destroy all organic solids. On the contrary, -foul odors developed, and of all the suspended matter in the sewage about -one-third escapes with the effluent, about one-third remains in the tank, -and about one-third only is destroyed or reduced to liquids and gases. -The effluent is foul and dangerous. It may contain even more bacteria -than the raw sewage, since the process involves intensive growths. As -to the effects upon the growth and virulence of disease germs little is -known definitely. It is not believed that such germs multiply under the -conditions prevailing in a septic tank. If disease germs are present, many -of their number along with other bacteria may pass through with the flow -or may be enmeshed in the settling solids and there survive a long time. -Hence the farmer should safeguard wells and springs from the seepage or -discharges from a septic tank as carefully as from those of cesspools. - -=Further treatment of effluents.=--The effluent of a septic tank or any -other form of sewage tank is foul and dangerous. Whether or not the -solids are removed by screening, by short periods of rest, as in plain or -modified forms of settling tanks, or by longer quiescence, as in septic -tanks, the effluent generally requires further treatment to reduce the -number of harmful organisms and the liability of nuisance. This further -treatment usually consists of some mode of filtration. In the earliest -example of such treatment the sewage was used to irrigate land by either -broad flooding or furrow irrigation. By another method the sewage is -distributed underground by means of drain tile laid with open joints, as -illustrated in Figures 27 and 30. - -Artificial sewage filters are composed of coarse sand, screened gravel, -broken stone, coke, or other material, and the sewage is applied in -numerous ways. Since, filtration is essentially an oxidizing process -requiring air, the sewage is applied intermittently in doses.[9] - -[9] Artificial filters of various types are well described and illustrated -in Public Health Bulletin No. 101, "Studies of Methods for the Treatment -and Disposal of Sewage--The Treatment of Sewage from Single Houses and -Small Communities." U. S. Public Health Service, December, 1919. - -If properly designed and operated, filters of sand, coke, or stone are -capable of excellent results. Under the most favorable conditions it is -unwise to discharge the effluent of a sewage filter in the near vicinity -of a source of water supply. Under farm conditions filters are usually -neglected or the sewage is improperly applied, resulting in the clogging -and befouling of sand filters and the discharge from stone filters of an -effluent which is practically as dangerous and even more offensive than -raw sewage. Moreover unless the filters are covered there are likely to be -annoying odors, and there is always the possibility of disease germs being -carried by flies where sewage is exposed in the vicinity of dwellings. -Hence it seems more practical for the farmer, avoiding the expense of -earth embankments or masonry sides and bottom for a filter bed, to waste -the tank effluent beneath the surface of such area of land as is most -suitable and available. This method of applying sewage to the soil or -subsoil is often spoken of as subirrigation, but subsoil distribution of -sewage is different in principle and practice from subirrigation for the -increase of crop yields. Subirrigation is rarely successful unless the -land is nearly level, the topsoil porous and underlaid with an impervious -stratum to hold the water within reach of plant roots, and unless a -relatively large quantity of water is used and the work is skillfully -done. On the other hand, the quantity of sewage on farms being small, it -may be wasted in hilly ground, which should be as porous, deeply drained, -and dry as possible. - -=Parts of a system.=--The four parts of a septic-tank installation with -subsurface distribution of the effluent are outlined in Figure 17: (1) -The house sewer from house to tank; (2) the sewage tank consisting of one -or more chambers; (3) the sewer from tank to distribution field; (4) the -distribution field, where the sewage is distributed and wasted, sometimes -called the absorption field. These parts will be discussed in the order -named, although the last should have the first consideration. - -[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Parts of a septic-tank installation] - -=House sewer.=--The length will vary with the slope of the ground and -position of buildings, well, and distribution field. Fifty to 100 feet is -a fair length; a greater is still more sanitary. Wherever possible the -house sewer should be laid straight in line and grade. Figure 18 shows -how this work may be done. Suppose the distance from A to E be 100 feet; -that grade boards be set 25 feet apart crosswise of the trench at A, B, -C, D, and E; that the ground at A be 4 feet lower than at E; that the top -of the sewer be 2½ feet below the surface of the ground at A and 4½ feet -below the surface of the ground at E; the fall of the sewer between A -and E is 2 feet (4 + 2½ - 4½ = 2). If the fall in 100 feet be 2 feet, in -25 feet it is one-fourth as much, or 6 inches. Hence, grade board B is 6 -inches higher than grade board A, C is 6 inches higher than B, and so on -to E. The top edges when all the boards are set with a carpenter's level -and fastened in position should be in line. The grade thus established -may be any convenient height above the top of the proposed sewer, and the -measuring stick used to grade the pipe is cut accordingly. This height is -usually a certain number of whole feet. Fixing the line of the sewer is a -mere matter of setting nails in the top edges of boards A and E directly -over the center of the proposed sewer and tightly stretching a fish line -or grade cord; nails should be set where the cord crosses boards B, C, and -D. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Setting line and grade for house sewer. To -the observer at A the top edges of the grade boards appear as one; the -half-driven nails are set to line] - -If the cellar or basement contains plumbing fixtures, the house sewer -should enter 1 to 2 feet below the cellar floor. If all plumbing fixtures -are on the floors above, the sewer may enter at no greater depth than -necessary to insure protection from frost outside the cellar wall. Digging -the trench and laying the pipe should begin at the tank or lower end. The -large end of the pipes, called the hub, should face uphill, and the barrel -of each pipe should have even bearing throughout its length. Sufficient -earth should be removed from beneath the hubs to permit the joints to be -made in a workmanlike manner. - -The house sewer may be vitrified salt-glazed sewer pipe, concrete pipe, or -cast-iron soil pipe. The latter, with poured and calked lead joints makes -a permanently water-tight and root-proof sewer, which always should be -used where the vicinity of a well must be passed; 4, 5, or 6-inch pipe may -be used, depending mainly on the fall and in less degree on the quantity -of sewage discharge. As a measure of economy the 4-inch size is favored -for iron pipe. If vitrified pipe is used, either the 5 or 6-inch size is -preferable, as these sizes are made straighter than the 4-inch size and -are less liable to obstruction. Of the two the 5-inch size is preferable. -The fall in 100 feet should never be less than 2 feet for 4-inch size, 1½ -feet for 5-inch size, 1 foot for 6-inch size. - -Figure 19 shows methods of making good joints. _A_, _B_, _C_, _D_, _E_, -_F_, and _G_ are ordinary sewer pipe joints; _H_, cast-iron soil pipe. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19.--How to make good joints. See text for directions -and specifications] - - _A_ shows the use of a yarning iron to pack a small strand of jute into - the joint space, thus centering the pipes and preventing the joint filler - running inside. The joint surfaces should be free of dirt and oil. The - jute is cut in lengths to go around the pipe; a small strand is soaked - in neat Portland cement grout, then twisted and wrapped around the small - end of the pipe to be pushed into the hub of the last pipe laid. After - the pipe is pushed home the jute is packed evenly to a depth of not over - ½ inch, leaving about 1½ inches for the joint filler. Old hemp rope or - oakum dipped in liquid cement or paper may be used, in place of jute, and - the packing may be done with a thin file or piece of wood. - - _B_ shows the use of a rubber mitten or glove to force Portland cement - mortar into the joint space. The mortar should be thoroughly and freshly - mixed in the proportion of one volume of cement to one volume of clean - sand and should be pressed and tamped to fill the joint completely. - - _C_ shows a section of finished joint. The fresh mortar should not be - loosened or disturbed when laying the next pipe. - - _D_ shows method of pouring a joint with grout, which is quicker, - cheaper, and better than using a rubber mitten. A flexible sheet-metal - form or mold, oiled to prevent the grout sticking, is clamped tightly - around the joint and is completely filled with grout consisting of equal - parts of Portland cement and clean sand mixed dry, to which water is - added to produce a creamy consistency. The pipes should not be disturbed - and the form should not be removed for 24 hours. - - _E_ shows a section of grouted joint, well rounded out, strong, and tight. - - _F_ shows the use of a pipe jointer for pouring a hot filler. The pipe - jointer may be an asbestos or rubber runner or collar or a piece of - garden hose clamped around the pipe leaving a small triangular opening - at the top. The jointer is pressed firmly against the hub, and any - small openings between the jointer and pipe are smeared with plastic - clay to prevent leakage of the filler. A clay dike or funnel about 3 - inches high built around the triangular opening greatly aids rapid and - complete filling of the joint space. The filler may be a commercially - prepared bituminous compound or molten sulphur and fine sand. The former - makes a slightly elastic joint; the latter a hard unyielding joint. With - good workmanship both kinds of joint are practically water-tight and - root-proof, and cost about the same as cement mortar joints. The filler - is heated in an iron kettle over a wood, coke, or coal fire. It should - be well stirred, and when at a free running consistency should be poured - with a ladle large enough to fill the joint completely at one operation. - As soon as the compound cools the jointer is removed. Sulphur-sand - filler is made by mixing together dry and melting equal volumes of - ordinary powdered sulphur and very fine clean sand, preferably the finest - quicksand. A 5-inch sewer pipe joint requires from three-tenths to - nine-tenths of a pound (according to the kind of pipe) of sulphur, worth - 3 to 5 cents per pound, and a like quantity of sand. From ½ to 1½ pounds - of bituminous filler are required for a 5-inch pipe joint. - - _G_ shows section of finished joint. - - _H_ shows the use of a pouring ladle in making lead joints in cast-iron - soil pipe. This pipe is in lengths to lay 5 feet, and the metal of the - barrel is ¼ inch thick. The joint is yarned with dry jute or oakum, as - described above, and is poured full with molten, soft, pig lead to be - afterwards driven tightly with hammer and calking tools. About ¾ pound - of lead for each inch in diameter of pipe is required. Prepared cements - of varying composition have proved effective and, as they require no - calking, are economical. Among the best is a finely ground, thoroughly - mixed compound of iron, sulphur, slag, and salt. - - _I_ is a homemade pipe jointer or clay roll for use in pouring molten - lead. A strand of jute long enough to encircle the pipe and the ends to - fold back, leaving an opening at the top, is covered with clay moistened, - rolled and worked to form a plastic rope about 1 inch in diameter. The - jointer gives the very best results but must be frequently moistened and - worked to keep the clay soft and pliable. The jointer shown in _F_ is - frequently used for pouring lead joints. - -Obstructions in house sewers are frequent. Among the causes are broken -pipes, grade insufficient to give cleansing velocities, newspaper, rags, -garbage, or other solids in the sewage, congealing of grease in pipes -and main running traps (house sewer traps), and poor joint construction -whereby rootlets grow into the sewer and choke it. Good grade and good -construction with particular care given to the joints, will avert or -lessen these troubles. The sewer should be perfectly straight, with the -interior of the joints scraped or swabbed smooth. When the joint-filling -material has set, the hollows beneath the hubs should be filled with good -earth free of stones, well tamped or puddled in place. It is important -that like material be used at the sides of the pipe and above it for at -least 1 foot. The back filling may be completed with scraper or plow. No -running trap should be placed on the house sewer, because it is liable -to become obstructed and it prevents free movement of air through the -sewer and soil stack. Conductors or drains for rain or other clean water -should never connect with the house sewer, but should discharge into a -watercourse or other outlet. - -Where obstruction of a house sewer occurs, use of some of the simple tools -shown in Figure 20 may remedy the trouble. It is not likely that farmers -will have these appliances, except possibly some of the augers; but some -of them can be made at home or by a blacksmith, and most of them should -be obtainable for temporary use from a well-organized town or city sewer -department. The purpose of the several tools shown is indicated in the -notation. - -=The tank.=--The septic tank should be in an isolated location at least -50 to 100 feet from any dwelling. This is not always possible, because of -flat ground, but in many such instances reasonable distance and fall may -be secured by raising both the house sewer and tank and embanking them -with earth. Cases are known where tanks adjoin cellar or basement walls -and the top of the tank is used as a doorstep; in other cases tanks have -been constructed within buildings. Such practices are bad. It is difficult -to construct an absolutely water-tight masonry tank, and still more -difficult to make it proof against the passage of sewer odors. - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Sewer-cleaning tools--how to use them. _A_, -Ordinary 1½ or 2 inch auger welded to a piece 1¾-inch extra strong wrought -pipe about 5 feet long: the stem is lengthened by adding other pieces of -pipe with screw couplings, and is fitted with a pipe handle; all cleaning -work should proceed upstream; _B_, twist or open earth auger; _C_, ribbon -or closed earth auger; _D_, spiral or coal auger; _E_, ship auger; _F_, -root cutter; _G_, sewer rods, with hook coupling, usually of hickory -or ash 1 or 1¼ inches in diameter and 3 or 4 feet long; _H_, gouge for -cutting obstructions; _I_, scoop for removing sand or similar material; -_J_, claw, and _K_, screw, for removing paper and rags; _L_, scraper; _M_, -wire brush for removing grease, drawn back and forth with a wire or rope; -_N_, homemade wire brush (for a 5-inch sewer use a 1½-inch wooden pole -to which is securely tacked a piece of heavy rubber, canvas, or leather -belting or harness leather 5½ by 8 inches, spirally studded, as shown, -with ordinary wire nails 1½ inches in length)] - -In Northern States, particularly in exposed situations, it is desirable to -have the top of the tank 1 to 2 feet underground, thus promoting warmth -and uniformity of temperature in the sewage. In Southern States this -feature is less important, and the top of the tank may be flush with the -ground. Every tank should be tightly covered, for the reasons above stated -and to guard against the spread of odors, the transmission of disease -germs by flies, and accidents to children. - -Considerable latitude is allowable in the design and construction of -septic tanks. No particular shape or exact dimensions can be presented for -a given number of people. One family of 5 persons may use as much water -as another family of 10 persons; hence the quantity of sewage rather than -the number of persons is the better basis of design. Exact dimensions -are not requisite, for settlement and septicization proceed whether the -sewage is held a few hours more or a few hours less. As to materials of -construction, some form of masonry, either brick, building tile, rubble, -concrete, or cement block, is employed generally. Vitrified pipe, steel, -and wood have been used occasionally. - -[Illustration: Fig. 21.--One-chamber septic tank--does nothing more than -a tight cesspool. Brick construction, heavily plastered inside; size -suitable for 180 to 280 gallons of sewage daily (nominally 4 to 7 persons)] - -A plant for use all year round should have two chambers, one to secure -settlement and septicization of the solids and the other to secure -periodic discharge of the effluent by the use of an automatic sewage -siphon. The first chamber is known as the settling chamber, the second -as the siphon or dosing chamber. The siphon chamber is often omitted -and the effluent is allowed to dribble away through subsurface tile, as -illustrated in Figure 16. The latter procedure is not generally advised, -but may be permissible where the land slopes sharply or has long periods -of rest, as at summer houses and camps. - -The septic tanks shown in this bulletin are designed to satisfy the -following conditions: - -1. Water consumption of 40 gallons per person per day of 24 hours. - -2. A detention period of about 24 hours; that is, the capacity of the -settling chamber below the flow line is approximately equal to the -quantity of sewage discharged from the house in 24 hours. - -3. Where a siphon chamber is provided, its size is such that the dose of -sewage shall be approximately equal to 20 gallons per person; that is, the -capacity of the siphon chamber between the discharge and low-water lines -is roughly equal to the quantity of sewage discharged in 12 hours. - -A simple one-chamber brick tank suitable for a household discharging 180 -to 280 gallons of sewage daily is shown in Figure 21. A small two-chamber -tank constructed of 24-inch vitrified pipe, suitable for a household -discharging about 125 gallons of sewage daily, is shown in Figure 22. A -typical two-chamber concrete tank is shown in Figure 23. Excepting the -submerged outlet, all pipes within the tank and built into the masonry -are cast-iron soil pipe with cast-iron fittings. Vitrified or concrete -sewer pipe and specials are generally used, as they are frequently more -readily obtainable and a slight saving in first cost may be effected. Cast -iron is less liable to be broken in handling or after being set rigidly in -masonry, and the joints are more easily made water-tight. The submerged -outlet is midway of the depth of liquid in the settling chamber. The -inside depth of the siphon chamber is the drawing depth of the siphon plus -1 foot 5 inches. - -The following table gives the principal dimensions with quantities of -materials for four sizes of tank as illustrated in Figure 23: - - -_Dimensions and quantities for septic tanks_ - - --------+--------+--------+-------------------------------------------- - |Quantity| | Settling chamber. - | of |Capacity| - Number | sewage | below +-------+-------+-------+----+-------+---+--- - of | in 24 | flow |Length.| Depth.|Width. | W. | X. | Y.| Z. - persons.| hours. | line. | | | | | | | - --------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+----+-------+---+--- - | Galls. | Galls. |Ft. In.|Ft. In.|Ft. In.| In.|Ft. In.|In.|In. - 5 | 180-280| 240 | 4 0 | 5 0 | 2 0 | 6 | 2 0 | 4 | 6 - 10 | 320-480| 420 | 5 0 | 5 6 | 2 6 | 6 | 2 3 | 4 | 6 - 15 | 520-680| 620 | 5 6 | 6 0 | 3 0 | 8 | 2 6 | 5 | 8 - 20 | 720-960| 860 | 6 0 | 6 6 | 3 6 | 8 | 2 9 | 5 | 8 - --------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+----+-------+---+--- - - --------+----------+------------------------------------------------ - | Quantity | Siphon chamber. - Number |of sewage +-------+--------+--------+----+----+----+------- - of | in 24 |Length.| Depth. | Width. | A. | B. | C. | D. - persons.| hours. | | | | | | | - --------+----------+-------+--------+--------+----+----+----+------- - | Galls. |Ft. In.| Ft. In.| Ft. In.| In.| In.| In.| In. - 5 | 180-280 | 5 0 | 2 8 | 2 0 | 3 | 4 | 15 | 18-1/4 - 10 | 320-480 | 8 0 | 2 8 | 2 6 | 3 | 4 | 15 | 20-1/4 - 15 | 520-680 | 8 8 | 2 10 | 3 0 | 4 | 4 | 17 | 20-1/4 - 20 | 720-960 |10 0 | 2 10 | 3 6 | 4 | 4 | 17 | 20-1/4 - --------+----------+-------+--------+--------+----+----+----+------- - - --------+---------+---------+--------+--------+---------+------------- - |Quantity | | | | |Reinforcement - | of | | | | | in top slab - Number | sewage | | | | | (strip of - of | in 24 |Concrete.| Cement.| Sand. | Stone. | heavy stock - persons.| hours. | | | | | fencing). - | | | | | +-------+------ - | | | | | |Length.|Width. - --------+---------+---------+--------+--------+---------+-------+------ - | Galls. | Cu. yds.| Bbls. |Cu. yds.| Cu. yds.| Ft. | In. - 5 | 180-280 | 3 | 4-1/2 | 1-1/3 | 2-2/3 | 10 | 32 - 10 | 320-480 | 4-1/4 | 6-1/4 | 2 | 3-3/4 | 14 | 39 - 15 | 520-680 | 6-2/3 | 9-3/4 | 3 | 6 | 15-2/3| 47 - 20 | 720-960 | 8 | 12 | 3-1/2 | 7 | 17-1/2| 56 - --------+---------+---------+--------+--------+---------+-------+------ - -=Siphons.=--Reference has already been made to the vital importance of air -in sewage filtration. If the spaces within a filter or soil are constantly -filled with water, air is excluded, and the action of the filtering -material is merely that of a mechanical strainer with its clogging -tendency. The purpose of a siphon is twofold: (1) To secure intermittent -discharge, thus allowing a considerable period of time for one dose to -work off in the soil and for air to enter the soil spaces before another -flush is received; (2) to secure distribution over a larger area and in a -more even manner than where the sewage is allowed to dribble and produce -the conditions of the old-fashioned sink drain--namely, a small area of -water-logged ground. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Two-chamber septic tank, simple and inexpensive, -constructed of 24-inch vitrified sewer pipe, size suitable for 125 gallons -of sewage daily (nominally 3 persons). _A_, House sewer; _B_, settling -chamber, made of double =T= branch and one length of straight pipe, each 3 -feet long and 2 feet in diameter, supported by 4 inches of concrete, all -joints made water-tight; _C_, submerged outlet, consisting of a metal =T= -slipped into the sewer-pipe branch; _D_, wire screen ¼-inch mesh; _E_, -siphon chamber made of one =T= branch 3 feet long and 2 feet in diameter; -_F_, siphon; _G_, 3-inch overflow; _H_, sewer to distribution field; _I_, -tight cover with lifting ring; _J_, concrete protection around sewer-pipe -hubs] - -[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Typical two-chamber concrete septic tank. (See -table for dimensions and quantities for different sizes)] - -Three types of sewage siphon are shown in Figure 24. In all, the essential -principle is the same: A column of air is entrapped between two columns -of water; when the water in the chamber rises to a predetermined height, -called the discharge line, the pressure forces out the confined air, -destroying the balance and causing a rush of water through the siphon to -the sewer. The entire operation is automatic and very simple. The siphons -shown are commercial products made of cast-iron; they have few parts and -none that move, and the whole construction is simple and durable. The -table (fig. 24) lists stock sizes adapted to farm use. Manufacturers -furnish full information for setting their siphons and putting them in -operation. For example, take type 2, Figure 24: (1) Set siphon trap -(=U=-shaped pipe) plumb, making E (height from floor to top of long leg) -as specified; (2) fill siphon trap with water till it begins to run out at -B; (3) place bell in position on top of long leg, and the siphon is ready -for service. Do not fill vent pipe on side of bell. - -[Illustration: Fig. 24.--Three types of sewage siphon. The table gives -dimensions for setting standard 3 and 4 inch siphons; also the appropriate -size and grade of the sewer to carry the siphon discharge] - -The overhead siphon, type 3, Figure 24, may be installed readily in a tank -already built by addition of an outlet sump. If properly set are handled, -sewage siphons require very little attention and flush with certainty. -Like all plumbing fixtures they are liable to stoppage if rags, newspaper, -and similar solids get into the sewage. If fouling of the sniffing hole -or vent prevents the entrance of sufficient air into the bell to lock the -siphon properly, allowing sewage to dribble through, the remedy is to -clean the siphon. Siphons are for handling liquid; sludge if allowed to -accumulate will choke them. - -=Submerged outlet.=--The purpose of a submerged outlet is to take the -outflow from a point between the sludge at the bottom and the floating -solids or scum. The outlet in Figure 23 may be readily made of sheet -metal by a tinsmith. Wrought iron or steel pipe with elbows or light lead -pipe may be used, the pipe being set in the concrete and left in place. -Sometimes a galvanized wire screen (¼-inch mesh) is fitted over the inner -end to prevent large solids leaving the settling chamber and possibly -clogging the siphon or distribution tile. If a screen is used it should be -easily removable for cleaning. - -=Manhole frame and cover.=--The frame and cover shown in Figure 23 are -stock patterns made of cast-iron and weighing about 250 pounds per set. -The cover is 21 inches in diameter; it is tight and, on account of its -weight, is unlikely to be disturbed by small children. The frame or rim -is about 7 inches high and 31 inches in longest diameter. If desired, -light cast-iron cistern or cesspool covers obtainable from plumbing supply -houses, homemade slabs of reinforced concrete (see fig. 25), or wooden -covers (see fig. 21) may be used. - -[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Homemade reinforced concrete covers. (1) Slabs -placed crosswise permit uncovering the whole tank for cleaning, but as -inspection is somewhat difficult, cleaning is the more likely to be -neglected; (2) manhole, 18 inches square; cover, 22 by 22 by 3 inches -thick, easy to make and to slide or lift from the opening] - -=Overflow.=--The purpose of an overflow is to pass sewage to the -distribution field should the siphon stop working. The overflow (fig. 23) -is a 3-inch riser pipe with top 3 inches above the discharge line and the -bottom calked or cemented into the side outlet of a =T= branch. The run of -the =T= branch should correspond with the size of the sewer from the tank -to the distribution field. If this sewer is 4-inch pipe, a 4 by 3 inch -=T= branch is used, the 4-inch spigot end of the siphon being calked or -cemented into the branch, as shown in Figure 23; if the sewer is 5-inch, a -5 by 3 inch =T= branch is used and connected to the siphon with a 5-inch -to 4-inch reducer (in vitrified specials the equivalent is a 4-inch to -5-inch increaser); if the sewer is 6-inch, a 6 by 3 inch =T= branch is -used and connected to the siphon with a 6-inch to 4-inch reducer. - -=Concrete work.=--Before excavation for the tank is begun, two wooden -forms should be built for shaping the inside of the settling and siphon -chambers. In most instances the ground is fairly firm, so that the lines -of excavation may conform to the outside dimensions of the tank, the -back of the walls being built against the earth. The forms may be made -of square-edged boards, braced and lightly nailed, as shown in Figure -26. The forms should have no bottom. If it is desired to lay the sides -and covering slab in one operation, the top of the forms must be boarded -over. All pipe and manhole openings should be accurately placed and cut. -The faces of the forms may be covered with paper or smeared with soap or -grease to facilitate removal later. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Forms for concrete work--how to use them] - - 1 Make the forms as shown and to the dimensions required by Figure 23 - and the table on p. 29; nails to be driven from the inside and left - projecting for drawing with a claw hammer. - - 2. Excavate to lines 6 or 8 inches, as may be required, outside of the - forms and to the depths required for both chambers. - - 3. Pour settling chamber floor and place form thereon. - - 4 Pour settling chamber walls to level of siphon chamber excavation, - inserting submerged outlet pipe at the proper height. 5. Block siphon and - short pipes to correct line and grade, and fill with concrete around the - trap. - - 6. Pour siphon chamber floor, and place the form thereon. - - 7 Continue pouring all walls to their full height, inserting the inlet - pipe when the concrete reaches that elevation. - - 8. Do not remove forms till the concrete is hard; with favorable weather, - forms for walls only may be removed in 1 to 2 days; forms supporting a - cover slab should remain 1 to 2 weeks. - -The ground should next be excavated to the proper depth for placing the -floors in both chambers. The settling chamber floor, being the lower, -should be placed first. Effort should be made to secure water-tight -work, a feature of especial importance where leakage might endanger a -well or spring. A concrete mixture of 1:2:4 is generally preferred (1 -volume cement, 2 volumes sand, 4 volumes stone). The ingredients should -be of best quality and thoroughly mixed. The concrete should be poured -promptly and worked with a spade or flat shovel to make the face smooth -and eliminate pockets or voids within the mass.[10] Before the settling -chamber floor has hardened the form should be set upon the floor and the -concrete work continued up the sides. The pipe form for the submerged -outlet should be set. When the side walls of the settling chamber have -reached the bottom of the excavation for the siphon chamber, the siphon -trap with its connecting branch and short piece of pipe should be set to -proper line and grade and blocked in position. The floor of the siphon -chamber should now be poured and the form for that chamber placed thereon, -leaving a 6-inch or 8-inch space (according to the thickness of the -division wall) between the ends of the two forms. Pouring of all side -walls and the top slab should continue without stop, making the entire -structure a monolith. - -[10] See footnote, p. 12. For more detailed information on form and -concrete work the reader is referred to U. S. Department of Agriculture -Farmers' Bulletin 1480-F, "Small Concrete Construction on the Farm." - -=Steel reinforcement.=--To stiffen the cover slab and guard against -cracking, a little steel should be embedded in the concrete about 1 inch -above the inside top. For this purpose a strip of heavy stock fencing is -convenient and inexpensive. The line wires should be not less than No. -10 gauge (about 1/8 inch) and the stay wires not less than No. 11 gauge. -The reinforcement should be cut at manholes and fastened around manhole -openings. If desired a standard wire-mesh reinforcement weighing about -one-third of a pound per square foot may be used. Another alternative is -to use 14-inch round rods, spacing the crosswise rods 6 inches apart and -the lengthwise rods 12 inches apart. Poultry netting should not be used, -because of its lightness. - -=Sewer from tank to distribution field.=--The length of this sewer depends -on the situation of the field and the fall to it. The size of the sewer -depends on the fall that can be obtained and the size of siphon. The table -in Figure 24 shows the minimum fall at which 4-inch, 5-inch, and 6-inch -sewers should be laid to take the discharge of the 3-inch and 4-inch -siphons specified. The line and grade should be set in the same manner -as for the house sewer (see fig. 18) and the construction should be as -specified under that caption. - -=Distribution field.=--The distribution field or area is a sewage filter, -and its selection and the manner of preparing it largely determine the -success of subsoil disposal of sewage. As a rule farm land is not the best -filtering material. It is too fine grained and fertile. Its tendency is to -hold water too long, to admit insufficient air, to clog when even small -quantities of sewage are applied. Hence the distribution area should be -of liberal size--on the average 500 square feet for each person served. -It should be dry, porous, and well drained--qualities that characterize -sandy, gravelly, and light loam soils. It should be devoid of trees and -shrubbery, thus giving sunlight and air free access. It should be located -at least 300 feet downhill from a well or spring used for domestic water -supply. Preferably it should slope gently, but sharp slopes are not -prohibitive. Subsoiling the area is always desirable. - -Clay and other compact, impervious soils require special treatment. Less -sewage can be applied to them, and hence it is well to have the area -larger than 500 square feet per person. Clay should be subsoiled as deep -as possible with a subsoil plow. In some instances dynamite has been -of service in opening up the ground to still greater depth. Drainage -and aeration should be further promoted by laying tile underdrains, as -outlined in Figure 17 and shown in more detail in Figure 29. - -After the construction work the distribution areas should be raked -and seeded with thick-growing grass. Grass is a safe crop; its water -requirement is high, and it affords considerable protection from frost. -Suitable grasses are redtop, white clover, blue grass, and Bermuda grass. -The area may be pastured or kept as grass land. - -=Distribution system.=--Poor distribution of the sewage and failure to -protect the joints of the distribution tile account for most of the -failures. Each flush of the siphon should be so controlled that every part -of the field will receive its due proportion. The distribution tile must -be so laid that loose dirt will not fall or wash into the open joints. - -Different methods of dividing the flush and laying out the distribution -tile are shown in Figures 27 and 30. Layouts 1, 2, and 3, Figure 27, are -suitable for flat or gently sloping areas and are planned for the shallow -siphon chambers tabulated on page 29. Layout 4, Figure 27, is suitable for -steep slopes. In all four layouts use is made of one or more =V= branches -(not =Y= branches) to divide the flow equally among the several lines. =V= -branches, sometimes called breeches, should be leveled with a carpenter's -level crosswise the ends of the legs, thus insuring equal division of the -flow. - -The size and length of distribution tile and the spacing of the lines -or runs admit of considerable variation in different soils. Water sinks -rapidly in gravels and sands, and hence larger tile and shorter length are -permissible than in close soils. Lateral movement is slow in all soils, -but extends farther in gravels and sands than in close soils. In average -soils the effect on vegetation 5 feet away from the line is practically -nil. - -From these considerations, with the siphon dose 20 gallons per person, it -is usually a safe rule to provide 50 feet of 3-inch tile for each person -served and to lay the lines 10 feet apart. Such provision gives a capacity -within the bore of the tile lines about equal to the siphon dose, and -as some sewage is wasted at each joint a reasonable factor of safety is -provided. A spacing of 10 feet will, it is believed, permanently prevent -the extension of lateral absorption from line to line, provided the area -is fairly well drained. As between 3-inch and 4-inch tile the smaller -size costs less and is better calculated to taper the dose to small -proportions. Four-inch tile is less likely to get out of alignment or to -become clogged; a length of 28 feet has the same capacity in the bore as -50 feet of 3-inch. - -[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Methods of laying distribution system: Methods -1, 2, and 3 for flat or gently sloping land; method 4 for steep slopes -(see also fig. 30); _A_, direction of slope; _B_, contour of field; _C_, -sewer from tank, preferably size 5 inch, though 4 or 6 inch may be used, -depending on the fall and the size of the siphon (see table, fig. 24); -_D_, =V=-branch set to divide the flow exactly; _E_, reducer, to 4 inches; -_F_, 1/8 bend, 4-inch; _G_, increaser, from 4 inches; _H_, increaser, 3 -to 4 inches; _I_, reducer, 4 to 3 inches; _J_, distribution tile, 3-inch; -_K_, distribution tile, 4-inch] - -Good-quality drain tile in 1-foot lengths or second-quality sewer pipe -in 2-foot lengths may be used. The lines are generally laid in parallel -runs, but may be varied according to the topography. Layouts 1, 2, and 3, -Figure 27, for flat or gently sloping land, run with the slope; layout 4, -for steep slopes, runs back and forth along the contour in a series of -long flat sweeps and short steep curves. The grade of the runs and sweeps -should be gentle, rarely more than 10 or 12 inches in 100 feet. In layouts -1, 2, and 3, Figure 27 especially, it is desirable that the last 20 feet -of each run should be laid level or given a slight upward slope, thus -guarding against undue flow of sewage to the lowest ends of the system. - -The runs should be laid no deeper than necessary to give clearance when -plowing and prevent injury from frost. Ten inches of earth above the top -of the tile is sufficient generally throughout the southern half of the -United States and 18 inches generally in the North, but if the field -is exposed or lacks a thick heavy growth of grass, the cover should be -increased to 3 to 6 feet near the Canadian line. Where frost goes down 5 -to 7 feet, it is better to lay the tile at moderate depth and cover the -runs with hay, straw, or leaves weighted down, removing the covering in -the spring. - -Making the joints of the distribution tile demands especial attention. -For a short distance on the upper end of each run the tile should be laid -with ends abutting; the joint opening should be increased gradually to -one-eighth inch and this increased to one-fourth in the last 20 feet of -the run. All joints should be protected against the entrance of loose -dirt. Four methods are shown in Figure 28. The lower end of each run -should be closed with a brick or flat stone; or, what is better, an elbow -or =T= branch may be placed on the end and vented above the surface of the -ground, improving the flow of sewage, the ventilation of pipes, and the -aeration of the soil. - -If the distribution tile must be laid in clay or other close, poorly -drained soil, special treatment is necessary. A common method is to -subsoil and underdrain the area thoroughly, as shown in Figure 29. -It is not always possible to run the underdrain in lines between the -distribution lines as shown in Figures 17 and 29, but it is a desirable -thing to do, as the sewage must then receive some filtration through -natural soil. - -In some instances it is sufficient to lay the distribution tile on a -continuous bed, 8 to 12 inches thick, of coarse gravel, broken stone, or -brick, slag, coke, or cinders and complete the refill as shown in Figure -16 or 29. - -Figure 30 shows two other methods of controlling the flow on steep slopes -and diverting proper proportions to the several lateral distributors laid -along the contour of the field. This work can not be effected properly -with =T= or =Y= branches; the flow tends to shoot straight ahead, -comparatively little escaping laterally. To overcome this difficulty -recourse is had to diverting boxes, of which two types are shown in Figure -30. These boxes involve expense, but permit inspection and division of the -flow according to the needs. They may be built of brick, stone, concrete, -or even wood. - -Type 1 consists of a single box, into which all the lateral distributors -head. It will be noted that the laterals enter at slightly different -elevations, the two opposite the inlet sewer being the highest, the next -two slightly lower, and the next two the lowest. This staggering of the -outlets, in a measure, offsets the tendency of the flow to shoot across -and escape by the most direct route. - -[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Four methods of protecting open joints in -distribution lines--an all-important work. Sketches show cross-section and -longitudinal views; the depth from the surface of the ground to the top of -the tile is about 10 inches] - - 1. _A_, Subsoiled ground; _B_, 3 or 4 inch drain tile; _C_, strip of - tarred paper about 6 inches wide and extending three-fourths the distance - around the tile, allowing sewage to escape at the bottom; _D_, coarse - sand, gravel, broken stone or brick, slag, cinders, or coke, the coarsest - material placed around the tile (where the ground is naturally very - porous and well drained, special filling in the trench may be omitted); - _E_, natural soil. - - 2. Drain tile covered with a board laid flat, leaving the entire joint - open. - - 3. Drain tile laid in stoneware gutter pieces and the joint covered - with stoneware caps; gutter and cap pieces are inexpensive commercial - products; their radius is longer than that of the outside of the tile, - thus leaving open most of the joint space; the gutter aids in keeping the - tile in line. - - 4. Vitrified sewer pipe with hubs facing downhill; the spigot end should - be centered in the hub with a few small chinks or wedges. - -[Illustration: Fig. 29.---Close soils should be deeply subsoiled and -underdrained. Porous, well-drained, air-filled soil is absolutely -necessary. _A_, Subsoiled ground; _B_, 3 or 4 inch distribution tile; _C_, -depth variable with the climate, 1¼ to 3½ feet; _D_, 4-inch underdrain; -_E_, depth such as would prepare land for good crop production, generally -3½ to 4 feet; _F_, stone or other coarse material; _G_, gravel grading -upward to coarse sand; _H_, loose soil] - -Type 2 calls for one or more diverting boxes, according to the number of -lateral distributors, and readily permits of wasting sewage at widely -separated elevations and distances. The outlet pipes enter the box at -slightly different elevations, for the reason already stated. With either -type, should the outlets not be set at the right elevations, partial -plugging of the holes and a little experimenting will enable one to -equalize or proportion the discharges. - -[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Two systems of distribution on steep slopes--use -of diverting box. _A_, Direction of slope; _B_, contour of field; _C_, 4, -5, or 6 inch sewer from tank; _D_, diverting box; _E_, 3-inch or 4-inch -distribution tile] - -=Sewage switch.=--The clogging of filters and soils after long-continued -application of sewage has been previously referred to. It is, therefore, -desirable to arrange the distribution system in two units with a switch -between them, so that one area may drain and become aerated while the -other is in use. This procedure is especially desirable where the soil is -close and the installation of considerable size. It adds to the life and -effectiveness of the distribution area and permits use of a plant in case -it is necessary to repair, extend, or relay the tile in either unit. - -Arrangement in two units does not necessarily mean doubling the amount -of tile and the area required in a single field. However desirable that -may be, expense or lack of suitable ground will often prevent. With open -sands and gravels and the assumed siphon dose of 20 gallons per person, -15 to 20 feet of 4-inch tile in each unit for each person will usually -suffice. With more compact soil it is advisable to more nearly double the -requirements previously described. Two simple types of switch are shown in -Figure 31. The switch should be turned frequently, certainly as often as -is necessary to prevent saturation or bogginess of either area. - -[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Two simple types of sewage switch. _A_, Sewer -from tank; _B_, switch box; _C_, cover; _D_, blade or stop board (in the -left-hand box the direction of flow is controlled by placing the blade in -alternate diagonal position; in the right-hand box the stop works in iron -guides cast integral with a short piece of light-weight pipe set in the -masonry; if desired the guides may be wood, fastened to the masonry with -expansion bolts); _E_, sewer to distribution area; _F_ (right-hand box), -alternate position of outlets or additional outlets if required] - -=A complete installation.=--The general layout and working plans of -a complete installation built in 1915-16 are shown in Figure 32. The -plant is larger than those heretofore considered, and involves several -additional features. The settling chamber below the flow line has a -capacity of 1,000 gallons, and on a basis of 40 gallons per person per day -would serve 25 people. - -For many years sewage had been discharged through two 4-inch sewers to -a cesspool in the rear of the house. The proximity of the well made it -unsafe, and the overflow of the cesspool dribbled over the low portion of -the garden and barnyard, cheating nuisance. - -The first step was to make borings with a soil auger in the pasture 400 -or 500 feet from the house. The borings showed a heavy clay soil to a -depth of about 4 feet, underlaid with a sandy stratum only a few inches in -thickness. It was decided to locate the distribution area in the pasture -and to aid the seepage of sewage by digging numerous filter wells through -the clay to the sandy stratum. Levels were taken and a contour plan -prepared to serve for laying out the plant and establishing the grades. - -[Illustration: Fig. 32.--A complete installation for a large rural -home. General layout on a contour plan and construction drawings. Note -abandonment of old cesspool near the well and garden and removal of sewage -to a lower and safer location in the pasture, where the treatment is -subsurface distribution, aided by numerous filter wells about 4 feet deep -filled with coarse gravel. Note that sludge is removed from the bottom of -the settling chamber by opening the gate on the sludge drain] - -The septic tank is built in one corner of the barnyard, and a 5-inch sewer -connects it with the old 4-inch sewers to the cesspool. All sewer-pipe -joints were poured with a flexible jointing compound. The settling chamber -is of hopper shape at the bottom, and a 4-inch sludge drain with gate -provides for the gravity removal of sludge. The lower end of the sludge -drain is above the surface of the ground and 9 feet below the flow line. -The end is protected by a small retaining wall, and the sludge is readily -caught in barrels and hauled out on the land for burial. The outlet is low -enough to drain the settling chamber completely. If it is desired merely -to force out the sludge, the drain may be brought to the surface under a -head of 3 to 5 feet, discharging the sludge into a trench or drying bed, -to be applied later to the land. A 2-inch waste pipe about mid-depth of -the settling chamber permits drawing off the cleared portion of the sewage -to the siphon chamber and from thence through another 2-inch waste pipe -into the 6-inch sewer leading to the distribution field. - -The 4-inch siphon has a drawing depth of 33 inches, and as the siphon -chamber is 4 feet wide by 6 feet long the dose is about 500 gallons. The -siphon cost $35. The 6-inch sewer to the switch box falls about 6 inches -in 50 feet. The distribution field was thoroughly subsoiled, and about 800 -feet of 3-inch tile was laid in each unit. At intervals of 25 feet along -the distribution trenches 6-inch holes were dug through the clay stratum -with a posthole digger. These holes were filled with stone and constitute -the filter wells previously mentioned. All tile lines are surrounded with -stone and coarse gravel, and the ground has been trimmed to give a uniform -cover of 12 inches. All work was done by day labor in a thorough manner. -As the men were doing other work at the same time the actual cost is not -known, but it is believed the installation cost about $700. - -=Cost data.=--Reliable cost figures are difficult to estimate. Labor, -materials, freight, haulage, and other items vary greatly in different -localities. The septic tank shown in Figure 21 contains about 1,000 bricks -and is estimated to cost $60 complete. The septic tank shown in Figure -23 for 5 persons is estimated to cost $135; for 10 persons, $170; for -15 persons, $240; for 20 persons, $280. In Maryland, in 1916, the cost -of installing a septic tank similar to that shown in Figure 23 (for 5 -people), including 86 feet of 5-inch house sewer (55 feet of cast-iron -pipe passing a well, and 31 feet of vitrified pipe) and 214 feet of -second-quality 4-inch sewer pipe in the distribution area, was as follows: - - Excavation, labor $7.50 - Materials delivered 46.60 - Three-inch siphon, including freight 15.75 - Construction, labor 28.00 - Supervision 5.00 - ------ - Total 102.85 - - - -The quotations in the following table will be found useful in making -estimates of cost: - - _Cost per foot of pipe and drain tile_ - - (Approximate retail prices, Washington, D. C., February, 1928) - - ------------------------------------+----------------------------------- - | Size, in inches. - Kind of pipe. +--------+--------+--------+-------- - | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 - ------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+-------- - | | | | - Extra heavy cast-iron soil pipe | $0.23 | $0.31 | $0.40 | $0.48 - Vitrified salt-glazed sewer pipe | .15 | .15 | .22½ | .22½ - Clay or shale drain tile | .06 | .07 | .10 | .13 - | | | | - ------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+-------- - -The cost of cast-iron fittings may be roughly estimated as follows; Bends, -one and one-half times the price of straight pipe; =T=-branches, two times -the price of straight pipe; reducers, average of the prices of straight -pipe at each end. The cost of clay bends, =T=-branches, reducers, and -increasers may be roughly estimated at four times the price of straight -pipe. - -=Operation.=--Attention must be given to every plant to insure success. -Unusual or excessive foulness should be investigated. No chemicals should -be used in a septic tank; garbage, rags, newspaper, and other solids -not readily soluble in water should be kept out of sewers and tanks. -The plant should be inspected often, noting particularly if the siphon -is operating satisfactorily. If scum forms in the settling chamber it -should be removed, and the sludge should be bailed or pumped out yearly. -Frequently tanks are not cleaned out for three or four years, resulting in -large quantities of solid matter going through to the distribution system -and clogging it. Clogging may occur in the tile or in the adjacent soil. -In either case the tile should be dug up, cleaned, and relaid. In some -cases it has been found advantageous to relay the tile between the former -lines. When sewage is applied to fairly porous land at the slow rate here -recommended and the plant is well handled the tile lines should operate -satisfactorily for many years. Liming heavy soils tends to loosen and keep -them sweet. - -=Field data.=--As a basis for outlining or designing a suitable -installation the following data should be known: - - 1. State, town, and whether in or near an incorporated municipality. - - 2. Usual number of persons to be served. - - 3. Average daily consumption of water in gallons. - - 4. Kind and depth of well, depth to water surface. - - 5. Character of soil, whether sandy, gravelly, loamy, clay, or muck. - - 6. Condition of soil as to drainage. - - 7. Character of subsoil. - - 8. Character of underlying rock and, if known, its depth below the - surface. - - 9. Depth to ground water at both house and field where sewage is to be - distributed. - - 10. Minimum winter temperature and approximate depth to which frost goes. - - 11. Number and kind of buildings to be connected with the sewer. - - 12. Number and kind of plumbing fixtures in each building. - - 13. Whether plumbing fixtures are to be put in the basement. - - 14. Depth of basement floor below ground. - -A plan to scale or a sketch with dimensions showing property lines, -buildings, wells, springs, and drainage outlets should be furnished. The -direction of surface drainage should be indicated by arrows. The slope of -the land (vertical fall in a stated horizontal distance) should be given -or if possible a contour plan (showing lines of constant elevation) should -be furnished. - - -GREASE TRAPS - -Farm sewage may contain from 10 to 30 pounds of grease and fats per person -per year. This grease, originating mainly in the kitchen-sink, hinders -septic action and clogs pipes, filters, and soils. Half the grease may be -stopped by a septic tank, but the remainder goes into the distribution -system, interfering with its action. A grease trap is a device for -separating the grease from other wastes. The need for it may be lessened -by carefully depositing waste greases and fats with the garbage; but -one should always be installed if the kitchen is carelessly managed or -discharges quantities of greasy water as at institutions, hotels, boarding -houses, and bakeshops. - -[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Three types of grease trap. _A_, Ready-made -grease trap; vitrified, salt-glazed earthenware; stock sizes: 10-inch -diameter by 24 inches, 12-inch diameter by 24 inches, 15-inch diameter -by 24 inches. _B_, Homemade grease trap; concrete or well-plastered -brickwork; elbow, cross, and increaser to be recessed drainage fittings. -_C_, Type of grease trap used at United States Army camps] - -A grease trap should have several times the capacity of the greatest -quantity of greasy water discharged into it at one time, in order that -the entering water shall be well cooled and the grease congealed. The -solidified grease rises to the surface of the water in the trap and is -retained therein. A dishpan of greasy water (2½ to 3 gallons) is the -largest quantity likely to be discharged at one time from an ordinary -kitchen-sink, hence the grease trap should have not less capacity than 7 -or 8 gallons. Figure 33 shows three types of grease traps suitable for -farm use. In each the outlet pipe has small clearance at the bottom. This -feature, together with the =V=-shaped hopper bottom, tends to create a -scouring velocity and thus prevent the accumulation of coffee grounds and -other solid wastes in the bottom of the trap. A grease trap should be -close to the sink it is intended to serve, but not within the kitchen, on -account of objectionable odors when the trap is opened to remove grease. -It is good practice to place the trap in the cellar or basement, where it -is safe from frost yet close to the source of grease. - - -GENERAL PROCEDURE - -Do not waste money by digging and partly constructing, afterwards seeking -information. Prepare a plan and work from it. Get in touch with your -county agricultural and home demonstration agents. Advice may be obtained -also from extension workers, State agricultural colleges, State and local -boards of health, the United States Public Health Service, and the United -States Department of Agriculture. Do not guess distances and levels. -Use a measuring tape and some type of level--engineer's, architect's, -drainage, hand, or carpenter's. Study this bulletin, and design, lay -out, and construct in accordance therewith. Remember to: (1) Isolate the -septic tank--locate it 50 to 100 or more feet from any dwelling and, if -practicable, to the leeward of prevailing summer breezes; (2) locate the -cesspool or sewage-distribution field downhill from the well or spring, -and, if possible, 300 feet therefrom; (3) select dry, porous, deeply -drained ground for disposal of all sewage; (4) do not apply more sewage to -a given area of land than can be thoroughly absorbed and oxidized; (5) lay -sewers straight and below the reach of frost, ventilate them thoroughly, -and make the joints water-tight and root-proof. - -Makeshift methods, materials, or devices should be avoided or used -sparingly. Do not place a vent pipe in the top of a cesspool or septic -tank if near a dwelling. Siphon chamber and siphon may be omitted in those -rare instances where it is feasible to discharge into salt water or into -a large stream already badly polluted. Disposal of sewage in a running -stream should be a last resort. Such practice endangers water supplies -downstream, and unless the volume and velocity of flow are good nuisance -may be created in the vicinity. Do not neglect inspection and operation. -Clean out settling tanks yearly or oftener. All pipe lines below ground -should be marked with iron or stone markers to facilitate examination, -repair, or extension of the system. - -There is a general but erroneous belief that the cost of sewerage is -little in the city but almost prohibitive in the country. All personal and -Realty properties in one eastern city represent a valuation of $10,382 -per home, which pays $355 for sewers outside the cellar wall. An average -farm in a Middle West State represents a valuation of $17,259. Is not -the farmer justified in the small outlay required to dispose of the farm -sewage? Because of the issuance of bonds and the apportionment of sewer -assessments for a series of years the city dweller may have his burden -distributed over a long period. The farmer does not pay interest on these -obligations, and sewer work can be done more cheaply in the country than -in the city. - -Safe disposal of farm sewage is not a passing fad but a vital necessity. -Besides being an asset a good sewerage installation greatly promotes the -wholesomeness and healthfulness of the farm. Moreover the benefits are -far-reaching, because farm products go into every home, and farm and urban -populations mingle freely. - - - ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE - - - January 6, 1930 - - _Secretary of Agriculture_ Arthur M. Hyde. - - _Assistant Secretary_ R. W. Dunlap. - - _Director of Scientific Work_ A. F. Woods. - - _Director of Regulatory Work_ Walter G. Campbell. - - _Director of Extension Work_ C. W. Warburton. - - _Director of Personnel and Business W. W. Stockberger. - Administration._ - - _Director of Information_ M. S. Eisenhower. - - _Solicitor_ E. L. Marshall. - - _Weather Bureau_ Charles F. Marvin, _Chief_. - - _Bureau of Animal Industry_ John R. Mohler, _Chief_. - - _Bureau of Dairy Industry_ O. E. Reed, _Chief_. - - _Bureau of Plant Industry_ William A. Taylor, _Chief_. - - _Forest Service_ R. Y. Stuart, _Chief_. - - _Bureau of Chemistry and Soils_ H. G. Knight, _Chief_. - - _Bureau of Entomology_ C. L. Marlatt, _Chief_. - - _Bureau of Biological Survey_ Paul G. Redington, _Chief_. - - _Bureau of Public Roads_ Thomas H. MacDonald, _Chief_. - - _Bureau of Agricultural Economics_ Nils A. Olsen, _Chief_. - - _Bureau of Home Economics_ Louise Stanley, _Chief_. - - _Plant Quarantine and Control Lee A. Strong, _Chief_. - Administration_ - - _Grain Futures Administration_ J. W. T. Duvel, _Chief_. - - _Food, Drug, and Insecticide Walter G. Campbell, _Director of - Administration_ Regulatory Work, in Charge_. - - _Office of Experiment Stations_ --------, _Chief_. - - _Office of Cooperative Extension Work_ C. B. Smith, _Chief_. - - _Library_ Claribel R. Barnett, _Librarian_. - - - U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930 - - For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, ---- Price 10 cents - Washington, D. C. - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber Note - -Minor typos have been corrected. Illustrations were moved to prevent -splitting paragraphs. Figure 19 was moved adjacent to the directions and -specifications on Page 24. Due to space considerations in the text only -version, emphasis of column headers were sometimes eliminated and some of -the tables were rearranged. Produced from files generously made available -by USDA through The Internet Archive. All resultant materials are placed -in the Public Domain. - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 1227: -Sewage and sewerage of farm home, by George Warren - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA FARMERS' BULLETIN NO. 1227 *** - -***** This file should be named 63131-0.txt or 63131-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/1/3/63131/ - -Produced by Tom Cosmas from files generously made available -by USDA through The Internet Archive. All are placed in -the Public Domain. - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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