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diff --git a/old/63128-0.txt b/old/63128-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index b368446..0000000 --- a/old/63128-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7675 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, Rudimentary Treatise on the Construction of -Locks, by A. C. Hobbs, Edited by Charles Tomlinson - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: Rudimentary Treatise on the Construction of Locks - - -Author: A. C. Hobbs - -Editor: Charles Tomlinson - -Release Date: September 5, 2020 [eBook #63128] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RUDIMENTARY TREATISE ON THE -CONSTRUCTION OF LOCKS*** - - -E-text prepared by deaurider, Harry Lamé, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made -available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the numerous original illustrations. - See 63128-h.htm or 63128-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/63128/63128-h/63128-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/63128/63128-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/rudimentarytreat00hobb - - -Transcriber’s note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - Small capitals have been transcribed as ALL CAPITALS. - - A detailed transcriber’s note can be found at the end of - this text. - - - - - -RUDIMENTARY TREATISE -ON THE -CONSTRUCTION OF LOCKS. - - -London: -Printed by Levey, Robson, and Franklyn, -Great New Street and Fetter Lane. - - - - -RUDIMENTARY TREATISE -ON THE -CONSTRUCTION OF LOCKS. - -Edited by - -CHARLES TOMLINSON. - - -“Il n’y a point de machines plus communes que les serrures: elles sont -assez composées pour mériter le nom de _machine_; mais je ne sais s’il -y en a qui soient aussi peu connues par ceux qui les emploient. Il est -rare qu’on sache en quoi consiste la bonté d’une serrure, le degré de -sûreté qu’on peut s’en promettre. Leur extérieur est presque la seule -chose à quoi l’on s’arrête. Les usages importans auxquels elles sont -employées devraient cependant exciter la curiosité à les connaître, si -la curiosité était toujours excitée raisonnablement.”--M. DE RÉAUMUR, -“_Des Serrures de toutes les espèces_,” forming the fifth chapter of -M. Duhamel’s Treatise “_Art du Serrurier_,” in the “_Descriptions des -Arts et Metiers faites ou approuvées par Messieurs de l’Académie -Royale des Sciences_.” - - - - - - -London: -John Weale, 59 High Holborn. -MDCCCLIII. - - - - - “There are no machines more common than locks: they are sufficiently - complex to merit the name of _machine_; but I know of no others the - structure of which is so little understood by those who use them. It - is rare to find any one who knows wherein the goodness of a lock - consists, or the degree of security that he can attach to it. The - outside of a lock is usually all that attracts attention. Doubtless - the important uses to which locks are applied would excite curiosity - respecting their structure, if curiosity were always excited for - worthy objects.”--M. DE RÉAUMUR. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -The reader is entitled to know the origin of the small work which he -holds in his hands. - -In August 1852, being about to write a short article on Locks for a -Cyclopædia of Useful Arts, of which I am the editor, I consulted my -esteemed and lamented friend, the late Professor Cowper, of King’s -College, as to the desirability of explaining to the general reader the -defects of some of our English locks, which, previous to the celebrated -“lock controversy” of 1851, had borne a high character for skilful -construction, beauty of workmanship, and undoubted security. Professor -Cowper expressed his strong conviction that by exposing the defects of -our locks, the cause of mechanical science, as well as the public in -general, would be benefited; that if our locks were defective, inventors -would be stimulated to supply the defects, and the art of the locksmith -would be raised accordingly. He considered that Mr. Hobbs had made a -considerable step in advance in the constructive details of his art, not -only in having detected the weak points of some of our best English -locks, but also in having introduced two or three new locks, which -appeared to be more secure than any of those previously produced. -Professor Cowper gave me an introduction to Mr. Hobbs, who placed at my -disposal a variety of literary materials relating to the history and -construction of locks, and stated his intention at some future time of -bringing out a small book on the subject, if he could meet with a -publisher. I recommended him to offer the work to Mr. Weale, for -insertion in his series of Rudimentary Works. This was accordingly done, -and I was invited to prepare the work; but as my engagements did not -leave me sufficient leisure to write the book, I requested my friend Mr. -George Dodd to put the materials together, and to search for more. Mr. -Dodd acceded to my request; and having completed his part of the work, I -subjected it to a careful revision, and added various details which -seemed to be necessary to completeness, at least so far as the narrow -limits of a small rudimentary work would admit of completeness. The -manuscript was then sent to press: each sheet as it was received from -the printer was submitted to Mr. Hobbs, who read it with care, and made -his annotations and corrections thereon. Mr. Hobbs and I then had a -meeting, when the additions and corrections were read and discussed, and -admitted or rejected as the case might be. The sheet having been thus -corrected was sent to press. - -It should also be stated that, during the progress of the work, Mr. -Weale, at my request, wrote to Messrs. Bramah, and also to Messrs. -Chubb, informing them that a Rudimentary Treatise on the Construction of -Locks was being prepared, and requesting them to state in writing what -alterations or improvements they had made in their locks since the date -of the Great Exhibition. The communications which we have received from -these celebrated firms are inserted _verbatim_, in their proper places, -in the present work. - -Such is the mode in which this small volume has been prepared. I have -endeavoured to perform an editor’s duty conscientiously, without -entertaining the feeling of a partisan in the matter. My chief object in -superintending the production of this book (an object in which the -Publisher fully participates) is to advance the cause of mechanical -science, and to supply a deficiency in one of the most interesting -portions of its English literature. - - C. TOMLINSON. - - _Bedford Place, Ampthill Square, - July 1853._ - - - - -ADVERTISEMENT. - - -The first edition of this volume, though at the date of its appearance -co-ordinating with the state of knowledge of the period, and containing -matter well arranged and lucidly described--as must have been expected -from the reputation of its author--had, through the lapse of the few -intervening years, inevitably become somewhat behind the state of the -art of which it treats--one which is daily receiving the attentive -consideration of many skilful men, and occasional marked improvements. -Amongst those of later years none are more noteworthy than the locks -patented by Mr. Fenby, of Birmingham; of these an account, with accurate -illustrations, for which the drawings are supplied by the inventor, is -now added,--together with a brief essay upon the important but popularly -ill-understood subject of iron safes. - - ROBERT MALLET. - - _April, 1868._ - -In reference to Mr. Smyth’s letter, which is given at pp. 130, 131, that -gentleman is desirous to state that it was in consequence of the defects -there pointed out that Mr. Hobbs was enabled to pick the Bramah lock -operated upon, which had been manufactured forty years previously, when -the sliders were made of iron instead of steel as they now are, and yet, -notwithstanding that and the other defects pointed out, it took Mr. -Hobbs sixteen days to pick it. In proof of the security of the Bramah -lock, Mr. Smyth mentions that Mr. Hobbs’s best workman failed in picking -an ordinary 3-inch Bramah box lock; and that a person in the employ of -Messrs. Johnson and Ravey, of Conduit Street, failed also in his attempt -to pick a 6-inch cellar-door lock, though he had the lock in his -possession for twelve months, employing his evenings in making -instruments and trying to pick it. Mr. Smyth contradicts the statement -made at page 128, that the new lock was removed from the window through -any fear of its being opened. On the contrary, it was put up especially -to afford an opportunity for Mr. Hobbs to make, if he thought fit, -another trial, and it remained in the window four months. The sole cause -of its removal was to stop the impertinent applications of men and boys, -which interfered too much with the general business of the firm. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAP. PAGE - - I. On Locks and Lock-literature 1 - - II. Ancient Locks: Grecian, Roman, Egyptian 8 - - III. Lock classification. The Puzzle-Lock and the Dial-Lock 16 - - IV. Warded Locks, with their varied appendages 27 - - V. On Tumbler or Lever Locks 43 - - VI. The Bramah Lock 64 - - VII. American Locks 82 - - VIII. The Lock Controversy: previous to the date of the Great - Exhibition 102 - - IX. The Lock Controversy: during and since the time of the - Great Exhibition 115 - - X. Effects of the Great Exhibition of 1851 in improving - English Locks 140 - - XI. The Lock and Key Manufacture 154 - - XII. English Patents for Locks. Aubin’s Lock Trophy. Conclusion 164 - - APPENDIX. - - XIII. On an Improved Construction of Lock and Key: Fenby’s Adytic - Lock 176 - - XIV. Fenby’s Stop Lock 193 - - XV. Note upon Iron Safes 201 - - - - - ON THE - CONSTRUCTION OF LOCKS. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -ON LOCKS AND LOCK-LITERATURE. - - -The manufacture of locks, and a consideration of the mechanical -principles involved in their construction and security, have never yet -been treated with any degree of fulness in an English work. Lock-making -has occupied a large amount of ingenuity, and lock-patents have been -obtained in considerable number, though not always, we are satisfied, -with a commensurate return for the expense incurred,--but -lock-philosophy (if so it may be designated) has not been largely -attended to. - -And yet it may safely be said that much which is both mechanically and -commercially important is comprised in a lock. Every improvement in the -manufacture of iron, steel, and brass--that is, in the tool-making and -machine-making processes--may be made to reflect its light on the -lock-manufacture; the stamping, the casting, the planing, the slotting, -the screw-cutting, the polishing of metals,--all, in proportion as they -are improved, impart some of their aid to the lock-maker. Then, in the -finer kinds of locks, the works are so delicate as to approach to the -nicety of clockwork; thereby combining the manipulative skill of a -talented artisan with the rougher mechanical work of the smith. The -principles of mechanical science are also appreciated by many -lock-makers. The lever, the inclined plane, the eccentric, the cam, the -screw, the wheel and pinion, the ratchet, the spring,--all are brought -to bear on the internal mechanism of locks, frequently in many novel -combinations. - -The commercial importance of locks--though of course never seriously -questioned when once fairly brought before one’s attention--has been -recently rendered so apparent as to have risen to the position of a -public topic. If a strong room, containing gold and silver, notes and -bills, books and papers--if such a room be necessarily shielded from -intrusion, it becomes no less necessary that the shield should be really -worthy of its name, trusty and reliable: a good lock is here nearly as -indispensable as a faithful cashier. And without dwelling on such an -auriferous picture as a room fall of gold, we shall find ample proof of -the commercial importance of lock-making in the ordinary circumstances -by which we are every day surrounded. Until the world becomes an honest -world, or until the honest people bear a larger ratio than at present to -the dishonest, the whole of our movables are, more or less, at the mercy -of our neighbours. Houses, rooms, vaults, cellars, cabinets, cupboards, -caskets, desks, chests, boxes, caddies,--all, with the contents of each, -ring the changes between _meum_ and _tuum_ pretty much according to the -security of the locks by which they are guarded. - -A commercial, and in some respects a social, doubt has been started -within the last year or two, whether or not it is right to discuss so -openly the security or insecurity of locks. Many well-meaning persons -suppose that the discussion respecting the means for baffling the -supposed safety of locks offers a premium for dishonesty, by shewing -others how to be dishonest. This is a fallacy. Rogues are very keen in -their profession, and know already much more than we can teach them -respecting their several kinds of roguery. Rogues knew a good deal about -lock-picking long before locksmiths discussed it among themselves, as -they have lately done. If a lock--let it have been made in whatever -country, or by whatever maker--is not so inviolable as it has hitherto -been deemed to be, surely it is to the interest of _honest_ persons to -know this fact, because the _dishonest_ are tolerably certain to be the -first to apply the knowledge practically; and the spread of the -knowledge is necessary to give fair play to those who might suffer by -ignorance. It cannot be too earnestly urged, that an acquaintance with -real facts will, in the end, be better for all parties. Some time ago, -when the reading public was alarmed at being told how London milk is -adulterated, timid persons deprecated the exposure, on the plea that it -would give instructions in the art of adulterating milk; a vain -fear--milkmen knew all about it before, whether they practised it or -not; and the exposure only taught purchasers the necessity of a little -scrutiny and caution, leaving them to obey this necessity or not, as -they pleased. So likewise in respect to bread, sugar, coffee, tea, wine, -beer, spirits, vinegar, cheap silks, cheap woollens--all such articles -as are susceptible of debasement by admixture with cheaper -substances--much more good than harm is effected by stating candidly and -scientifically the various methods by which such debasement has been, or -can be produced. The unscrupulous have the command of much of this kind -of knowledge without our aid; and there is moral and commercial justice -in placing on their guard those who might possibly suffer therefrom. We -employ these stray expressions concerning adulteration, debasement, -roguery, and so forth, simply as a mode of illustrating a principle--the -advantage of publicity. In respect to lock-making, there can scarcely be -such a thing as dishonesty of intention: the inventor produces a lock -which he honestly thinks will possess such and such qualities; and he -declares his belief to the world. If others differ from him in opinion -concerning those qualities, it is open to them to say so; and the -discussion, truthfully conducted, must lead to public advantage: the -discussion stimulates curiosity, and the curiosity stimulates -invention. Nothing but a partial and limited view of the question could -lead to the opinion that harm can result: if there be harm, it will be -much more than counterbalanced by good. - -The literature of lock-making is, as we have implied, very scanty, both -in England and America. The French and Germans, though far below our -level as lock-makers, are very superior to us in their descriptions of -the construction and manufacture of locks. Take, for instance, the -French treatise published more than eighty years ago by the _Académie -des Sciences_, and forming part of a folio series of manufacturing -treatises, illustrated very fully by engravings. It is worth while to -examine this work, to see how minutely and faithfully the writers of -such treatises performed their task nearly a century ago. The _Art du -Serrurier_, with the distinguished name of M. Duhamel du Monceau as the -author or editor, was published in 1767. It occupies 290 folio pages, -and is illustrated by 42 folio plates. The first chapter gives us an -introduction and general principles, in which the choice and -manipulation of materials are touched upon; the different qualities of -iron and steel; and the processes of forging, founding, welding, -stamping, filing, polishing, &c. In the copper-plates representing these -smiths’ operations and the tools employed,[1] there is a smithy, with -about a dozen smiths engaged in all these various occupations, with -stockings down, and a due amount of workshop slovenliness. The next -chapter takes us into what may perhaps be called “smith’s work in -general,” or at least it treats of the manufacture of various kinds of -ironmongery for doors, windows, and house-fittings generally. Then the -third chapter treats of “smith’s work which serves for the security of -houses,” consisting of railings, palings, bars, and gates of various -kinds--such at least as are made of iron. In chapter four we have a -notice of such kinds of smith’s work as relate to the fastenings for -doors, windows, closets, chests, &c.; such as hinges, hasps, latches, -bolts, and other contrivances less complex than an actual lock. This -brings us, by a natural transition, to locks in general, which form the -subject of chapter five, to which is attached the illustrious name of M. -de Réaumur as the author. Here are given a hundred folio pages of -description, illustrated by twenty folio plates relating to locks, -lock-making, and locksmiths. The sixth chapter relates to the iron-work -of carriages, or the labours of the coachsmiths; while chapter seven, to -wind up the work, relates to bell-hanging. - - [1] It is worthy of remark, that the tools described are the same as - those which are used by the locksmith at the present day; shewing how - little improvement has been made in the means of producing locks. - -That chapter of the work which has reference to locks is the only one -with which we have to do here. It is arranged in a systematic manner, -beginning with the simpler locks, without wards or tumblers, and -proceeding thence to others of more complex construction. The period at -which the work was written was too early to lead us to expect to find a -tumbler-lock described and delineated: there are, however, numerous -examples of single tumbler-locks, many of them of great ingenuity. The -use of multiple bolts, that is, of many bolts shot at once by one action -of the key, seems to have been familiar enough to the locksmiths of -those days. One lock represented is remarkable; it is attached to a -strong and ponderous coffer or chest. The chest is open; and the whole -under or inner surface of the cover is seen to be occupied by a lock of -intricate construction; there are no less than twelve bolts, three on -each long side, one on each short side, and one in each corner; these -bolts are so placed as to catch under a projecting rim fixed round the -top of the coffer. The collection of keys, exhibited on a separate -plate, is remarkable for the great variety of forms given to them. We -shall by and by copy some of the drawings of this curious work. - -It was to be expected that in the _Encyclopédie Méthodique_, published -in the same country and in the same century, the locksmith’s art would -be treated at some such length as in the work just described. Among the -two hundred volumes of which the _Cyclopédie_ consists, several are -devoted to arts and manufactures; and one of them contains the article -in question. It occupies 168 quarto pages, and is illustrated by 35 -copper-plate engravings, shewing in detail not only the parts of various -locks, but the tools used by the lockmaker. It is proper, however, to -remark, that much of the letterpress and many of the plates relate to -smith’s work generally, and not exclusively to lock-work; the French -name _serrurerie_ being applied not only to lock-making, but to most of -the smith’s work required in dwelling-houses. This affords, indeed, a -striking illustration of the fact, that until lately a lock-maker has -been regarded rather as a smith than as a machinist, rather as a forger -and filer of pieces of iron, than as a fabricator of delicate mechanism. -One of the most curious features in this treatise is a vocabulary, -containing, in alphabetical arrangement, a minute account of all the -French technical terms employed in the locksmith’s art. This vocabulary -alone occupies 38 quarto pages. - -The Germans, like the French, bestow great attention on their treatises -relating to the manufacturing arts. Some of these are, indeed, worked up -to a degree of minuteness which would seem superfluous, where little -distinction is drawn between the importance of fundamental principles -and that of mere technical details. Locks have had their due share. The -article on locks in Prechtl’s _Technological Encyclopædia_ written by -Karmarsch, and published in 1842, occupies about 140 pages. Locks are -very minutely classified by the author, according to their purposes and -their modes of action, and are illustrated by many plates. One of his -classifications is into _German_, _French_, and _Bastard_ locks, -referring in part to the extent to which the key turns round in the -lock; and the last of the three having an intermediate character between -the other two. After treating of the ordinary warded locks, he comes to -the combination principle; and it is profitable here to notice, how well -the works of our machinists are understood on the continent, when they -have any thing to recommend them; there are a dozen closely printed -pages devoted to a minute description of Bramah’s invention, with all -the separate parts illustrated by copper-plate engravings. After this -comes a more general account of the details and manufacture of locks, -similarly illustrated by engravings. - -Whatever may be the merits of the different articles relating to locks -in the various English cyclopædias, there are none approaching in length -to the article in Prechtl’s work. But when we consider that Prechtl -devotes twenty large volumes to technological or manufacturing subjects, -he is of course able to devote a larger space to each article than is -given in English works. Both in England and in America, men are more -disposed to do the work than to describe it when done. In the -_Encyclopædia Britannica_, in Rees’ _Cyclopædia_, in Hebert’s -_Engineers’ and Mechanics’ Cyclopædia_, in the _Encyclopædia -Metropolitana_, in the _Penny Cyclopædia_, and in other similar works, -locks are described as well as can be expected within the limits -assigned to the articles. Mr. Bramah’s essay on locks, and on his own -lock in particular, is one of the few English pamphlets devoted -expressly to this subject. An excerpt from the proceedings of the -Institute of Civil Engineers, in 1851, gives an interesting paper on -locks by Mr. Chubb; and shorter reports of papers and lectures have been -published in various ways. Perhaps the best account of locks which we -have, considering the limited space within which a great deal of -information is given in a very clear style, is that contained in Mr. -Tomlinson’s _Cyclopædia of Useful Arts_. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -ANCIENT LOCKS: GRECIAN, ROMAN, EGYPTIAN. - - -Locks and door-fastenings have not, until modern times, been susceptible -of any classified arrangement according to their principles of -construction. They have been too simple to require it, and too little -varied to permit it. That some such fastenings must be employed wherever -doors of any kind are used is sufficiently apparent; and there is a -little (though only a little) information obtainable, which shews the -nature of the fastenings adopted in early times. The bolt, the hasp, the -chain, the bar, the latch, the lock, all were known, in one or other of -their various forms, in those ages which we are accustomed to consider -classical. Travellers, generally speaking, do not descend to locks, or -rather they do not think about them; otherwise they might have collected -much that would have been novel and applicable to the present work; and, -indeed, there is some ground for the assertion, that a notice of the -door-fastenings of all nations would reveal to us something of the -social and domestic habits of various members of the great human family. -Be this as it may, however, we may profitably make a little inquiry into -the locks of ancient times. - -In the volumes of Lardner’s _Cyclopædia_ relating to the “Manners and -Customs of the ancient Greeks and Romans,” we do not find any mention of -the kinds of locks used by those nations; but the author, while -describing the houses, says:--“Doors turned anciently upon large pivots -in the centre, let into sockets in the lintel and threshold, so that one -of the sides opened inwards, the other outwards; and Plutarch gives the -following curious reason why persons were to knock and alarm the -porter, viz. lest the visitor entering unawares should surprise the -mistress or daughter of the family busy or undressed, or servants under -correction, or the maids quarreling.” As the visitors had thus the power -(if permitted so to do) to open the outer door of a house, it would -appear that very little in the nature of a lock was employed under -ordinary circumstances, unless indeed it were a mere latch. In respect -to Roman houses it is stated, that “the doors revolved upon pivots, -which worked in a socket below, and were fastened by bolts which hung -from chains.” There is no mention of locks here. Mr. St. John, in his -work on the same subject, says: “The street-door of a Grecian house, -usually, when single, opened outwards; but when there were folding-doors -they opened inwards, as with us. In the former case it was customary, -when any one happened to be going forth, to knock, or call, or ring a -bell, in order to warn passengers to make way.” After describing the -various kinds of wood of which the doors were made, he proceeds: “The -doors at first were fastened by long bars passing into the wall on both -sides; and by degrees smaller bolts, hasps, latches, and locks and keys, -succeeded. For example, the outer door of the thalamos in Homer was -secured by a silver hasp, and a leathern thong passed round the handle, -and tied, perhaps, in a curious knot.” - -Mr. Yates, in a learned article on this subject in Smith’s _Dictionary -of Greek and Roman Antiquities_, collects numerous details scattered -through various early writers. We will string together a few of these -details, so far as they have any relation to the fastenings of doors. -The outer door of a Roman house was generally called _janua_; whereas -the inner doors were called _ostia_. The doorway, when complete, -consisted of four indispensable parts--the threshold or sill, the -lintel, and the two jambs. The threshold, on which the feet trod, was -often regarded with a kind of superstitious reverence; the lintel, which -crossed the doorway at the top, having a considerable superincumbent -weight to bear, was usually made of one piece of timber or stone of -great strength; the jambs, or side uprights, were also made in one -piece each. The doorway, in every building of the least importance, -contained two doors folding together; even the internal doors had their -bivalve construction. But in every case each of the two valves was wide -enough to allow persons to pass through without opening the other; in -some cases even each valve was double, so as to fold like our -window-shutters. These doors, or valves, were not hinged to the -side-posts, as with us, but were, as has already been stated, pivoted to -the lintel above and the threshold below. The fastening usually -consisted of a bolt placed at the base of each valve or half-door, so as -to admit of being pushed into a socket made in the sill to receive it. -The doorways in some of the houses at Pompeii still shew two holes in -the sill, corresponding to the bolts in the two valves. At night, the -front door of the house was further secured by means of a wooden and -sometimes an iron bar placed across it, and inserted into sockets on -each side of the doorway; hence it was necessary to remove the bar in -order to open the door. Chamber-doors were often secured in the same -manner. In the _Odyssey_ there is mention of a contrivance (adverted to -by Mr. St. John) for bolting or unbolting a door from the outside; it -consisted of a leather thong inserted through a hole in the door, and by -means of a loop, ring, or hook, capable of taking hold of the bolt so as -to move it in the manner required. We have here evidently the elements -of a more complete mechanism; for the bolt was a rude lock in the same -degree that the thong was a rude key. That the Romans afterwards had -real locks and keys is clear; for the keys found at Herculaneum and -Pompeii, and those attached to rings, prove that a kind of warded lock -must have been well known.[2] There are the remains of a tomb at -Pompeii, the door of which is made of a single piece of marble, -including the pivots, which were encased in bronze, and turned in -sockets of the same metal; it is three feet high, two feet nine inches -wide, and four and a quarter inches thick; it is cut in front to -resemble panels, and thus approaches nearer in appearance to a modern -wooden door; and it was fastened by some kind of lock, traces of which -still remain. - - [2] An examination of the Roman keys in the British Museum - sufficiently attests this fact. - -The same facts frequently become more clear when described in different -words by different writers. We shall make use of this circumstance. Mr. -Donaldson, in his _Essay on Ancient Doorways_, presents us with details -which illustrate many of the foregoing remarks. “Homer describes the -treasures and other valuable objects (mentioned in the _Odyssey_) as -being kept in the citadel, secured merely by a cord intricately knotted. -This, of course, was soon found to be a very insufficient protection, -and therefore a wooden bar was adopted inside the doors of houses, to -which it was attached by an iron latch, fastened or removed by a key -adapted to it; this key was easily applied from within; but in order to -get at it from without, a large hole was made in the door, allowing the -introduction of the hand, so as to reach the latch and apply the key. -The lock called the Lacedæmonian, much celebrated by ancient writers, -was invented subsequently; it was especially fitted for the inner -chambers of houses, the bar fastenings continuing to be employed for -closing the outer doors of dwellings and the entrance-gates to cities. -The Lacedæmonian lock did not require a hole to be made in the door, for -it consisted of a bolt placed on that side of the entrance-door which -opened, and on the inside of a chamber-door. When a person who was -outside wished to enter, it was necessary for him to insert the key in a -little hole and to raise the bolt; and in time this species of fastening -was improved by the insertion of the bolt in an iron frame or rim -permanently attached to the door by a chain, and fastening the door by -the insertion of the hasp, through the eye of which was forced the bolt -inside the lock by applying the key.” After quoting a Latin sentence -from Varro in elucidation of his subject, Mr. Donaldson proceeds to -observe, that for the most part the locks of the ancients were different -in principle from those of modern days, not being inserted or mortised -into the doors, nor even attached except by a chain; they were, in fact, -padlocks. - -One of the passages in the _Odyssey_ alluding to the primitive mode of -fastening the valves or folding-doors of a house runs thus:-- - - “Whilst to his couch himself the prince addressed, - The duteous nurse received the purple vest: - The purple vest with decent care disposed, - The silver ring she pulled, the door reclosed; - The bolt, obedient to the silken cord, - To the strong staple’s inmost depth restored, - Secured the valves.” - -Most of the other great nations of antiquity resembled either the -Egyptians or the Greeks and Romans, more or less closely, in their -domestic and domiciliary arrangements; or, at any rate, so far as such -humble matters as locks and keys are concerned, we need not seek far -from those nations for examples. The Nineveh and other Assyrian -explorations have, however, revealed many curious and unexpected facts; -from the temples and the palaces we may by and by penetrate into the -houses and rooms of the citizens sufficiently to know how their doors -were fastened. In the mean time ancient Egypt awaits our notice. - -Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson, in his _Manners and Customs of the Ancient -Egyptians_, gives the following information concerning the doors and -door-fastenings of that remarkable people, on the authority of models, -sculptures, and paintings, still existing. The doors were frequently -stained so as to imitate foreign and rare woods. They were either of one -or two valves, turning on pieces of metal, and were secured within by a -bar or by bolts. Some of these bronze pins have been discovered in the -tombs of Thebes; they were fastened to the wood with nails of the same -metal, the round heads of which served also as ornaments. In the stone -lintels and floors behind the thresholds of the tombs and temples are -still frequently to be seen the holes in which the pivot-pins turned, as -well as those of the bolts and bars, and the recess for receiving the -opened valves. The folding-doors had bolts in the centre, sometimes -above as well as below; a bar was placed across from one wall to the -other. - -In many of the ancient Egyptian doors there were wooden locks fixed so -as to fasten across the centre at the junction where the two folds of -the door met. It is difficult, by mere inspection of the bas-reliefs and -paintings, to decide whether these locks were opened by a key, or were -merely drawn backwards and forwards like a bolt; but if they were really -locks, it is probable that they were on the same principle as the -Egyptian lock still in use. For greater security, these modern locks are -occasionally sealed with a mass of clay; and there is satisfactory -evidence that the same custom was frequently observed among the ancient -inhabitants of that country. Sir J. G. Wilkinson gives a representation -of an iron key, now in his possession, which he procured among the tombs -at Thebes, and which looks very much like a modern burglar’s picklock. -In relation to keys generally, and after mentioning the use of bronze -for their manufacture, he says: “At a later period, when iron came into -general use, keys were made of that metal, and consisted of a straight -shank about five inches in length, and a bar at right angles with it, on -which were three or more projecting teeth. The ring at the upper -extremity was intended for the same purpose as that of our modern keys; -but we are ignorant of the exact time when they were brought into use; -and the first invention of locks distinct from both is equally -uncertain; nor do I know of any positive mention of a key, which, like -our own, could be taken out of the lock, previous to the year 1336 -before our era; and this is stated to have been used to fasten the door -of the summer parlour of Eglon, the king of Moab. The description here -adverted to is that contained in Judges iii. 23-25: ‘Ehud went forth -through the porch, and shut the doors of the parlour upon him, and -locked them ... his servants ... took a key, and opened them.’” - -The curious and ingenious wooden lock of ancient Egypt is still in use -in Egypt and Turkey. In Eton’s _Survey of the Turkish Empire_, published -towards the close of the last century, the locks then and there in use -are thus described: “Nothing can be more clumsy than the door-locks in -Turkey; but their mechanism to prevent picking is admirable. It is a -curious thing to see wooden locks upon iron doors, particularly in Asia, -and on their caravanserais and other great buildings, as well as upon -house-doors. The key goes into the back part of the bolt, and is -composed of a square stick with five or six iron or wooden pins, about -half an inch long, towards the end of it, placed at irregular distances, -and answering to holes in the upper part of the bolt, which is pierced -with a square hole to receive the key. The key being put in as far as it -will go, is then lifted up; and the pins, entering the corresponding -holes, raise other pins which had dropped into these holes from the part -of the lock immediately above, and which have heads to prevent them -falling lower than is necessary. The bolt, being thus freed from the -upper pins, is drawn back by means of the key; the key is then lowered, -and may be drawn out of the bolt. To lock it again, the bolt is only -pushed in, and the upper pins fall into the holes in the bolt by their -own weight.” Mr. Eton, probably seeing how well the tumbler-principle is -here understood, says: “This idea might be improved on; but the Turks -never think of improving.” The locks on the doors of modern houses in -Cairo seem to be of this long-established form, except where iron locks -have been imported from Europe. - -A letter was inserted in the _Journal of Design_ for July 1850 from Mr. -W. C. Trevelyan; in which, after adverting to the Egyptian lock, he -says: “It is remarkable that the locks which have been in use in the -Faröe Islands, probably for centuries, are identical in their -construction with the Egyptian. They are, lock and key, in all their -parts made of _wood_; of which material, if I mistake not, they have -also been found in Egyptian catacombs; and so identical with the -Faröese in structure and appearance, that it would not be easy to -distinguish one from the other.” - -[Illustration: fig. 1.] - -[Illustration: fig. 2.] - -[Illustration: fig. 3.] - -[Illustration: fig. 4.] - -The construction of this remarkable Egyptian or pin-lock will be -understood from the accompanying engravings. The quadrangular portion, -_a a_ fig. 1, is the case of the lock, screwed or otherwise fastened to -the door, having a wooden bolt, _b b_, passing horizontally through a -cavity in it. In the part of the case above the bolt are several small -cells containing headed pins, arranged in any desired form; and in the -top of the bolt itself are an equal number of holes similarly arranged. -The effect of this arrangement is such that, when brought into the right -positions, the lower ends of the headed pins drop into the corresponding -holes in the bolt, thereby fastening the bolt in the lock-case. A large -hollow, or cavity, is made at the exposed end of the bolt, the cavity -extending as far as and beyond the holes occupied by the pins. The key -consists of a piece of wood (shewn in two positions, figs. 3 and 4,) -having pins arranged like those in the lock, and projecting upwards just -to a sufficient distance to reach the upper surface of the bolt. This -being the arrangement, whenever the key is introduced and pressed -upwards, its pins exactly fill the holes in the bolt, and by so doing -dislodge those which had fallen from the upper part of the case. The -bolt may, under these circumstances, be withdrawn (as shewn in fig. 2), -leaving the headed pins elevated in their cells, instead of occupying -the position shewn by the dotted lines in fig. 1. The cavity in the bolt -must of course be high enough to receive the thickness of the key, and -also the length of the pins protruding from the key. - -This primitive lock comprises many of the best features of the tumbler -or lever-locks of later days, as will be seen in a future chapter. There -will also be opportunities of shewing how the pin-action has been -applied in other ways in some of the modern locks. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -LOCK CLASSIFICATION. THE PUZZLE-LOCK AND THE DIAL-LOCK. - - -In approaching the subject of modern locks it becomes necessary to -decide upon some method of treating the widely-scattered and diverse -materials which are presented to our notice. One plan would be to trace -the subject chronologically, by describing, in the order of their -invention, the most important locks which have been presented to public -notice. But this would be attended with some disadvantages: the peculiar -characters of the several locks would not be brought out with sufficient -distinctness; and the result, so far as the reader is concerned, would -rather tend to confusion than to a clear appreciation of the subject. -There are more advantages belonging to a classification of locks under -certain headings, according to some marked peculiarities in their modes -of action. This is a convenient plan, but it is not an easy one to put -in execution; for inventors have not sought to place their locks in any -particular class, but rather to call attention to their merits. -Moreover, many locks embody two or three distinct principles so -equally, that it will often be difficult to decide in which class to -place them. This, nevertheless, may be done with an approach to -correctness. It is necessary first, however, to explain certain -technical terms by which locks are distinguished one from another. - -Locks, in truth, admit of an immense variety, which, however important -to be known to locksmiths, carpenters, and others employed on them, need -only be glanced at very cursorily by the general reader. Some locks are -named according to the purposes to which they are to be applied; others -according to their shape, or the principles of their construction. In -the first place, there is the distinction between _in-door_ and -_out-door_ locks. Of in-door locks, one principal kind is the -_draw-back_ lock, for street-doors, in which the bolt is capable of -maintaining any one of three positions: it may be locked by the key, or -left half-way out by the pressure of a spring, or be drawn back by a -handle. In the first position, it can only be withdrawn by the key; in -the second, it closes the door, but can easily be withdrawn by the -handle; and in the third, it leaves the door unfastened. If these locks -are made of iron and carefully finished, they are further called -_iron-rim_; but if made of wood, suitable for back-doors and inferior -purposes, they are _spring-stock_. For the doors of rooms, there are the -_iron-rim_, the _brass-case_, and the _mortise_ lock; the second -supplants the first, and the third the second, as we advance in the -elegance of the door-fittings. Other designations for room-locks depend -on the number of the bolts: thus, if there be only one bolt, it is a -_dead lock_ or _closet lock_; if there be a second bolt, urged by a -spring and drawn back by a handle, it is a _two-bolt lock_; and if there -be also a third, a private bolt acting only on one side of the door, it -is a _three-bolt lock_. Again, according to the kind of handle employed, -it may be a _knob lock_ or a _ring lock_. According to which edge of the -door it is to be fixed, it becomes a _right-hand_ or a _left-hand_ lock. -If the wards of the lock are of somewhat superior quality, and bend -round nearly to a circle, the lock is _one-ward round_, _two-ward -round_, and so forth. If the lock has no wards at all, it is _plain_; if -the wards are of common character, they are often called _wheels_, and -then the lock becomes _one-wheel_, _two-wheel_, &c. Sometimes the lock -is named from certain fancied resemblances in the shape of the ward, as -the L-_ward_, T-_ward_, or Z-_ward_. If the wards are cast in brass, -instead of being made of slips of iron or copper, the lock is termed -_solid ward_. - -Of the numerous but smaller varieties known by the collective name of -_cabinet locks_, there are the _cupboard_, the _bookcase_, the _desk_, -the _portable desk_, the _table_, the _drawer_, the _box_, the _caddy_, -the _chest_, the _carpet-bag_, and many other locks. All these locks are -further called _straight_, when the plate is to be screwed flat against -the wood-work; _cut_, when the wood is to be so cut away as to let in -the lock flush with the surface; and _mortise_, when a cavity is -excavated in the edge of the door for the reception of the lock. - -Out-door locks are usually _wooden stock locks_, for stables, gates, -&c.; comprising many varieties of _Banbury_, _bastard_, _fine_, &c. -There are D _locks_ and P _locks_, for gates, designated from their -shapes; and there are the numerous kinds of _padlocks_. - -The above terms are employed chiefly between the makers of the locks and -the persons who fix them in their places; but there are other terms and -names, more familiarly known, which will come under notice in future -pages. - -It is scarcely worth while to descant upon the “middle age” of -lock-making--to impart to the subject so much of dignity as to be -susceptible of regular historical treatment. True, we know that _wards_ -were employed before _tumblers_ (unless, indeed, the pins of the -Egyptian lock be considered as tumblers--a character to which they -present considerable claim), and that wards may be taken as the -representative of the medieval period of lock-making; but it may be more -profitable to proceed in our notice of the different kinds of locks in -an order which will in itself partake somewhat of the historical -character. - -Apart from all the warded and tumbler locks are the very curious -_puzzle_ or _letter-locks_; a construction which we propose to dismiss -out of hand in the present chapter, before treating of those which have -more commercial importance. - -The puzzle-lock is generally in the form of a padlock, which is opened -and closed without the use of a key, and which has certain difficulties -thrown in the way of its being opened by any one who is not in the -secret of the person who closed it. It is, in fact, one of the locks in -which the doctrine of permutation is made to contribute to the means of -security. The key to open it is a _mnemonic_ or _mental_ one, instead of -one of steel or iron. Two centuries ago, the puzzle-lock attracted far -more attention than any other. It has always certain movable parts, the -movement of which constitutes the enigma. Some of these very curious and -out-of-the-way locks are so formed as to receive the name of -_dial-locks_; but the chief among them are _ring-locks_--a name the -meaning of which will be presently understood. - -The puzzle or letter-lock of the ring kind, then, consists essentially -of a spindle; a barrel, encompassing the spindle; two end-pieces, to -keep the spindle and barrel in their places; and the shackle, hinged to -one of these end-pieces. To unfasten the lock, one of the end-pieces -must be drawn out a little, to allow the shackle or horse-shoe to be -turned on its hinge; and the question arises, therefore, how this -end-piece is to be acted upon. This is effected in a very ingenious way: -there are four studs or projections in a row on the spindle, and as the -spindle fits pretty closely in the barrel, the former cannot be drawn -out of the latter unless there be a groove in the interior of the -barrel, as a counterpart to the studs on the exterior of the spindle; -four rings fit on the barrel, on the interior of each of which there is -a groove; and unless all these four grooves coincide in direction, and -even lie in the same plane as the groove in the barrel, the studs will -not be able to pass, and the spindle cannot be drawn out. Each ring may -be easily made to work round the barrel by means of the fingers, and to -maintain any position which may be given to it. There are outer rings, -one over each of the rings just described, with the letters of the -alphabet (or a considerable number of them) inscribed on each; and these -outer rings, by means of notches on the inside, govern the movements of -the inner rings. - -The action is, therefore, as follows: when the padlock is to be locked, -the rings are so adjusted that all the grooves shall be in a right line; -the spindle is thrust in, the end-piece is fixed on, and the shackle is -shut down. The padlock is now fastened; but a reverse order of -proceeding would as easily open it again, and therefore the “safety” or -“puzzle” principle is brought into requisition. The outer rings are -moved with the finger, so as to throw the various interior grooves out -of a right line, and thus prevent the withdrawal of the spindle. As each -ring may be turned round through a large or a small arc, and all turned -in different degrees, the variations of relative position may be almost -infinite. The letters on the outer rings are to assist the owner to -remember the particular combination which he had adopted in the act of -locking; for no other combination than this will suffice to open the -lock. There may, for instance, be the four letters L O C K in a line, -which line is brought to coincide with two notches or marks at the ends -of the apparatus; and until all the four outer rings are again brought -into such relative position as to place the letters in a line, the lock -cannot be opened. - -There are many allusions to locks, apparently belonging to the letter or -puzzle principle, in authors who flourished two or three centuries ago. -Thus, in Beaumont and Fletcher’s play of the _Noble Gentleman_, written -in the early part of the seventeenth century, one of the characters -speaks of - - “A cap-case for your linen and your plate, - With a strange lock that opens with A·M·E·N.” - -And in some verses by Carew, written about the same time, there is -an analogy drawn, in which one of the things compared is-- - - “A lock - That goes with letters; for till every one be known, - The lock’s as fast as if you had found none.” - -In the _Memorabilia_ of Vanhagen von Ense, written about the middle of -the seventeenth century, a commendatory notice is given of a -letter-lock, or combination-lock, invented by M. Regnier, Director of -the _Musée d’Artillerie_ at Paris. “Regnier,” we are told, “was a man of -some invention, and had taken out a patent for a sort of lock, which -made some noise at the time. Every body praised his invention, and -bought his locks. These consisted of broad steel rings, four, five, or -eight deep, upon each of which the alphabet was engraved; these turned -round on a cylinder of steel, and only separated when the letters -forming a particular word were in a straight line with one another. The -word was selected from among a thousand, and the choice was the secret -of the purchaser. Any one not knowing the word might turn the ring round -for years without succeeding in finding the right one. The workmanship -was excellent, and Regnier was prouder of this than of the invention -itself. The latter point might be contested. I had a vague recollection -of having seen something of the sort before; but when I ventured to say -so, my suspicions were treated with scorn and indignation, and I was not -able to prove my assertion; but many years afterwards, when a book, -which as a boy I had often diligently read, fell into my hands, -Regnier’s lock was suddenly displayed. The book was called _Silvestri a -Petrasancta Symbola Heroica_, printed at Amsterdam in 1682. There was an -explanation at p. 254, attached to a picture; these were the -words:--_Honorius de Bellis, serulæ innexæ orbibus volubilibus ac -literatis circumscripsit hoc lemma--Sorte aut labore_.[3] However, -neither luck nor labour would have done much more towards discovering -the secret of opening Regnier’s locks, from the variety of their -combinations; and their security seemed so great, that the couriers’ -despatch-boxes were generally fastened with them.” - - [3] “Honorius de Bellis wrote this inscription,--_By chance or by - labour_,--round a lock composed of revolving rings graven with - letters.” - -This curious extract, which was brought forward by Mr. Chubb, in a paper -on locks and keys (read before the Institution of Civil Engineers in -1850), seems to take away the credit from one (Regnier) with whose name -the letter-lock has been most intimately associated. We shall presently -explain, however, what it was that Regnier effected towards perfecting -the letter-lock. In the meantime it may be interesting to note that the -British Museum contains a copy of the work mentioned by Vanhagen. At the -page indicated there is an engraving (a fac-simile of which is given in -fig. 5) containing a drawing of a veritable puzzle or letter-lock; the -lock consists of a cylinder or barrel, on which seven rings work; each -of these rings is inscribed with letters, and the ends of the cylinder -are grasped by a kind of shackle. - -[Illustration: fig. 5. Puzzle-lock of the seventeenth century.] - -It was a natural result of the arrangement of the letter-lock, as -invented (conjecturally) by Cardan, that only one particular word or -cipher or key could be used in each lock; and it was to increase the -puzzle-power of the lock that Regnier doubled all the rings, making -each pair concentric, and enabling the user to vary the cipher at -pleasure. - -The principle of the letter-lock, when applied to doors, requires that -sort of modification which renders it what is termed a _dial-lock_. -There are to such a lock one or more dials, with a series of letters or -figures stamped on them; there is to each dial a hand or pointer -connected by a spindle with a wheel inside the lock; on the wheel is a -notch which has to be brought to a certain position before the bolt can -be moved. There are false notches, to add to the difficulty of finding -the true notch in each wheel. To adjust the notches to their proper -position, a nut on the back of the wheel is loosened, and the pointer is -set at any letter or figure chosen by the user. The pointers and the -dials perform the part of the outer rings, the wheels that of the inner -rings; and it is easy to see that the same leading features prevail in -the two kinds of lock, however they may differ in detail. - -These dial-locks have not been numerous; they require wheel and pinion -work within the body of the lock, which gives delicacy and complication -to the mechanism. The letter padlock, be its merits great or small, is -strong and durable, not liable to get out of order; and in so far as it -requires no key or key-hole, it occupies rather a special position among -locks. One of our great “merchant-princes” has been a letter-lock -inventor, as the following will shew. - -Early in 1852, Mr. William Brown, the distinguished member for South -Lancashire, read a paper before the Architectural and Archæological -Society of Liverpool, of much interest in relation to our present -subject. His object was to describe a letter-lock which he had invented, -and which had up to that time given high satisfaction. We cannot do -better than transcribe the paper, as reported in one of the Liverpool -Journals, with a few abridgments. - -“As your society are desirous of seeing any improvements or attempts at -them, I send you a stock-lock for inspection. The idea for its -construction I took from a letter-padlock. I had a lock of this -description made by Mr. Pooley twenty-five years ago, which has been in -use ever since on Brown, Shipley, and Co.’s safe.... - -“Its advantages I conceive to be--First, it cannot be picked, for there -is no key-hole. Second, it cannot be blown up by gunpowder, for the same -reason. Third, you cannot drill through the door so as to reach the -lock, for you are intercepted by a steel plate on which your tools will -not act: thus you cannot introduce gunpowder that way to force the lock -off. Fourth, you cannot bounce off the wheels in the interior with a -muffled hammer, for vulcanised India-rubber springs resist this. Fifth, -you cannot drill the spindles out, as their heads are case-hardened. -Sixth, you cannot drive them in, for they are countersunk in the door -about half-way through.... - -“Now let us set the lock to the word W O O D (any other four letters -might be used). When you set the lock, make a private record of them, so -that you may not forget them. If parties do not know your letters, -nothing but violence, applied by some means or other, can enable them to -get into your safe; for the lock will not open to any thing but its -talisman. Take off all the large wheels and open the lock: you will see -that the large wheels have a number of false chambers; if you get the -spurs of the bolt into three real chambers and one false, you are as -fast as ever, for all four must be right. - -“Having placed your key and pointer outside the door to point to W on -brass-plate No. 1, the small wheel inside obeys the same impulse; then -maintain your small wheel steadily on this point, and the large wheel -No. 1 will only fit on at the right place, the true opening compartment -being opposite the spur of the bolt. It being necessary at the time you -set your lock that it should be open, proceed with Nos. 2 and 3 in the -same way, your pointer standing steadily at O. No. 4 is the same, the -pointer being held steadily at D. You should then shoot your lock two or -three times, to be sure you have made no mistake. Every time you shoot -your bolts out, turn your wheels away from the true chamber, and see -when you again turn your pointers to W O O D that your lock opens -freely; it is the proof that you have made no mistake, and you may now -venture to lock your safe. When you unlock the door, and find it -necessary to leave it open for a time, you should shoot the bolts as if -locked, and turn the wheels, so that no one may find what your real -letters are; and again adjust them to their proper places, in order that -the bolt may go back and enable you to re-lock. Once having locked the -door and turned the wheels from your real letters, you need not trouble -yourself with carrying the key, but leave it in any place beside the -lock. - -“I believe two wheels would make a perfectly safe lock; three would be -quite so. I adopted four to make security doubly sure, as it would be -impossible in any given time to work the changes. On two wheels by -chance the lock might open; you can, however, calculate the chances -against this; and also three or four, the false compartment on the outer -rim being taken into calculation. * * * - -“If this lock is of any value, it should be known; if it has weak -points, let them be pointed out, and they may admit of a remedy; for we -ought not to be led to believe a lock is safe which is not so.” - -In relation to the “first advantage” which Mr. Brown not unreasonably -supposed to be possessed by his lock--viz. that “it cannot be picked, -because it has no keyhole”--we shall have something to say in a future -page, where certain fallacies on this subject will be noticed. In the -meantime we may remark, that it is not a little creditable that a -leading Liverpool merchant should have invented a lock worthy of -occupying a position on his own safe for a quarter of a century; for we -may be quite certain that he would not have allowed the lock to maintain -that post of honour unless it had really (so far as experience had then -gone) served worthily as a safeguard to his treasures. And if it were -possible to collect all the by-gone specimens of lock-oddities, we -should probably find among them many highly-ingenious letter-locks; for -supposing a man to have a mechanical turn of mind, a lock is by no means -an unworthy medium for displaying it; the pieces of metal are so small -as to be easily manageable at a small work-bench in a small room. The -fondness for this sort of employment evinced by the unfortunate Louis -XVI. of France led to the common remark, “He is a capital locksmith, but -a very bad king.” - -In an amusing article in the _Observer_, during the progress of the -“lock controversy,” was the following paragraph relating to -combination-locks of the letter or puzzle kind: “The French, in their -exposition of 1844, availing themselves of the permutation principle, -produced some marvels in the art; but the principle has not been adopted -in this country. The _Charivari_ had an amusing quiz upon these locks -when they first came out. It said the proprietor of such a lock must -have an excellent memory: forget the letters, and you are clearly shut -out from your own house. For instance, a gentleman gets to his door with -his family, after a country excursion, at eleven o’clock at night, in -the midst of a perfect deluge of rain. He hunts out his alphabetical -key, and thrusts it into his alphabetical lock, and says A Z B X. The -lock remains as firm as ever. ‘Plague take it!’ says the worthy citizen, -as the blinding rain drives in his eyes. He then recollects that that -was his combination for the previous day. He scratches his head to -facilitate the movement of his intellectual faculties, and makes a -random guess B C L O; but he has no better success. In addition to his -being well wet, his chances of hitting on the right combinations and -permutations are but small, seeing that the number is somewhere about -three millions five hundred and fifty-three thousand five hundred and -seventy-eight. Accordingly, when he comes to the three-hundredth he -loses all patience, and begins to kick and batter the door; but a patrol -of the National Guard passes by, and the disturber of the streets is -marched off to the watch-house.” - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -WARDED LOCKS, WITH THEIR VARIED APPENDAGES. - - -The more ordinary locks are of an oblong quadrangular shape. In nearly -all of them, either a bolt shoots out from the lock, to catch into some -kind of staple or box, or a staple enters a hole in the edge of the -lock, and is there acted upon by the bolt. A common room-door lock will -illustrate the first of these kinds, a tea-caddy lock the second. The -key, as is well known, enters a receptacle made for it; and the shaft of -the key generally serves as a pivot or axis around which the web or flat -part of the key may move in a circular course. During this movement the -web acts directly or indirectly on the bolt, driving it in or out -according to the direction in which the key is turned; the key impels -the bolt one way, certain springs act upon it in another, and the -balance between these two forces determines the locking and unlocking of -the bolt. _Wards_, or _wheels_, are contrivances for rendering the -opening difficult without the proper key; and it is of warded locks that -we shall chiefly treat in this chapter. - -[Illustration: fig. 6. Interior of a back-spring warded lock.] - -The annexed cut, fig. 6, represents the interior of an ordinary -back-spring lock, without tumblers. Such a lock may usually be known -from a tumbler-lock by this simple circumstance, that it emits a smart -snapping noise during the process of locking, occasioned by the pressure -of the spring when the bolt is in a particular position. In the woodcut -the bolt is represented half out, or half shot. At _a a_ are two notches -on the under side of the bolt connected by a curved part; _b_ is the -back spring, which becomes compressed by the passage of the curve -through a limited aperture in the rim _c c_ of the lock. When the bolt -is wholly withdrawn, one of the notches _a_ rests upon the rim _c c_; -and the force with which the notch falls into this position, urged by -the spring _b_, gives rise to the snapping or clicking noise. When the -bolt is wholly shot, the other notch rests in like manner upon the edge -of the aperture in the rim. - -It must be obvious at a glance, that this back-spring lock is -objectionable on the score of security, on account of the facility with -which the bolt may be forced back by any pressure applied to its end, a -pressure which may often easily be brought to bear. At the centre of the -lock is seen the end of the key acting on a notch in the bolt, and -surrounded by wards. - -[Illustration: fig. 7. Section to shew the action of wards.] - -It is not at a first glance that the relation between the clefts in a -key and the wards of a lock can be duly appreciated; because the wards -present themselves to view as portions of circles to which nothing in -the key seems to correspond; but if it be borne in mind that the key has -a rotary motion within the key-hole around the pipe or barrel as an -axis, the circular form of the wards will be accounted for, and their -_section_ will be regarded as exhibiting the looked-for relation to the -wards of the key. In the annexed cut, for example (fig. 7), which -represents a portion of the interior of a warded lock, the curved pieces -of metal are the wards (two in this case); and there are two clefts in -the bitt of the key to enable the latter to take its circular course -without interruption from the wards. If the clefts were other than they -are, either in number, position, or size, this freedom of the key’s -movement could not be obtained. - -[Illustration: fig. 8. End sections of keys.] - -When once the opinion became established that a lock is rendered secure -by virtue of its wards, (a theory which we shall have to discuss in a -later page,) much ingenuity was displayed in varying the wards of the -lock, the clefts of the key, and the shape of the keyhole. Even if the -two former were unchanged, a change in the latter might add to the -puzzlement of the arrangement. For instance, in the annexed cut (fig. -8), all the six keys represented may have clefts or cuts exactly alike, -all alike adapted to the wards of one particular lock; yet the -differences in the _thickness_ of the web are such, that if the keyholes -were shaped in conformity therewith, each keyhole would be entered by -one of these keys; _b_ and _c_ differing from _a_ in the relative -thickness at different points, and _d_, _e_, and _f_ having certain -curvatures and cavities not to be found in the other three. - -[Illustration: fig. 9. Examples to shew the action of “master,” or -“skeleton keys.”] - -But without waiting for the detailed examination of the relative -security and insecurity of locks, we may at once shew how simple is the -principle which renders the warded system fallacious. In fig. 9 we -shall be able to illustrate this. Numbers 1, 2, and 3, all appear very -different keys, and it is quite true that neither one would open a lock -adapted for either of the other two; and yet the very simple arrangement -No. 4 would open all three. This No. 4 is called a _skeleton-key_; and -the relation which it bears to the others may be expressed in the form -of a proposition thus: at any point where there is solid metal in _all_ -the keys, there must (or may) be solid metal in the corresponding part -of the skeleton-key; but at any point where there is a vacancy or cavity -in _any_ of the keys, there must be a cavity in the corresponding part -of the skeleton-key. If Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, be examined, this proposition -will be found to be borne out; there is so much cavity in No. 4 that it -avoids the wards in all the three locks, nothing being required but the -tongue of metal to move the bolt. Sometimes, to add to the safety, wards -are attached to the front as well as the back plate of the lock; and -then there may be a double series of notches required in the key, such -as in No. 5; but if this be compared with Nos. 9, 10, 11, it will be -found that although no one of the four would open a lock adapted for -either of the other three, yet the skeleton-key No. 12 would master them -all, having cavities wherever any of the others have cavities. This is -the theory of the _master-key_, by which one key may be made to command -many locks. Nos. 6 and 7 have complicated wards; but the key is so much -cut up as to be weakened more than is desirable. No. 8 enables us to -point out the difference between two distinct classes of keys. Keys with -pipes or barrels fitting on a pin or pipe-shaft can only open a lock on -one side of the door or box; but a key with a solid stem, as No. 8, has -the clefts so cut as to open the lock from either side, as in a -street-door lock: it is, in fact, two warded keys fixed end to end, only -half of which is employed at one time in opening the lock. - -[Illustration: fig. 10. Wards of an old French lock.] - -Some of the warded locks of the last century are curious. While the idea -prevailed that a complicated ward gave security, there was room for the -exercise of ingenuity in varying the shape of the wards. Fig. 10 is -copied from the great French work. It represents the cuts in the key, -and also (seen perspectively) the complicated forms of the pieces of -metal which constitute the wards corresponding with those cuts. The -aperture in the key at 16 fits upon the metal surrounding the keyhole at -18; and the M-shaped cuts at 17 fit in like manner upon the -similarly-shaped metal pieces at 19. - -Another example of a similar kind is shewn in fig. 11, where an anchor -appears to have been the favourite form. The anchor cuts in the key are -shewn at 26; while in the wards the bottom of the anchor is near the -keyhole at 28, and the top at 29. - -[Illustration: fig. 11. Wards of an old French lock.] - -[Illustration: fig. 12. Wards of an old French lock.] - -A similar illustration occurs in fig. 12, where the star-like cuts at 34 -on the key correspond with the star-like wards at 33. - -[Illustration: fig. 13. Exterior of an old secret lock.] - -[Illustration: fig. 14. The same, with a portion of the front let down, -shewing the key-hole.] - -From the fifteenth to the eighteenth centuries locks were made in -France, on which a vast amount of care and expense was bestowed. They -were, in an especial degree, decorative appendages as well as -fastenings. They were of three kinds: room-locks, buffet-locks, and -chest-locks; they were fixed on the outside of the door or lid, so as to -be fully visible. The key had a multitude of perforations which bore no -particular relation to the wards of the lock, but which were regarded as -tests of the workman’s skill. The honorary distinctions awarded to -apprentices and aspirants in the art depended very much on the number -and fine execution of these perforated keys. The locks, considered as -fastenings, had slender merit; although usually throwing four bolts, -they were not very secure. Fig. 13 represents the exterior of a lock -made about the year 1730, by Bridou, a celebrated Parisian locksmith. It -was a lock belonging to a coffer or strong chest; all the works being -sunk below the level of a carved architectural moulding or ornament. -There is a secret opening near the part C, forming a portion of the -ornamental design; it allows a bolt, shewn at D, fig. 14, acted on by -the spring E, to be touched, by which a doorway opens upon the hinges at -B B. A A are a sort of pilasters, which aid in forming a hold for the -bolts. The little ornament at C is drawn down by the hand, opening the -secret door and revealing the key-hole G. S S, O O, Z Z, are ornaments -fastened on at _b c d_, fig. 14, by nuts and screws, intended to display -the skill of the workman. The lock itself, access to the keyhole of -which is obtained within the secret door, has nothing very remarkable -about it. - -[Illustration: fig. 15. Examples of true and false keys.] - -Mr. Chubb, in his paper read before the Institute of Civil Engineers, -illustrated the insecurity of the warded lock by the example of one -which had actually been placed in the strong-room of a banking house, -and which is represented in the annexed cut (fig. 15). The wards are -here shewn, surrounding the central key-pin; and from the appearance of -the key, shewn at _a_, it is evident that these wards must have been -rather complex. But the uselessness of the wards was proved by the -result. A burglar employed an instrument, shaped like that at _b_, -having on one of its faces, or sides, a layer of wax and yellow soap; -this instrument, being introduced through the keyhole and turned a -little way round, brought the soft composition in contact with the ends -of the wards, and these ends thus left their impress on the composition. -A false key was then made, as at _c_, which, however clumsy it may -appear, has a cavity, or vacuity, where there is a cavity in the true -key; and by such a surreptitious instrument was the lock opened. Even so -rude an instrument as _d_, by passing round the wards, might open such a -lock. - -We are somewhat anticipating the full consideration of this subject; -but it is desirable at once to explain how and why an improvement on the -warded lock was sought for. - -In connexion with the fanciful eighteenth-century locks, lately adverted -to, we may remark, that no less a man than Louis XVI. was an amateur -workman in this department of mechanical art--or at least in smith’s -work, which in France is generally considered to include lock-making. -Sir Archibald Alison says, in his _History of Europe_:--“He had an -extraordinary fondness for athletic occupation and mechanical labour; -insomuch that he frequently worked several hours a-day with a blacksmith -of the name of Gamin, who taught him the art of wielding the hammer and -managing the forge. He took the greatest interest in this occupation, -and loaded his preceptor in the art with kindness; who returned it by -betraying to the Convention a secret iron recess which they had together -worked out in the walls of the cabinet in the Tuileries, wherein to -deposit his secret papers during the storms of the Revolution.” There -are not wanting indications that the unfortunate monarch wrought upon -locks, as well as upon safes and strong-rooms. - -Besides wards, there have been numerous other contrivances for adding to -the security of locks--including screws, escutcheons, spiral springs, -wheel-and-pinion work, alarums, and multiple bolts. As these are not of -sufficient importance to be treated in separate chapters, we shall here -give just so much notice of them as will illustrate their general -character. Some of them are found combined with the “tumbler” principle, -presently to be described; but all of them, it is now well known, were -employed in various, ways when the tumbler lock was but little -understood, and when the warded lock was held in esteem. - -The Marquis of Worcester, whose curious _Century of Inventions_, written -nearly two hundred years ago, contains so many suggestions which -ingenuity has since developed into practical completeness, gives four of -his inventions in the following words:-- - -69. “A way how a little triangle screwed key, not weighing a shilling, -shall be capable and strong enough to bolt and unbolt, round about a -great chest, an hundred bolts, through fifty staples, two in each, with -a direct contrary motion; and as many more from both sides and ends; -and, at the self-same time, shall fasten it to the place beyond a man’s -natural strength to take it away; and in one and the same turn both -locketh and openeth it. - -70. “A key with a rose-turning pipe and two roses pierced through -endwise the bit thereof, with several handsomely contrived wards, which -may likewise do the same effects. - -71. “A key, perfectly square, with a screw turning within it, and more -conceited than any of the rest, and no heavier than the triangle screwed -key, and doth the same effects. - -72. “An escutcheon, to be placed before any of these locks, with these -properties: First, the owner, though a woman, may with her delicate hand -vary the ways of causing to open the lock ten millions of times beyond -the knowledge of the smith that made it, or of me that invented it. -Second, if a stranger open it, it setteth an alarum a-going, which the -stranger cannot stop from running out; and besides, though none shall be -within hearing, yet it catcheth his hand as a trap doth a fox; and -though far from maiming him, yet it leaveth such a mark behind it as -will discover him if suspected; the escutcheon or lock plainly shewing -what money he hath taken out of the box to a farthing, and how many -times opened since the owner had been at it.” - -Mr. Partington, in his edition of the marquis’s singular work, makes a -few comments on these lock-and-key contrivances. He says that the lock -is evidently intended to operate on the principle of applying a _screw_ -for the purpose of moving the bolt, instead of using a key as a lever -for this purpose. That such a plan might be applied to locks generally, -he observes, there can be no doubt; and by a similar contrivance the -large keys at present in use for outer doors, iron chests, &c. might be -advantageously reduced by this means. By employing the escutcheon -mentioned by the marquis, much additional security would be obtained. It -must be confessed, however, that many of the marquis’s statements are -difficult to credit. - -The escutcheon has been a favourite resource with lock-makers. Mr. -Mordan’s escutcheon, for instance, introduced before the Society of Arts -in 1830, is a contrivance to be placed temporarily over the keyhole of a -door, to prevent the picking of the lock during the owner’s absence. The -escutcheon, or “protector,” has a short pipe which, after the door has -been locked, is thrust into the keyhole; attached to the pipe is a small -lock, on Bramah’s or any other convenient principle, so contrived that, -on turning its key, two lancet-shaped pieces fly out laterally and bury -themselves in the wood. The escutcheon cannot be removed until the small -key has reacted upon the small lock; and until this removal has taken -place, the large key cannot reach the keyhole. - -A curious application of the escutcheon principle attracted some -attention among locksmiths about seventy years ago. One of the first -premiums awarded by the Society of Arts, after the commencement of their -“Transactions,” was to Mr. Marshall, for a “secret escutcheon,” in 1784. -In his description of his new invention, he adverts to the marquis of -Worcester’s wonderful escutcheon, and to the many attempts which have -since been made to produce an apparatus which should realise the -marquis’s description. He supposes that the letter padlock originated as -one among many varieties of these imitative inventions; but this may be -doubted. Mr. Marshall’s contrivance, however, was in effect an endeavour -to improve upon the letter-lock. He considered it an objection that, in -ordinary locks of this kind, the letter-rings admit of no variation of -place; and he sought to remedy this defect. It is not so much a new -lock, as an escutcheon for a lock, which he produced. There is a studded -bar passing through a barrel; there are five rings which work -concentrically on this barrel; there are letters on the outer surfaces -of the rings, and notches on the inner surface; but when, by the usual -puzzle-action of the rings, the notches in them have been brought into a -right line with the studs of the bar, the result is, not that the hasp -of a padlock is raised, but that the escutcheon is removed from the -keyhole of an ordinary lock. Mr. Marshall’s contrivance, therefore, is -not so much a ring padlock, as a puzzle-ring security for the escutcheon -of a fixed lock. - -Some locks work by a screw and a spiral spring, instead of an ordinary -key. Mr. W. Russell received a silver medal from the Society of Arts, -about thirty years ago, for a new mode of locking the cocks of -liquor-casks. Under ordinary circumstances, as is well known, the cock -of a barrel or cask is in no way secure from the action of any one who -can approach near enough to touch it; and different methods have been -adopted of obtaining this security or secrecy. One plan is to employ a -perforated cap, soft-soldered to the barrel of the cock, immediately -over the grooved plug, the top of which plug is formed to the shape of -the perforation, and a socket-key of the same form is introduced to turn -the plug or open the lock. Another plan is to employ an iron saddle or -staple, passing over the plug and below the bottom of the cock, through -which a bolt is put, and a pendent padlock attached. The first method is -very inefficient; the second is much superior, and has been largely -adopted for locking the cocks of coppers, stills, vats, and other large -vessels. But Mr. Russell thought some further improvement wanted. He -caused a hole to be bored through the barrel, and to some depth into the -plug when the latter is in the position for closing the cock. A stud -works into this hole in such a way, that when the stud is driven home, -the plug cannot be turned or the lock opened. The stud is attached at -its other end to a spiral spring connected with a screw; a key is -employed, the hollow pipe of which has an internal screw; and when this -key is inserted in the cock-barrel and turned twice round, it draws back -the stud, and allows the plug to be turned round in the proper way for -opening the cock. - -It is not often that wheel-and-pinion work is introduced into locks; the -delicacy, the costliness, the weakness, and the tendency to get out of -order, would all militate against the frequent adoption of such a -course. It is, however, adopted occasionally. Mr. Friend’s secret-lock, -introduced to the notice of the Society of Arts in 1825, had a train of -wheels which acted upon the bolt, driving it out whenever the circular -arcs of three wheels moved against it, but allowing a spring to force it -back again whenever a deep cleft in each of the wheels locked into a -stud on the bolt. There were certain numbers on a guide-plate, and a -power of combining these numbers in great variety; and a provision that -the bolt could be unlocked only by the same combination of numbers which -had locked it. The guide-plate was a separate piece of apparatus, -carried in the pocket of the user as a companion to the key. The key was -of no use without the guide-plate, nor the guide-plate without the key. -The user ‘set’ the numbers on the guide-plate, then applied it to the -face of the lock, then introduced the key into the key-hole, and turned -the key partially round; the bolt was now shot, and the guide-plate -removed. If the key were used without the guide-plate, the bolt might be -locked, but it was always unlocked again by the time the key had made a -complete circuit. There was considerable ingenuity in the idea of this -lock; but we believe it never went further than a model. Indeed many of -the locks elaborately described in books have never had an existence as -acting working locks. - -A very ingenious principle has been occasionally introduced, in which -clock-work regulates the interval of time which must elapse before a -lock can be opened, even with its proper key. The object is, to ensure -the safety of the lock during a journey, or until a particular person be -present, or until the locked article is conveyed to a particular room. A -patent was taken out in 1831 for a lock on this principle by Mr. -Rutherford, a bank agent at Jedburgh. Against the end of the bolt of the -lock is placed a circular stop-plate, so adjusted that the bolt cannot -be withdrawn until a particular notch in the rim of the circular plate -is opposite the end of the bolt. The plate is put in rotation by -clock-work. As the notch can be set at pleasure to any required distance -from the end of the bolt, the lock may be secured against being opened, -either by its own or any other key, until any assigned number of minutes -or hours after it has been locked; for the plate may be made to revolve -either slowly or quickly, by varying the number of wheels in the -clockwork. When the lock is used for boxes or portable packages, the -clockwork must be moved and regulated by a spring; but when it is -applied to closets or safes, a descending weight and a pendulum may be -employed. It is manifest that this system is susceptible of being -greatly varied in its mode of application; and it has many points of -interest about it. That a man cannot open his own lock with his own -proper key, until the lock gives permission by assuming a particular -state or condition, certainly strikes one as being susceptible of many -useful applications, where _time_ is an element taken into the account. - -A curious alarum-lock was invented by Mr. Meighan, in 1836, in which the -bell or alarum is not placed behind a door, as in many alarum -contrivances, but within the lock itself. Two or more studs are placed -on the bolt, which press against the lower end of a small tumbler; the -movement of the tumbler elevates a hammer; but as soon as the point of -the tumbler becomes released from the stud, a spring presses the hammer -down forcibly, and causes it to strike against a small bell placed near -it. This sounding of the bell will be repeated, during the shutting of -the bolt, as many times as there are studs to act upon the point of the -tumbler. - -Much of the ingenuity which has been displayed in locks depends on the -employment of multiple bolts, there being all the additional strength -which results from the use of two or more bolts instead of simply one. -Ordinary doors seldom afford us examples of these double bolts; but they -may be frequently seen in cabinets and desks, where two staples fixed -to the lid fall into two holes in the lock, and are retained by two -bolts. The most remarkable and complicated varieties, however, are those -in which the bolts, instead of shooting parallel and nearly together, -shoot in wholly different ways; one up, one down, one to the right, one -to the left, and so on. It is on safes, strong boxes, and the doors of -strong rooms containing valuable treasures, that such locks are usually -placed. The mechanism is such that the key acts upon all the bolts at -once, through the intervention of levers and springs of various kinds. - -[Illustration: fig. 16. Multiple bolts of an old chest-lock.] - -The above woodcut represents a very curious specimen of these -multiple-bolt locks. It is copied from the great French work; and the -ponderous chest to which it is attached is, we are told by Réaumur, -“known at Paris by the name of the strong German coffer.” He further -says, “nothing is wanting in these coffers on the score of solidity. -They are made entirely of iron; or if of wood, they are banded both -within and without with iron; and can only be broken open by very great -violence. Their locks are almost as large as the top of the coffer, and -close with a great number of bolts. The one which we have engraved has -twelve fastenings; they have been made with twenty-four, or more.” His -next remark on the subject is a sensible one: “Notwithstanding the large -size of these locks, and all the apparatus with which they are provided, -they correspond but ill with the solidity of the rest of the coffer. If -we have given a representation of one, it is chiefly to shew how little -confidence one could have in such a lock, and what are its defects, in -order that we may avoid them.” It is not difficult, by tracing the -action of the several levers, to see how one movement of the key, in the -centre of the lid, would act upon all the bolts. In the engraving (fig. -16) _a_, _f_, _h_, _c_, are the four corner bolts; six others, _a d e_, -_a d e_, are on the long sides, three on each; and two, _b g_, on the -short sides. Every bolt is provided with a spring, of which three or -four are shewn at Z Z Z. There is no staple or box to receive each bolt; -but all shoot or snap beneath the raised edge E running round the top of -the box just within the exterior at A A. The keyhole in the front of the -box at D is a deception or mask; the real keyhole is in the middle of -the lid concealed by a secret door opened by a spring. When the key has -moved the great central bolt, this acts upon the other bolts P Q R S T, -&c.; V V are studs which act upon two of the bolts; Y Y are staples -confining the great bolt; _k_, _l_, _c_, _p_, _x_, are small levers -which transmit the action to the corner bolts; _q_, _r_, _s_, _t_, _n_, -are the small levers which render a similar service to the side and end -bolts; L L within the chest, and M M on the lid, are contrivances for -limiting the movement of the latter; C H, H C are iron straps or bands -by which the interior of the chest is strengthened. After all, this is -not so much a lock as a series of spring latches. - -If a lock can be picked, the picking is as effective whether the lock -has one bolt or twelve bolts. This fact led Mr. Duce, in 1824, to -construct, instead of a four-bolt lock, four distinct one-bolt locks, -fixed in the same frame and opened by the same key; the bolts to be -moved in succession instead of simultaneously. It would require four -times as long to pick this as a four-bolt lock of similar action. - -There have been many other varieties of the multiple bolt, but we need -not stop to describe them. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -ON TUMBLER, OR LEVER LOCKS. - - -Security being the primary object in all locks, any considerations as to -mechanical ingenuity and graceful decoration give place to those which -relate to safety. A spring lock may be ingenious and even beautiful in -its construction, but an imitative key will easily open it. Hence arose -the invention of wheels or wards; and as wards failed in -trustworthiness, they in their turn yielded to something better. We have -already explained how the insecurity of mere warded locks arises; and we -shall have something more to say on the subject in a future chapter. It -is sufficient here to remark, that wards, springs, screws, alarums, -wheel-work, escutcheons,--all, however useful for particular purposes, -are wanting in the degree of surety which we require in a lock. Hence -the invention of _tumblers_, _levers_, or _latches_, which fall into the -bolt and prevent it from being shot until they have been raised or -released by the action of the key. We have been unable to ascertain at -what time, or in what country, or by whom, tumbler-locks were invented. -The invention has been claimed by or for persons subsequently to the -year 1767, when the celebrated French treatise (_Art du Serrurier_) -already referred to was published; and yet this treatise contains -numerous examples of simple tumbler locks of ingenious construction, as -will presently be shewn. - -[Illustration: fig. 17. Simple tumbler lock.] - -One of the most elementary forms of tumbler-lock is shewn in fig. 17. In -this case the bolt, instead of having two notches in the bottom edge, -like those in the back-spring lock, fig. 6, has two square notches or -slots in the upper edge; and as the key acts upon the bolt, these -notches must of course share in whatever movements the bolt is subjected -to. Behind the bolt is a kind of latch or tumbler (the lower part of -which is shewn by dotted lines), with a stump or projecting piece of -metal at _a_; the tumbler moves freely on a pivot at the other end, and -is made to rise through a small arc whenever the key acts upon the bolt. -When the bolt is wholly shot, the stump falls into one notch and -prevents the motion of the bolt; when wholly unshot or withdrawn, the -stump falls into the other notch, and equally prevents the motion of the -bolt. It is not, therefore, until the key, by elevating the tumbler, has -raised the stump out of the notch, that the bolt has freedom of -movement. If the shape of the key does not enable its web to effect this -elevation to a sufficient degree, the bolt remains immovable; and to -this extent a certain additional security is obtained by making the -shape of the key significant as well as the wards. - -[Illustration: fig. 18.] - -[Illustration: fig. 19. Old French lock.] - -The tumbler-principle, as we have said, is difficult to trace to its -origin on account of the various aspects which it presents; but the -great French treatise proves that the locksmiths of France were familiar -with tumbler-locks a century ago. The plates of that work represent the -details of numerous locks, on the upper edge of the bolts of which were -notches called _encoches_, as at _o k_ fig. 18; into these notches sank -a small iron stud or stump called the _arrêt du pêne_, or bolt-stop, -shewn in fig. 19, attached to the upper portion of the _gâchette_ or -tumbler, which, for the sake of economy of metal, is made in the form of -a triangular spring in front of the bolt _k i_; and not until the key, -by its circular action, had raised this stud out of one or other of the -notches, could the bolt move to the right or left. The stud was -generally fixed to a spring which forced it down again into the notch as -soon as the action of the key had ceased. Sometimes, however, the stud -was fixed to the bolt, and the notches were in a separate tumbler or -_gâchette_ (see E E, fig. 21); and in other instances, again, the stump -was fixed to the case of the lock and caught into notches in the bolt. -It will be seen, when we come to treat of tumbler-locks of later date, -that there was much in these early locks to point out the way. Fig. 19, -copied from the French work, represents a lock of the box or casket -kind. Two staples, fixed into the cover, fall into two cavities or -receptacles at C _d_; and a short bolt in each receptacle catches into -each staple, one near _g_ and one near _h_. The small bolt _q_ is -attached to the upper extremity of the lever _q r s_, fig. 19, and shewn -separately in fig. 20; and by the pressure of a spring _a_ (fig. 19) -upon this lever, the bolt _q_ is kept locked in the staple. The -vertical portion of this spring presses at its lower end on another -spring _p_ (fig. 19) of singular curvature; and attached to the -horizontal part of this second spring is the stud, which falls into a -notch in the top of the bolt. The action of these parts, then, is as -follows: when the key is placed upon the key-pin at Z, and turned round -in the direction in which the hands of a watch move, the bitt presses -against the tail _s_ of the lever, moves it upon its centre Z, fig. 19, -_v_, fig. 20, to the left, and consequently moves the upper part _q_ to -the right, drawing it out of the receptacle and liberating the staple -within C. Thus it will be seen that the lever _q r s_, held in one -position by the spring _a_, forms in itself a simple kind of spring -catch-lock, and was, in fact, formerly used as such, without any other -appendages except the staple in the lever, into which the catch _q_ -fitted on shutting down the lid. So also we may regard the other -portion, fig. 18, or _k i p h_ (fig. 19), as forming a separate lock; -for the key after having passed S comes in contact with the triangular -spring, which it raises thereby, lifting the stud out of the bolt, and -exerting pressure against the barbs of the bolt _n_. Fig. 18 shoots the -bolt _k_, and also the short bolt _l_, which passes through the staple -in the cavity _d_, fig. 19. - -[Illustration: fig. 20.] - -The lock represented in the four following figures is also from M. de -Réaumur’s chapter on locks in the work referred to. In this lock the -tumbler-principle is carried out in a very elaborate manner, for not -only is the stump or stud H (fig. 23) attached to a very strong spring -(best shewn at H, fig. 22), which holds it with considerable force in -one of the three notches of the principal bolt R S (fig. 24); but there -is also a second set of notches E E in the _gâchette_ G O (fig. 21), and -a pin attached to one of the plates of the lock fits into one of these -notches, thereby preventing the bolt from being moved until the -_gâchette_ is lowered by the revolution of the key; so that in -attempting to pick this lock, not only must the spring H be raised so as -to release the stud from the notches of the great bolt, but the -_gâchette_ must be lowered to disengage the fixed pin from the notches. -There is yet a third source of security. Attached to the large bolt are -short projecting pins F (fig. 21), against which an arm or detent, G F, -of the _gâchette_ projects, thus preventing the bolt from being shot -back by any pressure applied to its extremity S. - -[Illustration: fig. 21. Details of an old French lock.] - -[Illustration: fig. 22. Another view of the same.] - -[Illustration: fig. 23. Another view of the same.] - -[Illustration: fig. 24. The two bolts detached.] - -There are a few details relating to this remarkable lock, which may as -well be introduced here in order to complete the description. The -principal bolt can be shot twice, or be _double-locked_; hence it is -furnished with three barbs for the key to act against, and with three -notches for the spring-stud. The lower bolt I K can be shot by the -horizontal pressure of the button P (figs. 22, 23), which is situated on -the inner side of the door to which this lock is attached, so that a -person inside the room can secure the door against any one on the -outside who is not furnished with the proper key, for it must be -remarked that the small bolt as well as the large one is acted on by the -key. Now supposing the small bolt to be shot or locked, it is kept so by -the pressure of the coiled spring Q (figs. 21, 22). But this small bolt -is connected with the large one by means of the bent lever O N M (figs. -21, 24), which turns on a pin N attached to the main bolt. Now, when -both bolts are either fully shot or unshot, the arm O N lies flat -against and parallel with the main bolt; but when the large bolt is -unshot and the small one not moved, the arms O N, N M, fall into an -inclined position, and the arm O N passing a little below the main bolt -comes within the range of the web of the key, which in its revolution -causes the bent lever to move upon its centre N, thereby restoring O N -to its horizontal position, and at the same time causing the arm N M to -move from right to left, or in the direction for unshooting the small -bolt; the end of this arm thus catches into a mortise V (figs. 21, 24) -in the small bolt, and immediately unlocks it. - -But to return to the subject of tumbler-locks. About the year 1778, Mr. -Barron introduced that species of double-action (as it may perhaps be -termed) which so greatly increases the security of the simple tumbler, -fig. 17. In the tumbler-locks previously made, if the tumbler were -raised sufficiently high, the lock could be opened: there was no such -possibility as raising it _too_ high; but Mr. Barron, by his invention, -patented 31st October, 1778, rendered it absolutely necessary that a -limit should be put to the height to which the tumbler should be raised, -by rendering the bolt equally immovable whether the tumbler were too -much or too little raised. Another important improvement was the -introduction of two tumblers instead of one. The bolt has in its middle -a slot or gating notched on both edges, the notches being fitted for the -reception of studs fixed to the tumblers. Supposing the studs or stumps -of the tumblers to be resting in the lower notches, they require to be -elevated to the general level of the gating before the bolt can be -moved; whereas, on the other hand, if the tumblers were raised ever so -little too high, the studs will enter the upper notches, and prevent the -shooting of the bolt. The lower edge, or belly, of each tumbler is acted -on by the steps of the key during its circular movement; the leverage of -the key being so exactly adjusted as to raise the tumbler to the desired -height and no further. The tumblers are made unequally wide, so that -steps or inequalities in the bit of the key are requisite to lift them -both to the proper height. There are thus two improvements introduced: -there are two tumblers instead of one, and each tumbler has a double -instead of a single action. - -This ingenious and very useful lock is represented, so far as regards -its governing principle, in fig. 25. The bolt is here seen to have a -peculiar slot or hole cut in it, consisting of a narrow horizontal -passage or gating, with three notches above it and three below it. These -double notches might be available even for one tumbler only; but Barron -used two or more for the sake of additional security. In fig. 25 there -are two tumblers shewn, expressed by dotted lines; both are hinged to -one pivot, both are raised by the same action of the key, but the stump -on the one tumbler does not coincide in position with that on the other. -It will be seen that if the studs of the tumblers rested in the lower -notches, they would require to be elevated to the level of the gating -before the bolt could be moved; while, on the other hand, if lifted too -high, the stumps would be caught in the upper notches, and would equally -prevent the passage of the bolt, The tumblers are unequally wide; and -the bitt of the key is stepped or notched in a corresponding way, that -there may be one step fitted to act upon each tumbler. Mr. Barron also -adopted the reverse arrangement of having the stump on the bolt, and the -openings in the tumblers; so that the principle of his patent may be -concisely expressed as being “an arrangement to allow a stump on the -tumbler to pass through an opening in the bolt, or a stump on the bolt -to pass through an opening in the tumbler.” - -[Illustration: fig. 25. Action of Barron’s tumbler-lock.] - -A very elaborate tumbler-lock, patented 23d February, 1790, by Mr. -Rowntree, contrasts remarkably with the simplicity of Barron’s lock. Mr. -Rowntree’s lock consisted of tumblers combined with revolving discs or -wheels. Its mechanism may be understood from the following description -and engravings. The same letters refer to the same parts in the several -figures. - -[Illustration: fig. 26. - -fig. 27. - -fig. 28. - -fig. 29. - -fig. 30. - -Details of Rowntree’s tumbler-lock.] - -A A is the plate which encloses the whole mechanism of the lock, and -fastens it to the door; B B is the bolt, guided in its motion by sliding -under the bridges C D; E E are pillars which support a plate covering -the works; F are the circular wards surrounding the centre or key-pin; -and _a_ shews the position of the key, which, in turning round, acts in -a notch _r_ in the bolt, and propels it; G, the tumbler, is a plate -situated beneath the bolt, and moving on a centre-pin at _d_; it has a -catch or stump _e_ projecting upwards, which enters the notches _s_ or -_g_ in the bolt, and thereby retains the latter for backward or forward -motion, as the case may be; H is a spring which presses the tumbler -forward. The key _a_, in turning round, acts first against the part _c -c_ of the tumbler, and raises it so as to remove the stump from the -notches; it can then enter the notch _r_ in the bolt, and move it. So -far there is no particular security; but Mr. Rowntree sought to obtain -it by the following means. There is a piece of metal _h_ fixed to the -lower side of the tumbler, called the _pin_; when the tumbler is caught -in either notch of the bolt, the pin applies itself to a cluster of -small wheels I, fitted on one centre-pin beneath the tumbler; the edges -of these wheels stop the pin, and prevent the tumbler from being raised. -But each wheel has a notch cut in its circumference I; and it is only -when the wheels are so placed that all their notches lie in a right -line, that the pin can enter this compound notch and allow the tumbler -to rise. The wheels must therefore be all adjusted to position; and this -is effected by a number of levers K centred on one pin at _k_; at the -opposite end each lever has a tooth _m_ entering a notch in the wheel -belonging to it; so that when any lever is pressed outward, it turns its -wheel round. Now this pressure of the levers is brought about by a -spring _n_ applied to each; and when so pressed, the levers rest against -a pin _o_ fixed in the plate. The key is so cut as to determine the -extent to which the levers shall act upon the wheels. The key first -operates from the curved part _p p_ of the levers K, and raising them, -turns all the wheels I at once into the proper positions; in turning -further round, it then operates on the part _c c_ of the tumbler, -causing the latter to rise and to release the bolt; and in turning still -further round, it (the key) seizes the notch _r_ of the bolt, and shoots -it. The key is cut into steps of different lengths, as shewn at V V; -each step operates on its respective lever K in a different degree from -the others; the notch at _s_ acts upon the tumbler, and the plain part -_t_ moves the bolt. - -We now proceed to notice the modern tumbler-lock. This was arranged by -Bird, whose patent, bearing date 29th October, 1790, was for a series of -four double-acting tumblers, differing in no respect from those patented -by Barron, and closely resembling those in use at the present time in -the best tumbler-locks. We will describe the modern tumbler-lock more -particularly when we have gone through a few historical details on the -subject. - -Messrs. Mitchell and Lawton obtained a patent bearing date 7th March, -1815, for a lock in which were combined with the bolt and double-acting -tumblers, a series of movable wards, and a revolving curtain for closing -the key-hole. The action of the wards was peculiar. On introducing any -key or instrument, and passing it round, a number of movable wards or -pieces were thrown out so as to prevent the key from being turned back -or withdrawn. It was necessary therefore to pass round the key so as to -unlock the lock, and if that were not possible, as in the case of a -false key being used, it was held permanently, and could only be -released by destroying the lock, When the bolt was once shot, the wards -were carried up so as to leave a clear passage for the key. This lock -does not appear ever to have come into use, on account of the violence -required in case a wrong key should be used either by accident or -design. - -The detention of a wrong key in this lock appears to have suggested the -contrivance of a _detector_. This was first made by Ruxton, whose patent -is dated 14th May, 1816. His detectors were of various kinds, the object -of each kind being to give information to the owner in case any one of -the tumblers should be overlifted in an attempt to pick the lock, which -fact would be discovered on the next application of the true key. This -is precisely the object of the detector in tumbler-locks at the present -day, and Ruxton accomplished it by somewhat similar means. He also had a -contrivance for holding a false key, as in Mitchell and Lawton’s lock; -and he recommended this form of detector in the following words: “It is -true that in this case the lock will have to be destroyed in order to -open the door: the result is frightful; but we think the more terrible -the result, the less likely would any one be to tamper with it.” - -We now come to Chubb’s lock, patented 3d February, 1818, which consisted -of double-acting tumblers and a peculiar kind of detector. This lock has -been made the subject of various patents obtained in the years 1824, -1833, 1846, and 1847. This lock[4] consists of six separate and distinct -double-acting tumblers, all of which must be raised to a particular -height, neither more nor less, in order that the bolt may pass. It also -comprises a _detector_, by which, should any one of the tumblers be -lifted too high in an attempt to pick or open the lock by a false key, -it would be immediately detected on the next application of the proper -key. The tumblers are flat pieces of iron or steel, with the plane of -the surface vertical, and pivoted at one end; and the following is the -mode in which the key, the tumblers, and the bolt, are brought into -mutual action. - - [4] The lock about to be described is the latest and most complete - form of Chubb lock up to the date of the Great Exhibition. The various - additions and alterations which have been made in the lock since that - date will be noticed in a subsequent chapter. - -The bolt shoots in and out of the lock in the usual way. It has a square -stud or stump riveted on one surface; and it is to furnish obstructions -to the passage of this stud that the tumblers are provided. All the six -tumblers are pivoted to one pin at the end, giving to each of them a -small leverage, each independent of the others. There are six springs -which press these tumblers downwards, one to each tumbler. There is a -longitudinal slot or gating in each tumbler, large enough to receive the -stud of the bolt; and unless all the six slots (supposing there to be -six tumblers) coincide in height or position, the stud will not have a -clear passage for moving to and fro. Now the slots are purposely made -nearer the upper edge in some of the tumblers than in others, all the -six being different in this respect; so that if they are all lifted -_equally_, the slots do not coincide, and the bolt and its stud will not -pass. The tumblers must then be raised _unequally_, those to be most -raised which have the slot nearest to the lower edge. To effect this, -the bit of the key is cut into six steps or inequalities, each to act -upon one particular tumbler, and each cut or stepped to the exact depth -which will suffice for the proper raising of the tumbler. The key is -inserted in the keyhole, and is turned; the six steps raise the six -tumblers all to the proper height, to leave a clear passage along the -slots; and the extreme end of the key then acts upon the bolt itself, -and shoots it. To unlock it again, the same or a duplicate key must be -used; for if another key be employed, differing by ever so little from -the proper one, some one or more of the tumblers will be lifted either -a little too much or not quite enough; and in either case the stud of -the bolt will catch above or below the slot, instead of having a clear -line of movement along the slot itself. After both locking and -unlocking, the springs force the tumblers down as far as they can go, -burying the stud in the recesses above the slot; so that the tumblers -must be raised by the key both for locking and unlocking. - -The doctrine of chances has wide play in determining the relative -position of the six tumblers. In Mr. Chubb’s essay this part of the -subject is treated in the following way: “The number of changes which -may be effected on the keys of a three-inch drawer-lock is 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 -× 5 × 6 = 720, the number of different combinations which may be made on -the six steps of unequal lengths (on a six-tumbler lock), without -altering the length of either step. The height of the shortest step is, -however, capable of being reduced 20 times; and each time of being -reduced, the 720 combinations may be repeated; therefore 720 × 20 = -14,400 changes. The same process, after reducing the shortest step as -much as possible, may be gone through with each of the other five steps; -therefore 14,400 × 6 = 86,400, which is the number of changes that can -be produced on the six steps. If, however, the seventh step, which -throws the bolt, be taken into account, the reduction of it only ten -times would give 86,400 × 10 = 864,000, as the number of changes on -locks with the keys all of one size (that is, with one key of definite -size in all save the lengths of the steps). Moreover, the drill pins of -the locks and the pipes of the keys may be easily made of three -different sizes; and the number of changes will then be 864,000 × 3 = -2,592,000, as the whole series of changes which may be gone through with -this key. In smaller keys, the steps of which are capable of being -reduced only ten times, and the bolt-step only five times, the number of -combinations will be 720 × 10 × 6 × 5 × 3 = 648,000. On the other hand, -in larger keys, the steps of which can be reduced thirty times, and the -bolt-step twenty times, the total number of combinations will be 720 × -30 × 6 × 20 × 3 = 7,776,000.” - -These enormous numbers have been the cause of much of the wonderment -which the six-tumbler locks have excited; and, as we shall see further -on, the Bramah lock presents still more of the marvellous in respect to -this ringing of the changes. - -[Illustration: fig. 31. Chubb lock, with detector and six tumblers.] - -The construction and action of the Chubb lock may be further illustrated -by means of an engraving, fig. 31, in which _b_ is the bolt of the lock, -with a stump riveted to it marked _s_. The six tumblers are shewn -perspectively, the front or anterior one being marked _t_; they all move -on the centre-pin _a_, but are nevertheless perfectly distinct and -separate, to allow of being elevated to different heights. At _d_ is -shewn one end of a divided spring, the divisions being equal to the -number of tumblers, one to each, and so bent that each spring may press -upon its particular tumbler. At _e_ is the detector-spring, so placed -that a projecting piece in the hindmost tumbler shall be near it; this -tumbler having also fixed into it a stud or pin _p_. This being the -arrangement, especially in relation to the stump _s_ and the tumblers, -it follows that all the tumblers must be lifted to exact and regulated -heights in order that the stump may pass through the longitudinal slits -of the tumblers; unless it can do so, the bolt cannot be withdrawn. As -there are gaps or notches in each tumbler both above and below the -proper line of passage, and as there are no ordinary means of -ascertaining when any one tumbler is lifted too high or not high enough, -the safety of the lock is greatly increased by this uncertainty; -especially when it is considered that this uncertainty is multiplied -sixfold by the different modes in which the six tumblers are slotted. -If, through the insertion of a false key, or by any other cause, any one -of the tumblers be raised above its proper position, the detector spring -_e_ will catch the hindmost tumbler, and retain it so as to prevent the -bolt from passing; and thus, upon the next application of the true key, -it will be instantly felt that some one of the tumblers has been -overlifted, because the true key will not unlock it. To relieve the bolt -from this temporary imprisonment, the key must be turned the reverse -way, as for locking; all the tumblers will thus be brought to their -proper position, and allow the stump to enter the notches _n n´_; the -bevelled part of the bolt will then lift up the detector-spring, and -allow the hindmost tumbler to fall down into its proper place; and all -this being effected, the lock may be opened and shut in the ordinary -way. The pin _p_ is so adjusted that if any one of the tumblers--front, -back, or intermediate--be lifted too high, the pin will be lifted with -it, and will catch into the detector-spring, thus producing the result -just described. - -[Illustration: fig. 32. - -Key to Chubb’s lock.] - -The key is represented in fig. 32. It has six steps, besides a terminal -step to act upon the bolt. The height of each step, or the distance to -which it extends from the pipe of the key, depends of course on the -height to which its corresponding tumbler is to be lifted; and it -matters not whether the steps of the key are adjusted to the slots of -the tumblers, or the slots to the steps, provided the agreement be -brought about. It is simply a matter of manufacturing convenience that -the key-steps are cut first and the tumbler-slots afterwards. We may -here remark that _bit_, or _bitt_, is the name given, somewhat -indefinitely, either to the whole flat part of a key, or to the small -stepped portions of it. The flat part was formerly termed the _web_ of -the key, probably from the _webbed_ appearance of the keys to complex -warded locks. - -After the reading of Mr. Chubb’s paper before the Institution of Civil -Engineers, Mr. Owen narrated one or two circumstances connected with the -early history of Chubb’s lock. A convict on board one of the -prison-ships at Portsmouth dockyard, who was by profession a lock-maker, -and who had been employed in London in making and repairing locks for -several years, and subsequently had been notorious for picking locks, -asserted that he had picked with ease one of the best of Bramah’s locks, -and that he could pick Chubb’s locks with equal facility. One of the -latter was secured by the seals of the late Sir George Grey, the -Commissioner, and some of the principal officers of the dockyard, and -given to the convict, together with files and all the tools which he -stated were necessary for preparing false instruments for the purpose, -as also blank keys to fit the pin of the lock. A lock exactly the same -in principle was placed in his hands, that he might examine it and make -himself master of its construction. If he succeeded in opening the lock, -he was to receive a free pardon from the Government, and a reward of -100_l._ from Messrs. Chubb. After trying for two or three months to pick -the sealed lock--during which time, by his repeated efforts, he -frequently over-lifted the detector, which was as often re-adjusted for -his subsequent trials--he gave up the attempt. He stated that Chubb’s -were the most secure locks he had ever met with, and that it was -impossible for any man to pick or to open them with false instruments. - -Mr. Owen further stated, that in order to compare the merits of Bramah’s -and Chubb’s locks, he had suggested a mechanical contrivance, which was -applied to one of Bramah’s six-spring padlocks belonging to the Excise. -It was hung upon a nail, in a vertical position, secure from lateral -oscillation. A self-acting apparatus was then applied, consisting of a -pipe with hexagonal grooves, and a stud or bit corresponding with the -division of the lock, and secured to it by a spring. In the grooves of -this pipe small slides were inserted, which pressed against the spring -keys of the lock; to these slides were attached levers, acted upon by -eccentrics, moved by a combination of wheels, whose teeth differed in -number so as to perform the permutation required for the different -depths of the spring keys, corresponding with those of the proper key to -the lock. The automaton machine was set in motion by a line working over -a barrel, and acted upon by a weight; and was thus left acting upon the -mechanism for a considerable time. At right angles to the pipe or false -key was attached a rod and weight; and when the notches in the spring -keys were brought in a line with the plane of the plate or diaphragm of -the lock, the rod and weight turned the false key, opened the lock, and -stopped the further motion of the automaton. In that state the slides -indicated the exact depth of the grooves in the proper key, and gave the -form of a matrix by which to make a key similar to the original one. The -automaton worked during a period varying from half an hour to three -hours, according to the state of permutation of the apparatus at the -moment of being applied, compared with that of the slides in the lock. -We confess that it is difficult to understand the action of this -automaton from Mr. Owen’s description. We imagine that the false notches -would effectually prevent the operation of the instrument, and openings -would be required on each slide to bring it back, so as to meet the -motions of the machine. - -Mr. Owen did not state whether his apparatus had been successful with -one only of Bramah’s locks or with several; nor did he describe any -apparatus invented with the view to the picking of Chubb’s locks. He -stated, however, that in order to ascertain the effect of friction on -one of these last-named locks, it was subjected to the alternate -rectilinear motion of a steam-engine in Portsmouth dockyard, and was -locked and unlocked upwards of 460,000 times consecutively, without any -appreciable wear being indicated by a gauge applied to the levers and -the key, both before and after this alternate action. Mr. Owen concluded -by expressing his individual opinion that Chubb’s lock had never been -picked. “The detector was the main feature of its excellence; and -additional precaution, therefore, was only departing from its -simplicity, and adding to the expense, without any commensurate -advantage.” - -In a subsequent chapter the degree of security afforded by various -descriptions of locks, and the obstacles which they present of being -picked, will come under notice; we therefore now proceed to describe -briefly a few other tumbler-locks, or application of the -tumbler-principle. - -In Mr. Somerford’s lock, for which the Society of Arts gave a premium in -1818, an attempt was made to improve upon the ordinary action of -tumblers. In most such locks, all the tumblers must ascend, although to -different heights, before the stud of the bolt can pass through the -slots; “which arrangement,” says Mr. Somerford, “gives an opportunity of -introducing a nail, or a piece of stout wire, into the lock, and thus -raising the tumblers without the necessity of using the key.” In his new -lock, however, he made one lever to ascend while the other descended, by -a somewhat complicated arrangement of slotted plates above and below the -bolt. The key was so perforated as to be much endangered in respect to -strength. - -In Davis’s lock there is a double chamber with wards on the side of the -key-hole. The key is inserted into the first chamber and turned a -quarter round; it is then pushed forward into the inner chamber, where -there is a rotating plate containing a series of small pins or studs, -which are laid hold of by the key. By turning the key, the plate is -moved round, the tumbler is raised, and the bolt is shot backwards and -forwards. This lock, which is somewhat expensive, is used to some extent -on Cabinet despatch-boxes. - -The lock invented by Mr. Nettlefold is so constructed, that when the -bolt is shot out by the key, two teeth or quadrants are projected from -the sides of the bolt, which take a firm hold of the plate fixed on the -door-post or edge. This construction is said to answer well for -sliding-doors. - -Mr. Alfred Ainger, in 1820, received a silver medal from the Society of -Arts for a draw-back spring latch, in which the objects proposed were -the two following--to render the lock more difficult of violation by a -pick than those ordinarily in use; and to apply to it a key of which no -ordinary person could take an impress, and which would be difficult of -access even in a workman’s hand. The key is very peculiar; its pipe -consists of three divisions, the section of the upper and lower -divisions being circular, and that of the middle division triangular; -the triangular portion is intended to give motion to some part of the -interior of the lock during the rotation of the key. There are collars -fixed on the extremity of the key, to act each on one tumbler; and there -are modes, by varying the arrangement of these collars on an octagonal -stem, to give something like a permutation to the number of variations -to which the action of the key may be subject. The notches or slots are -rather in the bolt than in the tumblers; and there are many -peculiarities in the general arrangement. - -In a lock invented and patented by Mr. Parsons, the tumblers are of a -particular form, being hinged on a pivot at their centres, and working -into and out of two notches cut in the under side of the bolt. It must -be obvious that many variations in the adjustment of the tumblers of -locks might be made, without vitiating the principle on which the action -depends. - -Many inventors have tried the use of an expanding web to the key, so -planned that if the step of the web be long enough to reach the tumbler, -it would be too long to pass through the key-hole; and therefore a -principle of safety would operate by enabling the key to adjust itself -at one moment to the size of the key-hole, and at another to the height -of the tumbler. Mr. Machin of Wolverhampton invented such a key in 1827. -The web of the key is movable on a countersunk pin, on which it can so -far slide as to be drawn one-eighth of an inch from the barrel. The -key-hole is of such a size as to admit the key only when the web is -pressed close up to the barrel. When the key in this state is -introduced, and is begun to be turned round, one of the notches in the -web works into a raised circular edge of steel, placed eccentrically -with regard to the lock-pin; so that as the key is turned, the web -becomes drawn out, and is at its greatest elongation when it arrives at -the tumblers: in the second half of its circular movement, the key -becomes contracted to its original dimensions, and can then be removed -from the lock. - -Another mode of modifying the key has been introduced by Mr. Mackinnon, -the object being to enable any person to change at will the pattern or -arrangement of the movable parts of a lock and key; or to keep the key, -when not actually in use, in such a state as to render it unavailing to -any one but himself. It was a complex arrangement, which does not seem -to have come much into use. - -The lock invented by Mr. Williams, in 1839, may be designated a -pin-lock, involving a principle analogous in many points to that of the -Egyptian lock. This lock has a series of pins which reach through the -cap, and are pressed to their places with a key like a comb or a -rake-head. On the inner end of each pin is a flat piece of steel, in -which is cut a notch for the passage of the bolt; but this passage is -not clear until the notches in all the pieces of steel are in a right -line. The pins are movable, and can be pushed either too far or not far -enough to bring about the coincidence of position in the notches; and on -this ground they are “double-acting.” Now the teeth of the key are of -irregular lengths, each having a length just suited for pushing the pin -to the proper depth: any other lengths of teeth would fail to open the -lock. There is a mechanism of springs and levers to shoot the bolt when -the pins in the plate are rightly adjusted. The arrangements in respect -to the key are singular and somewhat awkward. The teeth which lock the -bolt are not the same as those which unlock it, the user having to -change ends and adjust the bit to a socket-handle. This is one among -many examples in which a lock embodies several principles, the inventor -having set himself the task of combining the excellences of many diverse -locks. - -In respect to the tumbler-locks generally, the simplicity of action, the -strength of construction, and the non-liability of disarrangement, have -given them a high place among safety-locks. The only danger seemed to -be, that any person once obtaining possession of the key could take an -impression from it, and thence form a key which would command the lock. -Attempts have been occasionally made to obviate this danger, by -supplying the key with movable bits which could be changed at pleasure, -so as to constitute any number of effectively different bits in -succession. But the locks being so constructed that the bolt could only -be moved when the tumblers were in a certain position, the owner was -placed in this predicament: that it was useless to alter the arrangement -of the bits in the key, unless the tumblers were altered in a -corresponding manner; and this would entail the removal of the lock from -the door, and the re-arrangement of the interior mechanism. - -One of the great defects of tumbler-locks made previously to the last -ten years was, that the tumblers, when lying at rest in the lock, -presented at their _bellies_ or lower edges precisely the same -arrangement as the steps of the key. Indeed, in many locks of the -present day, a good idea of the form of the key may be gained by feeling -the bellies of the tumblers. The bellies are in fact cut out so as to -compensate for the circular motion of the key, to allow them to remain -at rest while the stump is passing through the gating. Even in -tumbler-locks of the best construction the tumblers will vibrate more or -less during the motion of the key; a defect which must be provided -against in adjusting the lock, or the stump will be caught in its -passage through the gating. Mr. Hobbs provides a simple remedy by -enlarging the back part of the gating, the effect of which is as -follows: when, in shooting back the bolt, as in unlocking, the key has -got to its highest point, the stump enters the narrow end of the gating; -but in shooting the bolt forward, as in locking, the stump enters the -gating before the key has got to its highest point, and to allow for the -slight vibratory motion of the tumblers during the passage of the stump, -the gating is widened. The usual method of adjustment is to alter the -forms of the bellies of the tumblers, thus greatly risking the security -of the lock, a defect which was clearly perceived by Bramah [see pp. -67-70], and was one of the reasons which induced him to construct locks -with slides instead of tumblers. - -American locks on the tumbler-principle, and the relation which all such -locks bear to the Bramah lock, will be better understood after the -details of the following chapter. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE BRAMAH LOCK. - - -The lock which was invented by the late Mr. Bramah deservedly occupies a -high place among this class of contrivances. It differs very materially -from all which has gone before it; its mechanical construction is -accurate and beautiful; its key is remarkable for smallness of size; and -the invention was introduced by the publication of an essay containing -much sensible observation on locks generally. The full title of this -essay runs thus: “A dissertation on the Construction of Locks. -Containing, first, reasons and observations, demonstrating all locks -which depend upon fixed wards to be erroneous in principle, and -defective in point of security. Secondly, a specification of a lock, -constructed on a new and infallible principle, which, possessing all the -properties essential to security, will prevent the most ruinous -consequences of house-robberies, and be a certain protection against -thieves of all descriptions.” A second edition of this _Dissertation_ -was published in 1815; but the work is now extremely scarce, and hardly -attainable. - -It is remarkable to observe the boldness and self-relying confidence -with which Mr. Bramah, some sixty years ago, declared that _all_ locks -were, up to that time, violable; he felt that this was strictly true, -and he hesitated not to give expression to his conviction. The following -is from his _Dissertation_:-- - -“It is observable that those who are taken in the desperate occupation -of house-breaking are always furnished with a number and variety of keys -or other instruments adapted to the purpose of picking or opening locks; -and it needs no argument to prove that these implements must be -essential to the execution of their intentions. For unless they can -secure access to the portable and most valuable part of the effects, -which in most families are deposited under the imaginary security of -locks, the plunder would seldom recompense the difficulty and hazard of -the enterprise; and till some method of security be adopted by which -such keys and instruments may be rendered useless, no effectual check or -opposition can be given to the excessive and alarming practice of -house-breaking. - -“Being confident that I have contrived a security which no instrument -but its proper key can reach; and which may be so applied as not only to -defy the art and ingenuity of the most skilful workman, but to render -the utmost force ineffectual, and thereby to secure what is most valued -as well from dishonest servants as from the midnight ruffian, I think -myself at liberty to declare (what nothing but the discovery of an -infallible remedy would justify my disclosing), that all dependence on -the inviolable security of locks, even of those which are constructed on -the best principle of any in general use, is fallacious. To demonstrate -this bold and alarming proposition, I shall first state the common -principles which are applied in the art of lock-making; and by -describing their operation in instruments differently constructed, prove -to my intelligent readers that the best-constructed locks are liable to -be secretly opened with great facility; and that the locks in common use -are calculated only to induce a false confidence in their effect, and to -throw temptation to dishonesty in the way of those who are acquainted -with their imperfections, and know their inefficacy to the purpose of -security” (p. 5). - -Tumblers had been so little thought of and used at the time Bramah -wrote, that his attention was almost exclusively directed to _warded_ -locks. The mysterious clefts in a key, connected with some kind of -secret mechanism in the lock, had given the warded locks a great hold on -the public mind, as models of puzzlement and security; and it was to -shew that this confidence rested on a false basis, that he to a great -extent laboured. The following is his exposition of the principle and -the defects of the warded lock. - -“Locks have been constructed, and are at present much used and held in -great esteem, from which the picklock is effectually excluded; but the -admission of false keys is an imperfection for which no locksmith has -ever found a corrective; nor can this imperfection be remedied whilst -the protection of the bolt is wholly confided to fixed wards. For if a -lock of any given size be furnished with wards in as curious and -complete a manner as it can be, those wards being necessarily expressed -on what is termed by locksmiths the bit or web of the key, do not admit -of a greater number of variations than can be expressed on that bit or -web; when, therefore, as many locks have been completed of the given -size as will include all the variations which the surface of the bit -will contain, every future lock must be the counterpart of some former -one, and the same key which opens the one will of course unlock the -other. It hence follows that every lock which shall be fabricated on -this given scale, beyond the number at which the capability of variation -ends, must be as subject to the key of some other lock as to its own; -and both become less secure as their counterparts become more numerous. -This objection is confirmed by a reference to the locks commonly fixed -on drawers and bureaus, in which the variations are few, and these so -frequently repeated, from the infinite demand for such locks, that, even -if it were formed to resist the picklock, they would be liable to be -opened by ten thousand correspondent keys. And the same observation -applies in a greater or less degree to every lock in which the -variations are not endless. - -“But if the variation of locks in which the bolt is guarded only by -fixed wards could be multiplied to infinity, they would afford no -security against the efforts of an ingenious locksmith; for though an -artful and judicious arrangement of the wards, or other impediments, may -render the passage to the bolt so intricate and perplexed as to exclude -every instrument but its proper key, a skilful workman having access to -the entrance will be at no loss to fabricate a key which shall tally as -perfectly with the wards as if the lock had been open to his inspection. -And this operation may not only be performed to the highest degree of -certainty and exactness, but is conducted likewise with the utmost ease. -For the block or bit, which is intended to receive the impression of the -wards, being fitted to the keyhole, and the shank of the key bored to a -sufficient depth to receive the pipe, nothing remains but to cover the -bit with a preparation which, by a gentle pressure against the -introductory ward, may receive its impression, and thus furnish a -certain direction for the application of the file. The block or bit -being thus prepared with a tally to the first ward, gains admission to -the second; and a repetition of the means by which the first impression -was obtained, enables the workman to proceed, till by the dexterous use -of his file he has effected a free passage to the bolt. And in this -operation he is directed by an infallible guide; for, the pipe being a -fixed centre on which the key revolves without any variation, and the -wards being fixed likewise, their position must be accurately described -on the surface of the bit which is prepared to receive their impression. -The key therefore may be formed and perfectly fitted to the lock without -any extraordinary degree of genius or mechanical skill. It is from hence -evident that endless variations in the disposition of fixed wards are -not alone sufficient to the purpose of perfect security. I do not mean -to subtract from the merit of such inventions, nor to dispute their -utility or importance. Every approach towards perfection in the art of -lock-making may be productive of much good, and is at least deserving of -commendation; for if no higher benefit were to result from it, than the -rendering difficult or impossible to many that which is still -practicable and easy to a few, it furnishes a material security against -those from whom the greatest mischiefs and dangers are to be -apprehended.” - -There can be little doubt, in the present day, that Bramah did not -over-rate the fallacies embodied in the system of wards for locks. He -was sufficiently a machinist to detect the weak points in the ordinary -locks; and, whatever may have been his over-estimate of his own lock -(presently to be described), he was certainly guilty of no injustice to -those who had preceded him; for their locks were substantially as he has -described them. To understand the true bearings of his Dissertation too, -we must remember that housebreaking had risen to a most daring height in -London at the time he wrote (about the middle of the reign of George -III.); and men’s minds were more than usually absorbed by considerations -relating to their doors and locks. - -Mr. Bramah, after doing due justice to the ingenuity of Barron’s lock, -in which, if the tumbler be either _over_ lifted or _under_ lifted the -lock cannot be opened, pointed out very clearly the defective principle -which still governed the lock. “Greatly as the art is indebted to the -ingenuity of Mr. Barron, he has not yet attained that point of -excellence in the construction of his lock which is essential to perfect -security. His improvement has greatly increased the difficulty but not -precluded the possibility of opening his lock by a key made and -obtained as above described (by a wax impression on a blank key); for an -impression of the tumblers may be taken by the same method, and the key -be made to act upon them as accurately as it may be made to tally with -the wards. Nor will the practicability of obtaining such a key be -prevented, however complicated the principle or construction of the lock -may be, whilst the disposition of its parts may be ascertained and their -impression correctly taken from without. I apprehend the use of -additional tumblers to have been applied by Mr. Barron as a remedy for -this imperfection.” Mr. Bramah thought that Barron had a perception of a -higher degree of security, but had failed to realise it; because, by -giving a uniform motion to the tumblers, and presenting them with a face -which tallies exactly with the key, they still partake in a very great -degree of the nature of fixed wards, and the security of the lock is -thereby rendered in a proportionate degree defective and liable to -doubt. - -To shew how this insecurity arises, Mr. Bramah illustrates the matter in -the following way: “Suppose the key with which the workman is making his -way to the bolt to have passed the wards, and to be in contact with the -most prominent of the tumblers. The impression, which the slightest -touch will leave on the key, will direct the application of the file -till sufficient space is prepared to give it a free passage. This being -accomplished, the key will of course bear upon the tumbler which is most -remote; and being formed by this process to tally with the face which -the tumblers present, will acquire as perfect a command of the lock as -if it had been originally made for the purpose. And the key, being thus -brought to a bearing on all the tumblers at once, the benefit arising -from the increase of their number, if multiplied by fifty, must -inevitably be lost; for, having but one motion, they act only with the -effect of one instrument.” - -It is worthy of notice, that even while thus shewing the weak points of -the Barron lock, Mr. Bramah seems to have had in his mind some -conception of infallibility or inviolability attainable by the lock in -question. After speaking of the defect arising from the bad arrangement -of the tumblers, he says: “But nothing is more easy than to remove this -objection, and to obtain perfect security from the application of Mr. -Barron’s principle. If the tumblers, which project unequally and form a -fixed tally to the key, were made to present a plane surface, it would -require a separate and unequal motion to disengage them from the bolt; -and consequently no impression could be obtained from without that would -give any idea of their positions with respect to each other, or be of -any use even to the most skilful and experienced workman in the -formation of a false key. The correction of this defect would rescue the -principle of Mr. Barron’s lock, as far as I am capable of judging, from -every imputation of error or imperfection; and, as long as it could be -kept unimpaired, would be a perfect security. But the tumblers, on which -its security depends, being of slight substance, exposed to perpetual -friction--as well from the application of the key as from their own -proper motion--and their office being such as to render the most -trifling loss of metal fatal to their operation, they would need a -further exertion of Mr. Barron’s ingenuity to make them durable.” - -It may perhaps be doubted whether the principle of Bramah’s lock is not -more clearly shewn in the original constructed by him than in that of -later date. In appearance it is totally different, but the same -pervading principle is observable in both; and the cylinder lock can -certainly be better understood when this original flat lock has been -studied. The annexed woodcut is taken from the first and very scarce -edition of Mr. Bramah’s _Dissertation_; the description is somewhat more -condensed, but perhaps sufficient for the purpose. - -[Illustration: fig. 33. Bramah’s first model.] - -The lock is supposed to be lying flat, with the bolt B half-shot. Ranged -somewhat diagonally are six levers, turning on a horizontal joint or -pivot at A, each lever having a slight extent of vertical motion -independent of the others. Each lever rests on a separate spring of -sufficient strength to sustain its weight, or, if depressed by a -superior force, to restore it to its proper position when the force is -withdrawn. F is a curved piece of metal, pierced with six grooves or -passages; these grooves are exactly equal in width to the thickness of -the levers, but are of sufficient depth to allow the levers a free -motion in a perpendicular direction. The ends of the levers are inserted -in these grooves, and have this freedom of motion, whether lifted by the -elastic power of the springs or depressed by a weight from above. In the -bolt B is a notch to receive a peculiarly-shaped lever, which shoots or -withdraws the bolt according as it traverses to the right or the left. -This lever, the six long levers, the springs beneath them, the bent -piece F, and the pivot, all alike are fixed to a circular platform P, -which turns on a centre; so that if any force can make this platform -turn partially round, the bolt must be shot or unshot by the lever which -works in the notch. The six long levers are the contrivances whereby -the platform shall _not_ be allowed to turn until the proper moving -agent (the key) shall have been applied, the plate _p_ being one of the -assistants in this obstruction. This plate, which is hollow underneath, -has six notches in one of its edges; the points of the levers catch into -these notches; and while so caught, the levers cannot move horizontally, -and all the machinery is at a stand-still. To enable the key to set the -mechanism in action, other contrivances are necessary. Each lever has a -notch at its extreme end, and the six are notched very irregularly in -respect one to another. These notches must be brought all into one -plane, to enable the levers to pass horizontally out of the notches in -the plate, in the same way as the two prongs of a fork might traverse -one above and the other below the blade of a knife; and when the -lever-notches are in this position, all in one plane and in the plane of -the plate, the levers can be moved, and with it the stump which shoots -the bolt. To ensure this due pressing down of the levers, a key is used -such as is shewn in the cut, having six steps or bits to correspond with -the six levers; this key, put upon the pin K, presses down all the -levers to the exact distance necessary for bringing their notches into -one plane, viz. the plane of the plate; the key then being turned round -turns the movable platform P, and shoots the bolt. It is evident at a -glance, that unless the various steps of the key are so cut, that each -shall press down its own lever to the proper extent, the ends of the -levers cannot pass the notches in the plate, and the bolt can neither be -locked nor unlocked. - -It may be well to give Bramah’s own words in relation to this lock: “I -may safely assert that it is not in art to produce a key or other -instrument by which a lock constructed on this principle can be opened. -It will be a task, indeed, of great difficulty, even to a skilful -workman, to fit a key to this species of lock, though its interior face -were open to his inspection; for the levers being raised by the -subjacent springs to an equal height present a _plane_ surface, and -consequently convey no direction that can be of any use in forming a -tally to the _irregular_ surface which they present when acting in -subjection to the proper key. Unless, therefore, a method be contrived -to bring the notches on the ends of the levers in a direct line with -each other, and _to retain them in that position till an exact -impression of the irregular surface which the levers will then exhibit -can be taken_, the workman will in vain attempt to fit a key to the -lock, or by any effort of art to move the bolt. And when it is -considered that this process will be greatly impeded, and may perhaps be -entirely frustrated, by the action of the springs, it must appear that -great patience and perseverance, as well as great ingenuity, will be -required to give any chance of succeeding in the attempt. I do not state -this circumstance as a point essential or of any importance to the -purpose of the lock, but to prove more clearly what I have before -observed upon its principle and properties; for if such difficulties -occur to a skilled workman, as to render it almost, if not altogether -impracticable to form a key when the lock is open to his inspection and -its parts accessible to his hand, it pretty clearly demonstrates the -impossibility of accomplishing it when no part of the movement can be -touched or seen.” - -It is evident that Mr. Bramah had his thoughts directed to that mode of -picking locks which depends on taking impressions of the moving parts, -rather than to the _mechanical_ or _pressure_ method which has been -developed in later times. There can be little doubt that a lock was, to -his mind, a beautiful and admirable machine, far elevated above the -level of mere blacksmith’s work; and his name will ever be associated -with what may be termed the philosophy of lock-making. - -After the model-lock, which has just been described, was constructed, -and found to corroborate the idea which was working in Mr. Bramah’s -mind, he proceeded to the construction of his barrel or cylinder-lock, -embracing similar elements placed in more convenient juxta-position. In -his Essay he gives an engraving to illustrate the principle on which his -lock acts, rather in the manner of a diagram than as depicting any lock -actually made; his main object being to impart a clear notion of the -action of the slides which form such a distinguishing feature in his -lock. - -[Illustration: fig. 34. Diagram to illustrate the Bramah lock.] - -Viewed in this sense, therefore, simply as an illustrative diagram, the -annexed cut may represent the action of the safety slides. B is a -sliding bar or bolt, having a power of longitudinal motion in the frame -F. This frame has six notches cut on each of its long sides, the two -series being exactly opposite each other; and there are six similar -notches cut in the bolt B. The concurrent effect of all these eighteen -notches is, that the six slides _a b c d e f_ can move freely up and -down across the bolt. When the slides are thus placed, the bolt cannot -move, and may in this case be considered to be locked. There are six -clefts or notches in the six slides, one to each (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6); and -until all these are brought in a right line, the bolt cannot move -through them. If a tally or key be prepared, as shewn at T in the lower -part of the cut, with six projections, and if these projections thrust -up the six slides till their clefts rise to the plane of the bolt, then -can the bolt be withdrawn or the lock opened. This serves to illustrate -the relation between the slides and the key, as carried out in the way -now to be described. - -One peculiarity of the Bramah lock is, that from the essential part of -the apparatus being a barrel or cylinder, much of the working can be -conducted in the lathe; and this has given a beauty to the details -generally and deservedly admired. Mr. Bramah, when he worked out the -theory of his lock, resolved to discard altogether the use of fixed -wards, and also the use of tumblers working on a pivot at one end; -substituting in their stead a system of slides, working in a very novel -way. The body of a Bramah lock may be considered as formed of two -concentric brass barrels, the outer one fixed, and the inner rotating -within it. The inner barrel has a projecting stud, which, while the -barrel is rotating, comes in contact with the bolt in such a way as to -shoot or lock it; and thus the stud serves the same purpose as the bit -of an ordinary key, rendering the construction of a bit to the Bramah -key unnecessary. If the barrel can be made to rotate to the right or -left, the bolt can be locked or unlocked; and the problem is, therefore, -how to ensure the rotation of the barrel. The key, which has a pipe or -hollow shaft, is inserted in the keyhole upon the pin, and is then -turned round; but there must be a very nice adjustment of the mechanism -of the barrel before this turning round of the key and the barrel can be -ensured. The barrel has an external circular groove at right angles to -the axis, penetrating to a certain depth; and it has also several -_internal_ longitudinal grooves, from end to end. In these internal -grooves thin pieces of steel are able to slide, in a direction parallel -with the axis of the barrel. A thin plate of steel, called the -locking-plate, is screwed in two portions to the outer barrel, -concentric with the inner barrel; and at the same time occupying the -external circular groove of the inner barrel; this plate has notches, -fitted in number and size to receive the edges of the slides which work -in the internal longitudinal grooves of the barrel. If this were all, -the barrel could not revolve, because the slides are catching in the -grooves of the locking-plate; but each slide has also a groove, -corresponding in depth to the extent of this entanglement; and if this -groove be brought to the plane of the locking-plate, the barrel can be -turned, so far as respects that individual slide. All the slides must, -however, be so adjusted that their grooves shall come to the same plane; -but as the notch is cut at different points in the lengths of the -several slides, the slides have to be pushed in to different distances -in the barrel, in order that this juxta-position of notches may be -ensured. This is effected by the key, which has notches or clefts at the -end of the pipe equal in number to the slides, and made to fit the ends -of the slides when the key is inserted; the key presses each slide, and -pushes it so far as the depth of its cleft will permit; and all these -depths are such that all the slides are pushed to the exact position -where their notches all lie in the same plane; this is the plane of the -locking-plate, and the barrel can be then turned. - -[Illustration: fig. 35. Exterior of a Bramah lock.] - -This is the principle which Mr. Bramah adopted; and we have now to trace -it, step by step, by means of illustrative details. Fig. 35 represents -the exterior of a box or desk lock, one among many varieties which the -Bramah lock presents. A A shews the bolt, formed something like two -hooks rising out of a bar of metal, which bar has a backward and forward -motion upon the plate B B. The upper edge of this plate is turned over -at right angles, forming a small horizontal surface through which two -openings are cut to receive the two hooked portions of the bolt. The -movements of the bolt are otherwise guided by the edges of square holes -through which it works; the holes being made in the edge-pieces of the -lock, riveted to the main plate. The bolt is further prevented from -rising out of its place by means of a plate of metal C, which is secured -to the edge-pieces by two screws 1, 1, and by two steadying pieces. This -plate has on its surface a cylindrical projection D, which contains in -effect all the working mechanism of the lock. The pins 4 4 are employed -for securing a plate, which we shall have to describe presently. When -such a lock is fixed upon a desk or box, the portion _D_ projects to a -small distance through a hole in the wood-work, forming in itself a very -neat escutcheon, with a key-hole in the centre. - -[Illustration: fig. 36. Details of the Bramah lock.] - -[Illustration: fig. 37. The slides.] - -So much for the exterior. We must now proceed to examine the interior of -the lock, especially the part contained within the cylinder. In fig. 36, -for convenience of arrangement, the several parts are exhibited -separately, and as if the plane of the lock were horizontal, with the -key acting vertically. The essential part of the mechanism is a barrel -or cylinder _E_, pierced or bored with a cylindrical hole down its -centre. The inside of the bore has six narrow grooves, cut parallel with -the axis, and in the direction of radii; the grooves are not cut through -the thickness of the cylinder, but leave sufficient substance of metal -for strength. In every groove is fitted a steel slide of peculiar form, -such as is shewn at _a´ a´_ in fig. 37. Each slide is split in its -thickness (seen in section), so that it may move up and down in its -groove with a slight friction, and thereby not fall simply by its own -weight. Each slide has three small notches (3, 2, 3´), the use of which -will presently appear. Reverting to fig. 36, the lower part of the -opening through the cylinder _E_ is closed by a circular plate of metal, -fixed to it by two screws; this plate is represented at _F_, in the -lower part of the figure. This plate has a vertical pin rising from its -centre (also seen at _b_, fig. 39), and serving as a key-pin on which -the pipe of the key may work or slide; and it has also a short circular -stud _c_ projecting from its under side, and fitted to enter into a -curved opening in the bolt presently to be described. - -The point to be now borne in mind is this, that if the cylinder _E_ -turns round, the plate _F_ will also turn round, and with it the stud -_c_; and as this stud works into the peculiarly formed cavity _d_ in a -portion of the bolt (fig. 38), it causes the bolt to be shot backwards -or forwards. Now, in order to prevent this rotating of the cylinder -unless the proper key be employed, the following mechanism is -introduced: the cylinder has a groove cut round its circumference at _e -e_, extending sufficiently near to the internal bore to produce the -desired effect without too much weakening the metal. Into this notch is -introduced the thin circular plate of metal _f f_, it being divided into -two halves for this purpose; and when so placed, it occupies the -position shewn by the dotted portion _e e_. When this plate is screwed -to the case of the lock by the screws 4, 4, it cannot of course turn -round; but the cylinder itself will or will not turn round according to -the position of the slides. The plate _f f_ has six notches, 5, 5, 5, -&c. in the inner edge or circle; so adjusted that, when the plate is in -its place, the slides _a a_ can move up and down. The cylinder cannot -move round in a circle without carrying the slides with it; and these -cannot so move unless they are all depressed to such exact distances in -their respective grooves, that the deep notch of each slider (shewn at 2 -in fig. 37) shall come into the plane of the circular plate: when all -are so brought, the cylinder can be turned. If any one of the slides be -pressed down either too low or not low enough, this turning of the -cylinder cannot be effected, because the slides will be intersected by -the edges of the notches 5, 5; and it is the office of the key, -therefore, to press all the six slides down to the exact distances -required. When the slides are not pressed upon by the key, they are -forced upwards to the top of the cylinder by a spiral spring 6, coiled -loosely round the pin _b_; this pressure forces up a small collet, 7, on -which the upper part of the slides rest by a sort of step. - -[Illustration: fig. 38. The bolt.] - -The first locks were made with a separate and independent spring to each -slide; but it is a very great improvement, the introduction of one -common spring to raise up the whole number; because if a person attempts -to pick the lock by depressing the slides separately by means of any -small pointed instruments, and by chance brings two or more of them to -the proper depth for turning round, should he press any one too low, it -is difficult to raise it again without relieving the spring 6, which -immediately throws the whole number of slides up to the top, and -destroys all that had been done towards picking the lock. Another -improvement of this lock, and one which very much increased the -difficulty of picking, and its consequent security, was the introduction -of false and deceptive notches cut in the sliders, as seen at 3, 3. It -was found that in the attempt to pick this lock, an instrument was -introduced by the keyhole to force the cylinder round. At the same time -that the slides were depressed by separate instruments, those slides -which were not at the proper level for moving round were held fast by -the notches 5, 5 in the plate _f f_ bearing against their sides; but -when pressed down to the proper level, or till the notch 2 came opposite -_f f_, they were not held fast, but were relieved. This furnished the -depredator with the means of ascertaining which slides were pressed low -enough, or to the point for unlocking. The notches 3, 3 in the slides -are sometimes cut above the true notch 2, sometimes below, and at other -times one on each side (one above and one below); they are not of -sufficient depth to allow the cylinder to turn round, but are intended -to mislead any one who attempts to pick, by his not knowing whether it -is the true notch or otherwise, or even whether the slider be higher or -lower than the true notch. - -We have not yet sufficiently described the key of the Bramah lock. One -merit of the lock is the remarkable smallness of the key, which renders -it so conveniently portable. The key, as shewn in the upper part of the -figure, has six notches or clefts at the end of its pipe or barrel; -these clefts are cut to different depths, to accord with the proper -extent of movement in the slides. There is a small projection, 10, near -the end of the pipe, fitted to enter the notch D in the cylinder; this -forces the cylinder round when the parts are all properly adjusted. The -bolt of the lock, when properly shot or locked, is prevented from being -forced back by the stud _c_ on the bottom, F, of the cylinder coming -into a direct line with its centre of motion, as shewn in fig. 39; in -this position no force, applied to drive the bolt back, would have any -tendency to turn the cylinder round. - -[Illustration: fig. 39. Section of the Bramah cylinder.] - -To facilitate the comprehension of this very curious and beautiful -mechanism, the cylinder is shewn in section in the annexed fig. 39, the -same letters and figures of reference being used as before. In the whole -of this description we have spoken of six slides, and six only; but -Bramah locks may be, and have been, constructed with a much larger -number. - -There have been several attempts made to modify the action of Bramah’s -lock, or to combine this action with that of some other inventor. It -will suffice to describe one of these. The lock invented by Mr. Kemp of -Cork, and for which a patent was obtained in 1816, is called by him the -_Union_ lock, as combining the principles of Barron’s and Bramah’s -locks. It contains two, three, or more sliders or tumblers, operated -upon by two, three, or more concentric tubes. These concentric tubes are -of different lengths, and are placed inside the barrel of the key; so -that the barrel may, in fact, be conceived to consist of a series of -concentric tubes. These tubes are made of such respective lengths as to -push back the tumblers, sliders, or pins which detain the bolt; and this -to the precise extent that will bring certain notches in all the sliders -to the position which will allow the bolt to pass. The inventor gives -this lock its distinctive appellation because it combines something of -the pushing motion which Bramah gives to his key, with something of the -tumbler-motion observable in Barron’s locks. The principle of safety is -considered here to rest chiefly on the extreme difficulty of imitating -the key. - -Mr. Bramah calculates the number of changes of position which the slides -of his lock are capable of assuming before the right one would be -attained. “Let us suppose the number of levers, slides, or other -movables by which the lock is kept shut, to consist of twelve, all of -which must receive a different and distinct change in their position or -situation by the application of the key, and each of them likewise -capable of receiving more or less than its due, either of which would be -sufficient to prevent the intended effect. It remains, therefore, to -estimate the number producible, which maybe thus attempted. Let the -denomination of these slides be represented by twelve arithmetical -progressionals; we find that the ultimate number of changes that may be -made in their place or situation is 479,001,600; and by adding one more -to that number of slides, they would then be capable of receiving a -number of changes equal to 6,227,020,800; and so on progressively, by -the addition of others in like manner to infinity. From this it appears -that one lock, consisting of thirteen of the above-mentioned sliders, -may (by changing their places only, without any difference in motion or -size,) be made to require the said immense number of keys, by which the -lock could only be opened under all its variations.” - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -AMERICAN LOCKS. - - -The lock-manufacture in America has undergone some such changes as in -England. The insufficiency of wards to the attainment of security has -been for many years known; and the unfitness of even tumblers to attain -this end, without auxiliary contrivances, has been fully recognised for -a dozen years back. In this, and in other mechanical arts, the American -machinists depended primarily on the invention of the artisans in the -mother country, rather than on those of any continental European state. -But the development of the art in the United States has not been wanting -in originality; the varieties of locks have been very numerous, and many -of them exceedingly ingenious. It is not necessary, however, to describe -or depict any of those of simple form. The warded locks of different -countries very much resemble each other; the intricate warded locks -made in France in the last century have long fallen into disuse, in -consequence of the general conviction that no arrangement of wards, -however intricate, can afford the degree of security required in a good -lock. It will be more to the purpose, therefore, to proceed at once to a -notice of those American locks which, during the last few years, have -acquired some celebrity; first, however, noticing one of older date. - -Stansbury’s lock, invented in the United States about forty years ago, -may be regarded as a modification of the Egyptian lock. It had a bolt, -case, and key-hole somewhat similar to those of modern locks; but there -were peculiarities of construction in other respects. There was a -revolving plate, pierced with a series of holes, and having a bit or pin -which moved the bolt. On the lock-case were a series of springs, each -having a pin at one end; and the arrangement was such that, when the -bolt was locked or unlocked, each pin would be pressed into some one of -the holes. Like as in the Egyptian lock (figs. 1 to 4), each pin had to -be pushed out, and all of them simultaneously, to allow the plate to -turn and move the bolt. The key was made with a barrel and bit; and on -the front end of the bit was a series of pins corresponding in position -with the holes in the plate. The mode of locking or unlocking was as -follows: the key was inserted in the key-hole, and turned to a certain -position; it was then pressed in with some force, until the pins on the -key met those in the plate; when the latter, yielding to the pressure, -left the plate free to turn and move the bolt. Modifications of the -Egyptian lock, more or less resembling this, have been brought out in -some variety on both sides of the Atlantic; but scarcely any have -equalled in simplicity the curious wooden relic of by-gone ingenuity in -the art of lock-making. - -A lock made a few years ago by Mr. Yale, in the United States, somewhat -resembles the Bramah lock in having a cylinder or barrel, or rather two -concentric cylinders, one working within the other. These cylinders are -held together by pins which pass through them both into the key-hole. On -the back of the inner cylinder is a pin that fits into a slot in the -bolt, and moves it whenever the cylinder is turned. The pins that hold -the cylinders together are each cut in two; the pieces of the various -pins differing in lengths as irregularly as possible. The key is so -peculiarly formed, that, on inserting it in the key-hole, it thrusts the -pins radially outwards; each pin being pushed just so far that the joint -of the pin shall coincide with the joint between the two cylinders. The -inner cylinder can then be turned, by which the bolt is locked or -unlocked. If, by the use of a false key, any pin be pushed in too far, -it will be as ineffectual in opening the lock as if it were not thrust -in far enough; and some of these locks having been made with as many as -forty pins, the chances are very numerous against the right combination -being hit upon. There is a combination of something like the Egyptian -with something like the Bramah lock, here attempted. - -One of the principal constructions adopted in America a few years back -for bank-locks is that of Dr. Andrews of Perth Amboy, in New Jersey. It -was up to that time (1841) believed that the best locks, both of England -and America, were proof against any attempts at picking derived from -knowledge obtained by inspection through the key-hole; but there still -remained the danger that the sight of the true key, or the possession -thereof, for only a few minutes, would enable a dishonest person to -produce a duplicate. It was to contend against this difficulty that Dr. -Andrews directed his attention; and he sought to obtain the desired -object by constructing a lock, the interior mechanism of which could be -changed at pleasure. The lock of his invention is furnished with a -series of tumblers and a detector. The tumblers are susceptible of being -arranged in any desired order; and the key has movable bits which can be -arranged so as to correspond with the tumblers. When the lock is fixed -in its place, no change can be made in the tumblers, and consequently -only one arrangement of the bits of the key will suit for the shooting -and withdrawing of the bolt. The owner can, however, before the fixing -of the bolt, adopt any arrangement of tumblers and bits which he may -choose. But though the tumblers cannot be actually re-arranged in any -new order within the lock while the latter is fixed, yet by an ingenious -contrivance the tumblers can be so acted upon as to render the lock -practically different from its former self. The purchaser receives with -his lock a series of small steel rings, each ring corresponds in -thickness with the thickness of some one of the bits of the key; so -that, by suitable adjustment, any one of the bits may be removed from -the key, and a ring be substituted in its place. The effect of this -substitution is, that the particular tumbler which corresponds with the -ring is not raised by it; it is drawn out with the bolt, as if it were -part of the bolt itself. Supposing the lock to be locked by this means, -the original key would not now unlock it; for one of the tumblers has -now been displaced, and can only be re-adjusted by the same ring which -displaced it. If an attempt be made to open the lock by the original -key, or by the key in its original adjustment, a detector is set in -action, which indicates that a false key or other instrument has been -put into the lock. One, or more than one, of the bits may be removed -from the key, and rings be substituted, and consequently one or more of -the tumblers may be disturbed in this peculiar way; so that the lock may -change its character in all those permutating varieties which are so -observable in most “safety-locks.” The shape of the tumblers is, of -course, such as to facilitate this action; they have each an elongated -slot, and also two notches; when a tumbler is raised by one of the bits -of the key, one of the notches closes around a stump fitted into the -case of the lock, and prevents the tumbler from being moved onward with -the bolt; but when a ring has been substituted for a bit on the key, the -tumbler cannot be raised at all; it is carried onward by a stump on the -bolt. - -Dr. Andrews is also the inventor of a lock which he terms the -_snail-wheel lock_. In this lock a series of revolving discs, or wheels, -taking the place of the tumblers, are mounted on a central pin, on which -the pipe of the key is inserted. Each disc has a piece cut out of it, -into which the bit of the key enters, and in turning round moves the -discs according to the various lengths of the steps on the key. On the -outer edge of each disc is a notch, and by the turning of the key all -these notches are brought into a line, so that a moveable tongue, or -_toggle_, attached to the bolt, falls into the notches; the key is then -turned the reverse way, by which means the bolt is projected. - -About the time when Dr. Andrews invented his first lock, Mr. Newell, of -the firm of Day and Newell of New York, constructed a lock which -possessed the same distinctive peculiarity as that of Andrews, viz. that -the key might be altered any number of times without rendering it -necessary to remove the lock or change its internal mechanism. This was -brought about, however, in a different manner. Instead of having, as in -the Andrews lock, a two-fold movement to every tumbler, Mr. Newell -employed two sets of tumblers, the one set to receive motion from the -other, and having different offices to fill, to be acted upon by the key -in respect to the first series, and to act upon the bolt in respect to -the second. Calling these two sets _primary_ and _secondary_, the action -of the lock may be briefly described as follows. A primary tumbler being -raised to the proper height by the proper bit in the key, raises the -corresponding secondary tumbler; the secondary tumbler is held up in a -given position during the locking, while the primary becomes pressed by -a spring into its original position. It results from this arrangement -that the bolt cannot be unlocked until the primary tumbler has been -raised to the same height as before, so as to receive the tongue of the -secondary tumbler. And as this is the case in respect to any one primary -and its accompanying secondary tumblers, so is it the case whether each -set comprises four, five, or any other number. The key may be altered at -pleasure, and will in any form equally well shoot the bolt; but the lock -can only be unfastened by that arrangement of key which fastened it. - -It is, however, desirable to trace the course of improvements more in -detail, because every successive change illustrates one or other of the -several properties required in a good lock. Messrs. Day and Newell’s -lock was not finally brought to an efficient form without many attempts -more or less abortive. Mr. Newell conceived the idea of applying a -second series of tumblers, so placed as to be acted on by the first -series. Each of these secondary tumblers had an elongated slot, such -that a screw could pass through all of them; the screw having a clamp to -overlap the tumblers on the inside of the lock. The head of the screw -rested in a small round hole on the back of the lock, so placed as to -form a secondary key-hole, to which a small key was fitted. There was -thus a double system of locking, effected in the following way: when the -large key had been applied, and had begun to act on the primary -tumblers, the small key was used to operate on the clamp-screw, and thus -bind all of the secondary tumblers together, ensuring their position at -the exact heights or distances to which the primary key had caused them -to be lifted. The bolt was then free to be shot, and the first series of -tumblers reverted to their original position. - -But such an arrangement has obvious inconveniences. Few persons would -incur the trouble of using two keys; and besides this, there were not -wanting certain defects in the action and reaction of the several parts; -for if the clamp-screw were to be left unreleased, the first series of -tumblers would be upheld by the second series in such a way that the -exact impression of the lengths of the several bits of the key could be -obtained through the key-hole while the lock was unlocked or the bolt -unshot. To remedy one or both of these evils was the next object of Mr. -Newell’s attention. He made a series of notches or teeth in each of the -secondary tumblers, corresponding in mutual distance with the steps or -bits of the key; and opposite these notched edges he placed a dog or -lever, with a projecting tooth suitable to fall into the notches when -adjusted properly in relation to each other. When the key was used, the -primary tumblers were raised in the usual way, and acted on the -secondary tumblers; these latter were so thrown that the dog-tooth -caught in the notches and held them fast, thereby rendering the same -service as the clamp-screw and the small key in the former arrangement. -No other relative position of the bits of the key could now unlock the -lock. - -Still, improvement as it was, this change was not enough; Mr. Newell -found that his lock, like all the locks that had preceded it, was -capable of being picked by a clever practitioner; and candidly admitting -the fact, he sought to obtain some new means of security. He tried what -a series of complicated wards would do, in aid of the former mechanism; -but the result proved unsatisfactory. His next principle was to provide -a number of false notches on the abutting parts of the primary and -secondary tumblers, with alterations in other parts of the apparatus. -The theory now depended upon was this, that if the bolt were subjected -to pressure, the tumblers would be held fast by false notches, and could -not be raised by any lock-picking instrument. To increase the security, -a steel-curtain was so adjusted as to cover, or at least protect, the -key-hole. Great anticipations were entertained of this lock, but they -were destined to be negatived. A clever American machinist, Mr. Pettit, -accepted Messrs. Day and Newell’s challenge (500 dollars to any one who -could pick this lock); he succeeded in picking the lock, and thus won -the prize. - -Once again disappointed, Mr. Newell re-examined the whole affair, and -sought for some new principle of security that had not before occurred -to him. He had found that, modify his lock how he might, the sharp-eyed -and neat-fingered mechanician could still explore the interior of the -lock in such a way as to find out the relative positions of the -tumblers, and thus adapt their means to the desired end. How, therefore, -to shut out this exploration altogether became the problem; how to make -a lock, the works of which should be _parautoptic_--to coin a word from -the Greek, which should signify _concealed from view_. The result of his -labours was the production of the American bank-lock now known by that -name. The details of this lock may now conveniently be given. - -[Illustration: fig. 40. The American Parautoptic lock; bolt unshot.] - -[Illustration: fig. 41. The same with the bolt shot.] - -In fig. 40 the lock is represented in its unlocked state, with the cover -or top-plate removed; the auxiliary tumbler and the detector-plate are -also removed. In fig. 41 it is represented as locked, with the cover and -the detector-plate also removed, and the auxiliary tumbler in its place. -In these two figures, the same letters of reference apply to the same -parts, unless otherwise stated. B B is the bolt; T¹ are the first series -of movable slides or tumblers; _s_ shews the tumbler-springs; T² the -secondary series of tumblers; and T³ the third or intermediate -series--these latter coming between the first and secondary series; P P -are the separating plates between the several members of the first -series of tumblers; _s_¹ are the springs for lifting the intermediate -tumblers. On each of the secondary tumblers T² is a series of notches, -corresponding in mutual distance with the difference in the lengths of -the movable bits of the key. It thence happens that, when the key is -turned in the lock to lock it, each bit raises its proper tumbler, so -that some one of these notches shall present itself in front of the -tooth _t_ in the dog or lever L L. When the bolt B is projected by the -action of the key, it carries with it the secondary tumblers T², and -presses the tooth _t_ into the notches; in so doing, it withdraws the -tongues _d_ from between the jaws _j j_ of the intermediate tumblers T³, -and allows the first and intermediate tumblers to fall to their original -position. By the same movement, the secondary tumblers T² become held in -the position given to them by the key, by means of the tooth _t_ being -pressed into the several notches, as shewn in the closed state of the -lock (fig. 41). Now let us see what results if any attempt be made to -open the lock with any arrangement of key but that by which it has been -locked. In such case, the tongues _d_ will abut against the jaws _j j_, -preventing the bolt from being withdrawn; and should an attempt be made -to ascertain which tumbler binds and requires to be moved, the -intermediate tumbler T³ (which receives the pressure), being behind the -iron wall I I, which is fixed completely across the lock, prevents the -possibility of its being reached through the key-hole; and the first -tumblers T are quite detached at the time, thereby making it impossible -to ascertain the position of the parts in the inner chamber behind the -wall I I. K is the drill-pin, on which the key fits; and C is a -revolving ring or curtain, which turns round with the key, and prevents -the possibility of inspecting the interior of the lock through the -key-hole. Should, however, this ring be turned to bring the opening -upwards, a detector-plate D, fig. 42, is immediately carried over the -key-hole by the motion of a pin _p_¹ upon the auxiliary tumbler T⁴, -which is lifted by the revolution of the ring C, thereby effectually -closing the key-hole. As an additional protection, the bolt is held from -being unlocked by the stud or stump S bearing against the -detector-plate; and, moreover, the lever _l l_ holds the bolt, when -locked, until it is released by the tail of the detector-plate pressing -the pin _p_¹; _l_¹ is a lever which holds the bolt on the upper side, -when locked, until it is lifted by the tumblers acting on the pin _p_¹; -X are separating-plates between the intermediate tumblers T³; _u u_¹ are -the studs for preserving the parallel motion of the different tumblers. - -[Illustration: fig. 42. The detector plate of the Parautoptic lock.] - -Fig. 43 represents the key in two different forms, or with the bits -differently arranged. Either form will lock the lock, but the other will -not then unlock it. The end of the key is represented in fig. 44, -shewing the screw which fixes the bits in their places. The bits for a -six-bitted key are shewn separately in fig. 45. - -[Illustration: fig. 43. Key of the Parautoptic lock.] - -[Illustration: fig. 44. End view of the key.] - -[Illustration: fig. 45. Separate bits of the key.] - -In 1847 the parautoptic lock was exhibited at Vienna before the National -Mechanics’ Institute of Lower Austria; and towards the close of the year -Mr. Belmont, consul-general of Austria at New York, placed in the hands -of Messrs. Day and Newell a letter, a diploma, and a gold medal, -forwarded by the Institute. The letter was from the president of the -Institute to Mr. Newell, and was couched in the following terms: - -“The Institute of Lower Austria, at its last monthly session, has passed -the unanimous resolution to award to you its gold medal, as an -acknowledgment of the uncommon superiority of the combination-lock of -your invention; and this resolution was ratified in its general -convention held on the 10th instant. - -“Whilst I, as president of this Institute, rejoice in seeing the -services which by this invention you have rendered to the locksmith’s -art thus appreciated and recognised, I transmit to you, enclosed, the -said medal, together with the documents relating to it; at the same -time availing myself of this opportunity to assure you of my esteem. - - “COLLOREDO MANNSFELD. - - “Vienna, May 31st, 1847.” - -The diploma and the medal were similar to other honorary distinctions of -the same class, and need not be described here; but the report of the -special committee may be given, as it expresses the opinions of the -Viennese machinists on the relative principles by which safety is sought -to be obtained in different kinds of locks. - -REPORT - - _Of a Special Committee on the new Parautoptic Permutation Lock of the - American Newell, made known to the Lower Austrian Institute by the - Councillor, Professor Reuter, and on the motions relating to it made - by the same and accepted by the Institute. Presented at the monthly - meeting, April 6th, 1847, by Mr. Paul Sprenger, Aulic Councillor on - Public Works, &c. &c._ - - GENTLEMEN:--At our last monthly meeting, Mr. Reuter, Aulic Councillor - and Secretary of the Institute, directed your attention to a newly - invented lock of Mr. Newell, of North America, which was represented - as excelling all other changeable combination-locks hitherto known, - and as being without a rival. - - The Special Committee which was intrusted with the examination of this - lock, and of the motions made by the said Secretary, and accepted by - the Institute, has conferred on me the honour of making you acquainted - with the results of its investigations. - - The attention of your committee was chiefly occupied with the three - questions proposed by the said Aulic Councillor in relation to the - lock in question: - - First: Whether the idea of Mr. Newell was of any practical value for - already existing and still-to-be-invented combination-locks; - - Secondly: Whether the idea was of sufficient importance to be - published and minutely described in the transactions of the said - Institute; and - - Thirdly: Whether the merits of the inventor were of sufficient - importance to entitle him to a distinction from the said Institute. - - The deliberations on the first question, viz. the newness of the idea, - and of its practical value, would of necessity enlist the particular - attention of your committee, especially since by far the greater - number of its members are by their avocation called upon to be - interested in the execution of all kinds of locks. - - It is therefore the unanimous opinion of your committee, that the - idea of the American Parautoptic Combination-Lock is entirely new and - without example. - - The combination-locks with keys have, with few exceptions, such an - arrangement that a determinate number of movable parts (the so-called - combination-parts) must by the turning of the key be raised or lifted - into a certain position, if it is desired to project the bolt, or, - what is the same thing, to lock it out; consequently these parts, or, - as they are technically termed, tumblers, could not be transposed or - changed, from the circumstance that the key-bit was one solid piece, - with various steps or notches adapted to the several tumblers, and one - impression from it destroyed the security of the lock. - - In order, however, to add more security to such a combination-lock, - and to make the key, in case it should be lost, or any counterfeit - made from a wax impression, useless for an unlawful opening of the - lock, another step was taken: the key-bit was made to consist of - several bits or movable parts, in such a manner that the owner of the - lock was enabled to change the bits, and to form, _as it were_, new - keys different from the former. But since the bolt of the lock can - only be projected whilst the combination parts or tumblers are in a - certain position, which position depends upon the order of the bits in - the key, it is evident that the owner, when changing the key, must at - the same time make a corresponding change in the position of the - tumblers in the lock itself, before the lock can be of any use for the - newly changed shape of the key, which rendered it troublesome, and - impracticable for the purpose designed, from the fact that no positive - change could be made in the lock, without taking it from the door, and - then taking the tumblers out of the case, to change them in a suitable - form for the key. - - This principle of changing the lock is rarely adhered to, as few men - understand the machinery of a lock sufficiently to undertake the task; - and this circumstance rendered the lock quite as insecure as the - former one described. - - Another step toward the perfection of combination-locks consisted in - this, that the key remains unaltered whilst the combination parts of - the lock can, before it is locked, be brought into different positions - by means of movable plates on the frame of the lock. These plates were - arranged by hand to certain figures, and depended on the memory for - adjustment at each time the bolt was to be locked out or in, the key - operating only on the bolt, to move it back and forth when the plates - were set in proper positions for the purpose; and should the owner - forget the arrangement of the plates, after projecting the bolt, his - key is of no use to him, and he must resort to the skill of the - locksmith to gain access. - - The same case may occur in the far less perfect ring-lock of Reynier, - which is operated without keys, and is opened by means of the rings - being turned in a particular position; on these rings are usually - stamped letters, which, by introducing some word readily suggested to - the memory, thus point out the relative position of the rings. - - But although in case of these ring-locks the owner is enabled to - produce a change in the rings in such a manner that the opening of - the lock can, as it were, only become possible by rightly arranging - the altered position of the letters, still this lock of Reynier’s does - not possess that safety and perfection which could have insured it - universal application. - - M. Crivelli, formerly professor at Milan, has given a minute - description of the imperfection of ring-locks generally, in the annals - of the Imperial Royal Polytechnic Institute. - - It is the unanimous conviction of your committee that the American - Lock of Newell surpasses, in the ingenuity displayed in its - construction, all other locks heretofore known, and more especially in - this, that the owner can, with the greatest facility, change at - pleasure the interior arrangement of his lock to a new and more - complex one, at every moment of his life, simply by altering the - arrangement of the bits in the key, and this is accomplished without - removing the lock or any part of it from its position on the door. - - Its operation is as follows:--At the closing or locking of the lock, - whilst the bolt is projecting, the movable combination parts assume - precisely the position prescribed to them by the key, according to the - particular arrangement of its bits at the time the key is turned. - - The combination parts do not consist in one set of tumblers only, such - as are found in all other locks, but there are three distinct sets or - component parts fitting into each other. When the bolt is projected, - it dissolves the mutual connexion of the constituent pieces, and - carries along with it such as are designedly attached to it, and which - assume the particular positions given them by the key in its - revolution. These parts are rendered permanent in their given form by - means of a lever adapted for the purpose, while the parts not united - with the bolt are pressed down by their springs to their original - places. - - If now the bolt is to be returned again, _i. e._ if the lock is to be - unlocked, then the constituent pieces or tumblers which are in the - original state must, by means of the key, be again raised into that - position in which they were when the lock was closed, as otherwise the - constituent parts attached to the bolt would not lock in with the - former, and the bolt could not be returned. Nothing, therefore, but - the precise key which had locked the lock can effect the object. - - This idea in itself, considered by your committee, is as ingenious as - it is new, and is accompanied by a perfection in its execution which - reflects the highest honour on Mr. Newell, the inventor and - manufacturer of the lock. - - The lock is built strong and solid, and the several parts are - admirably adapted to the functions which they are designed to perform. - The walls of steel or iron which separate the security parts from the - tumblers, and the cylinder which revolves with the key, present - formidable barriers to all descriptions of pick-locks, and render the - lock a most positive and reliable security. The tumblers consist of - rolled very smooth steel plates, in which the fire-crust has not been - filed away, partly in order that the lock might not need oiling, as - all these parts are very smooth, and partly that the combination - pieces might not easily rust, a thing to which the adhering fire-crust - is not favourable. The springs, which by the turning of the key must - be raised together with the tumblers, are attached to levers, and - press upon the latter at their centre of gravity, in consequence of - which all crowding towards either side is prevented, and the key can - be turned with facility, in spite of the many combination parts which - it has to raise; and the springs themselves are by their positions so - little called into action, that their strength can never be impaired - by use. - - The lock has also another very complete arrangement in the - detector-tumbler, which is attached to the cap or covering of the - lock. This tumbler, on turning the key either way, closes the - key-hole, and not only prevents the use of false instruments in the - lock, but detects all attempts at mutilating its interior parts. - - This lock is especially useful for locking bank-vaults, magazines, - counting-houses, and iron-safes, in which valuable effects, money, or - goods are to be deposited for safe keeping. When it is considered that - the bits of the key belonging to this lock can be transferred into - every possible form within its limits, and since the construction of - the lock admits of every combination of the slides resulting from the - changes of the key, therefore the lock in question is, in every - respect, deserving of the appellation given to it by the Secretary of - the Institute, namely, the Universal Combination Lock; and justly so, - when we consider that the ten bits attached to the key admit of three - millions of permutations, and upward; consequently forming that number - of different kinds of keys and locks. - - If we consider further, that we need not be limited to the given bit, - but that others can be applied, differing in their dimensions from the - former; and again, if we consider that from every system arising from - a difference in their relative dimensions, a large number of new keys - differing from each other will result, and that this can be effected - in a space scarcely occupying a square inch,--then we cannot refrain - from confessing that the human mind, within this small space, has - shewn itself to be infinitely great. - - After this preliminary and general exposition, your committee can - answer the three questions propounded to them the more briefly, as the - locks heretofore known have all been noticed. - - To question first.--On the practical value of the invention of Mr. - Newell, your committee were unanimous and positive that the principle - on which it is based should be preserved. - - To question second.--For this reason the committee deemed it desirable - that a drawing and description of the American lock in question should - be published in the Transactions of the Institute of Lower Austria. - - To question third.--With regard to the claims of the inventor, Mr. - Newell, to an honorary distinction from the Institute of Lower - Austria, the committee recommend that he be presented with a Diploma - of honourable mention and a Gold Medal. - - The members of your committee, consisting mostly of fellow-tradesmen - of Mr. Newell, experience great satisfaction in the fact that it has - fallen to their lot to vote to their colleague on the other side of - the ocean an acknowledgment of his successful ingenuity, and they - close the Report with the request that the Institute will transmit to - Mr. Newell of New York, in North America, the Diploma and Gold Medal, - together with a copy of this Report, according to the motion of the - Aulic Councillor and Professor Reuter. - - [An exact copy of the original Report as preserved in the archives of - the National Mechanics’ Institute of Lower Austria.] - - DR. SCHWARTZ, - - _Assistant Secretary of the Institute_. - -There are other circumstances connected with the American bank-lock, in -relation to events both in the United States and in England, to which -attention will be directed in a subsequent chapter. - -The English patent for Messrs. Day and Newell’s lock, dated April 15, -1851, runs as follows: “The object of the present improvements is the -constructing of locks in such manner that the interior arrangements, or -the combination of the internal movable parts, may be changed at -pleasure according to the form given to, or change made in, the key, -without the necessity of arranging the movable parts of the lock by -hand, or removing the lock or any part thereof from the door. In locks -constructed on this plan the key may be altered at pleasure; and the act -of locking, or throwing out the bolt of the lock, produces the -particular arrangement of the internal parts which corresponds to that -of the key for the time being. While the same is locked, this form is -retained until the lock is unlocked or the bolt withdrawn, upon which -the internal movable parts return to their original position with -reference to each other; but these parts cannot be made to assume or be -brought back to their original position, except by a key of the precise -form and dimensions as the key by which they were made to assume such -arrangement in the act of locking. The key is changeable at pleasure, -and the lock receives a special form in the act of locking according to -the key employed, and retains that form until in the act of unlocking by -the same key it resumes its original or unlocked state. The lock is -again changeable at pleasure, simply by altering the arrangement of the -movable bits of the key; and the key may be changed to any one of the -forms within the number of permutations of which the parts are -susceptible.” - -The “claims” put forth under this patent are the following:-- - -“1. The constructing, by means of a first and secondary series of slides -or tumblers, of a changeable lock, in which the particular form or -arrangement of parts of the lock, imparted by the key to the first and -secondary series of slides or tumblers, is retained by a cramp-plate. - -“2. The constructing, by means of a first and secondary series of slides -or tumblers, of a changeable lock, in which the peculiar form or -arrangement of parts of the lock, imparted by the key, is retained by -means of a tooth or teeth, and notches on the secondary series of slides -or tumblers. - -“3. The application to locks of a third or intermediate series of slides -or tumblers. - -“4. The application of a dog with a pin over-lapping the slide or -tumblers, for the purpose of holding-in the bolt when the lock is locked -or unlocked. - -“5. The application of a dog operated on by the cap or detector-tumbler -for holding the bolt. - -“6. The application of a dog for the purpose of holding the internal -slide or tumbler. - -“7. The application to locks of curtains or rings, turning and working -eccentrically to the motion of the key, for preventing access to the -internal parts of the lock. - -“8. The application to locks of a safety-plug or yielding-plate, at the -back of the chamber formed by such eccentric revolving curtain or ring. - -“9. The application to locks of a strong metallic wall or plate, for the -purpose of separating the safety and other parts of the lock from each -other, and preventing access to such parts by means of the key-hole. - -“10. The application to locks of a cap or detective tumbler, for the -purpose of closing the key-hole as the key is turned. - -“11. The constructing a key by a combination of bits or movable pieces, -with tongues fitted into a groove and held by a screw. - -“12. The constructing a key having a groove in its shank to receive the -detector tumbler.” - -[Illustration: fig. 46. Movable stump.] - -When the American locks became known in England, Mr. Hobbs undertook the -superintendence of their manufacture, and their introduction into the -commercial world. Such a lock as that just described must necessarily be -a complex piece of mechanism; it is intended for use in the doors of -receptacles containing property of great value; and the aim has been to -baffle all the methods at present known of picking locks, by a -combination of mechanism necessarily elaborate. Such a lock must of -necessity be costly; but in order to supply the demand for a small lock -at moderate price, Mr. Hobbs has introduced what he calls a _protector -lock_. This is a modification of the ordinary six-tumbler lock. It bears -an affinity to the lock of Messrs. Day and Newell, inasmuch as it is an -attempt to introduce the same principle of security against picking, -while avoiding the complexity of the changeable lock. The distinction -which Mr. Hobbs has made between secure and insecure locks will be -understood from the following proposition, viz. “that whenever the parts -of a lock which come in contact with the key are so affected by any -pressure applied to the bolt, or to that portion of the lock by which -the bolt is withdrawn, as to indicate the points of resistance to the -withdrawal of the bolt, such a lock can be picked.” Fig. 47 exhibits the -internal mechanism of this new patent lock. It contains the usual -contrivances of tumblers and springs, with a key cut into steps to suit -the different heights to which the tumblers must be raised. The key is -shewn separately in fig. 48. But there is a small additional piece of -mechanism, in which the _tumbler stump_ shewn at _s_ in figs. 46 and 47 -is attached; which piece is intended to work under or behind the bolt of -the lock. In fig. 47, _b_ is the bolt; _t t_ is the front or foremost of -the range of six tumblers, each of which has the usual slot and notches. -In other tumbler-locks the stump or stud which moves along these slots -is riveted to the bolt, in such manner that, if any pressure be applied -in an attempt to withdraw the bolt, the stump becomes pressed against -the edges of the tumblers, and bites or binds against them. How far -their biting facilitates the picking of a lock will be shewn further on; -but it will suffice here to say, that the movable action given to the -stump in the Hobbs lock transfers the pressure to another quarter. The -stump _s_ is riveted to a peculiarly-shaped piece of metal _h h_ (fig. -46), the hole in the centre of which fits upon a centre or pin in a -recess formed at the back of the bolt; the piece moves easily on its -centre, but is prevented from so doing spontaneously by a small binding -spring. The mode in which this small movable piece takes part in the -action of the lock is as follows: when the proper key is applied in the -usual way, the tumblers are all raised to the proper heights for -allowing the stump to pass horizontally through the gating; but should -there be an attempt made, either by a false key or by any other -instrument, to withdraw the bolt before the tumblers are properly -raised, the stump becomes an obstacle. Meeting with an obstruction to -its passage, the stump turns the piece to which it is attached on its -centre, and moves the arm of the piece _p_ so that it shall come into -contact with a stud riveted into the case of the lock; and in this -position there is a firm resistance against the withdrawal of the bolt. -The tumblers are at the same moment released from the pressure of the -stump. There is a dog or lever _d_, which catches into the top of the -bolt, and thereby serves as an additional security against its being -forced back. At _k_ is the drill-pin on which the pipe of the key works; -and _r_ is a metal piece on which the tumblers rest when the key is not -operating upon them. - -[Illustration: fig. 47. Hobbs’s Protector Lock.] - -[Illustration: fig. 48. The key.] - -Another lock, patented by Mr. Hobbs in 1852, has for its object the -absolute closing of the key-hole during the process of locking. The key -does not work or turn on its own centre, but occupies a small cell or -chamber in a revolving cylinder, which is turned by a fixed handle. The -bit of the movable key is entirely separable from the shaft or stem, -into which it is screwed, and may be detached by turning round a small -milled headed thumb-screw. The key is placed in the key-hole in the -usual way, but it cannot turn; its circular movement round the stem as -an axis is prevented by the internal mechanism of the lock; it is left -in the key-hole, and the stem is detached from it by unscrewing. By -turning the handle, the key-bit, which is left in the chamber of the -cylinder, is brought into contact with the works of the lock, so as to -shoot and withdraw the bolt. This revolution may take place whether the -bit of the movable key occupy its little cell in the plate or not; only -with this difference--that if the bit be _not_ in the lock, the plate -revolves without acting upon any of the tumblers; but if the bit be in -its place, it raises the tumblers in the proper way for shooting or -withdrawing the bolt. It will be understood that there is only one -key-hole, namely, that through which the divisible key is inserted; the -other handle or fixed key working through a hole in the cover of the -lock only just large enough to receive it, and not being removable from -the lock. As soon as the plate turns round so far as to enable the -key-bit to act upon the tumblers, the key-hole becomes entirely closed -by the plate itself, so that the actual locking is effected at the very -time when all access to the interior through the key-hole is cut off. -When the bolt has been shot, the plate comes round to its original -position, it uncovers the key-hole, and exhibits the key-bit occupying -the little cell into which it had been dropped; the stem is then to be -screwed into the bit, and the latter withdrawn. It is one consequence of -this arrangement, that the key has to be screwed and unscrewed when -used; but through this arrangement the key-hole becomes a sealed book to -one who has not the right key. Nothing can be moved, provided the bit -and stem of the key be both left in; but by leaving in the lock the -former without the latter, the plate can rotate, the tumblers can be -lifted, and the bolt can be shot. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE LOCK CONTROVERSY: PREVIOUS TO THE DATE OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION. - - -It must be evident, even on a cursory glance at the past history of the -lock-manufacture, that the prime motive for the introduction of -novelties and improvements in construction is the desirability of -producing a lock which no one can open without the proper key. From the -earliest and simplest lock, down to the latest and most complex, this -object has been constantly held in view; and every clear proof or -evidence that this object has not been attained has led to the invention -of some new contrivance. It has been a succession of struggles--to -attain security--to shew that this security has not been attained--to -make a further and more ingenious attempt--to detect the weak point in -this renewed attempt--and so on. We need not repeat here, what was -stated in an early chapter, that benefit must ultimately result from a -candid discussion of this question. When M. Réaumur proposed to explain -how the locks of his day could be picked or opened without the true key, -his object was to shew to persons who were not locksmiths how far they -could depend upon the principle of security offered by locks. But before -proceeding on his inquiry, the illustrious naturalist asks, “Ne -craindra-t-on pas que nous ne donnions en même tems des leçons aux -voleurs?” And he replies, “Il n’y a pas grande apparence qu’ils viennent -les chercher ici, et qu’ils en aient besoin; ils sont plus grands -maîtres que nous dans l’art d’ouvrir les portes. Apprenons donc l’art -d’ouvrir les portes fermées, afin d’apprendre celui de les fermer d’une -manière qui ne laisse rien ou qui laisse peu à craindre.”[5] - - [5] “But is there not this danger, that at the same time we shall be - giving lessons to the thieves? It is not very probable that they will - seek instruction of us, or that they have any need of it; they are - greater masters in the art of opening doors than we can pretend to be. - Let us then learn the art of opening locked doors, in order that we - may acquire that of securing them in such a way as to leave little or - nothing to be feared on account of their security.” - -Before treating of lock controversies and lock violability in England, -it will be desirable first to refer to America, where this subject -attracted much attention some years earlier than the Great -Exhibition--an Exhibition which will always be associated in a -remarkable manner with the history of locks. - -Soon after the inventions by Dr. Andrews and Mr. Newell, in 1841 -(described in a former chapter), the rivalry between the two locks ran -high; each lock being ‘unpickable,’ according to the estimate of its -inventor. Mr. Newell thought the best mode of shewing the superiority of -his own lock would be by picking that of his competitor; and after -several trials, he succeeded in bringing into practical application that -system of picking which we may designate the _mechanical_, as -contra-distinguished from the _arithmetical_. Mr. Newell not only picked -Dr. Andrews’ lock, but he wound up the enterprise by picking his own! He -was probably the first person who honestly confessed to having picked -his own unpickable lock. This discovery led Mr. Newell, as has been -noticed in a former page, to the invention of the triple-action or -parautoptic lock. - -The mechanical principle, as applied to the picking of a tumbler lock, -is nearly the same whatever form of construction be made the medium of -experiment. When a pressure is applied to the bolt sufficient to unlock -it if the tumbler-obstructions were removed, the edges of the tumbler -bite or bind against the stump of the bolt, so as not to move up and -down with such facility as under ordinary circumstances. By carefully -trying with a small instrument each tumbler, and moving it until the -bite ceases, the gating of that particular tumbler may be brought to the -exact position for allowing the stump of the bolt to pass through it. -(See page 118.) - -This violability is observable in the tumbler-locks under very varied -forms of construction. Mr. Newell, after he had picked his own lock, -devised a series of complicated wards, to add to the difficulty of -reaching the tumblers; but he could not thereby get rid of the -importance of this fact, that wherever a key can go, instruments of a -suitable size and form could follow: his wards did not render his lock -inviolable. His next contrivance was to notch the abutting parts of the -primary and secondary tumblers, or the face of the stump and the ends of -the tumblers; but this failed also. Mr. H. C. Jones, of Newark, N. J., -added to all this a revolving pipe and curtain, to close as much of the -key-hole as possible. But so far were all these precautions from being -successful, that a lock provided with all these appendages, and affixed -to the door of the United States Treasury at Washington, was picked. The -makers of locks have, each one for himself, contended against such -difficulties as were known to them at the time of inventing their locks; -and, mortifying as failure may be, it would be cowardly to yield up the -enterprise whenever any new difficulty presented itself. Difficulties, -in locks as in other matters, are made to be conquered. - -To shew how numerous are the sources of insecurity which have to be -guarded against, to meet the skill often brought to bear upon this -lock, we may adduce the reasons which led Mr. Newell to apply a curtain -to the key-hole of his lock. Supposing the interior arrangement of the -triple set of tumblers, and the metallic shielding wall, to be perfect, -still, _if the first set of tumblers can be seen through the key-hole_, -the following plan may be put in operation. The under-side of the -tumblers may be _smoked_, by inserting a flame through the key-hole; and -the key will then leave a distinct mark upon each tumbler the next time -it is used, shewing where it began to touch each tumbler in lifting it. -This may be seen by inserting a small mirror hinged into the lock -through the key-hole. There may even be an electric light used from a -small portable battery, to illumine the interior of the lock. By these -and other means the exact length of each bit of the key may be -determined; and from these data a false key may be made. It is to -prevent this inspection of the works, or any other examination of an -analogous kind, that the revolving curtain was applied; but, as stated -in the last paragraph, even this did not suffice: ingenuity devised a -mode of baffling the contrivance of curtains as well as that of the -wards and false notches in the tumblers. - -When the parautoptic lock was completed, it was keenly criticised in -America, owing to the long discussions respecting the merits of previous -locks. In a matter of this kind, where a commercial motive would lead -bankers and companies to apply a very severe test to the security of -locks and similar fastenings to strong-rooms and receptacles, any -experiments made with their sanction became important. Mere letters or -certificates emanating from individuals, expressive of opinions -concerning a particular lock, would be out of place in a volume relating -to locks generally; but it is quite within the limits of the subject, -and has indeed become part of the history of locks, to notice -experiments and attempts of a more public character. We may therefore -introduce a few paragraphs of this description, relating to the career -of the American lock in America itself. - -The principal bankers at Boston (U.S.) held a meeting to take into -consideration measures for testing the security of bank locks. -Consequent on this meeting, Messrs. Day and Newell deposited five -hundred dollars with the cashier of the State Bank at Boston, to be by -him paid to any one who could pick the parautoptic lock: the trial was -to be conducted under the auspices of the bank. One of the locks was -brought to the bank, and was minutely examined by two machinists on two -afternoons, after which it was secured to an iron chest, and locked by a -committee appointed by the bank. The key was to remain in the hands of -the committee during the trial; and it was to be used at their -discretion, in unlocking and locking the door, without the knowledge of -either of the other parties--provided that in so doing no alteration was -made in the combination-parts of the key. Ten days were allowed to the -operators for the examination and the trial; if they succeeded they were -to have five hundred dollars; but if they injured the lock they agreed -to forfeit two hundred, as a purchase price. At the end of the period -the lock remained unopened and uninjured; and the two deposited sums -were accordingly returned to the respective parties. - -Messrs. Page and Bacon, of St. Louis, had a strong-room lock made by one -of the chief locksmiths of that city. To test its security, the -proprietors requested Mr. Hobbs to attempt to pick it; he did so, and -succeeded. Whereupon the proprietors, having purchased one of the -parautoptic locks, deemed it no more than fair play to subject this lock -to a similar ordeal, an additional zest being given by a reward of five -hundred dollars offered by Day and Newell to the successful picker. The -maker of the former lock accepted the challenge; he was allowed to -examine the new lock piecemeal, and was then allowed thirty days for his -operations in picking. He failed in the enterprise. Of course, in this, -as in all similar cases, the operator had not access to the true key. - -It follows from the nature of this lock, as noticed in a former chapter, -that when the bolt has been shot, if the bits of the key be re-arranged -in any other form, the lock becomes to all intents and purposes a new -lock, so far as that key is concerned, and cannot be unlocked unless the -key revert to its original arrangement. To test this principle, a box -with a parautoptic lock was placed in the room of the American Institute -in 1845; it was locked; the bits of the key (12 in number) were then -re-arranged, and the key was placed in the hands of any one who chose to -try to open the lock--with the offer of a reward of five hundred dollars -in the event of the lock being opened. Here, instead of the operator -being called upon to devise new pick-lock implements, he had the actual -key placed in his hands, modified however in such a way that, though the -modifier could restore the original arrangement (provided he had kept -some kind of record), the operator had numerous chances against his -success. The lock remained unopened notwithstanding this challenge. - -We shall have occasion to shew presently, that if the number of tumblers -(and consequently the number of bits in the key) be small--not exceeding -six, for instance--the possession of the _true_ key gives any one the -power of opening the lock, provided he has time and patience to go -through a few hundred changes of the bits of the key; for, as some one -arrangement must have been that by which the lock was locked, it must -again occur if the user takes care to make _all_ the arrangements in -turn, and tries the lock after each. Whether this constitutes picking a -lock, each lock-owner will decide for himself. All that it is at present -meant to state is, that _without_ access to the true key, the -parautoptic lock has not hitherto been opened; and that _with_ the true -but altered key the process of opening is possible, but is slow and -tedious. - -In 1846 the American Institute appointed a committee to examine into the -merits of the parautoptic lock. On the 18th of September in that year -the Committee made their report, signed by Professor Renwick and Mr. T. -W. Harvey, as follows:-- - -“The Committee of the American Institute, to whom was referred the -examination of NEWELL’S PARAUTOPTIC BANK LOCK, report that they have -given the subject referred to them a careful and attentive examination, -and have received full and complete explanations from the inventor. They -have remarked in the lock a number of important advantages, and, in -particular, very great improvements upon the permutation-lock formerly -submitted by him to the American Institute. Thus, while it retains the -advantages of the permutation principle, combined with the property that -the act of locking sets the slides to the particular arrangement of the -bits in the skeleton key, the parts thus set are completely screened -from observation, from being reached by false instruments, or from being -injured by any violence not sufficient to break the lock to pieces. - -“Having in the course of their inquiries examined the different existing -modes in which locks may be picked, forced, or opened by false keys, the -Committee have come to the conclusion that the parautoptic lock cannot -be opened by any of the methods now practised, unless by a person in -possession of the key by which it was locked, in the exact form of -combination in which it was used for the purpose, or in the almost -impossible case of the bits being adjusted to the skeleton key by -accident in that very form. As the chances of such accidental -combination range according to the number of movable bits, from several -thousands to several millions to one, the Committee do not conceive that -so small a chance of success would ever lead to an attempt to profit by -it. - -“In conclusion, the Committee feel warranted in expressing the opinion, -that unless methods hitherto unknown or imagined should be contrived for -the specific object, the lock in question may be considered as affording -entire and absolute security.” - -The latest form which Messrs. Day and Newell have given to their -challenge, after the experience of the last few years, is the following: - -“First, a Committee of five gentlemen shall be appointed in the -following manner: viz. two by the parties proposing to operate, and two -by ourselves; and by the four thus appointed a fifth shall be selected. - -“In the hands of this Committee shall be placed Two Thousand Dollars, as -a reward to the operator if successful in picking the lock by fair -means. - -“We will place upon the inside of an iron door one of our best bank -locks. The operator shall then have the privilege of taking the lock -from the door, and have it in his possession for examination; it shall -then be returned to the Committee for our inspection, so that we may be -assured that it has not been mutilated or injured. The operator shall -then, in the presence of ourselves and the Committee, place the lock -upon the door in its original position; after which the Committee shall -place upon it their seals, so that it cannot be removed or altered -without their knowledge. The lock being thus secured to the door, we -shall then be allowed to lock it up ourselves, upon any change of which -it is susceptible. - -“The time for operation to continue thirty days; and if at the end of -that time he shall consider that he has made any progress towards -picking the said lock, he shall have thirty days more in which to -continue operations.” - -The Austrian report concerning the American lock was given in a former -page, to which we may here refer; and then direct attention to England, -and to the discussions which have lately been carried on respecting the -safety of locks. - -It is of course natural that each inventor of a new lock should, while -describing the product of his ingenuity, point out what he conceives to -be the imperfections of locks which have preceded: use has sanctioned -the custom not only with regard to locks, but also in other important -matters. Hence there have been many “lock controversies” in England -during the last seventy years. We have seen how freely and justly the -late Mr. Bramah criticised all the locks that preceded his own; and he -was certainly not the man to shrink from criticism in his own case. -Twenty years ago the Bramah lock was itself made the subject of -criticism. - -Mr. Ainger, in his lecture on the subject delivered at the Royal -Institution, London, and afterwards in his article “Lock” in the -_Encyclopædia Britannica_, thus narrates the circumstances which led to -the adoption of the false notches in the Bramah lock as a means of -security: “At length (after the original lock had acquired much -celebrity,) an advertisement appeared in the public papers, requesting -those who had lost keys of Bramah’s locks, not, as had hitherto been -done, to break open their doors or drawers, but to apply to the -advertiser, who would undertake to save this destructive process by -picking. And it appeared that an individual of great dexterity could -perform this operation almost with certainty. The effect of this -discovery on the demand for the locks may easily be imagined; but the -effect it had in stimulating ingenuity to provide a remedy is one of the -best illustrations of the proverb, that necessity is the mother of -invention. Within a few days or weeks, Mr. Russell, who was at that time -employed in Mr. Bramah’s establishment, devised an alteration which at -once, and without any expense, entirely overcame the difficulty, and -converted the lock into one of perfect security. This contrivance is the -most simple and extraordinary that ever effected so important an object; -but before we describe it, we will endeavour to explain what has been -called the _tentative_ process of lock-picking, and which had been so -successfully applied to Bramah’s locks.” - -Mr. Ainger illustrates the subject by an engraving--not of an actual -lock, but of an hypothetical arrangement of bolts and notches; and he -then makes his reasoning apply to the actual process adopted by the -picker of the real lock. “A tendency to revolve was given with some -force to the barrel; then, by means of a pair of small forceps, the -tumblers (sliders) were tried, and it was ascertained which one was most -detained by the pressure against the locking-plate. That which offered -most resistance was gradually depressed till its notch was felt to hang -itself upon the locking-plate; and so on till the whole were depressed -in succession, exactly as they would have been depressed simultaneously -by the key.” Mr. Ainger then describes the contrivance which, in his -judgment, seemed to render any further attempts to pick the Bramah lock -hopeless. This consisted in cutting false notches in the sliders; so as -to render it impossible for the picker to tell when he has brought a -notch to the plane of the locking-plate, whether it is a true notch, or -one of shallower depth, unfitted to admit the movement of the plate. - -This is a very interesting statement, for it shews that the mechanical -or tentative method of opening was known in England long ago, although -very little attention has been since paid to it. In a complex Bramah -lock, and in locks on the combination principle, the difficulty of -picking is almost insuperable, so long as what may be termed the -arithmetical method is adopted. It is perfectly true, as has been so -often stated, that the varied combinations in the arrangement of the -slides amount to millions and even billions, when the slides are in any -degree numerous; and if a person attempt to pick the lock by ringing the -changes on all these combinations, it would very likely require the -lives of a dozen Methuselahs to bring the enterprise to an end. But by -the mechanical method, sketched so clearly by Mr. Ainger, the exploit -puts on a different aspect. The experimenter passes through the keyhole -an instrument so arranged as to give a _tendency_ in the bolt to -withdraw in the wished-for direction; and a pressure produced in the -slides by this tendency gives information concerning the state of the -slides; and then comes the tentative process on the slides themselves. -Mr. Ainger was quite right in describing the false notches as an -admirable addition to the safety of the Bramah lock; but he was not -correct in stating that these notches rendered any further attempts on -the lock hopeless. The false notches are not so deep as the true; they -will permit the barrel to turn partially but not wholly round. But even -supposing that the false notch had been hit upon in nearly every slide -instead of the true, and that the barrel had been partially turned to -the extent which these notches permitted, there would then be a binding -action at the false notches different from that in the true, and this -would guide the operator in his search for the true notches. It would -not add a new principle different from the one before in action, but it -would add to the time during which the search would have to be carried -on. - -We make these remarks in connection with Mr. Ainger’s article, which was -probably written twenty years ago. We now come to the year 1850. - -At the meeting of the Institution of Civil Engineers, when Mr. Chubb’s -paper was read, many challenges and counter-challenges were made, as to -the possibility of picking certain locks. Mr. Chubb described, among -others, a lock on the patent of Mr. Davies, which, ingenious though it -be, he considers not safe. Captain D. O’Brien differed from Mr. Chubb in -this matter; he had had occasion to open from ten to twenty of Davies’s -cabinet-locks daily, during a period of two years, and he never once -observed the locks to be out of order; in fact, they always appeared to -afford great security. Mr. Chubb thereupon rejoined, that he was -prepared to produce a workman who would pick any number of Davies’ -cabinet-locks, of different combinations, which he had never seen -before, taking only half an hour for each lock. - -As another instance, Captain O’Brien stated that, in his capacity as -Inspector of Government Prisons, his attention had been much directed to -the subject of secure locks; and he produced, among others, specimens of -those in use at the Pentonville Prison; though not of first-rate -workmanship, he characterised them as being safe, strong, and cheap. -They were on Thomas’s principle. The locks had been in use eight years, -during which period not one had required to be replaced; and any -trifling derangements had been made good whilst the prisoners were at -exercise. Mr. Chubb, after making his offer concerning Davies’s lock, -stated that “he was willing to make the same offer with respect to the -locks from the Pentonville Prison; and he might state that, in point of -security, he considered them absolutely worthless;” in proof of which he -exhibited one of them, and a common burglar’s tool, by which the lock -could be opened with the greatest ease. - -In respect to Bramah’s lock, there was no particular challenge -associated with the proceedings of the evening; but incidental -observations were made as to the degree of security pertaining to it. -Mr. Farey, after passing a high eulogium on the ingenuity of the -principle and the beauty of the workmanship, considered it nevertheless -objectionable that the sliders should be so completely exposed to view. -He then proceeded to make the following observations: “It had been -suggested, that a universal false key for Bramah’s locks might be made, -with the bottoms of its several notches formed by as many small steel -sliders, extending beyond the handle of the key, so as to receive -pressure from the fingers, for moving each one of the sliders within the -lock, with a sliding motion in its own groove, independently of the -other. During such sliding motion, a gentle force could be exerted, -tending to turn the barrel round. Under such circumstances, supposing -that the motion of the barrel was prevented by any one slider only; that -one, having to resist all the turning force, would be felt to slide more -stiffly endways in its groove, and therefore it could be felt when its -unlocking notch arrived opposite the steel plate, and left some other -slider to begin to resist the turning force. Such a circumstance -(continues Mr. Farey) presumes a palpable inaccuracy in the radiating -correspondence between the notches in the steel plate and the grooves -for the sliders in the barrel, which could not happen with Bramah’s -workmanship.”[6] He further remarked: “Unfortunately, if a Bramah’s key -fell into dishonest hands, even for a short time, an impression could be -easily taken, and a false key as easily made. A turkey-quill, notched -into the form of a key, had sufficed to open a Bramah’s lock; and an -efficient false key could be formed out of a pocket pencil-case. Such -facility of fabrication was an invitation to dishonesty; and as an -abortive attempt left no trace, the impunity was an encouragement to -repeat the attempt until success is attained.” - - [6] See also Mr. Owen’s suggestion, p. 59, _ante_. - -With respect to Chubb’s locks, a discussion arose out of a statement -made by Mr. Hodge. Mr. Chubb had himself stated it to be a general -opinion that a skilful workman, furnished with impressions taken from -the true key, in wax or soap, could make a false key to open any lock; -and he considered that, in common locks, with the most elaborate wards, -but with only one tumbler, as also in Bramah’s locks, there was much -truth in the notion. In respect to his own lock, however, with six -double-acting tumblers, “a false key made ever so carefully from -impressions would not be likely to open the lock, for want of exactitude -in the lengths of the several steps; and if the key could not be made -exact from the impressions, there would be no chance of rectifying it by -trial in the lock, on account of the total uncertainty as to which part -required alteration.” Mr. Hodge stated that, in America, he had -repeatedly seen impressions taken of locks having twelve or fourteen -tumblers, in consequence of the bellies of the tumblers, when at rest, -coinciding with the form of the key (see page 63). He also suggested a -method of taking an impression of the bellies of the tumblers; but Mr. -Chubb, Mr. Farey, Mr. Stephenson, and Mr. Whitworth, all expressed a -disbelief that a Chubb’s lock could be opened by the means indicated by -Mr. Hodge. Mr. Hodge admitted that he was not aware of any lock actually -made by Messrs. Chubb having been picked in America; but that the locks -to which he had adverted were such exact imitations, that he had no -doubt of the Chubb lock yielding to similar treatment. He further stated -that there were persons in New York who would undertake to pick a real -Chubb lock. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE LOCK CONTROVERSY: DURING AND SINCE THE TIME OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION. - - -We next come to the remarkable year 1851, which produced so many -unexpected results in connection with the industrial display in Hyde -Park, and conferred a lasting benefit on the useful arts and -manufactures of the United Kingdom, by bringing their products into -contrast and competition with those of other nations. It was to be -expected that such a trial as this would afford evidences of national -failure as well as of success; but probably no one suspected before the -trial, that English locks, so celebrated over the greater part of the -world for skilful mechanical design, beauty of workmanship, and perfect -inviolability, would readily yield to a well-arranged system of -lock-picking. Such, however, was the case; and we are bound to admit -that Mr. Hobbs, the author of this system, is a mechanician of great -skill, and with a profound knowledge of the art of the locksmith. - -The first step in the celebrated _lock controversy_ of 1851 was taken by -Mr. Hobbs himself, who declared to a party of scientific men in the -Crystal Palace, that all the locks made in this country up to that date -admitted of being very easily picked; and in order to explain to these -gentlemen the principle upon which this was to be done, Mr. Hobbs picked -one of Chubb’s patent detector-locks in their presence in a few minutes. - -The fairness of this experiment having been called in question by -certain persons who were not present at the time when it was made, Mr. -Hobbs, on July 21st, 1851, wrote a letter from the American department -of the Great Exhibition, to Messrs. Chubb, simply announcing that an -attempt would be made, on the next following day, to pick a lock -manufactured by them, and which was at that time on the door of a -strong room in a house named by Mr. Hobbs. Messrs. Chubb were invited to -be present at the operation; but no member of the firm attended. What -occurred on the day specified may best be given in the words of a letter -written by those who witnessed the operation. - - “London, July 22, 1851. - -“We the undersigned hereby certify, that we attended, with the -permission of Mr. Bell, of No. 34 Great George-street, Westminster, an -invitation sent to us by A. C. Hobbs, of the City of New York, to -witness an attempt to open a lock throwing three bolts and having six -tumblers, affixed to the iron door of a strong-room or vault, built for -the depository of valuable papers, and formerly occupied by the agents -of the South-Eastern Railway; that we severally witnessed the operation, -which Mr. Hobbs commenced at 35 minutes past 11 o’clock A.M., and opened -the lock within 25 minutes. Mr. Hobbs having been requested to lock it -again with his instruments, accomplished it in the short space of 7 -minutes, without the slightest injury to the lock or door. We minutely -examined the lock and door (having previously had the assurance of Mr. -Bell that the keys had never been accessible to Mr. Hobbs, he having had -permission to examine the key-hole only). We found a plate at the back -of the door with the following inscription: ‘Chubb’s New Patent (No. -261,461), St. Paul’s Churchyard, London, Maker to Her Majesty.’” - -This letter was signed with the names and addresses of the following -gentlemen:-- - - Mr. Handley. Mr. T. Shanks. - „ William Marshall. Colonel W. Clifton. - „ W. Armstead. Mr. Elijah Galloway. - „ G. R. Porter.[7] „ Paul R. Hodge. - „ F. W. Wenham. „ Charles H. Peabody. - „ A. Shanks. - - [7] Late Secretary to the Board of Trade. - -Several of these names are well and publicly known in England and the -United States. - -This event gave rise to much newspaper controversy; and attempts were -made to shew that, as this was not a _test_ lock, prepared expressly for -challenge, the picking proved nothing as regards the finest of the -manufacturers’ locks. Two circumstances, however, have to be -noticed--that the lock was of sufficient commercial importance to be -placed on a door enclosing valuable papers, and that the makers had an -opportunity to attend and witness, and comment on the trial, if they so -chose. We may here remark, that one of the ingenious contrivances of the -Chubb lock, the _detector_, excited some doubt no less than fifteen -years ago, as will be seen from the following. The writer of the article -“Lock” in Hebert’s _Engineers’ and Mechanics’ Encyclopædia_, while -speaking with much commendation of Chubb’s locks, points out a curious -feature, which seems to him to render somewhat doubtful the surety of -the _detector_ apparatus. “In Barron’s and Bramah’s locks,” he observes, -“the picker has no means of knowing whether the tumblers are lifted too -high or not; but in Chubb’s he has only to put the detector _hors de -combat_ in the first instance, by a correct thrust from the outside of -the door (which might be accurately measured), so as to _fix_ it fast in -its place; the detector then becomes a stopper to the undue ascent of -the tumblers, and the extent of their range is thereby correctly -ascertained. Thus, it appears to us, the _detector_ might be converted -into a _director_ of the means for opening the lock.” - -Much will depend on the view which is taken of the circumstance just -noted. The object of the detector is, not to prevent the lock from being -picked, but to shew that an attempt has been made to pick it; or, at -least, to attain a given purpose by an indirect instead of a direct -method. But if there be really any truth in the surmise, that the -detector actually guides a skilful hand in determining how high the -tumblers should be raised, the supposed advantage will be purchased at -rather a dear rate. As we are here, however, speaking of facts and not -of mere opinions, it is proper to say, that the lock opened by Mr. -Hobbs had the detector apparatus, but that it was not disturbed by him -in picking the lock. - -But instead of reiterating opinions, we will state the method by which -most of the tumbler-locks made in England, up to the date of the Great -Exhibition, can be opened or picked. - -Bearing in mind the principle on which the picking of locks is said to -depend, namely, that “whenever the parts of a lock which come in contact -with the key are affected by any pressure applied to the bolt, or to -that portion of the lock by which the bolt is withdrawn, in such a -manner as to indicate the points of resistance to the withdrawal of the -bolt, such a lock can be picked,” the first step is to produce the -requisite pressure. - -[Illustration: fig. 49.] - -If the end of the bolt were exposed, this pressure might be applied by -some force tending to shoot back the bolt; but as the bolt, whenever it -is shot, is buried in the jamb of the door, or otherwise concealed from -view, the pressure can in general only be applied through the key-hole. -In order, therefore, to apply this pressure, the operator provides -himself with an instrument capable of reaching the talon of the bolt, -which in the case of the Chubb lock was a pipe-key of the form shewn at -_a b_, fig. 49, furnished at the pipe-end with that portion of the bit -of the key _b c_ which moves the bolt (see fig. 32, page 57, where the -step which acts on the bolt is called the terminal step). The other end -of the pipe-key is made square, as at _a_, for the purpose of receiving -the square eye _e_ of the lever _e f_, fig. 50, to the further end of -which _f_ a weight _w_ is attached by means of a string _s_. Now it is -evident that if this pipe be introduced into the lock as far as it will -go, and be turned round as in the act of unlocking, and the lever and -weight be attached to the end _a_, the bit _b c_ of the pipe-key will -maintain a permanent pressure on the bolt, which, if the weight be -sufficient, will throw back the bolt as soon as the tumblers are raised -to the proper height to allow the stump to pass. - -[Illustration: fig. 50.] - -The next step in the operation is to raise the tumblers to the proper -height. For this purpose a second pipe _m n_ is made to slide upon the -first with an easy motion, and by means of the cross handle _h h_ can be -turned round or slid backwards and forwards on the tube _a b_. This tube -_m n_ is also furnished with a single projecting bit or step _n o_, -corresponding with one of the six steps of the key, fig. 32, and made of -the proper length for entering the key-hole. - -Now for the operation of opening a tumbler-lock with this simple -apparatus. Referring to fig. 31, page 56, it will be evident that if the -pipe _a b_, fig. 49, be passed over the pin of the lock and turned round -towards the left, and the weight be attached, there will be a tendency -in the bolt to shoot back, which tendency will bring the stump _s_, fig. -31, up against the inner angle or shoulder of one or other of the -tumblers, whichever happens to project, however slightly; or, as Mr. -Hobbs expresses it, “one or more of the tumblers will bind.” By moving -forward the pipe _m n_ and turning round the bit _n o_ in the lock, it -is easy to ascertain, by delicate touch, which of the tumblers it is -that binds. It may be found that all are free to move except one or two -against which the stump is pressing with the force of the weight _w_, -fig. 50. The bit _n o_ is therefore brought gently under the bellies of -the tumblers which bind, and they are moved slightly upwards until they -cease to bind. As soon as they are set free another tumbler will bind; -that is, the bolt will move through a small space, so as to bring the -stump into contact with that particular tumbler which now projects; this -in its turn is relieved, another tumbler binds and is relieved, and so -on until the tumblers are, one by one, raised to the proper height for -the stump to pass. When the last binding tumbler is raised to the proper -height, the weight _w_ being no longer resisted, shoots the bolt back, -and the work is done. - -Now it must be evident that in this operation the detector apparatus -need not come into operation. But if, as has been proposed, a -detector-spring be added to each tumbler, it may be converted into a -friend or a foe according to the use that is made of it. If the tumblers -are lifted _too high_, they will be detained or detected in that -position, and the operator will have to release them by turning the bit -round in the opposite direction before he can begin his work again. The -same force, however, which detains the tumblers when they are lifted too -high will obviously detain them when they are lifted only just high -enough, and thus the detector-springs would really be of great -assistance to the operator in picking such a tumbler-lock. - -The apparatus which we have described for picking the tumbler-lock must -be varied to suit the form of key employed in opening the lock; but it -is not difficult, in the case of most locks, to ascertain this form -through the key-hole, without examining the key itself. - -It is but fair to state in this place, that since the above method of -picking tumbler-locks was made known,[8] Mr. Chubb has added a series -of teeth and notches to the stump and tumblers; the effect of which -would evidently prevent the application of the above method of picking, -because any permanent pressure applied to the bolt would send a tooth of -the stump into a notch of the tumbler, and prevent all further motion. -But recurring to the principle, that whenever the parts of a lock which -come in contact with the key indicate the points of resistance when any -pressure (_whether permanent or temporary_) is applied in attempting to -withdraw the bolt, that lock can be picked, it follows, if this -principle be admitted, that although the notches prevent the application -of the form of instrument described, yet there is sufficient indication -afforded by the pressure to enable a skilful operator, with proper -instruments, to form a false key, as was done in the case of the lock -referred to at page 104. We now proceed to the second stage in the lock -controversy of 1851. - - [8] We believe the method was first made publicly known at a special - general meeting of the members of the Institution of Mechanical - Engineers, held at the rooms of the Society of Arts, London, on the - 30th June, 1851, when a paper was read by Mr. Paul R. Hodge “On the - progress of improvements in locks in the United States of America.” A - report of this paper, together with the discussion thereon, was - published by Waterlow and Sons, London Wall, 1851. Plate 34 (figs. 9 - and 10) of this report contains representations of the lock-picking - apparatus, from which we have copied our figures. - -Soon after the picking of the Chubb lock in Great George-street, and -consequent on the excitement and discussion to which that operation led, -a committee, consisting of Mr. G. Rennie, Professor Cowper,[9] and Dr. -Black, agreed to superintend the arrangements for a more severe testing -of Mr. Hobbs’s power to open locks. There had been for many years -exhibited in the window of Messrs. Bramah’s shop, in Piccadilly, a -padlock of great complexity and beauty; to which an announcement was -affixed, that a reward of two hundred guineas would be given to any -person who should succeed in picking that lock. This challenge was -accepted by Mr. Hobbs; and the committee managed all the arrangements, -as arbitrators between Mr. Hobbs on the one side and Messrs. Bramah on -the other. The lock was removed to an upper room in Messrs. Bramah’s -establishment; where it was placed between two boards, and so fixed and -sealed, that no access could be obtained to any part of it except -through the key-hole. The room was to be given up to Mr. Hobbs; he was -not to be interrupted by the presence or entrance of any other persons; -and he was allowed a period of thirty days for opening the lock. If the -lock was not picked at the expiration of that period, Mr. Hobbs was to -be considered as having failed in his attempt. - - [9] In mentioning the name of the late Professor Edward Cowper, we - cannot refrain from deploring the loss which mechanical science has - suffered by his too-early death. The application of mechanical - principles to manufactures was treated by him in his lectures and - illustrations with a felicity which has been rarely equalled. - -There was much negotiation and correspondence before and during Mr. -Hobbs’s operation on this lock. On July 2, he, with a view to this -enterprise, applied for permission to take wax impressions of the -key-hole. This permission being given, and the parties having met to -discuss the necessary arrangements, an agreement was signed on the 19th, -reciting the terms of the challenge, and providing that thirty days -should be allowed to Mr. Hobbs to effect his enterprise; that the lock -should be secured in a certain specified way; and that the key should -remain in the possession of Messrs. Bramah, who were to retain the right -of using it in the lock when Mr. Hobbs was not at work. Messrs. Bramah -subsequently relinquished this last-mentioned privilege, in order that -the trial might be perfectly fair; and it was agreed that the key should -be sealed up during the whole period, beyond the reach either of Mr. -Hobbs or Messrs. Bramah; and that the key-hole should be secured by an -iron band, sealed, when Mr. Hobbs was not at work. These and other -conditions were embodied in the agreement noticed in the last paragraph. - -Mr. Hobbs commenced his labours on July 24th. After a few visits to the -lock, Messrs. Bramah wished to have the privilege of inspecting it, or -else that such an inspection should be made by the arbitrators; and, -during a correspondence which arose out of this request, the operations -were suspended. Mr. Hobbs resumed his work on August 16. On the 23d, -Messrs. Bramah drew the attention of the arbitrators to the challenge, -that the reward of two hundred guineas was offered to the artist who -should make an instrument that would pick or open the lock; that he was -to be paid the money on the production of the instrument; and that, -unless some person were present, it was impossible that any one could -know that the lock had been opened by the instrument which might be -produced. This letter was not allowed by the arbitrators to affect the -arrangements made. We may now consistently give the “Report of the -Arbitrators.” - -“Whereas for many years past a padlock has been exhibited in the window -of Messrs. Bramah’s shop, in Piccadilly, to which was appended a label -with these words: ‘The artist who can make an instrument that will pick -or open this lock shall receive two hundred guineas the moment it is -produced;’ and Mr. Hobbs, of America, having obtained permission of -Messrs. Bramah to make trial of his skill in opening the said lock, -Messrs. Bramah and Mr. Hobbs severally agreed that George Rennie, Esq., -F.R.S., of London; and Professor Cowper, of King’s College, London; and -Dr. Black, of Kentucky; should act as arbitrators between the said -parties. - -“That the trial should be conducted according to the rules laid down by -the arbitrators, and the reward of two hundred guineas be decided by -them; in fine, that they should see fair play between the parties. - -“On July 23 it was agreed that the lock should be enclosed in a block of -wood, and screwed to a door, and the screws sealed, the key-hole and the -hasp only being accessible to Mr. Hobbs; and, when he was not operating, -the key-hole was to be covered with a band of iron and sealed by Mr. -Hobbs, that no other person should have access to the key-hole. The key -was also sealed up, and was not to be used until Mr. Hobbs had finished -his operations. If Mr. Hobbs succeeded in picking or opening the lock, -the key was to be tried; and if it locked and unlocked the padlock, it -should be considered as a proof that Mr. Hobbs had not injured the lock, -but had fairly picked or opened it, and was entitled to the two hundred -guineas. - -“On the same day, July 23, Messrs. Bramah gave notice to Mr. Hobbs that -the lock was ready for his operations. - -“On July 24 Mr. Hobbs commenced his operations; and on August 23 Mr. -Hobbs exhibited the _lock opened_ to Dr. Black and Professor Cowper (Mr. -Rennie being out of town). Dr. Black and Mr. Cowper then called in Mr. -Edward Bramah and Mr. Bazalgette, and shewed them the lock opened; they -[the last-named two gentlemen are of course meant] then withdrew, and -Mr. Hobbs locked and unlocked the padlock in presence of Dr. Black and -Mr. Cowper. - -“Between July 24 and Aug. 23 Mr. Hobbs’s operations were for a time -suspended; so that the number of days occupied by Mr. Hobbs was sixteen, -and the number of hours he was actually in the room with the lock was -fifty-one. - -“On Friday, Aug. 29, Mr. Hobbs again locked and unlocked the padlock in -presence of Mr. G. Rennie, Professor Cowper, Dr. Black, Mr. Edward -Bramah, Mr. Bazalgette, and Mr. Abrahart. - -“On Saturday, Aug. 30, the key was tried, and the padlock was locked and -unlocked with the key, by Professor Cowper, Mr. Rennie, and Mr. -Gilbertson; thus proving that Mr. Hobbs had fairly picked the lock -without injuring it. Mr. Hobbs then formally produced the instruments -with which he had opened the lock. - -“We are, therefore, unanimously of opinion, that Messrs. Bramah have -given Mr. Hobbs a fair opportunity of trying his skill, and that Mr. -Hobbs has fairly picked or opened the lock; and we award that Messrs. -Bramah and Co. do now pay to Mr. Hobbs the two hundred guineas. - - GEORGE RENNIE, _Chairman_. - EDWARD COWPER. - J. R. BLACK. - - Holland Street, Blackfriars, - Sept. 2, 1851.” - -It may be here stated, in reference to the space of time during which -the operations were being conducted, that the actual opening of the lock -occurred much earlier, so far as concerned the principle involved, -though not in a way to meet the terms of the challenge. On his fifth -visit, Mr. Hobbs succeeded in adjusting the slides and moving the -barrel, preparatory to withdrawing the bolt; but the instrument with -which the barrel was to be turned round, being too slight, slipped, and -defeated the operation. Mr. Hobbs had then to readjust the barrel, and -to make a new instrument to aid him; this new instrument, when -completed, enabled him to open the lock in the space of an hour or two. - -On the same day Messrs. Bramah addressed a letter to the arbitrators, -stating the reasons which induced them to think that, though Mr. Hobbs -had succeeded in opening the lock, the manner of doing so did not come -within the meaning of the challenge originally made by them. The -arbitrators, however, were unanimous in their award, and Messrs. Bramah -bowed to it. - -In an article written in one of the daily newspapers immediately after -the opening of the lock, the following notice was given of the lock and -its production: “We were surprised to find that the lock which has made -so much noise in the world is a padlock of but 4 inches in width, the -body of it 1¹⁄₄ inches thick, and its thickness over the boss 2³⁄₄ -inches. Upon opening the outer case of the lock, the actual barrel -enclosing the mechanism was found to be 2¹⁄₄ inches in length and 1¹⁄₂ -inches in diameter. The small space in which the works were confined, -and its snug, compact appearance was matter of astonishment to all -present. The lock and key were made forty years since by the present -head of the eminent firm of Messrs. Maudslay and Co., Mr. Maudslay being -at that time a workman in the employ of Mr. Bramah.” - -We may here remark, as indeed has been remarked in former pages, that -the Bramah lock is, and will probably continue to be, deservedly -celebrated for the amount of mechanism contained in a small space, as -adverted to in the last paragraph. The cylindrical form is well -calculated for this concentration of power within narrow limits; and the -smallness of the key is a great merit. - -The objections made by Messrs. Bramah to the award of the committee -were embodied in the following letter to Mr. Rennie, dated 9th -September: - - “DEAR SIR,--We beg to acknowledge your letter of yesterday’s date, and - will not trouble you to attend here to-morrow, but beg to hand you the - 210_l._ awarded by the arbitrators to Mr. Hobbs. We need scarcely - repeat that the decision at which the arbitrators have arrived has - surprised us much; and we owe it to ourselves and the public to - protest against it. We do so for the following reasons: - - “1. Because the arbitrators, having been appointed to see fair-play, - and that the lock was fairly operated upon, did not, although - repeatedly requested in writing to do so, once inspect or allow any - one to witness Mr. Hobbs’s operations during the sixteen days he had - the sole custody of the lock and was engaged in the work. - - “2. Because the arbitrators did not once exercise their right of using - the key, although repeatedly requested in writing to do so, till after - Mr. Hobbs had completed his operations; and then, instead of applying - at once to prove that no damage had been done to the lock, allowed him - twenty-four hours to repair any that might have occurred. - - “3. Because the lock being opened by means of a fixed apparatus - screwed to the wood-work in which the lock was enclosed for the - purpose of experiment (which it is obvious could not have been applied - to an iron door without discovery), and the addition of three or four - other instruments, the spirit of the challenge has evidently not been - complied with. - - “4. Because from the course adopted an opportunity of some good - scientific results has been taken from us; as neither arbitrators nor - any one else saw the whole or even the most important instruments, by - which it is said the lock was picked, actually applied in operation, - either before or after the lock was presented open to the arbitrators. - - “5. Because during the progress of Mr. Hobbs’s operations, and several - days before their completion, we called the attention of the - arbitrators to what we considered the interpretation of the challenge, - begging at the same time that they would apply the key and appoint - some one to be present during the residue of the experiment; feeling - that whatever might be the result in a scientific point of view, the - reward could not be awarded. - - “We would add, that we think that several points which appear in your - minutes should not have been mentioned in your award; more especially - that Mr. Hobbs on the 2d of June took a wax-impression of the lock, - and had made, as far as he could, instruments therefrom between that - date and the commencement of his operations. - - “We are, dear sir, - - “Your obedient servants, - - “BRAMAH AND CO.” - -In order that the opinions of Messrs. Bramah and others may be given -with as much fairness as possible, on a matter which they could not feel -but otherwise than important to them, we may state, that among the -letters to which the picking of the Bramah lock gave rise in the public -journals, was the following addressed to the _Observer_ newspaper on -10th October: - - “SIR,--This controversy having excited an unusual degree of public - attention for some time past, perhaps you will be good enough to allow - us to state in your journal, that the lock on which Mr. Hobbs operated - had not been taken to pieces for many years, and it was only on - examining it (after the award of the committee) that we discovered the - startling fact, that in no less than three particulars it is inferior - to those we have made for years past. The lock had remained so long in - its resting-place in our window that the proposal of Mr. Hobbs - somewhat surprised us. After his appearance, however, no alteration - could of course be made without our incurring the risk of being - charged with preparing a test-lock for the occasion; we were therefore - bound in honour to let the lock remain as Mr. Hobbs found it when he - accepted the challenge. No one inspected his operations during the - sixteen days he had the sole custody of the lock and was engaged at - the work. We are therefore compelled to advertise another 200 guineas, - in order that we may see the lock operated upon and opened, if it be - possible; and thus gain such information as would enable us to use - means that would defy even the acknowledged skill of our American - friends. We believe the Bramah lock to be impregnable; and we cannot - open it ourselves, with the knowledge Mr. Hobbs has given us. We have - fitted up the same lock with such improvements as we now use, and some - trifling change suggested by the recent trial, and restored it with - its challenge to our window. We have not done this in a vain, boasting - spirit; on the contrary, we feel it rather hard that, from the way in - which the former trial was conducted, we are driven to adopt this - course. Had any one inspected Mr. Hobbs’s operations during that - trial, it would not have been necessary. - - “We are, sir, &c., - - “BRAMAH AND CO.” - -Messrs. Bramah are well entitled to offer any explanation concerning the -relative perfection of the lock in question, and of one that they could -now produce with certain improvements in some parts of the working -mechanism; but if these improvements do not involve any new invention, -patented or otherwise,--that is, if the lock be really a carrying out of -the contrivances already made public,--it is difficult to see why it -should not yield to the same treatment as the other. It is true that, -shortly after the decision of the arbitrators, Messrs. Bramah exhibited -a new lock in their window, and repeated their challenge in the same -terms as before, with the single addition, that applications were to be -made in writing only. We have reason to know that an application was -made, and that the consequence was the withdrawal of the challenge. In -respect to the actual contest, however, the character and position of -the arbitrators ought surely to hold Mr. Hobbs justified in his -proceedings. They were not all Americans (supposing nationality to give -a bias in the matter); two were Englishmen, both of distinguished rank -in respect to mechanical knowledge; and as Mr. Hobbs was as much bound -by their decision as Messrs. Bramah, he was entitled to claim any -advantage resulting from a favourable decision. - -The following is a description, so far as can be given in words, of the -mode in which Mr. Hobbs operated on the Bramah lock. The first point to -be attained was to free the sliders from the pressure of the spiral -spring; the spring was very powerful, pressing with a force of between -30 and 40 lbs.; and until this was counteracted, the sliders could not -be readily moved in their grooves. A thin steel rod, drilled at one end, -and having two long projecting teeth, was introduced into the key-hole -and pressed against the circular disc between the heads of the sliders; -the disc and spring were pressed as far as they would go. In order to -retain them in this position, a curved stanchion was screwed into the -side of the boards surrounding the lock, and the end brought to press -upon the steel rod, a thumb-screw passing through the drilled portion of -the instrument and keeping it in its place. The sliders being thus freed -from the action of the spring, operations commenced for ascertaining -their proper relative positions. A plain steel needle, with a moderately -fine point, was used for pushing in the sliders; while another with a -small hook at the end, something like a crochet-needle, was used for -drawing them back when pushed too far. By gently feeling along the edge -of the slider, the notch was found and adjusted, and its exact position -was then accurately measured by means of a thin and narrow plate of -brass, the measurements being recorded on the brass for future -reference. The operator was thus enabled, by this record, to commence -each morning’s work at the point where he left off on the previous day. -The lock having eighteen sliders, the process of finding the exact -position of the notch in each was necessarily slow. Mr. Hobbs employed a -small bent instrument to perform the part of the small lever or bit of -the key; with this he kept constantly pressing on the cylinder which -moved the bolt. He thus knew that if ever he got the slide-notches into -the right place, the cylinder would rotate and the lock open. He could -feel the varying resistance to which the sliders were subjected by this -tendency of the cylinder to rotate; and he adjusted them one by one -until the notch came opposite the steel plate. The false notches added, -of course, much to his difficulty; for when he had _partially_ rotated -the cylinder by means of the false notches, he had to begin again to -find out the true ones. - -This description accords pretty nearly with that given in a former page; -but we reproduce it here to shew not merely what _might_ be the process -adopted, but what really _has been_ done. One circumstance ought at -least to be noted in these transactions--there is no mystery; the method -adopted is the result of a process of reasoning candidly and openly -explained. - -In justice to Messrs. Bramah we thought it our duty to give them an -opportunity of stating what improvements they had made in their locks -since the date of the Great Exhibition; and accordingly, on the 28th -April, 1853, our publisher addressed to Messrs. Bramah a note, stating -that a _Rudimentary Treatise on the Construction of Locks_ was being -prepared, and inviting them to contribute thereto. The following is a -copy of their reply: - - “124 Piccadilly, May 2d, 1853. - - “SIR,--Pressure of business has prevented our sending an earlier reply - to your favour of the 28th ult. - - “The lock on which Mr. Hobbs operated during the Great Exhibition had - been made nearly forty years, and when taken to pieces the sliders - were found to be in iron, instead of steel; and the key-hole of the - lock being three times larger than it ought to have been, enabled the - operator to fix down the spring of the lock, and yet leave himself - ample space to turn and bend the sliders (being in iron) at pleasure. - The barrel of the lock in which the sliders act, instead of being - whole length from front to back of padlock, was not quite half its - proper length; a serious oversight in the workman who put the lock - together, as the barrel being short, the sliders were necessarily so, - which diminished the number of notches in the sliders full one-half, - and to that extent diminished the security of the lock, and increased - the facility of the operator. - - “We send for your inspection a box of guards, which will shew you the - barrel and sliders of our Bramah lock. You will observe several - notches in each slider, only one of which will turn on the - locking-plate, the others being what are termed false, or security - ones. These notches being cut only the exact width of the - locking-plate, require the most perfect accuracy to carry each down to - its proper distance. In the lock on which Mr. Hobbs operated, in - addition to the sliders being so short, and only half the number of - security-notches in each, the notch which passed round the - locking-plate was found to be cut twice the width it ought to have - been. The whole of these defects have been corrected since the - Exhibition. - - “We are, Sir, yours respectfully, - - “BRAMAH and Co. - - “per J. SMYTH. - - “To John Weale, Esq., 59 High Holborn.” - -In the Jury Report of the Great Exhibition, Class XXII., are the -following remarks: “On the comparative security afforded by the various -locks which have come before the jury, they are not prepared to offer an -opinion. They would merely express a doubt whether the circumstance that -a lock has been picked under conditions which ordinarily could scarcely -ever, if at all be obtained, can be assumed as a test of its -insecurity.” [page 500]. The conditions here alluded to probably refer -to the free access which Messrs. Bramah allowed Mr. Hobbs to have to -their lock during a period of thirty days, and we are hence led to infer -that the burglar is denied any such facilities. On this point we would -refer to the opinion of a high authority. In a paper “on the History and -Construction of Latches and Locks,” by Mr. Chubb, read before the -Society of Arts, 22d January, 1851, the following graphic passage -occurs: - -“In order to shew the absolute necessity of secure locks and safe -depositories for property, especially in banking establishments, it may -not be out of place to trace the systematic care and great sagacity with -which the large burglaries are planned. You will bear in mind that an -unsuccessful attempt is seldom made where the booty is of any magnitude. -The first-rate ‘cracksmen’ always know beforehand where to go, when to -go, and what they are going for. When a ‘plant,’ as it is termed, is -made upon a house or a bank, precise information is gained, if possible, -as to the depository of the valuables; and if it is found that the -safeguards are too strong in themselves, and that the locks are -invulnerable, the affair is quietly dropped. But if otherwise, then no -expenditure of time or misapplied ingenuity is spared to gain the -desired end. The house is constantly watched, the habits of its inmates -are observed, their ordinary times of going out and coming in are noted; -the confidential servants are bribed or cajoled, and induced to leave -the premises when their employers are absent, so that impressions may be -taken from the locks, and false keys made. When all the keys required -are made, one or two men who have not been previously initiated are -generally called in, and receive their instructions to be ready at a -certain hour on the following day to enter the house. A plan of the -premises is put into their hands, they are cautioned to step over a -certain creaking stair or plank, and the keys of the different doors are -given them. The day or evening is chosen when it is known that the -inmates will be from home--the servant, taking advantage of their -absence, fulfils a long-standing engagement with his new and liberal -friends--a signal is given--the two confederates enter--the so-called -safe is swept of its contents, all the doors are carefully re-locked, -and not until the bank is opened for business next morning is the -robbery discovered.” - -In an article in _Frazer’s Magazine_ for November 1852 the following -observations were made on the Exhibition Jury Report on Locks: “This -jury seems to have consisted of the only persons in England who did not -hear of the famous ‘lock controversy’ of last year; for one can hardly -imagine that, if they had heard of a matter of so much consequence to -the subject they were appointed to investigate, they would have -altogether abstained from saying any thing about it. They may be excused -for not knowing, because very few people did know, fortunately for our -safes and strong boxes, that the mode of picking Bramah’s and Chubb’s -locks, by which the transatlantic Hobbs gained so much glory, was -suggested and explained in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_ nearly twenty -years ago. But it does seem very strange that they, or at least their -reporter, should not have known, long before the Report finally left his -hands, that Hobbs had picked both of those locks, and taught every -lock-picker in England how to do it, if he possesses the requisite tools -and fingers. Of course, however, the reporter did not know it, as nobody -could read any newspaper last autumn without knowing it. And this jury -did exercise their judgment to the extent of declaring that Hobbs’s own -lock (under the name of Day and Newell) ‘seems to be impregnable.’ -Notwithstanding all which, they express their inability to ‘offer any -opinion on the comparative security afforded by the various locks that -have come before them.’ The only discrimination which they venture to -make is, that the keys of Bramah’s and Chubb’s locks are of convenient -size, while Hobbs’s is ponderous and bulky, and his lock complicated; -and they might have added (without any very painful amount of -investigation), enormously expensive, in consequence of its -complication, and probably also more likely, on the same account, to get -out of order and stick fast, and so become rather inconveniently -impregnable--on the money door of a bank, for instance,--than the other -two locks, especially Bramah’s.” - -In relation to the opinion just given, it may be remarked that the -American lock has shewn no tendencies to get out of order; if well -constructed (and good construction is a _sine qua non_ in such -mechanism), the parts work into and upon each other with very little -friction. In respect to expense, and to the size of the key, a -_bank_-lock is not one in which economy would be much studied, security -being the great desideratum. No attempt is made to produce a parautoptic -lock of small size or for cheap purposes. The lock, therefore, must be -judged of with reference to what it undertakes to perform. And this -brings us to notice the attempts made in England to pick the parautoptic -or American bank-lock. - -The following were the circumstances connected with Mr. Garbutt’s -attempt to pick the American lock. It is of course known that a -challenge was affixed to the American lock in the Great Exhibition, and -it was this challenge which Mr. Garbutt accepted. Mr. Garbutt, it may be -here observed, was a working locksmith and engineer; he had been -entrusted by Messrs. Fox and Henderson with the care and adjustment of -the metal check-tables at the pay-places of the Crystal Palace; he had -at a previous period been in the employ of Messrs. Bramah. We mention -these facts only on account of an erroneous rumour at the time that he -was an agent of Messrs. Bramah in respect to the acceptance of the -American challenge; whereas we believe he acted independently, by and -for himself. - -On Sept. 10th, 1851, Mr. A. H. Renton, Mr. E. H. Thomson, and Mr. W. F. -Shattuck,--the first an engineer, and the other two American -exhibitors,--were appointed arbitrators to superintend the arrangements, -and they met Mr. Garbutt and Mr. Hobbs at the house No. 20 -Knightsbridge. The following conditions were agreed to:--That a Newell -lock should be selected, and should be screwed to a wooden box; that Mr. -Garbutt should have access only to the key-hole of the lock, through -which key-hole all his operations for picking the lock should be -conducted; that Mr. Garbutt should have uninterrupted and exclusive -access to the box, between the hours of nine in the morning and nine in -the evening, for thirty days, beginning on the 11th of September, he -having during that time the privilege of introducing one associate, and -the arbitrators reserving to themselves the right of inspecting the -seals placed by them on the box; that, in order to afford every -information concerning the internal arrangement of the lock, the -trial-lock should be taken to pieces in presence of all the parties; -that it should be examined by Mr. Garbutt; that it should be locked and -unlocked with the proper key by him and by Mr. Hobbs; that it should be -fastened to a box, and the fastenings sealed by the arbitrators; that -the key, when the lock was finally locked, should be sealed up by the -arbitrators and delivered to Mr. Hobbs, who would retain it until -required by the arbitrators to hand it over to them. That at the -expiration of the thirty days, or earlier in case either of the success -or the abandonment of the attempt, the arbitrators should examine the -lock. And, finally, that if Mr. Garbutt should have succeeded in picking -the lock (that is, in withdrawing the bolt without injuring the lock), -the sum of 200_l._ should be paid to him by Mr. Hobbs. - -In accordance with the above agreement, Mr. Hobbs produced a parautoptic -lock, with ten tumblers, marked No. 8560. The key and the lock were -examined by Mr. Garbutt. The lock was again put together, affixed to a -box, and sealed. Mr. Hobbs set the bits of the key (ten in number) to an -arrangement chosen by himself, and the lock was then locked by all -parties in succession; the key, after the final locking, being sealed up -and returned to Mr. Hobbs. Mr. Hobbs at the same time delivered to Mr. -Garbutt a similar but smaller lock, which he was to be allowed to retain -during the whole period of the trial, to assist in rendering him -familiar with the construction of both locks. - -On the 11th of October, the day on which the prescribed period expired, -the arbitrators met at the house in question, when Mr. Garbutt delivered -up to them the lock uninjured, but _unopened_. The award of the -arbitrators was thereupon given in the following terms: “We therefore -hereby certify that Mr. Garbutt having had uninterrupted and exclusive -access to the lock during the period of thirty days, and, availing -himself of the conditions of the agreement, had every facility for -opening the lock that could be obtained without possession of the true -key, has delivered up the same into our hands unopened and uninjured; -and the said lock has been delivered by us to Mr. Hobbs.” - -It will of course be understood that it was one condition of this -enterprise, that the particular combination of bits in the key wherewith -the lock was finally locked should not be seen by Mr. Garbutt. The key -was in the first instance tried by Mr. Garbutt and by the members of the -committee, and was found to turn readily in the lock; Mr. Hobbs then -left the room, and re-arranged the bits of the key so as to produce a -new combination; he then returned to the room, and locked the lock with -the key in its altered form; he allowed all present to feel the key turn -freely, and then, without allowing any one to see the combination, -wrapped the key up in paper, in which it was sealed as above described. -Whether Mr. Garbutt, or any one, could have succeeded better by a -momentary glance at the arrangement of the key, was not at that moment -the question: the terms of the challenge were that he should _not_ see -it. What are the circumstances likely to occur if the operator really -has access to the key (provided the bits are not very numerous) we may -shortly explain. - -It is necessary to draw a distinction between _picking of a lock_ and -_ringing the changes on a permutating key_; otherwise some of the late -occurrences connected with locks can hardly be understood. After the -reading of a paper by Mr. Hobbs before the Society of Arts, a discussion -arose, in which it was stated that the Newell lock had been picked in -London. Mr. Hobbs deemed it necessary to refute this statement. The -report was circulated in many of the London newspapers; and Mr. Jeremiah -Smith, the operator in question, supported it by his own statement. -Under these circumstances Mr. Hobbs, on April 2, 1852, addressed a -letter to the editor of the _Observer_; of which the following paragraph -was intended to point out the distinction above mentioned between -“picking” and “ringing the changes:” - -“Early last autumn I lent to Mr. Potter, of South Molton Street, one of -my locks, for the purpose of giving him an opportunity to make himself -acquainted with its principle and construction. After he had had the -lock in his possession several weeks, a report reached me that one of -Mr. Potter’s workmen had picked my lock. I immediately called on Mr. -Potter to ascertain the fact. Mr. Potter informed me that for the -purpose of testing the possibility of opening the lock by means of an -impression taken, or a copy being made of the true key, Mr. Smith had -made a copy of the key by means of a transfer instrument, which -instrument he shewed me at the time. After the key was made, it was -tried, and found to lock and unlock the lock as readily as the original -key. Mr. Potter then sealed the screws of the lock, changed the -combination of the key, and locked it. Mr. Smith then took the lock, and -with the key that he had made by copying the original, hit the -combination, and unlocked it. The lock was of the smallest size, having -but six tumblers; the number of changes that could possibly be made were -720. The time occupied by Mr. Smith, according to his own statement, was -six hours and fifty-five minutes; this, allowing one minute for each -change, would give him time to have made 415 out of the 720 changes -before hitting the right one. I asked Mr. Smith why he did not use the -original key instead of making a copy? His answer was, that ‘he could -change the one he made faster, as he did not have to screw the bits in.’ -Any person will readily understand the difference between ringing the -combination of a key and picking a lock.” - -In other words, the process was this: the operator had the true key, and -might have used either this or one which he made from it. This would -have sufficed for opening almost any lock ever constructed instantly; -but in the American lock he had to find out which of 720 combinations -was the right one, and he was employed almost seven hours in doing -this. The exploit shewed patience, but had little bearing on the -practical subject of lock-picking. - -In March 1852 Mr. Smith put forth an offer to accept the challenge made -by Mr. Hobbs in respect to the Exhibition lock. Mr. Hobbs agreed to the -offer, and chose, as arbitrators on his part, Mr. Hensman, Engineer to -the Bank of England, and Mr. Appold, inventor of the centrifugal pump -which attracted so much attention at the Great Exhibition. Mr. Hobbs -requested Mr. Smith to appoint arbitrators on his side also; but this -was not done. Mr. Smith, at a meeting held by the four persons named, -expressed a wish that an ordinary commercial lock should be the one -experimented on, instead of the more complicated test-lock which had -been at the Great Exhibition. This was a departure from the terms of the -original challenge; but Mr. Hobbs waived his objection on this point, -and offered to substitute a bank-lock with ten tumblers for the -Exhibition lock with fifteen, the former being similar in construction -but less complex. Another meeting was agreed upon, but Mr. Smith did not -attend; and the matter was, by himself, brought to a sudden termination. - -To shew the effect of difference in the number of tumblers and key-bits, -we may state that, while, at a minute per change, it would take twelve -hours to go through all the combinations with a six-bitted key, it would -require seven years with a ten-bitted, and 2,500,000 years with a -fifteen-bitted key! So much for power of combination, in the -arithmetical mode of picking. - -We now proceed to notice the violability of sundry minor locks. It might -at first appear that the _letter-lock_ is exceedingly difficult to pick; -and so it unquestionably is, as long as we merely attend to the -chance-medley trials by turning the rings round and round until we -happen to hit upon the right combination. But there is another mode of -solving the riddle, mechanical rather than arithmetical. A piece of -common wire, bent in the form of the shackle, is put in between the ends -of the lock; the spring or elasticity of the wire tends to force the -ends apart; this causes the pins or studs on the rod to press against -the inner edges of the rings. By trying all the rings in succession, -some one of them will be found to bind or cling more than the others; -this is turned round until the cessation of the bind shews that the -notch in the ring has been brought into its right position relatively to -the pin on the rod. Then another ring which binds more than the rest is -treated in a similar way; until at length all the rings seem to be so -far liberated as to indicate that the notches are in the right -positions. In the dial-lock, similarly, when a pressure has been brought -to bear upon the bolt in the right direction, a trial of the pointers -will soon bring the notch in each wheel to the required position. - -Some short time after the events in London connected with the lock -controversy, Mr. William Brown of Liverpool described the letter-lock -noticed in a former page, characterising it as a lock which he believed -no one could pick. An incident in the history of this lock was thus -narrated in one of the Liverpool newspapers. “Mr. Hobbs was taken by Mr. -Milner to the office of Messrs. Brown, Shipley, and Co., and shewn this -lock. The safe-door was closed and locked by the cashier at Mr. Brown’s -request; and then Mr. Hobbs began to illustrate his views of the -construction of the lock by manipulation and explanation, with which the -subject of them appeared to sympathise so entirely and promptly that the -door opened in a few minutes.” - -In respect to the picking of the Egyptian lock, the main difficulty -would be in obtaining any false key that would correspond with the pins -of the lock; but this might be accomplished in a way analogous to that -which is practised in many other cases. If a small piece of wax be laid -on a blank key, the key inserted into the lock, and the blank pressed -upwards against the pin-holes, there would be left an impression of -those holes on the wax; this impression would furnish a guide to the -fabrication of a false key. There is also very little difficulty in -picking this lock by one of the ordinary instruments. - -For the Yale lock, combining something like the pin-action of the -Egyptian with the cylinder-action of the Bramah locks, the picking -requires the use of an instrument that will fit between two of the pins, -and to the outer end of which is attached a lever and weight; by this -means a pressure is exerted upon the cylinder in the right direction for -it to turn, and the pins are made to bind. Then, with another -instrument, the pins are felt, and each one moved until it seems to be -relieved from the bind: this indicates that the joint in the pin -coincides with the joint between the two cylinders; and when all have -been similarly treated, the weight acting on the inner cylinder will -turn it. It is evident that this method is the same in principle as the -one applicable to the Bramah lock. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -EFFECTS OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851 IN IMPROVING ENGLISH LOCKS. - - -We have now to refer to the effects of the lock controversy. It was no -doubt annoying to be told, on good authority, that the machines on which -we so much prided ourselves were wrong in principle; and that our locks, -in order to afford the degree of security which are expected of such -contrivances, must be re-constructed. The grumbling with which the first -part of this proposition was received would alone have sufficed to lead -to a suspicion of its truth, if the large number of new locks that have -actually appeared had not confirmed it. Whether the second part of the -proposition has been fairly carried out, is a point which must now be -considered. - -One of the first locks produced during or immediately after the lock -controversy was Mr. Parnell’s, to which the bold term of _patent -defiance lock_ is attached. This lock is said to depend for its security -on a mode of arrangement which may best be described in the inventor’s -own words: “Viewing the lock from its exterior, it presents nothing -remarkable; but, upon removing the plate, it will be seen that all -possible access to the mechanism with false or surreptitious keys is -effectually prevented by a solid cylinder of _hardened_ [?] brass, with -protecting wards extending the whole depth of the lock, and having in -the centre the aperture for the key, which fits to a mathematical nicety -so exact as to preclude the possibility of any second instrument being -used to open it.... This protecting cylinder must revolve with the key -to get to the works; and the moment it passes from the key-hole in going -round to lock or unlock, the solid portion moves into its place, and so -completely closes that aperture that the point of a pin, or a fine -steel-pen, has failed to be inserted between it and the outer plate or -cap, to say nothing of the utter hopelessness of perforating the metal. - -“The cylinder or protecting cap, though it revolves by the action of the -key somewhat in the same way as the cylinder of the Bramah lock, appears -to be intended rather for closing or protecting the key-hole than for -governing the movements of the bolt. The internal arrangements of the -lock are as follow: Supposing the bolt to be shot, and to be about to be -unlocked, the key, by the time it has made about one-third of a -rotation, meets with a forcible resistance in the shape of an upright -spring-bolt or detector of strong steel acting on the revolving -cylinder. The key passes this detector, and arrives at the levers or -tumblers. In the bolt-stud which works in the slot of these tumblers -there is a small deep serrated notch on one side, corresponding to -similar notches on each of the tumblers; if, therefore, the bolt be -forced, these notches would lock into each other in a similar manner to -the catch on a ship’s windlass or a hoisting crane. There is also a -double-action tumbler-bolt, so adjusted, that if any of the tumblers be -overlifted, this little appendage becomes thrust down at one end into -the bolt of the lock, where it wedges all fast until the tumblers -become properly re-adjusted. The double-action tumbler-bolt also falls -into the lock-bolt when the latter is locked or shut, thereby imparting -an additional strength to the lock. The key has a power of expansion or -enlargement while turning in the lock; it meets with an eccentric plate -which draws out the bits somewhat; so that, at the moment of acting on -the tumblers, they protrude farther from the pipe of the key than when -the key entered the key-hole. The key is, in fact, larger when in than -when out of the lock. There is connected with the works of the lock a -‘detention-cap,’ so formed that, in the event of a false key being used, -a powerful bolt instantly locks into the revolving cylinder, and holds -fast the surreptitious instrument.” Such is, in substance, the account -which Mr. Parnell has given of his own lock. It must, however, be -stated, that the points of security or novelty claimed by Mr. Parnell -for his lock were patented by previous inventors. The revolving cylinder -or curtain was claimed by Mitchell and Lawton in the patent of 7th -March, 1815, as noticed at page 52 _ante_. The expanding key-bit was -claimed by Mr. Machin of Wolverhampton in 1827, as noticed at page 61, -and by Mr. Mackinnon (page 62); while the serrated notches in the -tumbler were used by many lock-makers long before the date of Mr. -Parnell’s patent. The detention-cap for catching and holding a false key -when put into the lock was also patented by Mitchell and Lawton, as -noticed at page 53 _ante_. - -We come now to notice a lock lately invented by Mr. E. B. Denison (the -author of the _Rudimentary Treatise on Clocks_ in this series), which -has the merit of combining considerable novelty in construction with -security. After the details given in the two preceding chapters, it will -certainly be no small praise when we express our conviction that in the -present state of the art of lock-picking, this lock may be considered as -secure. Mr. Denison has furnished us with a description of his lock, -which we insert almost in his own words. Mr. Denison claims for this -lock the following advantages:-- - -1. That a very large and strong lock on this construction only requires -a very small key. 2. That no key is required to lock it, although it is -free from the inconvenience pertaining to spring-locks, viz. that the -door cannot be shut without locking itself. Moreover this lock is more -secure than any spring-lock can be. 3. That it cannot get out of order -from the usual causes of the tumblers sticking together or their springs -breaking, inasmuch as the action of the tumblers does not depend on any -thing but the key and the handle, and there are no tumbler-springs. 4. -That for the same reason, the parts of this lock do not require any -polishing or delicacy of execution. 5. That the key-hole being -completely closed by a curtain, except when the key is in, the lock is -protected from the effects of the atmosphere and dust entering at the -key-hole. 6. That this lock is secure against any known mode of picking; -the smallness of the key-hole prevents the insertion of any instrument -strong enough to open the lock by violence. 7. That this lock, from the -simplicity of its construction, admits of being made at small cost. - -These objects are accomplished as follows:--In the large-sized locks, -such as would be used for safes and large doors, the tumblers T, fig. -51, are made of pieces of hoop-iron, 6 or 7 inches long and 1¹⁄₂ inch -wide: these tumblers are supported by and turn on a pin _a_, placed at -about the middle of their length; so that being balanced on the pin, or -nearly so, and having their separating plates P between them, which -cannot turn, the tumblers will stand in any position indifferently; and -in order to secure sufficient friction to keep them steady, one or more -of the separating plates P is bent a little, so as to act as a spring -when the cap of the lock is screwed down. The lock is shewn in fig. 51 -as locked, the bolt B having been shot by the fantailed piece _f_ on the -handle, and the tumblers sent down, so that the stump _s_ cannot enter -their jaws by the other piece of the handle; and it is evident that the -handle cannot draw the bolt back again until the tumblers have all been -raised by the key to the proper position to allow the stump _s_ to enter -their jaws. It will be observed that in the position shewn in the -figure, the stump does not touch the tumblers; and consequently, so long -as the bolt is kept in the position represented, no pressure of the -stump against the tumblers can be felt, although by means of a false key -or pick-lock the tumblers be raised to any height. No implement, -however, can be pushed into the key-hole without first pressing in the -curtain K, which is held up against the cap of the lock by the two -spiral springs _c c_ on each side of the key-hole; and at the back of -the curtain there is a square plug _p_, which goes through a hole in the -back of the lock, and has a notch in it through which the bolt can pass -when the curtain is up, closing the key-hole, but at no other time. In -other words, the act of pushing in the key sends down the curtain plug, -the effect of which is to hold the bolt fast in the position in which -the stump cannot be made to touch the tumblers. If the proper key be -used and turned about half round to the right, it will bring the -tumblers to the proper height for the stump to pass. The key is then -taken out; for so long as it is in the lock, the bolt cannot be moved; -and then turning the handle to the right, the bolt is drawn and the door -opened. - -[Illustration: fig. 51. Mr. Denison’s large lock.] - -The handle H should be so made, that as soon as the fantailed piece _f_ -has sent the bolt just clear of the tumblers, the other arm to the right -of H may begin to move the tumblers; but the fantail need not send the -stump above one-sixteenth of an inch beyond the tumblers; and the -curtain-plug and bolt must be so adjusted that the curtain cannot be -pushed in until the bolt is so far out that the stump is this -one-sixteenth of an inch beyond the tumblers. The curtain K need only be -a thin piece of steel, and the bolt B must be thick enough for the -curtain to go down just to the level of the thin plate P between the -bolt and the first tumbler T. The curtain-plug _p_ is made as long as -the key-hole and rather broader, and of the shape represented, partly -for the sake of steadiness in pushing in the curtain, and also for more -completely protecting the key-hole; for if an attempt be made to pick -the lock by drilling into the key-hole, the drill will pass into the -inside of the door and not into the inside of the lock.[10] - - [10] Mr. Denison informs us that there is a further contrivance, which - he will explain privately to any persons who wish to manufacture these - locks, of which the object is, not to add any thing to the security of - the lock under ordinary circumstances, but to provide against the - unusual case of a very dexterous thief having occasional access to the - lock when open; in which case (but for some such further provision) he - might manage to construct a false key capable of opening the lock at - any other time, by a method which, for obvious reasons, it is not - advisable to publish. - -It is true that iron safes have been made for some years in which any -number of large bolts are shot by a handle and then locked by a very -small key. But in such locks the key must be used in locking, and this -leads to certain objections, viz. the key must occasionally at least be -confided to some person whose duty it is to lock up the safe after the -owner has left the place; there is also the temptation to leave the key -in the lock, since it will be wanted in locking up; and thus there is -the danger of some dishonest person taking an impression of the key. -Besides this, the real strength and security of such safes is only that -due to the small lock which locks into the main bolt; whereas in Mr. -Denison’s lock the security and strength are those due to the lock -itself, with its large and strong tumblers, and other provisions -peculiar to its construction; and the key for a lock of the largest -size, which was lately exhibited at the Society of Arts by Messrs. S. -Mordan and Co., the makers, only weighs a little more than a quarter of -an ounce. It may be mentioned that for large locks the key may be solid, -although in the small ones it is more convenient to have a pipe-key, on -account of the different construction of the curtain. - -[Illustration: fig. 52. Mr. Denison’s small lock.] - -The arrangement of the small lock for drawers, &c. is somewhat different -from that of the large ones, and will be understood by referring to fig. -52. The action of the handle H on the bolt B and on the tumblers T is -sufficiently clear from the figure. The curtain in this case has no -plug, but is only a flat plate held up by a thin spring behind it, and -moving up and down on the drill-pin of the key, and kept from turning by -having one edge against the side of the lock. The bolt has a kind of -second stump, only coming up so high as to be able just to pass under -the corner of the curtain when it is up, but not able to pass when the -curtain is at all pressed down by any thing inserted in the key-hole. In -a drawer lock the key has only to be turned a quarter round in order to -raise the tumblers. In small locks, the friction of the tumbler-plates -is quite enough to keep them in any position, without putting the pin -in the middle so as to balance them, as in large locks with heavy -tumblers. - -In the making of these locks the key must be made first, with proper -provisions to prevent the repetition of the same pattern; a kind of -pattern or model for locks of each size should be made; the tumblers put -on the pin with plates of the intended thickness between, and when -raised by the key to the proper height they should be clamped down; and -the jaws for the stump of the bolt may then be cut by a circular saw -moving in a slit in the model corresponding to the place of the stump. -The tumblers for large locks may be cut off from a strip of hoop-iron to -the proper lengths by a stamping cutter, giving them the proper circular -end, and a punch might at the same time make the pin-hole in the middle. -The tumblers for small locks should be stamped out of sheet brass or -iron. - -It will thus be evident that from the general simplicity of -construction, and the small amount of finish required in the working -parts, this lock can be made at small cost. We may also add that this -lock is as creditable to the public spirit as to the mechanical skill of -the inventor; for the lock is not patented, patents being, in Mr. -Denison’s estimation, obstructions to the progress of science. - -The next result of the “lock controversy” which we have to notice is the -production of not less than three improved locks by Messrs. Chubb. We -thought it our duty to invite the attention of this celebrated firm to -the preparation of this _Rudimentary Treatise_, and in answer to the -application of our publisher we received the following communication -from Messrs. Chubb, which we insert verbatim:-- - -“It will not be necessary to describe the lock as originally made, as a -description of it will be found in Mr. Chubb’s paper read before the -Institution of Civil Engineers. - -“LOCK NO. 1.--The first of the improvements introduced consists of a -barrel, to which a circular curtain is attached, revolving round the -drill-pin in the lock; so that if any instrument is introduced to -attempt to pick it, the curtain immediately closes up the key-hole, and -prevents the introduction of any auxiliary instruments, there being -several required in action at once to produce any effect. - -“If by any means these several instruments can be introduced -simultaneously, the barrel keeps them all confined in a very small -space, preventing their expansion, and renders it impossible to work -them independently of each other; therefore they are of no avail, being -incapable of acting as more than a single pick, which is perfectly -useless. The barrel and curtain have each been previously used -_separately_ in locks, but until patented by Mr. De la Fons in 1846 they -had not been used _in combination_. Neither of them, used separately, is -of much use, but when combined they afford a very great security. Locks -have been, and still are shewn, containing either the barrel or curtain -_singly_, and as these have been picked, it has been asserted that the -improvement now introduced in Chubb’s lock is equally insecure; but a -slight examination of the difference in their construction will prove -the contrary. Mr. Chubb has purchased the patent-right of this part of -Mr. De la Fons’ invention, and applies it to all his locks. - -“LOCK NO. 2.--The next improvement, recently patented by Mr. Chubb, is -based upon the assumption that there may be a possibility of overcoming -the security of the barrel and curtain as already described (although -this assumption is not in the slightest degree admitted), and consists -in applying what is called a ‘tumbler-bolt,’ working on a hinge -connected with the main bolt. The web of the key does not in any case -touch the main bolt in unlocking, but acts only on the tumbler-bolt. All -the tumblers must first be lifted, each to its proper position, before -the tumbler-bolt will act. Should any pressure be applied to either bolt -before the tumblers are all at their exact position, the effect would be -to throw the bolts out of gear, and thus effectually to stop the stump -of the main bolt from passing through the racks of the tumblers. None of -the many plans of picking which have been suggested, such as smoked -key-blanks, thin key-bits, &c., would be of the least avail against a -lock made on this principle. Different kinds of detectors may be applied -to these locks. It is submitted that this lock, retaining all the -simplicity and durability which have distinguished Chubb’s lock for so -many years, and combining with them these important improvements, -affords a complete security against all surreptitious attempts of any -nature. Locks on the same principle are being made on the permutation -plan, with any number of tumblers, and any number of changes in -combination that may be desired. - -“It has been suggested that the ‘detector,’ instead of giving additional -security to Chubb’s lock, affords a partial guidance to a person -attempting to pick it. This objection holds good to a certain extent in -these locks as originally made, in which all the tumblers had an _equal_ -bearing against the detector-stump; but in the locks as now constructed -this objection is entirely obviated, by giving the tumblers an _unequal_ -bearing, whereby, if an operator feels the obstruction of the -detector-stump, he cannot tell whether the tumbler which he is lifting -is raised too high, or not high enough. - -“LOCK NO. 3.--For banks, Mr. Chubb has introduced what he particularly -calls his ‘bank lock.’ It contains a barrel with a series of curtains. -While the key-hole is open, all access to the tumblers from the key-hole -is completely cut off by two sliding pieces of solid metal, which fit -closely on either side of the barrel. These pieces are acted upon by an -eccentric motion, so that when the key is applied to the lock, and -turned in it, the key-hole is shut up by the revolution of the curtains, -and then only do the sliding pieces of metal move aside to allow the key -to act upon the tumblers. These pieces return to their position when the -key has passed; therefore, while the key is lifting the tumblers, all -communication is cut off from the exterior of the lock by these sliding -pieces and the series of curtains. The bolt is made in two pieces, the -main bolt never being in contact with the key, which acts only on the -talon-bolt, and by it transmits the motion to the main bolt. After the -action of locking, the talon-bolt is partly repelled, and a lever or -‘dog’ connected with it locks into a series of combinations arranged -upon the front parts of the tumblers, and holds them securely down, so -that none of them can be lifted in the least degree until the talon-bolt -is thrown forward to release them, If, therefore, any pressure be -applied to this talon-bolt, to endeavour by its help to ascertain the -combinations of the tumblers, it will only the more tightly lock them -down, and render the attempt ineffectual. By another contrivance it is -rendered impracticable to move a pick or picks round in the lock more -than a small distance, unless the tumblers could previously be all -lifted to their right positions, which can only be done by the right -key. Should one or more of the tumblers be surreptitiously raised by any -possible means, they cannot be detained in this uplifted position, for -the action of turning back the pick to try to raise another tumbler sets -in motion a lever which allows the tumblers already raised to drop to -their former position, leaving the operator just as far from the -attainment of his object as at the outset.” - -Such is the statement with which Messrs. Chubb have favoured us -respecting their three new locks. We are willing to admit the -enterprising spirit which has led to their production, and the ingenuity -which has been bestowed on their construction; but whether they mark a -step in advance in the art of lock-making may perhaps admit of doubt. -With respect to the lock No. 1, we would remark, that locks with the -barrel and curtain combined were made by Mr. Aubin of Wolverhampton in -1833, and that a specimen of such a lock was exhibited on his stand of -locks in the Great Exhibition. Locks with the combined barrel and -curtain were also made and sold by Mr. Jones of Newark, N.J., as stated -at p. 104. - -With respect to the lock No. 2, the object of the _tumbler-bolt_ is -evidently intended to produce the same effect as the _movable stump_ in -Mr. Hobbs’s protector-lock, fig. 47, page 100; but with greater -complexity in the construction, there is less efficiency in the action -of this part of Mr. Chubb’s lock as compared with that of Mr. Hobbs, -inasmuch as a pressure of the stump against the tumblers, corresponding -with the strength of the spring which holds the bolt in its place, can -always be produced, thereby giving friction, and affording indication as -to which tumbler it is that is in tight contact with the stump. - -With respect to the barrel and curtains of lock No. 3, and all similar -contrivances, the object of which is said to be to prevent the entrance -into the key-hole of all instruments except the proper key, we would -offer the self-evident remark, that the same aperture which admits the -key will also admit some other instrument. In the case of Mr. Chubb’s -“bank-lock,” it may be questioned whether the revolving curtain, &c. -give it any advantage over the other locks already referred to which are -furnished with similar contrivances. The effect of the _talon-bolt_ in -this lock appears to be the same as that of the false notches, namely, -to hold the tumblers in the position in which they were placed when the -pressure was applied. Hence, a pressure applied to the talon-bolt -affects the parts which come in contact with the key in the act of -locking and unlocking; and this circumstance brings the lock under the -application of the principle stated at page 99, and thus, if this -principle be admitted, may render the security of the lock somewhat -questionable. - -Various other locks have been brought out since the date of the “lock -controversy” in the year 1851. We would gladly notice them all, did they -shew novelty of design and mark an advance in the art of the locksmith. -We must, however, admire the ingenuity with which Mr. Hobbs’s movable -stump has been more or less adopted; but in the attempts to imitate it -the objection has not been removed, that it is possible to produce on -the tumblers a pressure or friction equal to the strength of the spring -which holds the tumblers down. - -There is, however, a lock which has lately been introduced to the -public, which calls for special notice, on account of the high honours -which have been bestowed upon it. We refer to the prize lock of the -Society of Arts, London, the invention of Mr. H. J. Saxby of Sheerness, -who has received the Society’s medal and the sum of ten guineas as the -reward of his ingenuity. The interior of this lock consists of a -cylinder with four pins or slides radiating from the centre, and pressed -into the key-hole by means of spiral springs. The pins project beyond -the periphery of the wheel or cylinder, and into slots in a ring which -is affixed to the case of the lock, thereby preventing the cylinder from -being turned. On each pin is a notch, so placed that when the proper key -is inserted into the key-hole, the notches on the several pins will be -brought into a position such as will allow the cylinder to turn. The -turning of the cylinder in this, as in the Bramah lock, shoots the bolt. - -A lock on precisely the same principle, but more secure in its -construction, was described by Mr. Hobbs in a paper read by him before -the Society of Arts in January 1852, when diagrams illustrative of the -same were exhibited. This paper was not reported at any length in the -journal of the Society’s proceedings; but the same paper was read by Mr. -Hobbs, March 1, 1852, before the Liverpool Polytechnic Society, and a -full report thereof, and a description of the lock in question, is given -in the “Transactions” of that Society, from September 1849 to December -1852 (8vo, Liverpool, 1853). This lock is no other than the Yale lock -already noticed at page 83, and is thus described at page 196 of the -“Transactions:” - -“Another description of cylinder-lock was invented, a few years since, -by a Mr. Yale of the State of New York, U.S.A. - -“The Yale lock has two cylinders, one working within the other; and they -are held together by a series of pins reaching through the cylinders -into the key-hole, which is in the centre. On the back of the inner -cylinder is a pin that fits into a slot in the bolt, and moves it as the -cylinder is turned. The pins that hold the cylinders together and -prevent the inner one from turning, are cut in two at different lengths. -The key is so made, that by inserting it into the key-hole the pins are -moved, so that the joint in the pins meets the joint between the -cylinders, and allows the inner one to be turned. But, as with the -slides of the Bramah lock, should any one of the pins be pushed too far, -the cylinder is held quite as firmly as though it had not been touched. -Some of these locks have been made with as many as forty pins; and to a -person unacquainted with the principles on which locks are picked, they -would seem to present an insurmountable barrier. - -“Figure 1[11] represents the case of the lock containing the bolt A, -having a groove B, to receive the pin C on the cylinder. Figure 2 shews -the cap or top-plate of the lock, and the cylinders; D D is the outer -cylinder, that is stationary, being fastened to the plate; E E the inner -or moving cylinder; F F the four rows of pins, being cut in two at -different lengths, and reaching through the cylinders into the key-hole; -G G are the springs that press the pins to their places; C the pin that -fits into the groove and moves the bolt. Figure 3 is an end view of the -key, shewing four grooves. Figure 4 is a side view, shewing the -irregular surface of the grooves by which the pins are adjusted. - - [11] This and the following figures refer to the diagrams exhibited by - Mr. Hobbs. - -“For the purpose of picking the lock, an instrument is made that will -fit between two of the pins; to that is attached a lever and weight, -thereby getting a pressure on the cylinder and causing the pins to bind; -then with another instrument the pins are felt, and as they are found to -bind, they are pressed in until they are relieved (as they will be when -the joint comes to the right place), thereby easily opening the lock. -There is a great similarity in the operation and security of this and -the lock manufactured by Mr. Cotterill of Birmingham.” - -In the _Society of Arts Journal_ for the 24th June, 1853, is a letter -from Mr. Hobbs on the subject of the prize lock, which, it appears, he -picked, “in the presence of parties connected with the Society, in the -short space of three minutes.” - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -THE LOCK AND KEY MANUFACTURE. - - -The manufacture of locks and keys, considered as a department of working -in iron, is one that requires, and indeed admits of, very little -description. The hammer, the file, the drill, the fly-press, are the -chief instruments employed; the iron itself being brought to something -like the desired state and form by rolling or casting, or both. But the -manufacture is interesting in its social features--in its relation to -the persons employed and the buildings occupied. One by one, several -departments of industry have progressed from the _handicraft_ to the -_factory_ system--from that system in which a man and a few apprentices -work in a small shop in the lockmaker’s garret or kitchen, to that in -which organisation is maintained among twenty or fifty or a hundred men. -Locks have scarcely yet passed out of the first stage, but there is no -good reason whatever why they should so remain; there are as many -reasons for progress in this as in other arts, and indications are not -wanting that some such progress will be made. - -So far as England is concerned, the neighbourhood of Wolverhampton is -the great storehouse whence locks are obtained. Eminent lock-makers -reside in London and in other principal towns; but Wolverhampton is -regarded by all as the centre of the trade. This is not a modern -localisation, for we have information respecting the locks of -Wolverhampton a century and a quarter ago. Among the Harleian -Manuscripts is an account of “The Voyage of Don Manuel Gonzales (late -merchant), of the City of Lisbon in Portugal, to Great Britain: -containing an Historical, Geographical, Topographical, Political, and -Ecclesiastical Account of England and Scotland; with a Curious -Collection of things particularly rare, both in Nature and Antiquity.” -This Ms. appears to have been written about 1732; it was translated -from the Portuguese, and printed in Pinkerton’s Collection of Voyages -and Travels. With reference to Wolverhampton, Gonzales says: “The chief -manufacturers of this town are locksmiths, who are reckoned the most -expert of that trade in England. They are so curious in this art, that -they can contrive a lock so that if a servant be sent into the closet -with the master-key, or their own, it will shew how many times that -servant hath gone in at any distance of time, and how many times the -lock has been shot for a whole year; some of them being made to discover -five hundred or a thousand times. We are informed also that a very fine -lock was made in this town, sold for 20_l._, which had a set of chimes -in it that would go at any hour the owner should think fit.” If Gonzales -were correct in these descriptions, they indicate an exercise of -considerable ingenuity in lock-construction, especially in reference to -the lock which keeps a registry of the number of times it has been -opened. There is abundant evidence that the old lock-makers were very -fond of these knick-knack locks, which would do all sorts of strange and -unexpected things; and this may in part account for the great favour in -which locks have been held by amateur machinists. - -The lock-manufacture in South Staffordshire is of a remarkable -character, comprised as it is within so small an area. Although -Wolverhampton is known commercially as the chief depôt of the English -lock trade, yet it is at Willenhall, three or four miles eastward of -that town, that the actual manufacture is chiefly carried on. When the -Commission was appointed a few years ago to inquire into the condition -of children employed in trades and manufactures, Mr. R. H. Horne was -deputed to examine the Wolverhampton district; and his report is too -curious, and too closely connected with our present subject, to be -passed unnoticed. We here give an abstract of such parts of his report -as bear reference to the lock-makers of Willenhall. - -Almost the entire industry of Willenhall is in the three articles of -currycombs, locks and keys, and articles connected incidentally with -locks, such as bolts and latches. At the time Mr. Horne wrote, in 1841, -there were among the master manufacturers 268 locksmiths, 76 key-makers, -14 bolt-makers, and 13 latch-makers; besides many small masters living -in such out-of-the-way corners that they escaped enumeration. In the -_Post-Office Directory_ of that district, of later date, there are -entries of rather a curious character. In the first place it is -observable that different kinds of locks are made by different persons, -each manufacturer confining his operations apparently to one kind of -lock; one is a _rim-lock_ maker, another a _trunk-lock_ maker, a third a -_cabinet-lock_ maker, a fourth a _padlock_ maker, a fifth a -_mortice-lock_ maker, and so on. But a much more singular feature is, -that lock-making is combined with retail dealing of a totally different -kind; thus among the occupations put down opposite the names of -individuals are, “key-stamper and beer-retailer,” “door-lock maker and -beer-retailer,” “grocer and trunk-lock maker,” “Malt-Shovel -tavern-keeper and rim-lock maker,” “lock-maker and provision-dealer,” -“grocer and key-maker,” “cabinet-lock maker and Woolpack tavern,” -“key-stamper and registrar of births, &c.,” “Hope and Anchor and -cabinet-lock maker,” “auctioneer and locksmith,” “rim-lock and varnish -maker,” and so forth. It is probable that in some of these cases the -wife attends to the retail shop, while the husband attends to the -workshop. - -Among all the lock-manufacturers of the town there are scarcely half a -dozen in what may be termed a large way of business; there are many who -employ from five to fifteen pairs of hands, but the great majority are -small masters who are themselves working mechanics, and are aided by -apprentices from one to four in number, perhaps two on an average. Mr. -Horne thinks that there were not fewer than a thousand boys at work in -the town, chiefly upon locks and keys. The children and young persons -are employed at all ages, from seven up to manhood; from the earliest -age, indeed, in which they are able to hold a file. It is a -characteristic fact, where so many of the male inhabitants are employed -at the bench from such early years, that a certain distortion of figure -is observable; the right shoulder-blade becomes displaced and projects, -and the right leg crooks and bends inwards at the knee, like the letter -K,--it is the leg which is hindermost in standing at the vice. The right -hand also has frequently a marked distortion. “Almost every thing it -holds takes the position of the file. If the poor man carries a limp -lettuce or a limper mackarel from Wolverhampton market, they are never -dangled, but always held like the file. If he carry nothing, his right -hand is in just the same position.” - -The hours of labour among the small masters are scarcely brought within -any system at all; for all the work is piecework, not paid for by the -day or hour; and each man works as long as he likes, or as long as his -business impels him. Some will file away from four or five in the -morning till eleven or twelve at night. In the larger shops, where there -are many hands employed, they come to work when they like, leave when -they like, and do as much work as they like when there; this freedom of -action being spread over a working-day of perhaps sixteen hours. The -masters say that the men prefer this system, or want of system, to any -thing more precise and regular. In the beginning of the week there is -often much idleness and holiday-keeping; and the Willenhall men make up -for this by a day of sixteen, eighteen, or even twenty hours’ work -towards the end of the week. In the beginning of the week, men and boys -have defined hours and definite periods for meals; but towards the end -of the week, when hurry and drive are the order of the day, they eat -their meals while at work, and bolt their victuals standing. “You see a -locksmith and his two apprentices, with a plate before each of them, -heaped up (at the best of times, when they can get such things) with -potatoes and lumps of something or other, but seldom meat, and a large -slice of bread in one hand; your attention is called off for two -minutes, and on turning round again, you see the man and boys filing at -the vice.” - -In the processes as carried on at Willenhall, they are applied chiefly -to the manufacture of mortice, box, trunk, rim, cabinet, case, bright, -dead, closet, and padlocks. Except some of the parts of the brass-work, -which are _cast_, these locks are made by _forging_, _pressing_, and -_filing_. The forging is a light kind of smith’s work, aided by a light -hammer and a small pair of bellows; children and young persons are -largely employed in this process. Pressing is a kind of work by which -certain parts of the lock are pressed or stamped out. The presses are of -various sizes, but all require much strength to work them; the press has -a horizontal lever, crossing the top of a vertical screw, and there is -generally an iron weight at the end of each arm or half of the lever to -increase the power; one of the lever arms is grasped in the right hand -of the presser, and whirled round with a jerk; while the fingers of the -left hand place the metal in its proper position, and remove it when it -has been stamped or pressed. There is, of course, a die or cutter -attached to the press, to cut the metal in the proper form. Sometimes -the press has only one arm to the lever, and no weight at the end of -this, so that the labour of working is much increased. Children and -youths are employed at this process, so far as their strength will -admit. The last process, _filing_, is that by which the separate pieces -are shaped and smoothed for adjustment in their proper places; here -children and youths are almost exclusively employed; they stand upon -blocks so as to be able to reach the vice, and then work away with the -file, unrelieved by any change in the nature of the process. - -In key-making the processes may be said to comprise _forging_, -_stamping_, _piercing_, and _filing_. The forging differs very little -from that required in making the pieces for a lock. The stamping is -effected by placing the end of an iron wire, taken red-hot from the -forge, into one half of a key-mould made in a block or kind of anvil; a -heavy weight is then raised between an upright framework, in the grooves -of which it runs by means of a cord; the cord is drawn by both hands, -with the assistance of one foot in a stirrup attached to the end of the -cord; at the bottom of the weight thus raised is the other half of the -key-mould. Such being the nature of the stamping apparatus, the process -is thus conducted: the foot in the stirrup being suddenly raised, and -the cord loosed, the weight falls upon the red-hot wire, and the blow -stamps it into the two moulds or half-moulds, which are brought -accurately together by means of the slides or side-grooves in the -framework. The rough key is also trimmed and cleared by the pressing -apparatus; that is, the surplus metal all round is cut off by a single -blow; and the metal which fills up the ring or handle of the key is cut -or pressed out in the same way. This is a heavy part of the key-work, -for which the labour of men rather than that of boys is required. The -process of _piercing_ the key consists in making the pipe or barrel, -required for most keys, except those which are intended to open a lock -for both sides; the pipe is drilled by a small machine worked with the -foot like a lathe; it is a process requiring more skill than strength, -relatively to other parts of the manufacture. The _filing_ of a key is -important; for not only is the whole key made bright, but the wards are -cut by the file and chisel. Boys and youths are employed in filing the -common keys; but those of better quality are entrusted to men. - -The apprenticeship system is carried on to a remarkable extent among the -lock and key makers of Willenhall. The small masters take apprentices at -any age at which they can work. Some of them employ only apprentices, -never paying wages for journeymen, but always taking on a new apprentice -as soon as a former one is out of his time. The boys are mostly procured -from other towns, and they bring with them a small apprenticeship-fee -and a suit or two of clothes. They are bound to the masters by legal -indenture or contract; and the masters board and lodge and clothe them -during their apprenticeship. One consequence of this system is, that -when the apprentice has served his time, he is almost driven to become a -small master himself from want of employment as a journeyman; and he -then takes apprentices as his master did before him. This accounts for -the fact that in Willenhall there are few large manufacturers and few -journeymen; while there is a constantly-increasing number of small -masters and of apprentices. - -The Willenhall makers nearly all look to the Wolverhampton factors or -dealers for a market for their wares--so far at least as concerns locks -and keys; there are some other articles which they sell more frequently -to Birmingham houses. The master and an apprentice, or perhaps two, -generally trudge off to Wolverhampton on a Saturday, bearing the stock -of locks which he may have to sell; and the money receipts for the locks -or keys sold are usually in part spent at the large market of -Wolverhampton previous to the homeward journey. The Willenhall men take -contracts at so low a price as to prevent the competition of other -places; it is stated, that whatever be prices elsewhere, nothing can -come below the Willenhall prices for cheap locks. The men work hard for -small returns, and yet they have a strong yearning for their own town. A -Willenhall girl will seldom marry except to a townsman; and thus they -intermarry to an extent which maintains their characteristics as a -peculiar community. As an example of their disinclination to leave their -own town, Mr. Horne states the following circumstance: “Some years ago a -factor, who had projected a manufactory in Brussels, engaged some -five-and-twenty Willenhall men, whom he was at the expense of taking -over. He gave them all work, and from hard-earned wages of from 9_s._ to -15_s._ a-week, these ‘practised hands’ found themselves able to earn -3_l._ a-week and upwards. But they were not satisfied, and began to feel -uncomfortable; first one left, and returned home; then another; then one -or two; till, in the course of a few weeks, every man had returned to -Willenhall”--there to work harder and earn less. - -It is just possible that the application of the factory system to -lock-making may first become important by making the _best_ locks -cheaper than they can be made by the handicraft method; for there seems -not much probability, at least for a great length of time to come, that -any new system will be able to compete with Willenhall in the common -locks--those of which more thousands are sold than there are tens of the -better locks. In this, however, it would not do to predict rashly. -Hand-loom weaving is cheap enough, unfortunately for those who practise -it; but yet the factory system comes down as low as the lowest hand-loom -weaving. - -The editor of Hebert’s _Encyclopædia_, after noticing the facilities for -opening most locks by copying the key, makes the following announcement: -“It affords the editor of this work much satisfaction to state, that he -has in his possession a lock, the key of which _cannot be copied_, a -locksmith possessing no tools by which an exactly similar one can be -made; the machine by which the original one was made is so arranged as -to be deprived of the power of producing another like it. The lock is -very simple, very strong, and can be very cheaply made. The cost of a -complete machine to make them would be about 100_l._; with that they -might be manufactured at one-half the expense of any patent lock. The -inventor is desirous to have the subject brought before the public under -a patent; but want of time to devote himself to such an object at -present obliges him to lay it aside.” The invention not being patented, -the editor of course gave no diagram or engraving of the lock or -machine; nor does there appear to have been a patent obtained during the -sixteen or eighteen years which have elapsed since the above notice was -published. There are, however, mechanical principles sufficiently well -known to lead to a belief that such a machine is practicable; a -ticket-printing or numbering machine will, in printing 100,000 tickets, -produce such variations that no two impressions shall be identical; and -a key-making machine might, after fashioning a particular part of each -key, modify the arrangement of certain wheels and pinions so far as to -produce a slightly different result when the next key is to be operated -on. - -In the manufacture of locks and keys generally, there is no reason why -the factory system should not, to a certain extent, be applicable. By -this will be understood, the production of similar parts by tools or -machines, graduated in respect to each other with more care than can be -done by the hand method. If we suppose that a lock of particular -construction comprises twenty screws and small pieces of metal, and that -there are required, for general disposal in the market, five sizes of -such a lock; there would thus be a hundred pieces of metal required for -the series, each one differing, either in shape or size, from every one -of the others. Now, on the factory or manufacturing system, as compared -with the handicraft system, forging, drawing, casting, stamping, and -punching, would supersede much of the filing; the drilling machine would -supersede the drill-stock and bow, and other machines would supersede -other hand-worked tools. This would be done--not merely because the work -could be accomplished more quickly or more cheaply--but because an -accuracy of adjustment would be attained, such as no hand-work could -equal, unless it be such special work as would command a high rate of -payment. For any one size in the series, and any one piece of metal in -each size of lock, a standard would be obtained which could be copied to -any extent, and all the copies would be like each other. To pursue our -illustration, the manufacturer might have a hundred boxes or drawers, -and might supply each with a hundred copies of the particular piece of -metal to which it is appropriated, all so exactly alike that any one -copy might be taken as well as any other. Ten pieces, one from each of -ten of these boxes, would together form a lock; ten, one from each of -another ten boxes, would form a second lock, and so on; and there would -be, in the whole of the boxes, materials for a thousand locks of one -construction, a hundred of each size. - -Now the advantage of the machine or factory mode of producing such -articles is this, that they can be made in large numbers at one time, -whenever the steam-engine is at work; and that when so made, the pieces -are shaped so exactly alike, the screws have threads so identical, and -the holes are bored so equal in diameter, that any one of a hundred -copies would act precisely like all the others, thereby giving great -advantages to the men employed in putting the lock together. - -These principles are being applied by Messrs. Hobbs and Co. in their -London establishment. A number of machines, worked by steam-power, are -employed in shaping the several pieces of metal contained in a lock; and -all the several pieces are deposited in labelled compartments, one to -each kind of piece. The machines are employed--in some cases to do -coarse work, which they can accomplish more quickly than it can be done -by men; and in other cases to do delicate work, which they can -accomplish more accurately than men; but so far is this from converting -the men into lowly-paid automatons (as some might suppose), that the -manufacturers are better able to pay good wages for the handicraft -labour necessary in putting the locks together, than for forming the -separate parts by hand; just as the “watchmaker,” as he is called, who -puts the separate parts of the watch together, is a better-paid mechanic -than the man who is engaged in fabricating any particular parts of the -watch. - -It may be observed that the system of manufacturing on a large scale, by -many men engaged in one large building, is more nearly universal in the -United States than in England. The workshop system, as pursued at -Willenhall by the lock-makers, is very little practised in America. -Being comparatively a new community, and being at liberty to select for -imitation or for improvement whichever of the usages or systems in the -old country they may prefer, the Americans have preferred to adopt the -factory system rather than the workshop system, and to carry out the -former to an extent not yet equalled in England--not yet equalled, we -mean, in the number of trades to which it is applied. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -ENGLISH PATENTS FOR LOCKS--AUBIN’S LOCK TROPHY. - - -We propose to conclude this small work with a few details respecting the -various patented inventions in locks, and concerning Mr. Aubin’s -remarkable lock trophy. These two subjects relate to locks in general, -rather than to any specified constructions in particular, and can on -that account more conveniently be given here than in connexion with any -of the foregoing chapters. - -Mr. Chubb, in the appendix to his paper on locks and keys read before -the Institution of Civil Engineers, gave a useful list of all the -patents taken out in England in relation to this subject, down to the -year 1849. We here transcribe this list: - -_List of Patents for Locks and Latches granted since the Establishment -of the Patent Laws._ - -“As no complete list of the patents granted for locks from the time of -James I. has hitherto been published, it is believed that the following -list, which has been very carefully drawn up, and which comprises all -patents from the year 1774, when the first patent for a lock was -granted, to the present time, will be found useful as a reference for -all who are interested in the subject. - - 1774|May 27|Black, George, Berwick-on-Tweed. - „ |„ „|Barron, Robert, London. - 1778|May 29|Martin, Joshua Lover, Fleet-street, London. - 1779|May 28|Henry, Solomon, Swithin’s-lane, London. - 1780|March 4|Campion, J. Newcastle-court, Strand, London. - 1782|January 18|Hutchinson, Samuel, Marylebone, London. - 1784|„ |Bramah, Joseph, Piccadilly, London. - 1789|July 7|Cornthwaite, Thomas, Kendal, Westmoreland. - 1790|February 23|Rowntree, Thomas, Surrey-street, Blackfriars, - | |London. - „ |October 29|Bird, Moses, Wardour-street, London. - 1791|July 19|Ferryman, Rev. Robert, Gloucester. - „ |November 3|Antis, John, Fulneck, near Leeds. - 1797|November 18|Langton, Daniel. - 1798|May 3|Bramah, Joseph. - „ |December 8|Turner, Thomas. - 1799|April 11|Davis, George. - 1801|February 10|Scott, Richard, Lieut.-Colonel. - „ |June 24|Holemberg, Samuel, London. - „ |... |Roux, Albert, Switzerland. - 1805|May 18|Stansbury, Abraham Ogier, New York. - „ |December 29|Thompson, William, Birmingham. - 1815|March 7|Mitchell, William, Glasgow; and Lawton, John, - | |London. - 1816|May 14|Ruxton, Thomas, Esq., Dublin. - 1817|February 8|Clark, William, Esq., Bath. - 1818|February 3|Chubb, Jeremiah, Portsea. - 1819|October 18|Strutt, Anthony Radford, Mackeney. - 1820|April 11|Jennings, Henry Constantine, Esq., Middlesex. - „ |December 14|Mallett, William, Dublin. - 1823|July 10|Fairbanks, Stephen, Middlesex. - „ |November 13|Ward, John, Middlesex. - 1824|June 15|Chubb, Charles, Portsea. - 1825|May 14|Young, John, Wolverhampton. - 1828|May 17|Chubb, Charles, London. - 1829|June 1|Gottlieb, Andrew, Middlesex. - 1830|January 18|Carpenter, James, and Young, John, Wolverhampton. - „ |January 26|Arnold, John, Sheffield. - 1831|April 14|Rutherford, William, Jedburgh, N.B. - „ |May 23|Barnard, George, Bristol. - „ |July 27|Young, John, Wolverhampton. - 1832|December 20|Parsons, Thomas, London. - 1833|December 3|Parsons, T., Newport, Salop. - „ |December 20|Chubb, Charles, London; and Hunter, E., - | |Wolverhampton. - 1834|September 6|Longfield, William, Otley. - „ |October 11|Audley, Lord Baron Stafford. - 1835|March 18|Hill, R., Birmingham. - „ |December 16|Warwick, J., London. - 1836|February 10|Fenton, Rev. S., Pembroke. - 1838|June 30|Uzielli, M., London. - „ |November 13|Thompson, S., London. - 1839|February 21|Uzielli, M., London. - „ |June 12|Sanders, J. Stafford. - „ |July 3|Cochrane, A., Strand, London. - „ |July 20|Schwieso, J. C., London. - „ |August 1|Williams, W. M., London. - „ |December 2|Guest, J., jun., Birmingham. - 1840|February 27|Williams, W. M., London. - „ |March 20|Gerish, F. W. - „ |May 2|Pearse, W., Hoxton, Middlesex. - „ |June 13|Wolverson, J., and Rawlett, W., Stafford. - „ |October 22|Clark, T. - „ |December 23|Baillie, B., London. - 1841|March 29|Tildesley and Sanders, Willenhall and Wolverhampton. - 1841|May 6|Hancock, James, Sidney-square, Mile End. - „ |July 14|Berry, Miles, Chancery-lane. - „ |September 28|Strong, Theodore Frederick, Goswell-road. - „ |November 9|Smith, Jesse, Wolverhampton. - 1842|January 15|Poole, Moses, Lincoln’s-inn. - „ |May 24|Duce, Joseph, Wolverhampton. - „ |June 1|Williams, W. M., 163 Fenchurch-street. - „ |December 29|Rock, Joseph, jun., Birmingham. - 1843|November 25|Tann, E. E. and J., Hackney-road. - „ |„ „|Rock, Joseph, jun., Birmingham. - 1844|July 30|Fletcher, Rev. William, Moreton House, Buckingham. - 1845|April 15|Carter, George, Willenhall. - „ |July 12|Ratcliff, Edmund, Birmingham. - „ |December 4|Poole, Moses, Lincoln’s-inn. - „ |December 22|Smith, Philip, High-street, Lambeth. - 1846|July 6|De la Fons, John Palmer, Carleton-hill, St. John’s - | |Wood. - „ |July 15|Thomas, William, Cheapside. - „ |December 14|Chubb, John, St. Paul’s Churchyard. - 1847|January 11|Chubb, John, and Hunter, Ebenezer, sen., St. Paul’s - | |Churchyard. - „ |April 15|Collett, Charles Minors, 62 Chancery-lane. - 1848|September 28|Newall, Robert Stirling, Gateshead. - 1849|May 8|Wilkes, Samuel, Wednesbury-heath, Wolverhampton. - -Mr. Chubb also gave a list of such papers m the Transactions of the -Society of Arts as refer to locks and keys. - -_List of References to the “Transactions of the Society of Arts,” on the -subject of Locks._ - - vol. page. - 1. 317 Mr. Moore. - 2. 187 „ Cornthwaite. - 3. 160 Marquis of Worcester. - „ 165 Mr. Taylor. - „ 163 „ Marshall. - 18. 239 „ T. Arkwright. - „ 243 „ Bullock. - 19. 290 „ W. Bullock. - 36. 111 „ M. Somerford. - 38. 111 „ A. Ainger. - „ 205 „ Bramah. - 42. 125 „ J. Duce. - 43. 114 „ W. Friend. - 45. 123 „ Machin. - 48. 132 „ S. Mordan. - 50. 86 „ A. Mackinnon. - 51. 128 „ J. Meighan. - -Among the most curious mechanical productions in the Great Exhibition of -1851, was one which attracted very little notice, viz. that forwarded by -Mr. C. Aubin of Wolverhampton. Whether it was that attention, so far as -regards locks, was too much absorbed by the “lock controversy,” or -whether there was a deficiency of descriptive cataloguing, no juror or -newspaper critic, as far as we are aware, took notice of the production -in question. In the _Official Illustrated Catalogue_ it is entered -simply as “Specimens to illustrate the rise and progress of the art of -making locks, containing forty-four different movements by the most -celebrated inventors in the lock trade.” This trophy of lock ingenuity -(for such it may be justly considered to be) is now in the possession of -Mr. Hobbs. Springing from a hexagonal base-piece is a central axis, -about three feet in height, supporting four horizontal circular discs, -placed at different parts of its height. Each of the vertical faces of -the base-piece contains a lock, which is worked by its respective key. -Each disc contains a number of locks: 16 on the lowest, 12 on the next -above, 9 on the third in height, while a Bramah lock surmounts the -whole. All the locks on the discs are so arranged that their bolts shoot -outwards, or radially away from the axis of the machine. Every lock has -its own proper key inserted in the key-hole; and as the locks lie down -horizontally, the shaft of each key is of course vertical. There are -delicate pieces of mechanism contained within the central axis and -within the discs, consisting of levers, racks, and pinions; and the -Bramah lock is contrived so ingeniously, that the Bramah key, by acting -upon that lock, acts upon all this mechanism. The Bramah barrel, in -rotating horizontally under the action of its key, gives a rotary -movement to a rod passing vertically through the centre of the whole -apparatus; this rod, at the levels of the several discs, acts upon racks -and pinions, and these in turn act upon the key-pins of the several -locks. When, therefore, the Bramah key is turned, the whole of these -key-pins rotate, each exactly in the same way as if the lock were being -closed or opened, and the bolts shoot in or out accordingly. The Bramah -key, although it acts as a master-key, is not such as usually obtains -that designation; it is simply a means of putting in action certain -rack-and-pinion mechanism, which does not belong to lock-work considered -_per se_. All the locks are faithful representatives of the several -patents or modes of construction to which they severally refer; and each -exhibits the works sufficiently open to display the principle on which -it is arranged. Each lock is numbered, and is referred to in an -accompanying description. The works are finished with the utmost care -and polish; and the trophy being somewhat tastefully arranged, and kept -under a glass shade, forms a really elegant specimen of mechanical -skill. - -For an account of the locks themselves which constitute this trophy, we -cannot do better than avail ourselves of the description given in the -article “Lock” in Tomlinson’s _Cyclopædia of Useful Arts_, adding a few -further details in respect to some of the locks of the series. The locks -are arranged and numbered according to their similarity of construction; -and it is instructive to remark the evidence here afforded, that many -patentees would have saved much time and money if they had better known -the productions of their predecessors. In describing these locks we -shall do so briefly, sufficient to shew their relative principles of -construction; many of them having been described more or less fully in -former chapters. - -No. 1 on the list is called a _Roman lock_; it consists of a single -bolt, with a binder-spring for holding the bolt in any position in which -it may be placed until a sufficient force is applied to overcome it: it -embodies the simple principle on which thousands of common locks are -annually made. - -No. 2, called a _French lock_ (all such designations are of rather -doubtful correctness), resembling No. 1 in every thing except having the -addition of a friction-roller. The bolt of either of these two locks can -easily be forced back by pressing on the end. - -No. 3 is marked _Ancient_; it is a bolt-lock, and was found in an -ancient building. It exhibits an improvement on both the former -specimens, in so far as the bolt requires, before it can be shot, to be -pressed down, in order to release it from a catch at the back end of the -bolt; this release cannot be effected without the aid of a key or some -other implement applied through the key-hole, and thus the bolt answers -the purpose both of bolt and tumbler. - -No. 4, also marked _Ancient_, is in principle a single-acting -tumbler-lock; that is, one in which the tumbler may fail to be lifted -high enough, but cannot be raised too high, to release the bolt: whereas -a double-acting tumbler, being susceptible both of too much and too -little ascent, must be raised to one definite and precise height to -attain the required object. - -No. 5, an _old English lock_, exhibits a great advance in principle, -being provided with the double action just described as being wanting in -No. 4. - -No. 6, _modern English_ (no maker’s name), is a single-acting -tumbler-lock. - -No. 7, by _Mace_, is a double-acting tumbler, but without exhibiting any -peculiarities of construction. - -No. 8 is _Somerford’s first patent_. It is a double-acting _draw_ -tumbler-lock; that is, there is a tumbler which is drawn down instead of -being lifted, as in most locks. - -No. 9, designated, we know not on what grounds, an _Indian_ lock, has a -single-acting tumbler with a pin. - -No. 10, patented by Thompson in 1805. In this lock there are two -tumblers, one of which is single and the other double-acting. - -Next follow a considerable number of locks, which differ one from -another too slightly to render any formal description necessary. No. 11, -by _Daniells_, is a single-acting tumbler, differing only in form from -those previously used. No. 12 is by _Walton_. No. 13 is _Barron’s_ first -patent, taken out in 1774. No. 14 is by _Bickerton_. No. 15 is a _Dutch_ -lock. No. 16 is by _Duce_, senior. No. 17, by _Sanders_, is a lock with -four double-acting tumblers. No. 18, patented by _Cornthwaite_ in 1789, -is so nearly like Sanders’s, brought before public notice in 1839, as to -corroborate what we have said concerning the identity, or at least close -resemblance, of inventions widely asunder in point of time. No. 19 is by -_Richards and Peers_. - -No. 20 is _Somerford’s_ second patent; a lock which seems to embody the -principle of Mr. Tann’s “reliance-wards,” patented many years later. No. -21 is _Rowntree’s_ lock, patented in 1790. No. 22 is the first patent -lock of _Duce_, junior, dated 1823. No. 23 is _Parsons’_ first patent, -of 1832. No. 24 is _Bickerton’s_ second. No. 25, patented by _Price_ in -1774; this, so far as at present appears, was the first lock ever -constructed with four double-acting tumblers, bearing a closer -resemblance than would generally be supposed to those patented by other -persons in more recent years. No. 26 exhibits a somewhat similar -coincidence. It was introduced by Aubin in 1830, and is furnished with a -_revolving curtain_ for the purpose of closing the key-hole during the -revolution of the key. Other inventors have since then adopted the -revolving curtain; and in a patent taken out so recently as 1852, this -appendage is claimed as part of the patent. - -No. 27 is _Barron’s_ second patent, dated 1778; a lock which has perhaps -been the model for a larger manufacture of plain simple tumbler-locks -than any other. No. 28 is by _Bird_, 1790. No. 29 is the second patent -of _Duce_, junior. No. 30 is _Ruxton’s_, 1818. No. 31 is _Chubb’s_ -simplified lock, 1834. No. 32 is by _Marr_. No. 33, by _Tann_, is the -“reliance-ward” lock adverted to above as having been anticipated, in -respect to its leading principle, by _Somerford’s_ second patent. No. 34 -is by _Hunter_, 1833. No. 35 is _Parsons’_ second patent, of the same -year. No. 36 is by _Lang_, 1830. No. 37 is _Lawton’s_, dated 1815. No. -38, patented by _Strutt_ in 1839, has an arrangement for holding the -tumblers, in the event of a pressure being applied to the bolt; an -arrangement bearing a considerable resemblance to one recently adopted -in Chubb’s bankers’ lock. No. 39 is by _Scott_, 1815. No. 40, _Chubb’s_ -patent of 1818, is the original detector-lock of this maker. Most of the -detectors since patented by various persons are little other than -variations of Chubb’s original. - -No. 41, _Parsons’_ third patent of 1833, is a _changeable_ lock of -peculiar construction. The elevation of the tumblers is regulated by an -adjusting-screw passing through the lock to the inside of the door; this -screw changes the positive but not the relative positions of the -tumblers; so that the same difference in the steps of the key must be -retained, the change being made only in the length of the bit: the -number of changes for each lock is very limited. - -No. 42, invented by _Pierce_ in 1840, seems to be a carrying out of the -plan suggested by the Marquis of Worcester in his _Century of -Inventions_, where he says that “a lock may be so constructed that if a -stranger attempteth to open it, it catches his hand as a trap catcheth a -fox; though far from maiming him for life, yet marketh him so, that if -once suspected he might easily be detected.” In Pierce’s lock a steel -barb or sharp arrow-head is concealed below the key-hole, in such a -manner that if any person in attempting to open the lock should -over-lift the tumbler, the barb would be thrust by a spring into his -hand. It is said that the patentee himself experienced the efficacy of -this invention, by receiving the barb into his own hand. - -No. 43, by _Ruxton_, patented in 1816, is furnished with a tell-tale, so -arranged that if the tumbler be over-lifted in an attempt to pick the -lock, a pin or catch is thrown out from the lock, which would be visible -on opening the lock with the proper key. This invention preceded Chubb’s -detector by two years, and would be entitled to some of the honours of -originality were not Chubb’s arrangement much more simple and effective. - -No. 44 is _Bramah’s_, the patent of 1784, and the crowning lock of the -trophy, by which all the others are opened. Similar locks by _Russell_ -and _Mordan_ are applications of the Bramah principle, with little or no -variation. - - * * * * * - -No attempt has been made in these pages to describe every variety of -lock that has been introduced. Several forms of puzzle locks, known as -_Russian_ and _Chinese locks_, have the forms of various animals, and -they are locked and unlocked by pressing upon or moving some portion of -the body of the animal: the security of such locks depends in many cases -upon keeping the part to be pressed or moved secret. There are also -various forms of alarum locks; but these do not greatly differ from -common locks, except in having certain appendages, such as a pistol, -which if loaded and properly adjusted, will be fired on any attempt -being made to open the lock, either with its own key or some other -instrument. Some locks are furnished with a bell or a rattle, which is -rung or sprung on attempting to open the lock, and in this way the -inmates of the house are informed of the attempt to effect an entrance. -It will, however, be evident to any one who has read the preceding -pages, that devices of this kind do not add to the security of the lock; -they rather tend to degrade the art of the locksmith to that of the -toyman. The locksmith, in common with every other artist, can only -improve in his art by studying the principles upon which it rests, and -illustrating them by the most approved examples which the constructive -genius of his predecessors or contemporaries has furnished. - - - - -APPENDIX. - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -ON AN IMPROVED CONSTRUCTION OF LOCK AND KEY.[12] - - [12] By J. Beverley Fenby, Mechanical Engineer, of Birmingham. - Extracted chiefly from the Proceedings of the Institution of - Mechanical Engineers, 1866. - -The simple _fixed-guard_ or _warded_ lock is so utterly worthless for -security, no matter what amount of good workmanship be bestowed upon it, -that it demands but short notice. It was contrived with the intention of -making the passage to the bolt intricate; but it will be seen at once -that this intricacy does not really offer any security. The wards of a -lock are circular arcs of thin metal, so arranged as to require a key of -peculiar pattern to pass amongst them, the shape of the cuts in the key -being a section of the wards. To make a really complicated box of wards, -and to cut keys which shall accurately fit their sweep, is a matter -requiring considerable manual dexterity; and some warded locks are -therefore expensive. But even with the best of them, all that it is -necessary to do for opening the lock is to take a blank key which will -properly fit the keyhole, coat it with wax, and then inserting it in the -lock, press it round against the wards, which will cause them to leave -an accurate impression of their section on the key. The parts impressed -are then cut out with small files, drills, and saws, and the occasional -use of fine cross-cut chisels. The key will then pass those wards which -impressed themselves upon it; and if these are the only wards, it will -go completely round and open the lock. If there are also other wards in -addition, not brought up flush with the first wards, the key is waxed -again and pressed against them, and then further cut out, as before. -This process is evidently one of absolute certainty, and the key so made -is in all respects as capable of mastering the lock as the original key. - -These warded locks are however easily opened with merely a piece of bent -steel wire,--bent into such a sweep as will reach right round the wards -instead of passing amongst them, thus escaping all chance of being -obstructed by them. Such an instrument is called by burglars a “twirl.” - -The fixed-guard or warded lock was the one in general use in the middle -ages. - -The next kind of lock is the _tumbler_ lock, in which the bolt is moved -backwards and forwards by the key as usual, but these movements cannot -take place till a small lever with a stump on one side be lifted. This -lever and stump form the tumbler, which is held down by a spring; and in -the tail of the bolt are two notches, into one of which the stump fits -when the bolt is shot, and into the other when it is withdrawn. All that -is necessary to effect the picking of this lock is to lift the tumbler -high enough for clearing the stump out of the notch, and then draw back -the bolt. The tumbler may be lifted with one pick, and the bolt drawn -back with another; but generally one pick will suffice for both -purposes. - -In the Barron tumbler lock the principle of double-action was -introduced. - -The next improvement was the _lever_ lock properly so called, under -which designation the majority of the modern locks may be classed. - -The Bramah lock was an admirable contrivance with remarkably beautiful -mechanism contained in a small compass; and since its invention there -have been several ingenious modifications of the same principle in -different radial locks, such as the Yale lock, in which the slides move -radially instead of axially. One advantage in these radial locks is the -greater difficulty in copying the keys, in comparison with the flat keys -of ordinary lever locks: this difficulty however is not an -insurmountable one. - -A very ingenious addition was made to the action of the lever lock in -Newell’s American lock, which was shown in the 1851 Exhibition, and -described at page 89 of the present volume. - -Though locks such as those already referred to exhibit great -dissimilarity of construction, yet there is one point in which they all -agree, and that is in the possession of a direct passage from the -outside to the works. Although various locks have been devised with the -object of having no direct passage to the works from the outside, one -consideration shows the inevitable existence of such a passage; namely, -that without it the key could not possibly at one and the same time -touch the hand of the operator and the works of the lock. It therefore -follows that any instrument which can pass in the same space as the key -may be brought to bear on the works, whatever may be their construction. - -It can now be shown that, if picking instruments are thus brought to -bear on the works through the keyhole, there is a regular tentative -system whereby the picking of any lock with an open keyhole can sooner -or later be effected. - -From the foregoing observations it is evident that there are two -important defects in the principle of the previous lever locks, which -being defects in principle are fatal to their security; namely, the -means of access to the works of the lock through the keyhole, allowing -of a series of attempts being made to open the lock by picking -instruments; and also the facility afforded for repeating the trial of a -false key made from a wax impression of the true key, and thus -perfecting it by successive alterations after trial. In consequence of -the possibility thus allowed of making these successive attempts either -by picking instruments or by a false key, it has been shown by the -cases that have occurred of locks of the best makes which have been -falsely opened, that, however numerous and complicated may be the -secondary impediments introduced into these locks, there can be no real -security against the ultimate success of sufficiently numerous and -persevering attempts, except by the adoption of some new principle of -construction specially meeting the above two defects. - -[Illustration: fig. 53.] - -In the invention of the Improved Lock and Key now to be described, and -which has been termed the _adytic_ lock,[13] the writer’s object has -been to meet this requirement. In fig. 53 is shown an elevation of this -lock, such as is made for an iron safe; two of the front cover plates -being removed to show the construction. - - [13] From the Greek αδυτος, _inaccessible_. - -The head B of the main bolt is of such a thickness as to be flush with -the face of the levers L and guard A; and the strap or tail D of the -bolt is thin, and passes behind the levers and guard, and also behind -the plate H H. The part of the tail D which would lie under the levers L -and cylinder C is removed, as seen in fig. 54, and replaced by a -separate flat plate or stump-bolt, carrying the stump S. This stump-bolt -has a projection K upon it, let into a recess in the tail D of the main -bolt, but with ¹⁄₁₀th inch vertical play in the recess. A spring in the -tail of the main bolt presses the stump-bolt downwards, keeping the -stump S in the notches of the levers L, as shown in fig. 53. The -stump-bolt can thus descend ¹⁄₁₀th inch at first without moving the main -bolt, and this amount of vertical movement is sufficient to carry the -stump in and out of the notches in the levers; but the stump-bolt cannot -descend further without taking the main bolt with it. - -[Illustration: fig. 54.] - -[Illustration: fig. 55.] - -Immediately in front of the bolts comes the fixed plate H H, in which is -cut the cam groove shown by the dotted line J J; and also the vertical -slot E for the pin P to work through, together with another vertical -slot in which the stump S fits and works. This plate carries the centre -pin U on which the levers L turn. The levers are six in number, though -any other number may be used; and they occupy collectively ³⁄₈ths inch -thickness. In front of the plate H is fixed the guard A, which is made -of iron or steel, and has the brass cylinder C ground into it. The guard -is made a shade thicker than the levers L, in order to prevent the back -plate H and the corresponding front plate from being so tightened on the -levers as to impede their freedom of movement. The cylinder C is the -same thickness as the levers, excepting the centre boss F, which -projects from the back of the cylinder and works in a bearing in the -back plate H, and also projects in front through the thickness of the -two front cover plates. The small keyhole in the centre of the boss goes -only a short distance into the cylinder C, being merely for the purpose -of enabling the stem of the key M, fig. 55, to turn the cylinder; the -bit of the key is a separate piece, N, fig. 57, which is inserted -through a separate keyhole into the radial slot of the revolving -cylinder C, as shown at N in fig. 53. - -This radial slot is cut in the side of the cylinder C that is furthest -from the levers when the cylinder is in the position shown in fig. 53; -and in the slot fits the slide block R, which is a steel block having a -pin projecting on each side. The back pin enters the guide groove J J in -the back plate H, as shown by the dotted line, and the front pin enters -the corresponding guide groove in the front cover plate, which is shown -removed. The back pin of the slide block projects through the back plate -H, as shown in fig. 56, and works in the cam groove O in the tail of the -stump-bolt S, fig. 54, which is so shaped that as the slide block -travels round the guide groove J J, shown by the dotted lines, it moves -the stump-bolt vertically as may be required according to the position -of the bolts and levers. - -[Illustration: fig. 56.] - -In the position of the lock shown in fig. 53, the bit N has been -inserted into the vacant space of the radial slot in the cylinder C, in -front of the slide block R. The size of this vacant space is ³⁄₈ths inch -long by ¹⁄₈th inch wide and ³⁄₈ths inch deep; and in the two front cover -plates of the lock, and also in the door to which the lock is attached, -a hole is made of the same shape. In the door there is no bearing for -the centre boss F, but only a small keyhole corresponding in size with -that in the boss F for inserting the stem of the key. - - * * * * * - -In the position of the parts shown in fig. 53, it will be seen that the -levers L are held pressing down against the circumference of the -cylinder C by their springs I bearing against the pin P. In this -position also the bolt spring between the main bolt and the stump-bolt, -fig. 54, presses the stump S down into the notches of the levers, so -that the levers are completely locked by the stump, as seen in fig. 53. - -In order to unlock the lock, which in fig. 53 is shown with the bolt -shot, it is necessary that all the gatings G in the levers should be -brought precisely under the stump S. Through the centre keyhole F there -is no communication possible at any time with the levers L; nor will any -instrument, however slender, if passed into the radial slot through the -aperture at N be able to reach them, whether the cylinder C be in the -position shown in fig. 53 or turned round into any other position. For -the only difference made by turning the solid cylinder C is that the -radial slot in it is carried away from the aperture in the external -plates, and the solid part of the cylinder is brought opposite to the -aperture, which is thereby completely closed against the insertion of a -picking instrument. This construction accordingly not only precludes the -possibility of opening this lock with an ordinary key, in which the part -that acts on the levers is attached to the stem of the key, but it also -renders it an absolute impossibility to introduce a pick of any form, as -nothing can reach the levers L except a detached piece of such a size -and shape as to be capable of travelling round in the vacant space left -in front of the slide block R in the radial slot of the cylinder C. - -[Illustration: fig. 57.] - -For the purpose of unlocking the lock the bit N, fig. 57, is used. This -bit is of such a size as to fit into the vacant space of ³⁄₈ × ³⁄₈ × ¹⁄₈ -inch in the radial slot of the cylinder C; and the indent at V is merely -for the purpose of ensuring the insertion of the bit in the right -direction, the external aperture for the bit being made with a -corresponding projection to fit the indent in the bit. This bit being -inserted through the aperture in the door, is pushed in by means of the -key stem M, which is flattened on two sides for that purpose, as shown -in fig. 55; and the bit is thus pushed home into its place in the radial -slot of the cylinder, as shown at N, fig. 53. - -The key stem M is now inserted into the centre keyhole F, and the -cylinder is turned round by it in the direction shown by the arrow, -carrying round the slide block R and the bit N. The slide block R, while -moving through the concentric portion at the commencement of the guide -grooves J J, does not affect the bit; but by means of the cam groove O -in the tail of the stump-bolt, fig. 54, it moves that bolt so far as to -lift the stump S completely out of the notches in the levers L, which -are thereby left free to be raised. On continuing to turn the cylinder -C, the eccentric part of the guide grooves J J causes the slide block R -to move outwards along the radial slot, pushing the bit N before it; and -the bit is thus made to project beyond the circumference of the -cylinder, which it can then do, being no longer confined by the guard A. -The further projection of the bit as the cylinder revolves causes the -steps in the bit to lift their respective levers; and the steps in the -bit are so arranged that, when the cylinder arrives at the position -shown in fig. 58, all the gatings G are brought simultaneously opposite -the stump S, which is instantly shot down through the distance of the -¹⁄₁₀th inch play by the bolt spring. The bit N remains in contact with -the extreme part T of the levers while the stump S is entering the -gatings, the action of the bolt spring being so rapid that the bit -cannot move through any appreciable distance during the time. - -[Illustration: fig. 58.] - -In other locks a spring action of this kind would greatly facilitate the -picking, inasmuch as it would afford the gentle uniform pressure desired -upon the levers. In other locks, therefore, the bolt is caused to move, -and the stump to enter the gatings, by the direct contact of the key -with the bolt, instead of by a spring; but as the key, while moving the -stump into the gatings, is also altering its position under the levers, -a slight tremulous motion of the levers is thereby occasioned, which no -care in manufacture can obviate. This tremulous motion is aggravated by -the circumstance that, as the keyhole is open to inspection, it is -necessary to make all the levers fit flush with one another when down, -in order to avoid affording any clue to the shape of the key from the -positions of the levers; but as the various steps of the key, being of -different lengths, describe different arcs, the curves of the levers -when raised are of necessity in error to them all. The result of these -combined faults is that the gatings have to be made wider than the -stump, to allow a sufficient amount of play, thus introducing a fatal -element of insecurity in the construction of the lock, since the -security is of course enhanced in proportion as the gatings fit the -stump accurately. In the new lock, on the contrary, the arc T, fig. 58, -in each lever, can be shaped truly to its own proper radius, independent -of all the rest of the levers; and as the action of the stump is -instantaneous in catching the gatings as soon as they are all brought -simultaneously under it, the stump and gatings can be made to fit one -another with the most perfect accuracy, and without the slightest play. - -On turning the cylinder C further round, the bit N passes from under the -levers, which remain held back by the insertion of the stump in the -gatings; and just before reaching the position shown in fig. 59, the -slide block R has pushed the bit completely out of the radial slot, and -the bit falls down as shown in fig. 59, and drops through a hole into -the inside of the safe that is locked. At this point the back pin of the -slide block comes in contact with the lower side of the cam groove O in -the stump-bolt, fig. 54; and by turning the cylinder C onwards to the -position shown in fig. 60, the withdrawal of the bolt B is completed, -bringing the parts into the position shown in fig. 60. In these drawings -only one lever L is shown; but there are altogether six levers, as -shown in the sectional plan, fig. 56. The pin P is fixed in the tail D -of the main bolt, so as to travel with the bolt; and by this means the -springs I are released from strain, as shown in fig. 60, as soon as the -bolt is withdrawn. - -[Illustration: fig. 59.] - - * * * * * - -From the nicety with which the various parts of this lock are -constructed, it is evident that the levers must be very accurately -lifted by the bit of the key in order to withdraw the bolt; and -therefore any error in the bit, such as would occur with a false bit, -will effectually prevent the lock from being opened. This may be -illustrated by supposing the false bit to be so close an imitation as to -have five of its steps absolutely correct, and the sixth only slightly -wrong: though it is almost impossible that such a near approach to -correctness could be attained in practice. The counterfeit bit being -inserted in the lock, and the cylinder turned round, all will go on the -same as with the true bit, up to the time when the false bit reaches -the point T of the levers, as previously shown with the true bit in fig. -58. Here a change of action takes place; but what is the nature of the -change the operator has no means as yet of ascertaining. In the case -supposed, where five of the steps in the bit are right, but the sixth is -wrong, the gating of the sixth lever does not precisely coincide with -the others, nor with the stump S; and the consequence is that, at the -critical moment when the stump ought to spring into the gatings and hold -back the levers from falling forwards, it will be prevented from -entering the gatings, owing to the entrance being partly blocked up by -the one lever, which stands more or less across it. - -[Illustration: fig. 60.] - -The fact, however, that the stump cannot enter the gatings, does not -become known to the operator until the cylinder C has been turned -further round, so as to bring the slide-block pin in contact with the -lower side of the cam groove O in the stump-bolt; and before this point -has been reached the false bit has already passed clear of the levers, -which, not being retained by the stump, are instantly thrown forwards -again by their springs, and locked in their original position by the -stump entering the notches. At the same time the false bit has dropped -into the inside of the safe in the same manner as the true bit, as shown -in fig. 61. - -[Illustration: fig. 61.] - -Hence a person putting a false bit into one of these locks will not only -infallibly lose it at the very first trial, but will do so without -gaining any information as to the nature of its inaccuracy; for as the -gatings of the levers cannot be seen or felt, all that can be told about -the action of a false bit is, that it has failed to open the lock. In -fact, a counterfeit bit passes under the levers, and through the lock, -just like the true bit; and it is only the stoppage afterwards met with -of the bolt that indicates the failure of the false bit, which is by -that time gone beyond recovery. Whatever amount of labour, therefore, -may have been spent on the fabrication of a counterfeit bit, this bit -can only be tried once, so that no alteration can afterwards be made in -it. - -Nothing that can be inserted into the radial slot of the cylinder C -through the aperture in the front plates can do any injury to the lock; -and a charge of gunpowder inserted in that way would only blow out -again at the orifice without damaging the lock, both the apertures for -the key being merely blind holes with parallel sides. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: fig. 62.] - -[Illustration: fig. 63.] - -For the manufacture of the bits for the keys of this lock a self-acting -machine is employed, in which the height and width of the several steps -in the bit are regulated by adjustments of very great accuracy, and -admitting of an almost endless variety of figure for the bits. This -key-cutting machine is shown in figs. 62 to 64, and consists of a small -circular saw A running vertically, of the same thickness as each step -in the bit I, which is brought up to the saw by the slide-rest B. The -bit I is fixed in the holder C, which rocks upon a centre, so as to give -the required curvature to the edge of each step in the bit when cut by -the saw, as shown in the full-size section of the bit-holder, fig. 63. -The adjustment of the depth of cut is effected by the set screw D upon -the slide-rest coming up against the eccentric ring E upon the bed of -the slide-rest; this ring is turned round by hand, and set to sixteen -different positions by means of the catch-pin F and the sixteen holes on -the circumference of the ring, allowing of sixteen different depths of -cut. The lateral adjustment for the pitch between the successive steps -of the bit is effected by the two bed-screws G G acting on the -slide-rest B, having a dividing plate on the head, and such a pitch of -thread that one turn of the screws traverses the slide-rest through the -exact distance of one step in the bit. The occurrence of any play or -backlash is entirely prevented by having the screws placed one at each -end of the slide-rest; so that by slacking back one screw through one or -more turns, and then advancing the other through the same number of -turns, the slide-rest is always held with perfect steadiness between -them, filling exactly the space between the ends of the two screws. - -The number of changes admissible in this key-cutting machine, if used -for making keys for locks having six levers, is the number of -permutations that sixteen terms are capable of when taken six together, -which is upwards of sixteen millions. Some of these changes are so -slight that too great accuracy of workmanship would be required to make -the locks accordingly; but of those changes that differ from one another -so far that no lock could be opened by any other than its own key, more -remain than could be used up by all the locks in the world. - -[Illustration: fig. 64.] - -The writer may observe that it was the study of the circumstances of the -great gold robbery on the 15th of May, 1855, by Agar and his -confederates (when two of the best lever locks were picked, and gold -stolen weighing upwards of 200 lbs., while in transit on the -South-Eastern Railway from London to Paris, packed in three sealed -iron-bound boxes, inclosed in a bullion safe, secured by those locks), -and of the various modes of picking locks, which led him to turn his -attention to the achievement of what had been so long and perseveringly -sought after, namely, an unpickable lock. The principle of a detached -bit has been previously tried, in so far as that locks have been made in -which the bit of the key was deposited in the lock by unscrewing the key -stem, and then withdrawn by screwing in the stem again. But inasmuch as -the detached bit, even though it failed to open the lock in the case of -a counterfeit key, could always be brought back again to the keyhole and -removed, this admitted of a repetition of attempts with successive -alterations of the one counterfeit key, without the certainty that any -warning would be given by the lock of such attempts having been made. - -In another still more complicated lock with a detached bit there were -two keyholes, into one of which the bit of the key was put, and the stem -being then unscrewed from the bit, was put into the second keyhole and -turned round so as to close the first keyhole over the bit; a separate -handle was then turned to work the lock, six separate operations being -required for either opening or closing the lock. Further, a kind of -retainer has been attempted by so arranging the lock that, if any key -was put in but the right one, it was held in the keyhole in such a -manner that it could never be got out. In this case, however, if the -false key would not open the lock, neither would it let even the right -one do so, and it would be necessary to break open the door secured by -the lock. - - * * * * * - -In the new lock here described, the special points that have been aimed -at are the following:-- - -Firstly, in no position of the lock is there any access to the works -from the outside through the keyhole. This access through the keyhole is -more or less a defect in all other principles of lock, as it admits of -feeling and manipulating the works for the purpose of getting -information for picking the lock in the absence of the right key; -whereas in the new lock there is no opening whatever at any time, except -the two plain parallel recesses into which the key and the bit are -fitted. From the moment the turning of the lock commences both these -recesses are effectually blocked up: the one for the bit being conveyed -bodily away from the keyhole, and its place taken by the solid metal of -the cylinder; while the other is completely filled by the key, which -cannot be withdrawn except by turning it back to the original position. -In consequence of this construction no injury can be done to the lock by -explosion of gunpowder in the keyhole, the only openings from the -outside being parallel at their sides, and not communicating with any -portion of the interior of the lock; and the simplicity and solidity of -construction are such that the revolving cylinder is made practically -air-tight within its bearing. This effectually prevents all attempts to -open the lock by picklocks, and leaves no alternative but the attempt to -make a sufficiently accurate copy of the true key. - -Secondly, as no clue whatever can be obtained from the outside of the -lock respecting the key required, the attempts upon the lock are thus -limited to the chance of obtaining a wax impression of the true key. The -difficulty of making a counterfeit key sufficiently correct by this -means for opening one of the best of the previous constructions of lock -is very great; but in the new lock this difficulty is greatly increased -by the fact of the levers remaining absolutely stationary while the -stump enters the gatings, in consequence of which the gatings are made -so close a fit to the stump that an exceedingly minute error in the -lifting of any of the levers is sufficient to prevent the lock being -opened. This extreme delicacy of construction can be carried out -practically without objection in the new lock, because there is no -possibility of putting a strain from the key upon the stump, so as to -cause injury by forcing it at the moment of entering the gatings; for -the only force acting upon the stump at that time is the uniform -pressure of its own spring. In addition to this source of increased -safety, there is the still more important circumstance that only a -single trial can be made of each counterfeit bit; because, if carried -forwards far enough to try its effect in opening the lock by passing the -levers, the bit is inevitably lost by falling through the lock and -inside the door. Thus not only is all chance prevented of a second trial -with the same key, but the bit retained inside the door gives warning of -the attempt having been made, and shows how near the counterfeit key has -approached to the original. The numerous cases that have occurred of -attempts to open locks by counterfeit keys, such as the remarkable -instance previously referred to, show that even with the most practised -hands it is next to impossible to make from a wax impression a key that -will serve for opening a good lock the very first time it is tried; and -the striking importance is therefore seen of this arrangement in the new -lock, which prevents more than a single attempt being made with a -counterfeit. - -Thirdly, another advantage to be named in this lock is that the stem -alone of the key is required to lock it, but it can only be unlocked by -the complete key. The stem, therefore, can be left by the principal of -an establishment for locking up by a subordinate; but the bit, which is -the essential part of the key required for opening the lock, need never -be used or seen by any one but the principal himself. As the hole in the -external door-plate for the stem of the key has a notch on one side only -to admit the key stem, and the cylinder is prevented from making a -complete revolution, the stem of the key cannot be withdrawn from the -lock except when the bolt is shot; so that its absence from the keyhole -serves as a proof that the bolt is shot. - -Fourthly, one other advantage in this lock is its simplicity and -solidity of construction. It contains no more parts than the simpler -forms of lever lock having the same number of levers, and the total -number of separate pieces in the complete lock is only sixteen. The -principle of security, therefore, upon which the new lock is -constructed, avoids entirely the complications and the delicate and -minute class of work rendered necessary in other locks by the use of -detectors and the other auxiliary contrivances employed for increasing -the difficulty of picking. - - * * * * * - -Mr. Fenby exhibited, at a _conversazione_ of the Institute of Civil -Engineers, and at the meeting of Mechanical Engineers, specimens of his -adytic lock, and showed its action both with the true key and with -counterfeit keys; and he showed by trial that the counterfeit failed to -open the lock, notwithstanding that by means of the permutating cutting -machine it had been made a much nearer approach to a perfect copy than -was practicable in the best handwork from a wax impression. He also -exhibited the key-cutting machine employed for cutting the bits; and -also a set of burglar’s tools employed for drilling into the door of an -iron safe sufficiently for breaking open or removing the lock, showing -that the hold required for giving the cutting pressure upon the powerful -drill employed for the purpose was obtained by a steel cross piece -inserted into the keyhole and turned at right angles, so as to hold -across inside the lock; but in the new lock, as the keyhole had no -opening into the lock, and only a slight shoulder on one side, no means -were afforded for obtaining the required hold for the drill. - -The following are the salient points of the discussion that followed the -reading of his paper:-- - -The Chairman remarked that the paper just read gave a very excellent and -clear description of the detailed working of the new lock, and he -thought this construction of lock was a most valuable one, as affording -real security against all fraudulent attempts. He inquired whether there -would be any possibility of tampering with the lock by examining it upon -the inside of a safe door, whenever the door might happen to be left -unlocked. - -Mr. Fenby replied that there was no means of tampering with the lock -from the inside of the door, as the two keyholes for working the lock -were only in the front face of the door, and the lock was all closed up -on the inside of the door, excepting the hole through which the bit was -allowed to drop out; but this would be useless for the purpose of -tampering with the lock, as the bit dropped down a tube leading to the -bottom of the door, through which no examination of the lock could be -successfully made. - -The Chairman inquired whether there was any provision against the bit -being accidentally locked up inside the safe, in which case it appeared -the lock could not be opened again. - -Mr. Fenby replied that the owner of the safe must of course be careful -after unlocking the safe to take the bit out before locking it again, -otherwise there would be no means of opening the lock afterwards with -that key. As a precaution, however, against any such accident, each lock -was provided with three bits, all duplicates, one of which would be kept -in the pocket for use, while the two others would be preserved in a -place of safety for the chance of any such contingency. Moreover, in -most of the safes fitted with these locks, the tube through which the -bit dropped had been made of such a length as to carry out the bit on -opening the door, dropping it into a small tin tray outside the safe; -and by this means the accidental locking in of the right bit was -rendered impossible. One of the advantages of the new lock was that the -stem of the key was not required to be kept constantly in the possession -of the owner, but it might be left in the lock, as the bit alone was the -valuable part of the key; and as the bits were of such small size and -convenient shape, a number of them might readily be kept in the pocket -by a person having charge of a number of safes, without the -inconvenience attending a large bunch of ordinary keys. In the case of -an attempt being made to open the lock with a counterfeit bit, the -advantages of retaining the counterfeit inside the safe were not merely -that the person attempting the lock was deprived of his instrument, -while the proprietor immediately discovered the attempt upon the next -occasion of opening the safe; but the retention of the counterfeit -itself afforded the means of judging, by a comparison with the true bit, -whether the attempt had been made altogether in the dark as to the -actual construction of the lock, or whether it was likely that some clue -regarding the true bit had been obtained by means of a wax impression or -otherwise. In the latter case the owner of the safe might think it -desirable to have the lock taken off, and the arrangement of the levers -altered, and a new bit made so as to baffle any further attempts. - -Mr. W. S. Longridge observed that the inconvenience that had been -alluded to with the new lock, of accidentally locking up the bit inside -the safe, was no greater than occurred with an ordinary safe lock if -ever the key was accidentally lost; in either case, unless the -precaution was taken of keeping a duplicate in reserve, it would of -course be necessary to have the safe broken open. - -The Chairman inquired how the ideas had been arrived at of separating -the bit from the key, and of preventing all access to the works through -the keyhole, and also of retaining the bit inside the door after any -attempt at unlocking. - -Mr. Fenby replied that his attention had in the first instance been -attracted to the subject of the picking of locks as a mechanical -problem, and he had found that there had hitherto been no principle in -lockmaking which could effectually baffle persevering attempts at -picking. For although there were certain complicated constructions of -locks, having many points of excellence, they had all yielded in time to -the picking instrument in clever hands; and it must be remembered that -any individual lock when once constructed remained stationary as -regarded subsequent improvement, whereas the art of picking that lock -was continually progressing towards success, with all previous -constructions of locks, and it was clear therefore that the lock must -ultimately be defeated. He had been further stimulated in the -investigation of this subject by the occurrence of the great gold -robbery referred to at page 188; and the circumstance which had struck -him most forcibly in connection with that robbery had been that locks of -the best make hitherto known had admitted of seven successive trials -being made upon them without detection, each trial furnishing the -information for further perfecting the counterfeit key, until the locks -were at length opened. - -These considerations had led him to the conclusion that two points were -established and were required to be kept in view for the construction of -any lock that should be really secure against fraudulent attempts. The -first point was that wherever a man could get instruments into the lock -he could ultimately solve any problem laid before him by the maker of -the lock, as the lock when once made could be tried any number of times -if an instrument could be got into it at all. Hence he had concluded -that it was requisite for all access to the interior to be cut off, so -as to preclude all possibility of getting a pick-lock in; and this was -accordingly accomplished by adopting the plan of separating the bit from -the stem of the key. The second point established was that it was -necessary to prevent the possibility of making a succession of trials -with the same counterfeit key; and it had then struck him that, if the -bit of the key were arranged to drop inside the safe in unlocking, there -would be no means of going on gradually improving and touching up the -counterfeit from the results of previous trials, as the false bit would -be irrecoverably lost in the very first attempt, without furnishing any -clue whatever as a guide for alteration in a subsequent trial. The first -lock that he had invented for meeting the requirements thus pointed out -had been made with a solid block having a tunnel through it, but -involving the same principle of retaining the bit of the key and keeping -the levers inaccessible from the outside. Subsequently, however, he had -abandoned that construction and produced the new lock shown in the -drawings, having the revolving barrel with radial slot. - -The Chairman proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Fenby for his paper, which -was passed. - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -FENBY’S PATENT STOP-LOCK. - -This lock has been designed with a view to doing away with several weak -points in the construction of lever locks. - -The introduction of the movable stump by Mr. Hobbs, in order to defeat -picking by the tentative method of applying pressure to the bolt, so as -to cause binding between the stump and the levers, was a great advance -in the art of lock-making. - -The movable stump, as so constructed, was, however, open to this -objection, that while sufficiently delicate and certain in its action to -render picking very difficult, it was at the same time, through the -smallness of its parts--resulting from the confined space available for -its action--unsuited to withstand any amount of force applied to push -back the bolt. - -[Illustration: fig. 65.] - -In the lock under notice the stump _s_ is formed in the solid on the -shorter arm _a_¹ of a cranked lever or oscillating stop _a_. This stop -_a_ works on the steel pin or centre _b_, which latter has a bearing in -both plates of the lock. At the end _a_ of the stop _a_ is a recess -formed to fit the corner _d_ of the bolt-head. _c_ is a stud limiting -the range of _a_ in an upward direction, so that when in its normal -position the stop _a_ may just clear the bolt-head, as shown in figs. -65, 66, and 67. The tail of the bolt, instead of being in the form -usually adopted, is formed of the bar _e_ set on edge so as to reach -from the back to the front plate of the lock, completely dividing the -lower part, in which the keyhole lies, from the upper, in which the main -parts of the works are placed. - -This bar _e_ works between the guide pieces _g g_, so that in whatever -position the bolt may be, the division of the lock into two chambers is -complete. At _f_ is the recess in which the key acts to move the bolt. -The levers _l_ turn upon the pin _i_ formed in the solid of the -bolt-head. The part of each lever on which the key is to act passes -through a slot or recess in _e_, the parts _h_ and _h_¹ of the levers -being struck to the arcs of circles, having their centres coincident -with that upon which the levers turn at _i_. - -As it is not possible to lift the levers out of this slot in the bar -_e_, and further, as the levers and bolt move together in a longitudinal -direction, the movements necessary to locking and unlocking open no -communication between the upper and lower chambers of the lock. - -The springs of the levers are formed out of the solid metal of the -levers themselves, and are thus not liable to that displacement which so -often occurs with separate springs, nor to the corrosion by oxidation -incidental to steel springs. They are cut round the corner, and down the -front of the lever, to gain greater elasticity. - -In fig. 65 the lock is shown with the front plate removed, and the works -as they stand when unlocked. Fig. 66 is the same, except that the works -are shown locked, and the back plate removed instead of the front. Fig. -67 shows the _front_ view of fig. 66. Fig. 68 shows the result of any -attempt to pick the lock by pressure. - -[Illustration: fig. 66.] - -[Illustration: fig. 67.] - -[Illustration: fig. 68.] - -The lock being locked, as shown in figs. 66 and 67, it will be seen that -the stop _a_ just clears the angle _d_ of the bolt-head. Further, that -the gatings _r_ of the levers _l_ cannot pass the stump _s_, unless the -levers be so lifted as to coincide with each other and the stump. The -stop _a_ being held up by a very light pressure from the lever springs, -a small force applied to the stump _s_ is sufficient to upset its -equilibrium, and bring down its end _a_² upon the bolt-head at _d_, as -shown in fig. 68. This occurs whenever an attempt is made to “_feel_” -the stump with the levers; and not only does the stop _a_ free the -levers from all pressure, and so preserve them and the stump from -injury, and the lock from being picked, but it also forms a strut for -securing the bolt: in fact, no violence short of that necessary to shear -the pin _b_ can make the bolt yield. - -The drawings show a mortise lock, but the improvements shown are -universally applicable in the construction of locks of all kinds. - -For the manufacture of these and other locks, and kindred articles, -Messrs. J. B. Fenby and Co., engineers of the Liverpool Works, -Birmingham, have put up, from the designs of their managing partner, Mr. -J. Beverley Fenby, an experimental set of machinery, almost entirely -self-acting, and calculated to turn out large quantities of the -component parts of locks and other articles with extreme accuracy and -rapidity. - -The whole set works on the interchangeable system--as already in use for -military small arms. It is not, however, to be supposed that, because -the parts of the locks are interchangeable, one key will open several -locks--such a source of insecurity being guarded against by the -permutating key-cutting machines invented by Mr. Fenby. These machines -give complete command over the making of keys, whether it be required to -make a comparatively unlimited number, all differing from each other, to -make a number alike, or to make sets with master keys. - -Atmospheric and hydraulic pressure also plays an important part in -shaping many of the parts of the locks. - - -NOTE UPON IRON SAFES. - -At the conclusion of this work upon locks it will not be out of place to -make a few remarks upon the degree of real safety that attaches to what -are commonly called “safes,” and to point out in a common-sense way what -are the chief dangers that these may incur from depredators (whether -burglars or in times of public anarchy and violence), and what are the -main conditions to be relied upon for safety--assuming that, by one or -other of the constructions pointed out in the preceding pages, the -_lock_ of the safe be such as to be practically unpickable, and that -carelessness shall not have placed the true key in the possession of the -thief. - -There can be no doubt upon the mind of any mechanic or engineer, -thoroughly acquainted with practical working in metals, that a -good deal of what has been brought forward and affirmed, both by -safe-makers and by burglars themselves (turned approvers), as to the -wonderfully-ingenious devices resorted to by the latter, by which, if we -were to believe it all, nothing in the shape of steel or iron can -possibly withstand ultimately the redoubtable powers of these people, is -simply fiction--imaginary ingenuity utterly impracticable if tried. -Such, for example, is the notion of its being possible, by an ounce or -two of gunpowder exploded in the interior, to so blow asunder and -dislocate the parts of a well-made safe-lock that the bolts shall then -be easily got loose, or that a steel-plated safe which resists the drill -can be softened “by the blowpipe.” And just as absurd are some of the -wonderful pieces of ingenuity by which some of the burglars’ actual -devices are supposed to be met and frustrated; as, for example, one for -which we believe a patent has been obtained, consisting in filling-in -the hollow space between the inside and outside plates of the safe with -cast-iron bullets left loose. These might, no doubt, break a -_flat_-stemmed drill, after that had pierced the outer plate, but could -have no effect whatever upon a _round_-shanked drill, such as one of the -ordinary American spiral, or _teredo_-pointed drills. - -That there are some methods of violence still untried, and yet at the -command of the burglar who dares to risk a tolerably loud noise of -explosive agents, is well known to skilful mechanical engineers, and for -obvious reasons it would be unwise that we should give any information -as to such; but the real practical and too-often effectual methods of -the burglar limit themselves almost entirely to the use of the -succession of steel wedges, followed by the powerful steel-pointed -pinching bar, or bars, to the forcing or prizing-screw, and to making -more or less way for this by cutting out beforehand by the pin-drill. - -A safe, to be safe, must be so circumstanced or so constructed, or both, -that it should be able to resist the best efforts that can be made by -these methods for several hours; perhaps we might say as much as thirty -to thirty-six hours--viz., from Saturday night to Monday morning. - -Now we hesitate not to say that the unsafeness of “safes” arises not -from any structural difficulty whatever, but almost always from the -parsimony and ignorance of those who purchase and employ them. Safes, -like razors, are made to sell, and if the public demand is for cheap -safes, such as we see every day advertised in the newspapers, it was -sure to have been, and is, met by a supply of things called safes which -are utterly unsafe. The great mass of the showy green and gold gewgaws -that one sees in the safe-shop windows, with flaming testimonials as to -their fire and burglar-proof powers, are simple shams: a genuine safe -could not be made at their prices. - -The very first condition to constitute a genuine safe is that it shall -have an ample mass of metal--_i.e._, not of cast-iron, but of -wrought-iron, or best of steel, all round it; and especially that the -margins of metal all round the door shall be of such huge and surplus -scantling that no amount of wedging, by construction possible, should -be able to bend any one side sensibly. The next is that the workmanship -of every part of the safe be first-class: not that there be merely a -moulded door with a showy lock and a trumpery brass-plate upon it, but -that every corner and joint of plate with plate in sides and back be -effectually united and jointed in the best manner, and that the fitting -of the hardened edges of the door shall be like those of a valve, and -not even let a watch-spring be got in between. If these obvious -conditions be observed, and that the safe itself be properly posited in -the premises, it will be found, even with ordinary forms of construction -as to doors and bolts, but with a really unpickable lock, a very hard -nut for the best burglar to crack. - -[Illustration: Chatwood’s Safes.] - -But much more may be effected without any serious increase of cost. -Several forms of safes are now made, the rabbets of the doors of which -are so formed that it is almost a physical impossibility to get any -wedge, however thin, to drive in between the door and the frame. This is -effected in Chatwood’s patent safes (of Bolton and Manchester), as -figured above, by making the door rabbets in cross section -_curvilinear_, so that even if the fit be not so perfect but that the -edges of a very thin wedge can still be inserted, it yet cannot be -driven--for, as it goes forward, it must become curved, and if soft, so -as thus to bend, the thin steel will not bear the severe strain of -driving, but if hard, it breaks off into short bits close to the -entrance. In addition to this Chatwood’s (and we believe other makers’) -safes have bolts so constructed, as seen in the figure, that they _hook_ -or lock into the bolt recesses in the frame in such a manner as to hold -the opposite sides of the frame together, so that, independent of its -own proper stiffness, it cannot be bent anywhere, unless by tearing -asunder the end on the iron bar constituting each cross-bolt. The bolts, -in fact, not only secure the door (as in ordinary) from opening, but -secure the door and frame together. With such a safe, if the owner will -only provide a proper position for it in his premises, he may rest -pretty easy in mind. - -Safes are very commonly stood upon a wooden floor, or made to form part -of a wood-framed bookcase, or press, or stand in a recess. Often they -are comeatable all round, and even underneath, with nought but an inch -board below them, and almost always they are left with the front door -freely and fully exposed, and with ample and convenient room left all -round. This for two or three workmen to manipulate the safe as they may. - -Now the only real conditions of safety are that the iron safe should be -bedded into brickwork set in Portland cement and sand; or, what is much -better, in hard granite or gritstone masonry, bedded in like manner. -Without this be done, a fire-proof safe is simply a delusion; -constructed how it may be, it is only a crucible of more or less -badly-conducting power, in which, after a time longer or shorter, deeds, -bank-notes, documents, &c., will be calcined, and coin or jewellery -melted, and gems flawed and destroyed. We say this in the full face of -the delusive so-called “fiery ordeals” to which many of the so-called -double-cased fire-proof safes are alleged to have been for hours -exposed. The safe should always be embedded in masonry, and rest upon -that in such a way that it cannot get undermined by either fire or -burglars. - -Whenever the premises admit of it, the door of the safe itself should be -set back 10 or 12 inches from the face of the wall in which it is -embedded, and an outer door, flush with the face of the wall, should be -provided of iron, with a good lock and multiple bolts. The door of the -safe should open to the right; and if so, the outer door should open to -the left; and neither should open more than square to their position -when shut. No one but a practical workman or engineer can have an -adequate notion of the extent to which any mechanical operation upon the -door of a safe thus circumstanced is hampered by its being set back into -the wall, and with an outer door that even when open, cuts off all ready -manual access to the inner door from one side. - -When premises are constructed, as they should be for all banks and -bullion merchants, jewellers, &c., having special regard to a safe as an -indisputably secure depository, then the safe should be completely iron -or steel cased, and embedded in hard stone masonry (we shall not here go -into additional special precautions against the remoter effects of -fire), covered in with a strong fire-brick arch, and with nothing but -the solid ground below. The door of the safe should only be approachable -through an iron or stone-lined passage, just the size of the safe-door, -and no more. This should be some feet in length, and have an outer -double-cased steel door, or perhaps that and an intermediate iron -falling-door or portcullis, between the outer door and the safe-door. -With a safe-door so circumstanced, even supposing both these outer doors -forced and open, it is almost impracticable for even a single workman, -however agile or adroit, to perform any mechanical operation whatever -upon the door, least of all upon its surrounding rabbates. These are so -close to the solid granite walls, starting out at right angles from the -rabbate all round, that he has no room to do anything; and to get a -prizing-bar at the door-rabbate, or even to get a second man to assist -the first in any way, is impossible, simply for want of room. - -The whole of the doors and all the surfaces of such passage should be -painted a dull, lustreless black. No one who has not tried it, has any -idea of the difficulty of illuminating such a black passage, by even -several candles, sufficiently to perform any delicate mechanical -operation; and good light is essential to the safe-breaker. - -In banks there is no better plan than has been ere now adopted of making -the iron safe a great cube, with the door at one side, placing the whole -safe with its bottom resting upon the stem or plunger of an hydraulic -press, the cylinder of which is fixed in the bottom of the pit in the -solid earth, of a size capable of enabling the whole safe to be bodily -lowered down into the cavity at the end of the day’s work, and pumped up -again out of its hiding-place the next morning. The lever of the -hydraulic pump is taken away, and the socket into which it fits is -plugged, and the plug locked into its place, and then the pump--situated -in a recess in solid masonry--is itself locked up. The top of the safe -itself, when it has been lowered to the bottom of its chamber, stands 10 -or 12 inches below the floor-level of the stone floor, and a pair of -iron doors is then closed over it and locked down. - -A safe executed in this way, though requiring a considerable expenditure -at first, if well done, might bid defiance to anything almost, even -unlimited gunpowder, for some days. The only addition of safety that -almost could be conceived would be that adopted at the bullion vaults of -the Bank of France in Paris, where these, situated in casemates two -stories under ground, are only approachable by one narrow, winding -staircase, which can be itself, in case of emergency, rapidly rendered -useless, and the cylindrical well in which it is placed filled up with -about 30 feet in depth of water, which cannot be pumped out until a -continuous supply be shut off by distant means only known to one or two -trusted employés. - -Since this revision has been in type the great “safes’ contest” or wager -of battle between the rival safes of Mr. Herring of New York, and Mr. -Chatwood of Bolton, for £600 a side, has come off, at the International -Exhibition, Paris, Mr. R. Mallet and Mr. Robert F. Fairlie, C.E., being -the representatives of the English interests upon the occasion. The -result, which, owing to the conduct of some of the parties concerned, -assumed an unpleasant and incomplete form, may be found detailed fully -in a pamphlet published by Tinsley Brothers, London. It is referred to -here because, although no decision of the wager made could be come to, -the facts ascertained are of great interest and importance as respects -the proper construction of safes. They show conclusively that an -effectively constructed door and jambs is really the one thing needful -to absolute security, provided the safe itself be built up, as we have -urged, into masonry. - -They also show that there are good grounds for doubting that the -American (Herring’s) “safe within safe” construction, with a thick mass -of so-called fire-proofing powdery composition between them, is at all -as protective against mere violence and the persevering use of wedges, -as Chatwood’s simpler but far more effective construction, especially of -his door and jambs. If one of the latter safes, wholly of steel plating, -be fairly embedded into masonry, and another outside flush door of his -construction, with curved rabbates and hooking locking bolts, be -supplied to the masonry ope itself, it is scarcely an exaggeration to -call such a safe “Invincible,” so far as anything that burglars, in any -civilised place in Europe at least, can effect. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Adytic lock, 176; - machine for manufacturing the keys of the, 185; - number of changes in the lock, 188; - advantages of, 189; - discussion on its value, 192. - - Ainger on the Bramah lock, 111. - - Ainger’s lock, 61. - - Alarum lock, 40. - - American locks, 82; - Stansbury’s lock, 83; - Yale’s lock, 83; - Dr. Andrews’s lock, 84; - Day and Newell’s locks, 86; - their Parautoptic lock, 89; - Hobbs’s Protector lock, 99. - - Ancient locks, 8. - - Andrews’s lock, 84; - snail wheel lock, 85. - - Appendix, 173. - - Aubin’s lock trophy, 166; - locks forming it described, 168. - - - Barron’s tumbler lock, 49; - Bramah on, 68. - - Bird’s tumbler lock, 52. - - Bramah on Barron’s tumbler lock, 68; - on the defects of the tumbler lock, 68; - on the defects of the warded lock, 66. - - Bramah lock, 70; - cylinder lock, 73; - number of changes in the Bramah lock, 81; - picked by Mr. Hobbs, 121; - report of the arbitrators, 123, 124; - a description of the lock picked, 125; - letters from Messrs. Bramah questioning the fairness of the trial, - 126; - method of picking, 110; - method employed by Mr. Hobbs, 129; - Ainger on the Bramah lock, 110; - Farey on the Bramah lock, 113; - improvements made since 1851, 131. - - Brown’s letter lock, 23; - picked by Mr. Hobbs, 139. - - Bullion vaults of the Bank of France, 206. - - - Chatwood’s safes described, 203. - - Chinese locks, 171. - - Chubb on Davies’s lock, 112; - on lock picking, 132. - - Chubb’s lock, 53; - described, 54, 56; - key of, 57; - attempt to pick, 58; - experiments on, 59; - number of changes in the lock, 55; - the detector lock picked by Mr. Hobbs, 115; - value of the detector questioned, 117; - improvements, 121; - Mr. Hodge on the Chubb lock, 114; - Chubb’s new locks, 147; - bank locks, 149. - - Clockwork, application of, to locks, 39. - - Closet-lock, 17. - - Commercial importance of locks, 2. - - Contrivances for adding to the security of locks, 35. - - Cut locks, 18. - - - Davies’s lock, Captain O’Brien on 112; - Mr. Chubb on, 112. - - Davis’s lock, 60. - - Day and Newell’s lock, 86; - Parautoptic lock, 89 _et seq._ - - Dead-lock, 17. - - Denison’s large lock, 142; - small ditto, 146. - - Dial locks, 23; - method of picking, 138. - - Duhamel du Monceau’s _Art du Serrurier_, 4. - - - Egyptian door-fastenings, 13. - - Egyptian pin-lock, 14; - method of picking, 139. - - Escutcheon, uses of the, explained, 37. - - Exhibition of 1851, effects of the, in improving English locks, 140; - Jury Report on locks, 131; - observations on the Report, 133. - - - Farey on the Bramah lock, 113. - - Fenby on warded locks, 173; - on tumbler locks, 174. - - Fenby’s adytic lock, 176; - machine for making the keys of, 185; - number of changes in the, 188; - advantages of, 189; - discussion on the value of the lock, 192; - stop-lock, 196; - machines for the manufacture of the locks, 200. - - Fons, Mr. de la, his improvement in locks, 148. - - French locks, ancient, 32. - - Friend’s secret lock, 39. - - - Greek locks, 9. - - - Hobbs on English locks made before 1851, 115; - he picks a Chubb lock, 116; - a Bramah lock picked by Mr. Hobbs, 122; - his mode of picking the Bramah lock described, 129; - Mr. Brown’s letter-lock picked by him, 139. - - Hobbs’s protector lock, 99. - - Hodge on the Chubb lock, 114. - - - Iron-rim lock, 17. - - Iron safes, value of, 201; - the best position for a safe, 204; - chamber for jewellers’ safes described, 205; - arrangement of bank safes, 205; - Chatwood’s safes, 203. - - - Kemp’s union lock, 81. - - Keys, master, 31; - skeleton, 30; - Mackinnon’s key, 62; - Machin’s web key, 154. - - Knob lock, 17. - - - Lacedæmonian lock, 11. - - Left-hand lock, 17. - - Letter locks, 22; - method of picking, 138. - - Lever locks, 43. - - Literature of lock-making, 4; - list of references to the “Transactions of the Society of Arts” - relating to lock-making, 166. - - Lock classification, 17. - - Lock controversy, 102; - previous to the Great Exhibition, 103; - Mr. Chubb on Davies’s lock, 112; - Captain O’Brien on Davies’s and other locks, 112; - Mr. Farey on the Bramah lock, 113; - Mr. Hodge on locks, 114; - lock controversy during and since the Great Exhibition, 115; - Mr. Hobbs on English locks, 115; - he picks the Chubb lock, 116; - the Bramah lock picked by him, 121; - statements of Messrs. Bramah, 125; - attempt of Messrs. Garbutt to pick the parautoptic lock, 134. - - Lock manufacture at Wolverhampton, state of, described, 154. - - Lock-picking, distinction between “picking” and “ringing the changes” - on a lock, 136; - tentative process of picking, 110; - method of picking letter and dial locks, 138; - mode of picking the Egyptian lock, 139; - method of picking tumbler locks, 118; - method of picking the Yale lock, 140; - Mr. Chubb on lock-picking, 132; - contrivances to prevent the picking of locks, 105. - - Lock trophy, Aubin’s, 166; - locks composing the, described, 168. - - Lock and key, improved, 176. - - Locks, English patents for, 164; - Jury Report, Exhibition of 1851, on, 131; - observations on the Report, 133; - effects of the Exhibition of 1851 in improving English locks, 140; - use of machinery in the manufacture of, 163, 200. - - Locks, &c., invented by the Marquis of Worcester, 35. - - Locks and keys, literature of, 4; - list of references in the “Transactions of the Society of Arts” - relating to, 166. - - Louis XVI., his fondness for lock-making, 26, 35. - - - Machin’s web key, 61. - - Mackinnon’s key, 62. - - Manufacture of locks and keys at Wolverhampton, state of the, 154. - - Marshall’s secret escutcheon, 37. - - Master keys, 31. - - Meighan’s alarum lock, 40. - - Mitchell and Lawton’s tumbler lock, 52. - - Mortise locks, 17, 18. - - Multiple-bolt locks, 41, - - - Nettlefold’s lock, 60. - - Newell’s parautoptic lock, 89. - - - O’Brien, Captain, on Davies’s lock, 112. - - Owen’s experiments on Chubb and Bramah locks, 59. - - - Parautoptic lock, 89; - key, 91; - Austrian Report on, 93; - English patent for, 98; - attempts to pick the, in America, 106; - Report of the American Institute on the lock, 107; - latest challenge issued by Messrs. Day and Newell, 108; - Mr. Garbutt’s attempt to pick the, 134; - failure of the attempt, 135. - - Parnell’s defiance lock, 141. - - Parson’s lock, 61. - - Patents, English, for locks, 164. - - Pin-lock of Egypt, 14. - - Puzzle-lock, 19. - - - Regnier’s puzzle locks, 21. - - Right-hand lock, 17. - - Ring lock, 17. - - Roman locks, 10. - - Rowntree’s tumbler lock, 50. - - Russell’s screw-lock for casks, 38. - - Russian locks, 171. - - Rutherford’s lock, 39. - - Ruxton’s detector for tumbler locks, 53. - - - Safes, value of iron, 201; - Chatwood’s, 203; - see also _Iron Safes_. - - Saxby’s prize lock, 152; - picked by Mr. Hobbs, 153. - - Screw locks, 38. - - Skeleton keys, 30. - - Society of Arts’ prize lock, 30. - - Somerford’s lock, 60. - - Spring-stock lock, 17. - - Stansbury’s lock, 83. - - Stop lock, Fenby’s, 196. - - Straight locks, 18. - - - Tentative process of lock-picking, 110. - - Three-bolt lock, 17. - - Tumbler locks, 43; - lock described by M. de Réaumur, 46; - modern tumbler lock, 52; - introduction of the detector, 53; - Chubb’s lock, 53, 56; - key of, 57; - advantages and defects of tumbler locks, 63; - Hobbs’s method of adjustment, 63. - - Tumbler locks, Mr. Fenby on, 174; - method of picking, 118; - double action, 49. - - Two-bolt lock, 17. - - - Ward locks, 18. - - Warded locks, 27; - action of the key on the wards, 28; - insecurity of, 29; - warded locks of the last century, 31; - insecurity of, illustrated by Mr. Chubb, 34; - Bramah on the defects of, 66; - Mr. Fenby on, 173. - - Wheel locks, 18. - - Wheel and pinion, application of, to locks, 39. - - Williams’s lock, 62. - - Wolverhampton, account of the state of the lock and key manufacture - at, 154. - - Worcester, inventions of the Marquis of, relating to lock-making, 35. - - - Yale’s lock, 83; - method of picking, 140. - - Yale’s cylinder lock, 152. - - -PRINTED BY VIRTUE AND CO., CITY ROAD, LONDON. - - - - - * * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber’s note: - - Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation have not been standardised. - - The calculations in the text regarding the number of combinations and - permutations have been transcribed without further comment, even when - they might be open to discussion. - - The reference letters and numbers given in the descriptions of - illustrations are not always present in these illustrations, but they - may be present in other illustrations of the same object. - - Page 33, "S S, O O, Z Z, are ornaments fastened on at _b c d_": this - does not appear to be in accordance with the illustrations. - - Page 153, footnote [11]: these figures are not present in this book. - - Page 164: “As no complete list ...: the closing quote mark is missing. - - Page 164 ff, table, entry 1784: the date column was blank in the - source document. - - - Changes made - - Footnotes have been moved to under the paragraph in which they were - referenced. - - Page 9: closing quote mark inserted after "curious knot". - - Page 45: "receptacles at C _d_" changed to "receptacles at _c d_". - - Page 48: fig. 23 was printed upside-down in the source document. - - Page 51: "the notches _f_ or _g_ in the bolt" changed to "the notches - _s_ or _g_ in the bolt", cf. fig. 26. - - Page 57: "the notches _n n_" changed to "the notches _n n´_". - - Page 77: "shewn at _a a_ in fig. 37" changed to "shewn at _a´ a´_ in - fig. 37"; "3, 2, 3" changed to "3, 2, 3´". - - Page 89: "T the third" changed to "T³ the third" cf. illustration. - - Page 100: "piece of metal _h p_" changed to "piece of metal _h h_" cf. - illustration. - - Page 104: "ged" changed to "get". - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RUDIMENTARY TREATISE ON THE -CONSTRUCTION OF LOCKS*** - - -******* This file should be named 63128-0.txt or 63128-0.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/6/3/1/2/63128 - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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