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diff --git a/63036-h/63036-h.htm b/63036-h/63036-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..059381f --- /dev/null +++ b/63036-h/63036-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,925 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="iso-8859-1"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <title></title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body {margin:12%; text-align:justify} + h1 {text-align:center} + h2 {text-align:center} + h3 {text-align:center} + h4 {text-align:center} + h5 {text-align:center} + .pagenum {position:absolute; left:92%; text-align:right;} + </style> + </head> + <body> + <p> + <br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. +III., PP. 31-40, April 30, 1891, by Herbert Gouverneur Ogden + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll +have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using +this ebook. + + + +Title: The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. III., PP. 31-40, April 30, 1891 + +Author: Herbert Gouverneur Ogden + +Release Date: August 24, 2020 [EBook #63036] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC *** + + + + +Produced by Ron Swanson +</pre> + <p> + <img src="images/img-cover.jpg" alt="cover" /> <br /> The Project Gutenberg + e-Book of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. III, PP. 31-40, April 30, + 1891, by Herbert G. Ogden VOL. III, PP. 31-40, APRIL 30, 1891 THE NATIONAL + GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE <br /> <br /> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page31" + id="page31"><small><small>[p. 31]</small></small></a></span> <small>V<small>OL</small>. + III, <small>PP</small>. 31–40 + + + A<small>PRIL</small> 30, 1891</small> + </p> + <h4> + THE + </h4> + <p> + </p> + <h2> + NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE. + </h2> + <p> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h3> + GEOGRAPHY OF THE LAND. + </h3> + <p> + </p> + <h5> + A<small>NNUAL</small> R<small>EPORT BY</small> V<small>ICE</small>-P<small>RESIDENT</small> + </h5> + <p> + </p> + <h4> + HERBERT G. OGDEN. + </h4> + <p> + (<i>Presented to the Society January 23, 1891</i>.) <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p> + Very few of the geographic events of the past year have been of such an + essential nature as to require a reference in this report, and yet some of + them are of surpassing interest. Fraught, as many of them are, with + policies that must have a marked influence in the future in developing the + still uncivilized regions and increasing the prosperity of the established + communities, they present a field for research that has already attracted + the political economist, enlisted the labor of the philanthropist, and + excited the cupidity of commerce. + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p> + The division of Africa, as commonly referred to, has naturally aroused the + most profound attention of all civilized peoples. But few have attempted + to penetrate the darkness of the future with predictions of the ultimate + results of the partition of this great continent. That civilization will + eventually follow, we may feel reasonably assured; and if we could but see + the end in the establishment of powerful nations without the repetition of + history in the quarrels, strife, and war that have preceded the settled + order of political progression on other continents, we might well hope the + human had improved his humanity and believe we had entered the border land + of the millennium that enthusiasts have so long held up to us as the final + stage in the progress of man. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page32" id="page32"><small><small>[p. 32]</small></small></a></span> + </p> + <p> + The professions of the African powers are peaceful, but in the division of + these unknown millions of square miles it requires but little penetration + to discern the elements for protracted strife in future generations. The + agreement between Germany and England, by far the most important of the + compacts to extend the protection of European nations to particular zones + not embraced in the Kongo Free State, exemplifies in a marked degree the + disputes that may arise, and with what avidity the civilized nations have + sought mutual recognition of their right to dominate in specified spheres. + As might have been expected, however, in an attempt to divide great areas + that have not even been mapped, and with an economic value still to be + determined, the boundaries of the spheres are oftentimes indefinite, and + instead of settling disputed questions, but defer them to the generations + yet to come. There are colonies, protectorates, and spheres of influence, + with boundaries sometimes so ill defined that we may conceive they have + been purposely left indeterminate, that at the proper time the most + powerful may push their frontiers to include regions that the adventurous + may proclaim desirable acquisitions. + </p> + <p> + </p> + <p> + The area of Africa is computed at nearly 12,000,000 square miles; and + about 9,500,000 square miles are claimed by the powers as under their + control, protectorate, or influence within the tentative boundaries that + seem to have been very generally agreed upon. Fully 83 per cent. of this + area has been acquired during the past fifteen years. We have seen during + this period the possessions of Spain increase from 3,500 to 200,000 square + miles; England, from 280,000 to 2,000,000; France, from 280,000 to + 2,300,000, while Italy and Germany, that were without a square rod a few + years ago, now claim extensive areas—Italy about 360,000 and Germany + over 1,000,000 square miles. Portugal, though not less grasping, seems to + have been less successful, as she has acquired less than 100,000 square + miles. Perhaps having encountered a more powerful nation in her path may + account for this, but the total area within her "sphere" is nevertheless + not insignificant, reaching as it does over three-quarters of a million of + square miles. In the Kongo Free State we find another million square + miles, which many believe will ultimately become a Belgian colony; but in + any event, occupying as it does the larger part of the basin of the Kongo, + it is destined to be the scene of an activity in the development of the + continent fruitful of the most important results. + </p> + <p> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page33" id="page33"><small><small>[p. 33]</small></small></a></span> + </p> + <p> + We must remember, too, that England now occupies Egypt, and that with her + protectorate over Zanzibar and her sphere of influence to the northward of + that state, that has not yet been limited, it is not improbable that she + will eventually reach the Mediterranean, establishing a more extended + influence in northern Africa than even that which she has exerted over the + southern end of the continent. Should England's influence in the north + result in the occupation of all the territory that is apparently within + her "sphere," we may conceive some of the complications likely to arise, + and see the realization of the proviso in the recent Anglo-German + agreement granting her the right of way to build a railroad through the + German sphere east of Lake Tanganyika. Englishmen have expressed grave + doubts as to the wisdom of conceding to Germany this large territory east + of Lake Tanganyika, claiming it was rightfully theirs through discovery, + and as they are estopped from intercommunication to the westward of the + lake by the boundaries of the Kongo Free State, view with alarm the + possible intricacies of the situation when they may attempt to exercise + their rights in the German sphere. But doubtless there are compensating + advantages derived from the agreement, as many earnest and able men + commend the concessions made by their government in view of the greater + influence that has been acquired in other regions where it has not + heretofore been generally conceded. + </p> + <p> + </p> + <p> + South of the Zambesi there are still other elements that promise fruit for + strife ere the region is recognized as settled to the satisfaction of the + contending powers. Boundaries now but illy defined must be adjusted before + the venturous pioneers shall know to which nation their lands belong, and + we may well foresee in the sections where exploration develops riches and + abundance that the peaceful measures of arbitration will fail to satisfy + the claims to dominance. We have, too, an element in the south African + republic that must ere long find vent in a more pronounced movement to + secure a seaport than that made a few years ago. The fact that Delagoa + bay, the finest harbor on this section of the African coast, is the + natural outlet for these people and for the extensive regions adjacent + that may eventually come under their control, points to this bay becoming + a bone of contention if the powers interested do not conclude the present + arbitration on a just and satisfactory basis. On the lower Niger there are + also points of friction, and even the sands of the great <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page34" id="page34"><small><small>[p. 34]</small></small></a></span> + Sahara are becoming the subject of dispute in the anxiety to establish + power that may wield an influence in distributing the wealth that may be + found. + </p> + <p> + </p> + <p> + From what regions of the continent the future wealth is to be derived we + cannot predict. The uncertainty is, perhaps, the consideration in the + problem of development that leaves vast areas with undefined boundaries, + though nominally within the sphere of influence of a specified power. + There are fully 2,000,000 square miles yet to be explored before we may + know the general geographic features of the continent, and a much larger + area that must be examined and studied by experts before any reasonable + estimate of its value and adaptability to the schemes of civilized man can + be approached. The great strides that have been made in recent years in + seizing upon the unclaimed territories doubtless received the larger + impetus from the revelations in Mr. Stanley's explorations. The Kongo is + recognized to be a natural highway leading to a region believed to be + susceptible of remunerative development. Preparations have been made to + construct a railroad around the falls in the lower river to overcome the + greatest practical obstacle to its fullest utilization. We may reasonably + expect commercial enterprises on extensive scales to speedily follow the + completion of this road and hasten the acquisition of a more perfect + knowledge of the Kongo basin, not within the boundaries of the Kongo Free + State alone, but also the region drained by the great tributaries from the + north and the sections naturally dependent upon this great river system. + </p> + <p> + </p> + <p> + The Kongo is but one line on which the general advance is being made upon + the interior of the continent. The French seem determined upon extending + their influence on the northern and western coasts, and the Portuguese, + English, Germans, and Italians are pronounced in their efforts on the + eastern coast, while the English are careful, too, of their interests from + the south, and seem to have almost unlimited scope north of Victoria + Nyanza. The progress of the advancing colonization will necessarily be + accelerated or retarded by the geographic conditions encountered in the + different regions. In some, it may be the difficulty of maintaining + communication with older settlements; in others, that the land is + unproductive or the probable gains not sufficiently attractive; and + lastly, the great density of the native population in certain districts is + likely to prove a hindrance that it may require many years to overcome. On + the lower Niger, in <span class="pagenum"><a name="page35" id="page35"><small><small>[p. + 35]</small></small></a></span> the British west African colony, in Egypt, + in Natal, on the shores of Lake Victoria Nyanza, and in parts of the Kongo + basin, it is estimated that the native population is nearly as dense as in + India; but the climatic conditions are so unfavorable that it is not + probable that any attempt will be made to advance in these regions for a + more serious purpose than to maintain a foothold for the future. The more + attractive districts for the white man are thought to be much less + populous, and are not scourged with such an unhealthy climate. + </p> + <p> + </p> + <p> + Even now the nations of Europe are planning to enter these great unknown + fields. There is an expedition on the western coast, under the explorer + Cameron, investigating the conditions for trade; and the rumors of the + organization of wealthy companies to work in the several "spheres of + influence" but impress upon us the fact that the Old World is moving to + lay bare the resources of the great continent, and we may hope with an + energy that will overcome all obstacles, open new fields to mankind, and + relieve the nations of the horrors of human traffic in which they have + been too long encouraged. But it would be vain to hope there will be no + bloodshed, for where man has great rival interests history teaches us they + are settled by the sword; and we can hardly believe the peaceful methods + of arbitration will have gained such sway as to rob history in her + predictions as to the regeneration of "darkest Africa." + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p> + On the western hemisphere also there have been events of most interesting + import, in that they foreshadow a closer union of the people of the two + continents. Unlike Africa, in that this hemisphere has been under the + control of the more intelligent races of men for several generations, so + that discovery and the cruelties attending the establishment of supremacy + are virtually questions of the past, the interests involved are on a + different plane, though not on a higher moral sphere, as we can conceive + no greater Christian duty than the regeneration of the uncivilized, but a + sphere affecting the relations of established communities that for + generations have been wielding an influence in the world's history on + principles recognized to be the product of civilization. The metes and + bounds of the states are well defined, with few exceptions, and the + ambition for territorial accretion has been so greatly subdued by the + misfortunes of their earlier histories, that the time seems to be + propitious for <span class="pagenum"><a name="page36" id="page36"><small><small>[p. + 36]</small></small></a></span> advancing those greater questions of public + policy that naturally arise from their community of interests. The + proposition to convene a Pan-American congress was for several years + viewed with suspicion, and was even designated by some as chimerical, but + the suggestion took root. Many thoughtful men believed such a conference + would lead to a better understanding between the people of the states + represented, and that, while the fruits might not be made immediately + apparent, the foundation would be laid for lasting benefits. The interest + manifested by the different nations and the high character of the + representatives they sent to the conference clearly indicated that + deliberations were to be undertaken in good faith. We need not follow the + deliberations of this body, nor even revert to the many questions + discussed. Since the adjournment we are beginning to appreciate some of + the results. The recent establishment of the "Bureau of the American + Republics" is one of the first practical evidences of work accomplished. + This bureau is maintained by proportionate contributions from the nations + represented in the congress, and is intended to be the medium for + collecting and disseminating information on commercial, industrial, and + cognate subjects. If we consider the different characteristics of the + people of the two continents—their manners, customs and methods of + business—we can readily conceive the bureau has before it a labor of + no little magnitude, but one that, fairly accomplished, cannot fail to be + beneficial and of lasting value. + </p> + <p> + </p> + <p> + Further evidence of the work of the congress is apparent in the + organization of a commission of experts to project the long-contemplated + inter-continental railway—a scheme that, dependent upon individual + effort, would doubtless require many years for accomplishment, but + undertaken under international auspices we may hope will be pressed to a + speedy conclusion. + </p> + <p> + </p> + <p> + The assembly of delegates to consider a monetary unit for the republics of + the two continents is also the result of the congress. The progress of + this conference will doubtless be watched with peculiar interest, coming + as it does when our own people are in the midst of a reactionary effort to + habilitate silver as a standard coin. + </p> + <p> + </p> + <p> + The revolution a year ago that gave birth to the United States of Brazil, + it was feared by many would lead to a state of anarchy that would end + disastrously to the new nation and perhaps involve neighboring states. + Fortunately these forebodings have <span class="pagenum"><a name="page37" + id="page37"><small><small>[p. 37]</small></small></a></span> not been + realized, and the recent general election in Brazil, which seems to have + been conducted without violence, has caused a feeling of confidence that + we may well believe will continue and permit this great state to enter + heartily into the new era of material development that seems opening to + our sister republics. + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p> + Work on the construction of the Nicaragua canal has steadily progressed + during the year. A harbor for light-draft vessels has been constructed at + San Juan del Norte, and satisfactory progress has been made in + constructing the railway designed to facilitate the work of excavation. It + has been hoped by the friends of this project that the canal would be + constructed with funds raised by private subscription. The admirable + management of the preliminary work of surveying and organization were good + grounds for their belief; but the bill recently introduced in Congress + asking a guarantee for one hundred millions of bonds to be issued, + indicates that expectations of friends were too sanguine, and that the + financial backing that had been believed to be assured has for some reason + not been developed. This may be only a temporary alarm, due to the general + financial stringency that has prevailed during the past few months, and on + the recurrence of an easier money market the necessity for the relief + asked from Congress will disappear. + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p> + The Panama canal project, supposed to have been abandoned in hopeless + financial ruin, has recently been revived, with new concessions extending + the period for construction, and, it is currently reported, a scheme for a + colossal lottery company for raising the means for prosecuting the work. + It seems incredible that this canal shall become a fact in this + generation; but if it is the feasible route its projectors claim, it is + not improbable that the demands of a future generation may necessitate its + construction. + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p> + A year ago I commented upon the improvement of the Mississippi river. + Since then one of the greatest floods on record has visited the lower + river country, devastating a large area. It brought to the settlers in the + valley, however, a new experience, and has inspired them with a confidence + in the levée system that finds expression in the demand for levées of + approved construction from Cairo to the Gulf. The flood of a year ago + covered many square miles. A large proportion of the area, <span + class="pagenum"><a name="page38" id="page38"><small><small>[p. 38]</small></small></a></span> + however, was not protected by levées, and another large proportion was + only partially protected; and while, therefore, the disaster impressed the + general public with a belief that the levées were a failure, the facts + really point to the contrary. In former notable floods it has not been + unusual for one hundred or more miles of levée to be washed away before + the flood subsided, but on the recent occasion there was a total length of + less than five miles destroyed in some 1,100 miles of levée that had been + believed to be safe. This is a remarkable showing, and has naturally + inspired the advocates of the system with greater confidence. It points to + the possibility of constructing levées at a reasonable expense that will + stand the pressure of water for the height that it has been computed + necessary to build them. There is a grave doubt, however, in the minds of + some as to whether the computed heights, the levées holding intact, will + afford sufficient cross-section to carry off the volume of water draining + from the catchment basins. Some interesting computations on this subject + have recently been made by General Greely, the chief signal officer,<small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small> + from observations made during an extended period. + </p> + <p> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p> + <small><small><sup>1</sup></small> North American Review, May, 1890.</small> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + </p> + <p> + The question raised is not a new one, but, considered in the light of the + statistics presented, seems to involve the problem of the improvement of + the river with increasing difficulties. General Greely's figures indicate + that the cross-section of the lower river will only permit carrying to the + sea a volume of about sixty cubic miles of water during an ordinary flood + season, and that in the extraordinary flood years, such as 1882 and 1890, + the volume to be carried down is about eighty cubic miles, showing an + excess of about twenty cubic miles over the capacity of the river in a + specified time. These figures should be taken in the nature of a warning; + and while it must be admitted that the intricacy of the problem precludes + precision, their probable reliability should be carefully studied before + an extended levée system is built intended to guarantee protection against + exceptional floods. + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p> + During recent years the complex and perplexing subject of geographic + nomenclature has received the careful consideration of a number of the + European nations, with a view to reaching a uniformity in treatment and + the transliteration of names of unwritten languages into Roman characters. + England, France, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page39" id="page39"><small><small>[p. + 39]</small></small></a></span> Germany have adopted substantially the same + system of rules. Recent publications from these countries evidence the + intention to apply them as rapidly as circumstances will permit. Although + we may rebel at first on seeing such familiar names as Cairo spelled with + a K, Mecca with double k, and Muscat converted into Maskat, it is believed + the general principles adopted will eventually receive acquiescence—perhaps + half-hearted at first—and as the utility of the system becomes more + apparent through its universal adoption and we realize that maps from + whatever nation will give us the names of the same places in substantially + the same form, our prejudices must give way. + </p> + <p> + </p> + <p> + Under the provisions of an executive order issued on the fourth of + September last, our own Government has virtually adopted the European + system in the treatment of foreign names, thus bringing us in accord with + the principal nations upon a most important subject to students and + geographers the world over. The executive order constitutes a board + composed of ten representatives from different departments and bureaus of + the Government service, to which all questions relating to the work of the + board that may arise in the departments are to be referred, and requires + all persons in the Government service to respect the decisions that may be + rendered. The board in its first bulletin, recently issued, has announced + its adoption of the English system for the treatment of foreign names and + transliteration into Roman characters, and has presented principles to + guide in reaching decisions affecting home names. These principles will + doubtless be added to as new questions arise, so that at no very distant + day we may see formulated a set of rules that will be instructive as well + as useful in their application. The first bulletin seems to have been + received favorably, and we may hope, as the work of the board advances and + the importance of the subject is more generally realized, that it will + gain the hearty endorsement of the public and a support that must largely + increase the usefulness of its labors. + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p> + In conclusion, permit me to congratulate the society upon its first + attempt at scientific exploration in the field. The Mount St. Elias + expedition, under the leadership of Mr. I. C. Russell, with Mr. Mark B. + Kerr as topographer, left Seattle, Washington, in June last, and after + spending more than two months on the mountain sides, one-half their time + above the snow line, have <span class="pagenum"><a name="page40" + id="page40"><small><small>[p. 40]</small></small></a></span> returned with + notes, specimens, and data of the greatest interest. The topography was + sketched over an area of about one thousand square miles, and includes the + determination of the geographical position and elevation of Mount St. + Elias and many neighboring peaks. Mount St. Elias is indicated to be not + so high by some 4,000 feet as the heretofore accepted elevation, 19,500 + feet. The difficulties attending the determination of the height of this + mountain are so great that the range between the extreme elevations that + have been given by different explorers is nearly 6,000 feet. This is + believed to be the first height for it that has been derived from a + carefully measured base, and it therefore should receive great weight. But + I regret to say that in the chain of triangles connecting with the top of + the mountain, the difficulty of placing well-conditioned triangles seems + to have been so great that the observers were forced to accept very small + included angles, which necessarily casts a doubt upon the resulting + distances. We must therefore accept the new elevation with caution until + it is verified by further observations. + </p> + <p> + </p> + <p> + The party was unfortunately prevented from reaching the top of Mount St. + Elias by severe storms, but the ascent was so nearly accomplished that Mr. + Russell is confident he found a practicable route; and it seems probable + that had he been started ten days or two weeks earlier the first ascent of + Mount St. Elias would have been recorded as a part of the work of the + expedition. + </p> + <p> + </p> + <p> + The full report of this expedition is now nearing completion, and will be + published by the Society at an early date. To this I must refer you for + the interesting details, and experiences encountered by the explorers. + </p> + <p> + </p> + <p> + The expedition was organized by the Society, but in congratulating + ourselves we should not forget that our thanks are due to the United + States Geological Survey for the assignment of officers to conduct the + work in the field and for assistance rendered in the organization; and we + may hope the substantial results that have been secured will prove as + pleasing to that great national work as they are to your board of + managers. + </p> + <p> + </p> + <p> + <i>Washington, January 23, 1891</i>. + </p> + <p> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. +III., PP. 31-40, April 30, 1891, by Herbert Gouverneur Ogden + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC *** + +***** This file should be named 63036-h.htm or 63036-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/0/3/63036/ + +Produced by Ron Swanson + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will +be renamed. + +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United +States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. 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