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diff --git a/63036.txt b/63036.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c432016 --- /dev/null +++ b/63036.txt @@ -0,0 +1,836 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. +III., PP. 31-40, April 30, 1891, by Herbert Gouverneur Ogden + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll +have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using +this ebook. + + + +Title: The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. III., PP. 31-40, April 30, 1891 + +Author: Herbert Gouverneur Ogden + +Release Date: August 24, 2020 [EBook #63036] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC *** + + + + +Produced by Ron Swanson + + + + + +VOL. III, PP. 31-40, APRIL 30, 1891 + +THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE + + + + +GEOGRAPHY OF THE LAND + +ANNUAL REPORT BY VICE-PRESIDENT + +HERBERT G. OGDEN + + + + +WASHINGTON + +PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY + +Price 25 Cents. + + +{31} + + +VOL. III, PP. 31-40, APRIL 30, 1891 + +THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE + + + + +GEOGRAPHY OF THE LAND. + +ANNUAL REPORT BY VICE-PRESIDENT + +HERBERT G. OGDEN. + +(_Presented to the Society January 23, 1891_.) + + +Very few of the geographic events of the past year have been of such +an essential nature as to require a reference in this report, and yet +some of them are of surpassing interest. Fraught, as many of them are, +with policies that must have a marked influence in the future in +developing the still uncivilized regions and increasing the prosperity +of the established communities, they present a field for research that +has already attracted the political economist, enlisted the labor of +the philanthropist, and excited the cupidity of commerce. + + * * * * * + +The division of Africa, as commonly referred to, has naturally aroused +the most profound attention of all civilized peoples. But few have +attempted to penetrate the darkness of the future with predictions of +the ultimate results of the partition of this great continent. That +civilization will eventually follow, we may feel reasonably assured; +and if we could but see the end in the establishment of powerful +nations without the repetition of history in the quarrels, strife, and +war that have preceded the settled order of political progression on +other continents, we might well hope the human had improved his +humanity and believe we had entered the border land of the millennium +that enthusiasts have so long held up to us as the final stage in the +progress of man. + +{32} The professions of the African powers are peaceful, but in the +division of these unknown millions of square miles it requires but +little penetration to discern the elements for protracted strife in +future generations. The agreement between Germany and England, by far +the most important of the compacts to extend the protection of +European nations to particular zones not embraced in the Kongo Free +State, exemplifies in a marked degree the disputes that may arise, and +with what avidity the civilized nations have sought mutual recognition +of their right to dominate in specified spheres. As might have been +expected, however, in an attempt to divide great areas that have not +even been mapped, and with an economic value still to be determined, +the boundaries of the spheres are oftentimes indefinite, and instead +of settling disputed questions, but defer them to the generations yet +to come. There are colonies, protectorates, and spheres of influence, +with boundaries sometimes so ill defined that we may conceive they +have been purposely left indeterminate, that at the proper time the +most powerful may push their frontiers to include regions that the +adventurous may proclaim desirable acquisitions. + +The area of Africa is computed at nearly 12,000,000 square miles; and +about 9,500,000 square miles are claimed by the powers as under their +control, protectorate, or influence within the tentative boundaries +that seem to have been very generally agreed upon. Fully 83 per cent. +of this area has been acquired during the past fifteen years. We have +seen during this period the possessions of Spain increase from 3,500 +to 200,000 square miles; England, from 280,000 to 2,000,000; France, +from 280,000 to 2,300,000, while Italy and Germany, that were without +a square rod a few years ago, now claim extensive areas--Italy about +360,000 and Germany over 1,000,000 square miles. Portugal, though not +less grasping, seems to have been less successful, as she has acquired +less than 100,000 square miles. Perhaps having encountered a more +powerful nation in her path may account for this, but the total area +within her "sphere" is nevertheless not insignificant, reaching as it +does over three-quarters of a million of square miles. In the Kongo +Free State we find another million square miles, which many believe +will ultimately become a Belgian colony; but in any event, occupying +as it does the larger part of the basin of the Kongo, it is destined +to be the scene of an activity in the development of the continent +fruitful of the most important results. + +{33} We must remember, too, that England now occupies Egypt, and that +with her protectorate over Zanzibar and her sphere of influence to the +northward of that state, that has not yet been limited, it is not +improbable that she will eventually reach the Mediterranean, +establishing a more extended influence in northern Africa than even +that which she has exerted over the southern end of the continent. +Should England's influence in the north result in the occupation of +all the territory that is apparently within her "sphere," we may +conceive some of the complications likely to arise, and see the +realization of the proviso in the recent Anglo-German agreement +granting her the right of way to build a railroad through the German +sphere east of Lake Tanganyika. Englishmen have expressed grave doubts +as to the wisdom of conceding to Germany this large territory east of +Lake Tanganyika, claiming it was rightfully theirs through discovery, +and as they are estopped from intercommunication to the westward of +the lake by the boundaries of the Kongo Free State, view with alarm +the possible intricacies of the situation when they may attempt to +exercise their rights in the German sphere. But doubtless there are +compensating advantages derived from the agreement, as many earnest +and able men commend the concessions made by their government in view +of the greater influence that has been acquired in other regions where +it has not heretofore been generally conceded. + +South of the Zambesi there are still other elements that promise fruit +for strife ere the region is recognized as settled to the satisfaction +of the contending powers. Boundaries now but illy defined must be +adjusted before the venturous pioneers shall know to which nation +their lands belong, and we may well foresee in the sections where +exploration develops riches and abundance that the peaceful measures +of arbitration will fail to satisfy the claims to dominance. We have, +too, an element in the south African republic that must ere long find +vent in a more pronounced movement to secure a seaport than that made +a few years ago. The fact that Delagoa bay, the finest harbor on this +section of the African coast, is the natural outlet for these people +and for the extensive regions adjacent that may eventually come under +their control, points to this bay becoming a bone of contention if the +powers interested do not conclude the present arbitration on a just +and satisfactory basis. On the lower Niger there are also points of +friction, and even the sands of the great {34} Sahara are becoming the +subject of dispute in the anxiety to establish power that may wield an +influence in distributing the wealth that may be found. + +From what regions of the continent the future wealth is to be derived +we cannot predict. The uncertainty is, perhaps, the consideration in +the problem of development that leaves vast areas with undefined +boundaries, though nominally within the sphere of influence of a +specified power. There are fully 2,000,000 square miles yet to be +explored before we may know the general geographic features of the +continent, and a much larger area that must be examined and studied by +experts before any reasonable estimate of its value and adaptability +to the schemes of civilized man can be approached. The great strides +that have been made in recent years in seizing upon the unclaimed +territories doubtless received the larger impetus from the revelations +in Mr. Stanley's explorations. The Kongo is recognized to be a natural +highway leading to a region believed to be susceptible of remunerative +development. Preparations have been made to construct a railroad +around the falls in the lower river to overcome the greatest practical +obstacle to its fullest utilization. We may reasonably expect +commercial enterprises on extensive scales to speedily follow the +completion of this road and hasten the acquisition of a more perfect +knowledge of the Kongo basin, not within the boundaries of the Kongo +Free State alone, but also the region drained by the great tributaries +from the north and the sections naturally dependent upon this great +river system. + +The Kongo is but one line on which the general advance is being made +upon the interior of the continent. The French seem determined upon +extending their influence on the northern and western coasts, and the +Portuguese, English, Germans, and Italians are pronounced in their +efforts on the eastern coast, while the English are careful, too, of +their interests from the south, and seem to have almost unlimited +scope north of Victoria Nyanza. The progress of the advancing +colonization will necessarily be accelerated or retarded by the +geographic conditions encountered in the different regions. In some, +it may be the difficulty of maintaining communication with older +settlements; in others, that the land is unproductive or the probable +gains not sufficiently attractive; and lastly, the great density of +the native population in certain districts is likely to prove a +hindrance that it may require many years to overcome. On the lower +Niger, in {35} the British west African colony, in Egypt, in Natal, on +the shores of Lake Victoria Nyanza, and in parts of the Kongo basin, +it is estimated that the native population is nearly as dense as in +India; but the climatic conditions are so unfavorable that it is not +probable that any attempt will be made to advance in these regions for +a more serious purpose than to maintain a foothold for the future. The +more attractive districts for the white man are thought to be much +less populous, and are not scourged with such an unhealthy climate. + +Even now the nations of Europe are planning to enter these great +unknown fields. There is an expedition on the western coast, under the +explorer Cameron, investigating the conditions for trade; and the +rumors of the organization of wealthy companies to work in the several +"spheres of influence" but impress upon us the fact that the Old World +is moving to lay bare the resources of the great continent, and we may +hope with an energy that will overcome all obstacles, open new fields +to mankind, and relieve the nations of the horrors of human traffic in +which they have been too long encouraged. But it would be vain to hope +there will be no bloodshed, for where man has great rival interests +history teaches us they are settled by the sword; and we can hardly +believe the peaceful methods of arbitration will have gained such sway +as to rob history in her predictions as to the regeneration of +"darkest Africa." + + * * * * * + +On the western hemisphere also there have been events of most +interesting import, in that they foreshadow a closer union of the +people of the two continents. Unlike Africa, in that this hemisphere +has been under the control of the more intelligent races of men for +several generations, so that discovery and the cruelties attending the +establishment of supremacy are virtually questions of the past, the +interests involved are on a different plane, though not on a higher +moral sphere, as we can conceive no greater Christian duty than the +regeneration of the uncivilized, but a sphere affecting the relations +of established communities that for generations have been wielding an +influence in the world's history on principles recognized to be the +product of civilization. The metes and bounds of the states are well +defined, with few exceptions, and the ambition for territorial +accretion has been so greatly subdued by the misfortunes of their +earlier histories, that the time seems to be propitious for {36} +advancing those greater questions of public policy that naturally +arise from their community of interests. The proposition to convene a +Pan-American congress was for several years viewed with suspicion, and +was even designated by some as chimerical, but the suggestion took +root. Many thoughtful men believed such a conference would lead to a +better understanding between the people of the states represented, and +that, while the fruits might not be made immediately apparent, the +foundation would be laid for lasting benefits. The interest manifested +by the different nations and the high character of the representatives +they sent to the conference clearly indicated that deliberations were +to be undertaken in good faith. We need not follow the deliberations +of this body, nor even revert to the many questions discussed. Since +the adjournment we are beginning to appreciate some of the results. +The recent establishment of the "Bureau of the American Republics" is +one of the first practical evidences of work accomplished. This bureau +is maintained by proportionate contributions from the nations +represented in the congress, and is intended to be the medium for +collecting and disseminating information on commercial, industrial, +and cognate subjects. If we consider the different characteristics of +the people of the two continents--their manners, customs and methods +of business--we can readily conceive the bureau has before it a labor +of no little magnitude, but one that, fairly accomplished, cannot fail +to be beneficial and of lasting value. + +Further evidence of the work of the congress is apparent in the +organization of a commission of experts to project the +long-contemplated inter-continental railway--a scheme that, dependent +upon individual effort, would doubtless require many years for +accomplishment, but undertaken under international auspices we may +hope will be pressed to a speedy conclusion. + +The assembly of delegates to consider a monetary unit for the +republics of the two continents is also the result of the congress. +The progress of this conference will doubtless be watched with +peculiar interest, coming as it does when our own people are in the +midst of a reactionary effort to habilitate silver as a standard coin. + +The revolution a year ago that gave birth to the United States of +Brazil, it was feared by many would lead to a state of anarchy that +would end disastrously to the new nation and perhaps involve +neighboring states. Fortunately these forebodings have {37} not been +realized, and the recent general election in Brazil, which seems to +have been conducted without violence, has caused a feeling of +confidence that we may well believe will continue and permit this +great state to enter heartily into the new era of material development +that seems opening to our sister republics. + + * * * * * + +Work on the construction of the Nicaragua canal has steadily +progressed during the year. A harbor for light-draft vessels has been +constructed at San Juan del Norte, and satisfactory progress has been +made in constructing the railway designed to facilitate the work of +excavation. It has been hoped by the friends of this project that the +canal would be constructed with funds raised by private subscription. +The admirable management of the preliminary work of surveying and +organization were good grounds for their belief; but the bill recently +introduced in Congress asking a guarantee for one hundred millions of +bonds to be issued, indicates that expectations of friends were too +sanguine, and that the financial backing that had been believed to be +assured has for some reason not been developed. This may be only a +temporary alarm, due to the general financial stringency that has +prevailed during the past few months, and on the recurrence of an +easier money market the necessity for the relief asked from Congress +will disappear. + + * * * * * + +The Panama canal project, supposed to have been abandoned in hopeless +financial ruin, has recently been revived, with new concessions +extending the period for construction, and, it is currently reported, +a scheme for a colossal lottery company for raising the means for +prosecuting the work. It seems incredible that this canal shall become +a fact in this generation; but if it is the feasible route its +projectors claim, it is not improbable that the demands of a future +generation may necessitate its construction. + + * * * * * + +A year ago I commented upon the improvement of the Mississippi river. +Since then one of the greatest floods on record has visited the lower +river country, devastating a large area. It brought to the settlers in +the valley, however, a new experience, and has inspired them with a +confidence in the levee system that finds expression in the demand for +levees of approved construction from Cairo to the Gulf. The flood of a +year ago covered many square miles. A large proportion of the area, +{38} however, was not protected by levees, and another large +proportion was only partially protected; and while, therefore, the +disaster impressed the general public with a belief that the levees +were a failure, the facts really point to the contrary. In former +notable floods it has not been unusual for one hundred or more miles +of levee to be washed away before the flood subsided, but on the +recent occasion there was a total length of less than five miles +destroyed in some 1,100 miles of levee that had been believed to be +safe. This is a remarkable showing, and has naturally inspired the +advocates of the system with greater confidence. It points to the +possibility of constructing levees at a reasonable expense that will +stand the pressure of water for the height that it has been computed +necessary to build them. There is a grave doubt, however, in the minds +of some as to whether the computed heights, the levees holding intact, +will afford sufficient cross-section to carry off the volume of water +draining from the catchment basins. Some interesting computations on +this subject have recently been made by General Greely, the chief +signal officer,[1] from observations made during an extended period. + +[Footnote 1: North American Review, May, 1890.] + +The question raised is not a new one, but, considered in the light of +the statistics presented, seems to involve the problem of the +improvement of the river with increasing difficulties. General +Greely's figures indicate that the cross-section of the lower river +will only permit carrying to the sea a volume of about sixty cubic +miles of water during an ordinary flood season, and that in the +extraordinary flood years, such as 1882 and 1890, the volume to be +carried down is about eighty cubic miles, showing an excess of about +twenty cubic miles over the capacity of the river in a specified time. +These figures should be taken in the nature of a warning; and while it +must be admitted that the intricacy of the problem precludes +precision, their probable reliability should be carefully studied +before an extended levee system is built intended to guarantee +protection against exceptional floods. + + * * * * * + +During recent years the complex and perplexing subject of geographic +nomenclature has received the careful consideration of a number of the +European nations, with a view to reaching a uniformity in treatment +and the transliteration of names of unwritten languages into Roman +characters. England, France, and {39} Germany have adopted +substantially the same system of rules. Recent publications from these +countries evidence the intention to apply them as rapidly as +circumstances will permit. Although we may rebel at first on seeing +such familiar names as Cairo spelled with a K, Mecca with double k, +and Muscat converted into Maskat, it is believed the general +principles adopted will eventually receive acquiescence--perhaps +half-hearted at first--and as the utility of the system becomes more +apparent through its universal adoption and we realize that maps from +whatever nation will give us the names of the same places in +substantially the same form, our prejudices must give way. + +Under the provisions of an executive order issued on the fourth of +September last, our own Government has virtually adopted the European +system in the treatment of foreign names, thus bringing us in accord +with the principal nations upon a most important subject to students +and geographers the world over. The executive order constitutes a +board composed of ten representatives from different departments and +bureaus of the Government service, to which all questions relating to +the work of the board that may arise in the departments are to be +referred, and requires all persons in the Government service to +respect the decisions that may be rendered. The board in its first +bulletin, recently issued, has announced its adoption of the English +system for the treatment of foreign names and transliteration into +Roman characters, and has presented principles to guide in reaching +decisions affecting home names. These principles will doubtless be +added to as new questions arise, so that at no very distant day we may +see formulated a set of rules that will be instructive as well as +useful in their application. The first bulletin seems to have been +received favorably, and we may hope, as the work of the board advances +and the importance of the subject is more generally realized, that it +will gain the hearty endorsement of the public and a support that must +largely increase the usefulness of its labors. + + * * * * * + +In conclusion, permit me to congratulate the society upon its first +attempt at scientific exploration in the field. The Mount St. Elias +expedition, under the leadership of Mr. I. C. Russell, with Mr. Mark +B. Kerr as topographer, left Seattle, Washington, in June last, and +after spending more than two months on the mountain sides, one-half +their time above the snow line, have {40} returned with notes, +specimens, and data of the greatest interest. The topography was +sketched over an area of about one thousand square miles, and includes +the determination of the geographical position and elevation of Mount +St. Elias and many neighboring peaks. Mount St. Elias is indicated to +be not so high by some 4,000 feet as the heretofore accepted +elevation, 19,500 feet. The difficulties attending the determination +of the height of this mountain are so great that the range between the +extreme elevations that have been given by different explorers is +nearly 6,000 feet. This is believed to be the first height for it that +has been derived from a carefully measured base, and it therefore +should receive great weight. But I regret to say that in the chain of +triangles connecting with the top of the mountain, the difficulty of +placing well-conditioned triangles seems to have been so great that +the observers were forced to accept very small included angles, which +necessarily casts a doubt upon the resulting distances. We must +therefore accept the new elevation with caution until it is verified +by further observations. + +The party was unfortunately prevented from reaching the top of Mount +St. Elias by severe storms, but the ascent was so nearly accomplished +that Mr. Russell is confident he found a practicable route; and it +seems probable that had he been started ten days or two weeks earlier +the first ascent of Mount St. Elias would have been recorded as a part +of the work of the expedition. + +The full report of this expedition is now nearing completion, and will +be published by the Society at an early date. To this I must refer you +for the interesting details, and experiences encountered by the +explorers. + +The expedition was organized by the Society, but in congratulating +ourselves we should not forget that our thanks are due to the United +States Geological Survey for the assignment of officers to conduct the +work in the field and for assistance rendered in the organization; and +we may hope the substantial results that have been secured will prove +as pleasing to that great national work as they are to your board of +managers. + +_Washington, January 23, 1891_. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. +III., PP. 31-40, April 30, 1891, by Herbert Gouverneur Ogden + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC *** + +***** This file should be named 63036.txt or 63036.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/0/3/63036/ + +Produced by Ron Swanson + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will +be renamed. + +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United +States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. 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