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diff --git a/old/62871-8.txt b/old/62871-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 8955043..0000000 --- a/old/62871-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2957 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Thoughts on a Pebble, by Gideon Algernon Mantell - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll -have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using -this ebook. - - - -Title: Thoughts on a Pebble - or, A First Lesson in Geology - -Author: Gideon Algernon Mantell - -Release Date: August 7, 2020 [EBook #62871] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THOUGHTS ON A PEBBLE *** - - - - -Produced by Tom Cosmas from materials made freely available -on The Internet Archive. All derived products are placed -in the Public Domain. - - - - - - - - - -Transcriber Note - -Text emphasis is denoted as _Italics_ and =Bold=. Whole and fractional -parts of numbers as 123-4/5. - - - - -THOUGHTS ON A PEBBLE. - -[Illustration] - -REEVE, BENHAM, AND REEVE, PRINTERS AND PUBLISHERS OF SCIENTIFIC WORKS, -KING WILLIAM STREET, STRAND. - -[Illustration: GIDEON ALGERNON MANTELL, L.L.D. F.R.S - -_Vice-President of the Geological Society &c. &c._] - - - - - THOUGHTS - - ON A - - PEBBLE, - - OR, - - A FIRST LESSON IN GEOLOGY. - - - BY THE AUTHOR OF "THE WONDERS OF GEOLOGY." - - -[Illustration: _The Nautilus and the Ammonite._ _Vide_, p. 57.] - - -"There is no picking up a pebble by the brook-side, without finding all -nature in connexion with it." - - _Contemplations of Nature._ - -EIGHTH EDITION; WITH THIRTY-TWO ILLUSTRATIONS. - - -LONDON: - -REEVE, BENHAM, AND REEVE, KING WILLIAM STREET, STRAND. - -1849. - - - TO - - MY SON, - - =Reginald Nebille Mantell, C.E.,= - - THESE - - "THOUGHTS ON A PEBBLE" - - ARE MOST AFFECTIONATELY - - INSCRIBED. - - - LONDON, - - 19, CHESTER SQUARE, PIMLICO. - - 1849. - -"Every grain of sand is an immensity--every leaf a world--every insect -an assemblage of incomprehensible effects in which reflection is lost." - - Lavater. - - -"To the natural philosopher there is no natural object that is -unimportant or trifling. From the least of Nature's works he may learn -the greatest lessons. The fall of an apple to the ground may raise his -thoughts to the laws which govern the revolutions of the planets in -their orbits; or the situation of a _pebble_ may afford him evidence of -the state of the globe he inhabits, myriads of ages before his species -became its denizens." - - Sir J. F. W. Herschel. - - - - -TO THE READER. - - -Deeply impressed with the conviction that it is of the highest -importance the young and inquiring mind should have a correct idea -of natural phenomena--that it should not be left to its own unaided -efforts to unravel the mysteries of the beautiful world in which this -first state of being is destined to be passed--or have its curiosity -stifled or misled by unsatisfactory or erroneous conjectures--I have -endeavoured in this little work to explain in a simple and attractive -guise, some of the grand truths relating to the ancient physical -history of our planet, which modern geology has established. - -The favourable reception of these desultory "_Thoughts_" which -were originally penned for the amusement and instruction of an -intelligent boy, is a gratifying proof that the attempt has not been -unsuccessful; and I would fain indulge the hope, that this "_First -Lesson in Geology_" may still be productive of good, by exciting in -some youthful minds a desire for the acquisition of natural knowledge; -and inculcating the important truth, that He who formed the Universe -has created nothing in vain; that His works all harmonize to blessings -unbounded by the mightiest or most minute of His creatures; and that -the more our knowledge is increased, and our powers of observation are -enlarged, the more exalted will be our conception of His wondrous works. - - Chester Square, - Pimlico. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - Page. - - Thoughts on a Pebble: Part I. 5 - - More Thoughts on a Pebble: Part II. 33 - - "The Nautilus and the Ammonite" 57 - - Supplementary Notes 61 - - Note I. _Shells in Chalk_ 61 - - ---- II. _Wood in Flint_ 66 - - ---- III. _Whitby Ammonites_ 69 - - ---- IV. _Fossil Nautili_ 72 - - ---- V. _Brighton Cliffs_ 75 - - ---- VI. _Rotaliĉ in Chalk and Flint_ 79 - - ---- VII. _Isle of Wight Pebbles_ 82 - - ---- VIII. _Zoophytes of the Chalk_ 87 - - ---- IX. _Minute Corals from the Chalk_ 92 - - ---- X. _Infusorial Earths_ 97 - - - - -LIGNOGRAPHS. - - - Page. - - 1. Vignette of Title-page. - - 2. Fossil Turban-echinus (_Cidaris_), with spines. 9 - - 3. Bivalve with spines (_Plagiostoma spinosum_) in - chalk; from Lewes. 11 - - 4. Teeth of several species of the Shark tribe, in - chalk; from Lewes. 12 - - 5. Chalk-dust highly magnified, consisting of minute - shells. 13 - - 6. Shells (_Rotaliĉ_) from the chalk, highly magnified. 14 - - 7. Ammonite (_A. communis_) from the Lias, at Whitby. 20 - - 8. Nautilus (_N. elegans_) from the chalk-marl, Lewes. 22 - - 9. View of the Cliffs east of Brighton. 27 - - 10. Fossil animalcules (_Xanthidia_) in flint. 35 - - 11. _Xanthidium palmatum_, in flint. 37 - - 12. Rotalia in flint. 39 - - 13. Minute scales of fishes in flint. 40 - - 14. Choanites from the chalk; near Lewes. 44 - - 15. A branch of fossil coral attached to the pebble 46 - - 16. Coral-polype in flint. 47 - - 17. Minute Corals from chalk. 50 - - 18. Fossil cases or shields of animalcules from - Richmond, Virginia; highly magnified. 53 - - 19. Several species of Lamp-shells (_Terebratulĉ_) from - the chalk, near Brighton. 63 - - 20. Silicified Oyster from the chalk. 65 - - 21. Coniferous wood in flint, from Lewes Priory. 68 - - 22. Several species of Ammonite. 69 - - 23. The body of a recent microscopic animalcule - (_Nonionina_), the shell having been removed by - immersion in acid. 81 - - 24. A branch of Sponge in flint; a minute Coral from - chalk; and a section of a pebble enclosing a - zoophyte (_Siphonia Morrisiana_). 85 - - 25. Flints deriving their shapes from Zoophytes - (_Ventriculites_). 89 - - 26. Ventriculites in chalk; from Lewes. 90 - - 27. Portions of three kinds of recent corals. 94 - - - - -LITHOGRAPHS. - - Page. - - Plate I. A rolled flint pebble, having a Choanite as a - nucleus, and the remains of an echinus and spine, - shell, and coral, apparent on the surface. 5 - - Plate II. A longitudinal section of the pebble, showing - the structure of the enclosed _Choanite_. 42 - - Plate III. A polished section of an Ammonite, having - the septa or chambers filled with variously coloured - spar, &c. 70 - - Plate IV. Polished sections of two pebbles from the - Isle of Wight; in the upper specimen, the transition - from opaque flint to cloudy chalcedony and - transparent quartz crystals, is beautifully shown; - the lower specimen is richly tinted; the dark - appearance is derived from manganese. 86 - -[Illustration: _Plate I._ - -"THE PEBBLE" - - -_Page 5_] - - - - - THOUGHTS - - ON A - - PEBBLE. - - "Honoured, therefore, be thou, thou small pebble, lying in the lane; - and whenever any one looks at thee, may he think of the beautiful and - noble world he lives in, and all of which it is capable." - - Leigh Hunt's _London Journal_, p. 10. - - - - -PART I. - - -Well might our immortal Shakspeare talk of "_Sermons in stones_;" and -Lavater exclaim, that "_Every grain of sand is an immensity_" and the -author of 'Contemplations of Nature' remark, that "_there is no picking -up a pebble by the brook-side without finding all nature in connexion -with it._" - -I shall confine my remarks to a _flint_ pebble, as being the kind of -stone familiar to every one. The pebble I hold in my hand was picked -up in the bed of the torrent which is dashing down the side of yonder -hill, and winding its way through that beautiful valley, and over those - - Huge rocks and mounds confus'dly hurl'd. - The fragments of an earlier world, - -which partially filling up the chasm, and obstructing the course of -the rushing waters, give rise to those gentle murmurings that are so -inexpressibly soothing and delightful to the soul. - -[Sidenote: ORIGIN OF THE PEBBLE.] - -Upon examining this stone I discover that it is but the fragment of a -much larger mass, and has evidently been transported from a distance, -for its surface is smooth and rounded, the angles having been worn -away by friction against other pebbles, produced by the agency of -running water. I trace the stream to its source, half way up the hill, -and find that it gushes out from a bed of gravel lying on a stratum of -clay, which forms the eminence where I am standing, and is nearly 300 -feet above the level of the British Channel. From this accumulation of -water-worn materials the pebble must have been removed by the torrent, -and carried down to the spot where it first attracted our notice; but -we are still very far from having ascertained its origin. The bed of -stones on the summit of this hill is clearly but a heap of transported -gravel--an ancient sea-beach or shingle--formed of chalk-flints, that -at some remote period were detached from their parent rock, and -broken, rolled, and thrown together, by the action of the waves. We are -certain of this because we know that flints cannot grow;[A] that they -were originally formed in the hollows or fissures of other stones; and -upon inspecting the pebble more attentively, we perceive, not only that -such was the case, but also that it has been moulded in _Chalk_, for it -contains the remains of certain species of extinct shells and corals, -which are found exclusively in that rock. Here then a remarkable -phenomenon presents itself for our consideration; this flint, now so -hard and unyielding, must once have been in a soft or fluid state, -for the delicate markings of the case and spine of an _Echinus_, or -Sea-Urchin, are deeply impressed on its surface;[B] and a fragile shell -with its spines, is partially imbedded in its substance.[C] Nay more, -upon breaking off one end of the pebble,[D] we find that a sponge, or -some analogous marine zoophyte, is entirely enveloped by the flint; -and also that there are here and there portions of minute corals, and -scales of fishes. What a "_Medal of Creation_" is here--what a page of -nature's volume to interpret--what interesting reflections crowd upon -the mind! - -[A] "_Flints cannot grow._"--Here I would digress for a moment to -notice an opinion so generally prevalent, that perhaps some of my -young readers will not be prepared at once to answer the question--_Do -stones grow?_ The farmer who annually ploughs the same land, and -observes a fresh crop of stones every season, will probably reply in -the affirmative; and the general observer who has for successive years -noticed his gardens and plantations strewn with stones, notwithstanding -their frequent removal, may possibly entertain the same opinion; but -a little reflection will show that stones cannot be said to grow or -increase, in the proper acceptation of the term. Animals and plants -grow, because they are provided with vessels and organs by winch they -are capable of taking up particles of matter and converting them -into their own substance; but an inorganic body can only increase in -bulk by the addition of some extraneous material; hence stones may -become incrusted, or they may be cemented together and form a solid -conglomerate, but they possess no inherent power by which they can -increase either in size or number--_they cannot grow_. - -[B] Plate I, _a_. - -[C] Plate I, _b_. - -[D] Plate I, _c_. - -[Sidenote: FOSSIL ECHINUS WITH SPINES.] - -[Illustration: Lign. 2:--Fossil Turban Echinus, with its -spines; in limestone. - -(See '_Medals of Creation_', p. 340.)] - -[Sidenote: FOSSIL SHELLS IN CHALK.] - -[Illustration: Lign. 3:--Shell with spines, imbedded in Chalk; -from Lewes. (See '_Medals of Creation_,' 1 p. 390.)] - -To avoid confusion, we will reverse the order of our inquiry, and first -contemplate the formation of the flint in its native rock. The Chalk, -that beautiful white stone, which (as an American friend, who saw it -for the first time, observed), is so like an artificial production, -abounds in marine shells and corals, and in the remains of fishes, -crabs, lobsters, and reptiles, all of which differ essentially from -living species; although a few of the corals and shells resemble, in -some particulars, certain kinds that inhabit the seas of hot climates. -These remains are found in so perfect a state--the shells with all -their spines and delicate processes (_Lign. 3_), and the fishes with -their teeth (_Lign, 4_), scales, and fins, entire--that no doubt can be -entertained of the animals having been surrounded by the chalk while -living in their native sea, and that many of them were entombed in -their stony sepulchres suddenly, when the rock was in the state of mud, -or like liquid plaster of Paris.[E] - -[E] See Note I. _Shells in the Chalk._ - -[Illustration: Lign. 4:--Fossil teeth of Fishes of the Shark -family, in Chalk; from Lewes. (See '_Medals of Creation_.' p. 625.)] - -[Sidenote: SHELLS AND FISHES IN CHALK.] - -But besides the fossils which are obvious to the unassisted eye, the -Chalk teems with myriads of minute forms that may readily be detected -with a lens of moderate power; and even when these have been extracted, -the residue, which appears to be merely white calcareous earth, is -found, when examined under the microscope, to consist almost wholly of -bodies yet more infinitesimal--of perfect shells and corals, so minute, -that a cubic inch of chalk may contain upwards of a million of these -organic remains (see _Lign. 5_)! - -[Illustration: Lign. 5:--A few grains of Chalk-dust highly -magnified, and shown to consist of shells, &c. - - _a, a_, Shells called Rotalia. - - _b_, ------------- Textularia. - - (See '_Medals of Creation_,' p. 232.) - -] - - -The Chalk is stratified--that is, divided into _strata_ or layers--as -if a certain quantity of mud had sunk to the bottom of the sea, and -enveloped the shells, corals, &c., which fell in its way, and had -become somewhat solid before another layer was deposited upon it. - -[Sidenote: FLINT NODULES AND VEINS.] - -The mineral substance termed _silex_ or _flint_, is variously -distributed in the chalk. It most commonly occurs in the state of -nodules of an irregular or spheroidal, globular figure, which are -arranged in rows parallel and alternating with, the cretaceous strata; -it is likewise disposed in continuous thin layers, which are spread -over considerable areas; and it often forms horizontal, vertical, and -oblique veins, that fill up the fissures and interstices of the chalk. -The siliceous nodules frequently enclose corals, shells, sponges, -and other organic remains, as in the pebble before us; and in many -instances these fossils are found partly imbedded in the chalk and -partly invested with flint. But though flints contain in abundance -relics of the same species of marine animals as the chalk, they are not -like that rock composed of an aggregation of fossil remains; on the -contrary, the siliceous earth, which is their constituent substance, -was evidently once in a state of complete solution in water, and -precipitated into the chalk before the latter was consolidated, the -organic bodies serving as nuclei or centres around which the silex -concreted; for the deposition of the flint, like that of the chalk, -appears to have taken place periodically.[F] - -[F] Note II. _Wood in flint._ - -[Illustration: Lign. 6:--Minute fossil shells from Flint and -Chalk, very highly magnified, and seen by transmitted light. - - 1, 2, 3, 6, Rotaliĉ; - - 4, Portion of a Nautilus; - - 5, Rotalia composed of flint. - - (See '_Medals of Creation_,' p. 232.) - -] - -[Sidenote: ANIMALCULES IN CHALK.] - -The composition of the Chalk, and the prevalence throughout that rock -of the relics of animals that can only live in salt-water, prove -incontestably that the chalk and flint were deposited in the sea; -and that our beautiful South Downs, now so smooth and verdant, and -supporting thousands of flocks and herds, and the rich plains and -fertile valleys spread around their flanks, were once the bed of an -ocean. It is also evident not only that such must have been the case, -but also that the Chalk was deposited in the basin of a very _deep_ -sea--in the profound abyss of an ocean as vast as the Atlantic. - -[Sidenote: AMMONITES AND NAUTILI.] - -From the absence of gravel, shingle, and sea-beach, it is certain that -the white chalk-strata were formed at a great distance from sea-shores -and cliffs; and this inference is confirmed by the swarms of shells -termed _Ammonites_ and _Nautili_, which we know from their peculiar -structure were, like the recent pearly Nautilus, inhabitants of deep -waters only. For these are chambered shells; that is, are divided -internally by thin transverse shelly septa or plates, into numerous -cells; the body of the animal occupied only the outer compartment, -but was connected with the entire series of chambers by a tube or -siphuncle, which passed through each partition. This mechanism -constituted an apparatus which contributed to the buoyancy of these -animals when afloat on the waves; for the Ammonites and Nautili were -able to swim on the surface, or sink to the depths of the ocean at -pleasure. - - The fragile Nautilus that steers his prow, - The sea-born sailor of his shell canoe, - The Ocean Mab, the fairy of the sea, - O'er the blue waves at will to roam is free. - He, when the lightning-winged tornadoes sweep - The surf, is safe, his home is in the deep; - And triumphs o'er the Armadas of mankind, - Which shake the world, yet crumble in the wind. - - Byron, _The Island_. - -[Sidenote: WHITBY SNAKE-STONES.] - -[Illustration: Lign. 7:--Ammonite from Whitby.] - -The Ammonites, so called from the supposed resemblance of their shells -to the fabled horn of Jupiter Ammon, are only known in a fossil state; -but they must have swarmed in the ancient seas, for several hundred -species have been discovered in the Chalk and antecedent strata, though -none have been found in any deposits of more recent formation; at the -termination of the chalk epoch the whole race, therefore, appears to -have perished. The Ammonites are commonly termed _snake-stones_, from -the origin ascribed to them by local legends; those of Whitby are well -known (see _Lign. 7_).[G] - -[G] Note III. _Whitby Ammonites._ - - Thus Whitby's nuns exulting told-- - How that of thousand snakes, each one - Was changed into a coil of stone, - When holy Hilda prayed: - Themselves, within their sacred bound, - Their stony folds had often found. - - Scott's _Marmion_. - -[Illustration: Lign. 8:--Nautilus from the Chalk, near Lewes, -(one-eighth the natural size.)] - -The Nautili were the contemporaries of the Ammonites, and many kinds -are found associated with those shells, in strata far more ancient than -the Chalk; and several species of both genera, as we have previously -shown, were inhabitants of the cretaceous ocean. When the Ammonites -became extinct, the Nautili continued to flourish, and numerous -examples occur in the strata that were deposited during the vast period -which intervened between the close of the Chalk formation, and the -dawn of the existing condition of the earth's surface. At the present -time two or three kinds only are known in a living state, and these are -restricted to the seas of tropical climes, and so seldom approach the -shores, that but few specimens of the animals that inhabit the shells -have been obtained. - -The Nautilus, therefore, is one of those types of animal organization -that have survived all the physical revolutions to which the surface of -the earth was subjected during the innumerable ages that preceded the -creation of the human race.[H] This remarkable fact is portrayed with -much force and beauty by Mrs. Howitt, in the following stanzas: - -[H] Note IV. _Fossil Nautili._ - -TO THE NAUTILUS. - - Thou didst laugh at sun and breeze - In the new created seas; - Thou wast with the reptile broods - In the old sea solitudes, - Sailing in the new-made light, - With the curled-up Ammonite. - Thou surviv'dst the awful shock, - Which turn'd the ocean-bed to rock; - And chang'd its myriad living swarms - To the marble's veined forms. - Thou wert there, thy little boat, - Airy voyager! kept afloat, - O'er the waters wild and dismal, - O'er the yawning gulfs abysmal; - Amid wreck and overturning, - Rock-imbedding, heaving, burning, - Mid the tumult and the stir, - Thou, most ancient mariner! - In that pearly boat of thine, - Sail'dst upon the troubled brine. - -[Sidenote: THE SEA-SHORE.] - -We have thus acquired satisfactory proof that the flint of which our -pebble is composed, was once fluid in an ocean teeming with beings, of -genera and species unknown in a living state, and that it consolidated -and became imbedded in the chalk, which was then being deposited at -the bottom of the sea; hence the shells, corals, and other organic -remains, which we now find attached to its surface, and enclosed in -its substance. Thus much for the origin of the pebble; let us next -inquire by what means it was dislodged from its rocky sepulchre, cast -up from the depths of the ocean, and transported to the summit of the -hill whence it was dislodged by yonder torrent. If we stroll along the -sea-shore, and observe the changes which are there going on, we shall -obtain an answer to these questions; for - - There is a _language_ by the lonely shore-- - There is society where none intrudes, - By the deep Sea, and music in its roar! - - Byron. - -The incessant dashing of the waves against the base of the -chalk-cliffs, undermines the strata, and huge masses of rock are -constantly giving way and falling into the waters. The chalk then -becomes softened and disintegrated, and is quickly reduced to the state -of mud, and transported to the tranquil depths of the ocean, where it -subsides and forms new deposits; but the flints thus detached, are -broken and rolled by attrition into the state of boulders, pebbles, and -gravel, and ultimately of sand. - -[Illustration: Lign. 9:--View of Brighton Cliffs; looking -eastward from Kemp Town.[I] - - _a. Cliff's composed of chalk rubble._ - - _b. Ancient elevated sea-beach._ - - _c. Chalk forming the base of the Cliffs._ - -] - -[I] Note V. _Brighton Cliffs._ - -[Sidenote: BRIGHTON CLIFFS.] - -Now we must bear in mind, that had the chalk remained at the bottom of -the deep sea in which it was originally deposited, it would not have -been exposed to these destructive operations. It is therefore manifest, -that at some very distant period of the earth's physical history, the -bed of the Chalk-ocean was broken up, extensive areas were protruded -above the waters, lines of sea-cliffs were formed, and boulders, sand, -and shingle accumulated at their base. Subsequent elevations of the -land took place, and finally, the sea-beach was raised to its present -situation, which is several hundred feet above the level of the sea! - -Every part of the earth's surface presents unequivocal proofs that the -elevation of the bed of the ocean in some places, and the subsidence -of the dry land in others, have been, and are still, going on; and -that, in truth, the continual changes in the relative position of the -land and water, are the effects of laws which the Divine Author of -the Universe has impressed on matter, and thus rendered it capable of -perpetual renovation:-- - - Art, Empire, Earth itself, to change are doomed; - Earthquakes have raised to heaven the humble vale, - And gulfs the mountain's mighty mass entombed, - And where the Atlantic rolls wide continents have bloomed. - - Beattie. - -[Sidenote: IMMUTABILITY OF THE SEA.] - -Our noble poet, Lord Byron, in his sublime apostrophe to the Sea, -has most eloquently enunciated the startling fact revealed by modern -geological researches,--namely, that if the character of immutability -be attributable to anything on the surface of our planet, it is to the -ocean and not to the land!-- - - Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean--roll! - Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain; - Man marks the earth with ruin--his controul - Stops with the shore:--upon the watery plain - The wrecks are all thy deed, nor doth remain - A shadow of man's ravage, save his own. - When, for a moment, like a drop of rain. - He sinks into thy depths with bubbling groan, - Without a grave, unknell'd, uncoffin'd, and unknown! - - Thy shores are empires, changed in all save thee,-- - Assyria, Greece, Rome, Carthage, what are they? - Thy waters wasted them while they were free, - And many a tyrant since; their shores obey - The stranger, slave, or savage,--their decay - Has dried up realms to deserts:--not so thou, - Unchangeable, save to thy wild waves' play-- - _Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow:_ - _Such as Creation's dawn beheld, thou rollest now!_ - - Thou glorious mirror, where the Almighty's form - Glasses itself in tempests; in all time, - Calm or convulsed--in breeze, or gale, or storm, - Icing the Pole, or in the torrid clime - Dark-heaving, boundless, endless, and sublime-- - The image of Eternity--the throne - Of the Invisible; even from out thy slime - The monsters of the deep are made; each zone - Obeys thee: thou goest forth, dread, fathomless, alone! - - Childe Harold. _Canto IV._ - -[Sidenote: APOSTROPHE TO THE OCEAN.] - -I will conclude this "first lesson" with the following beautiful -remark of an eminent living philosopher:[J]--"To discover order and -intelligence, in scenes of apparent wildness and confusion, is the -pleasing task of the geological inquirer; who recognises, in the -changes which are continually taking place on the surface of the globe, -a series of necessary operations, by which the harmony, beauty, and -integrity of the Universe are maintained and perpetuated; and which -must be regarded, not as symptoms of frailty or decay, but as wise -provisions of the Supreme Cause, to ensure that circle of changes, so -essential to animal and vegetable existence." - -[J] Dr. Paris. - -[Illustration] - - - - - MORE THOUGHTS - - ON A - - PEBBLE. - - "Not a mote in the beam, not an herb on the mountain, not a pebble - on the shore, not a seed far-blown into the wilderness, but contributes - to the lore that seeks in all the true principle of life--the - beautiful--the joyous--the immortal." - - Sir E. Bulwer Lytton's _Zanoni_. - - - - -PART II. - - -More thoughts on a pebble!--is not the subject exhausted? have not -all the hieroglyphics impressed on the flint been interpreted?--can -Science, like the fabled wand of the magician, call forth from the -stone and from the rock their hidden lore, and reveal the secrets they -have so long enshrined?--Gentle Reader! but one page of the eventful -history of the pebble has been deciphered; I proceed to transcribe this -natural record of the past, explain its mysterious characters, and -present to thy notice the marvels they disclose. - -Our previous examination of the specimen showed that the flint had -once been in a fluid state, and had consolidated in a sea inhabited by -shells, echini, fishes, corals, sponges, and other zoophytes; and the -appearance of the fractured end (_Plate I, c_), indicated that some -organic body had formed the nucleus of the pebble, and that traces of -the structure of the original still remained. To ascertain if this -inference is correct, it will be necessary to divide the stone in a -longitudinal direction--but I will first strike off a small fragment, -and examine it by the aid of a microscope. - -[Sidenote: FOSSIL ANIMALCULES.] - -[Illustration: Lign. 10:--Fossil animalcules (_Xanthidia_) in -Flint.] - -By a sharp blow of a hammer, a very thin and minute portion of the -flint has been detached (see _Lign. 10, fig. 1_); it is translucent, -and when held between the eye and a strong light, appears like a slice -of horn; and a few extremely minute specks may with difficulty be -detected. Under the microscope, five of these almost invisible points -are well defined, and present a radiated appearance (see _fig. 3_); but -I will substitute a higher power, and lo! they are seen to be distinct -globular or spherical bodies beset with spines (_fig. 3_); and with a -still more powerful lens, one which magnifies many hundred times, their -nature is completely displayed. The whole five possess this general -character--a central globular case or shell, from which radiate tubes -or hollow spines, that terminate in fringed or divided extremities -(_figs. 4, 5, 6_); but these bodies differ from each other in the -relative proportions of the shell and spines, and in the number, -shape, and length of the tubular appendages. The group, in short, is -separable into three distinct species, of the same kind of fossil -remains; and several other varieties occur in the chalk and flint. . - -[Sidenote: XANTHIDIA IN FLINT.] - -[Illustration: Lign. 11:--_Xanthidium palmatum_ in flint: -highly magnified.] - -But what are these bodies?--They are the durable cases of animalcules, -many species of which swarm in our seas, and are so minute, that -thousands may be contained in a drop of water! In a living state, -the case is flexible and filled with a granular jelly, which is the -soft body of the animalcule, and the tubes and the outer surface are -invested with a similar substance. After death the soft parts dissolve; -but the case and its spines often remain unchanged. - -In another magnified portion of the pebble, a specimen of the -microscopic discoidal shells which we have already seen compose the -greater part of the white chalk (_Lign. 5_, p. 14), is beautifully -displayed when viewed by transmitted light, under a highly magnifying -power (_Lign. 12_).[K] Our investigation has thus shown, that a great -part of the pebble is actually composed of the aggregated fossil -remains of animalcules, so minute as to elude our unassisted vision, -but which the magic power of the microscope reveals to us, preserved, -like flies in amber, in all their original sharpness of outline and -delicacy of structure. - -[K] Note VI. _Rotaliĉ in chalk and flint._ - -[Sidenote: ROTALIA IN FLINT.] - -[Illustration: Lign. 12:--Rotalia in flint: highly magnified.] - -On another fragment of this stone two glittering specks, not larger -than a pin's head, are discernible (_Lign. 9_): these with a magnifier -of moderate power, are seen at a glance to be scales of fishes. But -they differ from each other; both have the surface smooth, and without -enamel: in the one the margin or edge is simple (_fig. 3_); in the -other, it is divided like the teeth of a comb (_fig. 2_);--trifling as -this difference may appear, it is sufficient to enable the naturalist -to determine that the fishes which furnished these scales belonged to -two distinct orders, of which the Salmon and the Mullet are living -examples. - -[Illustration: Lign. 13:--Scales of Fishes in flint. - - Fig. 1.--A fragment of the pebble with the scales of the natural size. - - 2.--One of the Scales (of a species of _Beryx_) highly magnified. - - 3.--The other Scale (of a species of _Salmo_). - -] - -[Illustration: _Plate II._ - -_Longitudinal section of the Pebble._ - -_Page 41._] - - - - -[Sidenote: SECTION OF THE PEBBLE.] - -SECTION OF THE PEBBLE. - -_Plate II._ - - -We will now avail ourselves of the assistance of the lapidary, and -divide the pebble in a longitudinal direction;--what a beautiful and -interesting section is thus obtained! The markings observable on the -fractured portion of the stone (see Plate I, c), are thus -shown to have originated, as we surmised, from some organic body, -which the flint, when fluid, had penetrated and enveloped. The enclosed -fossil was obviously one of those soft marine zoophytes, allied to the -_Actiniĉ_ or _Sea-Anemones_, which are of a globular, spherical, or -inversely conical shape, and consist of a tough, jelly-like substance, -permeated with tubes, disposed in a radiated manner around a central -cavity, or digestive sac; a structure admitting of that constant supply -and circulation of sea-water, which the economy of these curious forms -of animal existence requires. - -[Sidenote: ISLE OF WIGHT PEBBLES.] - -The surface exposed by the division of the pebble, is an oblique -vertical section of the petrified zoophyte. It shows a central canal -filled with bluish-grey flint (_Plate II, c_), in a mass traversed by -tubes or channels, which possess considerable beauty and variety of -colour from an impregnation of iron.[L] A transverse section (see -_Lign. 14._ fig. 1) would, of course, have a central spot, with rays -proceeding thence to the circumference, as in the oblique fracture -(_Plate I, c_).[M] - -[L] Specimens of this kind form beautiful objects when polished, and -are mounted as brooches by the lapidaries of Brighton, Bognor, and -the Isle of Wight, who term them petrified sea-animal flowers. Mr. G. -Fowlstone (4, Victoria Arcade) of Ryde, has many splendid examples, and -also agates and jaspers, the genuine productions of the Island. - -[M] Note VII. _Isle of Wight Pebbles._ - -[Sidenote: CHOANITES KONIGI.] - -The form of the original zoophyte when living, must have been that of -an inverted cone or funnel, (hence the scientific name _Choanite_ or -funnel-like,) with a long cylindrical digestive cavity in the centre, -from which tubes ramified through every part of the mass. It was -attached to a rock, stone, or shell, by root-like fibres which spread -out from its base; and its soft body was strengthened, as is the case -in many sponges and animals of a similar nature, by numerous siliceous -spines or spicula, which are often found in the flint and chalk (see -_Lign. 10._ fig. 5).[N] - -[N] Note VIII. _Zoophytes of the Chalk._ - -[Illustration: Lign. 14:--Choanites _Konigi_: from -the Chalk. - - Fig. 1.--A transverse section. - - 2.--Upper portion of the body. - - 3.--Vertical section, like the pebble, Pl. II. p. 41. - - 4.--A flint, enclosing a Choanite, which is exposed on the - upper surface. - - 5.--Various forms of siliceous spines of Choanites and other - analogous bodies; magnified slightly. - - (See '_Medals of Creation_,' p. 264.) - -] - -The _Choanites_ must have swarmed in the Chalk ocean, for in some of -the strata almost every flint exhibits traces of these zoophytes.[O] - -[O] The shingle at Brighton and Bognor in Sussex, and in various -localities in the Isle of Wight, abounds in specimens more or less -perfect. I would inform my fair readers who may visit these places, and -be inclined to purchase a brooch, in illustration of these "_Thoughts -on a Pebble_," that by far the greater number of the so-called -Brighton and Isle of Wight moss-agates, jaspers, &c., sold by the -lapidaries and jewellers, are of German or Scotch origin; and that the -_false-emeralds_, and _aquamarines_, are water-worn fragments of common -green glass bottles! - -[Sidenote: CORALS IN CHALK.] - -[Illustration: Lign. 15:--Branch of Coral on the -Pebble. - - Fig. 1.--A portion magnified. - - 2.--A fragment represented as when alive. - _a, a_, Two polypes collapsed. - _b, b_, Two polypes with their tentacula extended. - -] - -One more character inscribed on the pebble remains to be interpreted; -it is the minute branch of coral partially imbedded in the flint.[P] -The surface of this coral, when seen with a powerful lens, is found to -be studded with small pores or cells. In a recent state, each cell was -inhabited by a living polype or animalcule, which, though permanently -united at its base to the general mass, had an independent existence, -and possessed sensation and voluntary motion; expanding its thread-like -feelers or tentacula to catch its prey, and withdrawing, at will, into -its little cell.[Q] - -[P] Plate I. immediately below the shell and spine of Echinus. - -[Q] For a popular account of recent and fossil corals, see 'Wonders of -Geology,' 6th Edit., vol. ii. Lecture VI. p. 589. - -[Illustration: Lign. 16:--A Coral-polype preserved in flint: -magnified 500 diameters.] - -From these investigations, we learn that the Pebble, which has formed -the subject of our contemplation, had its origin in a living zoophyte -that was growing on a rock, in a sea whose boundaries have long since -been swept away; that corals, shells, and echini inhabited the bottom -of the deep; and that fishes related to existing families, sported in -the waters of that ancient ocean. In fine, we have presented to us the -scene so exquisitely described by the American poet:-- - -[Sidenote: THE CORAL GROVE.] - -THE CORAL GROVE. - - Deep in the waves is a coral grove. - Where the purple mullet and gold fish rove, - Where the sea-flower spreads its leaves of blue, - That never are wet with the falling dew. - But in bright and changeful beauty shine, - Far down in the green and glassy brine. - The floor is of sand, like the mountain drift. - And the pearl-shells spangle the flinty snow; - From coral rocks the sea-plants lift - Their boughs, where the tides and billows flow; - The water is calm and still below. - For the winds and the waves are absent there, - And the sands are bright as the stars that glow - In the motionless fields of upper air: - There with its waving blade of green, - The sea-flag waves through the silent water, - And the crimson leaf of the dulse is seen. - To blush like a banner bathed in slaughter. - There with a light and easy motion - The fan-coral sweeps through the clear deep sea; - And the yellow and scarlet tufts of ocean, - Are bending like corn on the upland lea; - And life in rare and beautiful forms, - Is sporting amidst those bowers of stone. - - Percival. - -[Illustration: Lign. 17:--Minute Corals from the Chalk;[R] -_highly magnified_.] - -[R] Note IX. _Minute corals from the Chalk._ - -[Sidenote: MICROSCOPIC CORALS.] - -Our previous examination of the pebble had prepared us for these -results; but the microscope, that mighty talisman of wisdom, has shown -us, that even those infinitesimal creatures to whom a drop of water -is an unbounded ocean--those living atoms of that world of being which -is for ever concealed from the uninstructed mind--the inhabitants of -that universe beneath us, which the eye of science can alone penetrate, -existed in ages incalculably remote, and were, like their gigantic -contemporaries, the living instruments by which a large proportion -of the solid materials of the surface of our planet was elaborated; -their imperishable siliceous and calcareous skeletons, constituting no -inconsiderable amount of the crust of the earth.[S] - -[S] See _"Thoughts on Animalcules, or a Glimpse of the Invisible World -revealed by the Microscope_," by the Author. Published by Mr. Murray, -London, 1846. - -Fossil animalcules and corals similar to those we have discovered in -the pebble and in the chalk, and hundreds of other genera and species -equally minute, occur in such prodigious numbers, as to warrant the -conclusion, that this class of animal existence has contributed more -largely than any other, to the formation of the sedimentary strata. - -Not only the Chalk hills, but whole mountain-ranges formed of other -deposits of great thickness and extent, are found to consist almost -entirely of similar remains. In the state of rock, of sand, of clay, -of marl--in the coarsest limestone, and in the purest crystal, the -petrified skeletons of animalcules alike abound. The town of Richmond, -in Virginia, is built on a bed of stone twenty feet thick, which is -wholly composed of the fossil skeletons of different kinds of marine -animalcules. The polishing slate of Bilin, in Germany, is wholly made -up of the siliceous shields of similar beings, disposed in layers -without any connecting medium; and these belong to species so minute, -and are so closely compressed together, that in a cubic inch of the -stone, weighing but two hundred and twenty grains, there are the -remains of _forty-one thousand millions_ of animalcules![T] - -[T] See '_Medals of Creation_,' p. 221. - -[Illustration: Lign. 18:--Animalcules from the Richmond earth: -very highly magnified[U]] - -[U] Note X. _Richmond Infusorial earth._ - - * * * * * - - -[Sidenote: REFLECTIONS.] - -Here we must bring our "_Thoughts on a Pebble_" to a close; but not -without adverting to the pure and elevating gratification which -investigations of this nature afford, and the beneficial influence -they exert upon the mind and character. In circumstances where the -uninstructed and incurious eye can perceive neither novelty nor beauty, -he who is imbued with a taste for natural science will everywhere -discover an inexhaustible mine of pleasure and instruction, and new -and stupendous proofs of the power and goodness of the Eternal! For -every rock in the desert, every boulder on the plain, every pebble by -the brook-side, every grain of sand on the sea-shore, is fraught with -lessons of wisdom to the mind which is fitted to receive and comprehend -their sublime import. - - "From millions take thy choice, - In all that lives a guide to God is given; - Ever thou hear'st some guardian angel's voice, - When nature speaks of heaven!" - -Amidst the turmoil of the world and the dreary intercourse of common -life, we possess in these pursuits a never-failing source of delight, -of which nothing can deprive us--an oasis in the desert, to which -we may escape, and find a home "wherever the intellect can pierce, -and the spirit can breathe the air."[V] For like the plant which the -Prophet threw into the waters of Marah,[W] that changed the bitterness -of the wave into sweetness, a branch from the tree of knowledge thrown -into the turbid stream of life, purifies its waters, and imparts to -them a healing virtue, which sheds a hallowing and refreshing influence -over the soul! - -[V] Sir E. Bulwer Lytton. - -[W] Exod. XV. 23. - - - - -THE - -NAUTILUS and the AMMONITE. - -(_See Page 22._) - - - -FROM SKETCHES IN PROSE AND VERSE, - -By the late G. F. Richardson, Esq. - - The Nautilus and the Ammonite - Were launch'd in storm and strife; - Each sent to float, in its tiny boat, - On the wide, wild sea of life. - - And each could swim on the ocean's brim, - And anon, its sails could furl; - And sink to sleep in the great sea deep, - In a palace all of pearl. - - And their's was a bliss, more fair than this, - That we feel in our colder time; - For they were rife in a tropic life, - In a brighter, happier clime. - - They swam 'mid isles, whose summer smiles - No wintry winds annoy; - Whose groves were palm, whose air was balm. - Where life was only joy. - - They roam'd all day, through creek and bay, - And travers'd the ocean deep; - And at night they sank on a coral bank, - In its fairy bowers to sleep. - - And the monsters vast, of ages past. - They beheld in their ocean caves; - And saw them ride, in their power and pride, - And sink in their billowy graves. - - Thus hand in hand, from strand to strand, - They sail'd in mirth and glee; - Those fairy shells, with their crystal cells, - Twin creatures of the sea. - - But they came at last, to a sea long past, - And as they reach'd its shore, - The Almighty's breath spake out in death, - And the Ammonite liv'd no more. - - And the Nautilus now, in its shelly prow, - As o'er the deep it strays, - Still seems to seek, in bay and creek, - Its companion of other days. - - And thus do we, in life's stormy sea, - As we roam from shore to shore; - While tempest-tost, seek the lov'd--the lost-- - But find them on earth no more! - -Geology, in the magnitude and sublimity of the objects of which it -treats, ranks next to Astronomy in the scale of the sciences. - - Sir J. F. W. Herschel. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. - - - - -Note I. Page 13. _Shells in Chalk._ - - -The shells of mollusca, in consequence of their durability, are the -most abundant fossils in the sedimentary strata;[X] entire layers -of marble and other limestone, of great thickness and extent, are -wholly composed of an aggregation of a few species or genera: in some -instances of fresh-water snails--as, for example, the Sussex and -Purbeck marbles;[Y] in others, of marine bivalves and univalves, as the -oyster-conglomerate of Bromley, and the shelly limestones of Portland, -Dorsetshire, &c. - -[X] For an account of the geological value of fossil shells, see -'_Medals of Creation_,' vol. i. p. 363. - -[Y] See '_Wonders of Geology_,' 6th Edition, p. 402. - -The cretaceous strata contain many hundred species of bivalves and -univalves, by far the greater part of which belong to extinct genera; -and the species, with but four or five exceptions, are unknown in more -recent deposits. In loose sandy strata, fossil shells are oftentimes -beautifully preserved, and may be obtained in as perfect a condition -as if gathered from the sands on the sea-shores: such is the state of -the specimens which abound in the sandy clays near Barton in Hampshire, -and in the "_Crag_" of Essex and Suffolk. In certain beds of clay, -shells are also found entire; sometimes retaining the epidermis, and -the cartilaginous ligament of the hinge. The bivalves in the white -chalk are generally perfect; but the univalves, probably from the more -delicate structure of the originals, seldom retain any vestiges of the -shell, excepting portions of the internal nacreous coat adhering to the -chalk casts, which have been moulded in the interior of the shells. - -[Illustration: Lign. 19:--Bivalve shells (_Terebratulĉ_) from -Chalk (_natural size_). - - 1, 2. Plicated species. 1. _T. octoplicata._ 2. _T. subplicata._ - 3, 4. Smooth species. 3. _T. semiglobosa._ 4. _T. subrotunda._ - -] - -[Sidenote: TEREBRATULĈ FROM CHALK.] - -In some of the cretaceous strata several extinct species of _Oyster_, -_Scallop_, _Arca_, _Tellina_, and other well-known marine bivalves -abound; and with them are associated many genera of which no living -species have been observed. Among the bivalves that prevail in the -English chalk, are three or four kinds of _Terebratulĉ_: which are -small, elegant, subglobular shells, belonging to a family of which -nearly 500 species, referable to several genera, have been obtained -from the British strata.[Z] Certain genera are restricted to the most -ancient sedimentary rocks, in which they occur in almost incredible -numbers; others have a wider range and are met with in the later -secondary deposits; while a few are found in the newest beds, and -have living representative species in the seas of warm climates. From -the immense antiquity of their lineage, these _Terebratulĉ_ have been -humourously termed the "_fossil aristocracy_." Some of the most common -chalk species are figured of the natural size in _Lign. 19_. When -living the animal was attached to a rock or other body by means of a -_byssus_ or peduncle, exserted through the aperture in the beak or -curved extremity of the largest valve.[AA] The shells of the smooth -_Terebratulĉ_ are full of minute holes or perforations, which may -readily be distinguished with a lens of moderate power. - -[Z] See '_Wonders of Geology_,' 6th Edit. p. 329. - -[AA] In the Conchological Gallery of the British Museum there is a -group of thirty or forty recent _Terebratulĉ_ attached to a stone by -their peduncles; from Australia. - -[Sidenote: PETRIFIED OYSTER.] - -[Illustration: Lign. 20:--Oyster from the Chalk, near Brighton -(natural size).] - -Occasionally the soft body of the mollusk completely silicified--that -is, transmuted into flint--is found in its natural position in the -shell. A beautiful example of this kind is represented in _Lign. 20_. -It is an extinct species of oyster: both valves were entire when I -removed the chalk and cleared the specimen; part of one valve has -been broken away to expose the petrified body of the animal. I have -seen a _Trigonia_[AB] from the oolite of Tisbury in Wiltshire, in -which the entire body of the mollusk was transformed into flint, and -the _branchiĉ_ or lamellated gills were beautifully defined, though -converted into semi-transparent chalcedony. - -[AB] _Trigonia:_ a genus of bivalves, of which there are many extinct -species in the chalk and oolite; some bands of Portland stone are an -aggregation of _Trigoniĉ:_ a few very small species, inhabitants of the -seas of Australia and New Zealand, are the only known living forms of -this once prevailing type of mollusca. See '_Medals of Creation_,' p. -407. - - - - -Note II. Page 17. _Wood in Flint._ - - -[Sidenote: WOOD IN FLINT.] - -I would remind the reader that the white chalk, together with the -various strata of sand, clay, and limestone, comprising the cretaceous -formation of England, must be regarded as an ancient ocean-bed; in -other words, an accumulation of earthy sediments, formed in the -profound depths of the sea, in periods of long duration and of -incalculable antiquity, and more or less consolidated by subsequent -chemical and mechanical agency. These deposits are made up of organic -and inorganic materials: the former consist of the debris of the cliffs -and shores which encompassed the ancient ocean, of the spoils of the -land brought into the waters by floods and rivers, and of mineral -matter thrown down from chemical solutions. The organic substances -are the durable remains of the animals and plants which lived and -died in the sea, and of terrestrial and fluviatile species that were -transported from islands or continents by rivers and their tributaries. -The whole constitutes such an assemblage of strata as would probably be -presented to observation, if a mass of the bed of the Atlantic 2,000 -feet in thickness, were elevated above the waters, and became dry land; -the only essential difference would be in the generic and specific -characters of the imbedded animal and vegetable remains. - -The vestiges of terrestrial and fluviatile animals and plants found in -the chalk are comparatively but few: I have collected from Kent and -Sussex, bones of gigantic land lizards, (the _Iguanodon_), of flying -reptiles, (_Pterodactyles_), and of fresh-water Turtles, and water-worn -fragments of stems of coniferous trees allied to the _Araucaria_ or -Norfolk Island Pine; fruits or aments of coniferse; and stems and -foliage of plants related to the _Cycas_ and _Zamia_. - -[Illustration: Lign. 21:--Fragment of coniferous wood in flint.] - -A fragment of silicified wood imbedded in a flint, is represented in -_Lign. 21_. It was obtained from a wall in Lewes Priory in Sussex; and -though it has been exposed to the atmosphere seven or eight centuries, -still exhibits the characteristic internal structure. - - - - -Note III. Page 20. _Whitby Ammonites._ - - -[Sidenote: AMMONITES.] - -[Illustration: _Lign. 22_:--Ammonites from the cretaceous formation. - - 1. _Ammonites varians_, from Hamsey. - - 2. _A. Dufresnoyi_: 2_a_, part of the same. - - 3. _A. lautus_: 3_a_, keel and septum of the same. - -] - -The Ammonites differ from the Nautili in having the margins of the -septa or internal shelly partitions (which in the latter are smooth), -foliated or wrinkled; and the siphunculus or tube placed along the -back of the shell, whereas in the Nautilus it is central. The sides of -the shell in the Ammonites are very generally more or less ornamented -with arched elevations and depressions, and studded with spines and -tubercles, as in the specimens above figured. - -There are several kinds of Ammonites found in the Lias at Whitby and -other places in Yorkshire; the most common species is figured in -_Lign. 7_. p. 20; the dark colour of this fossil is produced by the -argillaceous stone with which it is now filled. The internal structure -of these Ammonites is generally well preserved, the chambers being -lined with spar or other mineral matter; transverse polished sections -are often very beautiful from the several cells being occupied by -variously coloured marble, susceptible of a high polish. (Pl. III.) In -some examples the entire shell is transmuted into brilliant pyrites -(sulphuret of iron), and the chambers are filled with white spar; a -specimen of this kind in my possession, collected by Lady Murchison, is -the most elegant fossil imaginable. - -[Illustration: _Plate III._ - -_Polished section of an Ammonite._ - -_Page 70._] - -[Sidenote: AMMONITE-MARBLE.] - -It is not unusual for the visitors at Whitby to inquire of the -collectors how it is that the head of the animal is never found? -and the crafty dealers, willing to accommodate the taste of their -customers, carve the extremity of an Ammonite into the semblance of -a serpent's head, and affix two red eyes; thus producing a veritable -proof of the truth of the legend of St. Hilda! My young readers will -not be duped by this trick-of-trade, if they reflect but a moment on -the real nature of a fossil Ammonite: they will remember that it is a -shell which, when empty, became filled with what was then soft mud, but -is now stone; in like manner as if liquid plaster of Paris were poured -into an empty snail-shell and consolidated. - -In some parts of Somersetshire, a beautiful marble composed of an -aggregation of two or three small species of Ammonites, is used for -sideboards and other ornamental purposes: the polished slabs are -diversified by the numerous sections of the shells. - -Some of the clays of the Lias abound in a species of Ammonite of -extraordinary beauty from the iridescent lustre of the pearly coat of -the shell: a slab of stone from Watchett, on which a hundred or more -Ammonites of this kind are displayed, may be seen in the British Museum. - - - - -Note IV. Page 23. _Fossil Nautili._ - - -The beauty, elegant form, and remarkable internal structure of the -shell of the Nautilus, have rendered it in all ages an object of -curiosity and admiration: yet an accurate knowledge of the organization -of the animal to which it belongs, has but recently been obtained. The -Nautili may be regarded as Cuttle-fish or _Sepiĉ_, inhabiting shells -furnished with an apparatus to impart buoyancy, and enable the animals -to swim on the surface, or sink to the profound depths of the ocean. -A few explanatory remarks on the nature of the recent Sepia may be -necessary to render the subject intelligible to the unscientific reader. - -[Sidenote: RECENT NAUTILUS.] - -The _Sepia_ or Cuttle-fish of our seas is of an oblong form, and -composed of a soft substance covered with a tough integument or skin: -it varies from a few inches to a foot or more in length. The mouth -is placed in the centre of one extremity of the body, and has a -pair of powerful, curved, horny mandibles, much resembling the beaks -of a parrot: it is surrounded by eight long arms like the rays of a -star-fish, and these are beset with rows of little cups which act as -suckers, and enable the animal to secure its prey, and attach itself -with great firmness to any object.[AC] It has a distinct head, with -two eyes as perfect as in the vertebrated animals, and complicated -organs of hearing: and below the head there is a tube or funnel which -acts as a locomotive instrument, and propels the animal backwards by -the forcible ejection of the water which has served the purpose of -respiration, and can be thrown out with considerable force by the -contraction of the body. The soft parts are supported by a large -internal bone or osselet of a very curious structure, which, when dried -and reduced to powder, forms the substance used by scriveners, termed -_pounce_. These naked mollusca also possess a membranous bag or sac, -containing a dark-coloured fluid resembling ink in appearance, which -they eject into the surrounding water upon the approach of danger, and -by the obscurity thus induced foil the pursuit of their enemies. This -fluid, when inspissated, forms the base of the colour termed _sepia_ by -artists. - -[AC] From this arrangement of the organs of prehension around the head, -this order of mollusca is termed the _Cephalopoda_; _i. e._, the feet -around the head. - -The body of the Nautilus resembles in its essential characters that of -the Cuttle-fish, and occupies the large outer receptacle of the shell; -maintaining a connection with the inner compartments by means of the -membranous siphunculus or tube, which is only partially invested with -shell. The internal chambers are air-cells, and the animal can fill -the siphunculus with fluid, or exhaust it at will; the difference thus -effected in its specific gravity enables it to rise to the surface or -sink to the bottom with facility. Now if' we imagine a Cuttle-fish -placed in the outer chamber of a Nautilus-shell, and provided with a -siphuncule, but having neither ink-bag nor osselet--these organs being -unnecessary to an animal possessing a chambered shell--we shall have a -general idea of the nature of the recent species. - -The Nautilus is essentially an inhabitant of deep water: it creeps -along the ground at the bottom of the sea, with its shell upwards like -the snail; and by means of its arms can proceed with considerable -speed.[AD] - -[AD] See '_Conchologia Systematica_,' vol. ii. p. 302, and '_Elements -of Conchology_,' p. 22, by Mr. Lovell Reeve, F.L.S., for an admirable -description of the recent Nautilus, with illustrations. - -A large and splendid species of fossil Nautilus is not uncommon in the -London Clay of the Isle of Sheppey, Sussex, and Hampshire. The chambers -are often lined with spar or other brilliant mineral matter; and -polished sections, like those of the Ammonites, admirably display the -internal structure.[AE] - -[AE] See Dr. Buckland's '_Bridgewater Treatise_' for numerous figures -of Ammonites and Nautili; _plates_ 31 to 34. Consult also '_Medals of -Creation_,' vol. ii. p. 457. - - - - -Note V. Page 27. _Brighton Cliffs._ - - -[Sidenote: BRIGHTON CLIFFS.] - -The stranger who approaches Brighton by the railroads through deep -tunnels and cuttings in the chalk, and perceives the town spread -over the plain and on the sides of a valley of the South Downs, will -naturally expect to find the sea-shore bounded by chalk-cliffs. But -a wall of admirable construction, extends from the Steyne to beyond -Kemptown, and effectually conceals from view the materials that -compose the site of that part of Brighton; a ramble along the shore to -Rottingdean is therefore necessary to reveal to the inquiring observer, -the nature of the strata that flank the southern border of the Downs. - -The sketch given in page 27, represents the appearance of part of the -coast to the east of Kemptown. The base of the cliff to the height of a -few feet, is seen to consist of the white chalk with its usual layers -of flint nodules, forming a low wall or terrace, which slopes seaward, -and extends far into the British channel--probably to the opposite -coast of France: at low-water a considerable expanse of modern shingle -and sand is spread over, and in a great measure conceals, the chalk, -at a few yards distance from the cliff. Upon the terrace of chalk, at -the height of from ten to fifteen feet above the modern beach, there -is a bed of pebbles and sand, containing also a considerable number -of boulders of granite, porphyry, and other crystalline rocks foreign -to the south-east of England: in fact, a sea-beach, which must have -been formed at some remote period, in the same manner as the modern -shingle. Upon this ancient beach are strata of loam, and chalk-rubble, -with flints partially water-worn, and boulders of sandstone, breccia, -granite, &c., constituting the upper sixty or eighty feet of the cliff. -In these beds, and also in the ancient shingle, many teeth and bones of -mammoths (extinct species of elephant), horse, deer, oxen, and other -ruminants, and bones of whales, have been discovered.[AF] - -[AF] See '_Medals of Creation_,' p. 914. - -[Sidenote: THE SUSSEX COAST.] - -A few hundred yards beyond Kemptown the inroads of the sea have -destroyed all vestiges of the strata above described, and the cliffs -consist of a perpendicular wall of chalk; if we extend our walk to -Rottingdean, we shall perceive here and there isolated patches of the -ancient shingle, and of the calcareous strata containing elephants' -bones. - -The appearances described demonstrate the following changes in this -part of the Sussex coast. _Firstly_, the chalk terrace (_Lign. 9, c_; -p. 27) on which the ancient shingle (_b_) rests, was on a level with -the sea for a long period; for this beach must have been accumulated, -like the modern, by the action of the waves on the then existing chalk -cliffs. But there must also have been some cause not now in operation, -by which pebbles, and boulders of granite and other rocks foreign to -this coast, with bones of extinct mammalia, &c., were thrown up on -the strand, and imbedded in the beach then in progress of formation. -These materials were probably brought from some distant part of the -then continental shores by floating ice: an agency by which delicate -bones and shells may be transported and deposited without injury amidst -pebbles and boulders. - -_Secondly._ The whole line of coast with the ancient shingle must -have subsided to such a depth as to admit of the deposition of the -calcareous materials forming the "Elephant bed;" and from the absence -of beach and shingle in these strata, it may be inferred that this -deposition took place in tranquil water: possibly at that period this -part of the Sussex coast formed a sheltered bay. - -_Lastly._ The land was elevated to its present level, and the formation -of the modern sea-beach and cliffs commenced.[AG] - -[AG] See '_Medals of Creation_,' "On the Geological structure of -Brighton Cliffs," p. 913. - - - - -Note VI. Page 38. _Rotaliĉ in Chalk and Flint._ - - -[Sidenote: FOSSIL FORAMINIFERA.] - -The shells called _Rotaliĉ_ (see _Lign._ 5 and 6, p. 14 and 16) belong -to a group of marine animals of very simple organization, and which -present great variety in the form and markings of their testaceous -coverings; but they all agree in having the sides of the shell pierced -by numerous holes or foramina; whence the scientific term of the -Order, _Foraminifera_, is derived: these openings are for the egress -of delicate filaments, which appear to be organs of progression and -respiration. - -The _Foraminifera_ are, with but few exceptions, exceedingly minute; -in an ounce of sea-sand, between three and four millions have been -detected. The body of these animalcules consists of uniform granules -enclosed in a skin or integument, having one or more digestive sacs -or cavities; these creatures appear, in fact, to be mere polypes, -protected by testaceous coverings. Some have but a single cell; others -have many, disposed in a conical or cylindrical form; many kinds, of -which the _Rotaliĉ_ are examples, are discoidal involutes, and divided -internally by septa into distinct chambers:[AH] they resemble in this -respect the shell of the Nautilus, but are readily distinguished by the -perforations. - -[AH] See '_Wonders of Geology_,' 6th Edit. p. 322. - -All the various kinds of _Foraminifera_ swarm in the present seas, -and were not less numerous in the ancient ocean. We have seen that -the white chalk almost wholly consists of a few genera of these -animalcules; and in many strata of sand they are so abundant, that -a cubic inch of the mass contains upwards of sixty thousand. In the -_Rotalia_, the body is entirely enclosed within the shell, and occupies -all the cells; and long, soft, tentacula are sent off through the -foramina. The shell, therefore, though resembling in form that of -the Nautilus, is essentially different; for in the latter, the outer -chamber only is occupied by the body of the animal, the internal ones -being successively quitted empty dwellings; whereas, in the _Rotaliĉ_ -and analogous _Polythalamia_,[AI] all the cells are contemporaneously -filled by the soft parts of the animalcule. - -[AI] _Polythalamia, many-chambered_, is a general term applied to these -shells. - -[Sidenote: RECENT FORAMINIFERA.] - -When the shell is removed, which is readily effected by immersion in -diluted hydrochloric acid, the body is exposed, and found to consist -of a series of lobes or sacs, united by a tube corresponding somewhat -in its position with the siphuncle of the Nautilus, but which is the -digestive canal. The body of a recent animalcule of this kind, deprived -of the shell, is figured in _Lign. 23_. - -[Illustration: Lign. 23:--The body of a recent animalcule -allied to the _Rotalia_, deprived of its shell; _highly magnified_.] - -Not only the characters of fossil shells of such infinite minuteness -can be revealed by the microscope, but even the soft parts of the -animalcules which inhabited them; for these are occasionally preserved, -and may be demonstrated with as much distinctness as the recent -examples.[AJ] In flint the soft parts of _Rotaliĉ_, _Textulariĉ_, -&c., are abundant, and may be seen, with but little preparation, like -insects in amber: the specimen figured in _Lign. 12_, p. 39, shews -the body of a _Rotalia_ well defined; the only preparation this atom -of flint has undergone, is immersion in Canada balsam. To detect such -delicate structures in chalk requires, however, some experience in -microscopic manipulation, as the calcareous matter must be dissolved -in hydrochloric acid, and the animal substance separated from the -residuum.[AK] - -[AJ] See '_Wonders of Geology_,' 6th Edit., p. 322. - -[AK] See my '_Memoir on the fossil remains of the soft parts of -Foraminifera in Chalk, &c._' Philosophical Transactions, 1846, p. 465. - - - - -Note VII. Page 43. _Isle of Wight Pebbles._ - - -[Sidenote: ISLE OF WIGHT PEBBLES.] - -The nodules and veins of flint that are so abundant in the upper -chalk, have probably been produced by the agency of heated waters -and vapours; the perfect fluidity of the siliceous matter before its -consolidation is proved, not only by the sharp moulds and impressions -of shells and other organisms retained by the flints, but also by the -presence of numerous remains in the substance of the nodules, and the -silicified condition of the sponges and other zoophytes which abound in -the cretaceous strata. - -Now although silex, or the earth of flint, is but sparingly soluble in -water of the ordinary temperature, its solution readily takes places -in vapour heated a little above that of fused cast iron, as has been -proved by direct experiment;[AL] and similar effects are being produced -at the present moment by natural causes. The siliceous deposits thrown -down by the intermittent boiling fountains, called the Geysers, in -Iceland, are well known;[AM] and in New Zealand this phenomenon is -exhibited on a still grander scale. From the crater of the volcanic -mountain of Tongariro,[AN] which is several thousand feet above the -level of the sea, jets of vapour and streams of boiling water highly -charged with silex, are continually issuing forth, and dashing down -the flanks of the volcano in cascades and torrents, empty themselves -into the lakes at its base. As the water cools, siliceous sinter is -deposited in vast sheets, and incrustations of flint form around the -extraneous substances lying in the course of the thermal streams. Silex -is also precipitated by the boiling waters in stalagmitic concretions, -and in nodules resembling in colour and solidity the flints of the -English chalk. The complete impregnation and silicification of -organized bodies is attributable to an agency of this kind; and -although the origin of the siliceous waters that deposited the nodules -and veins of flint in the chalk is still involved in obscurity, the -mode in which the latter were formed is satisfactorily elucidated. - -[AL] See '_Wonders of Geology_,' p. 100. - -[AM] Ibid., p. 95. - -[AN] Ibid., p. 98. - -[Illustration: Lign. 24:--Zoophytes in Chalk and Flint. - - 1. A minute coral from chalk and flint; the lower figure is of the - natural size. - - 2. Branch of a sponge in flint. 3. Pebble enclosing a zoophyte. - -] - -Of the perfect transmutation into flint of the most delicate organic -structures, the pebbles strewn along the sea-shore of the south coast -of England, afford a beautiful illustration; those from the Isle of -Wight are especially celebrated for their rich and varied colours. -The most common and interesting are those which exhibit sections of -Choanites, as in the specimen which suggested the reflections embodied -in these pages. Other allied forms are scarcely less beautiful; the -petrified zoophytes called _Siphonia_, which, when living, consisted -of a soft mass traversed by tubes, for the free ingress and egress of -the water, often display the internal structure of the original: as -in the polished transverse section figured above, _Lign. 24, fig. 3_. -Other bodies of this class occur in the flint, and present interesting -examples of the zoophytes of the chalk ocean. - -But many of the Isle of Wight pebbles exhibit no traces of animal -structure, yet are valuable and instructive as mineralogical specimens: -such are the clear and transparent pebbles with bands and veins of -quartz and chalcedony. Some specimens are as pellucid as rock-crystal; -others are of a bright yellow, amber, dark-brown, and bluish-black -colour, and are often mottled with dendritical or arborescent -manganese. (_Plate IV._) The moss agates, as they are called by the -lapidaries, are silicified sponges. Small pebbles of pure transparent -rock-crystal are often found among the shingle in Compton and Sandown -bays, and have probably been washed out of the wealden strata; for -similar stones occur in the Tilgate grit, and at Tunbridge Wells: in -the latter place, they are cut and polished for rings, brooches, &c. - -[Illustration: _Plate IV._ - -_Polished sections of Pebbles._ - -_Page 86._] - -[Sidenote: ZOOPHYTES OF THE CHALK.] - -On the shores of the Isle of Wight, pebbles of jasper, resembling those -from Egypt, and of banded quartz, with arborescent markings, or with -zones of rich brown, are also met with; these do not appear to have -originated from the chalk strata. - -Pebbles of silicified wood have been collected in Sandown bay by Mr. -Fowlstone; and water-worn boulders and pebbles of petrified wood, -bones, &c., are common in Brook bay; rolled masses of the fresh-water -shelly limestones (Sussex and Purbeck marbles) are also abundant in the -same localities.[AO] - -[AO] All these varieties may be obtained of Mr. Fowlstone, 4, Victoria -Arcade, Ryde. - - - - -Note VIII. Page 45. _Zoophytes of the Chalk._ - - -Zoophytes, especially sponges, occur in such prodigious numbers in some -of the chalk strata, that the nucleus of almost every flint nodule is -an organic body. In many instances the silex has completely permeated -the animal substance, as in the pebbles before described; but sometimes -the sponge is a white calcareous mass, occupying a hollow in the flint: -a branched specimen of this kind, exposed on breaking a small nodule, -is represented at _Lign. 24, fig. 2_. - -In describing sponge as an animal substance, it may be necessary to -explain that the sponge in ordinary use is the flexible skeleton of -a living zoophyte, and was originally invested with a gelatinous or -slimy matter, which lined all the pores and channels. When alive in -the water, currents constantly enter the outer pores, traverse all -the internal inosculating canals, and issue from the larger orifices -which often project above the surface in perforated papillĉ. By -the circulation of the sea-water through the porous structure, the -nutrition of the animated mass is effected; and the modifications -observable in the number, size, form, and arrangement of the pores, -canals, and apertures, in the different kinds of this type of -organization, are subservient to this especial function. - -But associated with the true _Poriferĉ_ or sponges, are numerous -zoophytes which resemble them in form, but are of an entirely distinct -nature; for they are the fossilized remains of _Polyparia_, that is, of -the frame-work of an aggregation of polypes, each individual of which -had an independent existence, although the whole were united by one -common living integument, like the _Alcyonium_, or dead-men's fingers, -of our coasts.[AP] - -[AP] See '_Medals of Creation_,' p. 251. - -[Illustration: Lign. 25:--Flints deriving their forms from the -zoophytes they enclose.] - -[Sidenote: FUNGIFORM FLINTS.] - -Among the flints whose forms depend on the organic bodies they enclose, -are some which bear so close a resemblance in shape to _Fungi_, that -they are provincially called in Sussex "_petrified mushrooms_;" several -of them are figured above (_Lign. 25_). In these fossils there are -openings at the base, and a groove on the margin of the upper part, in -which the structure of the enclosed body is generally more or less -distinctly seen; and upon breaking one of these bodies, a section of -a funnel-shaped zoophyte is obtained. The origin of these flints will -be understood by reference to the four interesting specimens here -delineated, one-sixth of the natural size in linear dimensions. - -[Illustration: Lign. 26:--Ventriculites from the Chalk, Lewes. - - 1. A perfect specimen in Chalk, shewing the external net-like surface. - - 2. An expanded specimen, displaying the inner surface studded with cells. - - 3. A Ventriculite with the lower part enveloped in Flint. - - 4. Part of a Ventriculite; the base invested with Flint: the root-like - fibres are seen at a. - -] - -[Sidenote: VENTRICULITES.] - -This zoophyte, to which the name of _Ventriculite_ has been given to -denote its usual shape, was a hollow inverted cone, terminating at -the base in a point, whence radicles or root-like processes were sent -off, by which the animal was firmly attached to the rock. The outer -integument was disposed in meshes like a net (see _Lign. 26, fig. -1_), and the inner surface was beset with regular circular openings, -the orifices of tubular cells (_fig. 2_); each of which was probably -occupied by a polype. The substance of the _Polyparium_, or general -support of this family of animalcules, which alone occurs in a fossil -state, appears to have been analogous to that of the soft _Alcyonia_, -and to have possessed a common irritability; the entire mass -contracting and expanding, as is the case in many recent zoophytes.[AQ] - -[AQ] See '_Wonders of Geology_,' 6th Ed., p. 610; '_Medals of -Creation_,' p. 273-276; and '_Geological Excursions round the Isle of -Wight_,' pp. 179-184, for an account of the silicification of these and -other Zoophytes. - -The flints, _figs. 3, 7, 8, 9, Lign. 25_, were evidently formed -in the manner exemplified in _fig. 3, Lign. 26_; _figs._ 2, 4, 6, -are illustrated by _fig. 4, Lign. 26_; for the chalk specimens, -_Lign. 26_, shew that all these flints have been moulded around -_Ventriculites_, and that their diversity of figure has arisen from -the quantity of silex that happened to permeate the substance of the -zoophyte; if but a small portion, flint like _figs._ 2 and 4, were -the result; if the quantity were considerable, the larger fungiform -examples were produced. - - - - -Note IX. Page 50. _Minute Corals from Chalk._ - - -Some layers of chalk are composed of an aggregation of many kinds of -delicate corals, the interstices being filled up with _Rotaliĉ_ and -other foraminiferous shells. In the cliffs near Dover there are several -beds of this nature, well known to collectors for the profusion of -exquisite specimens they yield to the experienced investigator. _Lign. -17_, p. 50, represents several varieties from different localities; -the small figures shew the natural size, and the enlarged ones their -appearance when magnified. Attached to the surface of shells, and -sometimes standing erect in crannies of flint nodules, beautiful corals -may often be detected by the aid of a lens of moderate power. By -brushing chalk in water, and examining the deposit, delicate fossils of -this kind may also be obtained.[AR] - -[AR] Refer to '_Medals of Creation_,' p. 284, and to '_Wonders of -Geology_,' _Lecture VI._ p. 588, for a comprehensive view of Recent and -Fossil Corals. - -[Sidenote: NATURE OF CORALS.] - -From the close analogy of the fossil corals to existing forms, it would -not be difficult to give restored figures of the originals. Every -little branch might be represented fraught with living polypes: in some -cells the agile inmates might be shown with the mouth expanded, and -the tentacula in rapid motion; in others withdrawn into their stony -recesses, and devouring the infinitesimal atoms that constitute their -food: even their varied hues might be introduced, and thus a vivid -picture be presented of the microscopic beings which peopled the waters -of the ancient chalk ocean. - -That the Corals, which from their elegance and beauty are preserved in -almost every cabinet, have been fabricated--or, in other words, built -up--by polypes, in the same manner as the honey-comb of the bee and -wasp, is so prevalent yet erroneous an opinion, that I am induced to -point out its fallacy, by giving a brief account of the formation of -these substances. The three recent specimens represented in _Lign. 27_ -will serve to illustrate my remarks. - -[Illustration: Lign. 27:--Recent Corals. - - 1. _Oculina ramea._ - - 2. _Madrepora muricata._ - - 3. _Isis hippuris._ - -] - -The coral, _fig. 1_, was an internal axis or skeleton, deposited by the -soft fleshy integument with which, when living, it was wholly invested; -in the same manner as are the bones of animals, by the special membrane -(_periosteum_) that secretes them. This integument lined every cell, -and the polypes were permanently united to it. When the live coral is -taken out of the water, the animalcules shrink up and quickly perish; -their soft parts and the external investing substance putrefy, and the -stony axis beset with the radiated cells alone remains. - -[Sidenote: RECENT CORALS.] - -In the example of _Oculina ramea_, or May-blossom Coral, _fig. 1_, from -the Mediterranean, the cells are large and distinct; in the _Madrepore_ -from the West Indies, _fig. 2_, they are small and very closely -aggregated. - -The specimen of _Isis_ (_fig. 3_) belongs to a group of coral-zoophytes -in which the polype-cells consist of a substance that is durable, but -not so hard as coral, and invests an axis composed of a tough flexible -material, which is exposed at the base of _fig 3_, by the removal of -the external or cortical part in which the polypes were situated. The -_Gorgonia_, or Venus's fan, has a similar structure and composition.[AS] - -[AS] See '_Wonders of Geology_,' vol. ii. p. 616. - -In the _Red Coral_, so largely employed in the manufacture of beads, -brooches, and other ornaments, not only the animalcules, but also -their receptacles, are composed of a soft perishable substance. When -alive, the polypes, as well as the investing fleshy integument, are of -a delicate bluish tint; the internal calcareous axis alone possesses -the peculiar red colour. Upon being taken out of the sea, vitality -quickly ceases, the soft parts decompose, and the beautiful crimson -stone commonly known as the _true coral_, is obtained free from all -traces of the soft mass by which it was secreted. Although an actual -investigation of the facts described can only be instituted near the -seas of warm climates, yet our coasts abound in certain coral-zoophytes -in which similar phenomena may readily be observed. Most persons in -their rambles by the sea-side must have noticed on the fuci, algĉ, -shells, pebbles, &c., patches of a white earthy substance, which -when closely examined resemble delicate lace-work. These apparently -calcareous incrustations are clusters of the zoophytes termed -the _Flustra_, or sea-mat.[AT] When removed from the water, this -aggregation of polypes seems coated over with a glossy film or varnish; -and with a lens of moderate power the surface is seen to be full of -pores, disposed with much regularity. If viewed under the microscope -while immersed in sea-water, a very different appearance is presented. -Every pore is found to be the opening of a cell whence issues a tube -fringed with several long feelers or arms; these expand, then suddenly -contract and withdraw into the cell, and again issue forth; the whole -surface of the Flustra being covered with these hydra-like animalcules. -The Flustra, therefore, like the corals, constitutes an assemblage of -polypes, each individual being permanently fixed in a durable cell, -and the whole attached to a common integument by which the calcareous -frame-work was secreted and maintained.[AU] - -[AT] See '_Wonders of Geology_,' Plate 5. - -[AU] See Dr. Johnson's beautiful work on '_British Zoophytes_,' in -which are numerous figures of various species of Flustra. - - - - - - -Note X. Page 53. _Infusorial earth from Richmond in Virginia._ - - -[Sidenote: INFUSORIAL EARTHS.] - -The greatest natural operations are produced by the most simple -and apparently inadequate agents: for as the illustrious Galileo -emphatically remarked, "_La nature fait beaucoup avec peu, et ses -opérations sont toutes également merveilleuses._" The profound thinker -Hobbes, in the same spirit observes, "The majesty of God appeareth no -less in small things than in great, and as it exceedeth human sense in -the immensity of the universe, so also doth it in the smallness of the -parts thereof." This sublime truth is strongly impressed on the mind -of the geological inquirer, who perceives that whole countries and -mountain ranges of great elevation and extent, are wholly composed of -the aggregated remains of beings of such infinite minuteness that but -for the powerful optical instruments of modern times, their presence -would never have been suspected. - -A few years only have elapsed since the sagacious Ehrenberg first -drew attention to this subject, and pointed out the proper method of -investigation;[AV] and so rapid has been the progress of discovery in -this department of science, that _infusorial deposits_, as these beds -of fossil animalcules are designated, have been detected in every -quarter of the globe. A fact equally unexpected and remarkable has also -been established, namely, that at the present moment similar minute -living agents are largely contributing to the increase of the solid -materials of the crust of our planet. - -[AV] See '_Medals of Creation_,' p. 244, for instructions for the -microscopical examination of earths, chalk, &c. - -[Sidenote: RICHMOND EARTH.] - -The infusorial earth of Virginia, alluded to in the text, is a -yellowish siliceous clay, forming a deposit from twelve to fifteen -feet in thickness, upon which the towns of Richmond and Petersburgh -are built. The surface of the country over which it extends is -characterized by a scanty vegetation, owing to the siliceous nature of -the soil dependent on the minute organisms of which it almost entirely -consists. When a few grains of this earth are properly prepared for -microscopic examination, immense numbers of the shields or cases of -animalcules are visible under a magnifying power of 300 diameters; in -fact, the merest stain left by the evaporation of water in which some -of the marl has been mixed, teems with these fossil remains.[AW] - -[AW] Specimens of Infusorial earths, prepared for the microscope, may -be obtained of Mr. Topping, 4, New Winchester Street, Pentonville Hill, -New Road, London. - -These organisms are of exquisite structure, and comprise many -species and genera. The most beautiful and abundant are the circular -shields, termed _Coscinodisci_ (sieve-like disks), which are elegant -saucer-shaped cases, elaborately ornamented with hexagonal apertures -disposed in curves, somewhat resembling the engine-turned sculpturing -of a watch; these shells are from 1/1000 to 1/100 of an inch in -diameter. A segment of one of these disks, highly magnified, is -represented in _Lign. 18, fig. 2_. The body of the living animalcule -was protected and enclosed by a pair of these concave shells, the -perforations admitting of the exsertion of filaments or tentacula. -This species of _Coscinodiscus_ abounds in the present seas, and -constitutes no inconsiderable proportion of the food of Pectens and -other testaceous mollusca.[AX] - -[AX] See '_Thoughts on Animalcules_,' p. 103. - -All the animalcules found in the Richmond earth are marine, and most -of them belong to genera, and many to existing species; although the -position of the American strata proves that they are referable to a -period of immense antiquity. - -In Germany, beds of a white infusorial earth, resembling magnesia -in appearance, and termed _Bergh-mehl_, or fossil farina, occur at -Bilin, and several other places: at San Fiora in Tuscany, near Egra -in Bohemia, in the Bermudas, Barbadoes, &c., similar deposits have -been discovered; all being composed of the shields of various kinds of -animalcules. But I must not extend these remarks, and will only add a -few observations on the infusorial earth of Barbadoes, which has but -recently been brought under the notice of geologists by Sir Robert -Schomburgk, and is especially interesting for the exquisite beauty and -variety of its organisms, and the circumstances under which the deposit -occurs. - -[Sidenote: FOSSIL INFUSORIA OF BARBADOES.] - -Barbadoes, an island of the West Indies, is about twelve miles in -length from north to south, and consists of coral reefs, capped in one -district by tertiary sandstones and limestones, which attain a height -of 1200 feet above the sea. Over the rest of the island, coral reefs -form the entire surface, which is divided by vertical walls of coral, -some of them nearly 200 feet high, into six terraces, indicating as -many periods of upheaval. In the lowest reef, Indian hatchets have -been found twenty feet above high water mark; shewing that the last -movement, at least, took place within the human period. The tertiary -strata are more or less inclined, and in many places vertical, and -contorted. Strata of marl, several hundred feet thick, predominate; and -there are beds of bituminous coal, sandstone, clays, and ferruginous -sands. Arenaceous limestone containing teeth of sharks, spines of -echini, and shells, forms the summit of a hill nearly 1,000 feet high. -The white marls abound in 300 species of the most beautiful siliceous -infusoria; many are peculiar, others the same as occur in the Richmond -earth, and some belong to recent species.[AY] - -[AY] Sir R. H. Schomburgk: Brit. Assoc. 1847. - - - - - THE END. - - - * * * * * - - - WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR. - - -_In 2 Vols, foolscap 8vo, cloth, lettered, with numerous Illustrations -and Coloured Plates, price 18s. the Sixth Edition of_ - - THE WONDERS OF GEOLOGY; - - OR, - - A FAMILIAR EXPOSITION OF GEOLOGICAL PHENOMENA. - - By GIDEON ALGERNON MANTELL, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S, - Vice-President of the Geological Society of London. - - "Dr. Mantell's _Wonders of Geology_ will continue to be a favourite - work equally in the Geological schools, in the private study, and in - the family circle. It may be read and understood by any intelligent - and educated individual; its exact science, sound logic, and dignity - of style ensure its acceptance with the learned; its elegance, - beauty, and perspicuity, with the polite and refined; and its - comprehensive brevity, with the student of the elements of Geology. - It realizes, indeed, our beau-ideal of a familiar yet dignified - philosophical style: being alike condensed and luminous, possessing - a graceful flowing eloquence, and rising as the subject may require, - into the sublime as well as the beautiful. We are not aware of the - existence of any work, on any department of science, which has higher - claims at once to a place in the library of the philosopher, and on - the table of a refined family."--_Review of the American Edition of - the Wonders of Geology._ _American Journal of Science._ - - "Dr. Mantell's eloquent and delightful work, the Wonders of - Geology."--_Sir E. B. Lytton._ - - -_In 2 vols. foolscap 8vo, cloth, lettered, with Coloured Plates, and -several hundred Figures of Fossil Remains, price One Guinea._ - - THE MEDALS OF CREATION; - - OR, - - FIRST LESSONS IN GEOLOGY, AND IN THE STUDY OF ORGANIC REMAINS. - - These volumes comprise a Popular Introduction to the study - of Organic remains, and a general view of Fossil Botany and - Zoology. - - Geological Excursions to some of the most interesting places - in England are described, in illustration of the method of observing - and investigating Geological Phenomena, and of collecting Organic - Remains. - - Ample instructions are given for the development and arrangement - of Fossil _Vegetables_, _Corals_, _Shells_, _Bones_, _Teeth_, &c.: - and practical directions for the microscopical examination of - rocks composed of Fossil Infusoria, and the intimate structure of - mineralized Plants, Teeth, &c. In fine, these volumes are offered - as a popular guide and hand-hook for the Student and Amateur - Collector of Fossil Remains, and the Reader who may desire a general - acquaintance with a science replete with objects of the highest - interest; and for the Tourist who may wish, in the course of his - travels, to employ profitably and agreeably a leisure hour, in the - various districts he may visit. Such a work has long been required; - and the present will be found to comprise all that can reasonably be - expected in two pocket volumes. The plates are alike beautiful and - faithful representations of the originals. - - "Very rarely can we find a work which is so perfect an example of - the art of book, making, in the best understanding of that term; we - mean technically and _mechanically_ as well as _intellectually_. - Dr. Mantell's 'Medals of Creation' are, indeed, among the - _chef d'oeuvres_ of the art; and, being elegantly bound in embossed - covers, of the still portable size of the larger 12mo, will and - must take their place as the companions, not only of the geologist - in his study, but in the field; while they will also accompany - the intelligent travellers of both sexes as most instructive and - delightful Mentors in their journeyings among the grand and beautiful - scenes of our globe. This work is a _classic of high excellence_, - of great research, and formidable labour; and we cannot close our - remarks without again expressing our admiration of the perspicuity, - method, and condensation by which it is distinguished."--_American - Journal of Science for January_, 1845. - - -_In one volume square 8vo, with 12 coloured plates; price 10s._ - - THOUGHTS ON ANIMALCULES; - - - OR, - - A GLIMPSE OF THE INVISIBLE WORLD REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE. - - "In this beautiful work Dr. Mantell has presented a vast deal of - information on the most interesting genera and species of Infusoria, - and clothed it with that fascinating garb, that persuasive eloquence, - with which he has been ever wont to impart knowledge."--_Westminster - and Foreign Quarterly Review._ - - -_In one volume 8vo, with numerous plates, sections, coloured geological -maps, &c.; price 12s._ - - GEOLOGICAL EXCURSIONS ROUND THE - ISLE OF WIGHT - - AND - - ALONG THE ADJACENT COASTS OF HAMPSHIRE AND DORSETSHIRE. - - Illustrative of the most interesting geological - phenomena and organic remains. - -This work is a popular guide to the geology of the "beautiful Island," -pointing out and explaining the most remarkable localities and the -fossils with which they abound; not only of the Isle of Wight, but also -of the Isles of Purbeck and Portland. - - -_In one volume, with plates; price 5s._ - - A DAY'S RAMBLE IN AND ABOUT THE - ANCIENT TOWN OF LEWES; - - - ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE OBJECTS OF HISTORICAL, GEOLOGICAL, AND - ANTIQUARIAN INTEREST OF THE TOWN AND NEIGHBOURHOOD. - - "A charming guide to a charming spot; rich in picturesque scenery, - and historical associations of the highest interest. A day's ramble - which every one who visits Brighton and has leisure will not fail to - undertake with so instructive and delightful a companion."--_Brighton - Gazette._ - - -_Preparing for Publication._ - - THE PHENOMENA OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM; - - OR, - - A FAMILIAR EXPOSITION OF THE NATURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVES: - - Being the substance of a course of popular Lectures. - - _In one volume, with numerous illustrations._ - - - * * * * * - - _August, 1850._ - - =LIST OF WORKS= - - PRINCIPALLY ON - - NATURAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE, - - PUBLISHED BY - - REEVE AND BENHAM, - - 5, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN. - - - 1. - - POPULAR FIELD BOTANY; - - COMPRISING - - A familiar and technical description of the Plants most common to the - British Isles, adapted to the study of either the Artificial or Natural - System. - - By AGNES CATLOW. - - =Second Edition.= - - _Arranged in twelve chapters, each being the Botanical - lesson for the month._ - - "A useful aid to young persons at a loss how to take the first steps - in Botany. One of the impediments in their way is the uncertainty - that attends all attempts at making out the names of the objects they - have to examine, and this impediment can only be removed by drawings - and very familiar descriptions. Miss Catlow, in the work before us, - has furnished a clear and concise supply of both. We recommend her - 'Popular Botany' to favourable notice."--_Gardeners' Chronicle._ - - "The design of this work is to furnish young persons with a - Self-instructor in Botany, enabling them with little difficulty to - discover the scientific names of the common plants they may find in - their country rambles, to which are appended a few facts respecting - their uses, habits, &c. The plants are classed in months, the - illustrations are nicely coloured, and the book is altogether an - elegant, as well as useful present."--_Illustrated London News._ - - [***] In one vol. royal 16mo, with twenty plates of figures. - Price 7_s._ plain; 10_s._ 6_d._ coloured. - - 2. INSTINCT AND REASON. By Alfred Smee, F.R.S., Author of - 'Electro-Biology.' One vol. 8vo. With coloured Plates by Wing, - and Woodcuts. 16_s._ - - 3. THE TOURIST'S FLORA. A Descriptive Catalogue of the Flowering - Plants and Ferns of the British Islands, France, Germany, - Switzerland, Italy, and the Italian Islands. By Joseph Woods, - F.A.S., F.L.S., and F.G.S. 8vo. - - 4. POPULAR HISTORY OF MAMMALIA. By Adam White, F.L.S., Assistant - in the Zoological Department of the British Museum. With - sixteen coloured Plates of Quadrupeds, &c., by B. Waterhouse - Hawkins, F.L.S. Royal 16mo. 10_s._ 6_d._ - - 5. VOICES FROM THE WOODLANDS; or, History of Forest Trees, - Lichens, Mosses, and Ferns. By Mary Roberts. With twenty - coloured Plates by Fitch. Royal 16mo. 10_s._ 6_d._ - - 6. THOUGHTS ON A PEBBLE; or, A First Lesson in Geology. By Dr. - Mantell, F.R.S. Eighth Edition, considerably enlarged. With - four coloured plates, twenty-seven woodcuts, and a Portrait of - the Author. Square 12mo. 5_s._ - - 7. THE POETRY OF SCIENCE; or, Studies of the Physical Phenomena - of Nature. By Robert Hunt, Esq., Author of 'Panthea.' Second - Edition. Revised by the Author. With an Index. - - "An able and clever exposition of the great generalities of Science, - adapted to the comprehension of those who know little of her - mysteries."--_Athenĉum._ - - "One of the most readable epitomes of the present state and progress - of science we have yet perused."--_Morning Herald._ - - "This book displays a fund of knowledge, and is the work of an - eloquent and earnest man."--_Examiner._ - - [***] One vol. demy 8vo. Price 12_s._ - - 8. EPISODES OF INSECT LIFE. First Series. - - "The letterpress is interspersed with vignettes clearly and cleverly - engraved on stone, and the whole pile of natural history--fable, - poetry, theory, and fact--is stuck over with quaint apophthegms and - shrewd maxims, deduced for the benefit of man from the contemplation - of such tiny monitors as gnats and moths.--Altogether the book - is a curious and interesting one--quaint and clever, genial and - well-informed."--_Morning Chronicle._ - - [***] One vol. crown 8vo, with 16 illustrations. Price 16_s._ elegantly - bound in fancy cloth. _Coloured and bound extra, gilt, 21s._ - - 9. EPISODES OF INSECT LIFE. Second Series. - - [***] One vol. crown 8vo, with 36 illustrations. Price 16_s._ elegantly - bound in fancy cloth. _Coloured and bound extra, gilt, 21s._ - - 10. - - POPULAR HISTORY - - OF - - BRITISH SEA-WEEDS; - - Comprising a familiar and technical description - of the Sea-weeds of the British Isles. - - By the Rev. DAVID LANDSBOROUGH, A.L.S., - Member of the Wernerian Society of Edinburgh. - - "This charming contribution to the study of a very interesting branch - of Natural History combines scientific correctness with artistical - beauty."--_Literary Gazette._ - - "The book is as well executed as it is well timed. The descriptions - are scientific as well as popular, and the plates are clear and - explicit. Not only the forms, but the uses of Algĉ, are minutely - described. It is a worthy sea-side companion--a hand-book for every - occasional or permanent resident on the sea-shore."--_Economist._ - - "A work of much general interest, and one which every dweller by - the sea-side, who makes a right use of his eyes, would do well to - procure."--_Edinburgh Witness._ - - "Mr. Landsborough's very beautiful volume is meant for young students - of Sea-weeds. The volume is illustrated with many coloured plates, - executed in a superb style."--_Glasgow Daily Mail._ - - "Profusely illustrated with specimens of the various Sea-weeds, - beautifully drawn and exquisitely coloured."--_Sun._ - - "This elegant work, though intended for beginners, is well worthy the - perusal of those advanced in the science."--_Morning Herald._ - - "Those who desire to make themselves acquainted with British - Sea-weeds, cannot do better than begin with this elegantly - illustrated manual."--_Globe._ - - [***] In one vol. royal 16mo, with twenty-two plates of figures - by Fitch. Price 10_s._ 6_d._ coloured. - - 11. PANTHEA, THE SPIRIT OF NATURE. By Robert Hunt. Author - of 'The Poetry of Science.' One vol. 8vo. Price 10_s._ 6_d._ - - "A brave attempt to range from the elemental to the universal, from - the known to the unknown."--_Literary Gazette._ - - "There is, throughout, the closeness of matter and eloquence of style - that distinguish the 'Poetry of Science.'"--_Spectator._ - - 12. A REVIEW OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1848. By Captain Chamier, - R.N. Two vols. 8vo. Price 21_s._ - - 13. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF IRELAND. By William Thompson, Esq., - President of the Natural History and Philosophical Society of - Belfast. Birds. Vol. I. Price 16_s._ cloth. Vol. II. Price - 12_s._ - - 14. THE RHODODENDRONS OF SIKKIM-HIMALAYA. By Dr. J. D. Hooker. - Second Edition. In handsome imperial folio, with ten - beautifully coloured plates. Price 21_s._ - - 15. TRAVELS IN THE INTERIOR OF BRAZIL, principally through the - Northern Provinces and the Gold and Diamond Districts, during - the years 1836-41. By George Gardner, M.D., F.L.S. Second and - Cheaper Edition. 8vo. Plate and Map. Price 12_s._ - - 16. ILLUSTRATIONS OF BRITISH MYCOLOGY; or. Figures and Descriptions - of British Funguses. By Mrs. T. J. Hussey. Royal 4to. Ninety - plates, beautifully coloured. Price 7_l._ 12_s._ 6_d._, cloth. - - 17. THE ESCULENT FUNGUSES OF ENGLAND, By the Rev. Dr. Badham. - Super-royal 8vo. Price 21_s._, coloured plates. - - 18. NARRATIVE OF THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. SAMARANG in the Eastern - Archipelago during the years 1843-46. By Captain Sir Edward - Belcher, C.B., F.R.A.S. and G.S. In 2 vols. 8vo, 35 Charts, - Coloured Plates, and Etchings. Price 36_s._, cloth. - - 19. CURTIS'S BRITISH ENTOMOLOGY, being Illustrations and - Descriptions of the Genera of Insects found in Great Britain - and Ireland, comprising coloured figures from nature of the - most rare and beautiful species and of the plants upon which - they are found. By John Curtis, F.L.S. Sixteen vols. royal 8vo. - 770 copper-plates, beautifully coloured. Price £21. (Published - at £43 16_s._) - - 20. - - POPULAR BRITISH ORNITHOLOGY; - - COMPRISING - - A familiar and technical description - of the Birds of the British Isles. - - By P. H. GOSSE, - - Author of 'The Ocean,' 'The Birds of Jamaica,' &c. - - _In twelve chapters, each being the Ornithological lesson for the month._ - - "Goes over every month of the year, figures the birds naturally in - painted colours, describes them and their habits well, and is a - capital manual for youthful naturalists."--_Literary Gazette._ - - "To render the subject of ornithology clear, and its study - attractive, has been the great aim of the author of this beautiful - little volume. It contains descriptions of all our British birds, - with the exception of those which may be considered in the light - of stragglers, and which are not likely to fall in the way of - the young naturalist, for whose use this work is intended. It is - embellished by upwards of 70 plates of British birds beautifully - coloured."--_Morning Herald._ - - "We can answer for this compact and elegant little volume being - beautifully got up, and written in a manner likely to attract the - interest of the youthful student."--_Globe._ - - "This was a book much wanted, and will prove a boon of no common - value, containing, as it does, the names, descriptions, and habits of - all the British birds. It is handsomely got up, and ought to find a - place on the shelves of every book-case."--_Mirror._ - - [***] In one vol. royal 16mo, with twenty plates of figures. - Price 7_s._ plain; 10_s._ 6_d._ coloured. - - 21. THE DODO AND ITS KINDRED; or, the History, Affinities, and - Osteology of the Dodo, Solitaire, and other extinct birds - of the Islands Mauritius, Rodriguez, and Bourbon. By H. E. - Strickland, Esq., M.A., F.R.G.S., F.G.S.; and A. G. Melville, - M.D., M.R.C.S. One vol. royal quarto, with eighteen plates and - numerous wood illustrations. Price 21_s._ - - 22. A CENTURY OF ORCHIDACEOUS PLANTS, the Plates selected from the - Botanical Magazine. The descriptions re-written by Sir William - Jackson Hooker, F.R.S., Director of the Royal Gardens of Kew; - with Introduction and instructions for their culture by John - Charles Lyons, Esq. One hundred coloured plates, royal quarto. - Price Five Guineas. - - 23. CONCHOLOGIA SYSTEMATICA; or, Complete System of Conchology. 300 - plates of upwards of 1,500 figures of Shells. By Lovell Reeve, - F.L.S. Two vols. 4to, cloth. Price 10_l._ coloured; 6_l._ plain. - - 24. CONCHOLOGIST'S NOMENCLATOR; or. Catalogue of recent Shells. By - Agnes Catlow and Lovell Reeve, F.L.S. Price 21_s._ - - 25. FLORA ANTARCTICA; or. Botany of the Antarctic Voyage. By Joseph - Dalton Hooker, M.D., R.N., F.R.S., &c. Two vols. royal 4to, 200 - plates. Price 10_l._ 15_s._ coloured; 7_l._ 10_s._ plain. - - 26. CRYPTOGAMIA ANTARCTICA; or, Cryptogamic Botany of the Antarctic - Voyage. By Joseph Dalton Hooker, F.R.S., &c. Royal 4to. Price - 4_l._ 4_s._ coloured; 2_l._ 17_s._ plain. - - 27. THE BRITISH DESMIDIEĈ; or, Fresh-Water Algĉ. By John Ralfs, - M.R.C.S. Price 36_s._ coloured plates. - - 28. CONCHYLIA DITHYRA INSULARUM BRITANNICARUM. By William Turton, - M.D. Reprinted verbatim from the original edition. Large paper, - price 2_l._ 10_s._ - - 29. THE PLANETARY AND STELLAR UNIVERSE. By Robert James Mann. Price - 5_s._, cloth. - - 30. ILLUSTRATIONS of the WISDOM and BENEVOLENCE of the DEITY, as - manifested in Nature. By H. Edwards, LL.D. Price 2_s._ 6_d._, - cloth. - - 31. - - POPULAR - - BRITISH ENTOMOLOGY; - - COMPRISING - - A familiar and technical description of the - Insects most common to the British Isles. - - By MARIA E. CATLOW. - - _In twelve chapters, each being the Entomological lesson for the month._ - - "Judiciously executed, with excellent figures of the commoner - species, for the use of young beginners."--_Annual Address of the - President of the Entomological Society._ - - "Miss Catlow's 'Popular British Entomology' contains an introductory - chapter or two on classification, which are followed by brief generic - and specific descriptions in English of above 200 of the commoner - British species, together with accurate figures of about 70 of those - described. The work is beautifully printed, and the figures nicely - coloured, and will be quite a treasure to any one just commencing - the study of this fascinating science."--_Westminster and Foreign - Quarterly Review._ - - [***] In one vol. royal 16mo, with sixteen plates of figures. - Price 7_s._ plain; 10_s._ 6_d._ coloured. - - - =Serials.= - - 32. CURTIS'S BOTANICAL MAGAZINE; by Sir William Jackson Hooker, - F.R.S., V.P.L.S., &c., Director of the Royal Gardens of Kew. - With observations on the culture of each species, by Mr. - John Smith, A.L.S., Curator of the Royal Gardens. In monthly - numbers, each containing six plates, price 3_s._ 6_d._ coloured. - - 33. HOOKER'S JOURNAL OF BOTANY, and KEW GARDEN MISCELLANY. Edited - by Sir William Jackson Hooker, F.R.S., &c. In monthly numbers. - Price One Shilling. - - 34. ZOOLOGY OF THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. SAMARANG. Edited by Arthur - Adams, Assistant-Surgeon, R.N. Fishes. By Sir John Richardson, - M.D., F.R.S. Crustacea. By the Editor and Adam White, F.L.S. - Mollusca. By the Editor and Lovell Reeve, F.L.S., including the - anatomy of the _Spirula_, by Prof. Owen, F.R.S. - - 35. PHYCOLOGIA BRITANNICA; or, History of the British Sea-weeds. By - Professor Harvey, M.D., M.R.I.A. In parts, price 2_s._ 6_d._ - coloured; large paper, 5_s._ To be completed in 60 parts. Part - 49 just published. - - 36. NEREIS AUSTRALIS; or, Illustrations of the Algĉ of the Southern - Ocean. By Professor Harvey, M.D., M.R.I.A. To be completed in - Four Parts, each containing 25 coloured plates, imp. 8vo, price - 1_l._ 1_s._ Parts 1 and 2 recently published. - - 37. CONTRIBUTIONS TO ORNITHOLOGY. By Sir William Jardine, Bart. In - parts, each containing 4 plates, price 3_s._ - - 38. CONCHOLOGIA ICONICA; or, Figures and Descriptions of the Shells - of Molluscous Animals. By Lovell Reeve, F.L.S. Demy 4to. - Monthly. Eight plates. 10_s._ coloured. Part 87 just published. - - 39. ELEMENTS OF CONCHOLOGY; or, Introduction to the Natural History - of Shells and their molluscous inhabitants. By Lovell Reeve, - F.L.S. Royal 8vo. In twelve parts, each containing five plates. - Price 3_s._ 6_d._ coloured. - - 40. CURTIS'S BRITISH ENTOMOLOGY. Re-issued in monthly parts, each - containing 4 coloured plates and corresponding text. Price - 3_s._ 6_d._ - - 41. A CENTURY OF ORCHIDACEOUS PLANTS. Published in monthly numbers, - each containing five plates. Price 5_s._ - - - LONDON: - - REEVE and BENHAM, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN. - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber Note - -Illustrations may have been moved to prevent splitting paragraphs. -Minor typos were corrected. Produced from materials made available on -The Internet Archive and all derived products are placed in the Public -Domain. - - - - - - - - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Thoughts on a Pebble, by Gideon Algernon Mantell - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THOUGHTS ON A PEBBLE *** - -***** This file should be named 62871-8.txt or 62871-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/8/7/62871/ - -Produced by Tom Cosmas from materials made freely available -on The Internet Archive. 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