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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/6303.txt b/6303.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..73d8bda --- /dev/null +++ b/6303.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2836 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Duel Between France and Germany +by Charles Sumner + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: The Duel Between France and Germany + +Author: Charles Sumner + +Release Date: August, 2004 [EBook #6303] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on November 22, 2002] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, THE DUEL BETWEEN FRANCE AND GERMANY *** + + + + +Ralph Zimmerman, David Starner, Charles Franks and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team. + + + +THE DUEL BETWEEN FRANCE AND GERMANY + +REPRINTED FROM "ADDRESSES ON WAR" + +BY CHARLES SUMNER + + + + +THE DUEL BETWEEN FRANCE AND GERMANY, WITH ITS LESSON TO +CIVILIZATION. + +LECTURE IN THE MUSIC HALL, BOSTON, OCTOBER 26, 1870. + + +"When kings make war, + No law betwixt two sovereigns can decide, + But that of arms, where Fortune is the judge, + Soldiers the lawyers, and the Bar the field." + +DEYDEN, _Love Triumphant_, Act I. Sc. 1. + + + + +LECTURE. + + +MR. PRESIDENT,--I am to speak of the Duel between France and +Germany, with its Lesson to Civilization. In calling the terrible +war now waging a Duel, I might content myself with classical +authority, _Duellum_ being a well-known Latin word for War. +The historian Livy makes a Roman declare that affairs are to be +settled "by a pure and pious duel"; [Footnote: "Puro pioqne +duello."--_Historie_, Lib. I. cap. 32.] the dramatist Plautus +has a character in one of his plays who obtains great riches "by +the duelling art," [Footnote: "Arte duellica."--_Epidicus_, +Act. III. Sc. iv. 14.] meaning the art of war; and Horace, the +exquisite master of language, hails the age of Augustus with the +Temple of Janus closed and "free from duels," [Footnote: "Vacuum +duellis."--_Carmina_, Lib, IV. xv. 8.] meaning at peace,--for +then only was that famous temple shut. + + + + +WAR UNDER THE LAW OF NATIONS A DUEL. + + +But no classical authority is needed for this designation. War, as +conducted under International Law, between two organized nations, +is in all respects a duel, according to the just signification of +this word,--differing from that between two individuals only in +the number of combatants. The variance is of proportion merely, +each nation being an individual who appeals to the sword as +Arbiter; and in each case the combat is subject to rules +constituting a code by which the two parties are bound. For long +years before civilization prevailed, the code governing the duel +between individuals was as fixed and minute as that which governs +the larger duel between nations, and the duel itself was simply a +mode of deciding questions between individuals. In presenting this +comparison I expose myself to criticism only from those who have +not considered this interesting subject in the light of history +and of reason. The parallel is complete. Modern war is the duel of +the Dark Ages, magnified, amplified, extended so as to embrace +nations; nor is it any less a duel because the combat is quickened +and sustained by the energies of self-defence, or because, when a +champion falls and lies on the ground, he is brutally treated. An +authentic instance illustrates such a duel; and I bring before you +the very pink of chivalry, the Chevalier Bayard, "the knight +without fear and without reproach," who, after combat in a chosen +field, succeeded by a feint in driving his weapon four fingers +deep into the throat of his adversary, and then, rolling with him, +gasping and struggling, on the ground, thrust his dagger into the +nostrils of the fallen victim, exclaiming, "Surrender, or you are +a dead man!"--a speech which seemed superfluous; for the second +cried out, "He is dead already; you have conquered." Then did +Bayard, brightest among the Sons of War, drag his dead enemy from +the field, crying, "Have I done enough?" [Footnote: La tresjoyeuse, +plaisante et recreative Hystoire, composee par le Loyal Serviteur, +des Faiz, Gestes, Triumphes et Prouesses du Bon Chevalier +sans Paour et sans Reprouche, le Gentil Seigneur de Bayart: +Petitot, Collection des Memoires relatifs a l'Histoire de France, +Tom. XV. pp. 241, 242.] Now, because the brave knight saw +fit to do these things, the combat was not changed in original +character. It was a duel at the beginning and at the end. Indeed, +the brutality with which it closed was the natural incident of a +duel. A combat once begun opens the way to violence, and the +conqueror too often surrenders to the Evil Spirit, as Bayard in +his unworthy barbarism. + +In likening war between nations to the duel, I follow not only +reason, but authority also. No better lawyer can be named in the +long history of the English bar than John Selden, whose learning +was equalled only by his large intelligence. In those conversations +which under the name of "Table-Talk" continue still to instruct, +the wise counsellor, after saying that the Church allowed +the duel anciently, and that in the public liturgies there were +prayers appointed for duellists to say, keenly inquires, "But +whether is this lawful?" And then he answers, "If you grant any +war lawful, I make no doubt but to convince it." [Footnote: Table- +Talk, ed. Singer, London, 1856, p. 47,--_Duel_.] Selden +regarded the simple duel and the larger war as governed by the +same rule. Of course the exercise of force in the suppression of +rebellion, or in the maintenance of laws, stands on a different +principle, being in its nature a constabulary proceeding, which +cannot be confounded with the duel. But my object is not to +question the lawfulness of war; I would simply present an image, +enabling you to see the existing war in its true character. + +The duel in its simplest form is between two individuals. In early +ages it was known sometimes as the Judicial Combat, and sometimes +as Trial by Battle. Not only points of honor, but titles to land, +grave questions of law, and even the subtilties of theology, were +referred to this arbitrament, [Footnote: Robertson, History of the +Reign of Charles V.: View of the Progress of Society in Europe, +Section I. Note XXII.]--just as now kindred issues between nations +are referred to Trial by Battle; and the early rules governing the +duel are reproduced in the Laws of War established by nations to +govern the great Trial by Battle. Ascending from the individual to +corporations, guilds, villages, towns, counties, provinces, we +find that for a long period each of these bodies exercised what +was called "the Right of War." The history of France and Germany +shows how reluctantly this mode of trial yielded to the forms of +reason and order. France, earlier than Germany, ordained "Trial by +Proofs," and eliminated the duel from judicial proceedings, this +important step being followed by the gradual amalgamation of +discordant provinces in the powerful unity of the Nation,----so +that Brittany and Normandy, Franche-Comte and Burgundy, Provence +and Dauphiny, Gascony and Languedoc, with the rest, became the +United States of France, or, if you please, France. In Germany the +change was slower; and here the duel exhibits its most curious +instances. Not only feudal chiefs, but associations of tradesmen +and of domestics sent defiance to each other, and sometimes to +whole cities, on pretences trivial as those which have been the +occasion of defiance from nation to nation. There still remain to +us Declarations of War by a Lord of Frauenstein against the free +city of Frankfort, because a young lady of the city refused to +dance with his uncle,--by the baker and domestics of the Margrave +of Baden against Esslingen, Reutlingen, and other imperial +cities,--by the baker of the Count Palatine Louis against the +cities of Augsburg, Ulm, and Rottweil,--by the shoe-blacks of the +University of Leipsic against the provost and other members,--and +by the cook of Eppstein, with his scullions, dairy-maids, and +dish-washers, against Otho, Count of Solms. [Footnote: Coxe, +History of the House of Austria. (London, 1820) Ch. XIX., Vol. I. +p. 378.] This prevalence of the duel aroused the Emperor +Maximilian, who at the Diet of Worms put forth an ordinance +abolishing the right or liberty of Private War, and instituting a +Supreme Tribunal for the determination of controversies without +appeal to the duel, and the whole long list of duellists, whether +corporate or individual, including nobles, bakers, shoe-blacks, +and cooks, was brought under its pacific rule. Unhappily the +beneficent reform stopped half-way, and here Germany was less +fortunate than France. The great provinces were left in the +enjoyment of a barbarous independence, with the "right" to fight +each other. The duel continued their established arbiter, until at +last, in 1815, by the Act of Union constituting the Confederation +or United States of Germany, each sovereignty gave up the right of +war with its confederates, setting an example to the larger +nations. The terms of this important stipulation, marking a stage +in German unity, were as follows:-- + +"The members of the Confederation further bind themselves under no +pretext to make war upon one another, or to pursue their +differences by force of arms, but to submit them to the Diet." +[Footnote: Acte pour la Constitution federative de l'Allemagne du +8 Juin 1815, Art. 11: Archives Diplomatiques, (Stuttgart et +Tubingen, 1821-36,) Vol. IV. p. 15.] + +Better words could not be found for the United States of Europe, +in the establishment of that Great Era when the Duel shall cease +to be the recognized Arbiter of Nations. + +With this exposition, which I hope is not too long, it is easy to +see how completely a war between two nations is a duel,--and, yet +further, how essential it is to that assured peace which +civilization requires, that the duel, which is no longer tolerated +as arbiter between individuals, between towns, between counties, +between provinces, should cease to be tolerated as such between +nations. Take our own country, for instance. In a controversy +between towns, the local law provides a judicial tribunal; so also +in a controversy between counties. Ascending still higher, suppose +a controversy between two States of our Union; the National +Constitution establishes a judicial tribunal, being the Supreme +Court of the United States. But at the next stage there is a +change. Let the controversy arise between two nations, and the +Supreme Law, which is the Law of Nations, establishes, not a +judicial tribunal, but the duel, as arbiter. What is true of our +country is true of other countries where civilization has a +foothold, and especially of France and Germany. The duel, though +abolished as arbiter at home, is continued as arbiter abroad. And +since it is recognized by International Law and subjected to a +code, it is in all respects an Institution. War is an institution +sanctioned by International Law, as Slavery, wherever it exists, +is an institution sanctioned by Municipal Law. But this +institution is nothing but the duel of the Dark Ages, prolonged +into this generation, and showing itself in portentous barbarism. + + + + +WHY THIS PARALLEL NOW? + + +Therefore am I right, when I call the existing combat between +France and Germany a Duel. I beg you to believe that I do this +with no idle purpose of illustration or criticism, but because I +would prepare the way for a proper comprehension of the remedy to +be applied. How can this terrible controversy be adjusted? I see +no practical method, which shall reconcile the sensibilities of +France with the guaranties due to Germany, short of a radical +change in the War System itself. That Security for the Future +which Germany may justly exact can be obtained in no way so well +as by the disarmament of France, to be followed naturally by the +disarmament of other nations, and the substitution of some +peaceful tribunal for the existing Trial by Battle. Any +dismemberment, or curtailment of territory, will be poor and +inadequate; for it will leave behind a perpetual sting. Something +better must be done. + + + + +SUDDENNESS OF THIS WAR. + + +Never in history has so great a calamity descended so suddenly +upon the Human Family, unless we except the earthquake toppling +down cities and submersing a whole coast in a single night. But +how small all that has ensued from any such convulsion, compared +with the desolation and destruction already produced by this war! +From the first murmur to the outbreak was a brief moment of time, +as between the flash of lightning and the bursting of the thunder. + +At the beginning of July there was peace without suspicion of +interruption. The Legislative Body had just discussed a +proposition for the reduction of the annual Army Contingent. At +Berlin the Parliament was not in session. Count Bismarck was at +his country home in Pomerania, the King enjoying himself at Ems. +How sudden and unexpected the change will appear from an +illustrative circumstance. M. Prevost-Paradol, of rare talent and +unhappy destiny, newly appointed Minister to the United States, +embarked at Havre on the 1st of July, and reached Washington on +the morning of the 14th of July. He assured me that when he left +France there was no talk or thought of war. During his brief +summer voyage the whole startling event had begun and culminated. +Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen being invited to become +candidate for the throne of Spain, France promptly sent her +defiance to Prussia, followed a few days later by formal +Declaration of War. The Minister was oppressed by the grave +tidings coming upon him so unprepared, and sought relief in self- +slaughter, being the first victim of the war. Everything moved +with a rapidity borrowed from the new forces supplied by human +invention, and the Gates of War swung wide open. + + + + +CHALLENGE TO PRUSSIA. + + +A few incidents exhibit this movement. It was on the 30th of June, +while discussing the proposed reduction of the Army, that Emile +Ollivier, the Prime-Minister, said openly: "The Government has no +kind of disquietude; at no epoch has the maintenance of peace been +more assured; on whatever side you look, you see no irritating +question under discussion." [Footnote: Journal Officiel du Soir, 3 +Juillet 1870.] In the same debate, Gamier-Pages, the consistent +Republican, and now a member of the Provisional Government, after +asking, "Why these armaments?" cried out: "Disarm, without waiting +for others: this is practical. Let the people be relieved from the +taxes which crush them, and from the heaviest of all, the tax of +blood." [Footnote: Journal Official du Soir, 2 Juillet 1870.] The +candidature of Prince Leopold seems to have become known at Paris +on the 5th of July. On the next day the Duc de Gramont, of a +family famous in scandalous history, Minister of Foreign Affairs, +hurries to the tribune with defiance on his lips. After declaring +for the Cabinet that no foreign power could be suffered, by +placing one of its princes on the throne of Charles the Fifth, to +derange the balance of power in Europe, and put in peril the +interests and the honor of France, he concludes by saying, in +ominous words: "Strong in your support, Gentlemen, and in that of +the nation, we shall know how to do our duty without hesitation +and without weakness." [Footnote: Ibid., 8 Juillet.] + +This defiance was followed by what is called in the report, +"general and prolonged movement,--repeated applause"; and here was +the first stage in the duel. Its character was recognized at once +in the Chamber. Gamier-Pages exclaimed, in words worthy of memory: +"It is dynastic questions which trouble the peace of Europe. The +people have only reason to love and aid each other." [Footnote: +Ibid.] Though short, better than many long speeches. Cremieux, an +associate in the Provisional Government of 1848, insisted that the +utterance of the Minister was "a menace of war"; and Emmanuel +Arago, son of the great Republican astronomer and mathematician, +said that the Minister "had declared war." [Footnote: Ibid.] + +These patriotic representatives were not mistaken. The speech made +peace difficult, if not impossible. It was a challenge to Prussia. + + + + +COMEDY. + + +Europe watched with dismay as the gauntlet was thus rudely flung +down, while on this side of the Atlantic, where France and Germany +commingle in the enjoyment of our equal citizenship, the interest +was intense. Morning and evening the telegraph made us all +partakers of the hopes and fears agitating the world. Too soon it +was apparent that the exigence of France would not be satisfied, +while already her preparations for war were undisguised. At all +the naval stations, from Toulon to Cherbourg, the greatest +activity prevailed. Marshal MacMahon was recalled from Algeria, +and transports were made ready to bring back the troops from that +colony. + +Meanwhile the candidature of Prince Leopold was renounced by him. +But this was not enough. The King of Prussia was asked to promise +that it should in no event ever be renewed,--which he declined to +do, reserving to himself the liberty of consulting circumstances. +This requirement was the more offensive, inasmuch as it was +addressed exclusively to Prussia, while nothing was said to Spain, +the principal in the business. Then ensued an incident proper for +comedy, if it had not become the declared cause of tragedy. The +French Ambassador, Count Benedetti, who, on intelligence of the +candidature, had followed the King to Ems, his favorite watering- +place, and there in successive interviews pressed him to order its +withdrawal, now, on its voluntary renunciation, proceeding to urge +the new demand, and after an extended conversation, and +notwithstanding its decided refusal, seeking, nevertheless, +another audience the same day on this subject, his Majesty, with +perfect politeness, sent him word by an adjutant in attendance, +that he had no other answer to make than the one already given: +and this refusal to receive the Ambassador was promptly +communicated by telegraph, for the information especially of the +different German governments. [Footnote: Bismarck to Bernstorff, +July 19, 1870, with Inclosures: Parliamentary Papers, 1870, Vol. +LXX.,--Franco-Prussian War, No. 3, pp. 5-8. Gerolt to Fish, August +11, 1870, with Inclosures: Executive Documents, 41st Cong. 3d +Sess., H. of R., Vol. I. No. 1, Part 1,--Foreign Relations, pp. +219-221. The reader will notice that the copy of the Telegram in +this latter volume is the paper on p. 221, with the erroneous +heading, "_Count Bismarck to Baron Gerolt._"] + + + + +PRETEXT OF THE TELEGRAM. + +These simple facts, insufficient for the slightest quarrel, +intolerable in the pettiness of the issue disclosed, and monstrous +as reason for war between two civilized nations, became the +welcome pretext. Swiftly, and with ill-disguised alacrity, the +French Cabinet took the next step in the duel. On the 15th of July +the Prime-Minister read from the tribune a manifesto setting forth +the griefs of France,--being, first, the refusal of the Prussian +King to promise for the future, and, secondly, his refusal to +receive the French Ambassador, with the communication of this +refusal, as was alleged, "officially to the Cabinets of Europe," +which was a mistaken allegation: [Footnote: Bismarck to +Bernstorff, July 18, and to Gerolt, July 19, 1870: Parliamentary +Papers and Executive Documents, Inclosures, _ubi supra._] and +the paper concludes by announcing that since the preceding day the +Government had called in the reserves, and that they would +immediately take the measures necessary to secure the interests, +the safety, and the honor of France. [Footnote: Journal Officiel +du Soir, 17 Juillet 1870.] This was war. + +Some there were who saw the fearful calamity, the ghastly crime, +then and there initiated. The scene that ensued belongs to this +painful record. The paper announcing war was followed by prolonged +applause. The Prime-Minister added soon after in debate, that he +accepted the responsibility with "a light heart." [Footnote: "De +ce jour commence pour les ministres mes collegues, et pour moi, +une grande responsibilite. ["Oui!" _gauche_.] Nous l'acceptons, +le coeur leger."] Not all were in this mood. Esquiros, the +Republican, cried from his seat, in momentous words, "You +have a light heart, and the blood of nations is about to +flow!" To the apology of the Prime-Minister, "that in the +discharge of a duty the heart is not troubled," Jules Favre, the +Republican leader, of acknowledged moderation and ability, flashed +forth, "When the discharge of this duty involves the slaughter of +two nations, one may well have the heart troubled!" Beyond these +declarations, giving utterance to the natural sentiments of +humanity, was the positive objection, most forcibly presented by +Thiers, so famous in the Chamber and in literature, "that the +satisfaction due to France had been accorded her---that Prussia +had expiated by a check the grave fault she had committed,"--that +France had prevailed in substance, and all that remained was "a +question of form," "a question of susceptibility," "questions of +etiquette." The experienced statesman asked for the dispatches. +Then came a confession. The Prime-Minister replied, that he had +"nothing to communicate,--that, in the true sense of the term, +there had been no dispatches,--that there were only verbal +communications gathered up in reports, which, according to +diplomatic usage, are not communicated." Here Emmanuel Arago +interrupted: "It is on these reports that you make war!" The +Prime-Minister proceeded to read two brief telegrams from Count +Benedetti at Ems, when De Choiseul very justly exclaimed: "We +cannot make war on that ground; it is impossible!" Others cried +out from their seats,--Garnier Pages saying, "These are phrases"; +Emmanuel Arago protesting, "On this the civilized world will +pronounce you wrong"; to which Jules Favre added, "Unhappily, +true!" Thiers and Jules Favre, with vigorous eloquence, charged +the war upon the Cabinet: Thiers declaring, "I regret to be +obliged to say that we have war by the fault of the Cabinet"; +Jules Favre alleging, "If we have war, it is thanks to the +politics of the Cabinet;....from the exposition that has been +made, so far as the general interests of the two countries are +concerned, there is no avowable motive for war." Girault +exclaimed, in similar spirit: "We would be among the first to come +forward in a war for the country, but we do not wish to come +forward in a dynastic and aggressive war." The Duc de Gramont, who +on the 6th of July flung down the gauntlet, spoke once more for +the Cabinet, stating solemnly, what was not the fact, that the +Prussian Government had communicated to all the Cabinets of Europe +the refusal to receive the French Ambassador, and then on this +misstatement ejaculating: "It is an outrage on the Emperor and on +France; and if, by impossibility, there were found in my country a +Chamber to bear and tolerate it, I would not remain five minutes +Minister of Foreign Affairs." In our country we have seen how the +Southern heart was fired; so also was fired the heart of Franco. +The Duke descended from the tribune amidst prolonged applause, +with cries of "Bravo!"--and at his seat (so says the report) +"received numerous felicitations." Such was the atmosphere of the +Chamber at this eventful moment. The orators of the Opposition, +pleading for delay in the interest of peace, were stifled; and +when Gambetta, the young and fearless Republican, made himself +heard in calling for the text of the dispatch communicating the +refusal to receive the Ambassador, to the end that the Chamber, +France, and all Europe might judge of its character, he was +answered by the Prime-Minister with the taunt that "for the first +time in a French Assembly there were such difficulties on a +certain side in explaining _a question of honor_." Such was +the case as presented by the Prime-Minister, and on this question +of honor he accepted war "with a light heart." Better say, with no +heart at all;--for who so could find in this condition of things +sufficient reason for war was without heart. [Footnote: For the +full debate, see the _Journal Officid du Soir_, 17 Juillet +1870, and Supplement.] + +During these brief days of solicitude, from the 6th to the 15th of +July, England made an unavailing effort for peace. Lord Lyons was +indefatigable; and he was sustained at home by Lord Granville, who +as a last resort reminded the two parties of the stipulation at +the Congress of Paris, which they had accepted, in favor of +Arbitration as a substitute for War, and asked them to accept the +good offices of some friendly power. [Footnote: Earl Granville to +Lords Lyons and Loftus, July 15, 1870,--Correspondence respecting +the Negotiations preliminary to the War between France and +Prussia, p. 35: Parliamentary Papers, 1870, Vol. LXX.] This most +reasonable proposition was rejected by the French Minister, who +gave new point to the French case by charging that Prussia "had +chosen to declare that France had been affronted in the person of +her Ambassador," and then positively insisting that "it was this +boast which was the _gravamen_ of the offence." Capping the +climax of barbarous absurdity, the French Minister did not +hesitate to announce that this "constituted an insult which no +nation of any spirit could brook, and rendered it, much to the +regret of the French Government, impossible to take into +consideration the mode of settling the original matter in dispute +which was recommended by her Majesty's Government." [Footnote: +Lord Lyons to Earl Granville, July 15, 1870,--Correspondence +respecting the Negotiations preliminary to the War between France +and Prussia, pp. 39, 40: Parliamentary Papers, 1870, Vol. LXX.] +Thus was peaceful Arbitration repelled. All honor to the English +Government for proposing it! + +The famous telegram put forward by France as the _gravamen_, +or chief offence, was not communicated to the Chamber. The Prime- +Minister, though hard-pressed, held it back. Was it from +conviction of its too trivial character? But it is not lost to the +history of the duel. This telegram, with something of the brevity +peculiar to telegraphic dispatches, merely reports the refusal to +see the French Ambassador, without one word of affront or boast. +It reports the fact, and nothing else; and it is understood that +the refusal was only when this functionary presented himself a +second time in one day on the same business. Considering the +interests involved, it would have been better, had the King seen +him as many times as he chose to call; yet the refusal was not +unnatural. The perfect courtesy of his Majesty on this occasion +furnished no cause of complaint. All that remained for pretext was +the telegram. [Footnote: See references, _ante_, p. 19, Note +1. For this telegram in the original, see Aegidi und Klauhold, +_Staatsarchiv_, (Hamburg, 1870,) 19 Band, S. 44, No. 1033.] + + + + +FORMAL DECLARATION OF WAR. + + +The scene in the Legislative Body was followed by the instant +introduction of bills making additional appropriations for the +Army and Navy, calling out the National Guard, and authorizing +volunteers for the war. This last proposition was commended by the +observation that in France there were a great many young people +liking powder, but not liking barracks, who would in this way be +suited; and this was received with applause. [Footnote: Journal +Officiel du Soir, 17 Juillet 1870.] On the 18th of July there was +a further appropriation to the extent of 500 million francs,---440 +millions being for the Army, and 60 for the Navy; and an increase +from 150 to 500 millions Treasury notes was authorized. [Footnote: +Ibid., 20 Juillet.] On the 20th of July the Duc de Gramont +appeared once more in the tribune, and made the following speech:--- + +"Conformably to customary rules, and by order of the Emperor, I +have invited the _Charge d'Affaires_ of France to notify the +Berlin Cabinet of our resolution to seek by arms the guaranties +which we have not been able to obtain by discussion. This step has +been taken, and I have the honor of making known to the +Legislative Body that in consequence a state of war exists between +France and Prussia, beginning the 19th of July. This declaration +applies equally to the allies of Prussia who lend her the +cooperation of their arms against us." [Footnote: Ibid., 23 +Juillet.] + +Here the French Minister played the part of trumpeter in the duel, +making proclamation before his champion rode forward. According to +the statement of Count Bismarck, made to the Parliament at Berlin, +this formal Declaration of War was the solitary official +communication from France in this whole transaction, being the +first and only note since the candidature of Prince Leopold. +[Footnote: Substance of Speech of Bismarck to the Reichstag, [July +20, 1870,] explanatory of Documents relating to the Declaration of +War,--Franco-Prussian War, No. 3, p. 29: Parliamentary Papers, +1870, Vol. LXX. Discours du Comte de Bismarck am Reichstag, le 20 +Juillet 1870: Angeberg, [Chodzko,] Recueil des Traites, etc., +concernant la Guerre Franco-Allemande, Tom. I. p. 215.] How swift +this madness will be seen in a few dates. On the 6th of July was +uttered the first defiance from the French tribune; on the 15th of +July an exposition of the griefs of France, in the nature of a +Declaration of War, with a demand for men and money; on the 19th +of July a state of war was declared to exist. + +Firmly, but in becoming contrast with the "light heart" of France, +this was promptly accepted by Germany, whose heart and strength +found expression in the speech of the King at the opening of +Parliament, hastily assembled on the 19th of July. With +articulation disturbed by emotion and with moistened eyes, his +Majesty said:-- + +"Supported by the unanimous will of the German governments of the +South as of the North, we turn the more confidently to the love of +Fatherland and the cheerful self-devotion of the German people +with a call to the defence of their honor and their independence." +[Footnote: Aegidi und Klauhold, Staatsarchiv, 19 Band, S. 107, No. +4056. Parliamentary Papers, 1870, Vol. LXX.: Franco-Prussian War, +No. 3, pp. 2-3.] + +Parliament responded sympathetically to the King, and made the +necessary appropriations. And thus the two champions stood front +to front. + + + + +THE TWO HOSTILE PARTIES. + + +Throughout France, throughout Germany, the trumpet sounded, and +everywhere the people sprang to arms, as if the great horn of +Orlando, after a sleep of ages, had sent forth once more its +commanding summons. Not a town, not a village, that the voice did +not penetrate. Modern invention had supplied an ally beyond +anything in fable. From all parts of France, from all parts of +Germany, armed men leaped forward, leaving behind the charms of +peace and the business of life. On each side the muster was +mighty, armies counting by the hundred thousand. And now, before +we witness the mutual slaughter, let us pause to consider the two +parties, and the issue between them. + +France and Germany are most unlike, and yet the peers of each +other, while among the nations they are unsurpassed in civilization, +each prodigious in resources, splendid in genius, and great +in renown. No two nations are so nearly matched. By Germany +I now mean not only the States constituting North Germany, but +also Wurtemberg, Baden, and Bavaria of South Germany, allies +in the present war, all of which together make about fifty-three +millions of French hectares, being very nearly the area of France. +The population of each is not far from thirty-eight millions, and +it would be difficult to say which is the larger. Looking at +finances, Germany has the smaller revenue, but also the smaller +debt, while her rulers, following the sentiment of the people, +cultivate a wise economy, so that here again substantial equality +is maintained with France. The armies of the two, embracing +regular troops and those subject to call, did not differ much in +numbers, unless we set aside the authority of the "Almanach de +Gotha," which puts the military force of France somewhat vaguely +at 1,350,000, while that of North Germany is only 977,262, to +which must be added 49,949 for Bavaria, 34,953 for Wuertemberg, and +43,703 for Baden, making a sum-total of 1,105,867. This, however, +is chiefly on paper, where it is evident France is stronger than +in reality. Her available force at the outbreak of the war +probably did not amount to more than 350,000 bayonets, while that +of Germany, owing to her superior system, was as much as double +this number. In Prussia every man is obliged to serve, and, still +further, every man is educated. Discipline and education are two +potent adjuncts. This is favorable to Germany. In the Chassepot +and needle-gun the two are equal. But France excels in a well- +appointed Navy, having no less than 55 iron-clads, and 384 other +vessels of war, while Germany has but 2 iron-clads, and 87 other +vessels of war. [Footnote: For the foregoing statistics, see +_Almanach de Gotha, 1870, under the names of the several States +referred to,--also, for Areas and Population, _Tableaux +Comparatifs_, I., II., III., in same volume, pp. 1037-38.] Then +again for long generations has existed another disparity, to the +great detriment of Germany. France has been a nation, while +Germany has been divided, and therefore weak. Strong in union, the +latter now claims something more than that _dominion of the +air_ once declared to be hers, while France had the land and +England the sea. [Footnote: "So wie die Franzosen die Herren des +Landes sind, die Englaender die des groessern Meeres, wir die der +Beide und Alles umfassenden Luft sind."--RICHTER, (Jean Paul,) +_Frieden-Predigt an Deutschland_, V.: Saemtliche Werke, +(Berlin, 1828-38,) Theil XXXIV. s. 13.] The dominion of the land +is at last contested, and we are saddened inexpressibly, that, +from the elevation they have reached, these two peers of +civilization can descend to practise the barbarism of war, and +especially that the laud of Descartes, Pascal, Voltaire, and +Laplace must challenge to bloody duel the laud of Luther, +Leibnitz, Kant, and Humboldt. + + + + +FOLLY. + + +Plainly between these two neighboring powers there has been +unhappy antagonism, constant, if not increasing, partly from the +memory of other days, and partly because Prance could not bear to +witness that German unity which was a national right and duty. +Often it has been said that war was inevitable. But it has come at +last by surprise, and on "a question of form." So it was called by +Thiers; so it was recognized by Ollivier, when he complained of +insensibility to a question of honor; and so also by the Due de +Gramont, when he referred it all to a telegram. This is not the +first time in history that wars have been waged on trifles; but +since the Lord of Frauenstein challenged the free city of +Frankfort because a young lady of the city refused to dance with +his uncle, nothing has passed more absurd than this challenge sent +by France to Germany because the King of Prussia refused to see +the French Ambassador a second time on the same matter, and then +let the refusal be reported by telegraph. Here is the folly +exposed by Shakespeare, when Hamlet touches a madness greater than +his own in that spirit which would "find quarrel in a straw when +honor's at the stake," and at the same time depicts an army + + "Led by a delicate and tender prince, + Exposing what is mortal and unsure + To all that Fortune, Death, and Danger dare, + _Even for an egg-shall._" + +There can be no quarrel in a straw or for an egg-shell, unless men +have gone mad. Nor can honor in a civilized age require any +sacrifice of reason or humanity. + + + + +UNJUST PRETENSION OF FRANCE TO INTERFERE WITH THE CANDIDATURE OF +HOHENZOLLERN. + + +If the utter triviality of the pretext were left doubtful in the +debate, if its towering absurdity were not plainly apparent, if +its simple wickedness did not already stand before us, we should +find all these characteristics glaringly manifest in that unjust +pretension which preceded the objection of form, on which France +finally acted. A few words will make this plain. + +In a happy moment Spain rose against Queen Isabella, and, amidst +cries of "Down with the Bourbons!" drove her from the throne which +she dishonored. This was in September, 1868. Instead of +constituting a Republic at once, in harmony with those popular +rights which had been proclaimed, the half-hearted leaders +proceeded to look about for a King; and from that time till now +they have been in this quest, as if it were the Holy Grail, or +happiness on earth. The royal family of Spain was declared +incompetent. Therefore a king must be found outside,----and so the +quest was continued in other lands. One day the throne is offered +to a prince of Portugal, then to a prince of Italy, but declined +by each,----how wisely the future will show. At last, after a +protracted pursuit of nearly two years, the venturesome soldier +who is Captain-General and Prime-Minister, Marshal Prim, conceives +the idea of offering it to a prince of Germany. His luckless +victim is Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, a Catholic, +thirty-five years of age, and colonel of the first regiment of the +Prussian foot-guards, whose father, a mediatized German prince, +resides at Duesseldorf. The Prince had not the good sense to +decline. How his acceptance excited the French Cabinet, and became +the beginning of the French pretext, I have already exposed; and +now I come to the pretension itself. + +By what title did France undertake to interfere with the choice of +Spain? If the latter was so foolish as to seek a foreigner for +king, making a German first among Spaniards, by what title did any +other power attempt to control its will? To state the question is +to answer it. Beginning with an outrage on Spanish independence, +which the Spain of an earlier day would have resented, the next +outrage was on Germany, in assuming that an insignificant prince +of that country could not be permitted to accept the invitation,---- +all of which, besides being of insufferable insolence, was in +that worst dynastic spirit which looks to princes rather than the +people. Plainly France was unjustifiable. When I say it was none +of her business, I give it the mildest condemnation. This was the +first step in her monstrous _blunder-crime_. + +Its character as a pretext becomes painfully manifest, when we +learn more of the famous Prince Leopold, thus invited by Spain and +opposed by France. It is true that his family name is in part the +same as that of the Prussian king. Each is Hohenzollern; but he +adds Sigmaringen to the name. The two are different branches of +the same family; but you must ascend to the twelfth century, +counting more than twenty degrees, before you come to a common +ancestor. [Footnote: Conversations-Lexikon, (Leipzig, 1866,) 8 +Band, art. HOHENZOLLERN. Carlyle's History of Friedrich II., +(London, 1858,) Book III. Cli. 1, Vol. I. p. 200.] And yet on this +most distant and infinitesimal relationship the French pretension +is founded. But audacity changes to the ridiculous, when it is +known that the Prince is nearer in relationship to the French +Emperor than to the Prussian King, and this by three different +intermarriages, which do not go hack to the twelfth century. Here +is the case. His grandfather had for wife a niece of Joachim +Murat,[Footnote: Antoinette, daughter of Etienne Murat, third +brother of Joachim.--- Biographic Genemle, (Didot,) Tom. XXXVI. +col. 984, art. MURAT, note.] King of Naples, and brother-in-law of +the first Napoleon; and his father had for wife a daughter of +Stephanie de Beauharnais, an adopted daughter of the first +Napoleon; so that Prince Leopold is by his father great-grand- +nephew of Murat, and by his mother he is grandson of Stephanie de +Beauharnais, who was cousin and by adoption sister of Horteuse de +Beauharnais, mother of the present Emperor; and to this may be +added still another connection, by the marriage of his father's +sister with Joachim Napoleon, Marquis of Pepoli, grandson of +Joachim Murat.[Footnote: Almanach de Gotha, 1870, pp. 85-87, art. +HOHENZOLLERN-SIGMARINGEN.] It was natural that a person thus +connected with the Imperial Family should be a welcome visitor at +the Tuileries; and it is easy to believe that Marshal Prim, who +offered him the throne, was encouraged to believe that the +Emperor's kinsman and guest would be favorably regarded by France. +And yet, in the face of these things, and the three several family +ties, fresh and modern, binding him to France and the French +Emperor, the pretension was set up that his occupation of the +Spanish throne would put in peril the interests and the honor of +France. + + + + +BECAUSE FRANCE WAS READY. + + +In sending defiance to Prussia on this question, the French +Cabinet selected their own ground. Evidently a war had been +meditated, and the candidature of Prince Leopold from beginning to +end supplied a pretext. In this conclusion, which is too obvious, +we are hardly left to inference. The secret was disclosed by +Rouher, President of the Senate, lately the eloquent and +unscrupulous Minister, when, in an official address to the +Emperor, immediately after the War Manifesto read by the Prime- +Minister, he declared that France quivered with indignation at the +flights of an ambition over-excited by the one day's good-fortune +at Sadowa, and then proceeded:--- + +"Animated by that calm perseverance which is true force, your +Majesty has known how to wait; but in the last four years you have +carried to its highest perfection the arming of our soldiers, and +raised to its full power the organization of our military forces. +_Thanks to your care, Sire, France is ready,_" [Footnote: +Address at the Palais de Saint-Cloud, July 50, 1870: Journal +Officiel du Soir, 18 Juillet 1870.] + +Thus, according to the President of the Senate, France, after +waiting, commenced war because she was ready,--- while, according +to the Cabinet, it was on the point of honor. Both were right. The +war was declared because the Emperor thought himself ready, and a +pretext was found in the affair of the telegram. + +Considering the age, and the present demands of civilization, such +a war stands forth terrific in wrong, making the soul rise +indignant against it. One reason avowed is brutal; the other is +frivolous; both are criminal. If we look into the text of the +Manifesto and the speeches of the Cabinet, it is a war founded on +a trifle, on a straw, on an egg-shell. Obviously these were +pretexts only. Therefore it is a war of pretexts, the real object +being the humiliation and dismemberment of Germany, in the vain +hope of exalting the French Empire and perpetuating a bawble crown +on the head of a boy. By military success and a peace dictated at +Berlin, the Emperor trusted to find himself in such condition, +that, on return to Paris, he could overthrow parliamentary +government so far as it existed there, and reestablish personal +government, where all depended upon himself,--thus making triumph +over Germany the means of another triumph over the French people. + +In other times there have been wars as criminal in origin, where +trifle, straw, or egg-shell played its part; but they contrasted +less with the surrounding civilization. To this list belong the +frequent Dynastic Wars, prompted by the interest, the passion, or +the whim of some one in the Family of Kings. Others have begun in +recklessness kindred to that we now witness,---as when England +entered into war with Holland, and for reason did not hesitate to +allege "abusive pictures."[Footnote: Humo, History of England, Ch. +LXV., March 17, 1672.----The terras of the Declaration on this +point were,----"Scarce a town within their territories that is not +filled with abusive pictures." (Hansard's Parliamentary History, +Vol. IV. col. 514.) Upon which Hume remarks: "The Dutch were long +at a loss what to make of this article, till it was discovered +that a portrait of Cornelius de Witt, brother to the Pensionary, +painted by order of certain magistrates of Dort, and hung up in a +chamber of the Town-House, had given occasion to the complaint. In +the perspective of this portrait the painter had drawn some ships +on fire in a harbor. This was construed to be Chatham, where De +Witt had really distinguished himself," during the previous war, +in the way here indicated,----"the disgrace" of which, says +Lingard, "sunk deep into the heart of the King and the hearts of +his subjects." History of England, Vol. IX. Ch. III., June 13, +1667.]. The England of Charles the Second was hardly less +sensitive than the France of Louis Napoleon, while in each was +similar indifference to consequences. But France has precedents of +her own. From the remarkable correspondence of the Princess +Palatine, Duchess of Orleans, we learn that the first war with +Holland under Louis the Fourteenth was brought on by the Minister, +De Lionne, to injure a petty German prince who had made him +jealous of his wife.[Footnote: Briefe der Prinzessin Elisabeth +Charlotte von Orleans an die Gaugraefin Louise, 1676-1722, herausg. +von W. Menzel, (Stuttgart, 1843,)---Paris, 3) Mertz, 1718, s. +288.] The communicative and exuberant Saint-Simon tells us twice +over how Louvois, another Minister of Louis the Fourteenth, being +overruled by his master with regard to the dimensions of a window +at Versailles, was filled with the idea that "on account of a few +inches in a window," as he expressed it, all his services would be +forgotten, and therefore, to save his place, excited a foreign war +that would make him necessary to the King. The flames in the +Palatinate, devouring the works of man, attested his continuing +power. The war became general, but, according to the chronicler, +it ruined France at home, and did not extend her domain abroad. +[Footnote: Memoires, (Paris, 1829,) Tom. VII. pp. 49-51; XIII pp. +9-10.] The French Emperor confidently expected to occupy the same +historic region so often burnt and ravaged by French armies, with +that castle of Heidelberg which repeats the tale of blood,--and, +let me say, expected it for no better reason than that of his +royal predecessor, stimulated by an unprincipled Minister anxious +for personal position. The parallel is continued in the curse +which the Imperial arms have brought on France. + + + + +PROGRESS OF THE WAR. + + +How this war proceeded I need not recount. You have all read the +record day by day, sorrowing for Humanity,--how, after briefest +interval of preparation or hesitation, the two combatants first +crossed swords at Saarbruecken, within the German frontier, and the +young Prince Imperial performed his part in picking up a bullet +from the field, which the Emperor promptly reported by telegraph +to the Empress,--how this little military success is all that was +vouchsafed to the man who began the war,--how soon thereafter +victory followed, first on the hill-sides of Wissembourg and then +of Woerth, shattering the army of MacMahon, to which the Empire +was looking so confidently,--how another large army under Bazaine +was driven within the strong fortress of Metz,--how all the +fortresses, bristling with guns and frowning upon Germany, were +invested,--how battle followed battle on various fields, where +Death was the great conqueror,--how, with help of modern art, war +showed itself to be murder by machinery,--how MacMahon, gathering +together his scattered men and strengthening them with reinforcements, +attempted to relieve Bazaine,--how at last, after long marches, +his large army found itself shut up at Sedan with a tempest +of fire beating upon its huddled ranks, so that its only +safety was capitulation,--how with the capitulation of the army +was the submission of the Emperor himself, who gave his sword to +the King of Prussia and became prisoner of war,--and how, on the +reception of this news at Paris, Louis Napoleon and his dynasty +were divested of their powers and the Empire was lost in the +Republic. These things you know. I need not dwell on them. Not to +battles and their fearful vicissitudes, where all is incarnadined +with blood, must we look, but to the ideas which prevail,--as for +the measure of time we look, not to the pendulum in its +oscillations, but to the clock in the tower, whose striking tells +the hours. A great hour for Humanity sounded when the Republic was +proclaimed. And this I say, even should it fail again; for every +attempt contributes to the final triumph. + + + + +A WAR OF SURPRISES. + + +The war, from the pretext at its beginning to the capitulation at +Sedan, has been a succession of surprises, where the author of the +pretext was a constant sufferer. Nor is this strange. Falstaff +says, with humorous point, "See now how wit may be made a Jack-a- +lent, when't is upon ill employment!"[Footnote: Merry Wives of +Windsor, Act V. Sc. 5.]--and another character, in a play of +Beaumont and Fletcher, reveals the same evil destiny in stronger +terms, when he says,-- + +"Hell gives us art to reach the depth of sin, But leaves us +wretched fools, when we are in." [Footnote: Queen of Corinth, Act +IV. Sc. 3.] + +And this was precisely the condition of the French Empire. Germany +perhaps had one surprise, at the sudden adoption of the pretext +for war. But the Empire has known nothing but surprise. A fatal +surprise was the promptitude with which all the German States, +outside of Austrian rule, accepted the leadership of Prussia, and +joined their forces to hers. Differences were forgotten,--whether +the hate of Hanover, the dread of Wuertemberg, the coolness of +Bavaria, the opposition of Saxony, or the impatience of the Hanse +Towns at lost importance. Hanover would not rise; the other States +and cities would not be detached. On the day after the reading of +the War Manifesto at the French tribune, even before the King's +speech to the Northern Parliament, the Southern States began to +move. German unity stood firm, and this was the supreme surprise +for France with which the war began. On one day the Emperor in his +Official Journal declares his object to be the deliverance of +Bavaria from Prussian oppression, and on the very next day the +Crown Prince of Prussia, at the head of Bavarian troops, crushes +an Imperial army. + +Then came the manifest inferiority of the Imperial army, +everywhere outnumbered, which was another surprise,--the manifest +inferiority of the Imperial artillery, also a surprise,--the +manifest inferiority of the Imperial generals, still a surprise. +Above these was a prevailing inefficiency and improvidence, which +very soon became conspicuous, and this was a surprise. The +strength of Germany, as now exhibited, was a surprise. And when +the German armies entered France, every step was a surprise. +Wissembourg was a surprise; so was Woerth; so was Beaumont; so was +Sedan. Every encounter was a surprise. Abel Douay, the French +general, who fell bravely fighting at Wissembourg, the first +sacrifice on the battle-field, was surprised; so was MacMahon, not +only at the beginning, but at the end. He thought that the King +and Crown Prince were marching on Paris. So they were,--but they +turned aside for a few days to surprise a whole army of more than, +a hundred thousand men, terrible with cannon and newly invented +implements of war, under a Marshal of France, and with an Emperor +besides. As this succession of surprises was crowned with what +seemed the greatest surprise of all, there remained a greater +still in the surprise of the French Empire. No Greek Nemesis with +unrelenting hand ever dealt more incessantly the unavoidable blow, +until the Empire fell as a dead body falls, while the Emperor +became a captive and the Empress a fugitive, with their only child +a fugitive also. The poet says:-- + +"Sometime let gorgeous Tragedy In sceptred pall come sweeping +by."[Footnote: Milton, II Penseroso, 97-98.] + +It has swept before the eyes of all. Beneath that sceptred pall is +the dust of a great Empire, founded and ruled by Louis Napoleon; +if not the dust of the Emperor also, it is because he was willing +to sacrifice others rather than himself. + + + + +OTHER FRENCH SOVEREIGNS CAPTURED ON THE BATTLE-FIELD. + + +Twice before have French sovereigns yielded on the battle-field, +and become prisoners of war; but never before was capitulation so +vast. Do their fates furnish any lesson? At the Battle of +Poitiers, memorable in English history, John, King of France, +became the prisoner of Edward the Black Prince. His nobles, one +after another, fell by his side, but he contended valiantly to the +last, until, spent with fatigue and over-come by numbers, he +surrendered. His son, of the same age as the son of the French +Emperor, was wounded while battling for his father. The courtesy +of the English Prince conquered more than his arms. I quote the +language of Hume:- + +"More touched by Edward's generosity than by his own calamities, +he confessed, that, notwithstanding his defeat and captivity, his +honor was still unimpaired, and that, if he yielded the victory, +it was at least gained by a prince of such consummate valor and +humanity. "[Footnote: History of England, (Oxford, 1826,) Cli. +XVI., Vol. II. p. 407.] + +The King was taken to England, where, after swelling the triumphal +pageant of his conqueror, he made a disgraceful treaty for the +dismemberment of France, which the indignant nation would not +ratify. A captivity of more than four years was terminated by a +ransom of three million crowns in gold,--an enormous sum, more +than ten million dollars in our day. Evidently the King was +unfortunate, for he did not continue in France, but, under the +influence of motives differently stated, returned to England, +where he died. Surely here is a lesson. + +More famous than John was Francis, with salamander crest, also +King of France, and rich in gayety, whose countenance, depicted by +that art of which he was the patron, stands forth conspicuous in +the line of kings. As the French Emperor attacked Germany, so did +the King enter Italy, and he was equally confident of victory. On +the field of Favia he encountered an army of Charles the Fifth, +but commanded by his generals, when, after fighting desperately +and killing seven men with his own hand, he was compelled to +surrender. His mother was at the time Regent of France, and to her +he is said to have written the sententious letter, "All is lost +except honor." No such letter was written by Francis,[Footnote: +Sismondi, Histoire des Francais, Tom. XVI. pp. 241-42. Martin, +Histoire de France, (genie edit.,) Tom. VIII. pp. 67, 68.] nor do +we know of any such letter by Louis Napoleon; but the situation of +the two Regents was identical. Here are the words in which Hume +describes the condition of the earlier:--- + +"The Princess was struck with the greatness of the calamity. She +saw the kingdom without a sovereign, without an army, without +generals, without money, surrounded on every side by implacable +and victorious enemies; and her chief resource, in her present +distresses, were the hopes which she entertained of peace, and +even of assistance from the King of England." [Footnote: History +of England, (Oxford, 1826,) Ch. XXIX., Vol. IV. p. 51.] + +Francis became the prisoner of Charles the Fifth, and was conveyed +to Madrid, where, after a year of captivity, he was at length +released, crying out, as he crossed the French frontier, "Behold +me King again!" [Footnote: Sismondi, Tom. XVI. p. 277. Martin, +Tom. VIII. p. 90.] Is not the fate of Louis Napoleon prefigured in +the exile and death of his royal predecessor John, rather than in +the return of Francis with his delighted cry? + + + + +LOUIS NAPOLEON. + + +The fall of Louis Napoleon is natural. It is hard to see how it +could be otherwise, so long as we continue to "assert eternal +Providence, And justify the ways of God to men." [Footnote: +Paradise Lost, Book I. 25-26.] + +Had he remained successful to the end, and died peacefully on +the throne, his name would have been a perpetual encouragement to +dishonesty and crime. By treachery without parallel, breaking +repeated promises and his oath of office, he was able to trample +on the Republic. Taking his place in the National Assembly after +long exile, the adventurer made haste to declare exultation in +regaining his country and all his rights as citizen, with the +ejaculation, "The Republic has given me this happiness: let the +Republic receive my oath of gratitude, my oath of devotion!"--and +next he proclaimed that there was nobody to surpass him in +determined consecration "to the defence of order and to the +establishment of the Republic." [Footnote: Seance du 26 Septembre +1848: Moniteur, 27 Septembre.] Good words these. Then again, when +candidate for the Presidency, in a manifesto to the electors he +gave another pledge, announcing that he "would devote himself +altogether, without mental reservation, to the establishment of a +Republic, wise in its laws, honest in its intentions, great and +strong in its acts"; and he volunteered further words, binding him +in special loyalty, saying that he "should make it _a point of +honor_ to leave to his successor, at the end of four years, +power strengthened, liberty intact, real progress accomplished." +[Footnote: A ses Concitoyens: OEuvres, Tom. III. p. 25.] How these +plain and unequivocal engagements were openly broken you shall +see. + +Chosen by the popular voice, his inauguration took place as +President of the Republic, when he solemnly renewed the +engagements already assumed. Ascending from his seat in the +Assembly to the tribune, and holding up his hand, he took the +following oath of office: "In presence of God, and before the +French people, represented by the National Assembly, I swear to +remain faithful to the Democratic Republic One and Indivisible, +and to fulfil all the duties which the Constitution imposes upon +me." This was an oath. Then, addressing the Assembly, he said:" +The suffrages of the nation and the oath which I have just taken +prescribe my future conduct. My duty is marked out. I will fulfil +it as _a man of honor_." Again he attests his honor. Then, +after deserved tribute to his immediate predecessor and rival, +General Cavaignac, on his loyalty of character, and that sentiment +of duty which he declares to be "the first quality in the chief of +a State," he renews his vows to the Republic, saying, "We have, +Citizen Representatives, a great mission to fulfil; it is to found +a Republic in the interest of all"; and he closed amidst cheers +for the Republic.[Footnote: Seance de 20 Decembre 1848: Moniteur, +21 Decembre.] And yet, in the face of this oath of office and this +succession of most solemn pledges, where he twice attests his +honor, he has hardly become President before he commences plotting +to make himself Emperor, until, at last, by violence and blood, +with brutal butchery in the streets of Paris, he succeeded in +overthrowing the Republic, to which he was bound by obligations of +gratitude and duty, as well as by engagements in such various +form. The Empire was declared. Then followed his marriage, and a +dynastic ambition to assure the crown for his son. + +Early in life a "Charcoal" conspirator against kings, [Footnote: A +member of the secret society of the Ciram in Italy.] he now became +a crowned conspirator against republics. The name of Republic was +to him a reproof, while its glory was a menace. Against the Roman +Republic he conspired early; and when the rebellion waged by +Slavery seemed to afford opportunity, he conspired against our +Republic, promoting as far as he dared the independence of the +Slave States, and at the same time on the ruins of the Mexican +Republic setting up a mock Empire. In similar spirit has he +conspired against German Unity, whose just strength promised to be +a wall against his unprincipled self-seeking. + +This is but an outline of that incomparable perfidy, which, after +a career of seeming success, is brought to a close. Of a fallen +man I would say nothing; but, for the sake of Humanity, Louis +Napoleon should be exposed. He was of evil example, extending with +his influence. To measure the vastness of this detriment is +impossible. In sacrificing the Republic to his own aggrandizement, +in ruling for a dynasty rather than the people, in subordinating +the peace of the world to his own wicked ambition for his boy, he +set an example of selfishness, and in proportion to his triumph +was mankind corrupted in its judgment of human conduct. Teaching +men to seek ascendency at the expense of duty, he demoralized not +only France, but the world. Unquestionably part of this evil +example was his falsehood to the Republic. Promise, pledge, honor, +oath, were all violated in this monstrous treason. Never in +history was greater turpitude. Unquestionably he could have saved +the Republic, but he preferred his own exaltation. As I am a +Republican, and believe republican institutions for the good of +mankind, I cannot pardon the traitor. The people of France are +ignorant; he did not care to have them educated, for their +ignorance was his strength. With education bestowed, the Republic +would have been assured. And even after the Empire, had he thought +more of education and less of his dynasty, there would have been a +civilization throughout France making war impossible. Unquestionably +the present war is his work, instituted for his imagined advantage. +Bacon, in one of his remarkable Essays, tells us that "Extreme +self-lovers will set an house on fire, and it were but to +roast their eggs." [Footnote: Of Wisdom for a Man's Self: +Essay XXIII.] Louis Napoleon has set Europe on fire to roast +his. + +Beyond the continuing offence of his public life, I charge upon +him three special and unpardonable crimes: first, that violation +of public duty and public faith, contrary to all solemnities of +promise, by which the whole order of society was weakened and +human character was degraded; secondly, disloyalty to republican +institutions, so that through him the Republic has been arrested +in Europe; and, thirdly, this cruel and causeless war, of which he +is the guilty author. + + + + +RETRIBUTION. + + +Of familiar texts in Scripture, there is one which, since the +murderous outbreak, has been of constant applicability and force. +You know it: "All they that take the sword shall perish with the +sword"; [Footnote: Matthew, xxvi. 52.] and these words are +addressed to nations as to individuals. France took the sword +against Germany, and now lies bleeding at every pore. Louis +Napoleon took the sword, and is nought. Already in that _coup +d'etat_ by which he overthrew the Republic he took the sword, +and now the Empire, which was the work of his hands, expires. In +Mexico again he took the sword, and again paid the fearful +penalty,--while the Austrian Archduke, who, yielding to his +pressure, made himself Emperor there, was shot by order of the +Mexican President, an Indian of unmixed blood. And here there was +retribution, not only for the French Emperor, but far beyond. I +know not if there be invisible threads by which the Present is +attached to the distant Past, making the descendant suffer even +for a distant ancestor, but I cannot forget that Maximilian was +derived from that very family of Charles the Fifth, whose +conquering general, Cortes, stretched the Indian Guatemozin upon a +bed of fire, and afterwards executed him on a tree. The death of +Maximilian was tardy retribution for the death of Guatemozin. And +thus in this world is wrong avenged, sometimes after many +generations. The fall of the French Emperor is an illustration of +that same retribution which is so constant. While he yet lives, +judgment has begun. + +If I accumulate instances, it is because the certainty of +retribution for wrong, and especially for the great wrong of War, +is a lesson of the present duel to be impressed. Take notice, all +who would appeal to war, that the way of the transgressor is hard, +and sooner or later he is overtaken. The ban may fall tardily, but +it is sure to fall. + +Retribution in another form has already visited France; nor is its +terrible vengeance yet spent. Not only are populous cities, all +throbbing with life and filled with innocent households, subjected +to siege, but to bombardment also,--being that most ruthless trial +of war, where non-combatants, including women and children, sick +and aged, share with the soldier his peculiar perils, and suffer +alike with him. All are equal before the hideous shell, crashing, +bursting, destroying, killing, and changing the fairest scene into +blood-spattered wreck. Against its vengeful, slaughterous descent +there is no protection for the people,--nothing but an uncertain +shelter in cellars, or, it may be, in the common sewers. Already +Strasbourg, Toul, and Metz have been called to endure this +indiscriminate massacre, where there is no distinction of persons; +and now the same fate is threatened to Paris the Beautiful, with +its thronging population counted by the million. Thus is the +ancient chalice which France handed to others now commended to her +own lips. It was France that first in history adopted this method +of war. Long ago, under Louis the Fourteenth, it became a +favorite; but it has not escaped the judgment of history. +Voltaire, with elegant pen, records that "this art, carried soon +among other nations, served only to multiply human calamities, and +more than once was dreadful to France, where it was invented." +[Footnote: Siecle de Louis XIV., Ch. XIV.: (Euvres, (edit. 1784- +89,) Tom. XX. p. 406.) + +The bombardment of Luxembourg in 1683 drew from Sismondi, always +humane and refined, words applicable to recent events. "Louis the +Fourteenth," he says, "had been the first to put in practice this +atrocious and newly invented method of bombarding towns,....of +attacking, not fortifications, but private houses, not soldiers, +but peaceable inhabitants, women and children, and of confounding +thousands of private crimes, each one of which would cause horror, +in one great public crime, one great disaster, which he regarded +as nothing more than one of the catastrophes of war." [Footnote: +Histoire des Francis, Tom. XXV. pp. 452-53.] Again is the saying +fulfilled, "All they that take the sword shall perish with the +sword." No lapse of time can avert the inexorable law. Macbeth saw +it in his terrible imaginings, when he said,-- + + "But in those cases + We still have judgment here,--that we but teach + Bloody instructions, which, being taught, return + To plague the inventor." + + +And what instruction more bloody than the bombardment of a city, +which now returns to plague the French people? + +Thus is history something more even than philosophy teaching by +example; it is sermon with argument and exhortation. The simple +record of nations preaches; and whether you regard reason or the +affections, it is the same. If nations were wise or humane, they +would not fight. + + + + +PEACE AFTER CAPITULATION AT SEDAN. + + +Vain are lessons of the past or texts of prudence against that +spirit of War which finds sanction and regulation in International +Law. So long as the war system continues, men will fight. While I +speak, the two champions still stand front to front, Germany +exulting in victory, but France in no respect submissive. The duel +still rages, although one of the champions is pressed to earth, as +in that early combat where the Chevalier Bayard, so eminent in +chivalry, thrust his dagger into the nostrils of his fallen foe, +and then dragged his dead body off the field. History now repeats +itself, and we witness in Germany the very conduct condemned in +the famous French knight. + +The French Emperor was the aggressor. He began this fatal duel. +Let him fall,--but not the people of France. Cruelly already have +they expiated their offence in accepting such a ruler. Not always +should they suffer. Enough of waste, enough of sacrifice, enough +of slaughter have they undergone. Enough have they felt the +accursed hoof of War. + +It is easy to see now, that, after the capitulation at Sedan, +there was a double mistake: first, on the part of Germany, which, +as magnanimous conqueror, should have proposed peace, thus +conquering in character as in arms; and, secondly, on the part of +the Republic, which should have declined to wage a war of +Imperialism, against which the Republican leaders had so earnestly +protested. With the capitulation of the Emperor the dynastic +question was closed. There was no longer pretension or pretext, +nor was there occasion for war. The two parties should have come +to an understanding. Why continue this terrible homicidal, +fratricidal, suicidal combat, fraught with mutual death and +sacrifice? Why march on Paris? Why beleaguer Paris? Why bombard +Paris? To what end? If for the humiliation of France, then must it +be condemned. + + + + +THREE ESSENTIAL CONDITIONS OF PEACE. + + +In arriving at terms of peace, there are at least three conditions +which cannot be overlooked in the interest of civilization, and +that the peace may be such in reality as in name, and not an +armistice only,--three postulates which stand above all question, +and dominate this debate, so that any essential departure from +them must end in wretched failure. + +The first is the natural requirement of Germany, that there shall +be completest guaranty against future aggression, constituting +what is so well known among us as "Security for the Future." Count +Bismarck, with an exaggeration hardly pardonable, alleges more +than twenty invasions of Germany by France, and declares that +these must be stopped forever. [Footnote: Circular of September +16, 1870: Foreign Relations of the United States,--Executive +Documents, 41st Cong. 3d Sess., H. of R., Vol. I. No. 1, Part 1, +pp. 212-13.] Many or few, they must be stopped forever. The second +condition to be regarded is the natural requirement of France, +that the guaranty, while sufficient, shall be such as not to wound +needlessly the sentiments of the French people, or to offend any +principle of public law. It is difficult to question these two +postulates, at least in the abstract. Only when we come to the +application is there opportunity for difference. The third +postulate, demanded alike by justice and humanity, is the +establishment of some rule or precedent by which the recurrence of +such a barbarous duel shall be prevented. It will not be enough to +obtain a guaranty for Germany; there must be a guaranty for +Civilization itself. + +On careful inquiry, it will be seen that all these can be +accomplished in one way only, which I will describe, when I have +first shown what is now put forward and discussed as the claim of +Germany, under two different heads, Indemnity and Guaranty. + + + + +INDEMNITY OF GERMANY. + + +I have already spoken of Guaranty as an essential condition. +Indemnity is not essential. At the close of our war with Slavery +we said nothing of indemnity. For the life of the citizen there +could be no indemnity; nor was it practicable even for the +treasure sacrificed. Security for the Future was all that our +nation required, and this was found in provisions of Law and +Constitution establishing Equal Eights. From various intimations +it is evident that Germany will not be content without indemnity +in money on a large scale; and it is also evident that France, the +aggressor, cannot, when conquered, deny liability to a certain +extent. The question will be on the amount. Already German +calculators begin to array their unrelenting figures. One of these +insists that the indemnity shall not only cover outlay for the +German Army,--pensions of widows and invalids,--maintenance and +support of French wounded and prisoners,--compensation to Germans +expelled from France,--also damage suffered by the territory to be +annexed, especially Strasbourg; but it is also to cover indirect +damages, large in amount,--as, loss to the nation from change of +productive laborers into soldiers,--loss from killing and +disabling so many laborers,--and, generally, loss from suspension +of trade arid manufactures, depreciation of national property, and +diminution of the public revenues:--all of which, according to a +recent estimate, reach the fearful sum-total of 4,935,000,000 +francs, or nearly one thousand million dollars. Of this sum, +1,255,000,000 francs are on account of the Army, 1,230,000,000 for +direct damage, 2,250,000,000 for indirect damage, and 200,000,000 +for damage to the reconquered provinces. Still further, the Berlin +Chamber of Commerce insists on indemnity not only for actual loss +of ships and cargoes from the blockade, but also for damages on +account of detention. Much of this many-headed account, which I +introduce in order to open the case in its extent, will be opposed +by France, as fabulous, consequential, and remote. The practical +question will be, Can one nation do wrong to another without +paying for the damage, whatever it may be, direct or indirect,-- +always provided it be susceptible of estimate? Here I content +myself with the remark, that, while in the settlement of +international differences there is no place for technicality, +there is always room for moderation. + + + + +GUARANTY OF DISMEMBERMENT. + + +Vast as may be the claim of indemnity, it opens no question so +calculated to touch the sensibilities of France as the claim of +guaranty already announced by Germany. On this head we are not +left to conjecture. From her first victory we have been assured +that Germany would claim Alsace and German Lorraine, with their +famous strongholds; and now we have the statement of Count +Bismarck, in a diplomatic circular, that he expects to remove the +German frontier further west,--meaning to the Vosges Mountains, if +not to the Moselle also,--and to convert the fortresses into what +he calls "defensive strongholds of Germany."[Footnote: Circular of +September 16,1870,--ubi supra, p. 49, Note 1.] Then, with larger +view, he declares, that, "in rendering it more difficult for +France, from whom all European troubles have so long proceeded, to +assume the offensive, we likewise promote the common interest of +Europe, which demands the preservation of peace." Here is just +recognition of peace as the common interest of Europe, to be +assured by disabling France. How shall this be done? The German +Minister sees nothing but dismemberment, consecrated by a Treaty +of Peace. With diplomatic shears he would cut off a portion of +French territory, and, taking from it the name of France, stamp +upon it the trade-mark of Germany. Two of its richest and most +precious provinces, for some two hundred years constituent parts +of the great nation, with that ancient cathedral city, the pride +of the Rhine, long years ago fortified by Vauban as "the strongest +barrier of France," [Footnote: Voltaire, Siecle de Louis XIV., Ch. +XIV: OEuvres, (edit. 1784-89,) Tom. XX. p. 403.] are to be +severed, and with them a large and industrious population, which, +while preserving the German language, have so far blended with +France as to become Frenchmen. This is the German proposition, +which I call the Guaranty of Dismemberment. + +One argument for this proposition is brushed aside easily. Had the +fortune of war been adverse to Germany, it is said, peace would +have been dictated at Berlin, perhaps at Koenigsberg, and France +would have carried her frontier eastward to the Rhine, dismembering +Germany. Such, I doubt not, would have been the attempt. The +conception is entirely worthy of that Imperial levity with +which the war began. But the madcap menace of the French +Empire cannot be the measure of German justice. It is for Germany +to show, that, notwithstanding this wildness, she knows how to be +just. Dismemberment on this account would be only another form of +retaliation; but retaliation is barbarous. + +To the argument, that these provinces, with their strongholds, are +needed for the defence of Germany, there is the obvious reply, +that, if cut off from France contrary to the wishes of the local +population, and with the French people in chronic irritation on +this account, they will be places of weakness rather than +strength, strongholds of disaffection rather than defence, to be +held always at the cannon's mouth. Does Germany seek lasting +peace? Not in this way can it be had. A painful exaction, enforced +by triumphant arms, must create a sentiment of hostility in +France, suppressed for a season, but ready at a propitious moment +to break forth in violence; so that between the two conterminous +nations there will be nothing better than a peace where each +sleeps on its arms,--which is but an Armed Peace. Such for weary +years has been the condition of nations. Is Germany determined to +prolong the awful curse? Will her most enlightened people, with +poetry, music, literature, philosophy, science, and religion as +constant ministers, to whom has been opened in rarest degree the +whole book of knowledge, persevere in a brutal policy belonging to +another age, and utterly alien to that superior civilization which +is so truly theirs? + +There is another consideration, not only of justice, but of public +law, which cannot be overcome. The people of these provinces are +unwilling to be separated from France. This is enough. France +cannot sell or transfer them against their consent. Consult the +great masters, and you will find their concurring authority. +Grotius, from whom on such a question there can be no appeal, +adjudges: "In the alienation of a part of the sovereignty it is +required _that the part which is to be alienated consent to the +act._" According to him, it must not be supposed "that the body +should have the right of cutting off parts from itself and giving +them into the authority of another."[Footnote: De Jure Belli et +Pads, tr. Whewell, Lib. II. Cap. 6, S: 4] Of the same opinion is +Pufendorf, declaring: "The sovereign who attempts to transfer his +kingdom to another by his sole authority does an act in itself +null and void, and not binding on his subjects. To make such a +conveyance valid, the consent of the people is required, as well +as of the prince." [Footnote: De Jure Naturae et Gentium, Lib. +VIII. Cap. 5, Section 9.] Vattel crowns this testimony, when he +adds, that a province or city, "abandoned and dismembered from the +State, is not obliged to receive the new master proposed to be +given it." [Footnote: Le Droit des Gens, Liv. I. Ch. 21, Section +264.] Before such texts, stronger than a fortress, the soldiers of +Germany must halt. + +Nor can it be forgotten how inconsistent is the guaranty of +Dismemberment with that heroic passion for national unity which is +the glory of Germany. National unity is not less the right of +France than of Germany; and these provinces, though in former +centuries German, and still preserving the German speech, belong +to the existing unity of France,--unless, according to the popular +song, the German's Fatherland extends + + "Far as the German accent rings"; + +and then the conqueror must insist on Switzerland; and why not +cross the Atlantic, to dictate laws in Pennsylvania and Chicago? +But this same song has a better verse, calling that the German's +Fatherland + + "Where in the heart love warmly lies." + +But in these coveted provinces it is the love for France, and not +for Germany, which prevails. + + + + +GUARANTY OF DISARMAMENT. + + +The Guaranty of Dismemberment, when brought to the touchstone of +the three essential conditions, is found wanting. Dismissing it as +unsatisfactory, I come to that other guaranty where these +conditions are all fulfilled, and we find security for Germany +without offence to the just sentiments of France, and also a new +safe-guard to civilization. Against the Guaranty of Dismemberment +I oppose the Guaranty of Disarmament. By Disarmament I mean the +razing of the French fortifications and the abolition of the +standing army, except that minimum of force required for purposes +of police. How completely this satisfies the conditions already +named is obvious. For Germany there would be on the side of France +absolute repose, so that Count Bismarck need not fear another +invasion,--while France, saved from intolerable humiliation, would +herself be free to profit by the new civilization. + +Nor is this guaranty otherwise than practical in every respect, +and the more it is examined the more will its inestimable +advantage be apparent. + +1. There is, first, its most obvious _economy_, which is so +glaring, that, according to a familiar French expression, "it +leaps into the eyes." Undertaking even briefly to set it forth, I +seem to follow the proverb and "show the sun with a lantern." +According to the "Almanach de Gotha," the appropriations for the +army of France, during the year of peace before the war, were +588,852, 970 francs, [Footnote: Almanach de Gotha, 1870, p. 599.] +or about one hundred and seventeen millions of dollars. Give up +the Standing Army and this considerable sum disappears from the +annual budget. But this retrenchment represents only partially the +prodigious economy. Beyond the annual outlay is the loss to the +nation by the change of producers into non-producers. Admitting +that in France the average production of a soldier usefully +employed would be only fifty dollars, and multiplying this small +allowance by the numbers of the Standing Army, you have another +amount to be piled upon the military appropriations. Is it too +much to expect that this surpassing waste shall be stopped? Must +the extravagance born of war, and nursed by long tradition, +continue to drain the resources of the land? Where is reason? +Where humanity? A decree abolishing the Standing Army would be +better for the French people, and more productive, than the +richest gold-mine discovered in every department of France. Nor +can imagination picture the fruitful result. I speak now only in +the light of economy. Relieved from intolerable burden, industry +would lift itself to unimagined labors, and society be quickened +anew. + +2. Beyond this economy, winch need not be argued, is the positive +_advantage, if not necessity,_ of such change for France. I +do not speak on general grounds applicable to all nations, but on +grounds peculiar to France at the present moment. Emerging from a +most destructive war, she will be subjected to enormous and +unprecedented contributions of every kind. After satisfying +Germany, she will find other obligations at home,--some pressing +directly upon the nation, and others upon individuals. Beyond the +outstanding pay of soldiers, requisitions for supplies, pensions +for the wounded and the families of the dead, and other +extraordinary liabilities accumulating as never before in the same +time, there will be the duty of renewing that internal prosperity +which has received such a shock; and here the work of restoration +will be costly, whether to the nation or the individual. Revenue +must be regained, roads and bridges repaired, markets supplied; +nor can we omit the large and multitudinous losses from ravage of +fields, seizure of stock, suspension of business, stoppage of +manufactures, interference with agriculture, and the whole +terrible drain of war by which the people are impoverished and +disabled. If to the necessary appropriation and expenditure for +all these things is superadded the annual tax of a Standing Army, +and that other draft from the change of producers into non-producers, +plainly here is a supplementary burden of crushing weight. +Talk of the last feather breaking the back of the camel,-- +but never was camel loaded down as France. + +3. Beyond even these considerations of economy and advantage I put +the transcendent, priceless benefit of Disarmament in the +_assurance of peace_. Disarmament substitutes the constable +for the soldier, and reduces the Standing Army to a police. The +argument assumes, first, the needlessness of a Standing Army, and, +secondly, its evil influence. Both of these points were touched at +an early day by the wise Chancellor of England, Sir Thomas More, +when, in his practical and personal Introduction to "Utopia," he +alludes to what he calls the "bad custom" of keeping many +servants, and then says: "In France there is yet a more +pestiferous sort of people; for the whole country is full of +soldiers, that are still kept up in time of peace,--if such a +state of a nation can be called a peace." Then, proceeding with +his judgment, the Chancellor holds up what he calls those +"pretended statesmen" whose maxim is that "it is necessary for the +public safety to have a good body of veteran soldiers ever in +readiness." And after saying that these pretended statesmen +"sometimes seek occasion for making war, that they may train up +their soldiers in the art of cutting throats," he adds, in words +soon to be tested, "But France has learned, to its cost, how +dangerous it is to feed such beasts." [Footnote: Utopia, tr. +Burnet, (London, 1845,) Book I. pp. 29, 30.] It will be well, if +France has learned this important lesson. The time has come to +practise it. + +All history is a vain word, and all experience is at fault, if +large War Preparations, of which the Standing Army is the type, +have not been constant provocatives of war. Pretended protectors +against war, they have been real instigators to war. They have +excited the evil against which they were to guard. The habit of +wearing arms in private life exercised a kindred influence. So +long as this habit continued, society was darkened by personal +combat, street-fight, duel, and assassination. The Standing Army +is to the nation what the sword was to the modern gentleman, the +stiletto to the Italian, the knife to the Spaniard, the pistol to +our slave-master,--furnishing, like these, the means of death; and +its possessor is not slow to use it. In stating the operation of +this system we are not left to inference. As France, according to +Sir Thomas More, shows "how dangerous it is to feed such beasts," +so does Prussia, in ever-memorable instance, which speaks now with +more than ordinary authority, show precisely how the Standing Army +may become the incentive to war. Frederick, the warrior king, is +our witness. With honesty or impudence beyond parallel, he did not +hesitate to record in his Memoirs, among the reasons for his war +upon Maria Theresa, that, on coming to the throne, he found +himself with "troops always ready to act." Voltaire, when called +to revise the royal memoirs, erased this confession, but preserved +a copy;[Footnote: Brougham, Lives of Men of Letters, (London and +Glasgow, 1856,) p. 59,--_Voltaire_. See also Voltaire, _Memoires +pour servir a la Vie de, ecrits par lui-meme, (edit/ 1784-89,) +Tom. LXX. p. 279; also Frederic II., _Histoire de mini Temps_, +OEuvres Posthumes, (Berlin, 1789,) Tom. I. Part. I. p. 78.] +so that by his literary activity we have this kingly authority +for the mischief from a Standing Army. How complete a weapon +was that army may be learned from Lafayette, who, in a letter +to Washington, in 1786, after a visit to the King, described it thus:--- + +"Nothing can be compared to the beauty of the troops, to the +discipline which reigns in all their ranks, to the simplicity of +their movements, to the uniformity of their regiments..... All the +situations which can be supposed in war, all the movements which +these must necessitate, have been by constant habit so inculcated +in their heads, that all these operations are done almost +mechanically." [Footnote: Memoires, Tom. II. p. 133.] + +Nothing better has been devised since the Macedonian phalanx or +the Roman legion. With such a weapon ready to his hands, the King +struck Maria Theresa. And think you that the present duel between +France and Germany could have been waged, had not both nations +found themselves, like Frederick of Prussia, with "troops always +ready to act"? It was the possession of these troops which made +the two parties rush so swiftly to the combat. Is not the lesson +perfect? Already individuals have disarmed. Civilization requires +that nations shall do likewise. + +Thus is Disarmament enforced on three several grounds: first, +economy; secondly, positive advantage, if not necessity, for +France; and, thirdly, assurance of peace. No other guaranty +promises so much. Does any other guaranty promise anything beyond +the accident of force? Nor would France be alone. Dismissing to +the arts of peace the large army victorious over Slavery, our +Republic has shown how disarmament can be accomplished. The +example of France, so entirely reasonable, so profitable, so +pacific, and so harmonious with ours, would spread. Conquering +Germany could not resist its influence. Nations are taught by +example more than by precept, and either is better than force. +Other nations would follow; nor would Russia, elevated by her +great act of Enfranchisement, fail to seize her sublime +opportunity. Popular rights, which are strongest always in assured +peace, would have new triumphs. Instead of Trial by Battle for the +decision of differences between nations, there would be peaceful +substitutes, as Arbitration, or, it may be, a Congress of Nations, +and the United States of Europe would appear above the subsiding +waters. The old juggle of Balance of Power, which has rested like +a nightmare on Europe, would disappear, like that other less +bloody fiction of Balance of Trade, and nations, like individuals, +would all be equal before the law. Here our own country furnishes +an illustration. So long as slavery prevailed among us, there was +an attempt to preserve what was designated balance of power +between the North and South, pivoting on Slavery,--just as in +Europe there has been an attempt to preserve balance of power +among nations pivoting on War. Too tardily is it seen that this +famous balance, which has played such a part at home and abroad, +is but an artificial contrivance instituted by power, which must +give place to a simple accord derived from the natural condition +of things. Why should not the harmony which has begun at home be +extended abroad? Practicable and beneficent here, it must be the +same there. Then would nations exist without perpetual and +reciprocal watchfulness. But the first step is to discard the +wasteful, oppressive, and pernicious provocative to war, which is +yet maintained at such terrible cost. To-day this glorious advance +is presented to France and Germany. + + + + +KING WILLIAM AND COUNT BISMARCK. + + +Two personages at this moment hold in their hands the great +question teeming with a new civilization. Honest and determined, +both are patriotic rather than cosmopolitan or Christian, +believing in Prussia rather than Humanity. And the patriotism so +strong in each keeps still the early tinge of iron. I refer to +King William and his Prime-Minister, Count Bismarck. + +More than any other European sovereign, William of Prussia +possesses the infatuation of "divine right." He believes that he +was appointed by God to be King--differing here from Louis +Napoleon, who in a spirit of compromise entitled himself Emperor +"by the grace of God and the national will." This infatuation was +illustrated at his coronation in ancient Konigsberg,--first home +of Prussian royalty, and better famous as birthplace and lifelong +home of Immanuel Kant,--when the King enacted a scene of +melodrama which might be transferred from the church to the +theatre. No other person was allowed to place the crown on his +royal head. Lifting it from the altar, where it rested, he placed +it on his head himself, in sign that he held it from Heaven and +not from man, and next placed another on the head of the Queen, in +sign that her dignity was derived from him. Then, turning round, +he grasped the sword of state, in testimony of readiness to defend +the nation. Since the Battle of Sadowa, when the Austrian Empire +was so suddenly shattered, he has believed himself providential +sword-bearer of Germany, destined, perhaps, to revive the old +glories of Barbarossa. His habits are soldierly, and, notwithstanding +his seventy-three winters, he continues to find pleasure in +wearing the spiked helmet of the Prussian camp. Republicans +smile when he speaks of "my army," "my allies," and "my people"; +but this egotism is the natural expression of the monarchical +character, especially where the monarch believes that he +holds by "divine right." His public conduct is in harmony with +these conditions. He is a Protestant, and rules the land of +Luther, but he is no friend to modern Reform. The venerable system +of war and prerogative is part of his inheritance handed down from +fighting despots, and he evidently believes in it. + +His Minister, Count Bismarck, is the partisan of "divine right," +and, like the King, regards with satisfaction that hierarchical +feudalism from which they are both derived. He is noble, and +believes in nobility. He believes also in force, as if he had the +blood of the god Thor. He believes in war, and does not hesitate +to throw its "iron dice," insisting upon the rigors of the game. +As the German question began to lower, his policy was most +persistent. "Not by speeches and votes of the majority," he said +in 1862, "are the great questions of the time decided,--that was +the error of 1848 and 1849,--_but by iron and blood_." [Footnote: +"Nicht durch Reden und Majoritaetsbeschluesse werden die grossen +Fragen der Zeit entschieden,--das ist der Fehler von 1848 und +1849 gewesen,--sondern durch Eisen und Blut."--_Aeusserungen +in der Budgetkommission_, September, 1862.] + +Thus explicit was he. Having a policy, he became its +representative, and very soon thereafter controlled the counsels +of his sovereign, coming swiftly before the world; and yet his +elevation was tardy. Born in 1815, he did not enter upon diplomacy +until 1851, when thirty-six years of age, and only in 1862 became +Prussian Minister at Paris, whence he was soon transferred to the +Cabinet at Berlin as Prime-Minister. Down to that time he was +little known. His name is not found in any edition of the bulky +French Dictionary of Contemporaries, [Footnote: Vapereau, +Dictionnaire Universel des Contemporains.] not even its "Additions +and Rectifications," until the Supplement of 1863. But from this +time he drew so large a share of public attention that the +contemporary press of the world became the dictionary where his +name was always found. Nobody doubts his intellectual resources, +his courage, or strength of will; but it is felt that he is +naturally hard, and little affected by human sympathy. Therefore +is he an excellent war minister. It remains to be seen if he will +do as much for peace. His one idea has been the unity of Germany +under the primacy of Prussia; and here he encountered Austria, as +he now encounters France. But in that larger unity where nations +will be conjoined in harmony he can do less, so long at least as +he continues a fanatic for kings and a cynic towards popular +institutions. + +Such is the King, and such his Minister. I have described them +that you may see how little help the great ideas already +germinating from bloody fields will receive from them. In this +respect they are as one. + + + + +TWO INFLUENCES _VERSUS_ WAR SYSTEM. + + +Beyond the most persuasive influence of civilization, pleading, as +never before, with voice of reason and affection, that the +universal tyrant and master-evil of Christendom, the War System, +may cease, and the means now absorbed in its support be employed +for the benefit of the Human Family, there are two special +influences which cannot be without weight at this time. The first +is German authority in the writings of philosophers, by whom +Germany rules in thought; and the second is the uprising of the +working-men: both against war as acknowledged arbiter between +nations, and insisting upon peaceful substitutes. + + + + +AUTHORITY OF THE GERMAN MIND. + + +More than any other nation Germany has suffered from war. Without +that fatal gift of beauty, "a dowry fraught with never-ending +pain," which tempted the foreigner to Italy, her lot has been +hardly less wretched; but Germany has differed from Italy in the +successful bravery with which she repelled the invader. Tacitus +says of her people, that, "surrounded by numerous and very +powerful nations, they are safe, not by obsequiousness, but by +battles and braving danger"; [Footnote: "Plurimis ac valentissimis +nationibus cincti, non per obsequium, sed prutiis et periclitando +tuti sunt."--_Germania_, Cap. XL.] and this same character, +thus epigrammatically presented, has continued ever since. Yet +this was not without that painful experience which teaches what +Art has so often attempted to picture and Eloquence to describe, +"The Miseries of War." Again in that same fearless spirit has +Germany driven back the invader, while War is seen anew in its +atrocious works. But it was not merely the Miseries of War which +Germans regarded. The German mind is philosophical and scientific, +and it early saw the irrational character of the War System. It is +well known that Henry the Fourth of France conceived the idea of +Harmony among Nations without War; and his plan was taken up and +elaborated in numerous writings by the good Abbe de Saint-Pierre, +so that he made it his own. Rousseau, in his treatise on the +subject, [Footnote: J. J. Rousseau, Extrait du Projet de Paix +Perpetuelle de M. l'Abbe de Saint-Pierre; avec Lettre a M. de +Bastide, et Jugement sur la Paix Perpetuelle: Oeuvres, (edit. +1788-93,) Tom. VII. pp. 339-418.] popularized Saint-Pierre. But it +is to Germany that we must look for the most complete and +practical development of this beautiful idea. If French in origin, +it is German now in authority. + +The greatest minds in Germany have dealt with this problem, and +given to its solution the exactness of science. No greater have +been applied to any question. Foremost in this list, in time and +in fame, is Leibnitz, that marvel of human intelligence, second, +perhaps, to none in history, who, on reading the "Project of +Perpetual Peace" by the Abbe de Saint-Pierre, pronounced this +judgment: "I have read it with attention, and am persuaded that +such a project is on the whole feasible, and that its execution +would be one of the most useful things in the world." [Footnote: +Observations sur le Projet d'une Paix Perpetuelle de M. l'Abbe de +Saint-Pierre: Opera, ed. Dutens, (Genevae, 1768,) Tom. V. p. 56.] +Thus did Leibnitz affirm its feasibility and its immense +usefulness. Other minds followed, in no apparent concert, but in +unison. I may be pardoned, if, without being too bibliographical, +I name some of these witnesses. + +At Goettingen, renowned for its University, the question was +opened, at the close of the Seven Years' War in 1763, in a work by +Totze, whose character appears in its title, "Permanent and +Universal Peace in Europe, according to the Plan of Henry IV." +[Footnote: Der ewige und allgemeine Friede in Europa, nach dem +Entwurf Heinrichs IV.] At Leipsic, also the seat of a University, +the subject was presented in 1767 by Lilienfeld, in a treatise of +much completeness, under the name of "New Constitution for +States," [Footnote: 2 Neues Staatsgebaeude.] where, after exposing +the wretched chances of the battlefield and the expense of +armaments in time of peace, the author urges submission to +Arbitrators, unless a Supreme Tribunal is established to +administer International Law and to judge between nations. In 1804 +appeared another work, of singular clearness and force, by Karl +Schwab, entitled "Of Unavoidable Injustice," [Footnote: Ueber das +unvermeidliche Unrecht.] where the author describes what he calls +the Universal State, in which nations will be to each other as +citizens in the Municipal State. He is not so visionary as to +imagine that justice will always be inviolate between nations in +the Universal State, for it is not always so between citizens in +the Municipal State; but he confidently looks to the establishment +between nations of the rules which now subsist between citizens, +whose differences are settled peaceably by judicial tribunals. + +These works, justly important for the light they shed, and as +expressions of a growing sentiment, are eclipsed in the +contributions of the great teacher, Immanuel Kant, who, after his +fame in philosophy was established, so that his works were +discussed and expounded not only throughout Germany, but in other +lands, in 1795 crave to the world a treatise entitled "On +Perpetual Peace," [Footnote: Zum ewigen Frieden.] which was +promptly translated into French, Danish, and Dutch. Two other +works by him attest his interest in the subject, the first +entitled "Idea for a General History in a Cosmopolitan View," +[Footnote: Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltburgerlicher +Absicht.] and the other, "Metaphysical Elements of Jurisprudence." +[Footnote: Metaphysische Anfangsgrunde der Rechtslehre.] +His grasp was complete. A treaty of peace which tacitly acknowledges +the right to wage war, as all treaties now do, according to +Kant is nothing more than a truce. An individual war may be +ended, but not the _state of war_; so that, even after cessation +of hostilities, there will be constant fear of their renewal, +while the armaments known as Peace Establishments will tend +to provoke them. All this should be changed, and nations should +form one comprehensive Federation, which, receiving other +nations within its fold, will at last embrace the civilized world; +and such, in the judgment of Kant, was the irresistible tendency +of nations. To a French poet we are indebted for the most +suggestive term, "United States of Europe"; [Footnote: Victor +Hugo, Discours d'Ouverture du Congres de la Paix a Paris, 21 +1849: Treize Discours, (Paris, 1851,) p. 19.] but this is nothing +but the Federation of the illustrious German philosopher. Nor was +Kant alone among his great contemporaries. That other philosopher, +Fichte, whose name at the time was second only to that of Kant, in +his "Groundwork of the Law of Nature," [Footnote: Grundlage des +Naturrechts.] published in 1796, also urges a Federation of +Nations, with an established tribunal to which all should submit. +Much better for civilization, had the King at Konigsberg, instead +of grasping the sword, hearkened to the voice of Kant, renewed by +Fichte. + +With these German oracles in its support, the cause cannot be put +aside. Even in the midst of war, Philosophy will be heard, +especially when she speaks words of concurring authority that +touch a chord in every heart. Leibnitz, Kant, and Fichte, a mighty +triumvirate of intelligence, unite in testimony. As Germany, +beyond any other nation, has given to the idea of Organized Peace +the warrant of philosophy, it only remains now that she should +insist upon its practical application. There should be no delay. +Long enough has mankind waited while the river of blood flowed on. + + + + +UPRISING OF WORKING-MEN. + + +The working-men of Europe, not excepting Germany, respond to the +mandate of Philosophy, and insist that the War System shall be +abolished. At public meetings, in formal resolutions and +addresses, they have declared war against War, and they will not +be silenced. This is not the first time that working-men have made +themselves heard for international justice. I cannot forget, that, +while Slavery was waging war against our nation, the working-men +of Belgium in public meeting protested against that precocious +Proclamation of Belligerent Rights by which the British Government +gave such impulse to the Rebellion; and now, in the same spirit, +and for the sake of true peace, they declare themselves against +that War System by which the peace of nations is placed in such +constant jeopardy. They are right; for nobody suffers in war as +the working-man, whether in property or in person. For him war is +a ravening monster, devouring his substance, and changing him from +citizen to military serf. As victim of the War System he is +entitled to be heard. + +The working-men of different countries have been organizing in +societies, of which it is difficult at present to tell the number +and extent. It is known that these societies exist in Germany, +France, Spain, Italy, and England, as well as in our own country, +and that they have in some measure an international character. In +France, before the war, there were 438,785 men in the organization, +and in Germany 150,000. Yet this is but the beginning. [Footnote: +La Solidarite, 25 Juin 1870,--as cited by Testu, _L' Internationale, +(me edit.,) p. 275.] + +At the menace of the present war, all these societies were roused. +The society known as the International Working-Men's Association, +by their General Council, issued an address, dated at London, +protesting against it as a war of dynasties, denouncing Louis +Napoleon as an enemy of the laboring classes, and declaring "the +war-plot of July, 1870, but an amended edition of the _coup +d'etat_ of December, 1851." The address then testifies generally +against war, saying,-- + +"They feel deeply convinced, that, whatever turn the impending +horrid war may take, _the alliance of the working classes of all +countries will ultimately kill war_." [Footnote: The General +Council of the International Working-Men's Association on the War, +(London, July 23, 1870.) p. iv.] + +At the same time the Paris branch of the International Association +put forth a manifesto addressed "To the Working-Men of all +Countries," from which I take these passages:-- + +"Once more, under the pretext of European equilibrium, of national +honor, political ambitions menace the peace of the world. + +"French, German, Spanish working-men! _let our voices unite in a +cry of reprobation against war!_ + + * * * * * * + +"War for a question of preponderance, or of dynasty, can, in the +eyes of working-men, be nothing but a criminal absurdity. + +"In response to the warlike acclamations of those who exonerate +themselves from the impost of blood, or who find in public +misfortunes a source of new speculations, we protest,--we who +wish for peace, work, and liberty. + + * * * * * * + +"Brothers of Germany!....our divisions would only bring about +_the complete triumph of despotism on both sides of the +Rhine._ + + * * * * * * + +"Working-men of all countries! whatever may be the result of our +common efforts, we, members of the International Association of +Working-Men, who know no frontiers, we send you, as a pledge of +indissoluble solidarity, the good wishes and the salutations of +the working-men of France." [Footnote: Testu, L'Internationale, +pp. 279-80. The General Council of the International Working-Men's +Association on the War, p. ii.] + +To this appeal, so full of truth, touching to the quick the +pretence of balance of power and questions of dynasty as excuses +for war, and then rising to "a cry of reprobation against war," +the Berlin branch of the International Association replied:-- + +"We join with heart and hand in your protestation..... Solemnly we +promise you that neither the noise of drums nor the thunder of +cannon, neither victory nor defeat, shall turn us aside from our +work for the union of the proletaries of all countries." +[Footnote: Testu, pp. 284-85. The General Council, etc., p. iii.] + +Then came a meeting of delegates at Chemnitz, in Saxony, +representing fifty thousand Saxon working-men, which put forth the +following hardy words:-- + +"We are happy to grasp the fraternal hand stretched out to us by +the working-men of France.... Mindful of the watchword of the +International Working-Men's Association, _Proletarians of all +countries, unite!_ we shall never forget that the working-men +of all countries are our friends, and the despots of all countries +our enemies." [Footnote: The General Council of the International +Working-Men's Association on the War, p. iii.] + +Next followed, at Brunswick, in Germany, on the 16th of July,--the +very day after the reading of the war document at the French +tribune, and the "light heart" of the Prime-Minister,--a mass +meeting of the working-men there, which declared its full +concurrence with the manifesto of the Paris branch, spurned the +idea of national antagonism to France, and wound up with these +solid words:-- + +"We are enemies of all wars, but above all of dynastic wars" +[Footnote: Ibid.] + +The whole subject is presented with admirable power in an address +from the Workmen's Peace Committee to the Working-Men of Great +Britain and Ireland, duly signed by their officers. Here are some +of its sentences:-- + +"Without us war must cease; for without us standing armies could +not exist. It is out of our class chiefly that they are formed." + +"We would call upon and implore the peoples of France find +Germany, in order to enable their own rulers to realize these +their peace-loving professions, _to insist upon the abolition of +standing armies_, as both the source and means of war, nurseries +of vice, and locust-consumers of the fruits of useful industry." + +"What we claim and demand--what we would implore the peoples of +Europe to do, without regard to Courts, Cabinets, or Dynasties--is +_to insist upon Arbitration as a substitute for war_, with +peace and its blessings for them, for us, for the whole civilized +world." [Footnote: Herald of Peace for 1870, September 1st, pp. +101-2.] + +The working-men of England responded to this appeal, in a crowded +meeting at St. James's Hall, London, where all the speakers were +working-men and representatives of the various handicrafts, except +the Chairman, whose strong words found echo in the intense +convictions of the large assemblage:-- + +"One object of this meeting is to make the horror universally +inspired by the enormous and cruel carnage of this terrible war +the groundwork for appealing to the working classes and the people +of all other European countries to join in protesting against war +altogether, [_prolonged cheers_,] as the shame of Christendom, +and direst curse and scourge of the human race. Let the will +of the people sweep away war, which cannot he waged without +them. [_'Hear!'_] Away with enormous standing armies, [_'Hear!'_] +the nurseries and instruments of war,--nurseries, too, of +vice, and crushing burdens upon national wealth and prosperity! +Let there go forth from the people of this and other lands +one universal and all-overpowering cry and demand for the +blessings of peace!" [Footnote: Ibid., October 1st, p. 125.] + +At this meeting the Honorary Secretary of the Workmen's Peace +Committee, after announcing that the working-men of upwards of +three hundred towns had given their adhesion to the platform of +the Committee, thus showing a determination to abolish war +altogether, moved the following resolution, which was adopted:--- + +"That war, especially with the present many fearful contrivances +for wholesale carnage an destruction, is repugnant to every +principle of reason, humanity, and religion; and this meeting +earnestly invites all civilized and Christian peoples to insist +upon the abolition of standing armies, and the settlement by +arbitration of all international disputes." [Footnote: Herald of +Peace for 1870, October 1st, p. 125.] + +Thus clearly is the case stated by the Working-Men, now beginning +to be heard; and the testimony is reverberated from nation to +nation. They cannot be silent hereafter. I confidently look to +them for important cooperation in this great work of redemption. +Could my voice reach them now, wherever they may be, in that +honest toil which is the appointed lot of man, it would be with +words of cheer and encouragement. Let them proceed until +civilization is no longer darkened by war. In this way will they +become not only saviours to their own households, but benefactors +of the whole Human Family. + + + + +ABOLITION OF THE WAR SYSTEM. + + +Such is the statement, with its many proofs, by which war is +exhibited as the Duel of Nations, being the Trial by Battle of the +Dark Ages. You have seen how nations, under existing International +Law, to which all are parties, refer their differences to this +insensate arbitrament,--and then how, in our day and before our +own eyes, two nations eminent in civilization have furnished an +instance of this incredible folly, waging together a world- +convulsing, soul-harrowing, and most barbarous contest. All ask +how long the direful duel will be continued. Better ask, How long +will be continued that War System by which such a duel is +authorized and regulated among nations? When will this legalized, +organized crime be abolished? When at last will it be confessed +that the Law of Right is the same for nations as for individuals, +so that, if Trial by Battle be impious for individuals, it is so +for nations likewise? Against it are Reason and Humanity, pleading +as never before,--Economy, asking for mighty help,--Peace, with +softest voice praying for safeguard,--and then the authority of +Philosophy, speaking by some of its greatest masters,--all +reinforced by the irrepressible, irresistible protest of working- +men in different nations. + +Precedents exist for the abolition of this duel, so completely in +point, that, according to the lawyer's phrase, they "go on all +fours" with the new case. Two of these have been already +mentioned: first, when, at the Diet of Worms, in 1495, the Emperor +Maximilian proclaimed a permanent peace throughout Germany, and +abolished the "liberty" of Private War; and, secondly, when, in +1815, the German Principalities stipulated "under no pretext to +make war upon one another, or to pursue their differences by force +of arms." [Footnote: See, _ante_, p. 247.] But first in time, +and perhaps in importance, was the great Ordinance of St. Louis, +King of France, promulgated at a Parliament in 1260, where he +says: "_We forbid battles [i. e. TRIALS BY BATTLE] to all +persons throughout our dominions,... and in place of battles we +put proofs by witnesses_... AND THESE BATTLES WE ABOLISH IN OUR +DOMINIONS FOREVER." [Footnote: "Nous deffendons a tous les +batailles par tout, nostre demengne,.... et on lieu des batailles +nous meton prueves de tesmoins..... Et ces batailles nous ostons +en nostre demaigne a toujours."----_Recueil General des +Anciennes Lois Francaises_, par Jourdan, etc., (Paris, 1822- +33,) Tom. I. pp. 283-90.] These at the time were great words, and +they continue great as an example. Their acceptance by any two +nations would begin the work of abolition, which would be +completed on their adoption by a Congress of Nations, taking from +war its existing sanction. + + + + +THE WORLD A GLADIATORIAL AMPHITHEATRE. + + +The growing tendencies of mankind have been quickened by the +character of the present war, and the unexampled publicity with +which it has been waged. Never before were all nations, even those +separated by great spaces, whether of land or ocean, the daily and +excited spectators of the combat. The vast amphitheatre within +which the battle is fought, with the whole heavens for its roof, +is coextensive with civilization itself. The scene in that great +Flavian Amphitheatre, the famous Colosseum, is a faint type of +what we are witnessing; but that is not without its lesson. Bloody +games, where human beings contended with lions and tigers, +imported for the purpose, or with each other, constituted an +institution of ancient Rome, only mildly rebuked by Cicero, +[Footnote: "Crudele gladiatorum spectaculum et inhumanum nonnullis +videri solet: et hand scio an ita sit, ut nunc fit."_--Tusculanae +Quaestiones_, Lib. II. Cap. XVII. 41.] and adopted even by +Titus, in that short reign so much praised as unspotted by the +blood of the citizen. [Footnote: Suetonius: _Titus_, Cap. IX. +Merivale, History of the Romans under the Empire, (London, 1862,) +Ch. LX., Vol. VII. p. 56.] One hundred thousand spectators looked +on, while gladiators from Germany and Gaul joined in ferocious +combat; and then, as blood began to flow, and victim after victim +sank upon the sand, the people caught the fierce contagion. A +common ferocity ruled the scene. As Christianity prevailed, the +incongruity of such an institution was widely felt; but still it +continued. At last an Eastern monk, moved only by report, +journeyed a long way to protest against the impiety. With noble +enthusiasm he leaped into the arena, where the battle raged, in +order to separate the combatants. He was unsuccessful, and paid +with life the penalty of his humanity. [Footnote: St. Telemachus, +A. D. 401. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ed. +Milman, (London, 1846,) Ch. XXX., Vol. III. p. 70. Smith, Dict. +Gr. and Rom. Biog. and Myth., art. TELEMACHUS.] But the martyr +triumphed where the monk had failed. Shortly afterwards, the +Emperor Honorius, by solemn decree, put an end to this horrid +custom. "The first Christian Emperor," says Gibbon, "may claim the +honor of the first edict which condemned the art and amusement of +shedding human blood." [Footnote: Decline and Fall of the Roman +Empire, _ubi supra_.] Our amphitheatre is larger than that of +Rome; but it witnesses scenes not less revolting; nor need any +monk journey a long way to protest against the impiety. That +protest can be uttered by every one here at home. We are all +spectators; and since by human craft the civilized world has +become one mighty Colosseum, with place for everybody, may we not +insist that the bloody games by which it is yet polluted shall +cease, and that, instead of mutual-murdering gladiators filling +the near-brought scene with death, there shall be a harmonious +people, of different nations, but one fellowship, vying together +only in works of industry and art, inspired and exalted by a +divine beneficence? + +In presenting this picture I exaggerate nothing. How feeble is +language to depict the stupendous barbarism! How small by its side +the bloody games which degraded ancient Rome! How pygmy the one, +how colossal the other! Would you know how the combat is +conducted? Here is the briefest picture of the arena by a looker- +on:-- + +"Let your readers fancy masses of colored rags glued together with +blood and brains, and pinned into strange shapes by fragments of +bones,--let them conceive men's bodies without heads, legs without +bodies, heaps of human entrails attached to red and blue cloth, +and disembowelled corpses in uniform, bodies lying about in all +attitudes, with skulls shattered, faces blown off, hips smashed, +bones, flesh, and gay clothing all pounded together as if brayed +in a mortar extending for miles, not very thick in any one place, +but recurring perpetually for weary hours,--and then they cannot, +with the most vivid imagination, come up to the sickening reality +of that butchery." [Footnote: Scene after the Battle of Sedan: +Herald of Peace for 1870, October 1st, p. 121] Such a sight would +have shocked the Heathen of Rome. They could not have looked on +while the brave gladiator was thus changed into a bloody hash; +least of all could they have seen the work of slaughter done by +machinery. Nor could any German gladiator have written the letter +I proceed to quote from a German soldier:-- + +"I do not know how it is, but one wholly forgets the danger one is +in, and thinks only of the effect of one's own bullets, rejoicing +like a child at the sight of the enemy falling like skittles, and +having scarcely a compassionate glance to spare for the comrade +falling at one's side. One ceases to be a human being, and turns +into a brute, a complete brute." + +Plain confession! And yet the duel continues. Nor is there death +for the armed man only. Fire mingles with slaughter, as at +Bazeilles. Women and children are roasted alive, filling the air +with suffocating odor, while the maddened combatants rage against +each other. All this is but part of the prolonged and various +spectacle, where the scene shifts only for some other horror. +Meanwhile the sovereigns of the world sit in their boxes, and the +people everywhere occupy the benches. + +PERIL FROM THE WAR SYSTEM. + +The duel now pending teaches the peril from continuance of the +present system. If France and Germany can be brought so suddenly +into collision on a mere pretext, what two nations are entirely +safe? Where is the talisman for their protection? None, surely, +except Disarmament, which, therefore, for the interest of all +nations, should be commenced. Prussia is now an acknowledged +military power, armed "in complete steel,"--but at what cost to +her people, if not to mankind! Military citizenship, according to +Prussian rule, is military serfdom, and on this is elevated a +military despotism of singular grasp and power, operating +throughout the whole nation, like martial law or a state of siege. +In Prussia the law tyrannically seizes every youth of twenty, and, +no matter what his calling or profession, compels him to military +service for seven years. Three years he spends in active service +in the regular army, where his life is surrendered to the trade of +blood; then for four years he passes to the reserve, where he is +subject to periodic military drills; then for five years longer to +the _Landwehr_, or militia, with liability to service in the +_Landsturm_, in case of war, until sixty. Wherever he may be +in foreign lands, his military duty is paramount. + +But if this system be good for Prussia, then must it be equally +good for other nations. If this economical government, with +education for all, subordinates the business of life to the +military drill, other nations will find too much reason for doing +the same. Unless the War System is abandoned, all must follow the +successful example, while the civilized world becomes a busy camp, +with every citizen a soldier, and with all sounds swallowed up in +the tocsin of war. Where, then, are the people? Where are popular +rights? Montesquieu has not hesitated to declare that the peril to +free governments proceeds from armies, and that this peril is not +corrected even by making them depend directly on the legislative +power. This is not enough. The armies must be reduced in number +and force. [Footnote: De l'Esprit des Lois, Liv. XI. Ch. 6.] Among +his papers, found since his death, is the prediction, "France will +be ruined by the military." [Footnote: "La France se perdra par +les gens de guerre."_--Pensees Diverses,--Varietes_: (Oeuvres +Melees et Posthumes, (Paris, 1807, Didot,) Tom. II. p. 138.)] +It is the privilege of genius like that of Montesquieu to lift the +curtain of the future; but even he did not see the vastness +of suffering in store for his country through those armies +against which he warned. For years the engine of despotism +at home, they became the sudden instrument of war abroad. Without +them Louis Napoleon could not have made himself Emperor, nor could +he have hurried France into the present duel. If needed in other +days, they are not needed now. The War System, always barbarous, +is an anachronism, full of peril both to peace and liberal +institutions. + + + + +PEACE. + + +An army is a despotism; military service is a bondage; nor can the +passion for arms be reconciled with a true civilization. The +present failure to acknowledge this incompatibility is only +another illustration how the clear light of truth is discolored +and refracted by an atmosphere where the cloud of war still +lingers. Soon must this cloud be dispersed. From war to peace is a +change indeed; but Nature herself testifies to change. Sirius, +brightest of all the fixed stars, was noted by Ptolemy as of +reddish hue, [Footnote: Almagest, ed. et tr. Halma, (Paris, 1816- +20,) Tom. II. pp. 72, 73.] and by Seneca as redder than Mars; +[Footnote: Naturales Quaestiones, Lib. I. Cap. 1.] but since then +it has changed to white. To the morose remark, whether in the +philosophy of Hobbes or the apology of the soldier, that man is a +fighting animal and that war is natural, I reply,--Natural for +savages rejoicing in the tattoo, natural for barbarians rejoicing +in violence, but not natural for man in a true civilization, which +I insist is the natural state to which he tends by a sure +progression. The true state of Nature is not war, but peace. Not +only every war, but every recognition of war as the mode of +determining international differences, is evidence that we are yet +barbarians,--and so also is every ambition for empire founded on +force, and not on the consent of the people. A ghastly, bleeding, +human head was discovered by the early Romans, as they dug the +foundations of that Capitol which finally swayed the world. +[Footnote: Dionysius Halicarnassensis, Antiquitates Romanae, Lib. +IV. Capp. 59-61.] That ghastly, bleeding, human head is the fit +symbol of military power. + +Let the War System be abolished, and, in the glory of this +consummation, how vulgar all that comes from battle! By the side +of this serene, beneficent civilization, how petty in its +pretensions is military power! how vain its triumphs! At this +moment the great general who has organized victory for Germany is +veiled, and his name does not appear even in the military +bulletins. Time is the glory of arms passing from sight, and +battle losing its ancient renown. Peace does not arrest the mind +like war. It does not glare like battle. Its operations, like +those of Nature, are gentle, yet sure. It is not the tumbling, +sounding cataract, but the tranquil, fruitful river. Even the +majestic Niagara, with thunder like war, cannot compare with the +peaceful plains of water which it divides. How easy to see that +the repose of nations, like the repose of Nature, is the great +parent of the most precious bounties vouchsafed by Providence! Add +Peace to Liberty,-- + + "And with that virtue, every virtue lives." + +As peace is assured, the traditional sensibilities of nations will +disappear. Their frontiers will no longer frown with hostile +cannon, nor will their people be nursed to hate each other. By +ties of constant fellowship will they be interwoven together, no +sudden trumpet waking to arms, no sharp summons disturbing the +uniform repose. By steam, by telegraph, by the press, have they +already conquered time, subdued space,--thus breaking down old +walls of partition by which they have been separated. Ancient +example loses its influence. The prejudices of another generation +are removed, and the old geography gives place to a new. The +heavens are divided into constellations, with names from beasts, +or from some form of brute force,--as Leo, Taurus, Sagittarius, +and Orion with his club; but this is human device. By similar +scheme is the earth divided. But in the sight of God there is one +Human Family without division, where all are equal in rights; and +the attempt to set up distinctions, keeping men asunder, or in +barbarous groups, is a practical denial of that great truth, +religious and political, the Brotherhood of Man. The Christian's +Fatherland is not merely the nation in which he was born, but the +whole earth appointed by the Heavenly Father for his home. In this +Fatherland there can be no place for unfriendly boundaries set up +by any,--least of all, place for the War System, making nations as +hostile camps. + +At Lassa, in Thibet, there is a venerable stone in memory of the +treaty between the courts of Thibet and China, as long ago as 821, +bearing an inscription worthy of a true civilization. From Eastern +story learn now the beauty of peace. After the titles of the two +august sovereigns, the monument proceeds: "These two wise, holy, +spiritual, and accomplished princes, foreseeing the changes hidden +in the most distant futurity, touched with sentiments of +compassion towards their people, and not knowing, in their +beneficent protection, any difference between their subjects and +strangers, have, after mature reflection and by mutual consent, +resolved to give peace to their people... In perfect harmony with +each other, they will henceforth be good neighbors, and will do +their utmost to draw still closer the bonds of union and +friendship. Henceforward the two empires of Han (China) and Pho +(Thibet) shall have fixed boundaries... In preserving these +limits, the respective parties shall not endeavor to injure each +other; they shall not attack each other in arms, or make any more +incursions beyond the frontiers now determined." Then declaring +that the two "must reciprocally exalt their virtues and banish +forever all mistrust between them, that travellers may be without +uneasiness, that the inhabitants of the villages and fields may +live at peace, and that nothing may happen to cause a misunderstanding," +the inscription announces, in terms doubtless Oriental: "This +benefit will be extended to future generations, and the voice +of love (towards its authors) will be heard wherever the +splendor of the sun and the moon is seen. The Pho will be +tranquil in their kingdom, and the Han will be joyful in their +empire." [Footnote: Travels of the Russian Mission through +Mongolia to China, and Residence in Peking, in 1820-21, by George +Timkowski, Vol. I. pp. 460-64.] Such is the benediction which from +early times has spoken from one of the monuments erected by the +god Terminus. Call it Oriental; would it were universal! While +recognizing a frontier, there is equal recognition of peace as the +rule of international life. + + + + +THE REPUBLIC. + + +In the abolition of the War System the will of the people must +become all-powerful, exalting the Republic to its just place as +the natural expression of citizenship. Napoleon has been credited +with the utterance at St. Helena of the prophecy, that "in fifty +years Europe would be Republican or Cossack." [Footnote: See the +_New York Times_ of August 11, 1870, where the reputed prophecy +is cited in these terms, in a letter of the 27th July from the +London correspondent of that journal, with remarks indicating +an expectation of its fulfilment in the results of the present war.] +This famous saying has been variously represented; but the +following are its original terms, as recorded at the time by Las +Cases, to whom it was addressed in conversation, and as +authenticated by the Commission appointed by Louis Napoleon for +the collection and publication of the matters now composing the +magnificent work entitled "Correspondance de Napoleon Ier":--- + +_"Dans Petat actuel des choses, avant dix ans_, toute +l'Europe peut etre cosaque, ou toute en republique."--LAS CASES, +_Memorial de Sainte-Hellene_, (Reimpression de 1823 et 1824,) +Tom. III. p. 111,--Journal, 18 Avril 1816. _Correspondence de +Napoleon I_, (Paris, 1858-69,) Tom. XXXIL p. 326.] Evidently +Europe will not be Cossack, unless the Cossack is already changed +to Republican,--as well may be, when it is known, that, since the +great act of Enfranchisement, in February, 1861, by which twenty- +three millions of serfs were raised to citizenship, with the right +to vote, fifteen thousand three hundred and fifty public schools +have been opened in Russia. A better than Napoleon, who saw +mankind with truer insight, Lafayette, has recorded a clearer +prophecy. At the foundation of the monument on Bunker Hill, on the +semi-centennial anniversary of the battle, 17th June, 1825, our +much-honored national guest gave this toast: "Bunker Hill, and the +holy resistance to oppression, which has already enfranchised the +American hemisphere. The next half-century Jubilee's toast shall +be,--To _Enfranchised Europe_."[Footnote: Columbian Centinel, +June 18, 1825.] The close of that half-century, already so +prolific, is at hand. Shall it behold the great Jubilee with all +its vastness of promise accomplished? Enfranchised Europe, +foretold by Lafayette, means not only the Republic for all, but +Peace for all; it means the United States of Europe, with the War +System abolished. Against that little faith through which so much +fails in life, I declare my unalterable conviction, that +"government of the people, by the people, and for the people"-- +thus simply described by Abraham Lincoln [Footnote: Address at the +Consecration of the National Cemetery at Gettysburg, November 19, +1863: McPherson's Political History of the United States during +the Great Rebellion, p. 606.]--is a necessity of civilization, not +only because of that republican equality without distinction of +birth which it establishes, but for its assurance of permanent +peace. All privilege is usurpation, and, like Slavery, a state of +war, relieved only by truce, to be broken by the people in their +might. To the people alone can mankind look for the repose of +nations; but the Republic is the embodied people. All hail to the +Republic, equal guardian of all, and angel of peace! + +Our own part is simple. It is, first, to keep out of war,--and, +next, to stand firm in those ideas which are the life of the +Republic. Peace is our supreme vocation. To this we are called. By +this we succeed. Our example is more than an army. But not on this +account can we be indifferent, when Human Rights are assailed or +republican institutions are in question. Garibaldi asks for a +"word," [Footnote: "The cause of Liberty in Italy needs the word +of the United States Government, which would be more powerful in +its behalf than that of any other."--Message to Mr. Sumner from +Caprera, May 24,1869.] that easiest expression of power. Strange +will it be, when that is not given. To the Republic, and to all +struggling for Human Rights, I give word, with heart on the lips. +Word and heart I give. Nor would I have my country forget at any +time, in the discharge of its transcendent duties, that, since the +rule of conduct and of honor is the same for nations as for +individuals, the greatest nation is that which does most for +Humanity. + + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, THE DUEL BETWEEN FRANCE AND GERMANY *** + +This file should be named 6303.txt or 6303.zip + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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