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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4f8c8a5 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #63094 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/63094) diff --git a/old/63094-0.txt b/old/63094-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 395113a..0000000 --- a/old/63094-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2521 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 1227: Sewage and sewerage of farm homes, by George M. Warren - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 1227: Sewage and sewerage of farm homes - -Author: George M. Warren - -Release Date: August 31, 2020 [eBook #63094] -[Most recently updated: December 27, 2020] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Tom Cosmas - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA FARMERS' BULLETIN NO. 1227 *** - - - - -Transcriber Note - - Text emphasis is denoted as _Italics_ and =Bold=. - Whole and fractional part of numbers as 123-4/5. - - - - - Farmers' Bulletin No. 1227 - United States Department of Agriculture - - - SEWAGE and - - SEWERAGE - - of FARM - - HOMES - - - [Illustration] - - -DISPOSAL OF FARM SEWAGE in a clean manner is always an important problem. -The aims of this bulletin are twofold: (1) To emphasize basic principles -of sanitation; (2) to give directions for constructing and operating home -sewerage works that shall be simple, serviceable, and safe. - -Care in operating is absolutely necessary. No installation will run -itself. Continued neglect ends in failure of even the best designed, best -built plants. If the householder is to build and neglect, he might as well -save expense and continue the earlier practice. - - - Contribution from the Bureau of Public Roads - - THOS. H. MacDONALD, Chief - - Washington, D. C. January, 1922 - - - - - SEWAGE AND SEWERAGE OF FARM HOMES. - - George M. Warren, - - _Hydraulic Engineer, Bureau of Public Roads_. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - Page. - - Introduction 3 - - Plans and advice 3 - - Sewage, sewers, and sewerage defined 4 - - Nature and quantity of sewage 4 - - Sewage-borne diseases and their avoidance 5 - - How sewage decomposes 9 - - Importance of air in treatment of sewage 10 - - Practical utilities 11 - - Kitchen-Sink Drainage 26 - - Cesspools 26 - - Septic tanks 28 - - Grease traps 53 - - General procedure 55 - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -The main purpose of home-sewerage works is to get rid of sewage in such -way as (1) to guard against the transmission of disease germs through -drinking water, flies, or other means; (2) to avoid creating nuisance. -What is the best method and what the best outfit are questions not to be -answered offhand from afar. A treatment that is a success in one location -may be a failure in another. In every instance decision should be based -upon field data and full knowledge of the local needs and conditions. -An installation planned from assumed conditions may work harm. The -householder may be misled as to the purification and rely on a protection -that is not real. He may anticipate little or no odor and find a nuisance -has been created. - - - - -PLANS AND ADVICE. - - -Though specific plans can not be sent in the absence of definite -information, and though plans and specifications can not be prepared to -meet individual requirements, the Division of Agricultural Engineering, -Bureau of Public Roads, gladly gives such help as is possible. To those -who contemplate installing sewerage works on farms and who furnish the -information outlined under the caption "Field data," on page 52, plans, -advice, or suggestions will be sent. Local requirements are frequently -met or approximated by one of the designs on hand; working drawings in -the form of blue prints will then be furnished. Sometimes the designs, -slightly modified, may suit the needs. In other instances it is sufficient -to send published bulletins or give written suggestions of a practical -nature. - - - - -SEWAGE, SEWERS, AND SEWERAGE DEFINED. - - -Human excrements (feces and urine) as found in closets and privy vaults -are known as night soil. These wastes may be flushed away with running -water, and there may be added the discharges from washbasins, bathtubs, -kitchen and slop sinks, laundry trays, washing vats, and floor drains. -This refuse liquid product is sewage, and the underground pipe which -conveys it is a sewer. Since sewers carry foul matter they should be -water-tight, and this feature of their construction distinguishes them -from drains removing relatively pure surface or ground water. Sewerage -refers to a system of sewers, including the pipes, tanks, disposal works, -and appurtenances. - - - - -NATURE AND QUANTITY OF SEWAGE. - - -Under average conditions a man discharges daily about 3-1/2 ounces of -moist feces and 40 ounces of urine, the total in a year approximating 992 -pounds.[1] Feces consist largely of water and undigested or partially -digested food; by weight it is 77.2 per cent water. 2 Urine is about 96.3 -per cent water.[2] - -[1] Practical Physiological Chemistry, by Philip B. Hawk, 1916, pp. 221, -359. - -[2] Agriculture, by F. H. Storer, 1894, vol. 2, p. 70. - -The excrements constitute but a small part of ordinary sewage. In -addition to the excrements and the daily water consumption of perhaps -40 gallons per person are many substances entering into the economy of -the household, such as grease, fats, milk, bits of food, meat, fruit, -and vegetables, tea and coffee grounds, paper, etc. This complex product -contains mineral, vegetable, and animal substances, both dissolved and -undissolved. It contains dead organic matter and living organisms in the -form of exceedingly minute vegetative cells (bacteria) and animal cells -(protozoa). These low forms of life are the active agents in destroying -dead organic matter. - -The bacteria are numbered in billions and include many species, some -useful and others harmful. They may be termed tiny scavengers, which under -favorable conditions multiply with great rapidity, their useful work -being the oxidizing and nitrifying of dissolved organic matter and the -breaking down of complex organic solids to liquids and gases. Among the -myriads of bacteria are many of a virulent nature. These at any time may -include species which are the cause of well-known infections and parasitic -diseases. - - - - -SEWAGE-BORNE DISEASES AND THEIR AVOIDANCE. - - -Any spittoon, slop pail, sink drain, urinal, privy, cesspool, sewage -tank, or sewage distribution field is a potential danger. A bit of spit, -urine, or feces the size of a pin head may contain many hundred germs, -all invisible to the naked eye and each one capable of producing disease. -These discharges should be kept away from the food and drink of man -and animals. From specific germs that may be carried in sewage at any -time there may result typhoid fever, tuberculosis, cholera, dysentery, -diarrhea, and other dangerous ailments, and it is probable that other -maladies may be traced to human waste. From certain animal parasites or -their eggs that may be carried in sewage there may result intestinal -worms, of which the more common are the hookworm, roundworm, whipworm, -eelworm, tapeworm, and seat worm. - -Sewage, drainage, or other impure water may contain also the causative -agents of numerous ailments common to live stock, such as tuberculosis, -foot-and-mouth disease, hog cholera, anthrax, glanders, and stomach and -intestinal worms. - -Disease germs are carried by many agencies and unsuspectingly received by -devious routes into the human body. Infection may come from the swirling -dust of the railway roadbed, from contact with transitory or chronic -carriers of disease, from green truck grown in gardens fertilized with -night soil or sewage, from food prepared or touched by unclean hands -or visited by flies or vermin, from milk handled by sick or careless -dairymen, from milk cans and utensils washed with contaminated water, or -from cisterns, wells, springs, reservoirs, irrigation ditches, brooks, -or lakes receiving the surface wash or the underground drainage from -sewage-polluted soil. - -Many recorded examples show with certainty how typhoid fever and other -diseases have been transmitted. A few indicating the responsibilities and -duties of people who live in the country are cited here. - - In August, 1889, a sister and two brothers aged 18, 21, and 23 years, - respectively, and all apparently in robust health dwelt together in a - rural village in Columbiana County, Ohio. Typhoid fever in particularly - virulent form developed after use of drinking water from a badly polluted - surface source. The deaths of all three occurred within a space of 10 - days. - - In September and October, 1899, 63 cases of typhoid fever, resulting - in 5 deaths, occurred at the Northampton (Mass.) insane hospital. This - epidemic was conclusively traced to celery, which was eaten freely in - August and was grown and banked in a plot that had been fertilized in the - late winter or early spring with the solid residue and scrapings from a - sewage filter bed situated on the hospital grounds. - - Some years ago Dr. W. W. Skinner, Bureau of Chemistry, Department of - Agriculture, investigated the cause of an outbreak of typhoid fever in - southwest Virginia. A small stream meandered through a narrow valley - in which five 10-inch wells about 450 feet deep had been drilled in - limestone formation. The wells were from 50 to 400 feet from the stream, - from which, it was suspected, pollution was reaching the wells. In a pool - in the stream bed approximately one-fourth mile above the wells several - hundred pounds of common salt were dissolved. Four of the wells were cut - off from the pump and the fifth was subjected to heavy pumping. The water - discharged by the pump was examined at 15-minute intervals and its salt - content determined over a considerable period of time. After the lapse of - several 15-minute intervals the salt began to rise and continued to rise - until the maximum was approximately seven times that at the beginning of - the test, thus proving the facility with which pollution may pass a long - distance underground and reach deep wells. - - Probably no epidemic in American history better illustrates the dire - results that may follow one thoughtless act than the outbreak of typhoid - fever at Plymouth, Pa., in 1885. In January and February of that year the - night discharges of one typhoid fever patient were thrown out upon the - snow near his home. These, carried by spring thaws into the public water - supply, caused an epidemic running from April to September. In a total - population of about 8,000, 1,104 persons were attacked by the disease and - 114 died. - -Like plants and animals, disease germs vary in their powers of resistance. -Some are hardy, others succumb easily. Outside the body most of them -probably die in a few days or weeks. It is never certain when such germs -may not lodge where the immediate surroundings are favorable to their life -and reproduction. Milk is one of the common substances in which germs -multiply rapidly. The experience at Northampton shows that typhoid-fever -germs may survive several months in garden soil. Laboratory tests by the -United States Public Health Service showed that typhoid-fever germs had -not all succumbed after being frozen in cream 74 days. (Public Health -Reports, Feb. 8, 1918, pp. 163-166.) Ravenel kept the spores of anthrax -immersed for 244 days in the strongest tanning fluids without perceptible -change in their vitality or virulence. (Annual Report, State Department of -Health, Mass., 1916, p. 494.) - -=Unsafe practices.=--Upon thousands of small farms there are no privies -and excretions are deposited carelessly about the premises. A place of -this character is shown in figure 1. Upon thousands of other farms the -privy is so filthy and neglected that hired men and visitors seek near-by -sheds, fields, and woods. A privy of this character is shown in figure 2. -These practices and conditions exist in every section of the country. They -should be abolished. - -Deserving of severe censure is the old custom of conveying excrements or -sewage into abandoned wells or some convenient stream. Such a practice is -indecent and unsafe. It is unnecessary and is contrary to the laws of most -of the States. - -Likewise dangerous and even more disgusting is the old custom of using -human excrement or sewage for the fertilization of truck land. Under -no circumstances should such wastes be used on land devoted to celery, -lettuce, radishes, cucumbers, cabbages, tomatoes, melons, or other -vegetables, berries, or low-growing fruits that are eaten raw. Disease -germs or particles of soil containing such germs may adhere to the skins -of vegetables or fruits and infect the eater. - -Upon farms it is necessary to dispose of excretal wastes at no great -distance from the dwelling. The ability and likelihood of flies carrying -disease germs direct to the dinner table, kitchen, or pantry are well -known. Vermin, household pets, poultry, and live stock may spread such -germs. For these reasons, and also on the score of odor, farm sewage never -should be exposed. - -[Illustration: BPR-RE 1381 - -Fig. 1.--One of many farms lacking the simplest sanitary convenience.] - -=Important safety measure.=--The farmer can do no other one thing so vital -to his own and the public health as to make sure of the continued purity -of the farm water supply. Investigations indicate that about three out of -four shallow wells are polluted badly. - -Wells and springs are fed by ground water, which is merely natural -drainage. Drainage water usually moves with the slope of the land. It -always dissolves part of the mineral, vegetable, and animal matter of the -ground over or through which it moves. In this way impurities are carried -into the ground water and may reach distant wells or springs. - -The great safeguards are clean ground and wide separation of the well -from probable channels of impure drainage water. It is not enough that -a well or spring is 50 or 150 feet from a source of filth or that it is -on higher ground. Given porous ground, a seamy ledge, or long-continued -pollution of one plat of land, the zone of contamination is likely to -extend long distances, particularly in downhill directions or when the -water is low through drought or heavy pumping. Only when the surface of -the water in a well or spring is at a higher level at all times than any -near-by source of filth is there assurance of safety from impure seepage. -Some of the foregoing facts are shown diagrammatically in figure 3. Figure -4 is typical of those insanitary, poorly drained barnyards that are -almost certain to work injury to wells situated in or near them. Figure 5 -illustrates poor relative location of privy, cesspool, and well. Figure -6 is a typical example of a nuisance. Accumulations of filth result in -objectionable odor and noxious drainage. - -[Illustration: BPR-RE 13883 - -Fig. 2.--The rickety, uncomfortable, unspeakably foul, dangerous ground -privy. Neglected by the owner, shunned by the hired man, avoided by the -guest, who, in preference, goes to near-by fields or woods, polluter of -wells, meeting place of house flies and disease germs, privies of this -character abide only because of man's indifference.] - -Sewage or impure drainage water should never be discharged into or upon -ground draining toward a well, spring, or other source of water supply. -Neither should such wastes be discharged into 'Openings in rock, an -abandoned well, nor a hole, cesspool, vault, or tank so located that -pollution can escape into water-bearing earth or rock. Whatever the system -of sewage disposal, it should be entirely and widely separated from the -water supply. Further information on locating and constructing wells is -given in Farmers' Bulletin 941, "Water Systems for Farm Homes," copies of -which may be had upon request to the Division of Publications, Department -of Agriculture. - -Enough has been said to bring home to the reader these vital points: - -1. Never allow the farm sewage or excrements, even in minutest quantity, -to reach the food or water of man or live stock. - -2. Never expose such wastes so that they can be visited by flies or other -carriers of disease germs. - -3. Never use such wastes to fertilize or irrigate vegetable gardens. - -4. Never discharge or throw such wastes into a stream, pond, or abandoned -well, nor into a gutter, ditch, or tile drainage system, which naturally -must have outlet in some watercourse. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.--How an apparently good well may draw foul -drainage. Arrows show direction of ground water movement. _A-A_, Usual -water table (surface of free water in the ground); _B-B_, water table -lowered by drought and pumping from well _D_; _C-C_, water table further -lowered by drought and heavy pumping; _E-F_, level line from surface of -sewage in cesspool. Well _D_ is safe until the water table is lowered to -_E_; further lowering draws drainage from the cesspool and, with the water -table at _C-C_, from the barn. The location of well _G_ renders it unsafe -always.] - -[Illustration: BPR-RE 1385 - -Fig. 4.--An insanitary, poorly drained barnyard. (Board of Health, -Milwaukee.) Liquid manure or other foul drainage is sure to leach into -wells situated in or near barnyards of this character.] - - - - -HOW SEWAGE DECOMPOSES. - - -When a bottle of fresh sewage is kept in a warm room changes occur in the -appearance and nature of the liquid. At first it is light in appearance -and its odor is slight. It is well supplied with oxygen, since this gas -is always found in waters exposed to the atmosphere. In a few hours the -solids in the sewage separate mechanically according to their relative -weights; sediment collects at the bottom, and a greasy film covers the -surface. In a day's time there is an enormous development of bacteria, -which obtain their food supply from the dissolved carbonaceous and -nitrogenous matter. As long as free oxygen is present this action is -spoken of as aërobic decomposition. There is a gradual increase in the -amount of ammonia and a decrease of free oxygen, the latter going to -support bacterial life. When the ammonia is near the maximum and the free -oxygen is exhausted the sewage is said to be stale. Following exhaustion -of the oxygen supply, bacterial life continues profuse, but it gradually -diminishes as a result of reduction of its food supply and the poisonous -effects of its own wastes. In the absence of oxygen the bacterial action -is spoken of as anaërobic decomposition. The sewage turns darker and -becomes more offensive. Suspended and settled organic substances break -apart or liquefy later, and various foul-smelling gases are liberated. -Sewage in this condition is known as septic and the putrefaction that -has taken place is called septicization. The odor eventually disappears, -and a dark, insoluble, mosslike substance remains as a deposit. Complete -reduction of this deposit may require many years. - -[Illustration: BPR-RE 1388 - -Fig. 5.--Poor relative locations of privy, cesspool, and well. (State -Department of Health, Massachusetts.) Never allow privy, cesspool, or sink -drainage to escape Into the plot of ground from which the water supply is -taken.] - - - - -IMPORTANCE OF AIR IN TREATMENT OF SEWAGE. - - -Decomposition of organic matter by bacterial agency is not a complete -method of treating sewage, as will be shown later under "Septic tanks." -It is sufficient to observe here that in all practical methods of -treatment aeration plays a vital part. The air or the sewage, or both, -must be in a finely divided state, as when sewage percolates through -the interstices of a porous, air-filled soil. The principle involved -was clearly stated 30 years ago by Hiram F. Mills, a member of the -Massachusetts State Board of Health. In discussing the intermittent -filtration of sewage through gravel stones too coarse to arrest even the -coarsest particles in the sewage Mr. Mills said: "The slow movement of the -sewage in thin films over the surface of the stones, with air in contact, -caused a removal for some months of 97 per cent of the organic nitrogenous -matter, as well as 99 per cent of the bacteria." - -[Illustration: BPR-RE 1387 - -Fig. 6.--A typical nuisance. (Board of Health, Milwaukee.) A yard like -this is an eyesore, a fire menace, a breeding place for mosquitoes and -vermin, a refuge for rats and mice, a source of noxious odors and foul -drainage, and a violation of every sanitation code.] - - - - -PRACTICAL UTILITIES. - - -Previous discussion has dealt largely with basic principles of sanitation. -The construction and operation of simple utilities embodying some of -these principles are discussed in the following order: (1) Privies for -excrements only; (2) works for handling wastes where a supply of water is -available for flushing. - - -PIT PRIVY. - -Figure 7 shows a portable pit privy suitable for places of the character -of that shown in figure 1, where land is abundant and cheap, and in such -localities has proved practical. It provides, at minimum cost and with -least attention, a fixed place for depositing excretions where the filth -can not be tracked by man, spread by animals, reached by flies, nor washed -by rain. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Portable pit privy. For use where land is abundant -and cheap, but unless handled with judgment can not be regarded as -safe. The privy is mounted on runners for convenience in moving to new -locations.] - -The privy is light and inexpensive and is placed over a pit in the ground. -When the pit becomes one-half or two-thirds full the privy is drawn or -carried to a new location. The pit should be shallow, preferably not over -2-1/2 feet in depth, and never should be located in wet ground or rock -formation or where the surface or the strata slope toward a well, spring, -or other source of domestic water supply. Besides standing on lower ground -the pit should never be within 200 feet of a well or spring. Since dryness -in the pit is essential, the ground should be raised slightly and 10 or -12 inches of earth should be banked and compacted against all sides to -shed rain water. The banking also serves to exclude flies. If the soil is -sandy or gravelly, the pit should be lined with boards or pales to prevent -caving. The privy should be boarded closely and should be provided with -screened openings for ventilation and light. The screens may consist of -standard galvanized or black enameled wire cloth having 14 squares to the -inch. The whole seat should be easily removable for cleaning. A little -loose absorbent soil should be added daily to the accumulation in the pit, -and when a pit is abandoned it should be filled immediately with dry earth -mounded to shed water. - -A pit privy for use in field work, consisting of a framework of 1/2-inch -iron pipe for corner posts connected at the top with 1/4-inch iron rods -bent at the ends to right angles and hung with curtains of unbleached -muslin, is described in Public Health Report of the United States Public -Health Service, July 26, 1918. - -A pit privy, even if moved often, can not be regarded as safe. The danger -is that accumulations of waste may overtax the purifying capacity of the -soil and the leachings reach wells or springs. Sloping ground is not a -guaranty of safety; the great safeguard lies in locating the privy a long -distance from the water supply and as far below it as possible. - - -SANITARY PRIVY. - -The next step in evolution is the sanitary privy. Its construction must -be such that it is practically impossible for filth or germs to be spread -above ground, to escape by percolation underground, or to be accessible to -flies, vermin, chickens, or animals. Furthermore, it must be cared for in -a cleanly manner, else it ceases to be sanitary. To secure these desirable -ends sanitarians have devised numerous types of tight-receptacle privy. -Considering the small cost and the proved value of some of these types, it -is to be regretted that few are seen on American farms. - -The container for a sanitary privy may be small--for example, a -galvanized-iron pail or garbage can, to be removed from time to time by -hand; it may be large, as a barrel or a metal tank mounted for moving; -or it may be a stationary underground metal tank or masonry vault. The -essential requirement in the receptacle is permanent water-tightness to -prevent pollution of soils and wells. Wooden pails or boxes, which warp -and leak, should not be used. Where a vault is used it should be shallow -to facilitate emptying and cleaning. Moreover, if the receptacle should -leak it is better that the escape of liquid should be in the top soil, -where air and bacterial life are most abundant. - -Sanitary privies are classified according to the method used in treating -the excretions, as dry earth, chemical, liquefying. - - -DRY-EARTH PRIVY. - -=Pail type.=--A very serviceable pail privy is shown in figures 8 and 9. -The method of ventilation is an adaptation of a system that has proved -very effective in barns and other buildings here and abroad. A flue -with a clear opening of 16 square inches rises from the rear of the seat -and terminates above the ridge-pole in a cowl or small roofed housing. -Attached to this flue is a short auxiliary duct, 4 by 15 inches, for -removing foul air from the top of the privy. In its upper portion on the -long sides the cowl is open, allowing free movement of air across the top -of the flue. In addition the long sides of the cowl are open below next to -the roof. These two openings, with the connecting vertical air passages, -permit free upward movement of air through the cowl, as indicated by the -arrows. The combined effect is to create draft from beneath the seat -and from the top of the privy. The ventilating flue is 2 by 8 inches at -the seat and 4 by 4 inches 5 feet above. The taper slightly increases the -labor of making the flue, but permits a 2-inch reduction in the length of -the building. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Pail privy. Well constructed, ventilated, and -screened. With proper care is sanitary and unobjectionable.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Full privy.] - -In plan the privy is 4 by 4-1/2 feet. The sills are secured to durable -posts set about 4 feet in the ground. The boarding is tight, and all vents -and windows are screened to exclude insects. The screens may be the same -as for pit privies or, if a more lasting material is desired, bronze or -copper screening of 14 squares to the inch may be used. The entire seat -is hinged, thus permitting removal of the receptacle and facilitating -cleaning and washing the underside of the seat and the destruction of -spiders and other insects which thrive in dark, unclean places. The -receptacle is a heavy galvanized-iron garbage can. Heavy brown-paper bags -for lining the can may be had at slight cost, and their use helps to keep -the can clean and facilitates emptying. Painting with black asphaltum -serves a similar purpose and protects the can from rust. If the contents -are frozen, a little heat releases them. Of nonfreezing mixtures a strong -brine made with common salt or calcium chloride is effective. Two and -one-half to 3 pounds of either thoroughly dissolved in a gallon of water -lowers the freezing point of the mixture to about zero. Denatured alcohol -or wood alcohol in a 25 per cent solution has a like low freezing point -and the additional merit of being noncorrosive of metals. The can should -be emptied frequently and the contents completely buried in a thin layer -by a plow or in a shallow hand-dug trench at a point below and remote from -wells and springs. Wherever intestinal disease exists the contents of -the can should be destroyed by burning or made sterile before burial by -boiling or by incorporation with a strong chemical disinfectant. - -[Illustration: BPR-RE 1382 - -Fig. 10.--A well-ventilated privy in Montana.] - -A privy ventilated in the manner before described is shown in figure 10. -The cowl, however, is open on four sides instead of two sides as shown -in figures 8 and 9. The working drawings (fig. 8 and 9) show that the -construction of a privy of the kind is not difficult. Figure 11 gives -three suggestions whereby a privy may be conveniently located and the -approach screened or partially hidden by latticework, vines, or shrubbery. - -=Vault type.=--A primitive and yet serviceable three-seat dry-earth privy -of the vault type is shown in figure 12. This privy was constructed in -1817 upon a farm at Westboro, Mass. The vault, made of bricks, was 6 feet -long by 5 feet wide, and the bottom was 1 foot below the surface of the -ground. The brickwork was laid in mortar, and the part below the ground -surface was plastered on the inside. The outside of the vault was exposed -to light and air on all four sides. Across the long side of the vault -in the rear was a door swinging upward through which the night soil was -removed two or three times a year, usually in the spring, summer, and -fall, and hauled to a near-by field, where it was deposited in a furrow, -just ahead of the plow. - -Especial attention is called to the shallowness of the vault and the -lightened labor of cleaning it out. The swinging door at the rear -facilitated the sprinkling of dry soil or ashes over the contents of the -vault, thus avoiding the necessity of carrying dirt and dust into the -building and dust settling upon the seat. This privy was in use for nearly -100 years without renewal or repairs. When last seen the original seat, -which always was kept painted, showed no signs of decay. Modern methods -would call for a concrete vault of guaranteed water-tightness,[3] proper -ventilation and screening, and hinging the seat. - -[3] Directions for mixing and placing concrete to secure water-tightness -are contained in an article entitled "Securing a dry cellar," U. S. -Department of Agriculture Yearbook, 1919; published also as Yearbook -Separate No. 824, and obtainable for 10 cents from the Superintendent of -Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Screening the approach to a privy. _A_, Raised -platform with lattice sides, suitable for short distances, convenient -and easily cleared of snow; _B_, walk hidden by lattice work; _C_, walk -enclosed by an arbor.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.--A primitive vault privy in Massachusetts. Note -the tight, shallow, easily cleaned vault. _A_, Brick vault 5 by 6 feet, -bottom about 1 foot in the ground; _B_, water-tight plastering; _C_, -rowlock course of brick; _D_, door hinged at top; _E_, door button; _F_, -three-pane window hinged at top; _G_, passageway.] - -Working drawings for a very convenient well-built two-seat vault privy -are reproduced in figures 13 and 14. The essential features are shown in -sufficient detail to require little explanation. With concrete mixtures of -1:2:3 (1 volume cement, 2 volumes sand, 3 volumes stone) for the vault and -1:2:4 for the posts there will be required a total of about 2 cubic yards -of concrete, taking 3-1/2 barrels of cement, 1 cubic yard of sand, and -1-1/2 cubic yards of broken stone or screened gravel. The stone or gravel -should not exceed 1 inch in diameter, except that a few cobblestones may -be embedded where the vault wall is thickest, thus effecting a slight -saving of materials. - - -CHEMICAL CLOSET. - -A type of sanitary privy in which the excrements are received directly -into a water-tight receptacle containing chemical disinfectant is meeting -with considerable favor for camps, parks, rural cottages, schools, hotels, -and railway stations. These chemical closets,[4] as they are called, are -made in different forms and are known by various trade names. In the -simplest form a sheet-metal receptacle is concealed in a small metal or -wooden cabinet, and the closet is operated usually in much the same manner -as the ordinary pail privy. These closets are very simple and compact, -of good appearance, and easy to install or move from place to place. -In another type, known as the chemical tank closet, the receptacle is a -steel tank fixed in position underground or in a basement. The tank has a -capacity of about 125 gallons per seat, is provided with a hand-operated -agitator to secure thorough mixing of the chemical and the excretions, and -the contents are bailed, pumped, or drained out from time to time. - -[4] Among publications on chemical closets are the following: "Chemical -Closets," Reprint No. 404 from the Public Health Reports, U. S. Public -Health Service, June 29, 1917, pp. 1017-1020; "The Chemical Closet," -Engineering Bulletin No. 5, Mich. State Board of Health, October, 1916; -Health Bulletin; Va. Department of Health, March, 1917, pp. 214-219. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Two-seat vault privy.] - -Chemical closets, like every form of privy, should be well installed, -cleanly operated, and frequently emptied, and the wastes should receive -safe burial. With exception of frequency of emptying, the same can be said -of chemical tank closets. With both forms of closet thorough ventilation -or draft is essential, and this is obtained usually by connecting -the closet vent pipe to a chimney flue or extending it well above the -ridge-pole of the building. The contents of the container should always be -submerged and very low temperatures guarded against. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Two-seat vault privy. Note the shallow, -water-tight, easily cleaned concrete vault.] - -As to the germicidal results obtained in chemical closets, few data are -available. A disinfecting compound may not sterilize more than a thin -surface layer of the solid matter deposited. Experiments by Dr. Alvah H. -Doty with various agents recommended and widely used for the bedside -sterilization of feces showed "that at the end of 20 hours of exposure -to the disinfectant but one-eighth of an inch of the fecal mass was -disinfected."[5] Plainly, then, to destroy all bacterial and parasitic -life in chemical closets three things are necessary: (1) A very powerful -agent; (2) permeation of the fecal mass by the agent; (3) retention of -its strength and potency until permeation is complete. The compounds or -mixtures commonly used in chemical closets are of two general kinds: -First, those in which some coal-tar product or other oily disinfectant is -used to destroy germs and deodorize, leaving the solids little changed in -form; second, those of the caustic class that dissolve the solids, which, -if of sufficient strength and permeating every portion, should destroy -most if not all bacterial life. Not infrequently the chemical solution is -intended to accomplish disinfection, deodorization, and reduction to a -liquid or semiliquid state. - -[5] Annual Report, Mass. State Board of Health, 1914, p. 727. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Chemical closet. _A_, Water-tight sheet-metal -container; _B_, metal or wooden cabinet; _C_, wooden or composition seat -ring; _D_, hinged cover; _E_, 3 or 4 inch ventilating flue extending 18 -inches above roof or to a chimney; _F_, air inlets.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Chemical tank closet. _A_, Tank, 2 feet 3 inches -by 4 feet 2 inches, 5/64-inch iron, seams welded, capacity 125 gallons; -_B_, 14-inch covered opening for recharging and emptying tank; _C_, -12-inch galvanized sheet-metal tube; _D_, 4-inch sheet-metal ventilating -pipe extending above ridge-pole or to a chimney; _E_, agitator or paddle.] - -A simple type of chemical closet is shown in figure 15, and the essential -features are indicated in the notation. These closets with vent pipe and -appurtenances, ready for setting up, retail for $20 and upward. A chemical -tank closet, retailing for about $80 per seat, is shown in figure 16. - -The Department of Agriculture occasionally receives complaints from people -who have installed chemical closets, usually on the score of odors or the -cost of chemicals. - - -LIQUEFYING CLOSET. - -Another type of sanitary privy, known as a liquefying closet, makes use of -bacterial action as an aid to disposal. The excretions are deposited in a -tight receptacle containing water, where fermentation and decomposition -reduce a large part of the organic solids to liquid and gaseous forms. -Much of the liquid evaporates and the gases diffuse, so that the volume -of sewage is reduced materially. More or less insoluble and undigested -residue, known as sludge, gradually accumulates at the bottom of the -receptacle, which from time to time must be cleaned out. Disposal of the -partially clarified liquid and the sludge, however, involves much less -labor than would be needed to handle the untreated excrements. - -Liquefying closets have been used many years with fair satisfaction. -The receptacle sometimes is a tight brick vault, but more frequently a -barrel or hogshead with one end nearly flush with the ground. Over this -is mounted the seat, sometimes with iron bars beneath to prevent accident -to small children, and the whole is inclosed in a small frame house. The -vault usually is bailed or pumped out two or three times a year. - -Upon farms where slope, soil, and drainage conditions are favorable the -effluent from liquefying closets may be distributed and aerated by means -of drain tile laid in the top soil or in shallow beds filled with cinders, -coke, gravel, or stone. Figure 17 shows a simple one-chamber liquefying -closet with shallow distribution of the effluent in a stone-filled trench. -The vault or tank consists of vitrified sewer pipe, a simple and cheap -construction. Where a larger vault is required concrete or brick may be -used, the usual capacity being 12 or 13 gallons to a person. - -[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Liquefying closet. _A_, Excavation about 3 feet 3 -inches in diameter; _B_, 3-foot length vitrified Y branch, 24 by 4 inches; -_C_, 2-foot length of 24-inch hard burned drain tile or vitrified sewer -pipe; _D_, 4 by 4 inch Y branch; _E_, 1-foot length of 4-inch cast-iron -soil pipe; _F_, concrete bottom making water-tight seal; _G_, joints made -water tight by use of a strand of jute or oakum and rich Portland cement -mortar or hot bituminous jointing compound; H; submerged outlet; _I_, -removable strainer with openings 1/4 inch or larger; _J_, 4-inch removable -plug; _K_, 4-inch drain tile laid on good slope in trench about 15 inches -deep, ends of tile butting, joints covered with strips of tarred paper -extending three-fourths of the way around the tile; _L_, removable seat -supported by end cleats; _M_, 4 by 4 inch ventilating flue, bottom portion -removable; _N_, hinged door to facilitate bailing out sludge.] - -Faults in liquefying closets are objectionable odor, clogging of the -screen over the outlet, or insufficient water in the vault to insure -proper bacterial action. A ventilating pipe should be provided extending -from beneath the seat to above the roof. The outlet pipe should not be -less than 4 inches in diameter, and the mesh of the screen should not be -less than one-fourth inch. The contents of the vault should be diluted -with water at intervals, depending upon the number of persons using the -closet and the rapidity of evaporation. Dilution may be effected by -pouring in 1 or 2 gallons with a pail, or a small pipe may be led from the -eaves trough of the closet to the vault. The effluent may be light colored -and apparently inoffensive, but it still is sewage, and therefore the -distributing tile never should be laid in the vicinity of a well or spring. - - -DISINFECTANTS AND DEODORANTS. - -Disinfection is the destruction of disease germs. Sterilization is -the destruction of all germs or bacteria, both the harmful and the -useful. Antisepsis is the checking or restraining of bacterial growth. -Deodorization is the destruction of odor. Unfortunately in practice none -of these processes may be complete. The agent may be of inferior quality, -may have lost its potency, or may not reach all parts of the mass treated. -A disinfectant or germicide is an agent capable of destroying disease -germs; an antiseptic is an agent merely capable of arresting bacterial -growth, and it may be a dilute disinfectant; a deodorant is an agent that -tends to destroy odor, but whose action may consist in absorbing odor or -in masking the original odor with another more agreeable one.[6] - -[6] Those desiring more explicit information on disinfectants and the -principles of disinfection are referred to U. S. Department of Agriculture -Farmers' Bulletins 926, "Some Common Disinfectants," and 954, "The -Disinfection of Stables," and to publications of the U. S. Public Health -Service. - -Of active disinfecting agents, heat from fire, live steam, or boiling -water is the surest. The heat generated by the slaking of quicklime has -proved effective with small quantities of excreta. Results of tests by the -Massachusetts State Board of Health[7] show that the preferable method -consists in adding sufficient hot water (120° to 140° F.) to cover the -excrement in the receptacle, then adding small pieces of fresh strong -quicklime in amount equal to about one-third of the bulk of water and -excrement combined, covering the receptacle, and allowing it to stand -1-1/2 hours or longer. - -[7] Annual Report, Mass. State Board of Health, 1914, pp. 727-729. - -Among chemical disinfectants a strong solution of sodium hydroxide -(caustic soda) or potassium hydroxide (caustic potash, lye) is very -effective and is useful in dissolving grease and other organic substances. -Both chemicals are costly, but caustic soda is less expensive than -caustic potash and constitutes most of the ordinary commercial lyes. -Chlorinated lime (chloride of lime, bleaching powder) either in solution -or in powdered form is valuable. For the disinfection of stools of -typhoid-fever patients the Virginia State Board of Health[8] recommends -thoroughly dissolving 1/2 pound of best chloride of lime in 1 gallon of -water and allowing the solution to cover the feces for at least 1 hour. -The solution should be kept in well-stoppered bottles and used promptly, -certainly within 2 or 3 days. Copper sulphate (blue vitriol, bluestone) -in a 5 per cent solution (1 pound in 2-1/2 gallons of water) is a good -but rather costly disinfectant. None of the formulas here given is to be -construed as fixed and precise. Conditions may vary the proportions, as -they always will vary the results. The reader should remember that few, -if any, chemical disinfectants can be expected fully to disinfect or -sterilize large masses of excrement unless the agent is used repeatedly -and in liberal quantities or mechanical means are employed to secure -thorough incorporation. - -[8] Health Bulletin, Va. State Board of Health, June, 1917, pp. 277-280. - -Among deodorants some of the drying powders mentioned below possess -more or less disinfecting power. Chloride of lime, though giving off an -unpleasant odor of chlorine, is employed extensively. Lime in the form -of either quicklime or milk of lime (whitewash) is much used and is an -active disinfectant. To prepare milk of lime a small quantity of water is -slowly added to good fresh quicklime in lumps. As soon as the quicklime -is slaked a quantity of water, about four times the quantity of lime, is -added and stirred thoroughly. When used as a whitewash the milk of lime is -thinned as desired with water and kept well stirred. Liberal use of milk -of lime in a vault or cesspool, though it may not disinfect the contents, -is of use in checking bacterial growth and abating odor. To give the best -results it should be used frequently, beginning when the vault or cesspool -is empty. Iron sulphate (green vitriol, copperas) because of its affinity -for ammonia and sulphides is used as a temporary deodorizer in vaults, -cesspools, and drains; 1 pound dissolved in 4 gallons of water makes a -solution of suitable strength. - - -PREVENTION OF PRIVY NUISANCE. - -The following is a summary of simple measures for preventing a privy from -becoming a nuisance: - -1. Locate the privy inconspicuously and detached from the dwelling. - -2. Make the receptacle or vault small, shallow, easy of access, and -water-tight. - -3. Clean out the vault often. Do not wait until excrement has accumulated -and decomposition is sufficiently advanced to cause strong and foul odors. - -4. Sprinkle into the vault daily loose dry soil, ashes, lime, sawdust, -ground gypsum (land plaster), or powdered peat or charcoal. These will -absorb liquid and odor, though they may not destroy disease germs. - -5. Make the privy house rain-proof; ventilate it thoroughly, and screen -all openings. - - -OBJECTION TO PRIVIES. - -All the methods of waste disposal heretofore described are open to the -following objections: - -1. They do not take care of kitchen slops and liquid wastes incipient to a -pressure water system. - -2. They retain filth for a considerable period of time with probability of -odors and liability of transmission of disease germs. - -3. They require more personal attention and care than people generally are -willing to give. - -By far the most satisfactory method yet devised of caring for sewage -calls for a supply of water and the flushing away of all wastes as soon -as created through a water-tight sewer to a place where they undergo -treatment and final disposal. - - - - -KITCHEN-SINK DRAINAGE. - - -A necessity in every dwelling is effective disposal of the kitchen-sink -slops. This necessity ordinarily arises long before the farm home is -supplied with water under pressure and the conveniences that go with it. -Hence the first call for information on sewage disposal is likely to -relate merely to sink drainage. This waste water though it may not be -as dangerous to health as sewage containing human excrements is still a -menace to the farm well and capable of creating disagreeable odor. - -The usual method of disposing of sink slops is to allow them to dribble -on or beneath the surface of the ground close to the house. Such drainage -should be taken in a water-tight carrier at least 100 feet downhill from -the well and discharged below the surface of the ground. Every sink should -be provided with a suitable screen to keep all large particles out of the -waste pipe. An approved form of sink strainer consists of a brass plate -bolted in position over the outlet and having at least 37 perforations not -larger than one-fourth inch in diameter. Provided a sink is thus equipped -and is given proper care and the land has fair slope and drainage, -the waste water may be conducted away through a water-tight sewer and -distributed in the soil by means of a short blind drain. The blind drain -may be conveniently made of drain tile in the manner shown in figure 17. -A simple installation, consisting of a kitchen sink and pump and means of -disposal as described, is shown in figure 18. - - - - -CESSPOOLS. - - -Where farms have water under pressure an open or leaching cesspool is a -common method of disposing of the sewage. Ordinary cesspools are circular -excavations in the ground, lined with stone or brick laid without mortar. -They vary from 5 to 10 feet in diameter and from 7 to 12 feet in depth. -Sometimes the top is arched and capped at the ground surf ace by a -cover of wood, stone, or cast iron. At other times the walls are carried -straight up and boards or planks are laid, across for a cover, and the -entire structure is hidden with a hedge or shrubbery. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18.--How to waste kitchen-sink drainage. _A_, Sink; -_B_, waste pipe; _C_, trap; _D_, clean-out; _E_, box filled with hay, -straw, sawdust, excelsior, coke, or other insulating material; _F_, 4-inch -vitrified sewer-pipe, hubs uphill, and joints made water tight for at -least 100 feet downhill from a well; _G_, 4-inch vitrified sewer pipe, -hubs downhill, joints slightly open, laid in an 18-inch bed of coarse -sand, gravel, stone, broken brick, slag, cinders, or coke; strip of tarred -paper on burlap or a thin layer of hay, straw, cornstalks, brush, or sods, -grass side down; _I_, 12 inches of natural soil; _J_, stone-filled pit. -As here illustrated, water is drawn by a pitcher or kitchen pump (_K_) -through a 1-1/4 or 1-1/2 inch galvanized-iron suction pipe (_L_) from a -cistern (_M_). The suction pipe should be laid below frost and on a smooth -upward grade from cistern to pump and be provided with a foot valve (_N_) -to keep the pump primed. If a foot valve is used, pump and pipe must be -safe from frost or other means than tripping the pump be provided for -draining the system.] - -Except under the most favorable conditions the construction and use of -a cesspool can not be condemned too strongly. They are only permissible -where no other arrangement is possible. Leaching cesspools especially are -open to these serious objections: - -1. Unless located in porous soil, stagnation is likely to occur, and -failure of the liquid to seep away may result in overflow on the surface -of the ground and the creation of a nuisance and a menace. - -2. They retain a mass of filth in a decomposing condition deep in the -ground where it is but slightly affected by the bacteria and air of the -soil. In seeping through the ground it may be strained, but there can be -no assurance that the foul liquid with little improvement in its condition -may not pass into the ground water and pollute wells and springs situated -long distances away in the direction of underground flow. - -For the purpose of avoiding soil and ground-water pollution cesspools have -been made of water-tight construction and the contents removed by bailing -or pumping. Upon the farm, however, this type of construction has little -to recommend it, for the reason that facilities for removing and disposing -of the contents in a clean manner are lacking. - -In some instances cesspools have been made water-tight, the outflow being -effected by three or four elbows or =T=-branches set in the masonry near -the top, with the inner ends turned down below the water surface, the -whole surrounded to a thickness of several feet with stone or gravel -intended to act as a filtering medium. Tests of the soil water adjacent to -cesspools of this type show that no reliance should be placed upon them as -a means of purifying sewage, the fatal defects being constant saturation -with sewage and lack of air supply. To the extent that the submerged -outlets keep back grease and solid matters the scheme is of service in -preventing clogging of the pores of the surrounding ground. - -Where the ground about a cesspool has become clogged and water-logged, -relief is often secured by laying, several lines of drain tile at shallow -depth, radiating from the cesspool. The ends of the pipes within the -cesspool should turn down, and it is advantageous to surround the lines -of pipe with stones or coarse gravel, as shown in figures 17 and 18 and -discussed under "Septic tanks." In this way not only is the area' of -percolation extended, but aeration and partial purification of the sewage -are effected. - -Where a cesspool is located at a distance from a dwelling and there is -opportunity to lead a vent pipe up the side of a shed, barn, or any stable -object it is advisable to do so for purposes of ventilation. Where the -conditions are less favorable it may be best, because of the odor, to omit -any direct vent pipe from the cesspool and rely for ventilation on the -house sewer and main soil stack extending above the roof of the house. - -Cesspools should be emptied and cleaned at least once a year and the -contents given safe burial or, with the requisite permission, wasted in -some municipal sewerage system. After cleaning, the walls and bottom may -be treated with a disinfectant or a deodorant. - - - - -SEPTIC TANKS. - - -A tight, underground septic tank with shallow distribution of the effluent -in porous soil generally is the safest and least troublesome method of -treating sewage upon the farm, while at the same time more or less of the -irrigating and manurial value of the sewage may be realized. - -The late Prof. Kinnicutt used to say that a septic tank is "simply a -cesspool, regulated and controlled." The reactions described under the -captions "How sewage decomposes," "Liquefying closet," and "Cesspools" -take place in septic tanks. - -In all sewage tanks, whatever their size and shape, a portion of the solid -matter, especially if the sewage contains much grease, floats as scum on -the liquid, the heavier solids settle to form sludge, while finely divided -solids and matter in a state of emulsion are held in suspension. If the -sludge is retained in the bottom of the tank and converted or partly -converted into liquids and gases the tank is called a septic tank and the -process is known as septicization. The process is sometimes spoken of as -one of digestion or rotting. - -=History.=--Prototypes of the septic tank were known in Europe nearly 50 -years ago. Between 1876 and 1893 a number of closed tanks with submerged -inlets and outlets embodying the principle of storage of sewage and -liquefaction of the solids were built in the United States and Canada. It -was later seen that many of the early claims for the septic process were -extravagant. In recent years septic tanks have been used mainly in small -installations, or, where employed in large installations, the form has -been modified to secure digestion of the sludge in a separate compartment, -thus in a measure obviating disadvantages that exist where septicization -takes place in the presence of the entering fresh sewage. - -=Purposes.=--The purposes of a septic tank are to receive all the farm -sewage, as defined on page 4, hold it in a quiet state for a time, thus -causing partial settlement of the solids, and by nature's processes of -decomposition insure, as fully as may be, the destruction of the organic -matter. - -=Limitations.=--That a septic tank is a complete method of sewage -treatment is a widespread but wrong impression. A septic tank does not -eliminate odor and does not destroy all organic solids. On the contrary, -foul odors develop, and of all the suspended matter in the sewage about -one-third escapes with the effluent, about one-third remains in the tank, -and about one-third only is destroyed or reduced to liquids and gases. -The effluent is foul and dangerous. It may contain even more bacteria -than the raw sewage, since the process involves intensive growths. As -to the effects upon the growth and virulence of disease germs little is -known definitely. It is not believed that such germs multiply under the -conditions prevailing in a septic tank. If disease germs are present many -of their number along with other bacteria may pass through with the flow -or may be enmeshed in the settling solids and there survive a long time. -Hence the farmer should safeguard wells and springs from the seepage or -discharges from a septic tank as carefully as from those of liquefying -closets and cesspools. - -=Further treatment of effluents.=--The effluent of a septic tank or any -other form of sewage tank is foul and dangerous. Whether or not the -solids are removed by screening, by short periods of rest, as in plain or -modified forms of settling tanks, or by longer quiescence, as in septic -tanks, the effluent generally requires further treatment to reduce the -number of harmful organisms and the liability of nuisance. This further -treatment usually consists of some mode of filtration. In the earliest -example of such treatment the sewage was used to irrigate land by either -broad flooding or furrow irrigation. By another method the sewage is -distributed underground by means of drain tile laid with open joints, as -illustrated in figures 17, 29, and 32. - -Artificial sewage filters are composed of coarse sand, screened gravel, -broken stone, coke, or other material, and the sewage is applied in -numerous ways. Since filtration is essentially an oxidizing process -requiring air, the sewage is applied intermittently in doses.[9] - -[9] Artificial filters of various types are well described and illustrated -in Public Health Bulletin No. 101, "Studies of Methods for the Treatment -and Disposal of Sewage--The Treatment of Sewage from Single Houses and -Small Communities." U. S. Public Health Service, December, 1919. - -If properly designed and operated, filters of sand, coke, or stone are -capable of excellent results. Under the most favorable conditions it is -unwise to discharge the effluent of a sewage filter in the near vicinity -of a source of water supply. Under farm conditions filters are usually -neglected or the sewage is improperly applied, resulting in the clogging -and befouling of sand filters and the discharge from stone filters of an -effluent which is practically as dangerous and even more offensive than -raw sewage. Moreover unless the filters are covered there are likely to be -annoying odors, and there is always the possibility of disease germs being -carried by flies where sewage is exposed in the vicinity of dwellings. -Hence it seems more practical for the farmer, avoiding the expense of -earth embankments or masonry sides and bottom for a filter bed, to waste -the tank effluent beneath the surface of such area of land as is most -suitable and available. This method of applying sewage to the soil or -subsoil is often spoken of as subirrigation, but subsoil distribution of -sewage is different in principle and practice from subirrigation for the -increase of crop yields. Subirrigation is rarely successful unless the -land is nearly level, the top soil porous and underlaid with an impervious -stratum to hold the water within reach of plant roots, and unless a -relatively large quantity of water is used and the work is skillfully -done. On the other hand, the quantity of sewage on farms being small, it -may be wasted in hilly ground, which should be as porous, deeply drained, -and dry as possible. - -=Parts of a system.=--The four parts of a septic-tank installation with -subsurface distribution of the effluent are outlined in figure 19: (1) -The house sewer from house to tank; (2) the sewage tank consisting of one -or more chambers; (3) the sewer from tank to distribution field; (4) the -distribution field, where the sewage is distributed and wasted, sometimes -called the absorption field. These parts will be discussed in the order -named, although the last should have the first consideration. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Parts of a septic-tank installation.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Setting line and grade for house sewer. To -the observer at A the top edges of the grade boards appear as one; the -half-driven nails are set to line.] - -=House sewer.=--The length will vary with the slope of the ground and -position of buildings, well, and distribution field. Fifty to 100 feet is -a fair length; a greater is still more sanitary. Wherever possible the -house sewer should be laid straight in line and grade. Figure 20 shows how -this work may be done. Suppose the distance from A to E be 100 feet; that -grade boards be set 25 feet apart crosswise of the trench at A, B, C, D, -and E; that the ground at A be 4 feet lower than at E; that the top of the -sewer be 2-1/2 feet below the surface of the ground at A and 4-1/2 feet -below the surface of the ground at E; the fall of the sewer between A and -E is 2 feet (4 + 2-1/2 - 4-1/2 = 2). If the fall in 100 feet be 2 feet, in -25 feet it is one-fourth as much, or 6 inches. Hence, grade board B is 6 -inches higher than grade board A, C is 6 inches higher than B, and so on -to E. The top edges when all the boards are set with a carpenter's level -and fastened in position should be in line. The grade thus established may -be any convenient height above the top of the proposed sewer, and the -measuring stick used to grade the pipe is cut accordingly. This height is -usually a certain number of whole feet. Fixing the line of the sewer is a -mere matter of settling nails in the top edges of boards A and E directly -over the center of the proposed sewer and tightly stretching a fish line -or grade cord; nails should be set where the cord crosses boards B, C, and -D. - -If the cellar or basement contains plumbing fixtures, the house sewer -should enter 1 to 2 feet below the cellar floor. If all plumbing fixtures -are on the floors above, the sewer may enter at no greater depth than -necessary to insure protection from frost outside the cellar wall. Digging -the trench and laying the pipe should begin at the tank or lower end. The -large end of the pipes, called the hub, should face uphill, and the barrel -of each pipe should have even bearing throughout its length. Sufficient -earth should be removed from beneath the hubs to permit the joints to be -made in a workmanlike manner. - -The house sewer may be vitrified salt-glazed sewer pipe, concrete pipe, or -cast-iron soil pipe. The latter, with poured and calked lead joints makes -a permanently water-tight and root-proof sewer, which always should be -used where the vicinity of a well must be passed; 4, 5, or 6-inch pipe may -be used, depending mainly on the fall and in less degree on the quantity -of sewage discharged. As a measure of economy the 4-inch size is favored -for iron pipe. If vitrified pipe is used, either the 5 or 6 inch size is -preferable, as these sizes are made straighter than the 4-inch size and -are less liable to obstruction. Of the two the 5-inch size is preferable. -The fall in 100 feet should never be less than 2 feet for 4-inch size, -1-1/2 feet for 5-inch size, 1 foot for 6-inch size. - -Figure 21 shows methods of making good joints. _A_, _B_, _C_, _D_, _E_, -_F_, and _G_ are ordinary sewer pipe joints; _H_, is cast-iron soil pipe. - -[Illustration: Fig. 21.--How to make good joints. See text for directions -and specifications.] - - _A_ shows the use of a yarning iron to pack a small strand of jute into - the joint space, thus centering the pipes and preventing the joint filler - running inside. The joint surfaces should be free of dirt and oil. The - jute is cut in lengths to go around the pipe; a small strand is soaked in - neat Portland cement grout, then twisted and wrapped around the small end - of the pipe to be pushed into the hub of the last pipe laid. After the - pipe is pushed home the jute is packed evenly to a depth of not over 1/2 - inch, leaving about 1-1/2 inches for the joint filler. Old hemp rope or - oakum dipped in liquid cement or paper may be used in place of jute, and - the packing may be done with a thin file or piece of wood. - - _B_ shows the use of a rubber mitten or glove to force Portland cement - mortar into the joint space. The mortar should be thoroughly and freshly - mixed in the proportion of one volume of cement to one volume of clean - sand and should be pressed and tamped to fill the joint completely. - - _C_ shows a section of finished joint. The fresh mortar should not be - loosened or disturbed when laying the next pipe. - - _D_ shows method of pouring a joint with grout, which is quicker, - cheaper, and better than using a rubber mitten. A flexible sheet-metal - form or mold, oiled to prevent the grout sticking, is clamped tightly - around the joint and is completely filled with grout consisting of equal - parts of Portland cement and clean sand mixed dry, to which water is - added to produce a creamy consistency. The pipes should not be disturbed - and the form should not be removed for 24 hours. - - _E_ shows a section of grouted joint, well rounded out, strong, and tight. - - _F_ shows the use of a pipe jointer for pouring a hot filler. The pipe - jointer may be an asbestos or rubber runner or collar or a piece, of - garden hose clamped around the pipe leaving a small triangular opening - at the top. The jointer is pressed firmly against the hub, and any - small openings between the jointer and pipe are smeared with plastic - clay to prevent leakage of the filler. A clay dike or funnel about 3 - inches high built around the triangular opening greatly aids rapid and - complete filling of the joint space. The filler may be a commercially - prepared bituminous compound or molten sulphur and fine sand. The former - makes a slightly elastic joint; the latter a hard unyielding joint. With - good workmanship both kinds of joint are practically water-tight and - root-proof, and cost about the same as cement mortar joints. The filler - is heated in an iron kettle over a wood, coke, or coal fire. It should - be well stirred, and when at a free running consistency should be poured - with a ladle large enough to fill the joint completely at one operation. - As soon as the compound cools the jointer is removed. Sulphur-sand - filler is made by mixing together dry and melting equal volumes of - ordinary powdered sulphur and very fine clean sand, preferably the finest - quicksand. A 5-inch sewer pipe joint requires from three-tenths to - nine-tenths of a pound (according to the kind of pipe) of sulphur, worth - 3 to 5 cents per pound, and a like quantity of sand. From 1/2 to 1-1/2 - pounds of bituminous filler are required for a 5-inch pipe joint. - - _G_ shows section of finished joint. - - _H_ shows the use of a pouring ladle in making lead joints in cast-iron - soil pipe. This pipe is in lengths to lay 5 feet, and the metal of the - barrel is 1/4 inch thick. The joint is yarned with dry jute or oakum, as - described above, and is poured full with molten, soft, pig lead to be - afterwards driven tightly with hammer and calking tools. About 1 pound - of lead for each inch in diameter of pipe is required. Prepared cements - of varying composition have proved effective,, and, as they require no - calking, are economical. Among the best is a finely ground, thoroughly - mixed compound of iron, sulphur, slag, and salt. - - _I_ is a home-made pipe jointer or clay roll for use in pouring molten - lead. A strand of jute long enough to encircle the pipe and the ends to - fold back, leaving an opening at the top, is covered with clay moistened, - rolled, and worked to form a plastic rope about 1 inch in diameter. The - jointer gives the very best results but must be frequently moistened and - worked to keep the clay soft and pliable. The jointer shown in _F_ is - frequently used for pouring lead joints. - -Obstructions in house sewers are frequent. Among the causes are broken -pipes, grade insufficient to give cleansing velocities, newspaper, rags, -garbage, or other solids in the sewage, congealing of grease in pipes -and main running traps (house sewer traps), and poor joint construction -whereby rootlets grow into the sewer and choke it. Good grade and good -construction, with particular care given to the joints, will avert or -lessen these troubles. The sewer should be perfectly straight, with the -interior of the joints scraped or swabbed smooth. When the joint-filling -material has set, the hollows beneath the hubs should be filled with good -earth free of stones, well tamped or puddled in place. It is important -that like material be used at the sides of the pipe and above it for at -least 1 foot. The back filling may be completed with scraper or plow. No -running trap should be placed on the house sewer, because it is liable -to become obstructed and it prevents free movement of air through the -sewer and soil stack. Conductors or drains for rain or other clean water -should never connect with the house sewer, but should discharge into a -watercourse or other outlet. - -Where obstruction of a house sewer occurs, use of some of the simple tools -shown in figure 22 may remedy the trouble. It is not likely that farmers -will have these appliances, except possibly some of the augers; but some -of them can be made at home or by a blacksmith, and most of them should -be obtainable for temporary use from a well-organized town or city sewer -department. The purpose of the several tools shown is indicated in the -notation. - -=The tank.=--The septic tank should be in an isolated location at least -50 to 100 feet from any dwelling. This is not always possible, because -of flat ground, but in many such instances reasonable distance and fall -may be secured by raising both the house sewer and tank and embanking -them with earth. Cases are known where tanks adjoin cellar or basement -walls and the top of the tank is used as a doorstep; in other cases tanks -have been constructed within buildings. Such practices are bad. It is -difficulty to construct an absolutely water-tight masonry tank, and still -more difficult to make it proof against the passage of sewage odors. - -In Northern States, particularly in exposed situations, it is desirable to -have the top of the tank 1 to 2 feet underground, thus promoting warmth -and uniformity of temperature in the sewage. In Southern States this -feature is less important, and the top of the tank may be flush with the -ground. Every tank should be tightly covered, for the reason above stated -and to guard against the spread of odors, the transmission of disease -germs by flies, and accidents to children. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Sewer-cleaning tools--how to use them. _A_, -Ordinary 1-1/2 or 2 inch auger welded to a piece of ¾-inch extra-strong -wrought pipe about 5 feet long; the stem is lengthened by adding other -pieces of pipe with screw couplings, and is fitted with a pipe handle; -all cleaning work should proceed upstream; _B_, twist or open earth -auger; _C_, ribbon or closed earth auger; _D_, spiral or coal auger; -_E_, ship auger; _F_, root cutter; _G_, sewer rods with hook coupling, -usually of hickory or ash 1 or 11 inches in diameter and 3 or 4 feet -long; _H_, gouge for cutting obstructions; _I_, scoop for removing sand -or similar material; _J_, claw, and _K_, screw, for removing paper or -rags; _L_, scraper; _M_, wire brush for removing grease, drawn back and -forth with a wire or rope; _N_, home-made wire brush (for a 5-inch sewer -use a 1-1/2-inch wooden pole to which is securely tacked a piece of heavy -rubber, canvas or leather belting or harness leather 5-1/2 by 8 inches, -spirally studded, as shown, with ordinary wire nails 1-1/2 inches in -length).] - -Considerable latitude is allowable in the design and construction of -septic tanks. No particular shape or exact dimensions can be presented for -a given number of people. One family of 5 persons may use as much water -as another family of 10 persons; hence the quantity of sewage rather than -the number of persons is the better basis of design. Exact dimensions -are not requisite, for settlement and septicization proceed whether the -sewage is held a few hours more or a few hours less. As to materials of -construction some form of masonry, either brick, building tile, rubble, -concrete, or cement block, is employed generally. Vitrified pipe, steel, -and wood have been used occasionally. - -A plant for use all year round should have two chambers, one to secure -settlement and septicization of the solids and the other to secure -periodic discharge of the effluent by the use of an automatic sewage -siphon. The first chamber is known as the settling chamber, the second -as the siphon or dosing chamber. The siphon chamber is often omitted -and the effluent is allowed to dribble away through subsurface tile, as -illustrated in figures 17 and 18. The latter procedure is not generally -advised, but may be permissible where the land slopes sharply or has long -periods of rest, as at summer houses and camps. - -The septic tanks shown in this bulletin are designed to satisfy the -following conditions: - -1. Water consumption of 40 gallons per person per day of 24 hours. - -2. A detention period of about 24 hours; that is, the capacity of the -settling chamber below the flow line is approximately equal to the -quantity of sewage discharged from the house in 24 hours. - -3. Where a siphon chamber is provided, its size is such that the dose of -sewage shall be approximately equal to 20 gallons per person; that is, the -capacity of the siphon chamber between the discharge and low-water lines -is roughly equal to the quantity of sewage discharged in 12 hours. - -[Illustration: Fig. 23.--One-chamber septic tank--does nothing more -than a tight cesspool. Brick construction, heavily plastered inside; -size suitable for 180 to 280 gallons of sewage daily (nominally 4 to 7 -persons).] - -A simple one-chamber brick tank suitable for a household discharging 180 -to 280 gallons of sewage daily is shown in figure 23. A small two-chamber -tank constructed of 24-inch vitrified pipe, suitable for a household -discharging about 125 gallons of sewage daily, is shown in figure 24. A -typical two-chamber concrete tank is shown in figure 25. Excepting the -submerged outlet, all pipes within the tank and built into the masonry -are cast-iron soil pipe with cast-iron fittings. Vitrified or concrete -sewer pipe and specials are generally used as they are frequently more -readily obtainable and a slight saving in first cost may be effected. Cast -iron is less liable to be broken in handling or after being set rigidly in -masonry, and the joints are more easily made water-tight. The submerged -outlet is midway of the depth of liquid in the settling chamber. The -inside depth of the siphon chamber is the drawing depth of the siphon plus -1 foot 5 inches. - -The following table gives the principal dimensions with quantities of -materials for four sizes of tank as illustrated in figure 25: - - _Dimensions and quantities for septic tanks._ - - --------+--------+--------+-------------------------------------------- - |Quantity| | Settling chamber. - | of |Capacity| - Number | sewage | below +-------+-------+-------+----+-------+---+--- - of | in 24 | flow |Length.| Depth.|Width. | W. | X. | Y.| Z. - persons.| hours. | line. | | | | | | | - --------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+----+-------+---+--- - | Galls. | Galls. |Ft. In.|Ft. In.|Ft. In.| In.|Ft. In.|In.|In. - 5 | 180-280| 240 | 4 0 | 5 0 | 2 0 | 6 | 2 0 | 4 | 6 - 10 | 320-480| 420 | 5 0 | 5 6 | 2 6 | 6 | 2 3 | 4 | 6 - 15 | 520-680| 620 | 5 6 | 6 0 | 3 0 | 8 | 2 6 | 5 | 8 - 20 | 720-960| 860 | 6 0 | 6 6 | 3 6 | 8 | 2 9 | 5 | 8 - --------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+----+-------+---+--- - - --------+----------+------------------------------------------------ - | Quantity | Siphon chamber. - Number |of sewage +-------+--------+--------+----+----+----+------- - of | in 24 |Length.| Depth. | Width. | A. | B. | C. | D. - persons.| hours. | | | | | | | - --------+----------+-------+--------+--------+----+----+----+------- - | Galls. |Ft. In.| Ft. In.| Ft. In.| In.| In.| In.| In. - 5 | 180-280 | 5 0 | 2 8 | 2 0 | 3 | 4 | 15 | 18-1/4 - 10 | 320-480 | 8 0 | 2 8 | 2 6 | 3 | 4 | 15 | 20-1/4 - 15 | 520-680 | 8 8 | 2 10 | 3 0 | 4 | 4 | 17 | 20-1/4 - 20 | 720-960 |10 0 | 2 10 | 3 6 | 4 | 4 | 17 | 20-1/4 - --------+----------+-------+--------+--------+----+----+----+------- - - --------+---------+---------+--------+--------+---------+------------- - |Quantity | | | | |Reinforcement - | of | | | | | in top slab - Number | sewage | | | | | (strip of - of | in 24 |Concrete.| Cement.| Sand. | Stone. | heavy stock - persons.| hours. | | | | | fencing). - | | | | | +-------+------ - | | | | | |Length.|Width. - --------+---------+---------+--------+--------+---------+-------+------ - | Galls. | Cu. yds.| Bbls. |Cu. yds.| Cu. yds.| Ft. | In. - 5 | 180-280 | 3 | 4-1/2 | 1-1/3 | 2-2/3 | 10 | 3 - 10 | 320-480 | 4-1/4 | 6-1/4 | 2 | 3-3/4 | 14 | 3 - 15 | 520-680 | 6-2/3 | 9-3/4 | 3 | 6 | 15-2/3| 4 - 20 | 720-960 | 8 | 12 | 3-1/2 | 7 | 17-1/2| 5 - --------+---------+---------+--------+--------+---------+-------+------ - -=Siphons.=--Reference has already been made to the vital importance of air -in sewage filtration. If the spaces within a filter or soil are constantly -filled with water, air is excluded, and the action of the filtering -material is merely that of a mechanical strainer with its clogging -tendency. The purpose of a siphon is twofold: (1) To secure intermittent -discharge, thus allowing a considerable period of time for one dose to -work off in the soil and for air to enter the soil spaces before another -flush is received; (2) to secure distribution over a larger area and in a -more even manner than where the sewage is allowed to dribble and produce -the conditions of the old-fashioned sink drain--namely, a small area of -water-logged ground. - -[Illustration: Fig. 24.--Two-chamber septic tank, simple and inexpensive. -Constructed of 24-inch vitrified sewer pipe; size suitable for 125 -gallons of sewage daily (nominally 3 persons). _A_, House sewer; _B_, -settling chamber, made of one double =T= branch and one length of straight -pipe, each 3 feet long and 2 feet in diameter, supported by 4 inches of -concrete, all joints made water-tight; _C_, submerged outlet, consisting -of a metal =T= slipped into the sewer-pipe branch; _D_, wire screen, -2-inch mesh; _E_, siphon chamber made of one =T= branch 3 feet long and -2 feet in diameter; _F_, siphon; _G_, 3-inch overflow; _H_, sewer to -distribution field; _I_, tight cover with lifting ring; _J_, concrete -protection around sewer-pipe hubs.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Typical two-chamber concrete septic tank. (See -table for dimensions and quantities for different sizes.)] - - -Three types of sewage siphon are shown in figure 26. In all, the essential -principle is the same: A column of air is entrapped between two columns -of water; when the water in the chamber rises to a predetermined height, -called the discharge line, the pressure forces out the confined air, -destroying the balance and causing a rush of water through the siphon to -the sewer. The entire operation is automatic and very simple. The siphons -shown are commercial products made of cast iron; they have few parts and -none that move, and the whole construction is simple and durable. The -table (fig. 26) lists stock sizes adapted to farm use. Manufacturers -furnish full information for setting their siphons and putting them in -operation. For example, take type 2, figure 26: (1) Set siphon trap -(=U=-shaped pipe) plumb, making E (height from floor to top of long leg) as -specified; (2) fill siphon trap with water till it begins to run out at B; -(3) place bell in position on top of long leg, and the siphon is ready for -service. Do not fill vent pipe on side of bell. - -[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Three types of sewage siphon. The table gives -dimensions for setting standard 3 and 4 inch siphons; also the appropriate -size and grade of the sewer to carry the siphon discharge.] - -[Transcriber Note: The data for Type 1 Siphon has been added to the table. - - Type 2 - INCHES - +---+-------+-------+-------+-------+ - Diameter of siphon | A | 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 | - Diameter of outlet | B | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | - Drawing depth | C | 13 | 15 | 14 | 17 | - Depth to floor | D | 16¼ | 18¼ | 17¼ | 20¼ | - Height above floor | E | 7¼ | 9¼ | 8¾ | 11¾ | - Clearance under bell | F | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | - Inside bottom of outlet, | | | | | | - to discharge line | G | 20½ | 22½ | 22¾ | 25¾ | - Discharge line, to top of wall | H | | | | | - Depth of outlet sump | I | | | | | - Length and width of outlet sump | J | | | | | - +---+-------+-------+-------+-------+ - | R | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | - | S | 2 ft. | 2 ft. | 7 ft. | 8 ft. | - Diameter of carrier (R), and +---+-------+-------+-------+-------+ - minimum fall (S) in feet | R | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | - per 100 feet | S | 1½ ft.| 1½ ft.| 2 ft.| 2½ ft.| - +---+-------+-------+-------+-------+ - | R | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | - | S | 1 ft. | 1 ft. | 1 ft. | 1 ft. | - +---+-------+-------+-------+-------+ - - Type 3 Type 1 - INCHES INCHES - +---+----+----+----+----+ +----+ - Diameter of siphon | A | 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 | | 4 | - Diameter of outlet. | B | | | | | | | - Drawing depth | C | 13 | 15 | 14 | 17 | | 5 | - Depth to floor. | D | 17 | 17 | 19 | 22 | | 15 | - Height above floor | E | 13 | 13 | 15 | 18 | | 19 | - Clearance under bell. | F | | | | | | | - Inside bottom of outlet, | | | | | | | | - to discharge line. | G | 19 | 21 | 20 | 25 | | | - Discharge line, to top of wall. | H | 6 | 6 | 8 | 8 | | | - Depth of outlet sump | I | 13 | 13 | 11 | 12 | | | - Length and width of outlet sump | J | 18 | 19 | 19 | 18 | | | - +---+----+----+----+----+ +----+ -] - -The overhead siphon, type 3, figure 26, may be installed readily in a tank -already built by addition of an outlet sump. If properly set and handled, -sewage siphons require very little attention and flush with certainty. -Like all plumbing fixtures they are liable to stoppage if rags, newspaper, -and similar solids get into the sewage. If fouling of the sniffing hole -or vent prevents the entrance of sufficient air into the bell to lock the -siphon properly, allowing sewage to dribble through, the remedy is to -clean the siphon. Siphons are for handling liquid; sludge if allowed to -accumulate will choke them. - -=Submerged outlet.=--The purpose of a submerged outlet is to take the -outflow from a point between the sludge at the bottom and the floating -solids or scum. The outlet in figure 25 may be readily made of sheet -metal by a tinsmith. Wrought iron or steel pipe with elbows or light -lead pipe may be used, the pipe being set in the concrete and left in -place. Sometimes a galvanized wire screen (1/4-inch mesh) is fitted over -the inner end to prevent large solids leaving the settling chamber and -possibly clogging the siphon or distribution tile. If a screen is used it -should be easily removable for cleaning. - -[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Home-made reinforced concrete covers. (1) Slabs -placed crosswise permit uncovering the whole tank for cleaning, but as -inspection is somewhat difficult, cleaning is the more likely to be -neglected; (2) manhole, 18 inches square; cover, 22 by 22 by 3 inches -thick, easy to make and to slide or lift from the opening.] - -=Manhole frame and cover.=--The frame and cover shown in figure 25 are -stock patterns made of cast iron and weighing about 250 pounds per set. -The cover is 21 inches in diameter; it is tight and, on account of its -weight, is unlikely to be disturbed by small children. The frame or rim -is about 7 inches high and 31 inches in longest diameter. If desired, -light cast-iron cistern or cesspool covers obtainable from plumbing supply -houses, home-made slabs of reinforced concrete (see fig. 27), or wooden -covers (see fig. 23) may be used. - -=Overflow.=--The purpose of an overflow is to pass sewage to the -distribution field should the siphon stop working. The overflow (fig. 25) -is a 3-inch riser pipe with top 3 inches above the discharge line and the -bottom calked or cemented into the side outlet of a =T=-branch. The run of -the =T=-branch should correspond with the size of the sewer from the tank -to the distribution field. If this sewer is 4-inch pipe, a 4 by 3 inch -=T=-branch is used, the 4-inch spigot end of the siphon being calked or -cemented into the branch, as shown in figure 25; if the sewer is 5-inch, -a 5 by 3 inch =T=-branch is used and connected to the siphon with a 5-inch -to 4-inch reducer (in vitrified specials the equivalent is a 4-inch to -5-inch increaser); if the sewer is 6-inch, a 6 by 3 inch =T=-branch is used -and connected to the siphon with a 6-inch to 4-inch reducer. - -=Concrete work.=--Before excavation for the tank is begun, two wooden -forms should be built for shaping the inside of the settling and siphon -chambers. In most instances the ground is fairly firm, so that the lines -of excavation may conform to the outside dimensions of the tank, the -back of the walls being built against the earth. The forms may be made -of square-edged boards, braced and lightly nailed, as shown in figure -28. The forms should have no bottom. If it is desired to lay the sides -and covering slab in one operation, the top of the forms must be boarded -over. All pipe and manhole openings should be accurately placed and cut. -The faces of the forms may be covered with paper or smeared with soap or -grease to facilitate removal later. - -The ground should next be excavated to the proper depth for placing the -floors in both chambers. The settling chamber floor, being the lower, -should be placed first. Effort should be made to secure water-tight -work, a feature of especial importance where leakage might endanger a -well or spring. A concrete mixture of 1:2:4 is generally preferred (1 -volume cement, 2 volumes sand, 4 volumes stone). The ingredients should -be of best quality and thoroughly mixed. The concrete should be poured -promptly and worked with a spade or flat shovel to make the face smooth -and eliminate pockets or voids within the mass.[10] Before the settling -chamber floor has hardened the form should be set upon the floor and the -concrete work continued up the sides. The pipe form for the submerged -outlet should be set. When the side walls of the settling chamber have -reached the bottom of the excavation for the siphon chamber, the siphon -trap with its connecting branch and short piece of pipe should be set to -proper line and grade and blocked in position. The floor of the siphon -chamber should now be poured and the form for that chamber placed thereon, -leaving a 6-inch or 8-inch space (according to the thickness of the -division wall) between the ends of the two forms. Pouring of all side -walls and the top slab should continue without stop, making the entire -structure a monolith. - -[10] See footnote, p. 17. For more detailed information on form and -concrete work the reader is referred to U. S. Department of Agriculture -Farmers' Bulletin No. 481, "Concrete Construction on the Live-Stock -Farm." - -[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Forms for concrete work--how to use them. - - 1. Make the forms as shown and to the dimensions required by fig. 25 - and the table on p. 37; nails to be driven from the inside and left - projecting for drawing with a claw hammer. - - 2. Excavate to lines 6 or 8 inches, as may be required, outside of the - forms and to the depths required for both chambers. - - 3. Pour settling chamber floor and place form thereon. - - 4. Pour settling chamber walls to level of siphon chamber excavation, - inserting submerged outlet pipe at the proper height. - - 5. Block siphon trap and connected branch and short pipes to correct - line and grade, and fill with concrete around the trap. - - 6. Pour siphon chamber floor, and place the form thereon. - - 7. Continue pouring all walls to their full height, inserting the inlet - pipe when the concrete reaches that elevation. - - 8. Do not remove forms till the concrete is hard; with favorable - weather, forms for walls only may be removed in 1 to 2 days; forms - supporting a cover slab should remain 1 to 2 weeks. -] - -=Steel reinforcement.=--To stiffen the cover slab and guard against -cracking, a little steel should be embedded in the concrete about 1 inch -above the inside top. For this purpose a strip of heavy stock fencing is -convenient and inexpensive. The line wires should be not less than No. -10 gauge (about 1/8 inch) and the stay wires not less than No. 11 gauge. -The reinforcement should be cut at manholes and fastened around manhole -openings. If desired a standard wire-mesh reinforcement weighing about -one-third of a pound per square foot may be used. Another alternative is -to use 1/4-inch round rods, spacing the crosswise rods 6 inches apart and -the lengthwise rods 12 inches apart. Poultry netting should not be used, -because of its lightness. - -=Sewer from tank to distribution field.=--The length of this sewer depends -on the situation of the field and the fall to it. The size of the sewer -depends on the fall that can be obtained and the size of siphon. The table -in figure 26 shows the minimum fall at which 4-inch, 5-inch, and 6-inch -sewers should be laid to take the discharge of the 3-inch and 4-inch -siphons specified. The line and grade should be set in the same manner -as for the house sewer (see fig. 20), and the construction should be as -specified under that caption. - -=Distribution field.=--The distribution field or area is a sewage filter, -and its selection and the manner of preparing it largely determine the -success of subsoil disposal of sewage. As a rule farm land is not the best -filtering material. It is too fine grained and fertile. Its tendency is to -hold water too long, to admit insufficient air, to clog when even small -quantities of sewage are applied. Hence the distribution area should be -of liberal size--on the average 500 square feet for each person served. -It should be dry, porous, and well drained--qualities that characterize -sandy, gravelly, and light loam soils. It should be devoid of trees and -shrubbery, thus giving sunlight and air free access. It should be located -at least 300 feet downhill from a well or spring used for domestic water -supply. Preferably it should slope gently, but sharp slopes are not -prohibitive. Subsoiling the area is always desirable. - -Clay and other compact, impervious soils require special treatment. Less -sewage can be applied to them, and hence it is well to have the area -larger than 500 square feet per person. Clay should be subsoiled as deep -as possible with a subsoil plow. In some instances dynamite has been -of service in opening up the ground to still greater depth. Drainage -and aeration should be further promoted by laying tile underdrains, as -outlined in figure 19 and shown in more detail in figure 31. - -After the construction work the distribution area should be raked -and seeded with thick-growing grass. Grass is a safe crop; its water -requirement is high, and it affords considerable protection from frost. -Suitable grasses are redtop, white clover, blue grass, and Bermuda grass. -The area may be pastured or kept as grass land. - -=Distribution system.=--Poor distribution of the sewage and failure to -protect the joints of the distribution tile account for most of the -failures. Each flush of the siphon should be so controlled that every part -of the field will receive its due proportion. The distribution tile must -be so laid that loose dirt will not fall or wash into the open joints. - -Different methods of dividing the flush and laying out the distribution -tile are shown in figures 29 and 32. Layouts 1, 2, and 3, figure 29, are -suitable for flat or gently sloping areas and are planned for the shallow -siphon chambers tabulated on page 37. Layout 4, figure 29, is suitable for -steep slopes. In all four layouts use is made of one or more =V=-branches -(not =Y=-branches) to divide the flow equally among the several lines. -=V=-branches, sometimes called breeches, should be leveled with a -carpenter's level crosswise the ends of the legs, thus insuring equal -division of the flow. - -The size and length of distribution tile and the spacing of the lines -or runs admit of considerable variation in different soils. Water sinks -rapidly in gravels and sands, and hence larger tile and shorter length are -permissible than in close soils. Lateral movement is slow in all soils, -but extends farther in gravels and sands than in close soils. In average -soils the effect on vegetation 5 feet away from the line is practically -nil. - -From these considerations, with the siphon dose 20 gallons per person, it -is usually a safe rule to provide 50 feet of 3-inch tile for each person -served and to lay the lines 10 feet apart. Such provision gives a capacity -within the bore of the tile lines about equal to the siphon dose, and -as some sewage is wasted at each joint a reasonable factor of safety is -provided. A spacing of 10 feet will, it is believed, permanently prevent -the extension of lateral absorption from line to line, provided the area -is fairly well drained. As between 3-inch and 4-inch tile the smaller -size costs less and is better calculated to taper the dose to small -proportions. Four-inch tile is less likely to get out of alignment or to -become clogged; a length of 28 feet has the same capacity in the bore as -50 feet of 3-inch. - -Good-quality drain tile in 1-foot lengths or second-quality sewer pipe -in 2-foot lengths may be used. The lines are generally laid in parallel -runs, but may be varied according to the topography. Layouts 1, 2, and 3, -figure 29, for flat or gently sloping land, run with the slope; layout 4, -for steep slopes, runs back and forth along the contour in a series of -long flat sweeps and short steep curves. The grade of the runs and sweeps -should be gentle, rarely more than 10 or 12 inches in 100 feet. In layouts -1, 2, and 3, figure 29 especially, it is desirable that the last 20 feet -of each run should be laid level or given a slight upward slope, thus -guarding against undue flow of sewage to the lowest ends of the system. - -Fig. 29.--Methods of laying distribution system: Methods 1, 2, and 3 for -flat or gently sloping land; method 4 for steep slopes (see also fig. 32); -_A_, direction of slope; _B_, contour of field; _C_, sewer from tank, -preferably size 5 inch, though 4 or 6 inch may be used, depending on -the fall and the size of the siphon (see table, fig. 26); _D_, =V=-branch -set to divide the flow exactly; _E_, reducer, to 4 inches; F, 1/8 bend, -4-inch; _G_, increaser, from 4 inches; _H_, increaser, 3 to 4 inches; _I_, -reducer, 4 to 3 inches; _J_, distribution tile, 3-inch; _K_, distribution -tile, 4-inch. - -The runs should be laid no deeper than necessary to give clearance when -plowing and prevent injury from frost. Ten inches of earth above the top -of the tile is sufficient generally throughout the southern half of the -United States and 18 inches generally in the North, but if the field -is exposed or lacks a thick heavy growth of grass the cover should be -increased to 2-1/2 or 3 feet near the Canadian line. What is better, the -tile in all instances may be laid with a 10-inch cover and in cold weather -the runs may be covered with hay, straw, or leaves weighted down, which -may be removed in the spring. - -[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Four methods of protecting open joints in -distribution lines--an all-important work. Sketches show cross-section and -longitudinal views; the depth from the surface of the ground to the top of -the tile is about 10 inches. - - 1. _A_, Subsoil ground; _B_, 3 or 4 inch drain tile; _C_, strip of - tarred paper about 6 inches wide and extending three-fourths the - distance around the tile, allowing sewage to escape at the bottom; _D_, - coarse sand, gravel, broken stone or brick, slag, cinders, or coke, the - coarsest material placed around the tile (where the ground is naturally - very porous and well drained, special filling in the trench may be - omitted); _E_, natural soil. - - 2. Drain tile covered with a board laid flat, leaving the entire joint - open. - - 3. Drain tile laid in stoneware gutter pieces and the joint covered - with stoneware caps; gutter and cap pieces are inexpensive commercial - products; their radius is longer than that of the outside of the tile, - thus leaving open most of the joint space; the gutter aids in keeping - the tile in line. - - 4. Vitrified sewer pipe with hubs facing downhill; the spigot end should - be centered in the hub with a few small chinks or wedges. -] - -Making the joints of the distribution tile demands especial attention. -For a short distance on the upper end of each run the tile should be laid -with ends abutting; the joint opening should be increased gradually to -one-eighth inch and this increased to one-fourth in the last 20 feet of -the run. All joints should be protected against the entrance of loose -dirt. Four methods are shown in figure 30. The lower end of each run -should be closed with a brick or flat stone; or, what is better, an elbow -or =T=-branch may be placed on the end and vented above the surface of the -ground, improving the flow of sewage, the ventilation of pipes, and the -aeration of the soil. - -If the distribution tile must be laid in clay or other close, poorly -drained soil, special treatment is necessary. A common method is to -subsoil and underdrain the area thoroughly, as shown in figure 31. -It is not always possible to run the underdrain in lines between the -distribution lines as shown in figures 19 and 31, but it is a desirable -thing to do, as the sewage must then receive some filtration through -natural soil. - -In some instances it is sufficient to lay the distribution tile on a -continuous bed, 8 to 12 inches thick, of coarse gravel, broken stone, or -brick, slag, coke, or cinders and complete the refill as shown in figure -18 or 31. - -Figure 32 shows two other methods of controlling the flow on steep slopes -and diverting proper proportions to the several lateral distributors -laid along the contour of the field. This work can not be effected -properly with =T= or =Y= branches; the flow tends to shoot straight ahead, -comparatively little escaping laterally. To overcome this difficulty -recourse is had to diverting boxes, of which two types are shown in figure -32. These boxes involve expense, but permit inspection and division of the -flow according to the needs. They may be built of brick, stone, concrete, -or even wood. - -[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Close soils should be deeply subsoiled and -underdrained. Porous, well-drained, air-filled soil is absolutely -necessary. _A_, Subsoiled ground; _B_, 3 or 4 inch distribution tile; -_C_, depth variable with the climate, 1-1/4 to 3-1/2 feet; _D_, 4-inch -underdrain; _E_, depth such as would prepare land for good crop -production, generally 3-1/2 to 4 feet; _F_, stone or other coarse -material; _G_, gravel grading upward to coarse sand; _H_, loose soil.] - -Type 1 consists of a single box, into which all the lateral distributors -head. It will be noted that the laterals enter at slightly different -elevations, the two opposite the inlet sewer being the highest, the next -two slightly lower, and the next two the lowest. This staggering of the -outlets, in a measure, offsets the tendency of the flow to shoot across -and escape by the most direct route. - -Type 2 calls for one or more diverting boxes, according to the number of -lateral distributors, and readily permits of wasting sewage at widely -separated elevations and distances. The outlet pipes enter the box at -slightly different elevations, for the reason already stated. With either -type, should the outlets not be set at the right elevations, partial -plugging of the holes and a little experimenting will enable one to -equalize or proportion the discharges. - -[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Two systems of distribution on steep slopes--use -of diverting box. _A_ Direction of slope; _B_, contour of field; _C_, -4, 5 or 6 inch sewer from tank; _D_ diverting box; _E_, 3-inch or 4-inch -distribution tile.] - -=Sewage switch.=--The clogging of filters and soils after long-continued -application of sewage has been previously referred to. It is, therefore, -desirable to arrange the distribution system in two units with a switch -between them, so that one area may drain and become aerated while the -other is in use. This procedure is especially desirable where the soil is -close and the installation of considerable size. It adds to the life and -effectiveness of the distribution area and permits use of a plant in case -it is necessary to repair, extend, or relay the tile in either unit. - -Arrangement in two units does not necessarily mean doubling the amount -of tile and the area required in a single field. However desirable that -may be, expense or lack of suitable ground will often prevent. With open -sands and gravels and the assumed siphon dose of 20 gallons per person, -15 to 20 feet of 4-inch tile in each unit for each person will usually -suffice. With more compact soil it is advisable to more nearly double the -requirements previously described. Two simple types of switch are shown in -figure 33. The switch should be turned frequently, certainly as often as -is necessary to prevent saturation or bogginess of either area. - -[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Two simple types of sewage switch. _A_, Sewer -from tank; _B_, switch box; _C_, cover; _D_, blade or stop board (in the -left-hand box the direction of flow is controlled by placing the blade in -alternate diagonal position; in the right-hand box the stop works in iron -guides cast integral with a short piece of light-weight pipe set in the -masonry; if desired the guides may be wood, fastened to the masonry with -expansion bolts); _E_, sewer to distribution area; _F_ (right-hand box), -alternate position of outlets or additional outlets if required.] - -=A complete installation.=--The general layout and working plans of -a complete installation built in 1915-16 are shown in figure 34. The -plant is larger than those heretofore considered, and involves several -additional features. The settling chamber below the flow line has a -capacity of 1,000 gallons, and on a basis of 40 gallons per person per day -would serve 25 people. - -For many years sewage had been discharged through two 4-inch sewers to -a cesspool in the rear of the house. The proximity of the well made it -unsafe, and the overflow of the cesspool dribbled over the low portion of -the garden and barnyard, creating nuisance. - -The first step was to make borings with a soil auger in the pasture 400 -or 500 feet from the house. The borings showed a heavy clay soil to a -depth of about 4 feet, underlaid with a sandy stratum only a few inches in -thickness. It was decided to locate the distribution area in the pasture -and to aid the seepage of sewage by digging numerous filter wells through -the clay to the sandy stratum. Levels were taken and a contour plan -prepared to serve for laying out the plant and establishing the grades. - -[Illustration: Fig. 34.--A complete installation for a large rural -home. General layout on a contour plan and construction drawings. Note -abandonment of old cesspool near the well and garden and removal of sewage -to a lower and safer location in the pasture, where the treatment is -subsurface distribution, aided by numerous filter wells about 4 feet deep -filled with coarse gravel. Note that sludge is removed from the bottom of -the settling chamber by opening the gate on the sludge drain.] - -The septic tank is built in one corner of the barnyard, and a 5-inch sewer -connects it with the old 4-inch sewers to the cesspool. All sewer pipe -joints were poured with a flexible jointing compound. The settling chamber -is of hopper shape at the bottom, and a 4-inch sludge drain with gate -provides for the gravity removal of sludge. The lower end of the sludge -drain is above the surface of the ground and 9 feet below the flow line. -The end is protected by a small retaining wall, and the sludge is readily -caught in barrels and hauled out on the land for burial. The outlet is low -enough to drain the settling chamber completely. If it is desired merely -to force out the sludge, the drain may be brought to the surface under a -head of 3 to 5 feet, discharging the sludge into a trench or drying bed, -to be applied later to the land. A 2-inch waste pipe about mid-depth of -the settling chamber permits drawing off the clearer portion of the sewage -to the siphon chamber and from thence through another 2-inch waste pipe -into the 6-inch sewer leading to the distribution field. - -The 4-inch siphon has a drawing depth of 33 inches, and as the siphon -chamber is 4 feet wide by 6 feet long the dose is about 500 gallons. The -siphon cost $35. The 6-inch sewer to the switch box falls about 6 inches -in 50 feet. The distribution field was thoroughly subsoiled, and about 800 -feet of 3-inch tile was laid in each unit. At intervals of 25 feet along -the distribution trenches 6-inch holes were dug through the clay stratum -with a posthole digger. These holes were filled with stone and constitute -the filter wells previously mentioned. All tile lines are surrounded with -stone and coarse gravel, and the ground has been trimmed to give a uniform -cover of 12 inches. All work was done by day labor in a thorough manner. -As the men were doing other work at the same time the actual cost is not -known, but it is believed the installation cost about $700. - -=Cost data.=--Reliable cost figures are difficult to estimate. Labor, -materials, freight, haulage, and other items vary greatly in different -localities. The septic tank shown in figure 23 contains about 1,000 bricks -and is estimated to cost $60 complete. The septic tank shown in figure -25 for 5 persons is estimated to cost $135; for 10 persons, $170; for -15 persons, $240; for 20 persons, $280. In Maryland, in 1916, the cost -of installing a septic tank similar to that shown in figure 25 (for 5 -people), including 86 feet of 5-inch house sewer (55 feet of cast-iron -pipe passing a well, and 31 feet of vitrified pipe) and 214 feet of -second-quality 4-inch sewer pipe in the distribution area, was as follows: - - Excavation, labor $7.50 - Materials delivered 46.60 - Three-inch siphon, including freight 15.75 - Construction, labor 28.00 - Supervision 5.00 - ------ - Total 102.85 - - -The quotations in the following table will be found useful in making -estimates of cost: - - _Cost of pipe and drain tile._ - - (February, 1921.) - - ------------------------------------+----------------------------------- - | Size, in inches. - Kind of pipe. +--------+--------+--------+-------- - | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 - ------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+-------- - Extra heavy cast-iron soil | | | | - pipe, on cars Chicago, Ill., per | | | | - or Washington, D. C. foot| $0.34 | $0.46 | $0.61 | $0.72 - Vitrified salt-glazed sewer | | | | - pipe, on cars Chicago, Ill. do | .15 | .15 | .22½ | .22½ - Vitrified salt-glazed sewer | | | | - pipe, at factory near | | | | - Washington, D. C. do | .12 | .12 | .18 | .18 - Clay or shale drain tile, at | | | | - factory in Ohio do | .03 | .03½ | .04½ | .05½ - Clay or shale drain tile, at | | | | - factory near Washington, D. C. do | .04 | .05 | .06 | .07 - ------------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+-------- - - -The cost of cast-iron fittings may be roughly estimated as follows: Bends, -one to one and one-half times the price of straight pipe; =T=-branches, -two times the price of straight pipe; reducers, average of the prices of -straight pipe at each end. The cost of clay bends, =T=-branches, reducers, -and increasers may be roughly estimated at four times the price of -straight pipe. - -=Operation.=--Attention must be given to every plant to insure success. -Unusual or excessive foulness should be investigated. No chemicals should -be used in a septic tank; garbage, rags, newspaper, and other solids -not readily soluble in water should be kept out of sewers and tanks. -The plant should be inspected often, noting particularly if the siphon -is operating satisfactorily. If scum forms in the settling chamber it -should be removed, and the sludge should be bailed or pumped out yearly. -Frequently tanks are not cleaned out for three or four years, resulting in -large quantities of solid matter going through to the distribution system -and clogging it. Clogging may occur in the tile or in the adjacent soil. -In either case the tile should be dug up, cleaned, and relaid. In some -cases it has been found advantageous to relay the tile between the former -lines. When sewage is applied to fairly porous land at the slow rate here -recommended and the plant is well handled the tile lines should operate -satisfactorily for many years. Liming heavy soils tends to loosen and keep -them sweet. - -=Field data.=--As a basis for outlining or designing a suitable -installation the following data should be known: - - 1. State, town, and whether in or near an incorporated municipality. - - 2. Usual number of persons to be served. - - 3. Average daily consumption of water in gallons. - - 4. Kind and depth of well, depth to water surface. - - 5. Character of soil, whether sandy, gravelly, loamy, clay, or muck. - - 6. Condition of soil as to drainage. - - 8. Character of underlying rock and, if known, its depth below the - surface. - - 9. Depth to ground water at both house and field where sewage is to be - distributed. - - 10. Minimum winter temperature and approximate depth to which frost - goes. - - 11. Number and kind of buildings to be connected with the sewer. - - 12. Number and kind of plumbing fixtures in each building. - - 13. Whether plumbing fixtures are to be put in the basement. - - 14. Depth of basement floor below ground. - -A plan to scale or a sketch with dimensions showing property lines, -buildings, wells, springs, and drainage outlets should be furnished. The -direction of surface drainage should be indicated by arrows. The slope of -the land (vertical fall in a stated horizontal distance) should be given -or if possible a contour plan (showing lines of constant elevation) should -be furnished. - - - - -GREASE TRAPS. - - -Farm sewage may contain from 10 to 30 pounds of grease and fats per person -per year. This grease, originating mainly in the kitchen sink, hinders -septic action and clogs pipes, filters, and soils. Half the grease may be -stopped by a septic tank, but the remainder goes into the distribution -system, interfering with its action. A grease trap is a device for -separating the grease from other wastes. The need for it may be lessened -by carefully depositing waste greases and fats with the garbage; but -one should always be installed if the kitchen is carelessly managed or -discharges quantities of greasy water as at institutions, hotels, boarding -houses, and bakeshops. - -A grease trap should have several times the capacity of the greatest -quantity of greasy water discharged into it at one time, in order that -the entering water shall be well cooled and the grease congealed. The -solidified grease rises to the surface of the water in the trap and is -retained therein. A dishpan of greasy water (2-1/2 to 3 gallons) is the -largest quantity likely to be discharged at one time from an ordinary -kitchen sink, hence the grease trap should have not less capacity than 7 -or 8 gallons. Figure 35 shows three types of grease traps suitable for -farm use. In each the outlet pipe has small clearance at the bottom. -This feature, together with the =V=-shaped hopper bottom, tends to create -a scouring velocity and thus prevent the accumulation of coffee grounds -and other solid wastes in the bottom of the trap. A grease trap should be -close to the sink it is intended to serve, but not within the kitchen, on -account of objectionable odors when the trap is opened to remove grease. -It is good practice to place the trap in the cellar or basement, where it -is safe from frost yet close to the source of grease. - - -[Illustration: Ready-made grease trap. Vitrified, salt-glazed earthenware. - - STOCK SIZES - - Diameter. Depth. - _Inches._ _Inches._ - 15 24 - 18 36 - 24 36 -] - -[Illustration: Home-made grease trap. Concrete or well-plastered brick -work; elbow, cross and increaser to be recessed drainage fittings.] - -[Illustration: Type of grease trap used at U. S. Army camps.] - -Fig. 35.--Three types of grease trap. - - - - -GENERAL PROCEDURE. - - -Do not waste money by digging and, partly constructing, afterwards seeking -information. Prepare a plan and work from it. Get in touch with your -county agricultural and home demonstration agents. Advice may be obtained -also from extension workers, State agricultural colleges, State and local -boards of health, the United States Public Health Service, and the United -States Department of Agriculture. Do not guess distances and levels. -Use a measuring tape and some type of level--engineer's, architect's, -drainage, hand, or carpenter's. Study this bulletin, and design, lay -out, and construct in accordance therewith. Remember to: (1) Isolate the -septic tank--locate it 50 to 100 or more feet from any dwelling and, if -practicable, to the leeward of prevailing summer breezes; (2) locate the -cesspool or sewage distribution field downhill from the well or spring, -and, if possible, 300 feet therefrom; (3) select dry, porous, deeply -drained ground for disposal of all sewage; (4) do not apply more sewage to -a given area of land than can be thoroughly absorbed and oxidized; (5) lay -sewers straight and below the reach of frost, ventilate them thoroughly, -and make the joints water-tight and root-proof. - -Makeshift methods, materials, or devices should be avoided or used -sparingly. Do not place a vent pipe in the top of a cesspool or septic -tank if near a dwelling. Siphon chamber and siphon may be omitted in those -rare instances where it is feasible to discharge into salt water or into -a large stream already badly polluted. Disposal of sewage in a running -stream should be a last resort. Such practice endangers water supplies -downstream, and unless the volume and velocity of flow are good nuisance -may be created in the vicinity. Do not neglect inspection and operation. -Clean out settling tanks yearly or oftener. All pipe lines below ground -should be marked with iron or stone markers to facilitate examination, -repair, or extension of the system. - -There is a general but erroneous belief that the cost of sewerage is -little in the city but almost prohibitive in the country. All personal and -realty properties in one eastern city represent a valuation of $10,382 -per home, which pays $355 for sewers outside the cellar wall. An average -farm in a Middle West State represents a valuation of $17,259. Is not -the farmer justified in the small outlay required to dispose of the farm -sewage? Because of the issuance of bonds and the apportionment of sewer -assessments for a series of years the city dweller may have his burden -distributed over a long period. The farmer does not pay interest on these -obligations, and sewer work can be done more cheaply in the country than -in the city. - -Safe disposal of farm sewage is not a passing fad but a vital necessity. -Besides being an asset a good sewerage installation greatly promotes the -wholesomeness and healthfulness of the farm. Moreover the benefits are -far-reaching, because farm products go into every home, and farm and urban -populations mingle freely. - - - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber Note - -Two headers (Kitchen-Sink Drainage and Cesspools) were added to the Table -of Contents based on their formatting in the text. Minor typos have been -corrected. Illustrations were moved to prevent splitting paragraphs. -Figure 21. was moved adjacent to the directions and specifications on Page -32. 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Warren</div> -<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 1227: Sewage and sewerage of farm homes</div> -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: George M. Warren</div> -<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'>Release Date: August 31, 2020 [eBook #63094]<br /> -[Most recently updated: December 27, 2020]</div> -<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> -<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> -<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Tom Cosmas</div> -<div style='margin-top:2em;margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA FARMERS' BULLETIN NO. 1227 ***</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>[ 1 ]</span></p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp45" id="cover" style="max-width: 18.6875em; margin-bottom: 4em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/cover.png" alt="" /> - -<div class="bbox tdc smaller">Farmers' Bulletin No. 1227<br /> -United States Department of Agriculture<br /> -<br /> -SEWAGE and<br /> -SEWERAGE<br /> -of FARM<br /> -HOMES</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>[ 2 ]</span></p> - -<div class="bbox" style="max-width: 30em; padding: 6px; margin-bottom: 4em;"> - -<p>DISPOSAL OF FARM SEWAGE in a clean manner -is always an important problem. The aims -of this bulletin are twofold: (1) To emphasize basic -principles of sanitation; (2) to give directions for -constructing and operating home sewerage works -that shall be simple, serviceable, and safe.</p> - -<p>Care in operating is absolutely necessary. No installation -will run itself. Continued neglect ends in -failure of even the best designed, best built plants. -If the householder is to build and neglect, he might -as well save expense and continue the earlier practice.</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<p class="tdc">Contribution from the Bureau of Public Roads<br /> -THOS. H. MacDONALD, Chief</p> - -<table style="width: 100%;" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Washington, D. C.</td> - <td class="tdr">January, 1922</td> -</tr> -</table> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[ 3 ]</span></p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h1 class="nobreak">SEWAGE AND SEWERAGE OF FARM HOMES.</h1> - -<hr class="r20" /> - -<p class="tdc"><span class="smcap">George M. Warren</span>,</p> - -<p class="tdc"><i>Hydraulic Engineer, Bureau of Public Roads</i>.</p> - - -<hr class="r20" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2> -</div> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr smaller">Page.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Introduction</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">3</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Plans and advice</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLANS_AND_ADVICE">3</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Sewage, sewers, and sewerage defined</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SEWAGE_SEWERS_AND_SEWERAGE_DEFINED">4</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Nature and quantity of sewage</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#NATURE_AND_QUANTITY_OF_SEWAGE">4</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Sewage-borne diseases and their avoidance</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SEWAGE-BORNE_DISEASES_AND_THEIR_AVOIDANCE">5</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">How sewage decomposes</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#HOW_SEWAGE_DECOMPOSES">9</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Importance of air in treatment of sewage</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#IMPORTANCE_OF_AIR_IN_TREATMENT_OF_SEWAGE">10</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Practical utilities</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#PRACTICAL_UTILITIES">11</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Kitchen-Sink Drainage</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#KITCHEN-SINK_DRAINAGE">26</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Cesspools</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CESSPOOLS">26</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Septic tanks</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#SEPTIC_TANKS">28</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Grease traps</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#GREASE_TRAPS">53</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">General procedure</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#GENERAL_PROCEDURE">55</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The main purpose of home-sewerage works is to get rid of sewage -in such way as (1) to guard against the transmission of disease -germs through drinking water, flies, or other means; (2) to avoid -creating nuisance. What is the best method and what the best outfit -are questions not to be answered offhand from afar. A treatment -that is a success in one location may be a failure in another. In -every instance decision should be based upon field data and full -knowledge of the local needs and conditions. An installation planned -from assumed conditions may work harm. The householder may be -misled as to the purification and rely on a protection that is not real. -He may anticipate little or no odor and find a nuisance has been -created.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLANS_AND_ADVICE">PLANS AND ADVICE.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Though specific plans can not be sent in the absence of definite information, -and though plans and specifications can not be prepared -to meet individual requirements, the Division of Agricultural Engineering, -Bureau of Public Roads, gladly gives such help as is possible. -To those who contemplate installing sewerage works on farms -and who furnish the information outlined under the caption "Field -data," on <a href="#Field_data">page 52</a>, plans, advice, or suggestions will be sent. Local -requirements are frequently met or approximated by one of the designs -on hand; working drawings in the form of blue prints will then -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[ 4 ]</span> -be furnished. Sometimes the designs, slightly modified, may suit the -needs. In other instances it is sufficient to send published bulletins -or give written suggestions of a practical nature.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="SEWAGE_SEWERS_AND_SEWERAGE_DEFINED">SEWAGE, SEWERS, AND SEWERAGE DEFINED.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Human excrements (feces and urine) as found in closets and privy -vaults are known as night soil. These wastes may be flushed away -with running water, and there may be added the discharges from -washbasins, bathtubs, kitchen and slop sinks, laundry trays, washing -vats, and floor drains. This refuse liquid product is sewage, and the -underground pipe which conveys it is a sewer. Since sewers carry -foul matter they should be water-tight, and this feature of their -construction distinguishes them from drains removing relatively -pure surface or ground water. Sewerage refers to a system of -sewers, including the pipes, tanks, disposal works, and appurtenances.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="NATURE_AND_QUANTITY_OF_SEWAGE">NATURE AND QUANTITY OF SEWAGE.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Under average conditions a man discharges daily about 3½ ounces -of moist feces and 40 ounces of urine, the total in a year approximating -992 pounds.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Feces consist largely of water and undigested or -partially digested food; by weight it is 77.2 per cent water. 2 Urine -is about 96.3 per cent water.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> Practical Physiological Chemistry, by Philip B. Hawk, 1916, pp. 221, 359.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> Agriculture, by F. H. Storer, 1894, vol. 2, p. 70.</p></div> - -<p>The excrements constitute but a small part of ordinary sewage. -In addition to the excrements and the daily water consumption of -perhaps 40 gallons per person are many substances entering into -the economy of the household, such as grease, fats, milk, bits of food, -meat, fruit, and vegetables, tea and coffee grounds, paper, etc. This -complex product contains mineral, vegetable, and animal substances, -both dissolved and undissolved. It contains dead organic matter -and living organisms in the form of exceedingly minute vegetative -cells (bacteria) and animal cells (protozoa). These low forms of -life are the active agents in destroying dead organic matter.</p> - -<p>The bacteria are numbered in billions and include many species, -some useful and others harmful. They may be termed tiny scavengers, -which under favorable conditions multiply with great rapidity, -their useful work being the oxidizing and nitrifying of dissolved -organic matter and the breaking down of complex organic solids to -liquids and gases. Among the myriads of bacteria are many of a -virulent nature. These at any time may include species which are -the cause of well-known infections and parasitic diseases.</p> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[ 5 ]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="SEWAGE-BORNE_DISEASES_AND_THEIR_AVOIDANCE">SEWAGE-BORNE DISEASES AND THEIR AVOIDANCE.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Any spittoon, slop pail, sink drain, urinal, privy, cesspool, sewage -tank, or sewage distribution field is a potential danger. A bit of -spit, urine, or feces the size of a pin head may contain many hundred -germs, all invisible to the naked eye and each one capable of producing -disease. These discharges should be kept away from the food -and drink of man and animals. From specific germs that may be -carried in sewage at any time there may result typhoid fever, tuberculosis, -cholera, dysentery, diarrhea, and other dangerous ailments, -and it is probable that other maladies may be traced to human waste. -From certain animal parasites or their eggs that may be carried in -sewage there may result intestinal worms, of which the more common -are the hookworm, roundworm, whipworm, eelworm, tapeworm, and -seat worm.</p> - -<p>Sewage, drainage, or other impure water may contain also the -causative agents of numerous ailments common to live stock, such -as tuberculosis, foot-and-mouth disease, hog cholera, anthrax, glanders, -and stomach and intestinal worms.</p> - -<p>Disease germs are carried by many agencies and unsuspectingly -received by devious routes into the human body. Infection may -come from the swirling dust of the railway roadbed, from contact -with transitory or chronic carriers of disease, from green truck -grown in gardens fertilized with night soil or sewage, from food -prepared or touched by unclean hands or visited by flies or vermin, -from milk handled by sick or careless dairymen, from milk cans and -utensils washed with contaminated water, or from cisterns, wells, -springs, reservoirs, irrigation ditches, brooks, or lakes receiving the -surface wash or the underground drainage from sewage-polluted soil.</p> - -<p>Many recorded examples show with certainty how typhoid fever -and other diseases have been transmitted. A few indicating the -responsibilities and duties of people who live in the country are -cited here.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>In August, 1889, a sister and two brothers aged 18, 21, and 23 -years, respectively, and all apparently in robust health dwelt together -in a rural village in Columbiana County, Ohio. Typhoid -fever in particularly virulent form developed after use of drinking -water from a badly polluted surface source. The deaths of all three -occurred within a space of 10 days.</p> - -<p>In September and October, 1899, 63 cases of typhoid fever, resulting -in 5 deaths, occurred at the Northampton (Mass.) insane hospital. -This epidemic was conclusively traced to celery, which was -eaten freely in August and was grown and banked in a plot that -had been fertilized in the late winter or early spring with the solid -residue and scrapings from a sewage filter bed situated on the -hospital grounds.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[ 6 ]</span></p> - -<p>Some years ago Dr. W. W. Skinner, Bureau of Chemistry, Department -of Agriculture, investigated the cause of an outbreak of typhoid -fever in southwest Virginia. A small stream meandered through a -narrow valley in which five 10-inch wells about 450 feet deep had -been drilled in limestone formation. The wells were from 50 to 400 -feet from the stream, from which, it was suspected, pollution was -reaching the wells. In a pool in the stream bed approximately one-fourth -mile above the wells several hundred pounds of common salt -were dissolved. Four of the wells were cut off from the pump and -the fifth was subjected to heavy pumping. The water discharged -by the pump was examined at 15-minute intervals and its salt content -determined over a considerable period of time. After the lapse -of several 15-minute intervals the salt began to rise and continued to -rise until the maximum was approximately seven times that at the -beginning of the test, thus proving the facility with which pollution -may pass a long distance underground and reach deep wells.</p> - -<p>Probably no epidemic in American history better illustrates the -dire results that may follow one thoughtless act than the outbreak of -typhoid fever at Plymouth, Pa., in 1885. In January and February -of that year the night discharges of one typhoid fever patient were -thrown out upon the snow near his home. These, carried by spring -thaws into the public water supply, caused an epidemic running from -April to September. In a total population of about 8,000, 1,104 persons -were attacked by the disease and 114 died.</p></div> - -<p>Like plants and animals, disease germs vary in their powers of -resistance. Some are hardy, others succumb easily. Outside the -body most of them probably die in a few days or weeks. It is never -certain when such germs may not lodge where the immediate surroundings -are favorable to their life and reproduction. Milk is one -of the common substances in which germs multiply rapidly. The -experience at Northampton shows that typhoid-fever germs may -survive several months in garden soil. Laboratory tests by the -United States Public Health Service showed that typhoid-fever -germs had not all succumbed after being frozen in cream 74 days. -(Public Health Reports, Feb. 8, 1918, pp. 163-166.) Ravenel kept -the spores of anthrax immersed for 244 days in the strongest tanning -fluids without perceptible change in their vitality or virulence. -(Annual Report, State Department of Health, Mass., 1916, p. 494.)</p> - -<p><b>Unsafe practices.</b>—Upon thousands of small farms there are no -privies and excretions are deposited carelessly about the premises. -A place of this character is shown in <a href="#fig1">figure 1</a>. Upon thousands of -other farms the privy is so filthy and neglected that hired men and -visitors seek near-by sheds, fields, and woods. A privy of this character -is shown in <a href="#fig2">figure 2</a>. These practices and conditions exist in -every section of the country. They should be abolished.</p> - -<p>Deserving of severe censure is the old custom of conveying excrements -or sewage into abandoned wells or some convenient stream. -Such a practice is indecent and unsafe. It is unnecessary and is -contrary to the laws of most of the States.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[ 7 ]</span></p> - -<p>Likewise dangerous and even more disgusting is the old custom of -using human excrement or sewage for the fertilization of truck land. -Under no circumstances should such wastes be used on land devoted -to celery, lettuce, radishes, cucumbers, cabbages, tomatoes, melons, -or other vegetables, berries, or low-growing fruits that are eaten raw. -Disease germs or particles of soil containing such germs may adhere -to the skins of vegetables or fruits and infect the eater.</p> - -<p>Upon farms it is necessary to dispose of excretal wastes at no great -distance from the dwelling. The ability and likelihood of flies -carrying disease germs direct to the dinner table, kitchen, or pantry -are well known. Vermin, household pets, poultry, and live stock may -spread such germs. For these reasons, and also on the score of odor, -farm sewage never should be exposed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig1" style="max-width: 29em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig1.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_capr">BPR-RE 1381</div> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—One of many farms lacking the simplest sanitary convenience.</div> -</div> - -<p><b>Important safety measure.</b>—The farmer can do no other one thing -so vital to his own and the public health as to make sure of the continued -purity of the farm water supply. Investigations indicate -that about three out of four shallow wells are polluted badly.</p> - -<p>Wells and springs are fed by ground water, which is merely natural -drainage. Drainage water usually moves with the slope of the -land. It always dissolves part of the mineral, vegetable, and animal -matter of the ground over or through which it moves. In this way -impurities are carried into the ground water and may reach distant -wells or springs.</p> - -<p>The great safeguards are clean ground and wide separation of the -well from probable channels of impure drainage water. It is not -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[ 8 ]</span> -enough that a well or spring is 50 or 150 feet from a source of filth -or that it is on higher ground. Given porous ground, a seamy ledge, -or long-continued pollution of one plat of land, the zone of contamination -is likely to extend long distances, particularly in downhill -directions or when the water is low through drought or heavy pumping. -Only when the surface of the water in a well or spring is at a -higher level at all times than any near-by -source of filth is there assurance -of safety from impure seepage. Some -of the foregoing facts are shown diagrammatically -in <a href="#fig3">figure 3</a>. <a href="#fig4">Figure 4</a> -is typical of those insanitary, poorly -drained barnyards that are almost certain -to work injury to wells situated -in or near them. <a href="#fig5">Figure 5</a> illustrates -poor relative location of privy, cesspool, -and well. <a href="#fig6">Figure 6</a> is a typical -example of a nuisance. Accumulations -of filth result in objectionable -odor and noxious drainage.</p> - -<div class="figleft illowp44" id="fig2" style="max-width: 12.5625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig2.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_capr">BPR-RE 13883</div> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—The rickety, uncomfortable, - unspeakably foul, dangerous - ground privy. Neglected by the - owner, shunned by the hired man, - avoided by the guest, who, in - preference, goes to near-by fields - or woods, polluter of wells, meeting - place of house flies and disease - germs, privies of this character - abide only because of man's indifference.</div> -</div> - -<p>Sewage or impure drainage water -should never be discharged into or -upon ground draining toward a well, -spring, or other source of water supply. -Neither should such wastes be discharged -into 'Openings in rock, an -abandoned well, nor a hole, cesspool, -vault, or tank so located that pollution -can escape into water-bearing -earth or rock. Whatever the system of -sewage disposal, it should be entirely -and widely separated from the water -supply. Further information on locating -and constructing wells is given -in Farmers' Bulletin 941, "Water Systems for Farm Homes," copies -of which may be had upon request to the Division of Publications, -Department of Agriculture.</p> - -<p>Enough has been said to bring home to the reader these vital -points:</p> - -<p>1. Never allow the farm sewage or excrements, even in minutest -quantity, to reach the food or water of man or live stock.</p> - -<p>2. Never expose such wastes so that they can be visited by flies or -other carriers of disease germs.</p> - -<p>3. Never use such wastes to fertilize or irrigate vegetable gardens.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[ 9 ]</span></p> - -<p>4. Never discharge or throw such wastes into a stream, pond, or -abandoned well, nor into a gutter, ditch, or tile drainage system, -which naturally must have outlet in some watercourse.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowe27_9375" id="fig3"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig3.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>—How an apparently good well may draw foul drainage. Arrows show direction - of ground water movement. <i>A-A</i>, Usual water table (surface of free water in the - ground); <i>B-B</i>, water table lowered by drought and pumping from well <i>D</i>; <i>C-C</i>, water - table further lowered by drought and heavy pumping; <i>E-F</i>, level line from surface of - sewage in cesspool. Well <i>D</i> is safe until the water table is lowered to <i>E</i>; further lowering - draws drainage from the cesspool and, with the water table at <i>C-C</i>, from the barn. - The location of well <i>G</i> renders it unsafe always.</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowe27_5" id="fig4"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig4.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_capr">BPR-RE 1385</div> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>—An insanitary, poorly drained barnyard. (Board of Health, Milwaukee.) - Liquid manure or other foul drainage is sure to leach into wells situated in or near - barnyards of this character.</div> -</div> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="HOW_SEWAGE_DECOMPOSES"></a>HOW SEWAGE DECOMPOSES.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>When a bottle of fresh sewage is kept in a warm room changes -occur in the appearance and nature of the liquid. At first it is light -in appearance and its odor is slight. It is well supplied with oxygen, -since this gas is always found in waters exposed to the atmosphere. -In a few hours the solids in the sewage separate mechanically according -to their relative weights; sediment collects at the bottom, and -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[ 10 ]</span> -a greasy film covers the surface. In a day's time there is an enormous -development of bacteria, which obtain their food supply from the -dissolved carbonaceous and nitrogenous matter. As long as free -oxygen is present this action is spoken of as aërobic decomposition. -There is a gradual increase in the amount of ammonia and a decrease -of free oxygen, the latter going to support bacterial life. -When the ammonia is near the maximum and the free oxygen is exhausted -the sewage is said to be stale. Following exhaustion of the -oxygen supply, bacterial life continues profuse, but it gradually -diminishes as a result of reduction of its food supply and the poisonous -effects of its own wastes. In the absence of oxygen the bacterial -action is spoken of as anaërobic decomposition. The sewage turns -darker and becomes more offensive. Suspended and settled organic -substances break apart or liquefy later, and various foul-smelling -gases are liberated. Sewage in this condition is known as septic -and the putrefaction that has taken place is called septicization. The -odor eventually disappears, and a dark, insoluble, mosslike substance -remains as a deposit. Complete reduction of this deposit may -require many years.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowe28_5625" id="fig5"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig5.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_capr">BPR-RE 1388</div> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>—Poor relative locations of privy, cesspool, and well. (State Department of - Health, Massachusetts.) Never allow privy, cesspool, or sink drainage to escape - Into the plot of ground from which the water supply is taken.</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="IMPORTANCE_OF_AIR_IN_TREATMENT_OF_SEWAGE">IMPORTANCE OF AIR IN TREATMENT OF SEWAGE.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Decomposition of organic matter by bacterial agency is not a -complete method of treating sewage, as will be shown later under -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[ 11 ]</span> -"Septic tanks." It is sufficient to observe here that in all practical -methods of treatment aeration plays a vital part. The air or the -sewage, or both, must be in a finely divided state, as when sewage -percolates through the interstices of a porous, air-filled soil. The -principle involved was clearly stated 30 years ago by Hiram F. Mills, -a member of the Massachusetts State Board of Health. In discussing -the intermittent filtration of sewage through gravel stones too -coarse to arrest even the coarsest particles in the sewage Mr. Mills -said: "The slow movement of the sewage in thin films over the -surface of the stones, with air in contact, caused a removal for some -months of 97 per cent of the organic nitrogenous matter, as well -as 99 per cent of the bacteria."</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowe25_0625" id="fig6"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig6.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_capr">BPR-RE 1387</div> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>—A typical nuisance. (Board of Health, Milwaukee.) A yard like this is an - eyesore, a fire menace, a breeding place for mosquitoes and vermin, a refuge for rats - and mice, a source of noxious odors and foul drainage, and a violation of every sanitation - code.</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PRACTICAL_UTILITIES">PRACTICAL UTILITIES.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Previous discussion has dealt largely with basic principles of -sanitation. The construction and operation of simple utilities embodying -some of these principles are discussed in the following order: -(1) Privies for excrements only; (2) works for handling wastes -where a supply of water is available for flushing.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[ 12 ]</span></p> - - -<h3><a id="PIT_PRIVY"></a>PIT PRIVY.</h3> - -<p><a href="#fig7">Figure 7</a> shows a portable pit privy suitable for places of the -character of that shown in <a href="#fig1">figure 1</a>, where land is abundant and -cheap, and in such localities has proved practical. It provides, at -minimum cost and with least attention, a fixed place for depositing -excretions where the filth can not be tracked by man, spread by -animals, reached by flies, nor washed by rain.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowe25_6875" id="fig7"> - <a href="images/fig7lrg.png"><img class="w100" src="images/fig7.png" alt="" /></a> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>—Portable pit privy. For use where land is abundant and cheap, but unless - handled with judgment can not be regarded as safe. The privy is mounted on runners - for convenience in moving to new locations.<br />Click on image to view larger size.</div> -</div> - -<p>The privy is light and inexpensive and is placed over a pit in the -ground. When the pit becomes one-half or two-thirds full the privy -is drawn or carried to a new location. The pit should be shallow, -preferably not over 2½ feet in depth, and never should be located in -wet ground or rock formation or where the surface or the strata slope -toward a well, spring, or other source of domestic water supply. Besides -standing on lower ground the pit should never be within 200 -feet of a well or spring. Since dryness in the pit is essential, the -ground should be raised slightly and 10 or 12 inches of earth should -be banked and compacted against all sides to shed rain water. The -banking also serves to exclude flies. If the soil is sandy or gravelly, -the pit should be lined with boards or pales to prevent caving. The -privy should be boarded closely and should be provided with screened -openings for ventilation and light. The screens may consist of -standard galvanized or black enameled wire cloth having 14 squares -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[ 13 ]</span> -to the inch. The whole seat should be easily removable for cleaning. -A little loose absorbent soil should be added daily to the accumulation -in the pit, and when a pit is abandoned it should be filled -immediately with dry earth mounded to shed water.</p> - -<p>A pit privy for use in field work, consisting of a framework of -½-inch iron pipe for corner posts connected at the top with ¼-inch -iron rods bent at the ends to right angles and hung with curtains of -unbleached muslin, is described in Public Health Report of the -United States Public Health Service, July 26, 1918.</p> - -<p>A pit privy, even if moved often, can not be regarded as safe. -The danger is that accumulations of waste may overtax the purifying -capacity of the soil and the leachings reach wells or springs. -Sloping ground is not a guaranty of safety; the great safeguard lies -in locating the privy a long distance from the water supply and as -far below it as possible.</p> - - -<h3><a id="SANITARY_PRIVY"></a>SANITARY PRIVY.</h3> - -<p>The next step in evolution is the sanitary privy. Its construction -must be such that it is practically impossible for filth or germs to -be spread above ground, to escape by percolation underground, or to -be accessible to flies, vermin, chickens, or animals. Furthermore, it -must be cared for in a cleanly manner, else it ceases to be sanitary. -To secure these desirable ends sanitarians have devised numerous -types of tight-receptacle privy. Considering the small cost and the -proved value of some of these types, it is to be regretted that few -are seen on American farms.</p> - -<p>The container for a sanitary privy may be small—for example, a -galvanized-iron pail or garbage can, to be removed from time to -time by hand; it may be large, as a barrel or a metal tank mounted -for moving; or it may be a stationary underground metal tank or -masonry vault. The essential requirement in the receptacle is permanent -water-tightness to prevent pollution of soils and wells. -Wooden pails or boxes, which warp and leak, should not be used. -Where a vault is used it should be shallow to facilitate emptying -and cleaning. Moreover, if the receptacle should leak it is better -that the escape of liquid should be in the top soil, where air and bacterial -life are most abundant.</p> - -<p>Sanitary privies are classified according to the method used in -treating the excretions, as dry earth, chemical, liquefying.</p> - - -<h3><a id="DRY-EARTH_PRIVY"></a>DRY-EARTH PRIVY.</h3> - -<p><b>Pail type.</b>—A very serviceable pail privy is shown in figures 8 and 9. -The method of ventilation is an adaptation of a system that has -proved very effective in barns and other buildings here and abroad. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[ 14 ]</span> -A flue with a clear opening of 16 square inches rises from the rear -of the seat and terminates above the ridge-pole in a cowl or small -roofed housing. Attached to this flue is a short auxiliary duct, 4 by -15 inches, for removing foul air from the top of the privy. In its -upper portion on the long sides the cowl is open, allowing free -movement of air across the top of the flue. In addition the long -sides of the cowl are open below next to the roof. These two openings, -with the connecting vertical air passages, permit free upward -movement of air through the cowl, as indicated by the arrows. The -combined effect is to create draft from beneath the seat and from the -top of the privy. The ventilating flue is 2 by 8 inches at the seat -and 4 by 4 inches 5 feet above. The taper slightly increases the -labor of making the flue, but permits a 2-inch reduction in the length -of the building.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowe25_9375" id="fig8"> - <a href="images/fig8lrg.png"><img class="w100" src="images/fig8.png" alt="" /></a> - <div class="fig_caption">><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>—Pail privy. Well constructed, ventilated, and screened. With proper care is - sanitary and unobjectionable.<br />Click on image to view larger size.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[ 15 ]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowe31_9375" id="fig9"> - <a href="images/fig9lrg.png"><img class="w100" src="images/fig9.png" alt="" /></a> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>—Full privy. - <br />Click on image to view larger size.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[ 16 ]</span></p> - -<p>In plan the privy is 4 by 4½ feet. The sills are secured to durable -posts set about 4 feet in the ground. The boarding is tight, and all -vents and windows are screened to exclude insects. The screens may -be the same as for pit privies or, if a more lasting material is desired, -bronze or copper screening of 14 squares to the inch may be used. -The entire seat is hinged, thus permitting removal of the receptacle -and facilitating cleaning and washing the underside of the seat and -the destruction of spiders and other insects which thrive in dark, unclean -places. The receptacle is a heavy galvanized-iron garbage can. -Heavy brown-paper bags for lining the can may be had at slight -cost, and their use helps to keep the can clean and facilitates emptying. -Painting with black asphaltum serves a similar purpose and -protects the can from rust. If the contents are frozen, a little heat -releases them. Of nonfreezing mixtures a strong brine made with -common salt or calcium chloride is effective. Two and one-half to 3 -pounds of either thoroughly dissolved in a gallon of water lowers the -freezing point of the mixture to about zero. Denatured alcohol or -wood alcohol in a 25 per cent solution has a like low freezing point -and the additional merit of being noncorrosive of metals. The can -should be emptied frequently and the contents completely buried in -a thin layer by a plow or in a shallow hand-dug trench at a point -below and remote from wells and springs. Wherever intestinal disease -exists the contents of the can should be destroyed by burning -or made sterile before burial by boiling -or by incorporation with a strong -chemical disinfectant.</p> - -<div class="figleft illowe10_625" id="fig10"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig10.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_capr">BPR-RE 1382</div> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>—A well-ventilated privy in Montana.</div> -</div> - -<p>A privy ventilated in the manner -before described is shown in <a href="#fig10">figure 10</a>. The cowl, however, is open on -four sides instead of two sides as -shown in figures <a href="#fig8">8</a> and <a href="#fig9">9</a>. The working -drawings (fig. <a href="#fig8">8</a> and <a href="#fig9">9</a>) show that -the construction of a privy of the -kind is not difficult. <a href="#fig11">Figure 11</a> gives -three suggestions whereby a privy may -be conveniently located and the approach -screened or partially hidden by -latticework, vines, or shrubbery.</p> - -<p><b>Vault type.</b>—A primitive and yet -serviceable three-seat dry-earth privy -of the vault type is shown in <a href="#fig12">figure 12</a>. -This privy was constructed in 1817 -upon a farm at Westboro, Mass. The -vault, made of bricks, was 6 feet long by 5 feet wide, and the bottom -was 1 foot below the surface of the ground. The brickwork was laid in -mortar, and the part below the ground surface was plastered on the inside. -The outside of the vault was exposed to light and air on all -four sides. Across the long side of the vault in the rear was a door -swinging upward through which the night soil was removed two or -three times a year, usually in the spring, summer, and fall, and -hauled to a near-by field, where it was deposited in a furrow, just -ahead of the plow.</p> - -<p>Especial attention is called to the shallowness of the vault and the -lightened labor of cleaning it out. The swinging door at the rear -facilitated the sprinkling of dry soil or ashes over the contents of the -vault, thus avoiding the necessity of carrying dirt and dust into the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[ 17 ]</span> -building and dust settling upon the seat. This privy was in use for -nearly 100 years without renewal or repairs. When last seen the -original seat, which always was kept painted, showed no signs of -decay. Modern methods would call for a concrete vault of guaranteed -water-tightness,<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> proper ventilation and screening, and hinging -the seat.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Directions for mixing and placing concrete to secure water-tightness are contained in -an article entitled "Securing a dry cellar," U. S. Department of Agriculture Yearbook, -1919; published also as Yearbook Separate No. 824, and obtainable for 10 cents from the -Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter illowe33_8125" id="fig11"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig11.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>—Screening the approach to a privy. <i>A</i>, Raised platform with lattice sides, suitable for short distances, - convenient and easily cleared of snow; <i>B</i>, walk hidden by lattice work; <i>C</i>, walk enclosed by an arbor.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[ 18 ]</span></p> - -<div class="figleft illowe15_25" id="fig12"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig12.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>—A primitive vault privy in Massachusetts. - Note the tight, shallow, easily cleaned - vault. <i>A</i>, Brick vault 5 by 6 feet, bottom about - 1 foot in the ground; <i>B</i>, water-tight plastering; - <i>C</i>, rowlock course of brick; <i>D</i>, door hinged at - top; <i>E</i>, door button; <i>F</i>, three-pane window - hinged at top; <i>G</i>, passageway.</div> -</div> - - -<p>Working drawings for a very convenient well-built two-seat vault -privy are reproduced in figures 13 and 14. The essential features are -shown in sufficient detail to require little explanation. With concrete -mixtures of 1:2:3 (1 volume cement, 2 volumes sand, 3 volumes -stone) for the vault and -1:2:4 for the posts there -will be required a total of -about 2 cubic yards of concrete, -taking 3½ barrels of -cement, 1 cubic yard of -sand, and 1½ cubic yards of -broken stone or screened -gravel. The stone or -gravel should not exceed 1 -inch in diameter, except -that a few cobblestones -may be embedded where -the vault wall is thickest, -thus effecting a slight saving of materials.</p> - - -<h3><a id="CHEMICAL_CLOSET"></a>CHEMICAL CLOSET.</h3> - -<p>A type of sanitary privy -in which the excrements are -received directly into a -water-tight receptacle containing -chemical disinfectant -is meeting with considerable -favor for camps, parks, -rural cottages, schools, -hotels, and railway stations. -These chemical closets,<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> as -they are called, are made -in different forms and are -known by various trade -names. In the simplest -form a sheet-metal receptacle -is concealed in a small -metal or wooden cabinet, and the closet is operated usually in much -the same manner as the ordinary pail privy. These closets are very -simple and compact, of good appearance, and easy to install or move -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[ 19 ]</span> -from place to place. In another type, known as the chemical tank -closet, the receptacle is a steel tank fixed in position underground or -in a basement. The tank has a capacity of about 125 gallons per -seat, is provided with a hand-operated agitator to secure thorough -mixing of the chemical and the excretions, and the contents are -bailed, pumped, or drained out from time to time.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> Among publications on chemical closets are the following: "Chemical Closets," Reprint -No. 404 from the Public Health Reports, U. S. Public Health Service, June 29, 1917, -pp. 1017-1020; "The Chemical Closet," Engineering Bulletin No. 5, Mich. State Board -of Health, October, 1916; Health Bulletin; Va. Department of Health, March, 1917, pp. -214-219.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter illowe33_625" id="fig13"> - <a href="images/fig13lrg.png"><img class="w100" src="images/fig13.png" alt="" /></a> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>—Two-seat vault privy. - <br />Click on image to view larger size.</div> -</div> - -<p>Chemical closets, like every form of privy, should be well installed, -cleanly operated, and frequently emptied, and the wastes should receive -safe burial. With exception of frequency of emptying, the -same can be said of chemical tank closets. With both forms of closet -thorough ventilation or draft is essential, and this is obtained usually -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[ 20 ]</span> -by connecting the closet vent pipe to a chimney flue or extending -it well above the ridge-pole of the building. The contents of the -container should always be submerged and very low temperatures -guarded against.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowe34_1875" id="fig14"> - <a href="images/fig14lrg.png"><img class="w100" src="images/fig14.png" alt="" /></a> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>—Two-seat vault privy. Note the shallow, water-tight, easily cleaned concrete vault. - <br />Click on image to view larger size.</div> -</div> - -<p>As to the germicidal results obtained in chemical closets, few data -are available. A disinfecting compound may not sterilize more -than a thin surface layer of the solid matter deposited. Experiments -by Dr. Alvah H. Doty with various agents recommended and -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[ 21 ]</span> -widely used for the bedside sterilization of feces showed "that at -the end of 20 hours of exposure to the disinfectant but one-eighth -of an inch of the fecal mass was disinfected."<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> -Plainly, then, to destroy all bacterial and parasitic -life in chemical closets three things are necessary: -(1) A very powerful agent; (2) permeation of the -fecal mass by the agent; (3) retention of its -strength and potency until permeation is complete. -The compounds or mixtures commonly used in -chemical closets are of two general kinds: First, -those in which some coal-tar product or other oily -disinfectant is used to destroy germs and deodorize, -leaving the solids -little changed in -form; second, -those of the caustic -class that dissolve -the solids, -which, if of sufficient strength and permeating every portion, should -destroy most if not all bacterial life. Not infrequently the chemical -solution is intended to accomplish disinfection, deodorization, and -reduction to a liquid or semiliquid state.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> Annual Report, Mass. State Board of Health, 1914, p. 727.</p></div> - -<table summary="Chemical Closet"> -<tr> - <td style="width: 48%;"><div class="figright" id="fig15"> - <img src="images/fig15.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>—Chemical - closet. <i>A</i>, Water-tight sheet-metal - container; <i>B</i>, metal - or wooden cabinet; - <i>C</i>, wooden or composition seat ring; - <i>D</i>, hinged cover; <i>E</i>, - 3 or 4 inch ventilating - flue extending - 18 inches above - roof or to a chimney; <i>F</i>, air inlets.</div> -</div> - </td> - <td style="width: 48%;"> -<div class="figright illowe14_875" id="fig16"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig16.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>—Chemical tank closet. <i>A</i>, Tank, 2 feet 3 - inches by 4 feet 2 inches, 5⁄64-inch iron, seams - welded, capacity 125 gallons; <i>B</i>, 14-inch covered - opening for recharging and emptying tank; - <i>C</i>, 12-inch galvanized sheet-metal tube; <i>D</i>, - 4-inch sheet-metal ventilating pipe extending - above ridge-pole or to a chimney; <i>E</i>, agitator or - paddle.</div> -</div> - </td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[ 22 ]</span></p> - -<p>A simple type of chemical closet is shown in <a href="#fig15">figure 15</a>, and the -essential features are indicated in the notation. These closets with -vent pipe and appurtenances, ready for setting up, retail for $20 -and upward. A chemical tank closet, retailing for about $80 per -seat, is shown in <a href="#fig16">figure 16</a>.</p> - -<p>The Department of Agriculture occasionally receives complaints -from people who have installed chemical closets, usually on the -score of odors or the cost of chemicals.</p> - - -<h3><a id="LIQUEFYING_CLOSET"></a>LIQUEFYING CLOSET.</h3> - -<p>Another type of sanitary privy, known as a liquefying closet, -makes use of bacterial action as an aid to disposal. The excretions -are deposited in a tight receptacle containing water, where fermentation -and decomposition reduce a large part of the organic solids to -liquid and gaseous forms. Much of the liquid evaporates and the -gases diffuse, so that the volume of sewage is reduced materially. -More or less insoluble and undigested residue, known as sludge, gradually -accumulates at the bottom of the receptacle, which from time -to time must be cleaned out. Disposal of the partially clarified liquid -and the sludge, however, involves much less labor than would be -needed to handle the untreated excrements.</p> - -<p>Liquefying closets have been used many years with fair satisfaction. -The receptacle sometimes is a tight brick vault, but more frequently -a barrel or hogshead with one end nearly flush with the -ground. Over this is mounted the seat, sometimes with iron bars -beneath to prevent accident to small children, and the whole is inclosed -in a small frame house. The vault usually is bailed or pumped -out two or three times a year.</p> - -<p>Upon farms where slope, soil, and drainage conditions are favorable -the effluent from liquefying closets may be distributed and -aerated by means of drain tile laid in the top soil or in shallow beds -filled with cinders, coke, gravel, or stone. <a href="#fig17">Figure 17</a> shows a simple -one-chamber liquefying closet with shallow distribution of the effluent -in a stone-filled trench. The vault or tank consists of vitrified -sewer pipe, a simple and cheap construction. Where a larger vault -is required concrete or brick may be used, the usual capacity being -12 or 13 gallons to a person.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[ 23 ]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowe25_75" id="fig17"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig17.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span>—Liquefying closet. <i>A</i>, Excavation about 3 feet 3 inches in diameter; <i>B</i>, 3-foot - length vitrified Y branch, 24 by 4 inches; <i>C</i>, 2-foot length of 24-inch hard burned - drain tile or vitrified sewer pipe; <i>D</i>, 4 by 4 inch Y branch; <i>E</i>, 1-foot length of - 4-inch cast-iron soil pipe; <i>F</i>, concrete bottom making water-tight seal; <i>G</i>, joints made - water tight by use of a strand of jute or oakum and rich Portland cement mortar or - hot bituminous jointing compound; H; submerged outlet; <i>I</i>, removable strainer with - openings ¼ inch or larger; <i>J</i>, 4-inch removable plug; <i>K</i>, 4-inch drain tile laid on good - slope in trench about 15 inches deep, ends of tile butting, joints covered with strips - of tarred paper extending three-fourths of the way around the tile; <i>L</i>, removable seat - supported by end cleats; <i>M</i>, 4 by 4 inch ventilating flue, bottom portion removable; <i>N</i>, - hinged door to facilitate bailing out sludge.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[ 24 ]</span></p> - -<p>Faults in liquefying closets are objectionable odor, clogging of -the screen over the outlet, or insufficient water in the vault to insure -proper bacterial action. A ventilating pipe should be provided -extending from beneath the seat to above the roof. The outlet pipe -should not be less than 4 inches in diameter, and the mesh of the -screen should not be less than one-fourth inch. The contents of -the vault should be diluted with water at intervals, depending upon -the number of persons using the closet and the rapidity of evaporation. -Dilution may be effected by pouring in 1 or 2 gallons with a -pail, or a small pipe may be led from the eaves trough of the closet -to the vault. The effluent may be light colored and apparently inoffensive, -but it still is sewage, and therefore the distributing tile -never should be laid in the vicinity of a well or spring.</p> - - -<h3><a id="DISINFECTANTS_AND_DEODORANTS"></a>DISINFECTANTS AND DEODORANTS.</h3> - -<p>Disinfection is the destruction of disease germs. Sterilization is -the destruction of all germs or bacteria, both the harmful and the -useful. Antisepsis is the checking or restraining of bacterial -growth. Deodorization is the destruction of odor. Unfortunately -in practice none of these processes may be complete. The agent may -be of inferior quality, may have lost its potency, or may not reach -all parts of the mass treated. A disinfectant or germicide is an -agent capable of destroying disease germs; an antiseptic is an agent -merely capable of arresting bacterial growth, and it may be a dilute -disinfectant; a deodorant is an agent that tends to destroy odor, but -whose action may consist in absorbing odor or in masking the original -odor with another more agreeable one.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> Those desiring more explicit information on disinfectants and the principles of disinfection -are referred to U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletins 926, "Some -Common Disinfectants," and 954, "The Disinfection of Stables," and to publications of -the U. S. Public Health Service.</p></div> - -<p>Of active disinfecting agents, heat from fire, live steam, or boiling -water is the surest. The heat generated by the slaking of quicklime -has proved effective with small quantities of excreta. Results -of tests by the Massachusetts State Board of Health<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> show that -the preferable method consists in adding sufficient hot water (120° -to 140° F.) to cover the excrement in the receptacle, then adding -small pieces of fresh strong quicklime in amount equal to about -one-third of the bulk of water and excrement combined, covering -the receptacle, and allowing it to stand 1½ hours or longer.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> Annual Report, Mass. State Board of Health, 1914, pp. 727-729.</p></div> - -<p>Among chemical disinfectants a strong solution of sodium hydroxide -(caustic soda) or potassium hydroxide (caustic potash, lye) is -very effective and is useful in dissolving grease and other organic -substances. Both chemicals are costly, but caustic soda is less expensive -than caustic potash and constitutes most of the ordinary -commercial lyes. Chlorinated lime (chloride of lime, bleaching -powder) either in solution or in powdered form is valuable. For -the disinfection of stools of typhoid-fever patients the Virginia -State Board of Health<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> recommends thoroughly dissolving ½ -pound of best chloride of lime in 1 gallon of water and allowing -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[ 25 ]</span> -the solution to cover the feces for at least 1 hour. The solution -should be kept in well-stoppered bottles and used promptly, certainly -within 2 or 3 days. Copper sulphate (blue vitriol, bluestone) -in a 5 per cent solution (1 pound in 2½ gallons of water) is a good -but rather costly disinfectant. None of the formulas here given -is to be construed as fixed and precise. Conditions may vary the -proportions, as they always will vary the results. The reader should -remember that few, if any, chemical disinfectants can be expected -fully to disinfect or sterilize large masses of excrement unless the -agent is used repeatedly and in liberal quantities or mechanical -means are employed to secure thorough incorporation.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> Health Bulletin, Va. State Board of Health, June, 1917, pp. 277-280.</p></div> - -<p>Among deodorants some of the drying powders mentioned below -possess more or less disinfecting power. Chloride of lime, though -giving off an unpleasant odor of chlorine, is employed extensively. -Lime in the form of either quicklime or milk of lime (whitewash) -is much used and is an active disinfectant. To prepare milk of lime -a small quantity of water is slowly added to good fresh quicklime -in lumps. As soon as the quicklime is slaked a quantity of water, -about four times the, quantity of lime, is added and stirred thoroughly. -When used as a whitewash the milk of lime is thinned as -desired with water and kept well stirred. Liberal use of milk of -lime in a vault or cesspool, though it may not disinfect the contents, -is of use in checking bacterial growth and abating odor. To give the -best results it should be used frequently, beginning when the vault or -cesspool is empty. Iron sulphate (green vitriol, copperas) because -of its affinity for ammonia and sulphides is used as a temporary -deodorizer in vaults, cesspools, and drains; 1 pound dissolved in 4 -gallons of water makes a solution of suitable strength.</p> - - -<h3><a id="PREVENTION_OF_PRIVY_NUISANCE"></a>PREVENTION OF PRIVY NUISANCE.</h3> - -<p>The following is a summary of simple measures for preventing a -privy from becoming a nuisance:</p> - -<p>1. Locate the privy inconspicuously and detached from the -dwelling.</p> - -<p>2. Make the receptacle or vault small, shallow, easy of access, and -water-tight.</p> - -<p>3. Clean out the vault often. Do not wait until excrement has -accumulated and decomposition is sufficiently advanced to cause -strong and foul odors.</p> - -<p>4. Sprinkle into the vault daily loose dry soil, ashes, lime, sawdust, -ground gypsum (land plaster), or powdered peat or charcoal. These -will absorb liquid and odor, though they may not destroy disease -germs.</p> - -<p>5. Make the privy house rain-proof; ventilate it thoroughly, and -screen all openings.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[ 26 ]</span></p> - - -<h3><a id="OBJECTION_TO_PRIVIES"></a>OBJECTION TO PRIVIES.</h3> - -<p>All the methods of waste disposal heretofore described are open to -the following objections:</p> - -<p>1. They do not take care of kitchen slops and liquid wastes incipient -to a pressure water system.</p> - -<p>2. They retain filth for a considerable period of time with probability -of odors and liability of transmission of disease germs.</p> - -<p>3. They require more personal attention and care than people generally -are willing to give.</p> - -<p>By far the most satisfactory method yet devised of caring for -sewage calls for a supply of water and the flushing away of all -wastes as soon as created through a water-tight sewer to a place -where they undergo treatment and final disposal.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="KITCHEN-SINK_DRAINAGE">KITCHEN-SINK DRAINAGE.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>A necessity in every dwelling is effective disposal of the kitchen-sink -slops. This necessity ordinarily arises long before the farm -home is supplied with water under pressure and the conveniences -that go with it. Hence the first call for information on sewage disposal -is likely to relate merely to sink drainage. This waste water -though it may not be as dangerous to health as sewage containing -human excrements is still a menace to the farm well and capable of -creating disagreeable odor.</p> - -<p>The usual method of disposing of sink slops is to allow them to -dribble on or beneath the surface of the ground close to the house. -Such drainage should be taken in a water-tight carrier at least 100 -feet downhill from the well and discharged below the surface of the -ground. Every sink should be provided with a suitable screen to -keep all large particles out of the waste pipe. An approved form of -sink strainer consists of a brass plate bolted in position over the outlet -and having at least 37 perforations not larger than one-fourth -inch in diameter. Provided a sink is thus equipped and is given -proper care and the land has fair slope and drainage, the waste water -may be conducted away through a water-tight sewer and distributed -in the soil by means of a short blind drain. The blind drain may be -conveniently made of drain tile in the manner shown in <a href="#fig17">figure 17</a>. -A simple installation, consisting of a kitchen sink and pump and -means of disposal as described, is shown in <a href="#fig18">figure 18</a>.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CESSPOOLS">CESSPOOLS.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Where farms have water under pressure an open or leaching cesspool -is a common method of disposing of the sewage. Ordinary -cesspools are circular excavations in the ground, lined with stone or -brick laid without mortar. They vary from 5 to 10 feet in diameter -and from 7 to 12 feet in depth. Sometimes the top is arched and -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[ 27 ]</span> -capped at the ground surf ace by a cover of wood, stone, or cast iron. -At other times the walls are carried straight up and boards or planks -are laid, across for a cover, and the entire structure is hidden with a -hedge or shrubbery.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowe25_125" id="fig18"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig18.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>—How to waste kitchen-sink drainage. <i>A</i>, Sink; <i>B</i>, waste pipe; <i>C</i>, trap; <i>D</i>, clean-out; - <i>E</i>, box filled with hay, straw, sawdust, excelsior, coke, or other insulating material; - <i>F</i>, 4-inch vitrified sewer-pipe, hubs uphill, and joints made water tight for at - least 100 feet downhill from a well; <i>G</i>, 4-inch vitrified sewer pipe, hubs downhill, - joints slightly open, laid in an 18-inch bed of coarse sand, gravel, stone, broken brick, - slag, cinders, or coke; strip of tarred paper on burlap or a thin layer of hay, - straw, cornstalks, brush, or sods, grass side down; <i>I</i>, 12 inches of natural soil; <i>J</i>, stone-filled - pit. As here illustrated, water is drawn by a pitcher or kitchen pump (<i>K</i>) - through a 1¼ or 1½ inch galvanized-iron suction pipe (<i>L</i>) from a cistern (<i>M</i>). The - suction pipe should be laid below frost and on a smooth upward grade from cistern - to pump and be provided with a foot valve (<i>N</i>) to keep the pump primed. If a foot - valve is used, pump and pipe must be safe from frost or other means than tripping - the pump be provided for draining the system.</div> -</div> - -<p>Except under the most favorable conditions the construction and -use of a cesspool can not be condemned too strongly. They are only -permissible where no other arrangement is possible. Leaching cesspools -especially are open to these serious objections:</p> - -<p>1. Unless located in porous soil, stagnation is likely to occur, -and failure of the liquid to seep away may result in overflow on -the surface of the ground and the creation of a nuisance and a -menace.</p> - -<p>2. They retain a mass of filth in a decomposing condition deep in -the ground where it is but slightly affected by the bacteria and air -of the soil. In seeping through the ground it may be strained, but -there can be no assurance that the foul liquid with little improvement -in its condition may not pass into the ground water and pollute -wells and springs situated long distances away in the direction of -underground flow.</p> - -<p>For the purpose of avoiding soil and ground-water pollution cesspools -have been made of water-tight construction and the contents -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[ 28 ]</span> -removed by bailing or pumping. Upon the farm, however, this type -of construction has little to recommend it, for the reason that facilities -for removing and disposing of the contents in a clean manner are -lacking.</p> - -<p>In some instances cesspools have been made water-tight, the outflow -being effected by three or four elbows or <b>T</b>-branches set in the -masonry near the top, with the inner ends turned down below the -water surface, the whole surrounded to a thickness of several feet -with stone or gravel intended to act as a filtering medium. Tests of -the soil water adjacent to cesspools of this type show that no reliance -should be placed upon them as a means of purifying sewage, the -fatal defects being constant saturation with sewage and lack of air -supply. To the extent that the submerged outlets keep back grease -and solid matters the scheme is of service in preventing clogging -of the pores of the surrounding ground.</p> - -<p>Where the ground about a cesspool has become clogged and water-logged, -relief is often secured by laying, several lines of drain -tile at shallow depth, radiating from the cesspool. The ends of the -pipes within the cesspool should turn down, and it is advantageous -to surround the lines of pipe with stones or coarse gravel, as shown -in figures 17 and 18 and discussed under "<a href="#SEPTIC_TANKS">Septic tanks</a>." In this -way not only is the area' of percolation extended, but aeration and -partial purification of the sewage are effected.</p> - -<p>Where a cesspool is located at a distance from a dwelling and -there is opportunity to lead a vent pipe up the side of a shed, barn, -or any stable object it is advisable to do so for purposes of ventilation. -Where the conditions are less favorable it may be best, -because of the odor, to omit any direct vent pipe from the cesspool -and rely for ventilation on the house sewer and main soil stack extending -above the roof of the house.</p> - -<p>Cesspools should be emptied and cleaned at least once a year and -the contents given safe burial or, with the requisite permission, -wasted in some municipal sewerage system. After cleaning, the -walls and bottom may be treated with a disinfectant or a deodorant.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="SEPTIC_TANKS">SEPTIC TANKS.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>A tight, underground septic tank with shallow distribution of the -effluent in porous soil generally is the safest and least troublesome -method of treating sewage upon the farm, while at the same time -more or less of the irrigating and manurial value of the sewage may -be realized.</p> - -<p>The late Prof. Kinnicutt used to say that a septic tank is "simply -a cesspool, regulated and controlled." The reactions described under -the captions "<a href="#HOW_SEWAGE_DECOMPOSES">How sewage decomposes</a>," "<a href="#LIQUEFYING_CLOSET">Liquefying closet</a>," and -"<a href="#CESSPOOLS">Cesspools</a>" take place in septic tanks.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[ 29 ]</span></p> - -<p>In all sewage tanks, whatever their size and shape, a portion of -the solid matter, especially if the sewage contains much grease, floats -as scum on the liquid, the heavier solids settle to form sludge, while -finely divided solids and matter in a state of emulsion are held in -suspension. If the sludge is retained in the bottom of the tank and -converted or partly converted into liquids and gases the tank is called -a septic tank and the process is known as septicization. The process -is sometimes spoken of as one of digestion or rotting.</p> - -<p><b>History.</b>— Prototypes of the septic tank were known in Europe -nearly 50 years ago. Between 1876 and 1893 a number of closed tanks -with submerged inlets and outlets embodying the principle of storage -of sewage and liquefaction of the solids were built in the United States -and Canada. It was later seen that many of the early claims for the -septic process were extravagant. In recent years septic tanks have -been used mainly in small installations, or, where employed in large -installations, the form has been modified to secure digestion of the -sludge in a separate compartment, thus in a measure obviating disadvantages -that exist where septicization takes place in the presence -of the entering fresh sewage.</p> - -<p><b>Purposes.</b>—The purposes of a septic tank are to receive all the farm -sewage, as defined on <a href="#Page_4">page 4</a>, hold it in a quiet state for a time, -thus causing partial settlement of the solids, and by nature's processes -of decomposition insure, as fully as may be, the destruction of -the organic matter.</p> - -<p><b>Limitations.</b>—That a septic tank is a complete method of sewage -treatment is a widespread but wrong impression. A septic tank -does not eliminate odor and does not destroy all organic solids. On -the contrary, foul odors develop, and of all the suspended matter in -the sewage about one-third escapes with the effluent, about one-third -remains in the tank, and about one-third only is destroyed or reduced -to liquids and gases. The effluent is foul and dangerous. It may contain -even more bacteria than the raw sewage, since the process involves -intensive growths. As to the effects upon the growth and virulence -of disease germs little is known definitely. It is not believed -that such germs multiply under the conditions prevailing in a septic -tank. If disease germs are present many of their number along with -other bacteria may pass through with the flow or may be enmeshed -in the settling solids and there survive a long time. Hence the farmer -should safeguard wells and springs from the seepage or discharges -from a septic tank as carefully as from those of liquefying closets -and cesspools.</p> - -<p><b>Further treatment of effluents.</b>—The effluent of a septic tank or any -other form of sewage tank is foul and dangerous. Whether or not -the solids are removed by screening, by short periods of rest, as in -plain or modified forms of settling tanks, or by longer quiescence, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[ 30 ]</span> -as in septic tanks, the effluent generally requires further treatment -to reduce the number of harmful organisms and the liability of -nuisance. This further treatment usually consists of some mode of -filtration. In the earliest example of such treatment the sewage -was used to irrigate land by either broad flooding or furrow irrigation. -By another method the sewage is distributed underground by -means of drain tile laid with open joints, as illustrated in figures -<a href="#fig17">17</a>, <a href="#fig29">29</a>, and <a href="#fig32">32</a>.</p> - -<p>Artificial sewage filters are composed of coarse sand, screened -gravel, broken stone, coke, or other material, and the sewage is -applied in numerous ways. Since filtration is essentially an oxidizing -process requiring air, the sewage is applied intermittently in -doses.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> Artificial filters of various types are well described and illustrated in Public Health -Bulletin No. 101, "Studies of Methods for the Treatment and Disposal of Sewage—The -Treatment of Sewage from Single Houses and Small Communities." U. S. Public Health -Service, December, 1919.</p></div> - -<p>If properly designed and operated, filters of sand, coke, or stone -are capable of excellent results. Under the most favorable conditions -it is unwise to discharge the effluent of a sewage filter in the -near vicinity of a source of water supply. Under farm conditions -filters are usually neglected or the sewage is improperly applied, -resulting in the clogging and befouling of sand filters and the discharge -from stone filters of an effluent which is practically as dangerous -and even more offensive than raw sewage. Moreover unless the -filters are covered there are likely to be annoying odors, and there -is always the possibility of disease germs being carried by flies where -sewage is exposed in the vicinity of dwellings. Hence it seems more -practical for the farmer, avoiding the expense of earth embankments -or masonry sides and bottom for a filter bed, to waste the tank -effluent beneath the surface of such area of land as is most suitable -and available. This method of applying sewage to the soil or subsoil -is often spoken of as subirrigation, but subsoil distribution of -sewage is different in principle and practice from subirrigation for -the increase of crop yields. Subirrigation is rarely successful unless -the land is nearly level, the top soil porous and underlaid with an -impervious stratum to hold the water within reach of plant roots, -and unless a relatively large quantity of water is used and the work -is skillfully done. On the other hand, the quantity of sewage on -farms being small, it may be wasted in hilly ground, which should be -as porous, deeply drained, and dry as possible.</p> - -<p><b>Parts of a system.</b>—The four parts of a septic-tank installation with -subsurface distribution of the effluent are outlined in <a href="#fig19">figure 19</a>: (1) -The house sewer from house to tank; (2) the sewage tank consisting -of one or more chambers; (3) the sewer from tank to distribution -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[ 31 ]</span> -field; (4) the distribution field, where the sewage is distributed and -wasted, sometimes called the absorption field. These parts will be -discussed in the order named, although the last should have the first -consideration.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowe25_0625" id="fig19"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig19.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>—Parts of a septic-tank installation.</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowe24_5625" id="fig20"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig20.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>—Setting line and grade for house sewer. To the observer at A the top edges - of the grade boards appear as one; the half-driven nails are set to line.</div> -</div> - -<p><b>House sewer.</b>—The length will vary with the slope of the ground -and position of buildings, well, and distribution field. Fifty to 100 -feet is a fair length; a greater is still more sanitary. Wherever possible -the house sewer should be laid straight in line and grade. <a href="#fig20">Figure 20</a> -shows how this work may be done. Suppose the distance from -A to E be 100 feet; that grade boards be set 25 feet apart crosswise -of the trench at A, B, C, D, and E; that the ground at A be 4 feet -lower than at E; that the top of the sewer be 2½ feet below the surface -of the ground at A and 4½ feet below the surface of the ground at E; -the fall of the sewer between A and E is 2 feet (4 + 2½ - 4½ = 2). If -the fall in 100 feet be 2 feet, in 25 feet it is one-fourth as much, or 6 -inches. Hence, grade board B is 6 inches higher than grade board -A, C is 6 inches higher than B, and so on to E. The top edges when -all the boards are set with a carpenter's level and fastened in position -should be in line. The grade thus established may be any convenient -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[ 32 ]</span> -height above the top of the proposed sewer, and the measuring -stick used to grade the pipe is cut accordingly. This height is -usually a certain number of whole feet. Fixing the line of the sewer -is a mere matter of settling nails in the top edges of boards A and E -directly over the center of the proposed sewer and tightly stretching -a fish line or grade cord; nails should be set where the cord crosses -boards B, C, and D.</p> - -<p>If the cellar or basement contains plumbing fixtures, the house -sewer should enter 1 to 2 feet below the cellar floor. If all plumbing -fixtures are on the floors above, the sewer may enter at no greater -depth than necessary to insure protection from frost outside the cellar -wall. Digging the trench and laying the pipe should begin at the -tank or lower end. The large end of the pipes, called the hub, should -face uphill, and the barrel of each pipe should have even bearing -throughout its length. Sufficient earth should be removed from beneath -the hubs to permit the joints to be made in a workmanlike -manner.</p> - -<p>The house sewer may be vitrified salt-glazed sewer pipe, concrete -pipe, or cast-iron soil pipe. The latter, with poured and calked -lead joints makes a permanently water-tight and root-proof sewer, -which always should be used where the vicinity of a well must be -passed; 4, 5, or 6-inch pipe may be used, depending mainly on the fall -and in less degree on the quantity of sewage discharged. As a measure -of economy the 4-inch size is favored for iron pipe. If vitrified -pipe is used, either the 5 or 6 inch size is preferable, as these sizes are -made straighter than the 4-inch size and are less liable to obstruction. -Of the two the 5-inch size is preferable. The fall in 100 feet should -never be less than 2 feet for 4-inch size, 1½ feet for 5-inch size, -1 foot for 6-inch size.</p> - -<p><a id="fig21"></a><a href="#fig21">Figure 21</a> shows methods of making good joints. <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>, <i>E</i>, -<i>F</i>, and <i>G</i> are ordinary sewer pipe joints; <i>H</i>, is cast-iron soil pipe.</p> - -<div class="figleft illowe17_1875"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig21.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>—How to make good joints. See text for directions and specifications.</div> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><i>A</i> shows the use of a yarning iron to pack a small strand of jute into the -joint space, thus centering the pipes and preventing the joint filler running inside. -The joint surfaces should be free of dirt and oil. The jute is cut in lengths to -go around the pipe; a small strand is soaked in neat Portland cement grout, then -twisted and wrapped around the small end of the pipe to be pushed into the -hub of the last pipe laid. After the pipe is pushed home the jute is packed -evenly to a depth of not over ½ inch, leaving about 1½ inches for the joint filler. -Old hemp rope or oakum dipped in liquid cement or paper may be used in place -of jute, and the packing may be done with a thin file or piece of wood.</p> - -<p><i>B</i> shows the use of a rubber mitten or glove to force Portland cement mortar -into the joint space. The mortar should be thoroughly and freshly mixed in the -proportion of one volume of cement to one volume of clean sand and should be -pressed and tamped to fill the joint completely.</p> - -<p><i>C</i> shows a section of finished joint. The fresh mortar should not be loosened -or disturbed when laying the next pipe.</p> - -<p><i>D</i> shows method of pouring a joint with grout, which is quicker, cheaper, and -better than using a rubber mitten. A flexible sheet-metal form or mold, oiled -to prevent the grout sticking, is clamped tightly around the joint and is completely -filled with grout consisting of equal parts of Portland cement and clean -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[ 33 ]</span> -sand mixed dry, to which water is added to produce a creamy consistency. The -pipes should not be disturbed and the form should not be removed for 24 hours.</p> - -<p><i>E</i> shows a section of grouted joint, well rounded out, strong, and tight.</p> - -<p><i>F</i> shows the use of a pipe jointer for pouring a hot filler. The pipe jointer -may be an asbestos or rubber runner or collar or a piece, of garden hose clamped -around the pipe leaving a small triangular opening at the top. The jointer is -pressed firmly against the hub, and any small openings between the jointer and -pipe are smeared with plastic clay to prevent leakage of the filler. A clay dike -or funnel about 3 inches high built around the triangular opening greatly aids -rapid and complete filling of the joint space. The filler may be a commercially -prepared bituminous compound or molten sulphur and fine sand. The former -makes a slightly elastic joint; the latter a hard unyielding joint. With good -workmanship both kinds of joint are practically water-tight and root-proof, -and cost about the same as cement mortar joints. The filler is heated in an iron -kettle over a wood, coke, or coal fire. It should be well stirred, and when at a -free running consistency should be poured with a ladle large enough to fill the -joint completely at one operation. As soon as the compound cools the jointer -is removed. Sulphur-sand filler is made by mixing together dry and melting -equal volumes of ordinary powdered sulphur and very fine clean sand, preferably -the finest quicksand. A 5-inch sewer pipe joint requires from three-tenths -to nine-tenths of a pound (according to the kind of pipe) of sulphur, worth 3 to -5 cents per pound, and a like quantity of sand. From ½ to 1½ pounds of bituminous -filler are required for a 5-inch pipe joint.</p> - -<p><i>G</i> shows section of finished joint.</p> - -<p><i>H</i> shows the use of a pouring ladle in making lead joints in cast-iron soil pipe. -This pipe is in lengths to lay 5 feet, and the metal of the barrel is ¼ inch thick. -The joint is yarned with dry jute or oakum, as described above, and is poured -full with molten, soft, pig lead to be afterwards driven tightly with hammer and -calking tools. About 1 pound of lead for each inch in diameter of pipe is -required. Prepared cements of varying composition have proved effective,, and, -as they require no calking, are economical. Among the best is a finely ground, -thoroughly mixed compound of iron, sulphur, slag, and salt.</p> - -<p><i>I</i> is a home-made pipe jointer or clay roll for use in pouring molten lead. A -strand of jute long enough to encircle the pipe and the ends to fold back, leaving -an opening at the top, is covered with clay moistened, rolled, and worked to form -a plastic rope about 1 inch in diameter. The jointer gives the very best results -but must be frequently moistened and worked to keep the clay soft and pliable. -The jointer shown in <i>F</i> is frequently used for pouring lead joints.</p></div> - -<p>Obstructions in house sewers are frequent. Among the causes -are broken pipes, grade insufficient to give cleansing velocities, newspaper, -rags, garbage, or other solids in the sewage, congealing of -grease in pipes and main running traps (house sewer traps), and -poor joint construction whereby rootlets grow into the sewer and -choke it. Good grade and good construction, with particular care -given to the joints, will avert or lessen these troubles. The sewer -should be perfectly straight, with the interior of the joints scraped -or swabbed smooth. When the joint-filling material has set, the -hollows beneath the hubs should be filled with good earth free of -stones, well tamped or puddled in place. It is important that like -material be used at the sides of the pipe and above it for at least -1 foot. The back filling may be completed with scraper or plow. -No running trap should be placed on the house sewer, because it -is liable to become obstructed and it prevents free movement of air -through the sewer and soil stack. Conductors or drains for rain -or other clean water should never connect with the house sewer, -but should discharge into a watercourse or other outlet.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[ 34 ]</span></p> - -<p>Where obstruction of a house sewer occurs, use of some of the -simple tools shown in <a href="#fig22">figure 22</a> may remedy the trouble. It is not -likely that farmers will have these appliances, except possibly some -of the augers; but some of them can be made at home or by a blacksmith, -and most of -them should be obtainable for temporary use from a well-organized town or -city sewer department. The purpose of -the several tools -shown is indicated in -the notation.</p> - -<p><b>The tank.</b>—The -septic tank should be -in an isolated location -at least 50 to 100 feet -from any dwelling. -This is not always -possible, because of -flat ground, but in -many such instances -reasonable distance -and fall may be secured -by raising both -the house sewer and -tank and embanking -them with earth. -Cases are known -where tanks adjoin -cellar or basement -walls and the top of -the tank is used as a -doorstep; in other -cases tanks have been -constructed within -buildings. Such practices -are bad. It is -difficulty to construct an absolutely water-tight masonry tank, and -still more difficult to make it proof against the passage of sewage odors.</p> - -<p>In Northern States, particularly in exposed situations, it is desirable -to have the top of the tank 1 to 2 feet underground, thus -promoting warmth and uniformity of temperature in the sewage. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[ 35 ]</span> -In Southern States this feature is less important, and the top of the -tank may be flush with the ground. Every tank should be tightly -covered, for the reason above stated and to guard against the spread -of odors, the transmission of disease germs by flies, and accidents to -children.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowe26_125" id="fig22"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig22.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span>—Sewer-cleaning tools—how to use them. <i>A</i>, Ordinary 1½ or 2 inch auger - welded to a piece of ¾-inch extra-strong wrought pipe about 5 feet long; the stem is - lengthened by adding other pieces of pipe with screw couplings, and is fitted with a - pipe handle; all cleaning work should proceed upstream; <i>B</i>, twist or open earth auger; - <i>C</i>, ribbon or closed earth auger; <i>D</i>, spiral or coal auger; <i>E</i>, ship auger; <i>F</i>, root cutter; - <i>G</i>, sewer rods with hook coupling, usually of hickory or ash 1 or 11 inches in diameter - and 3 or 4 feet long; <i>H</i>, gouge for cutting obstructions; <i>I</i>, scoop for removing sand or - similar material; <i>J</i>, claw, and <i>K</i>, screw, for removing paper or rags; <i>L</i>, scraper; - <i>M</i>, wire brush for removing grease, drawn back and forth with a wire or rope; <i>N</i>, - home-made wire brush (for a 5-inch sewer use a 1½-inch wooden pole to which is - securely tacked a piece of heavy rubber, canvas or leather belting or harness leather - 5½ by 8 inches, spirally studded, as shown, with ordinary wire nails 1½ inches in - length).</div> -</div> - -<p>Considerable latitude is allowable in the design and construction -of septic tanks. No particular shape or exact dimensions can be -presented for a given number of people. One family of 5 persons -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[ 36 ]</span> -may use as much water as another family of 10 persons; hence the -quantity of sewage rather than the number of persons is the better -basis of design. Exact dimensions are not requisite, for settlement -and septicization proceed whether the sewage is held a few hours -more or a few hours less. As to materials of construction some form -of masonry, either brick, building tile, rubble, concrete, or cement -block, is employed generally. Vitrified pipe, steel, and wood have -been used occasionally.</p> - -<p>A plant for use all year round should have two chambers, one to -secure settlement and septicization of the solids and the other to -secure periodic discharge of the effluent by the use of an automatic -sewage siphon. The first chamber is known as the settling chamber, -the second as the siphon or dosing chamber. The siphon chamber is -often omitted and the effluent is allowed to dribble away through subsurface -tile, as illustrated in figures <a href="#fig17">17</a> and <a href="#fig18">18</a>. The latter procedure -is not generally advised, but may be permissible where the land -slopes sharply or has long periods of rest, as at summer houses and -camps.</p> - -<p>The septic tanks shown in this bulletin are designed to satisfy -the following conditions:</p> - -<p>1. Water consumption of 40 gallons per person per day of 24 -hours.</p> - -<p>2. A detention period of about 24 hours; that is, the capacity of the -settling chamber below the flow line is approximately equal to the -quantity of sewage -discharged from the -house in 24 hours.</p> - -<p>3. Where a siphon -chamber is -provided, its size is -such that the dose of -sewage shall be approximately -equal -to 20 gallons per -person; that is, the -capacity of the siphon -chamber between -the discharge -and low-water lines -is roughly equal to -the quantity of sewage -discharged in -12 hours.</p> - -<div class="figleft illowe17_3125" id="fig23"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig23.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>—One-chamber septic tank—does nothing more - than a tight cesspool. Brick construction, heavily plastered - inside; size suitable for 180 to 280 gallons of - sewage daily (nominally 4 to 7 persons).</div> -</div> - -<p>A simple one-chamber brick tank suitable for a household discharging -180 to 280 gallons of sewage daily is shown in <a href="#fig23">figure 23</a>. A -small two-chamber tank constructed of 24-inch vitrified pipe, suitable -for a household discharging about 125 gallons of sewage daily, is -shown in <a href="#fig24">figure 24</a>. A typical two-chamber concrete tank is shown in -<a href="#fig25">figure 25</a>. Excepting the submerged outlet, all pipes within the tank -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[ 37 ]</span> -and built into the masonry are cast-iron soil pipe with cast-iron fittings. -Vitrified or concrete sewer pipe and specials are generally -used as they are frequently more readily obtainable and a slight -saving in first cost may be effected. Cast iron is less liable to be -broken in handling or after being set rigidly in masonry, and the -joints are more easily made water-tight. The submerged outlet is -midway of the depth of liquid in the settling chamber. The inside -depth of the siphon chamber is the drawing depth of the siphon -plus 1 foot 5 inches.</p> - -<p>The following table gives the principal dimensions with quantities -of materials for four sizes of tank as illustrated in <a href="#fig25">figure 25</a>:</p> - -<p class="caption3nb"><a id="Dimensions_Table"></a> - <i>Dimensions and quantities for septic tanks.</i></p> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="bdt bdb" rowspan="2">Number of persons.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" rowspan="2">Quantity of sewage in 24 hours.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt" colspan="12">Settling chamber.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb">Capacity below flow line.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" colspan="2">Length.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" colspan="2">Depth.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" colspan="2">Width.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb">W.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" colspan="2">X.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb">Y.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb">Z.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Galls.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Galls.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Ft.</i></td> - <td><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Ft.</i></td> - <td><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Ft.</i></td> - <td><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Ft.</i></td> - <td><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>In.</i></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>5</td> - <td class="bdl">180-280</td> - <td class="bdl">240</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td>0</td> - <td class="bdl">5</td> - <td>0</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td>0</td> - <td class="bdl">6</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td>0</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td class="bdl">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>10</td> - <td class="bdl">320-480</td> - <td class="bdl">420</td> - <td class="bdl">5</td> - <td>0</td> - <td class="bdl">5</td> - <td>6</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td>6</td> - <td class="bdl">6</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td>3</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td class="bdl">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>15</td> - <td class="bdl">520-680</td> - <td class="bdl">620</td> - <td class="bdl">5</td> - <td>6</td> - <td class="bdl">6</td> - <td>0</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> - <td>0</td> - <td class="bdl">8</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td>6</td> - <td class="bdl">5</td> - <td class="bdl">8</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdb">20</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">720-960</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">860</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">6</td> - <td class="bdb">0</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">6</td> - <td class="bdb">6</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">3</td> - <td class="bdb">6</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">8</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">2</td> - <td class="bdb">9</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">5</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">8</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="vsmall"> </div> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="bdt bdb" rowspan="2">Number of persons.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" rowspan="2">Quantity of sewage in 24 hours.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt" colspan="10">Siphon chamber.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" rowspan="2">Concrete.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" rowspan="2">Cement.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" rowspan="2">Sand.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" rowspan="2">Stone.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" colspan="2">Reinforcement in top slab (strip of heavy stock fencing).</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" colspan="2">Length.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" colspan="2">Depth.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb" colspan="2">Width.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb">A.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb">B.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb">C.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb">D.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb">Length.</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdb">Width.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Galls.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Ft.</i></td> - <td><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Ft.</i></td> - <td><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Ft.</i></td> - <td><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>In.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Cu. Yd.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Bbls.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Cu. Yd.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Cu. Yd.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>Ft.</i></td> - <td class="bdl"><i>In.</i></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>5</td> - <td class="bdl">180-280</td> - <td class="bdl">5</td> - <td>0</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td>8</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td>0</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td class="bdl">15</td> - <td class="bdl">18¼</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> - <td class="bdl">4½</td> - <td class="bdl">1⅓</td> - <td class="bdl">2⅔</td> - <td class="bdl">10</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>10</td> - <td class="bdl">320-480</td> - <td class="bdl">8</td> - <td>0</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td>8</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td>6</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td class="bdl">15</td> - <td class="bdl">20¼</td> - <td class="bdl">4¼</td> - <td class="bdl">6¼</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td class="bdl">3¾</td> - <td class="bdl">14</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>15</td> - <td class="bdl">520-680</td> - <td class="bdl">8</td> - <td>8</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td>10</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> - <td>0</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td class="bdl">17</td> - <td class="bdl">20¼</td> - <td class="bdl">6⅔</td> - <td class="bdl">9¾</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> - <td class="bdl">6</td> - <td class="bdl">15⅔</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdb">20</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">720-960</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">10</td> - <td class="bdb">0</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">2</td> - <td class="bdb">10</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">3</td> - <td class="bdb">6</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">4</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">4</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">17</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">20¼</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">8</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">12</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">3½</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">7</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">17½</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">5</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p><b>Siphons.</b>—Reference has already been made to the vital importance -of air in sewage filtration. If the spaces within a filter or soil are -constantly filled with water, air is excluded, and the action of the -filtering material is merely that of a mechanical strainer with its -clogging tendency. The purpose of a siphon is twofold: (1) To secure -intermittent discharge, thus allowing a considerable period of -time for one dose to work off in the soil and for air to enter the soil -spaces before another flush is received; (2) to secure distribution -over a larger area and in a more even manner than where the sewage -is allowed to dribble and produce the conditions of the old-fashioned -sink drain—namely, a small area of water-logged ground.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[ 38 ]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowe25_375" id="fig24"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig24.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>—Two-chamber septic tank, simple and inexpensive. Constructed of 24-inch - vitrified sewer pipe; size suitable for 125 gallons of sewage daily (nominally 3 persons). - <i>A</i>, House sewer; <i>B</i>, settling chamber, made of one double <b>T</b> branch and one - length of straight pipe, each 3 feet long and 2 feet in diameter, supported by 4 inches - of concrete, all joints made water-tight; <i>C</i>, submerged outlet, consisting of a metal <b>T</b> - slipped into the sewer-pipe branch; <i>D</i>, wire screen, 2-inch mesh; <i>E</i>, siphon chamber - made of one <b>T</b> branch 3 feet long and 2 feet in diameter; <i>F</i>, siphon; <i>G</i>, 3-inch overflow; - <i>H</i>, sewer to distribution field; <i>I</i>, tight cover with lifting ring; <i>J</i>, concrete protection - around sewer-pipe hubs.</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowe24_875" id="fig25"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig25.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption">><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>—Typical two-chamber concrete septic tank. (See table for dimensions and - quantities for different sizes.)</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[ 39 ]</span></p> - -<p>Three types of sewage siphon are shown in <a href="#fig26">figure 26</a>. In all, the -essential principle is the same: A column of air is entrapped between -two columns of water; when the water in the chamber rises to a -predetermined height, called the discharge line, the pressure forces -out the confined air, destroying the balance and causing a rush of -water through the siphon to the sewer. The entire operation is automatic -and very simple. The siphons shown are commercial products -made of cast iron; they have few parts and none that move, and the -whole construction is simple and durable. The table (<a href="#fig26">fig. 26</a>) lists -stock sizes adapted to farm use. Manufacturers furnish full information -for setting their siphons and putting them in operation. For -example, take type 2, <a href="#fig26">figure 26</a>: (1) Set siphon trap (<b>U</b>-shaped pipe) -plumb, making E (height from floor to top of long leg) as specified; -(2) fill siphon trap with water till it begins to run out at B; (3) -place bell in position on top of long leg, and the siphon is ready for -service. Do not fill vent pipe on side of bell.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowe25_1875" id="fig26"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig26.png" alt="" /> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="bdb" colspan="5">Type 2<br />INCHES</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Diameter of siphon</i></td> - <td class="bdl">A</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">4</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Diameter of outlet</i></td> - <td class="bdl">B</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">4</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Drawing depth</i></td> - <td class="bdl">C</td> - <td class="bdl">13</td> - <td class="bdl">15</td> - <td class="bdl">14</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">17</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Depth to floor</i></td> - <td class="bdl">D</td> - <td class="bdl">16¼</td> - <td class="bdl">18¼</td> - <td class="bdl">17¼</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">20¼</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Height above floor</i></td> - <td class="bdl">E</td> - <td class="bdl">7¼</td> - <td class="bdl">9¼</td> - <td class="bdl">8¾</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">11¾</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Clearance under bell</i></td> - <td class="bdl">F</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td class="bdl">2</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Inside bottom of outlet, to discharge line</i></td> - <td class="bdl">G</td> - <td class="bdl">20½</td> - <td class="bdl">22½</td> - <td class="bdl">22¾</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">25¾</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Discharge line, to top of wall</i></td> - <td class="bdl">H</td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl bdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Depth of outlet sump</i></td> - <td class="bdl">I</td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl bdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Length and width of outlet sump</i></td> - <td class="bdl bdb">J</td> - <td class="bdl bdb"></td> - <td class="bdl bdb"></td> - <td class="bdl bdb"></td> - <td class="bdl bdb bdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td rowspan="6"><i>Diameter of carrier (R),<br />and minimum fall (S)<br />in feet per 100 feet</i><br /> - <div class="figleft illowe12_875" id="fig26t"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig26t.png" alt="" /> - </div> - </td> - <td class="bdl bdt">R</td> - <td class="bdl bdt">4</td> - <td class="bdl bdt">4</td> - <td class="bdl bdt">4</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdr">4</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl">S</td> - <td class="bdl">2 ft.</td> - <td class="bdl">2 ft.</td> - <td class="bdl">7 ft.</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">8 ft.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl bdt">R</td> - <td class="bdl bdt">5</td> - <td class="bdl bdt">5</td> - <td class="bdl bdt">5</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdr">5</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl">S</td> - <td class="bdl">1½ ft.</td> - <td class="bdl">1½ ft.</td> - <td class="bdl">2 ft.</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">2½ ft.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl bdt">R</td> - <td class="bdl bdt">6</td> - <td class="bdl bdt">6</td> - <td class="bdl bdt">6</td> - <td class="bdl bdt bdr">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdl bdb">S</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">1 ft.</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">1 ft.</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">1 ft.</td> - <td class="bdl bdb bdr">1 ft.</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="bdb" colspan="5">Type 3<br />INCHES</td> - <td></td> - <td class="bdb">Type 1<br />INCHES</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Diameter of siphon</i></td> - <td class="bdl">A</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> - <td class="bdl">3</td> - <td class="bdl">4</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">4</td> - <td> </td> - <td class="bdl bdr">4</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Diameter of outlet</i></td> - <td class="bdl">B</td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl bdr"></td> - <td></td> - <td class="bdl bdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Drawing depth</i></td> - <td class="bdl">C</td> - <td class="bdl">13</td> - <td class="bdl">15</td> - <td class="bdl">14</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">17</td> - <td></td> - <td class="bdl bdr">5</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Depth to floor</i></td> - <td class="bdl">D</td> - <td class="bdl">17</td> - <td class="bdl">17</td> - <td class="bdl">19</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">22</td> - <td></td> - <td class="bdl bdr">15</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Height above floor</i></td> - <td class="bdl">E</td> - <td class="bdl">13</td> - <td class="bdl">13</td> - <td class="bdl">15</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">18</td> - <td></td> - <td class="bdl bdr">19</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Clearance under bell</i></td> - <td class="bdl">F</td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl"></td> - <td class="bdl bdr"></td> - <td></td> - <td class="bdl bdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Inside bottom of outlet, to discharge line</i></td> - <td class="bdl">G</td> - <td class="bdl">19</td> - <td class="bdl">21</td> - <td class="bdl">20</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">25</td> - <td></td> - <td class="bdl bdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Discharge line, to top of wall</i></td> - <td class="bdl">H</td> - <td class="bdl">6</td> - <td class="bdl">6</td> - <td class="bdl">8</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">8</td> - <td></td> - <td class="bdl bdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Depth of outlet sump</i></td> - <td class="bdl">I</td> - <td class="bdl">13</td> - <td class="bdl">13</td> - <td class="bdl">11</td> - <td class="bdl bdr">12</td> - <td></td> - <td class="bdl bdr"></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>Length and width of outlet sump</i></td> - <td class="bdl bdb">J</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">18</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">19</td> - <td class="bdl bdb">19</td> - <td class="bdl bdb bdr">18</td> - <td></td> - <td class="bdl bdb bdr"></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="pmt2 pmb2 smaller">[Transcriber Note: The data for Type 1 Siphon has been added to the table.]</div> - - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>—Three types of sewage siphon. The table gives dimensions for setting standard - 3 and 4 inch siphons; also the appropriate size and grade of the sewer to carry the - siphon discharge.</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[ 40 ]</span></p> - -<p>The overhead siphon, type 3, <a href="#fig26">figure 26</a>, may be installed readily -in a tank already built by addition of an outlet sump. If properly -set and handled, sewage siphons require very little attention and -flush with certainty. Like all plumbing fixtures they are liable to -stoppage if rags, newspaper, and similar solids get into the sewage. -If fouling of the sniffing hole or vent prevents the entrance of sufficient -air into the bell to lock the siphon properly, allowing sewage -to dribble through, the remedy is to clean the siphon. Siphons are -for handling liquid; sludge if allowed to accumulate will choke them.</p> - -<p><b>Submerged outlet.</b>—The purpose of a submerged outlet is to take -the outflow from a point between the sludge at the bottom and the -floating solids or scum. The outlet in <a href="#fig25">figure 25</a> may be readily made -of sheet metal by a tinsmith. Wrought iron or steel pipe with -elbows or light lead pipe may be used, the pipe being set in the -concrete and left in place. Sometimes a galvanized wire screen -(¼-inch mesh) is fitted over the inner end to prevent large solids -leaving the settling chamber and possibly clogging the siphon or -distribution tile. If a screen is used it should be easily removable -for cleaning.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowe24_8125" id="fig27"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig27.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span>—Home-made reinforced concrete covers. (1) Slabs placed crosswise permit uncovering - the whole tank for cleaning, but as inspection is somewhat difficult, cleaning - is the more likely to be neglected; (2) manhole, 18 inches square; cover, 22 by 22 by 3 - inches thick, easy to make and to slide or lift from the opening.</div> -</div> - -<p><b>Manhole frame and cover.</b>—The frame and cover shown in <a href="#fig25">figure 25</a> -are stock patterns made of cast iron and weighing about 250 pounds -per set. The cover is 21 inches in diameter; it is tight and, on -account of its weight, is unlikely to be disturbed by small children. -The frame or rim is about 7 inches high and 31 inches in longest -diameter. If desired, light cast-iron cistern or cesspool covers obtainable -from plumbing supply houses, home-made slabs of reinforced -concrete (see <a href="#fig27">fig. 27</a>), or wooden covers (see <a href="#fig23">fig. 23</a>) may be -used.</p> - -<p><b>Overflow.</b>—The purpose of an overflow is to pass sewage to the distribution -field should the siphon stop working. The overflow (fig. -25) is a 3-inch riser pipe with top 3 inches above the discharge line -and the bottom calked or cemented into the side outlet of a <b>T</b>-branch. -The run of the <b>T</b>-branch should correspond with the size -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[ 41 ]</span> -of the sewer from the tank to the distribution field. If this sewer -is 4-inch pipe, a 4 by 3 inch <b>T</b>-branch is used, the 4-inch spigot end -of the siphon being calked or cemented into the branch, as shown -in <a href="#fig25">figure 25</a>; if the sewer is 5-inch, a 5 by 3 inch <b>T</b>-branch is used -and connected to the siphon with a 5-inch to 4-inch reducer (in -vitrified specials the equivalent is a 4-inch to 5-inch increaser); if -the sewer is 6-inch, a 6 by 3 inch <b>T</b>-branch is used and connected -to the siphon with a 6-inch to 4-inch reducer.</p> - -<p><b>Concrete work.</b>—Before excavation for the tank is begun, two -wooden forms should be built for shaping the inside of the settling -and siphon chambers. In most instances the ground is fairly firm, -so that the lines of excavation may conform to the outside dimensions -of the tank, the back of the walls being built against the earth. -The forms may be made of square-edged boards, braced and lightly -nailed, as shown in <a href="#fig28">figure 28</a>. The forms should have no bottom. -If it is desired to lay the sides and covering slab in one operation, -the top of the forms must be boarded over. All pipe and manhole -openings should be accurately placed and cut. The faces of the -forms may be covered with paper or smeared with soap or grease to -facilitate removal later.</p> - -<p>The ground should next be excavated to the proper depth for -placing the floors in both chambers. The settling chamber floor, -being the lower, should be placed first. Effort should be made to -secure water-tight work, a feature of especial importance where -leakage might endanger a well or spring. A concrete mixture of -1:2:4 is generally preferred (1 volume cement, 2 volumes sand, 4 -volumes stone). The ingredients should be of best quality and thoroughly -mixed. The concrete should be poured promptly and worked -with a spade or flat shovel to make the face smooth and eliminate -pockets or voids within the mass.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> Before the settling chamber floor -has hardened the form should be set upon the floor and the concrete -work continued up the sides. The pipe form for the submerged -outlet should be set. When the side walls of the settling chamber -have reached the bottom of the excavation for the siphon chamber, -the siphon trap with its connecting branch and short piece of pipe -should be set to proper line and grade and blocked in position. The -floor of the siphon chamber should now be poured and the form for -that chamber placed thereon, leaving a 6-inch or 8-inch space (according -to the thickness of the division wall) between the ends of -the two forms. Pouring of all side walls and the top slab should -continue without stop, making the entire structure a monolith.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> See footnote, <a href="#Footnote_3">p. 17</a>. For more detailed information on form and concrete work the -reader is referred to U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin No. 481, "Concrete -Construction on the Live-Stock Farm."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[ 42 ]</span></p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width:86%;" id="fig28"> - <a href="images/fig28lrg.png"><img src="images/fig28.png" alt="" /></a> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>—Forms for concrete work—how to use them. - <br />Click on image to view larger size.</div> - -<p class="smaller hanging">1. Make the forms as shown and to the dimensions required by <a href="#fig25">fig. 25</a> and the table -on <a href="#Dimensions_Table">p. 37</a>; nails to be driven from the inside and left projecting for drawing with a claw -hammer.</p> - -<p class="smaller hanging">2. Excavate to lines 6 or 8 inches, as may be required, outside of the forms and to -the depths required for both chambers.</p> - -<p class="smaller hanging">3. Pour settling chamber floor and place form thereon.</p> - -<p class="smaller hanging">4. Pour settling chamber walls to level of siphon chamber excavation, inserting submerged -outlet pipe at the proper height.</p> - -<p class="smaller hanging">5. Block siphon trap and connected branch and short pipes to correct line and grade, -and fill with concrete around the trap.</p> - -<p class="smaller hanging">6. Pour siphon chamber floor, and place the form thereon.</p> - -<p class="smaller hanging">7. Continue pouring all walls to their full height, inserting the inlet pipe when the -concrete reaches that elevation.</p> - -<p class="smaller hanging">8. Do not remove forms till the concrete is hard; with favorable weather, forms for -walls only may be removed in 1 to 2 days; forms supporting a cover slab should remain -1 to 2 weeks.</p> - -</div> - -<p><b>Steel reinforcement.</b>—To stiffen the cover slab and guard against -cracking, a little steel should be embedded in the concrete about 1 -inch above the inside top. For this purpose a strip of heavy stock -fencing is convenient and inexpensive. The line wires should be not -less than No. 10 gauge (about 1⁄8 inch) and the stay wires not less -than No. 11 gauge. The reinforcement should be cut at manholes and -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[ 43 ]</span> -fastened around manhole openings. If desired a standard wire-mesh -reinforcement weighing about one-third of a pound per square foot -may be used. Another alternative is to use ¼-inch round rods, -spacing the crosswise rods 6 inches apart and the lengthwise rods -12 inches apart. Poultry netting should not be used, because of -its lightness.</p> - -<p><b>Sewer from tank to distribution field.</b>—The length of this sewer -depends on the situation of the field and the fall to it. The size of the -sewer depends on the fall that can be obtained and the size of -siphon. The table in <a href="#fig26">figure 26</a> shows the minimum fall at which -4-inch, 5-inch, and 6-inch sewers should be laid to take the discharge -of the 3-inch and 4-inch siphons specified. The line and grade -should be set in the same manner as for the house sewer (see <a href="#fig20">fig. 20</a>), -and the construction should be as specified under that caption.</p> - -<p><b>Distribution field.</b>—The distribution field or area is a sewage filter, -and its selection and the manner of preparing it largely determine -the success of subsoil disposal of sewage. As a rule farm land -is not the best filtering material. It is too fine grained and fertile. -Its tendency is to hold water too long, to admit insufficient air, to -clog when even small quantities of sewage are applied. Hence the -distribution area should be of liberal size—on the average 500 square -feet for each person served. It should be dry, porous, and well -drained—qualities that characterize sandy, gravelly, and light loam -soils. It should be devoid of trees and shrubbery, thus giving sunlight -and air free access. It should be located at least 300 feet downhill -from a well or spring used for domestic water supply. Preferably -it should slope gently, but sharp slopes are not prohibitive. -Subsoiling the area is always desirable.</p> - -<p>Clay and other compact, impervious soils require special treatment. -Less sewage can be applied to them, and hence it is well to -have the area larger than 500 square feet per person. Clay should -be subsoiled as deep as possible with a subsoil plow. In some instances -dynamite has been of service in opening up the ground to -still greater depth. Drainage and aeration should be further promoted -by laying tile underdrains, as outlined in <a href="#fig19">figure 19</a> and shown -in more detail in <a href="#fig31">figure 31</a>.</p> - -<p>After the construction work the distribution area should be raked -and seeded with thick-growing grass. Grass is a safe crop; its water -requirement is high, and it affords considerable protection from frost. -Suitable grasses are redtop, white clover, blue grass, and Bermuda -grass. The area may be pastured or kept as grass land.</p> - -<p><b>Distribution system.</b>—Poor distribution of the sewage and failure to -protect the joints of the distribution tile account for most of the -failures. Each flush of the siphon should be so controlled that every -part of the field will receive its due proportion. The distribution -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[ 44 ]</span> -tile must be so laid that loose dirt will not fall or wash into the open -joints.</p> - -<p>Different methods of dividing the flush and laying out the distribution -tile are shown in figures 29 and 32. Layouts 1, 2, and 3, <a href="#fig29">figure 29</a>, -are suitable for flat or gently sloping areas and are planned for -the shallow siphon chambers tabulated on <a href="#Dimensions_Table">page 37</a>. Layout 4, <a href="#fig29">figure 29</a>, -is suitable for steep slopes. In all four layouts use is made of -one or more <b>V</b>-branches (not <b>Y</b>-branches) to divide the flow equally -among the several lines. <b>V</b>-branches, sometimes called breeches, -should be leveled with a carpenter's level crosswise the ends of the -legs, thus insuring equal division of the flow.</p> - -<p>The size and length of distribution tile and the spacing of the lines -or runs admit of considerable variation in different soils. Water -sinks rapidly in gravels and sands, and hence larger tile and shorter -length are permissible than in close soils. Lateral movement is slow -in all soils, but extends farther in gravels and sands than in close -soils. In average soils the effect on vegetation 5 feet away from the -line is practically nil.</p> - -<p>From these considerations, with the siphon dose 20 gallons per -person, it is usually a safe rule to provide 50 feet of 3-inch tile for -each person served and to lay the lines 10 feet apart. Such provision -gives a capacity within the bore of the tile lines about equal -to the siphon dose, and as some sewage is wasted at each joint a -reasonable factor of safety is provided. A spacing of 10 feet will, -it is believed, permanently prevent the extension of lateral absorption -from line to line, provided the area is fairly well drained. As between -3-inch and 4-inch tile the smaller size costs less and is better -calculated to taper the dose to small proportions. Four-inch tile -is less likely to get out of alignment or to become clogged; a length -of 28 feet has the same capacity in the bore as 50 feet of 3-inch.</p> - -<p>Good-quality drain tile in 1-foot lengths or second-quality sewer -pipe in 2-foot lengths may be used. The lines are generally laid in -parallel runs, but may be varied according to the topography. Layouts -1, 2, and 3, <a href="#fig29">figure 29</a>, for flat or gently sloping land, run with -the slope; layout 4, for steep slopes, runs back and forth along the -contour in a series of long flat sweeps and short steep curves. The -grade of the runs and sweeps should be gentle, rarely more than -10 or 12 inches in 100 feet. In layouts 1, 2, and 3, <a href="#fig29">figure 29</a> especially, -it is desirable that the last 20 feet of each run should be laid -level or given a slight upward slope, thus guarding against undue -flow of sewage to the lowest ends of the system.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[ 45 ]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowe25_625" id="fig29"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig29.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>—Methods of laying distribution system: Methods 1, 2, and 3 for flat or gently - sloping land; method 4 for steep slopes (see also <a href="#fig32">fig. 32</a>); <i>A</i>, direction of slope; <i>B</i>, - contour of field; <i>C</i>, sewer from tank, preferably size 5 inch, though 4 or 6 inch may - be used, depending on the fall and the size of the siphon (see table, <a href="#fig26">fig. 26</a>); <i>D</i>, - <b>V</b>-branch set to divide the flow exactly; <i>E</i>, reducer, to 4 inches; F, 1⁄8 bend, 4-inch; <i>G</i>, - increaser, from 4 inches; <i>H</i>, increaser, 3 to 4 inches; <i>I</i>, reducer, 4 to 3 inches; <i>J</i>, distribution - tile, 3-inch; <i>K</i>, distribution tile, 4-inch.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[ 46 ]</span></p> - -<p>The runs should be laid no deeper than necessary to give clearance -when plowing and prevent injury from frost. Ten inches of earth -above the top of the tile is sufficient generally throughout the southern -half of the United States and 18 inches generally in the North, -but if the field is exposed or lacks a thick heavy growth of grass the -cover should be increased to 2½ or 3 feet near the Canadian line. -What is better, the tile in all instances may be laid with a 10-inch -cover and in cold weather the runs may be covered with hay, straw, -or leaves weighted down, which may be removed in the spring.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowe26" id="fig30"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig30.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>—Four methods of protecting open joints in distribution lines—an all-important - work. Sketches show cross-section and longitudinal views; the depth from the surface - of the ground to the top of the tile is about 10 inches.</div> -</div> - -<p> -1. <i>A</i>, Subsoil ground; <i>B</i>, 3 or 4 inch drain tile; <i>C</i>, strip of tarred paper about 6<br /> -inches wide and extending three-fourths the distance around the tile, allowing sewage<br /> -to escape at the bottom; <i>D</i>, coarse sand, gravel, broken stone or brick, slag, cinders, or<br /> -coke, the coarsest material placed around the tile (where the ground is naturally very<br /> -porous and well drained, special filling in the trench may be omitted); <i>E</i>, natural soil.<br /> -<br /> -2. Drain tile covered with a board laid flat, leaving the entire joint open.<br /> -<br /> -3. Drain tile laid in stoneware gutter pieces and the joint covered with stoneware<br /> -caps; gutter and cap pieces are inexpensive commercial products; their radius is longer<br /> -than that of the outside of the tile, thus leaving open most of the joint space; the gutter<br /> -aids in keeping the tile in line.<br /> -<br /> -4. Vitrified sewer pipe with hubs facing downhill; the spigot end should be centered<br /> -in the hub with a few small chinks or wedges.<br /> -</p> - -<p>Making the joints of the distribution tile demands especial attention. -For a short distance on the upper end of each run the tile -should be laid with ends abutting; the joint opening should be increased -gradually to one-eighth inch and this increased to one-fourth -in the last 20 feet of the run. All joints should be protected against -the entrance of loose dirt. Four methods are shown in <a href="#fig30">figure 30</a>. -The lower end of each run should be closed with a brick or flat -stone; or, what is better, an elbow or <b>T</b>-branch may be placed on the -end and vented above the surface of the ground, improving the flow -of sewage, the ventilation of pipes, and the aeration of the soil.</p> - -<p>If the distribution tile must be laid in clay or other close, poorly -drained soil, special treatment is necessary. A common method is -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[ 47 ]</span> -to subsoil and underdrain the area thoroughly, as shown in <a href="#fig31">figure 31</a>. -It is not always possible to run the underdrain in lines between the -distribution lines as shown in figures <a href="#fig19">19</a> and <a href="#fig31">31</a>, but it is a desirable -thing to do, as the sewage must then receive some filtration through -natural soil.</p> - -<p>In some instances it is sufficient to lay the distribution tile on a continuous -bed, 8 to 12 inches thick, of coarse gravel, broken stone, or -brick, slag, coke, or cinders and complete the refill as shown in figure -<a href="#fig18">18</a> or <a href="#fig31">31</a>.</p> - -<p><a href="#fig32">Figure 32</a> shows two other methods of controlling the flow on steep -slopes and diverting proper proportions to the several lateral distributors -laid along the contour of the field. This work can not be -effected properly with <b>T</b> or <b>Y</b> branches; the flow tends to shoot -straight ahead, comparatively little escaping laterally. To overcome -this difficulty recourse is had to diverting boxes, of which two types -are shown in <a href="#fig32">figure 32</a>. These boxes involve expense, but permit -inspection and division of the flow according to the needs. They may -be built of brick, stone, concrete, or even wood.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowe25_1875" id="fig31"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig31.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>—Close soils should be deeply subsoiled and underdrained. Porous, well-drained, -air-filled soil is absolutely necessary. <i>A</i>, Subsoiled ground; <i>B</i>, 3 or 4 inch distribution -tile; <i>C</i>, depth variable with the climate, 1¼ to 3½ feet; <i>D</i>, 4-inch underdrain; <i>E</i>, depth -such as would prepare land for good crop production, generally 3½ to 4 feet; <i>F</i>, stone -or other coarse material; <i>G</i>, gravel grading upward to coarse sand; <i>H</i>, loose soil.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Type 1 consists of a single box, into which all the lateral distributors -head. It will be noted that the laterals enter at slightly different -elevations, the two opposite the inlet sewer being the highest, -the next two slightly lower, and the next two the lowest. This staggering -of the outlets, in a measure, offsets the tendency of the flow -to shoot across and escape by the most direct route.</p> - -<p>Type 2 calls for one or more diverting boxes, according to the number -of lateral distributors, and readily permits of wasting sewage at -widely separated elevations and distances. The outlet pipes enter -the box at slightly different elevations, for the reason already stated. -With either type, should the outlets not be set at the right elevations, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[ 48 ]</span> -partial plugging of the holes and a little experimenting will enable -one to equalize or proportion the discharges.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowe26_3125" id="fig32"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig32.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>—Two systems of distribution on steep slopes—use of diverting box. <i>A</i> Direction - of slope; <i>B</i>, contour of field; <i>C</i>, 4, 5 or 6 inch sewer from tank; <i>D</i> diverting box; - <i>E</i>, 3-inch or 4-inch distribution tile.></div> -</div> - -<p><b>Sewage switch.</b>—The clogging of filters and soils after long-continued -application of sewage has been previously referred to. It -is, therefore, desirable to arrange the distribution system in two units -with a switch between them, so that one area may drain and become -aerated while the other is in use. This procedure is especially desirable -where the soil is close and the installation of considerable -size. It adds to the life and effectiveness of the distribution area and -permits use of a plant in case it is necessary to repair, extend, or relay -the tile in either unit.</p> - -<p>Arrangement in two units does not necessarily mean doubling the -amount of tile and the area required in a single field. However desirable -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[ 49 ]</span> -that may be, expense or lack of suitable ground will often -prevent. With open sands and gravels and the assumed siphon dose -of 20 gallons per person, 15 to 20 feet of 4-inch tile in each unit for -each person will usually suffice. With more compact soil it is advisable -to more nearly double the requirements previously described. -Two simple types of switch are shown in <a href="#fig33">figure 33</a>. The switch -should be turned frequently, certainly as often as is necessary to prevent -saturation or bogginess of either area.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowe25_625" id="fig33"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig33.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>—Two simple types of sewage switch. <i>A</i>, Sewer from tank; <i>B</i>, switch box; <i>C</i>, - cover; <i>D</i>, blade or stop board (in the left-hand box the direction of flow is controlled - by placing the blade in alternate diagonal position; in the right-hand box the stop - works in iron guides cast integral with a short piece of light-weight pipe set in the - masonry; if desired the guides may be wood, fastened to the masonry with expansion - bolts); <i>E</i>, sewer to distribution area; <i>F</i> (right-hand box), alternate position of outlets - or additional outlets if required.</div> -</div> - -<p><b>A complete installation.</b>—The general layout and working plans of -a complete installation built in 1915-16 are shown in <a href="#fig34">figure 34</a>. The -plant is larger than those heretofore considered, and involves several -additional features. The settling chamber below the flow line has -a capacity of 1,000 gallons, and on a basis of 40 gallons per person -per day would serve 25 people.</p> - -<p>For many years sewage had been discharged through two 4-inch -sewers to a cesspool in the rear of the house. The proximity of the -well made it unsafe, and the overflow of the cesspool dribbled over -the low portion of the garden and barnyard, creating nuisance.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>[ 50 ]</span></p> - -<p>The first step was to make borings with a soil auger in the pasture -400 or 500 feet from the house. The borings showed a heavy clay -soil to a depth of about 4 feet, underlaid with a sandy stratum only -a few inches in thickness. It was decided to locate the distribution -area in the pasture and to aid the seepage of sewage by digging -numerous filter wells through the clay to the sandy stratum. Levels -were taken and a contour plan prepared to serve for laying out the -plant and establishing the grades.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowe25_1875" id="fig34"> - <a href="images/fig34lrg.png"><img class="w100" src="images/fig34.png" alt="" /></a> - <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>—A complete installation for a large rural home. General layout on a contour - plan and construction drawings. Note abandonment of old cesspool near the well and - garden and removal of sewage to a lower and safer location in the pasture, where the - treatment is subsurface distribution, aided by numerous filter wells about 4 feet deep - filled with coarse gravel. Note that sludge is removed from the bottom of the settling - chamber by opening the gate on the sludge drain.<br />Click on image to view larger size.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[ 51 ]</span></p> - -<p>The septic tank is built in one corner of the barnyard, and a 5-inch -sewer connects it with the old 4-inch sewers to the cesspool. All -sewer pipe joints were poured with a flexible jointing compound. -The settling chamber is of hopper shape at the bottom, and a 4-inch -sludge drain with gate provides for the gravity removal of sludge. -The lower end of the sludge drain is above the surface of the ground -and 9 feet below the flow line. The end is protected by a small -retaining wall, and the sludge is readily caught in barrels and -hauled out on the land for burial. The outlet is low enough to drain -the settling chamber completely. If it is desired merely to force out -the sludge, the drain may be brought to the surface under a head -of 3 to 5 feet, discharging the sludge into a trench or drying bed, to -be applied later to the land. A 2-inch waste pipe about mid-depth -of the settling chamber permits drawing off the clearer portion of -the sewage to the siphon chamber and from thence through another -2-inch waste pipe into the 6-inch sewer leading to the distribution -field.</p> - -<p>The 4-inch siphon has a drawing depth of 33 inches, and as the -siphon chamber is 4 feet wide by 6 feet long the dose is about 500 -gallons. The siphon cost $35. The 6-inch sewer to the switch box -falls about 6 inches in 50 feet. The distribution field was thoroughly -subsoiled, and about 800 feet of 3-inch tile was laid in each -unit. At intervals of 25 feet along the distribution trenches 6-inch -holes were dug through the clay stratum with a posthole digger. -These holes were filled with stone and constitute the filter wells previously -mentioned. All tile lines are surrounded with stone and coarse -gravel, and the ground has been trimmed to give a uniform cover of -12 inches. All work was done by day labor in a thorough manner. -As the men were doing other work at the same time the actual cost -is not known, but it is believed the installation cost about $700.</p> - -<p><b>Cost data.</b>—Reliable cost figures are difficult to estimate. Labor, -materials, freight, haulage, and other items vary greatly in different -localities. The septic tank shown in <a href="#fig23">figure 23</a> contains about 1,000 -bricks and is estimated to cost $60 complete. The septic tank shown -in <a href="#fig25">figure 25</a> for 5 persons is estimated to cost $135; for 10 persons, -$170; for 15 persons, $240; for 20 persons, $280. In Maryland, in -1916, the cost of installing a septic tank similar to that shown in -<a href="#fig25">figure 25</a> (for 5 people), including 86 feet of 5-inch house sewer (55 -feet of cast-iron pipe passing a well, and 31 feet of vitrified pipe) -and 214 feet of second-quality 4-inch sewer pipe in the distribution -area, was as follows:</p> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Excavation, labor</td> - <td class="tdr">$7.50</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Materials delivered</td> - <td class="tdr">46.60</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Three-inch siphon, including freight</td> - <td class="tdr">15.75</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Construction, labor</td> - <td class="tdr">28.00</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Supervision</td> - <td class="tdr">5.00</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Total</td> - <td class="tdr bdt">102.85</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[ 52 ]</span></p> - -<p>The quotations in the following table will be found useful in -making estimates of cost:</p> - -<p class="tdc"><i>Cost of pipe and drain tile.</i></p> - -<p class="tdc">(February, 1921.)</p> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="bdt bdb" rowspan="2" colspan="2">Kind of pipe.</td> - <td class="bdt bdb bdl" colspan="4">Size, in inches.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="bdb bdl">3</td> - <td class="bdb bdl">4</td> - <td class="bdb bdl">5</td> - <td class="bdb bdl">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td><p class="hanging">Extra heavy cast-iron soil pipe, on cars Chicago, Ill.,<br />or Washington, D. C.</p></td> - <td>per foot</td> - <td class="bdl">$0.34</td> - <td class="bdl">$0.46</td> - <td class="bdl">$0.61</td> - <td class="bdl">$0.72</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td><p class="tdl hanging">Vitrified salt-glazed sewer pipe, on cars Chicago, Ill.</p></td> - <td>do</td> - <td class="bdl">.15</td> - <td class="bdl">.15</td> - <td class="bdl">.22½</td> - <td class="bdl">.22½</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td><p class="tdl hanging">Vitrified salt-glazed sewer pipe, at factory near<br />Washington, D. C.</p></td> - <td>do</td> - <td class="bdl">.12</td> - <td class="bdl">.12</td> - <td class="bdl">.18</td> - <td class="bdl">.18</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td><p class="tdl hanging">Clay or shale drain tile, at factory in Ohio</p></td> - <td>do</td> - <td class="bdl">.03</td> - <td class="bdl">.03½</td> - <td class="bdl">.04½</td> - <td class="bdl">.05½</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td><p class="tdl hanging">Clay or shale drain tile, at factory near Washington, D. C.</p></td> - <td>do</td> - <td class="bdl">.04</td> - <td class="bdl">.05</td> - <td class="bdl">.06</td> - <td class="bdl">.07</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p>The cost of cast-iron fittings may be roughly estimated as follows: -Bends, one to one and one-half times the price of straight pipe; <b>T</b>-branches, -two times the price of straight pipe; reducers, average of -the prices of straight pipe at each end. The cost of clay bends, -<b>T</b>-branches, reducers, and increasers may be roughly estimated at -four times the price of straight pipe.</p> - -<p><b>Operation.</b>—Attention must be given to every plant to insure success. -Unusual or excessive foulness should be investigated. No -chemicals should be used in a septic tank; garbage, rags, newspaper, -and other solids not readily soluble in water should be kept out of -sewers and tanks. The plant should be inspected often, noting particularly -if the siphon is operating satisfactorily. If scum forms -in the settling chamber it should be removed, and the sludge should -be bailed or pumped out yearly. Frequently tanks are not cleaned -out for three or four years, resulting in large quantities of solid -matter going through to the distribution system and clogging it. -Clogging may occur in the tile or in the adjacent soil. In either -case the tile should be dug up, cleaned, and relaid. In some cases -it has been found advantageous to relay the tile between the former -lines. When sewage is applied to fairly porous land at the slow -rate here recommended and the plant is well handled the tile lines -should operate satisfactorily for many years. Liming heavy soils -tends to loosen and keep them sweet.</p> - -<p><a id="Field_data"></a><b>Field data.</b>—As a basis for outlining or designing a suitable installation -the following data should be known:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p> 1. State, town, and whether in or near an incorporated municipality.</p> - -<p> 2. Usual number of persons to be served.</p> - -<p> 3. Average daily consumption of water in gallons.</p> - -<p> 4. Kind and depth of well, depth to water surface.</p> - -<p> 5. Character of soil, whether sandy, gravelly, loamy, clay, or muck.</p> - -<p> 6. Condition of soil as to drainage.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>[ 53 ]</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p> 7. Character of subsoil.</p> - -<p> 8. Character of underlying rock and, if known, its depth below the -surface.</p> - -<p> 9. Depth to ground water at both house and field where sewage is to -be distributed.</p> - -<p>10. Minimum winter temperature and approximate depth to which frost -goes.</p> - -<p>11. Number and kind of buildings to be connected with the sewer.</p> - -<p>12. Number and kind of plumbing fixtures in each building.</p> - -<p>13. Whether plumbing fixtures are to be put in the basement.</p> - -<p>14. Depth of basement floor below ground.</p></div> - -<p>A plan to scale or a sketch with dimensions showing property lines, -buildings, wells, springs, and drainage outlets should be furnished. -The direction of surface drainage should be indicated by arrows. -The slope of the land (vertical fall in a stated horizontal distance) -should be given or if possible a contour plan (showing lines of constant -elevation) should be furnished.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="GREASE_TRAPS">GREASE TRAPS.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Farm sewage may contain from 10 to 30 pounds of grease and fats -per person per year. This grease, originating mainly in the kitchen -sink, hinders septic action and clogs pipes, filters, and soils. Half -the grease may be stopped by a septic tank, but the remainder goes -into the distribution system, interfering with its action. A grease -trap is a device for separating the grease from other wastes. The -need for it may be lessened by carefully depositing waste greases and -fats with the garbage; but one should always be installed if the -kitchen is carelessly managed or discharges quantities of greasy -water as at institutions, hotels, boarding houses, and bakeshops.</p> - -<p>A grease trap should have several times the capacity of the greatest -quantity of greasy water discharged into it at one time, in order -that the entering water shall be well cooled and the grease congealed. -The solidified grease rises to the surface of the water in the trap and -is retained therein. A dishpan of greasy water (2½ to 3 gallons) is -the largest quantity likely to be discharged at one time from an ordinary -kitchen sink, hence the grease trap should have not less capacity -than 7 or 8 gallons. <a href="#fig35">Figure 35</a> shows three types of grease traps -suitable for farm use. In each the outlet pipe has small clearance -at the bottom. This feature, together with the <b>V</b>-shaped hopper bottom, -tends to create a scouring velocity and thus prevent the accumulation -of coffee grounds and other solid wastes in the bottom of the -trap. A grease trap should be close to the sink it is intended to serve, -but not within the kitchen, on account of objectionable odors when -the trap is opened to remove grease. It is good practice to place the -trap in the cellar or basement, where it is safe from frost yet close -to the source of grease.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[ 54 ]</span></p> - - -<table id="fig35" summary="Grease Pits"> -<tr> - <td style="width: 30%;"> - <div class="figcenter illowe9_125" id="fig35a"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig35a.png" alt="" /> - </div> - </td> - <td style="width: 30%;"> - <div class="figcenter illowe10_9375" id="fig35b"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig35b.png" alt="" /> - </div> - </td> - <td style="width: 30%;"> - <div class="figcenter illowe12_125" id="fig35c"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig35c.png" alt="" /> - </div> - </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="vtop"> -<div class="fig_caption">Ready-made grease trap. Vitrified, salt-glazed earthenware.<br /> -<table style="text-align: center;" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td>Diameter.<br /><i>Inches.</i><br />15<br />18<br />24</td> - <td>Depth.<br /><i>Inches.</i><br />24<br />36<br />36</td> -</tr> -</table> -</div> - </td> - <td class="vtop"> -<div class="fig_caption">Home-made grease trap. Concrete or well-plastered brick work; -elbow, cross and increaser to be recessed drainage fittings.</div> - </td> - <td class="vtop"> -<div class="fig_caption">Type of grease trap used at U. S. Army camps.</div> - </td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>—Three types of grease trap.<br /> -<a href="images/fig35lrg.png">Click here to view larger sized.</a></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[ 55 ]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="GENERAL_PROCEDURE">GENERAL PROCEDURE.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Do not waste money by digging and, partly constructing, afterwards -seeking information. Prepare a plan and work from it. Get -in touch with your county agricultural and home demonstration -agents. Advice may be obtained also from extension workers, State -agricultural colleges, State and local boards of health, the United -States Public Health Service, and the United States Department of -Agriculture. Do not guess distances and levels. Use a measuring -tape and some type of level—engineer's, architect's, drainage, hand, -or carpenter's. Study this bulletin, and design, lay out, and construct -in accordance therewith. Remember to: (1) Isolate the septic tank—locate -it 50 to 100 or more feet from any dwelling and, if practicable, -to the leeward of prevailing summer breezes; (2) locate the cesspool -or sewage distribution field downhill from the well or spring, and, if -possible, 300 feet therefrom; (3) select dry, porous, deeply drained -ground for disposal of all sewage; (4) do not apply more sewage to a -given area of land than can be thoroughly absorbed and oxidized; (5) -lay sewers straight and below the reach of frost, ventilate them thoroughly, -and make the joints water-tight and root-proof.</p> - -<p>Makeshift methods, materials, or devices should be avoided or used -sparingly. Do not place a vent pipe in the top of a cesspool or -septic tank if near a dwelling. Siphon chamber and siphon may be -omitted in those rare instances where it is feasible to discharge into -salt water or into a large stream already badly polluted. Disposal -of sewage in a running stream should be a last resort. Such practice -endangers water supplies downstream, and unless the volume and -velocity of flow are good nuisance may be created in the vicinity. -Do not neglect inspection and operation. Clean out settling tanks -yearly or oftener. All pipe lines below ground should be marked -with iron or stone markers to facilitate examination, repair, or extension -of the system.</p> - -<p>There is a general but erroneous belief that the cost of sewerage -is little in the city but almost prohibitive in the country. All personal -and realty properties in one eastern city represent a valuation -of $10,382 per home, which pays $355 for sewers outside the cellar -wall. An average farm in a Middle West State represents a valuation -of $17,259. Is not the farmer justified in the small outlay required -to dispose of the farm sewage? Because of the issuance of -bonds and the apportionment of sewer assessments for a series of -years the city dweller may have his burden distributed over a long -period. The farmer does not pay interest on these obligations, and -sewer work can be done more cheaply in the country than in the city.</p> - -<p>Safe disposal of farm sewage is not a passing fad but a vital necessity. -Besides being an asset a good sewerage installation greatly -promotes the wholesomeness and healthfulness of the farm. Moreover -the benefits are far-reaching, because farm products go into -every home, and farm and urban populations mingle freely.</p> - - -<p class="caption3nb">◯</p> - - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<div class="transnote"> - -<p class="caption2nb">Transcriber Note</p> - -<p>Two headers (Kitchen-Sink Drainage and Cesspools) were added to the Table -of Contents based on their formatting in the text. Minor typos have -been corrected. Illustrations were moved to prevent splitting paragraphs. -<a href="#fig21">Figure 21.</a> was moved adjacent to the directions and specifications on <a href="#fig21">Page 32</a>. -Due to space considerations in the text only version, emphasis of column -headers were sometimes eliminated and some of the tables were rearranged.</p> - -</div> - -<div style='display:block;margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA FARMERS' BULLETIN NO. 1227 ***</div> -<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0;'>This file should be named 63094-h.htm or 63094-h.zip</div> -<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0;'>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in https://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/0/9/63094/</div> -<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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