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diff --git a/old/62749-0.txt b/old/62749-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 83029cc..0000000 --- a/old/62749-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4478 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Strange Peoples, by Frederick Starr - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Strange Peoples - Ethno-Geographic Reader, No. 1 - -Author: Frederick Starr - -Release Date: July 25, 2020 [EBook #62749] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STRANGE PEOPLES *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing, Chris Curnow, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -[Illustration: AUSTRALIAN (RATZEL).] - - Ethno-Geographic Reader, No. 1 - - - - - STRANGE PEOPLES - - - BY - - FREDERICK STARR - - - BOSTON, U.S.A. - - D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS - - 1901 - - - - - Ethno-Geographic Readers. - - BY FREDERICK STARR. - - No. 1. STRANGE PEOPLES. 40 CENTS. - No. 2. AMERICAN INDIANS. 45 CENTS. - No. 3. HOW MEN DO. IN PREPARATION. - - D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS - - - COPYRIGHT, 1901, - BY FREDERICK STARR. - - - Plimpton Press - H. M. Plimpton & CO., PRINTERS & BINDERS - NORWOOD, MASS., U.S.A. - - - - - THIS BOOK - - STRANGE PEOPLES - - IS DEDICATED TO - - WILLIAM FOSTER YOUNG - - - - - PREFACE. - - -The author claims no originality for the matter of this book for young -readers on _Strange Peoples_. He has culled material where he could. His -aim has been to present a series of sketches which may render the maps -in the geography more interesting and give school children a broader and -deeper sympathy with other races and peoples. Indebted to many books, he -has been under constant obligations to Verneau’s _Les Races Humaines_ -and Ratzel’s _Völkerkunde_. Other books which have been helpful will be -found listed at the close of this volume. - -At first the author planned to use only original or new illustrations. -It has been, however, impossible to carry out this plan. Less than one -fourth of the pictures are really new; it is believed, however, that all -are authentic and will prove instructive. - -It would have been easy to make the book more interesting by the -introduction of descriptions, more detailed, of the ridiculous or -dreadful practices of some races. The purpose has, however, not been to -hold other peoples up to ridicule nor to teach morality by contrast; -there are, indeed, too many matters for criticism in our own mode of -life to warrant such a treatment. Nor would it be possible in a book for -children to present that full discussion which might be expected in a -treatise on ethnology for students. The book makes no pretence to -systematic treatment; only a few people are taken, here and there, -almost at haphazard, to illustrate the marvellous richness of the field -for study which, even now, is presented by the _Strange Peoples_ of the -globe. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER PAGE - I. INTRODUCTION 1 - - II. THE PEOPLES OF NORTH AMERICA: ESKIMO 6 - - III. WILD INDIANS 13 - - IV. MEXICANS 17 - - V. SOUTH AMERICAN PEOPLES 26 - - VI. THE PEOPLES OF EUROPE: FAIR WHITES 33 - - VII. DARK WHITES 38 - - VIII. BASQUES 43 - - IX. FINNS 47 - - X. LAPPS 53 - - XI. TURKS 60 - - XII. THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 65 - - XIII. CHINESE 69 - - XIV. COREANS 76 - - XV. TIBETANS 81 - - XVI. JAPANESE 88 - - XVII. AINU 95 - - XVIII. HINDUS 101 - - XIX. TODAS 107 - - XX. ANDAMANESE: MINCOPIES 112 - - XXI. ARABS 118 - - XXII. THE PEOPLES OF AFRICA: KABYLES 123 - - XXIII. NEGROES 128 - - XXIV. NEGROIDS 134 - - XXV. PYGMIES 138 - - XXVI. BUSHMEN AND HOTTENTOTS 143 - - XXVII. MALAYS 150 - - XXVIII. THE PEOPLES OF THE PHILIPPINES 156 - - XXIX. MELANESIANS 163 - - XXX. POLYNESIANS 172 - - XXXI. CONCLUSION 180 - - LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS 185 - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - Australian (Ratzel) _Frontispiece_ - - PAGE - 1. Group of Greenland Eskimo. (Nansen.) 9 - - 2. A Greenland Eskimo Fishing. (Nansen.) 11 - - 3. Victorio—an Apache Warrior. (Lummis.) 14 - - 4. Mexican Ox-cart. (From photograph.) 21 - - 5. Mexican Water-carrier. (From photograph.) 22 - - 6. Otomi Indian Girls, Mexico. (From photograph.) 24 - - 7. Peruvian Antiquities. (Ratzel.) 27 - - 8. Botocudo Indian with Lip-plug. (Tylor.) 31 - - 9. Fish-girl of Scheveningen, Holland. (From photograph.) 35 - - 10. Boats made from Shoes, Holland. (From drawing by Haité.) 36 - - 11. Italian Child. (Miln.) 39 - - 12. Basque Cart. (Verneau.) 46 - - 13. Finns Singing. (Verneau.) 51 - - 14. A Group of Lapps. (Verneau.) 54 - - 15. Laplander on Snow-runners. (Verneau.) 57 - - 16. Caravan preparing to start: Asiatic Turks. (Verneau.) 62 - - 17. Chinese Mandarin. (Ratzel.) 71 - - 18. Chinese Boy choosing Toys. (Doolittle.) 73 - - 19. Corean Hat. (Lowell.) 78 - - 20. Tibetan Lamas blowing on Shells. (Verneau.) 84 - - 21. Mongols choosing a Lama. (Huc.) 86 - - 22. Japanese Girl with Baby. (Arnold.) 89 - - 23. Boys’ Festival: Japan. (Bramhall.) 92 - - 24. Ainu—a Hairy Specimen. (Batchelor.) 96 - - 25. Ainu Women, showing Tattooing. (From a photograph.) 97 - - 26. Hindu Dancing girls and Musicians. (Verneau.) 103 - - 27. Hindu Snake Charmers. (Brehm.) 105 - - 28. Group of Todas. (Verneau.) 111 - - 29. Andaman Mincopies. (Tylor.) 116 - - 30. Camel and Palanquin. (From a photograph.) 120 - - 31. Group of Kabyles: Algeria. (From a photograph.) 125 - - 32. Making Couscous in the Desert. (From a photograph.) 127 - - 33. Negro Smiths at Work. (Ratzel.) 131 - - 34. Waganda Musicians. (Ratzel.) 137 - - 35. Huts of Ashango-land Dwarfs. (Du Chaillu.) 140 - - 36. Gora-player: Bushman. (Ratzel.) 145 - - 37. Bushman Rock Picture. (Ratzel.) 147 - - 38. Hottentot Kraal. (Ratzel.) 149 - - 39. Malay Family: Java. (Verneau.) 152 - - 40. Buffalo Cart: Java. (Ratzel.) 154 - - 41. Krises: Java. (Ratzel.) 155 - - 42. Philippine Negrito. (Meyer.) 158 - - 43. Houses of Igorrotes. (Meyer.) 160 - - 44. Head-hunting Party: Igorrotes. (Meyer.) 162 - - 45. Fijian. (Ratzel.) 165 - - 46. Pile-dwelling Village: New Guinea. (Ratzel.) 167 - - 47. Canoe: New Guinea. (Ratzel.) 168 - - 48. Tattooed New Zealander. (Verneau.) 173 - - 49. Helmets and Idol-heads of Feathers: Hawaii. (Ratzel.) 175 - - 50. Kingsmill Islander. (Tylor.) 179 - -[Illustration: MAP OF THE WORLD SHOWING LOCATION OF THE STRANGE PEOPLES -DESCRIBED IN THIS BOOK] - - - - - STRANGE PEOPLES. - - - - - I. - INTRODUCTORY. - - -We are to read about some of the _Strange Peoples_ of the world. We -shall find many curious customs. There is an old saying,— - - “Many men of many minds; - Many birds of many kinds; - Many fishes in the sea; - Many men who don’t agree.” - -Peoples differ in so many ways. There are tall Patagonians and short -Bushmen. There are white peoples, and black, yellow, and brown peoples. -There are peoples whose bodies are so covered with hair as almost to be -called furry, and there are peoples whose faces even are hairless except -for eyebrows and eyelashes. There are lively peoples and there are -sluggish peoples; gay peoples and sad ones. Negroes do not think and -feel like white men, and the Chinaman thinks and feels differently from -either. All peoples have their own customs. When we speak of other -peoples as _Strange Peoples_, we must never forget that we are as -_strange_ to them as they are to us. We think it curious that the -Chinese dwarf, by bandaging, the feet of their women; they think it -strange that we do _not_. To us the Chinese face seems much too flat; -the Chinese think ours are like the face of an eagle and that they are -harsh and cruel. We think the flat, wide nose of the negro is ugly; -negroes think it far handsomer than ours. So we will remember that all -these peoples are “strange” only because they are _unlike_ us: that we -ourselves are just as strange as they are. They have as much right to -their ideas and customs as we have to ours: often indeed we might find -theirs better than our own. - -We begin with North America. We then pass to South America; then to -Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Pacific Islands in order. We shall find -that the different peoples of the world are not scattered haphazard; on -the contrary, they are quite regularly distributed by types. Thus until -lately the peoples living in America were all Indians, with red-brown -skin, straight and coarse black hair, and high and wide cheek bones. -Europe and Northern Africa (which really belongs rather to Europe than -Africa) form the land of the white peoples. South Africa—Africa -proper—is the home of negroes and negroids, with dark brown, almost -black, skin, narrow heads and faces, and woolly hair. The proper -population of Asia is yellow peoples, with round heads, slant eyes, and -straight, long, black hair. In Australia are brown peoples with curly or -bushy hair. In Oceanica are several well-marked types—the little brown -Malays, the dark, almost black, Melanesians with crinkly hair, and the -tall, well-built, fine-featured, light Polynesians. This is, in general, -the distribution of the human races. But there has been much movement. -There are now both white and blacks in America; the English whites have -crowded in upon the natives of Australia; in Asia there are white -peoples, like the Ainu and Todas, who have certainly lived there a long -time. - -The different peoples are unlike in their culture. Some peoples live on -wild food, having no cultivated plants or domestic animals. They hunt -animals and catch fish; they search for birds’ eggs and honey; they grub -up roots and gather barks, leaves, fruits, seeds, and nuts for food. To -such tribes, who usually wander in little bands from place to place, the -name savage is given. The word does not mean that they are fierce and -cruel in disposition; most savage tribes, to-day living, are neither. -The Eskimo and Mincopies are savages, but they are quite kind and -gentle. When peoples settle down to cultivate the soil and build homes, -or when they raise herds of animals with which they move from time to -time for new pastures, their life is easier. To such peoples—so long as -they do _not_ know how to work iron by smelting, to write by means of -characters that represent sounds, and to make animals assist them in -tilling the ground—the name barbarian is applied. When any peoples have -learned these three great helps, they are called civilized. There are -then three great stages of culture,—savagery, barbarism, and -civilization. The Eskimo is in savagery; the American Indians are mostly -in barbarism; the Chinese are in civilization. - -The way in which the life of peoples is affected by the lands in which -they live is most interesting. The Eskimo live in the cold north; there -is little wood there for construction; fuels such as are used elsewhere -are rare; no fibre-yielding plants grow there. Yet the Eskimo has made -full use of what nature gives him. He builds his house, when necessary, -of the snow itself, heats it with animal fats and oils, clothes himself -in excellent garments of skins, knows the ways of all the animals and -birds around him for their destruction, and has invented an ideal -hunter’s boat and devised a beautiful series of weapons and tools. The -way in which he has fitted himself to the place in which he lives is -wonderful. The world over we notice the same thing: man everywhere -ransacks his home-land to find out what is useful and turns it to his -needs. - -Often where two different peoples live in the same district marriage -takes place between them, and mixed types arise. Where one people has -long occupied a country alone the type is very well-marked, and all look -alike. Thus in the Andaman Islands, the little Mincopies look so much -alike that a person needs to know them well to tell them apart. We, -ourselves, are a great mixture. Even in one family there may be tall and -short, light and dark, blue-eyed or brown-eyed persons. Such differences -are only found where there has been much mixing between different -peoples. In Mexico, once purely Indian, there has been since the coming -of the Spaniards much mixture, and to-day a large part of the population -is of a new type—part Indian, part Spanish. The people range in color -from almost white to dark brown according to the amount of Spanish or -Indian blood each has. - - - - - II. - THE PEOPLES OF NORTH AMERICA: ESKIMO. - - -For the larger part, North America is now occupied by populations of our -own kind. The greater part of the people of Canada is of French or -English descent; the people of our own country are mainly Europeans or -of European descent. There are of course many negroes, especially in the -South, who have descended from African slaves. There are also some -Chinese, Japanese, Hindus, Malays, and others. Formerly the United -States and Canada were occupied by Indians, but now there are few left, -who mostly live upon reservations. South of the United States lie Mexico -and Central America. They, too, were Indian lands when first visited by -white men. In Northern Mexico a new, mixed population live; Southern -Mexico is yet quite purely Indian. In Central America we find the mixed -Spanish-Indian in some districts, and pure Indians in others. In the -northmost part of the continent live the Eskimo. We shall speak about -the Eskimo, wild Indians, and Mexicans. - -The home-land of the Eskimo is dreary. They live in Labrador, Greenland, -and the Arctic country stretching from Greenland west to Northern -Alaska. Generally, it is a land of snow and ice, where it is impossible -to raise even the most hardy plants. The people are forced to live -chiefly on animal food. Not only is the weather usually cold, but for a -large part of the year the Eskimo do not see the sun, and for the rest -of it they see the sun all the time. In some districts the swarms of -mosquitoes in the warmer part of the year are a great trouble. There are -few trees, and those are stunted; wood is precious, and drift wood is -carefully gathered to make into tools and weapons. But notwithstanding -his dreary home the Eskimo are rarely ugly and ill tempered. - -They are little people with yellowish brown skin. Some Greenlanders are -of fair stature. Their faces are broad and round, with coarse features. -The eyes are small, dark, and often oblique, like the Chinese; the nose -is narrow at the root, but fat; the cheeks are round and full; the mouth -is big, with good, strong teeth. Eskimo are usually filthy and appear -much darker than they really are. - -The clothing is generally made of skins with the hair left on. Men and -women dress much alike. Trousers are worn by both: a shirt or jacket -with a hood attached is much used. That worn by men is often made of -bird skins, and the feather side is worn next the body. The lower part -of the legs and the feet are encased in _kamiks_, skin socks and boots. -The little babies are carried naked in a great pouch at the back of -their outer jacket. This pouch makes a fine nest for the little -creatures, as it is lined with soft sealskin or reindeer skin. -Formerly—and perhaps sometimes now—the Eskimo mothers used to wash their -babies by licking them with their tongues. - -In Greenland the Eskimo houses are usually built of stones and earth. -They are partly below ground, and only the upper part shows outside, -like a mound of dirt. To enter the house one crawls through a long and -narrow passage, also built of stones and earth, and which is also partly -below ground. The house is not large, and consists of one room. It is -lined with skins. Wide benches around the sides, covered with skins and -moss, serve as beds. Several families live crowded together in one -house. One house in East Greenland, measuring twenty-seven by fifteen -feet, contained eight families,—thirty-eight persons. The houses are so -low that a tall man cannot stand upright in one. Until lately the only -heating was by stone lamps. These were flat and hardly deeper than a -plate: oil was burned in them. They were kept burning day and night, and -above them were racks of poles on which wet clothing was dried. In the -middle part of the Eskimo land they build the quaint round-topped huts -made of blocks of snow, of which you have often seen pictures. - -[Illustration: GROUP OF GREENLAND ESKIMO (NANSEN).] - -The Eskimo eat the flesh of seals, whales, birds, hares, bears, dogs, -foxes, and deer. In that cold country they like _fat_ meat. Sometimes -meat and fish are eaten raw, but they may be boiled or fried. Fresh, raw -blubber is much loved. The skin of whales, seals, and halibut is -favorite food. Travellers tell astonishing stories of the quantities of -candles and oil that Eskimo eat and drink when they are supplied to -them. The supply of plant food is small: stalks of angelica, dandelion, -sorrel, berries, and seaweed are used. - -The man’s great business is hunting. He has studied the habits of the -bear, deer, seal, and walrus, and has learned just how to capture or -kill them. He has invented many curious darts, harpoons, spears, bolas, -etc. The bird spears have several points projecting in different -directions from the shaft, so that if one misses, another may strike, or -several birds may be impaled at once. The bolas consists of several -pebbles attached to cords, which are knotted together at the end. These -are set to whirling and then hurled through the air at birds to entangle -them. The point of the harpoon separates from the shaft when an animal -is struck; it remains in the game while the shaft floats on the water; -the point is connected by a line to a bladder, which, floating, shows -where the animal goes, and helps to tire him out. In hurling harpoons -and darts the Eskimo uses a spear-throwing stick which enables him to -send them with more force and directness than by his hand alone. - -[Illustration: A GREENLAND ESKIMO FISHING (NANSEN).] - -Much of his hunting is done from his canoe or _kayak_. This is narrow, -sharp-pointed at both ends, and light. It consists of a slight framework -over which skins are tightly stretched. The opening above is but large -enough for him to get his legs and body through. When he has crept in, -he ties a collar of skin, that surrounds the opening, about his body, -below his arms, to prevent the water dashing into the _kayak_, and -paddles away. His different weapons are all fastened in their proper -places on top of the canoe, where he can seize them when wanted. The -Eskimo are wonderful boatmen and drive their _kayaks_ over the waves -like seabirds. If they tip over, they easily right themselves. - -Formerly the Greenland Eskimo made long summer trips along the coast. -The clumsy, great, woman’s boat was brought out. The oldest man, the -women, children, and baggage went in it. The younger men went in their -_kayaks_. In the big boat the women rowed while the old man steered. -They often went fifty miles a day. At good spots they landed and built a -tent of thin skins. They loved these summer journeys as our boys love -their camping trips. - - - - - III. - WILD INDIANS. - - -There are no really wild Indians left in the United States. Formerly -there were many tribes of them, but some have disappeared, and others -have lost their old-time spirit. To-day our Indians live idly on the -reservations or work their little farms with fair industry. Sometimes a -tribe, roused by new wrongs inflicted on it by the white man, takes the -war-path; sometimes some religious idea goes from tribe to tribe -creating great excitement, like the Ghost Dance. But such outbreaks and -excitements are less and less common. - -Mr. Lummis has written of the Apache warrior and described the war led -by Geronimo. It was a daring thing. There was but a handful of the -Indians. “Thirty-four men, eight well-grown boys, ninety-two women and -children”—that was all. Only forty-two who could be called fighters. On -May 17, 1885, the little band broke forth from their reservation and -headed for Mexico. It took the United States a year and a half of -useless trouble and expense to pursue them. Time after time, when it -seemed certain that the Indians were trapped, they vanished. They never -stood for a pitched battle. But anywhere, concealed behind rocks or -hidden in brush, they picked off the soldiers sent to capture them. The -forces of the United States and Mexico were both kept constantly upon -the move. When a year had passed about sixty of the Indians returned -home. Twenty warriors, with fourteen women, kept up the battle, when -they too went home. During the year and a half of fighting more than -four hundred whites and Mexicans were killed; only two of the Indian -band were destroyed. During that time Arizona and New Mexico and all the -northern part of Mexico were kept in constant terror. These Apaches were -truly “wild Indians.” - -[Illustration: VICTORIO, AN APACHE WARRIOR (LUMMIS).] - -The Navajo are _not_ wild Indians though they are related to the Apaches -and were formerly bold fighters. They live near the settled Pueblos and -have learned from them many things. They are a prosperous tribe, -numbering fully ten thousand. They are well-to-do, having nine thousand -cattle, one hundred and nineteen thousand horses, and one million six -hundred thousand sheep and goats. They dress well in their own way and -wear many ornaments. - -A Navajo house is a simple affair. It consists of sticks or poles -stacked up so as to meet in a point above; they are then covered over -with bark, weeds, or earth, a hole being left for an entrance and one at -the top for smoke escape: an old blanket hung over the entrance hole -serves as a door. Near this hut there is often a little shelter of -boughs where the family spend most of their time on fine days. The -Navajo also build sweat houses for vapor baths. These are like the -regular hut, but have no smoke hole, and are thickly covered over with -earth. Stones are heated in a fire outside and carried into the sweat -house between sticks; water is dashed over them, and in the steam thus -made the bather sits. - -The Navajo are good workers in silver and are all the time improving in -their art. They make spherical beads, bracelets, and rings of several -sorts, breast ornaments, decorations for harness and bridle, and many -other things out of coins or other silver furnished them. The Navajo -excel as weavers of blankets, though they use extremely simple looms. -The yarn is home-spun from wool taken off their own flocks; they do, -however, buy some yarn ready-made from the white man. Formerly they dyed -their yarn with dyes taken from various plants or colored earths, but -now they mostly use white men’s dyes. Their blankets are firm and -closely woven and shed water finely. They are woven in bright patterns. -All the Indians who live near the Navajo like their blankets and pay -good prices for them. The Navajo greatly like turquoise beads, but they -do not find turquoise on their reservation. For these beads and -ornaments they trade their fine blankets, and silverware, and good -ponies with the Pueblo Indians who live near the mines of this handsome -greenstone. - -The Navajo are great singers and have many songs; but it is the men who -sing and not the women. They have also many interesting stories and -curious customs, but we cannot stop to tell about them. The Apaches and -Navajo are but two tribes out of the hundreds of American Indian tribes. -In another book, _American Indians_, you may read about their manners -and customs, their songs and music, their stories and worship. - - - - - IV. - MEXICANS. - - -Though Mexico is our next-door neighbor, life and customs are greatly -different there from our own. Three different peoples make up the -population. First, are the pure-blood Spaniards, who have been born in -the country; second, there are the _Mestizos_, mixed people, partly -Indian, partly Spanish; third, are the pure Indians, who now form about -five-twelfths of the whole population. From the City of Mexico northward -the land belongs chiefly to the mestizos; from the City of Mexico -southward Indians prevail. - -We will say nothing of the Spaniards nor of the wealthy mestizos, both -of whom are like European whites generally in their life. But the poorer -mestizos in the cities and towns and the country people generally are -interesting. The dress of the country gentleman was brilliant. It was of -broadcloth or soft-dressed leather, of a buff or brown color. The -little, close-fitting jacket, cut square at the waist, was supplied with -two lines of silver or steel buttons, and embroidered with patterns in -gilt or silver thread. The trousers fitted almost as a glove fits the -hands, and there was a double row of bright buttons up the sides of the -legs and a lacing of silver cord. The shoes, which were tan or buff, -were sharp-pointed. Unfortunately this handsome costume is not common -nowadays. All mestizos, rich and poor, still use the _serape_, which is -a long and narrow blanket, usually of handsome, bright colors. In -putting it on, one corner is held with the hand at the left shoulder, -while the blanket is passed behind the back and around the body in -front; the free end is then thrown over the left shoulder and hangs down -behind. It thus holds itself in place and needs no tying or pinning. -However poor a mestizo may be, he wants a fine hat or _sombrero_. -Mexican sombreros have high, pointed crowns, and wide brims. They are -made of palm or wool. Those of wool are of various colors—gray, brown, -black, sometimes red, blue, or green. They are of all prices. They are -decorated with bands of silver or gilt tinsel, and true silver ornaments -are made in many forms for fastening to them; a fine sombrero, well made -and well decorated, may weigh several pounds and cost _many_ dollars. - -The Mexicans are highly polite in manner. This is partly the result of -Spanish training, but is also partly due to the old Indian fondness for -ceremony. The movements of the hands and fingers by which they greet -each other are graceful and pretty. Friends, meeting each other, warmly -embrace. If a boy is spoken to by a gentleman he politely removes his -hat and holds it while he is being addressed and while he answers. -Should a stranger ask a little Mexican his name, with his hat off the -boy would reply, giving his name and adding, “_Servidor de usted, -señor_”—“your servant, sir.” - -The houses of poor Mexicans are miserable. The walls are usually built -of great sun-dried _adobe_ bricks; there is but one room and that is -small. There are no windows and but one door; the roof is flat and the -floor is of dirt or stone. Generally there is no bed and there may be no -table, and few if any chairs or stools. There are usually some rush mats -in the corner, which are spread out upon the floor at night for sleeping -on. There are always a _brasero_ and a _metate_. The brasero is a little -kettle-shaped earthenware stove, where food is cooked over a wee fire of -charcoal. The metate is the grinding-stone, on which the woman grinds -corn-meal. - -The three common foods of the Mexican poor are corn-cakes, eggs, and -beans—_tortillas_, _huevos_, and _frijoles_. The corn after being well -soaked is ground on the stone; the woman, taking the lump of wet dough, -throws it back and forth from one hand to the other, turning it as she -does so around and around. In this way she shapes a flat, thin, round -cake which she bakes upon a round pottery griddle. The eggs are usually -fried, so are the black beans, a great deal of lard being used. Often -they use no knives, forks, or spoons in eating. The corn-cakes -themselves will be used in handling the eggs and in scooping up the -beans. After thus serving as a fork and a spoon it will itself be eaten. - -But rich people in Mexico have beautiful homes. The outside, on the -street, is quite plain. The house surrounds a square court or space -which is called a _patio_. Passing through a great doorway, one goes -from the street into the patio. All the rooms of the house open on the -patio, either directly or under pretty arched galleries or corridors. -The patio itself may be planted with trees and shrubs bearing sweet -flowers, and often there is a fountain at the centre, with goldfish in -the basin. - -Cages of birds are hung around the patio, or under the corridors, and -the little captives delight with their brilliant colors or their sweet -songs. Every one in Mexico keeps birds as pets, and you may see, even in -the houses of the very poor, mocking-birds, doves, parrots, or clarins -with their clear, whistling note. - -Wherever there are real _roads_ in Mexico, there you may see the quaint -old-fashioned ox-carts with wheels often made from solid blocks of wood -cut to shape. Two oxen are generally yoked to each, but when heavy loads -are to be dragged, four, six, or even more are used at once. - -[Illustration: A MEXICAN OX-CART (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH).] - -[Illustration: MEXICAN WATER-CARRIER (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH).] - -In Central Mexico water is precious, and in the cities special men make -it a business to sell water from house to house. The water-carriers of -different towns greatly differ in the form and size of the jars they use -and in the mode of carrying them. In the city of Mexico, where they are -becoming an uncommon sight, the man carries two water-jars of metal, one -in front, one behind, hanging by straps from his shoulders and cap; in -Guadalajara a number of round pottery water-jars are set into a sort of -a frame mounted on a cart or barrow; in San Luis Potosi there are four -oval jars set into a wheelbarrow with an enormous wheel; in Guanajuato -they use great slender jars nearly as tall as the man himself, with a -ring of wood at the bottom to hold them when they are set on the ground. - -In the centre of every Mexican city or town of any importance is the -_plaza_ or public square. Sometimes this is surrounded by handsome -buildings and laid out with care as a garden. Among orange trees laden -with sweet blossoms and golden fruit, rose bushes, banana trees, there -wind pleasant walks with benches in the shade, where rich or poor may -rest. Usually at the centre of the plaza there is a band-stand where on -certain evenings every week fine concerts are given. - -The plaza is the pleasure-spot and gathering-place of all. To it flock -venders of all kinds, with cakes, candies, fruits, sugar-cane, peanuts, -toys, etc. Some of the wares are strange, and I am sure you could not -guess them. There goes a man with a lot of pretty colored balls like wee -toy balloons; they are red, white, blue, yellow; they are chewing-gum! -There is another man with a great crumpled sheet of some whitish brown -stuff; children flock to him with their coppers, and he cuts off pieces -which they walk away munching; it is fried pigskin! - -[Illustration: OTOMI INDIAN GIRLS (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH).] - -Mexicans delight in holidays, and they celebrate a great many. The 2d of -November, the day of the dead, is a great day. For several days -beforehand thousands of strange toys have been offered for sale. Some -are skulls made of sugar or clay; there are skeletons of various sizes -and materials, corpses, funeral processions, grave monuments. These are -all called “deaths.” When the day of the dead comes children expect to -receive these strange presents. When they rise in the morning their -first cry is, “Papa, mamma, give me my death.” There is a great -excitement the day before Easter. All down the streets may be seen -figures of Judas hung up above the heads of the passers. In the big -cities there will be hundreds of them of all sizes and shapes. They are -made of cardboard and paper, and have fireworks inside. At a certain -hour they are all set on fire, and burn and explode at a great rate, -much to the delight of the boys and girls. But these are only two of -many occasions during each year to which little Mexicans look forward -with delight. - -We have spoken only of the mestizos. The Indians are also interesting. -There are many tribes, all with their own customs, and many with their -old languages still in use. In the State of Oaxaca alone there are -fifteen languages still spoken. Among the many Mexican Indian tribes -perhaps the Aztecs, Otomis, Tarascans, Zapotecs, and Mayas are the best -known. - - - - - V. - SOUTH AMERICAN PEOPLES. - - -South America, like North America, was occupied by Indians at the time -of the discovery. The tribes differed in appearance, language, and -customs, but all were true American Indians. To be sure, some tribes -were dark, others light; some were tall, others short; some were true -savages, while others were almost civilized. - -Probably the most advanced tribes lived along the Pacific border. In -Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Chili many relics of ancient art -and many ruins of old buildings are found. Here and there east of the -mountains similar evidences of culture are found, but they are less -known. Best known of all are those of Peru. - -The ancient Indians of Peru were industrious and hard workers. Their -rulers, the Incas, were called “the children of the sun.” The old -Peruvians had important towns and cities. They diligently cultivated -their fields and irrigated them by great systems of canals. They wove -capital cotton cloth, from which they made good clothing. Their cloth -was often decorated with pretty inwoven designs in colored threads. They -tamed and bred the llama, and trained it for a pack animal. They could -not write, but kept accounts by knotted cords called _quipus_. -Differently colored cords were used for different things, and knots of -varying sizes stood for varying numbers. Thus an owner of llamas might -use a white cord for males, a reddish cord for females, and a yellow -cord for young. A simple knot might stand for _one_, and larger knots -might mean _five_, _ten_, or _twenty_. In this way the herder might keep -exact account of his animals. - -[Illustration: PERUVIAN ANTIQUITIES (RATZEL).] - -The old Peruvians were great potters and thousands of their old water -vessels and food dishes, which were buried with the dead, have been dug -up. These had curious forms and were often adorned with colored -patterns. Some of these jars were shaped like human faces, human -figures, or animals. Sometimes they were “whistling jars,” which were so -made that they whistled when water was poured in or out of them. The old -Peruvians were skilled in working copper, silver, and gold, and made -many ornaments and figures in these metals. - -They disposed of their dead carefully, and many of the dried bodies, or -“mummies” have been found in the ancient graves. The dead were folded -into a sitting position and bound; they were then wrapped about with -fine cloths. After the last wrapping was in place, it was painted, a -false face was marked on the cloth or placed over the proper place, and -imitation ear ornaments were hung at the sides of the head. Many objects -were buried with the dead,—vessels of food and drink, and the objects -they had used in life,—with a woman, cotton, spindle, and work-basket; -with a man, weapons and ornaments. The old Peruvians built fine public -buildings, and temples of stone and some ruins of such buildings still -remain. - -After the discovery of America two nations chiefly gained possession of -South America—Spain and Portugal. Portugal secured what is now Brazil; -Spain gained almost all the rest. The Spaniard settled chiefly where the -native tribes had already been living a quiet and settled life. In those -districts, just as in Mexico, there was much mixture between the two -peoples, and to-day there is a large _mestizo_ population, whose mode of -life has been influenced by that of Spain. In Peru, Brazil, Chili, and -the Argentine Republic we find lands which are making progress, and in -whose beautiful cities are fine buildings, handsome parks, and artistic -statuary. It is a great mistake to think of any of the South American -countries as uncivilized. - -Still, even in countries like Peru and Chili, centres of old and -interesting settled life, there are plenty of pure-blood Indians to-day. -These still keep up much of their old life and customs. And when, -instead of looking at the old culture centres, we examine the tribes -which were truly _wild_ at the time of the conquest, we find little -change. On the eastern slope of the Andes, in the valleys of those -streams which unite to form the Amazon, in the dense forests which -border that mighty river itself, are many truly savage tribes to-day—or, -when not savage, in low barbarism. Some of these tribes use the blow-gun -in hunting. This is a tube, eight or ten feet long, made from a cane or -bored out of wood. It is carefully straightened and smoothed on the -inside. The shaft of the little arrow used with this is slender and ends -in a sharp point; a tuft of cottony material, which just fits the bore -of the blow-gun, is wrapped about the upper end of the arrow and -fastened. When the arrow is placed in the blow-gun, this is raised to -the lips, and a sharp puff of air from the mouth sends the little weapon -on its way. These arrows go a long distance and with great force; as -they make no noise they are especially good for bird-hunting. The arrows -not only kill by their sharpness, but by poison, which is put on their -tips. Several of these Indian tribes know how to make deadly poisons, -chiefly from plants. - -Many of these wild tribes delight in bright feathers. They make -necklaces, head-dresses, arm-rings, bracelets, leg-bands, aprons, and -capes from them. Not that a single tribe makes all of these many -ornaments; some will use the feathers in one way, others in another. -Among the tribes of Brazil, the Botocudo are famous for the ornaments -they wear in their lips and ears. These ornaments are mere disks or -plugs of wood, which are inserted in holes pierced in the ears and lower -lip. Some Botocudo lip plugs are three inches in diameter. Such a lip -ornament holds the lip out almost like a shelf. - -[Illustration: BOTOCUDO INDIAN WITH LIP PLUG (TYLOR).] - -In eastern Ecuador and on the eastern slope of the Andes, near the -Amazonian headwaters, are several tribes who cut off the heads of slain -enemies as trophies. Best known of these tribes are the Mundurucus and -Jivaros. The Mundurucus, after cutting off the heads, paint the faces, -comb the hair, add feather ornaments, and then so dry the head that it -retains its natural size and form. The heads that are kept by the -Jivaros are even more curious. After they have been cut off the bones of -the skull are removed piecemeal from below. The heads are then shrunken -by means of astringent fluids, smoke, and pressure, until they are no -larger than the fist. The features retain their form, but everything is -reduced in size. It is hard to believe, when seeing one of these, that -it could ever have been a full-sized human head. Believing that the -spirit of the dead man will curse them and thus harm them, the Jivaros -sew the lips of the trophy together with cords. - -In Guiana some of the Indians make beautiful baskets of split cane. The -splints are sometimes stained black or brown, and thus pretty patterns -are woven in color. These patterns look like simple geometrical -designs—diamonds, meanders, etc.—but often they are really pictures of -snakes, monkeys, or human beings. These tribes use _cassava_ for making -bread. The roots or tubers, when first dug, are poisonous and unfit for -food. These are first grated on a board set with sharp bits of stone. -The shredded or grated pulp is then packed into a great tube of -basketwork closed at the bottom. This is hung to a beam and a pole is -passed through a loop at the lower end. By turning this pole the basket -tube is twisted, and the cassava pulp is squeezed so tightly that the -poisonous sap runs out, leaving the wholesome flour. - - - - - VI. - THE PEOPLES OF EUROPE: FAIR WHITES. - - -Europe is the continent of white peoples. While there are white peoples -in other continents, they are there as invaders. But even among the -whites of Europe itself there are differences. Most of the Northern -peoples, like the Swedes, Dutch, Russians, Germans, are light peoples, -with delicate skin, light hair, blue eyes, and rather long heads. They -are mostly tall in stature. The Southern peoples are dark—Spaniards, -Portuguese, Italians, Greeks, are all brunettes. They are shorter, more -slender, with dark skin, dark eyes, and black hair. In the region -between these two types of European whites there are peoples of medium -stature, rather stout, somewhat dark, with broad, round heads. Mr. -Ripley names these three kinds of Europeans—Teutonic, Mediterranean, and -Alpine peoples. We will speak simply of light whites and dark whites. -All the Europeans we have named speak languages that are much alike, -belonging to a group of languages to which the name Aryan is given. -There are, however, some peoples of Europe who do _not_ speak Aryan -languages. Such are the Basques, Finns, Lapps, and Turks. - -All the fair whites are so like ourselves that it will hardly do to call -them _Strange Peoples_. Yet we would find many curious things even in -those who are most like ourselves, as the Hollanders. You know something -about little Holland? It is a low, flat country, and much of it was -formerly under the sea. The industrious Hollanders have built great -dikes or walls to keep the sea back, and, by pumping out the water, -reclaimed the land. A rich and fertile land it is, intersected by a -network of little canals. Everywhere you go in Holland you see -windmills. Because the country _is_ so low and flat, there are no rapid -streams to furnish water-power for mills, so they must use the wind. At -some places, like Zaandam, hundreds may be seen at once. With us -windmills are simply for pumping water, but in Holland they do many -kinds of work. Some are flouring mills, others are sawmills for cutting -timber, others run oil presses, etc. - -[Illustration: FISH-GIRL OF SCHEVENINGEN, HOLLAND (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH).] - -The fishing towns of Holland are interesting. Every traveller wants to -see Vollendam and Scheveningen and the hamlets on the Island of Marken. -The men and women in these towns are kind-hearted, simple people, who -are proud of their own village and think their own dress finer than that -of other towns. Each of these fishing villages has its characteristic -costume. The men of the Island of Marken wear a close-fitting jacket -which ends at the waist and great, baggy, knee pants. Marken women wear -round, white caps, fitting the head closely, with an open-work border, -and a bright waist, with striped sleeves, over the front of which is a -square of handsomely embroidered cloth. Little girls all through Holland -dress exactly like women. But for her child face you would take the -little girl from Scheveningen to be a grown person. She wears a dainty -white cap pinned on with two great round-headed pins. Her ample dress -quite reaches the ground; her white apron is neatly tied, and her purple -shawl, tightly wrapped about her shoulders, is demurely crossed, and the -ends are tucked under her apron strings. She wears the common wooden -shoes of the country. A crowd of boys running in such shoes over the -hard paved roads makes a great clattering. On Sunday the wooden shoes of -men and boys are usually fresh whitened; if their owners enter a house, -they leave the shoes outside the door. I am sure you cannot guess what -little Dutch boys do with old wooden shoes. They make capital little -fishing boats out of them, which they sail on the canal. The real big -fishing boats are really shaped very much like shoes too. - -[Illustration: BOATS MADE FROM SHOES, HOLLAND (HAITÉ).] - -Edam cheese is one of Holland’s famous products. The people are -wonderfully careful in making it. They take great care of the cows; when -the weather is wet or the flies troublesome, they put blankets over them -to protect them. The stables where they keep them are as clean as soap -and water will make them; the stalls are made of handsomely planed wood, -and there is a window at each one to let in light and to give the cows a -chance to look out on the green meadows. The cheeses are made of cream -and are pressed in clean, white, earthenware moulds, into the shape and -size of cannon balls. They are then colored and sent to market. The -greatest cheese market of Holland is at Alkmaar. Scores of boatfuls are -there unloaded every market day. The market is at the water’s edge. The -cheeses are colored orange or red, and are oiled and wiped till they -shine. They are stacked in piles like cannon balls. - -Among famous Dutch towns is Delft, where they make a beautiful white -porcelain with blue designs, which is a favorite everywhere: then there -is Schiedam, where they make “Schnapps,” or gin, which is as famous -probably as the Delft ware, but not so praiseworthy; then there is -Haarlem, famous for its flower gardens, its tulips and begonias; at -Leiden there is a noble old university and a museum where one may see -objects made and used by all the Strange Peoples we shall study and many -more. Holland has had many great artists, and their works are preserved -in the art galleries at Rotterdam, Leiden, The Hague, Haarlem, and -Amsterdam. Holland was once the great commercial and naval nation of the -world: that day is past, but her ships still sail all seas; the little -kingdom is still a centre of intelligence, industry, and education, and -the thrifty and wealthy Dutch are a worthy example of the Fair Whites. - - - - - VII. - DARK WHITES. - - -Among the dark whites of Europe the Portuguese, Spanish, Italians, and -Greeks are conspicuous. In speech they are kin to each other, and to the -fair whites. How different they are otherwise! They are handsomer in -face, more lithe and graceful in body, more quickly aroused, more -changeable in purpose, than the fair whites. Their faces, their -gestures, their movements, more emphatically betray their emotions. They -live more in the present than the somewhat sober and sombre northern -peoples. - -Just now people are apt to forget how much _we_ owe to the dark whites. -They have done _much_ for the world. Greece taught Europe to think, -developed an art and architecture which impressed the world, formed a -literature and theatre that have never been surpassed; Rome taught -mankind government and law; Italy has produced the greatest paintings; -Spain discovered the New World. These are a few of the achievements of -the dark whites. Nor are they idle now; in Greece and Italy to-day, in -Spain and Portugal, art, invention, literature, and science are making -rapid progress. - -[Illustration: ITALIAN CHILD (MILN).] - -Every one has seen Italians. Those who come to us are mostly poor, and -badly represent their people. They are dark skinned, dark brown or black -eyed, black and curly haired, and have fine and regular features. They -are, perhaps, the handsomest of European peoples. They love the company -of others in their work and play. They delight in bright colors, and the -women fasten bright kerchiefs about their dark hair, fold a brilliant -cloth across the breast, and hang gaudy earrings in their ears. The -Italian language is sweet and lively, and the people who speak it are -impulsive and sunny in disposition, though easily angered, and quick to -resent an injury. - -Perhaps old Rome was the greatest city the world has known. The Roman -people ruled the known nations, and their armies and governors were in -all lands. Fine roads connected the city with every part of the Empire, -and fragments of these roads still exist though almost two thousand -years have passed. Rome was a centre to which flocked the painters, -sculptors, poets, and orators of the world; there they produced their -great works. At Rome were grand temples, great public buildings, the -mighty Coliseum where public games were held. Ruins of these famous -structures are still visited, and show the ancient grandeur of the dark -whites of by-gone days. - -Not far from Rome are ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum, towns where many -of the Romans had their country homes. In the year 79, more than -eighteen hundred years ago, Vesuvius burst forth in a terrible eruption -and destroyed the two cities. Pompeii was buried under a sheet of -“ashes,” while Herculaneum was overflowed by streams of lava. For -centuries no one knew that underneath these layers of “ashes” and lava a -great part of the two cities lay undestroyed. Recently, by digging away -the covering, they have discovered many curious and interesting things. -House walls, paintings, tools, weapons, ornaments, all remain to tell us -how the ancient Romans worked and lived. - -But later Rome was also great. It was the central city of Christendom, -the seat of the Pope’s power, the location of the Vatican. For this -reason it was the place where master minds dealt with great problems, -where great architects designed wonderful cathedrals, where painters -produced the famous pictures of the world. Nor is Rome small to-day. She -is no longer the mistress of the world; the temporal power of the church -has been lessened; but modern Rome is still the capital of a great -nation, a centre of enlightenment, a hive of industry; a shrine to which -the lovers of art and beauty make their pilgrimage. - -Even the poorest and meanest in Italy love music, painting, and -statuary. Everywhere in public places one sees sculptures in fine -marble. Such works in our own land would run some risk of injury or -destruction, but in Italy no one thinks of harming them. The Italians -all love music, and most of them know how to play some instrument. - -Italian mosaics and cameos are famous. At Florence particularly the -making of mosaics is important. Mosaics are pictures made by fitting -together wee bits of stones, enamels, or glasses of bright colors. A -pair of cuff buttons or a brooch may bear a spray of flowers, which -looks like delicate painting, but is really made by the fitting together -of these bits of stone. Cameos are cut from shell or onyx. Many sea -shells are composed of layers of different colors of shelly matter. Onyx -is a stone which is layered with different colors. A cameo is a piece of -carving cut in such materials so that the different colored layers give -different parts of the design. The work is beautiful and delicate. -Perhaps the finest cameo cutting is done at Naples. - -The Italian enjoys games. Several kinds of ball games are favorites with -him. He delights in throwing dice and other games of chance. Boys are -fond of _morra_. There are two players: at a given signal each extends -one hand with a certain number of fingers stretched out; at the same -moment each calls how many fingers he thinks both will have out. If -either guesses right, he wins. This is a very old game, and was played -in the time of Rome’s imperial grandeur. - -The gayest time of the year for young and old is the Carnival. Every one -is on the streets. They wear masks and are hideously dressed—like -clowns, deformed and distorted beings, devils, animals. They make a -great din and play all kinds of pranks. They throw flowers and paper cut -to bits on one another and sprinkle passers-by with water. Men, women, -and children all take part in this wild fun. The more ignorant Italians -are superstitious. They fear witchcraft and the evil eye, and most of -the lower class carry some lucky stone or other object to protect them -against such dangers. - - - - - VIII. - BASQUES. - - -On both sides of the Pyrenees Mountains, in France and in Spain, there -dwells a people which does not speak an Aryan language, the Basques. -Many writers who have studied the Basque language have wondered how it -came to exist alone in the midst of so many languages that have no -relation to it. - -The people who speak this language are called French Basques or Spanish -Basques according to which side of the Pyrenees is their home. They -differ somewhat. The Spanish Basques are usually short, -clear-complexioned, with rather long and narrow heads and brown or black -hair. The French Basques are frequently quite tall, have much broader -heads, and sometimes light hair. Neither French nor Spanish Basques are -pure in blood, being much mixed with their neighbors. Still, it is said -that a Basque can generally be known by his face. The upper, forward -part of his head is wide and bulging, while his face is long, narrow, -and ends in a pointed chin. - -The Basques are famous for their good health, their fine forms, and -their quick and graceful movements. They are industrious, hard workers. -In the uplands the men are shepherds, in the lowlands farmers and -herders, and on the coast fishermen and sailors. In the cities they work -at the docks, loading and unloading vessels. Women work at this hard -work just the same as men. Formerly the men engaged much in piracy. -Basque women are much employed as nurses in Spanish families. - -They are a gay and happy people. Men play tennis, and women play -skittles. Formerly they had many dances; one only of these is still -kept. It is danced by men only, and though the steps are difficult, the -dance is slow and grave. They delight in poetry and are able to compose -rapidly. Verneau says: “One may say that in the land of the Basques -every mountaineer is born a poet, but the poetry is made up on the spur -of the moment. In the midst of the delights of a feast, some one at the -table rises. All noise ceases. Complete silence is made about him. He -sings; the stanzas follow one another without effort and without -fatigue. His song is grave and measured; both the air and words are made -at the moment.” - -The Basques, especially those living in the mountains, are proud, happy, -and independent. They are easily angered and quick to fight. They love -their old life and customs and dislike changes. They still use many -old-fashioned things such as the clumsy ox-cart, with great, solid -wooden wheels and heavy wooden axle. The old dress has disappeared in -many places, but is picturesque. Men wear rather loose and baggy -trousers, a close-fitting vest, a sort of blouse or jacket that reaches -only to the waist, a wide, white collar turned down over the neck of the -blouse, and a loose necktie with streaming ends. They wear a loose cap -jauntily on the head. Men and women both delight in bright colors. - -Their food is simple, but they are always ready to share it with guests. -Strangers are welcome to the best the family has, which is generally -corn bread and cider, with bean soup and boiled cabbage. They celebrate -Christmas by killing a pig, the flesh of which gives the family a feast -for a long time. - -[Illustration: BASQUE CART (VERNEAU).] - -They are proud of their strange and difficult language, which _they_ -call _Euskaric_. They call themselves _Euskaldanac_, which means “the -speakers,” just as if other people using a different speech did not know -how to speak at all. - -The Basques have produced some famous men. The great sailor Magellan, -who circumnavigated the globe and discovered the Philippines in 1535, -was a Basque. So were Ignacio de Loyola and Francis Xavier, who founded -the _Society of Jesus_ or the _Jesuits_. Within recent years many of the -Basques have left their old home and gone to seek fortunes in new lands. -In all more than two hundred thousand have migrated, some to Havana and -Mexico, but many more to Montevideo and Buenos Ayres. - - - - - IX. - FINNS. - - -Finland, forming part of the Russian Empire, is bordered on the south -and west by the Baltic Sea (Gulfs of Finland and Bothnia) and stretches -as a narrow band almost north and south. There has been much discussion -as to just what and who the Finns are. Some writers think them true -white Europeans related to the long-headed, fair whites; others believe -them Mongolians who have moved from Asia into Europe, where they have -changed their color and appearance—partly by marrying with fair whites -and partly by the influence of climate and other conditions—but who -retain their old Asiatic language. - -Whichever is right, the Finns are an interesting people. There are about -one million and a half of pure blood dwelling in Finland. There are two -quite unlike types,—the Tavastland and Karelian Finns. The Tavastland -Finns are rather tall and large built, with a large and broad head, a -long and large face, light skin, light hair, and large and light eyes. -They are rather quiet, a little morose though kindly, and have a great -love for their old life and customs. The Karelian Finns are darker, with -dark brown or black hair and dark eyes. They were quite tall, but less -strongly built than the Tavastland Finns; they have a longer head and -smaller head and face; they are more lively, gay, and enterprising. It -is the Karelians who more nearly resemble the Finns of Asia, Ostiaks, -and Samoyeds. Both kinds of Finns, though differing in appearance, speak -one language, which is not Aryan, and is related to the languages of -Northern Asia. The Lapps, Turks, and some other peoples of Southeastern -Europe speak tongues related to the Finnish. - -In the cities and towns of Finland the people are much like their -Swedish, German, and Russian neighbors. But in the small towns and -villages and in the country they retain many old and curious customs. -There they live in old-fashioned houses or even older-fashioned tents. -The houses, built of logs, had low, broad, two-pitched roofs and -consisted of a single room; there was one door and some small windows. -Only recently have they used glass in the windows. The furniture is -simple. Clothing and other articles are hung on pegs against the wall or -over poles which are supported by hooks from the roof. Big, ring-shaped -loaves of rye bread are hung up on these poles also. Outside the house -are several small buildings used as store-rooms for treasures and the -sweat-bath house. - -The old tents are now rarely seen. They were circular, and their -framework was made by setting poles in the ground so that their upper -ends met; branches were worked in to fill the spaces between these and -form walls, and moss and turf were tightly packed in to fill all -openings. A doorway was left and a smoke hole. - -The sweat-bath house is found everywhere. It is large enough to -accommodate a good many bathers at once. Two sets of wide benches run -around the inside of the house, one higher than the other: these are for -the bathers to sit or lie upon. They reach the higher benches or -platforms by means of a short ladder. In one corner of this sweat-house -is a dome-shaped oven or fireplace built of stones. This is heated very -hot, and then dippers of water are thrown upon the hot stones, until the -steam fills the whole building. The bathers bask in the vapor, rub and -strike themselves with bunches of birch twigs, and then dash cold water -over themselves. They delight in these vapor baths, and every one—men, -women, and children—takes them. _We_ would not enjoy it much, for there -is much smoke mixed with the steam. Similar vapor baths are used in -Russia, and recently “Russian baths” have come much into use among -ourselves. - -Like many other northern peoples the Finns make many articles from birch -bark. Boxes, vessels, carrying sacks, and even shoes are made from it. -The climate of Finland is rather bad; winters are long and severe. The -people raise some plants, but their agriculture is simple and -old-fashioned. They burn over the space to be planted, work the ashes -and soil with crude tools, and plant the seed. Their crops sometimes -fail and terrible famines result. At such times they have made bread -from bark and roots crushed between rude grinding stones. Such bread is -called _famine bread_. - -[Illustration: FINNS SINGING (VERNEAU).] - -The Finns love song and poetry. It is said that every village has one -poet, or more, and that he prepares a new song whenever aught of -importance occurs. Besides these new songs they have many ancient songs, -of which they never tire. When they sing the songs of the olden time, -two men seat themselves face to face upon a bench, join hands, and rock -backward and forward in time to the song. First one sings a line or -passage, and then the other repeats the same, and so they continue, -rocking back and forth and singing the whole night through. Sometimes a -third man plays upon the _kantele_, while the others sing. This kantele -is somewhat like a zither; it has a flat sounding-body upon which are -strung from three to eight strings of different lengths. It is usually -picked with the fingers like a guitar. It is said that the first kantele -was made of fish-bones, though it is not easy to see how that could be. - -Until less than a hundred years ago, although these old songs were much -loved, no one had written them down. They were learned by heart from -father to son, and thus kept alive through the centuries. A man named -Lönnrot became interested in them and copied many of them from the -mouths of the singers. In 1825 he printed a book of them, and later he -gathered and published still more. To this book of songs he gave the -name of the _Kalevala_. It is one of the great poems of the world, and -it tells of the life and doings and beliefs of the Finns of the old, old -time. The style of the _Kalevala_ is lively and quite unlike most -English poetry. In _Hiawatha_, Longfellow copies this style; so when you -read _Hiawatha_ again, remember that it is like the old Finnish songs. - -The Finns are very fond of the _Kalevala_ and their other ancient songs. -They are jealous, too, of their old customs, and dislike to see them -pass away. They have some societies the purpose of which is to keep -alive a knowledge of the past of Finland. But though the Finns love -Finland and its old life, they are not to-day an independent nation. -They were invaded long ago by Sweden, and later on by Russia. For a time -Finland was a half-independent kingdom under Russian control, but lately -its power has been again reduced, and it is part of Russia itself. - -What we have said of the Finns is true of the country people. In the -cities things are much the same as in other European cities. In -Helsingfors we should find one of the great universities of Europe, and -many educated and distinguished men Finns by birth and language. - - - - - X. - LAPPS. - - -In the northmost part of the Scandinavian Peninsula and Finland live the -Lapps. There are probably not more than ten or twelve thousand, all -told. They have had much contact with the Finns, and speak a language -related to Finnish. In many customs they resemble them. This is not -strange, as the land they live in is much the same. - -[Illustration: A GROUP OF LAPPS (VERNEAU).] - -But while all Finns are tall, the Lapps are short. Most of the men fall -below five feet. Little and thin, they are yet strong and quick in their -movements. Their skin is dark, their hair black and straight. Their -heads are big and broad, and they have good foreheads and projecting -cheek bones. Their eyes often seem to slant downward at their outer -corners. While they are really dark skinned, they are not nearly so much -so as they appear, for they are usually filthy. When their faces are -washed, some of the women have quite fair skin and rosy cheeks. Life is -hard among the Lapps, but they often live to be old—sometimes even to -one hundred years or more. - -Those Lapps who live farthest away from the Finns, Russians, and Swedes -still wear the old style of dress. In winter their garments are made of -reindeer hide: the hair, which is left on, is worn next the body. Both -men and women wear big mittens of skin. They have caps on their heads, -and fishermen and herders may be distinguished by the style of these. -Fishermen’s caps are pointed, while those of herders are square. In -going out over the snow in winter, Lapps have long, narrow runners of -wood fastened to their feet, and carry a pole in their hand. These -runners are five feet or more in length, and only a few inches wide, and -on them—aided by their poles—the Lapps glide along finely over the hard -snow. - -Some Lapps are constantly wandering. Others settle down in quite -permanent homes. The wanderers build tents similar in shape to those of -our Sioux Indians and of the Finns. A lot of poles are set up in a -circle with their upper ends meeting. This framework is covered with a -cloth or with turfs. The settled Lapps live in houses, the framework of -which consists of posts set upright and poles lashed across. Small -storehouses for food are built near by, and these are set up on four -posts to keep the contents out of reach of dogs and other animals. - -When they greet each other, the Lapps rub noses together. This mode of -kissing is found also among other northern peoples, like the Samoyeds in -Asia and the Eskimos in America. Mothers cradle their babies in a sort -of trough hollowed out of a piece of wood. This they carry on their -backs when they journey, and hang on a tree or set into a snowbank when -they work. - -Of course every one thinks of reindeer when Laplanders are mentioned. -And it is not strange, because reindeer are useful indeed to these -little people. They furnish three useful things,—milk, meat, and skins. -The reindeer are kept in herds and form almost the only wealth of their -owners. Some herds number perhaps a thousand reindeer. These herds must -be constantly watched. Men, women, and children all help in the work, -and the many dogs kept by the Lapps are chiefly helpful in guarding the -herds. The women do the milking, and each of the reindeer cows is milked -twice a day. They give little milk, hardly more than a cupful at a -milking, but it is rich and thick and can be thinned with a good deal of -water. Some of the milk is drunk fresh, and from the rest the women make -a kind of cheese. When they wish to milk a reindeer, they approach the -animal carefully, throw a lasso over its head and wind this around the -snout so as to hold the animal quiet. The reindeer are also much used to -carry burdens and to drag sledges. - -[Illustration: LAPLANDER ON SNOW-RUNNERS (VERNEAU).] - -Besides the flesh and milk of the reindeer the Laplanders eat its blood, -which is boiled down into a sort of pudding. The meat which is not eaten -fresh is dried and stored away. Fish are dried and smoked. Birds and -their eggs are much eaten. Bread, much like the “famine bread” of the -Finns, is made from roots and barks. Soup is made of pine bark mixed -with fat and flour or meal. - -The Laplanders who live in settled houses depend upon hunting during the -fall and fishing during the summer. They hunt reindeer, squirrels, and -birds. Wild reindeer they take chiefly by pitfalls: they dig a hole, or -trench, in the path over which the reindeer is likely to pass, and -carefully cover it with branches, earth, and grass. When the animals -have fallen in, they are easily killed. Lapps are fond of the eggs of -water birds, and to secure them they build nests for the birds in trees -near the water, and then rob them after the eggs have been laid. - -The Laplanders are great believers in spirits. To summon these they use -drums or tambourines, consisting of a ring of wood over which a membrane -is tightly stretched. This has jingling objects fastened to it which -make a noise when the instrument is beaten or rattled. Upon the membrane -are rudely painted, curious figures, usually in red. Thus the sun, -animals, and human beings are pictured, and are believed to help the -drummer. The Lapps greatly fear their god of storms. He is believed to -drive the storms forth from his cave with a club and to bring them back -with a shovel. They fear him most at the season when the young reindeer -are born, and then pray to him not to let loose the storms, lest the -little creatures perish. Through their sorcerers they secure from this -god, storm strings with three knots tied in them. Each of these knots -represents a storm. If one knot is untied, a little storm is let loose; -if two are untied, a greater one; if three, there is a fearful tempest. -These strings are used against enemies or those who have tried to do -them harm. The neighbors of the little Lapps think these can do them -much harm with their wind strings and other magic, and they dread and -hate them. - - - - - XI. - TURKS. - - -With the Turks we pass from the peoples of Europe to those of Asia, for -the European Osmanli Turks are only the most settled branch of a large -group of peoples, most of whom lead wandering lives and live in Central -and Northern Asia. All speak almost the same language. Formerly there -was a great Turkish Empire, which stretched from the borders of China to -the Caspian Sea. The present peoples of the Turkic group live within -this area and in European Turkey. Among the most important of these -peoples are the Yakuts, Turkomans, Uzbegs, Nogais, Cossacks, and -Osmanli,—the latter being the Turks of European Turkey. - -We shall speak only of the Yakuts, Turkomans, and Osmanli. The Yakuts -occupy an area along both banks of the Lena River and extending west -from it. They are wanderers and raise herds of cattle and horses. They -live chiefly on the produce of their herds, eating horse flesh -especially, and making much cheese. Like many of their neighbors they -are fond of _koumyss_, a drink prepared by fermenting mare’s milk. Those -living farthest north, near the delta of the Lena River, also hunt small -animals for food. These wandering herders, living in tents, are not -quarrelsome; they respect age, and the old men control affairs and -determine the time for moving camp. Women are well treated by their -husbands, but one man may have several wives. In such cases, the wives -live each in a separate tent, and these tents are placed about the tent -of the husband. Men pay the father of their wives, for these, with -cattle and horses. When a man among the Yakuts dies, they dress him in -his best clothing and place in the grave with him his knife, a flint and -steel, some tinder, and a little food. The burial is always under a -tree, and two graves are dug. In one the man is buried with his head -turned toward the west. The man’s favorite horse is brought in his -finest harness and loaded with presents: a fat mare is also brought. -These are both killed and buried in the second grave that they may -accompany their master. - -[Illustration: CARAVAN PREPARING TO START: ASIATIC TURKS (VERNEAU).] - -The Turkomans, who live in Southern Turkestan and adjoining regions, are -probably more like the ancient Turks in appearance, than any of the -other Turkic tribes of the present. They are somewhat tall, with a -broad, rounded head, broad face, prominent cheek bones, little slant -eyes, a low nose, rather thick lips, and projecting ears. Their skin is -yellowish, their hair is coarse and black, and they have little beard. -They delight in bright clothing, and the women wear much jewelry. It is -said that they wear so many jingling ornaments, that a party of passing -women make a noise almost like the tinkling of bells. The Turkomans live -in large, round, wall tents: the light framework of poles is covered -with great pieces of felt. This felt is beaten by the women from sheep’s -wool and camel’s hair. They are comfortable within. The floor is often -covered with fine rugs or skins, and handsome woven stuffs are hung upon -the wall or thrown over the sitting places. These fine articles are -partly woven by the women and partly stolen from passing caravans—for -the Turkomans are dreadful pillagers. Until very lately they were also -slave-hunters and stole many Persian women to sell as slaves. The -Russian government has almost put an end to this trade. The Turkomans -raise horses, sheep, and camels. They eat the flesh of these animals and -drink their fresh milk. Unlike the Yakuts, they do not care for koumyss. -When an important man among the Turkomans dies, they raise a heap of -stones over his grave. If he was a very pious man, they pay great -respect to his grave and consider it a holy spot. A man who is ill or in -trouble may visit this grave to pray there; if he has an animal that -suffers from some disease, he leads it around the grave to cure it. Such -ideas about a pious man’s grave prevail in all Mohammedan countries. All -the peoples of the Turkic group are Mussulmans, though you would never -think it from the way in which Yakut and Turkoman women go about -unveiled. - -The Osmanli are the true Turks of Europe. Probably you would expect to -see only Turks in Turkey. That would be a great error, for really only -about one-tenth the population of Turkey is made up of Turks. There are -many Armenians and Bulgarians, besides Greeks and others. The Osmanli -Turks do not look like Mongolians, but their language and real blood -relationship are with the yellow Asians, rather than with the white -Europeans. It is not strange, however, that they present so mixed a -type; Turks have long married with white slaves, and there is much -Caucasian blood—both European and Asian—in their veins. - -Constantinople is one of the most beautiful cities of the globe, and is -probably the most important Mohammedan city. The _mosques_, or places of -worship, are everywhere and recognizable by their pretty minarets. -Friday and not Sunday is the day of service. Daily prayers are required, -and the hours for prayer are called by the _muezzim_. When the call is -heard, no matter what he may be doing, a good Mohammedan stops his -occupation, spreads his prayer cloth, faces the sacred city of Mecca, -and goes through his prayers. - -The Turk is _not_ industrious and lacks energy; he enjoys ease and -amusement. Perhaps a part of this is due to his being a fatalist; he -believes that what will happen, _must_ happen; that he cannot in any way -change the course of events. So _why_ should he hurry and worry? He _is_ -fond of trading, but even there is not in haste. In the bazaars the -seller and buyer haggle a long time over the prices. The one never asks -the price he expects to get, but one much larger; the other never -expects to pay the price first asked, but one much lower. Mohammedans -who can afford to keep them may marry four wives; they often own many -female slaves beside. These wives and slaves live in a special part of -the house called the harem, where no visitors except women enter. When -Turkish women go upon the street they are closely veiled, and none of -their face except the eyes can be seen. Mohammedanism permits polygamy, -but it forbids wine-drinking. While not all Turks obey this command, -they are usually temperate, and drunkenness is rare. - - - - - XII. - THE PEOPLES OF ASIA. - - -There has been much question as to _where_ man first lived. Some believe -that the first men were white and lived in Europe and North Africa; -others think the negroes of Africa are the oldest men; a few have argued -that the American Indian was the original race; most, however, have -thought that Asia was man’s first home. Whether this is so or not, Asia -to-day contains a swarming population composed of many peoples, -differing much in appearance, dress, life, and customs. - -The Asian peoples belong chiefly to the Mongolic or yellow race. It is a -well-marked type. Medium stature, broad and round head, flat face, with -nose rather low, broad and high cheek bones, hair coarse and straight -and jet black, skin yellowish, dark eyes apparently set slantwise in the -face, are its characters. The yellow race includes the Chinese, -Japanese, Coreans, the peoples of Indo-China, and most of the wandering -tribes of Siberia. There are probably more of this race than of any -other on the globe; next to them in numbers is the white race; then the -negroes; then the island peoples; last and least, the American Indians. - -Asia may justly be called the continent of yellow peoples. But it would -be a mistake to think that no other peoples but Mongolic peoples live -there. In almost every part of the great continent are peoples of white -or Caucasic types. Thus, in the far northeast of Asia we have the -curious Ghilyaks; in Japan, the Ainu; in China, various mountain tribes; -in Southeastern Asia, similar peoples; in India, the Todas. All these -tribes are white, bearded, with hairy bodies, rather long heads, and -straight eyes. These tribes are small in numbers, rather quiet and -timid, with little energy, and quite unlike European whites. They -usually live in mountainous, out-of-the-way places, and it almost seems -as if they are the scattered fragments of an ancient, white population, -who occupied much of Asia before the yellow race was important, and who -have been crowded back and almost destroyed by it. - -In India, Persia, and other parts of Western Asia, are many white -peoples who are like true European whites in their Aryan languages and -in their forms and features. In Western Asia there are, and long have -been, many dark white populations who are vigorous and active, with -features much more European than Mongolian. These dark whites speak -languages related to each other, but not Aryan. To these peoples, -including the old Hebrews, and the modern Arabs, and many other ancient -and modern peoples, the name Semites is applied. So you see that in Asia -there are not only the yellow, Mongolian peoples, but three different -kinds of whites,—the ancient feeble race, the Aryans, and the Semites. - -Nowhere do we find more interesting ruins telling of past grandeur than -in Asia. We think of Rome as old; of Greece as older; but in Mesopotamia -are ruins far older than those of Greece and Rome. There are the ruins -of Nineveh and Babylon, so often mentioned in the Bible. Both are old, -but lately explorers have found yet older ruins dating back six or seven -thousand years. And these are not ruins of small and unimportant places, -but of grand cities, whose people were already civilized, with fixed -laws, curious religions, and many arts and industries. Nowhere in the -world have ruins of older cities been found, and it is believed that the -people who built them were yellow Mongolians. - -In Asia most of the great religions were born. The oldest religious -systems of which we know were those of Mesopotamia. In India Buddhism -began. Buddha was a teacher who felt that the old religion of India, -Brahmanism, was wrong. So he taught a new religion. There are more -believers in Buddhism to-day than in any other religion. It is the chief -religion of China, Japan, Tibet, Southeastern Asia, and Ceylon; but in -India itself, where Buddha lived and taught, the people are _not_ -Buddhists. In China there arose a great teacher, Confucius. He taught no -religion, but to-day there are Confucian temples all through China. -Judaism, the worship of Jehovah by the Jews, began in Asia. There, too, -in Judæa also, Christianity was born. Christ dwelt and taught there, and -there the first Christian churches were founded. But just as Buddha’s -land is not Buddhist, so Palestine to-day is not Christian. It is a part -of the Mohammedan world. Mohammedanism, too, is Asiatic, beginning in -Arabia almost thirteen hundred years ago. Perhaps the original home of -man, Asia has certainly been the first seat of civilization, and the -cradle of religions. - - - - - XIII. - CHINESE. - - -Perhaps four hundred and twenty million people dwell in the Chinese -Empire and are called Chinese. They are not, however, all _true_ -Chinese. When the Chinese (or their ancestors) moved eastward into what -is now China, four thousand or more years ago, they found many different -tribes living there. Some of these were driven forth to seek new homes; -many remained and have mixed and mingled with the Chinese. - -So many Chinese now live in our country that you all know how they look -and dress. The Chinese in America are mostly from the poorest and -meanest class, and most of them come from Canton. Most of those here are -laundrymen, but in some of our larger cities there are merchants and -restaurant keepers, and in California hundreds of them are gardeners. -They quickly learn our ways of doing, and many are employed in -cigar-making, shirt-making, and railroad-building. They work hard and -save their money, as they want sometime to go home to their own country. -Chinamen who die here are buried only for a little time: later the bones -are gathered and sent home to be buried in China. - -The Chinese who come here are short or of medium stature. In the -interior and north of China they are taller. They have yellow skin, -black straight hair, and black eyes. Their eyes appear to slant or be -set crookedly, the inner corners being lower than the outer; they are -really almost as straight as our own, and the appearance is due to a -fold of skin at the inner corner. The long queue that hangs down the -Chinaman’s back is not composed entirely of hair; it is pieced out below -with cord or strings braided in. This style of wearing the hair is _not_ -truly Chinese. Formerly the Chinese wore their hair in a knot on top of -the head, but at the time of the Manchu Conquest, two hundred and fifty -or so years ago, they were compelled to wear the hair in the Manchu -fashion. For a Chinaman to cut off his queue would be almost the same as -declaring himself unloyal to his Manchu rulers. - -[Illustration: CHINESE MANDARIN (RATZEL).] - -Chinamen usually have three names. The family name, which we place last, -they place first. Thus _Li Hung Chang_, the great Chinese viceroy, -belongs to the _Li_ family. Few of the Chinese laundrymen in this -country have their true names on their signs. The _Li_ family is one of -the largest in China, but it is also generally poor and despised. Most -of our Chinese laundrymen are _Lis_, and are related to Li Hung Chang. - -In writing, the Chinese use a brush, which they dip into ink. A single -character represents a word, though many Chinese words are written with -compound characters, one part of which gives the sound, and the other -part pictures the meaning. In Chinese many sounds have several different -meanings. If the character with which the sound is written stood alone, -it would not be clear which meaning was intended. Chinese books are -printed on thin paper, which is folded back and forth like a screen or -fan and then stitched at the back; this makes the pages double. The -Chinese book begins at what we would consider the back and goes through -to what we would call the front. The print goes from the top of the page -down, in vertical columns, and the first column is the one to the right -hand. - -To be able to write well is considered of the greatest importance in -China. The Chinese respect learning also, and no man can hold office in -China unless he is educated and has passed his examinations. From the -time when a boy begins study he must keep it up for many years, if he -hopes for a government position. Often he is a middle-aged or old man -before he succeeds in passing all the necessary examinations. To be able -to write beautifully, to be able to compose a poem upon any given -subject, and to know the writings of Confucius and the other old -philosophers are the things the Chinaman must learn. The great -examinations at the Capital are attended by thousands from every part of -the Empire. The man who stands first is sure to have an important -governorship given to him at once. - -[Illustration: CHINESE BOY CHOOSING TOYS (DOOLITTLE).] - -There are many curious customs regarding Chinese children. One takes -place when a little boy is one year old. A great bamboo sieve, such as -farmers use, is placed upon the table. Upon it are spread many -articles—money-scales, shears, a measure, a mirror, a pencil, ink, -paper, inkstone, books, the counting-board, objects of gold or silver, -fruits, etc. The baby, all dressed in his best clothes, is then set in -the midst of the objects, on the sieve. His parents and friends watch -anxiously to see which of the articles he will grasp. They believe it -will show what he will do when he is a man. If he takes the money-scales -or the gold or silver, he will become a rich merchant; if he takes the -book or pencil, he will be a great scholar, and so on. - -Chinese money consists chiefly of round brass coins with a square hole -in the middle. It takes from eight to sixteen of them to make one cent -of ours. They are called “cash” and are often strung on strings for -convenient carrying. Many hundreds of years ago the ancient Chinese used -clothing and tools for money. When they began to make metal coins they -made these in the shape of shirts, knives, and spades, and called them -shirt money, knife money, and spade money. - -In eating the Chinese do not use knives and forks, but a pair of slender -sticks called “chopsticks.” These are both taken in one hand, and are -used to pick up bits of meat or vegetables from the soup or to lift -boiled rice or dumplings to the mouth. For eating soup they use little -flat-bottomed spoons of chinaware, which will not fall over when set -down on the table. In making tea the cup or bowl for each person stands -on the table with tea leaves in it; it sets into a little ring-shaped -saucer and has a little cover over it like a saucer turned bottom -upward. The servant lifts the cover and pours boiling water upon the -leaves and then replaces the cover to let the tea steep. The cover may -be used to stir the tea for cooling it, and when held in proper position -prevents the tea leaves from getting into the mouth of the person who is -drinking. - -But how many things are left that we cannot speak of! The busy work in -the fields, the preparation of tea, the rearing of silkworms and making -of silk, the trades, the government, the love and respect for parents, -the respect for the graves of ancestors, the religious ideas, the life -and teachings of Confucius—these things would need many books like this. - - - - - XIV. - COREANS. - - -Corea is often called the Hermit Nation, because it has wanted to keep -foreigners away. In this respect it is what China, Japan, and Tibet have -sometimes been; all of them have followed at times policies of -exclusion. Still, Corea has had a good deal of contact with other -nations; she has learned many things from China and has passed on much -that she learned to Japan. Sometimes, too, Corea has been subject to -China, sometimes to Japan. - -The dress of Corea, while somewhat like that of China, and that of -Japan, is still quite peculiar. The common people are all dressed in -bluish white stuffs. Rich people dress in silks of the most gorgeous -colors—blue, crimson, scarlet, orange. The chief garment worn by men is -a long, loose gown that hangs from the neck quite to the ground. This is -bound around, high above the waist, with a stiff, broad belt. No buttons -are used in the fastening of garments, but strips of colored ribbons. -The socks and shoes of the Coreans are like those of the Chinese, except -that the shoe soles are thick-set with nail-heads. Nowadays these -hob-nailed shoes are worn at all times, but formerly they were probably -used only in winter to prevent slipping on ice and snow. About this the -Coreans tell a story: long ago there was war between China and Corea, -and the Chinese sent an army of eight hundred thousand soldiers; Corea’s -army numbered but five thousand. It was in the midst of winter. The two -armies met at a river, which was frozen solid, and the battle took place -upon the ice. The Chinese wore their smooth-soled shoes, while the -Coreans wore hob-nailed ones. When they fought on the ice the Chinese -slipped helplessly, while the Coreans were able to fight well. The -result was a great victory for the Coreans who, since then, have worn -their hob-nailed shoes constantly in memory of their success. - -But the most curious part of Corean dress is the hat. There are many -different kinds. There are hats for young and hats for old, hats for -out-doors and hats for the house, hats for people of different -occupations. The commonest out-door hat is round, square-topped, and -with the wide, flat, brim halfway up the crown. The hats worn at the -royal court are like high skull-caps, with wide flaps or wings -projecting at the sides. The straw hats worn by drovers and people in -mourning are shaped like the top of a parasol and measure two feet and a -half across. - -[Illustration: COREAN HAT (LOWELL).] - -Until lately people in Corea carried wooden blocks to show who they -were. These blocks were carried by boys of fifteen and all older -persons. They were called “name-tablets,” and were made of pear-wood or -mahogany. They were about two inches long and a half inch wide. There -was writing upon both sides. At the top on one side was the name of the -ward where the boy lived; below it were the words “leisure-fellow,” -meaning that he was not a servant; then came the boy’s name, and lastly -his date of birth. On the other side was the date on which the tablet -was issued, and the seal of the officer who gave it. When a boy was -older his “name-tablet” was of box-wood; still later—after he had passed -an examination—his tablet was cut from black horn; when finally he took -highest honors, it was made of ivory. Poor people, of the lowest class, -also carried tablets, but of a different sort; upon these the bearer was -_described_. - -In Corea there is much cold weather with ice and snow. Much clothing is -needed for warmth, and several garments of one sort may be worn one over -another. In the houses they have _kangs_ for warmth at night. Under the -house, or under a certain part of it, there is built a sort of oven or -furnace; above this is a floor of stones and, perhaps, earth upon which -oiled paper is smoothly spread. A fire is built in the furnace and the -sleepers stretch themselves upon the heated floor. It is not a -satisfactory mode of heating, but is used not only among the Coreans but -also among their Tatar neighbors. - -Everywhere in Corea, Japan, China, and Tibet the people are Buddhists. -But in all these countries we find also much worship of demons or bad -spirits. Nowhere is there more of this than in Corea. They believe that -there are spirits everywhere, some good, some bad. They are afraid of -these bad spirits and do many things to ward off their mischief. Upon -the roof of the king’s palace are a lot of ugly figures of bronze that -resemble pigs and monkeys. All are different, but all are as terrible as -their makers could shape. These are intended to frighten bad spirits -away. No one but the king may have just these guardian animals; other -important persons have two pictures fastened at the door; at the doors -of the poor are hung a bunch of rice straw, and a bit of old rag. The -two pictures represent two great generals, one a Chinese and the other a -Corean, who were such valiant fighters against demons that their very -pictures scare them. As for the things on the poor man’s door, it is -believed that the spirits will stop to eat the grains of rice, and that -they will think the rag the man’s clothing and will do their harm to it -without entering the house. - -Among the Coreans the tiger is much admired and much feared. They -believe that bad men and evil spirits can turn themselves into tigers, -and they have many strange stories of these tiger-men magicians. Thus -they say that once a man was travelling through a lonely and desolate -region. Toward evening he was surprised to come upon a fine house. -Entering and asking shelter he found an old man living alone there. He -felt sure things were wrong and that the old man was a tiger-magician. -He was right; it was the king of all the tiger-magicians. If he had -shown his fear he would have been torn to pieces, but he pretended to be -brave. When the old man asked him who he was and where he was going, he -boldly declared he was hunting for tiger-magicians, of whom he meant to -kill two hundred, that he might carry their skins to the king. When the -old man—who you remember was king of the tiger-magicians—heard this bold -talk he was terribly scared. Secretly he called his subjects together -and told them of their danger. They advised him to kill two hundred -tiger-magicians who were in jail and give their skins to the hunter, -begging him to spare the rest. The traveller gladly accepted, and taking -the skins sold them for much money. This man had a cowardly neighbor who -heard the story and determined to try the same trick. When he reached -the tiger-king’s palace, however, he got scared, the tigers knew his -fraud, and falling upon him they killed him. - - - - - XV. - TIBETANS. - - -Few countries are naturally so difficult of access as Tibet. It is a -lofty plateau. To reach it from any side frightful mountains must be -passed. Not only is the country itself difficult to reach, but the -Tibetans do not like strangers. They do everything in their power to -keep white men out of the country. Few travellers of our race have ever -been to the heart of Tibet. Recently the American traveller, W. W. -Rockhill, has visited that country and written interestingly of it, and -later Walter Savage Landor claims to have had exciting adventures there. -But the journey that is best known and has been most talked of was made -more than fifty years ago by two French missionaries named Huc and -Gabet. - -Starting from China these gentlemen traversed Mongolia and Tatary and -penetrated to the sacred Tibetan city of Lhassa. They returned to China -over a different route. It was a fearful journey. The road led along the -side of vast cliffs, over raging torrents where the bridges were -composed of chains hung from bank to bank with boards laid crosswise of -them, through snowdrifts, and over sheets of glacier ice. - -The people of Tibet vary in stature, color, hair, and other characters, -but all are Mongolic and all speak Tibetan. Some of the tribes are -nomads—either herders or pillagers; others are settled and live by -agriculture, notwithstanding the climate. In Lhassa itself they are -tradespeople and traders. They are good weavers and make excellent -woollen stuffs. They are skilled goldsmiths, and their fine wares go to -decorate the temples and monasteries. They make the finest incense in -the world. - -The most important thing in Tibet is religion. Their religion, which is -called Lamaism, is a sort of Buddhism peculiar to Tibet. Tibet might be -called a _theocracy_, or a land where a god rules. For the ruler of -Tibet, called the _Dalai-lama_, is considered no common man, but a real -god on earth. Many centuries ago, in India, there lived a man named -Gautama or Sakyi-muni. He was wise and good, and the new religion which -he taught was a great improvement upon the Brahmanism of India. On -account of his wisdom and goodness, he was called Buddha, but he never -claimed to be himself a god. Since his death, however, many millions of -people in many lands have worshipped him as a god. - -All Buddhists believe that there may be many Buddhas—that Gautama was -one Buddha, and that there were others before him and will be others -hereafter. In Tibet, however, they think that there are always Buddhas -on earth, and that when one Buddha dies his spirit at once enters the -body of some little babe, who becomes a Buddha in his place. The -Dalai-lama is the greatest of living Buddhas. There are many others in -different parts of Tibet and Tatary, all of whom are worshipped as gods. -The Dalai-lama lives in Lhassa, the sacred city, in a beautiful palace, -and has many priests to serve him. He is the all-powerful being in the -land. - -[Illustration: TIBETAN LAMAS BLOWING ON SHELLS (VERNEAU).] - -But he does not trouble himself about governing his people. He appoints -a _nomekhan_ to rule for him. The nomekhan has four _kalons_ who are -appointed to assist him. These four appoint all the other officers, most -of whom are lamas or priests. Really the lamas control everything in -Tibet. Generally they live together in great buildings called -lamaseries. These are to be seen everywhere in the land, and are often -perched upon the summits of lofty mountains, from which they overlook -the country for miles around. Some lamaseries contain but a few priests, -others contain many thousands. The lamas are at once known from the -people by their dress. - -The lamas receive support from the common people, and when it is not -brought to them, they go to gather it. Huc met two lamas on horseback -gathering gifts of butter from the shepherds. “Their course is this: -they present themselves at the entrance of each tent and thrice sound a -marine conch.[1] Thereupon some member of the family brings out a small -roll of butter, which, without saying a word, he deposits in a bag -suspended from the saddle of each lama’s horse. The lamas never once -alight, but content themselves with riding up to each tent, and -announcing their presence to the inmates by the sound of the shell.” - -Footnote 1: - - A shell used as a trumpet. - -When a Dalai-lama dies, search is made for the new one. Prayers are said -in all the lamaseries, processions are made, incense is burned. Even the -common people everywhere pray. There are certain signs by which a baby -shows that the spirit of a lama has entered him. All parents who think -their baby the one send word to Lhassa and bring their babies there. All -are carefully examined, and the three who best show the signs of being -Buddha are taken. After fasting for six days, the priests who decide the -matter take a golden urn containing three little fish of gold, upon each -of which is engraved the name of one of the three babies. The urn is -shaken and one of the fish is drawn. The baby whose name is engraved on -it becomes the Dalai-lama. To the unlucky babies before they are sent -home a present of five hundred ounces of silver is given. - -[Illustration: MONGOLS CHOOSING A LAMA (HUC).] - -Every day near sunset in Lhassa, all the men, women, and children stop -whatever they may be doing and gather in the public squares of the city. -There, grouped by sex and age, they kneel and chant their evening -prayer. This prayer would seem to us curious, for it asks for nothing. -The commonest prayer is—_om mani padme hum_, which means “the jewel in -the lotus.” By the jewel they mean divine power. The lotus is a -water-lily. The prayer is about the same thing as calling on the name of -God. This prayer they repeat over and over again. - -To write this prayer where it will be seen is a good act. One may see it -everywhere. It is printed on the flags that fly above the buildings. -Pious rich men pay lamas to go through the country and chisel these -sacred words on rocks and cliffs. - -Tibet is the land of prayer wheels. Prayer wheels contain the prayer -written many times: every time the wheel is turned, so many prayers are -supposed to have been said. Prayer wheels are of all sizes. The -commonest stand near lamaseries, and are set to turning with the hand. -Some lazy lamas, however, find it too much work to turn the wheels -themselves and so arrange them that they are turned by wind or water. - -On the twenty-fifth of each month pious lamas “send horses to weary -travellers.” On the roads there are many hardships, and travellers often -become weary and perish. To help them the lamas send them horses, and -the way they do it is this. Going to some lofty summit where the wind -blows heavily, they throw strips of paper bearing pictures of horses -into the air, and the wind carries them away. The lamas believe that by -this sacrifice of paper horses they supply real ones to the needy -travellers. - - - - - XVI. - JAPANESE. - - -It is a great mistake to think of the Chinese and Japanese as much -alike; they are really vastly different. The Japanese is smaller, more -delicately built, quicker, and more lively than the Chinese; he delights -in novelties and borrows them from everywhere and from everybody. The -Chinese language consists chiefly of words of one syllable; the Japanese -have many long words of many syllables. While unlike in body, -disposition, and language, the Chinese and Japanese are alike in many -customs, arts, and ideas. For long centuries the Japanese borrowed much -from China, or from Corea, which had learned from China. The Japanese -owe their writing, the cultivation of tea, silk raising and weaving, -lacquer work, porcelain, metal working, and many religious ideas to -China. But lately, in their hurry to borrow all sorts of things from the -European and American whites, they have become ashamed of many of their -Chinese ideas and customs. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE GIRL WITH BABY (ARNOLD).] - -On the seventh day of a Japanese baby’s life, the little head is shaved -clean except for a tuft on the nape of the neck. From that time on, the -head is shaved until the boy goes to school, but tufts are left here and -there, according to the fancy of the mother. After a boy begins school, -his hair is left to grow. Japanese children have many sports and games, -but they are quiet and gentle in them all. The older children carry -their baby brothers and sisters strapped firmly on their backs. There -are many interesting things for Japanese children to see on the streets. -There is the sand painter; he sweeps a space clean and then opens -several bags of different colored sand; he sprinkles handfuls of it here -and there on the ground until he has made a pretty picture. There is the -man who moulds and blows rice paste into all sorts of queer shapes, -while the little buyers look on with delight; his sweet stuff is shaped -into rabbits, foxes, monkeys, flowers, jinrikishas, fans, umbrellas, -etc. There is the man who sells sugared peas, candied beans, and other -sweets; he beats a drum and sings a song as he walks, so as to attract a -crowd of children, and when he stops he tells a story, or does some -trick, to amuse them. Then there is the little old woman of the batter -cakes; she carries a little earthenware stove with a fire of charcoal in -it; this she hangs at one end of a pole balanced upon her shoulder, and -at the other end hang a griddle, ladles, cake turners, a jar of batter, -and a sauce of salt and beans to eat with the cakes; the children pay -five cents, and the old lady sets everything down, whereupon the -children have great fun making their own cakes and eating them on the -street. - -Japanese children are ever gay and happy, but there are two days in the -year of especial joy. The third day of the third month is _the Dolls’ -Festival_. This is the day for the little girls. At that time dolls and -all sorts of toy tools, implements, vessels, and dishes are for sale. -The Japanese are fond of dolls, and in some families they have dolls -that have been kept more than two hundred years. In some families they -will have dozens or scores of dolls. Among these there is always one -that represents the Emperor, another the Empress, and others the -courtiers. At the time of the festival all these dolls are carefully -arranged on a stepped platform. The Emperor and Empress are given the -seats of honor, and the rest are grouped around them. With these are -arranged all the toy objects. The fifth day of the fifth month is the -Boys’ Festival. Then they are selling bows and arrows and other toy -weapons everywhere. Everywhere they hang out great paper fishes, shaped -like carp, and brightly painted. These are hung to tall bamboo poles of -which there is one set in front of every house where they have a boy in -the family. One fish is hung for each boy, and it is a gay sight to see -the hundreds of bright fish waving and tossing in the wind. The reason -why the carp is represented is because it swims _up_ the river against -the current; so it is hoped “the sturdy boy, overcoming all obstacles, -will make his way in the world and rise to fame and fortune.” - -[Illustration: BOYS’ FESTIVAL: JAPAN (BRAMHALL).] - -Japanese houses consist of a light framework supporting a heavy thatched -or tiled roof. The sides of the house are wooden slides, which are -usually removed in the daytime, leaving the sides open. In cold weather, -slides consisting of frames covered with paper can be fitted in to form -walls. The house is divided into rooms by sliding screens of paper, -which can be easily removed so as to join two, three, or more rooms into -one. There are no tables or chairs. The floors are covered with thick -mats. At night quilts are brought in and laid down for beds; in the -morning these are rolled up and stored away. - -Japanese gardens are curious and beautiful. They may be small, and -frequently they contain no flowers. Sometimes a pretty landscape is -built of rocks and water: there are little mountains and hills, valleys, -streams, waterfalls, lakes. Wonderful in such gardens are the dwarfed -trees. They may be pine trees, fifty or one hundred years old, -flourishing and perfect in form, but not more than a foot in height. - -While Japanese gardens frequently contain none, the people are -wonderfully fond of flowers. Among the favorites are the chrysanthemum, -plum blossoms, and cherry blossoms. When these are in bloom every one -goes to the places where they grow and delight in their beauty. These -flower picnics are looked forward to for months. The cherry and plum -trees are covered: “You see no leaves—only one great filmy mass of -petals. Japanese chrysanthemums are wonderful; there are many strange or -beautiful varieties. At one place in Tokyo, these flowers are wrought -into all sorts of curious compositions—men and gods, boats, bridges, -castles, etc.” - -The Japanese love to hear stories. There are fairy stories for the -little people and tales of adventure and history for the larger ones. -There are men whose business is story telling. Some of these wander -about until they find a good spot, when they will stop and begin the -tale; a crowd soon gathers to listen. Others are hired to tell their -stories in a story-telling house, where people gather every evening, -just as at the theatre. - -We have said so much about amusements and festivals that you may think -the Japanese are always playing. No indeed, they are hard workers. They -cultivate their fields industriously; they have many trades; they are -great traders; they are fine artists. Their silk weaving, their metal -work, their lacquer work, and their porcelains are famous. - -In these last years Japan has made great changes. She has borrowed so -much from the whites that they have little left to teach her. To-day she -has all our great inventions—telegraphs and telephones, electric lights -and railroads; and in borrowing so much that is new she has lost and is -losing much—very much—of the happy old life. - - - - - XVII. - AINU. - - -Before the Japanese entered what is now Japan that country was occupied -by the Ainu, among the most interesting people of the world. There are -not many of them. In Yezo, the northern island of Japan, there are about -seventeen thousand, and in the island of Saghalien, formerly Japanese, -but now Russian, there are others. They are not like the Japanese, but -are considered whites, not Mongolians. The men measure about five feet -four inches; the women not more than five feet two inches. Their color -is flesh, with a tinge of red or yellow; their eyes are large and do not -appear to slant like those of the yellow peoples; their hair is abundant -and tangled and they have much beard. Their body is very hairy. They are -filthy and rarely wash themselves. - -The women tattoo, beginning in girlhood. The patterns are cut in the -flesh with a razor and soot is rubbed into the lines; to render the -color permanent, water in which ash-tree bark has been steeped is rubbed -over the part tattooed. The tattooing first done is at the centre of the -upper lip; later the lower lip. The marks are added to from time to time -until they cover the upper lip and reach from ear to ear. Such women -appear to have a great moustache. After marriage a woman’s forehead may -be tattooed, also patterns may be made up the backs of the hands and on -the arms, and rings may be tattooed around her fingers. - -[Illustration: AINU: A HAIRY SPECIMEN (BATCHELOR).] - -Ainu clothing is generally made of elm bark, and that worn by men and -women is much alike. The bark is stripped from the tree in spring, when -it is full of sap. It is soaked in water to separate the inner and outer -bark. Fibres are secured from the inner bark, which can be woven like -thread into cloth. The men’s garments of this fibre cloth are adorned -with patterns embroidered with colored threads; those of women are -generally plain. - -[Illustration: AINU WOMEN: SHOWING TATTOOING (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH).] - -The Ainu house is rectangular, with a rather frail support and a -substantial thatched roof. The roof is built first; then the chief posts -of the walls are set and the roof is lifted up and put on them. Ainu -houses grow as the family grows. A young married couple build a small -house; as they have children a new and larger house is built behind the -old one, which remains as a sort of hall; when the family is still -larger and richer, the hall is torn down and a larger house is built -behind the second one, which now becomes a hall or porch to it. There -are two windows and one door in these houses. The windows are on the -south and east sides, while the door is at the west end. The east end of -the house and its window are sacred; people must not throw things -through this window nor spit out of it. Sometimes the men worship the -rising sun as they see it through this east window. - -The Ainu are hunters and have ingenious ways of capturing or killing -animals. In hunting deer they use a little squeaking whistle, the sound -of which attracts the animals. They set bows, with arrows on the -stretched cord, near trails over which deer and bears pass; in passing, -the animal strikes a cord which lets loose a trigger, and the arrow -flies. They also set a trap consisting of a stout bow, which, when -sprung, shuts two boards tightly together; the foot of the animal is -caught between these and held fast. Formerly the Ainu used poisoned -arrows in hunting. These had a broad, hollowed point, in which a little -of the poisonous paste was stuck. The poison was made from the root of -aconite mixed with tobacco, peppers, and poisoned spiders. These, and -other substances, were carefully mixed into a gummy paste. At present -the Japanese government forbids the Yezo Ainu to use these poisoned -arrows. - -The bear hunt is looked forward to with anxiety. It is in the spring -while snow is yet on the ground. Before starting the hunters pray to -their gods for help and direction. Dogs accompany them. When a den is -found, there is great excitement. They try to draw the animal out by -teasing him with long poles. If he will not come out, one of the men -draws his knife, enters the den, and faces the bear. The animal pushes -him aside, when the hunter pricks him from behind with his knife. The -angry animal then rushes forth, growling and snarling. The hunters and -dogs waiting outside soon despatch him, though frequently some one is -hurt or killed. The hunters then sit down near the dead bear and say all -kinds of pretty things to him, pretending that they are sorry to have -killed him, and asking his forgiveness. They then skin him, cut up the -meat, carry it home, and have a feast. - -At Ainu feasts the men always become dreadfully drunk from drinking rice -wine. When he drinks, the Ainu uses a little stick to lift his moustache -and keep it from the wine. These moustache lifters are made for the -purpose and are frequently neatly carved. - -Sometimes Ainu hunters secure a little bear cub, which they carry -carefully home. It is fed with the best of food, and treated as a great -pet. When it is so big as to be rough and troublesome, they put it in a -cage. When it is quite grown, a bear feast is planned. Many guests are -invited. The men eat millet-cakes and drink rice wine. After feasting -for some time two men noose the bear with ropes and drag him around; the -whole company then worry and tease the poor creature, finally choking -him, after which they eat him. - -The Ainu have many gods. In praying to them they use _inao_. These are -little sticks which are so whittled with knives that curls of shavings -hang from them. There are several ways of cutting these, and they are -believed to please the gods. They are stuck up in the ground and left -where prayers are made. Ainu men spend much time whittling these inao. - - - - - XVIII. - HINDUS. - - -The Hindus are but one of the many peoples living in India. They are -considered a Caucasic, white people, though their skin is a dark brown -and they have black hair and eyes. Their language belongs to the Aryan -family, to which most European languages belong. - -The dress of the Hindus is too well known to need description. Hindu -women are fond of jewelry, and wear rings, arm-rings, ankle rings, -earrings, and nose rings of many kinds and made of gold, silver, or -brass. The Hindus bear marks stamped upon themselves. Thus a round spot -in the middle of the forehead, horizontal lines across the forehead, or -perpendicular lines from the root of the nose to the top of the -forehead, show to which of the great religious sects the man belongs. -These marks are made fresh every morning. - -The Hindus are divided into four _castes_, or classes. These are named -Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras. There is a yet lower -population called Pariahs. The Brahmans are the highest; they are -priests or religious men; everybody must yield to them. The Kshatriyas -come second, and are soldiers or warriors. The Vaisyas are the traders, -or merchant class. The Sudras are the lowest, and are the people who -have trades, or are laborers. The Hindus say that these different -classes of men came from the body of Brahma, their great god; that the -Brahmans came from his mouth; the Kshatriyas from his arm; the Vaisyas -from his thigh; and the Sudras from his feet. As for the poor Pariahs, -they do not seem to have come from Brahma, and no one has anything to do -with them. Each of these castes was so much higher than the next one -that they might not even be touched by them without being defiled and -needing to be purified. People of different castes might not drink from -the same vessel or eat from the same dish. One writer says: “I saw a -high-caste Hindu dash an earthen jar of milk upon the ground and break -it to atoms, merely because the shadow of a Pariah had fallen upon it as -he passed.” Under English government many of these notions in India are -passing away. The Pariah’s lot, however, is perhaps as hard as ever. - -Many trades are practised in India, some of them most skilfully. -Whatever trade a man follows will be that of his son after him, as it -was that of his father before him. Hindus are fine weavers, and some of -their muslins are delicate and costly. They are glass-makers, potters, -carpenters, blacksmiths, goldsmiths, brass founders, shell workers, -shoemakers, barbers. These trades are carried on in the open streets; -the men carry tools with them, and when they secure an order they set up -their outfit and fall to work. Among pretty things sold in India are -figures in clay representing all sorts of tradesmen at work. - -[Illustration: HINDU DANCING GIRLS AND MUSICIANS (VERNEAU).] - -Hindus tame and train elephants as beasts of burden. The native princes, -in particular, use them. A palanquin in which the prince sits is mounted -on the elephant’s back. These royal elephants are gorgeously decked out, -and the palanquin is brilliant with metals and precious stones. -Elephants are also employed in caravans and in the exciting tiger hunts. - -The Hindus love amusements. They are fond of music and have many curious -instruments. Dancing girls dance for the amusement of guests at feasts -given in the homes of the wealthy. They usually take their own musicians -with them; one of these plays upon a little drum, the other on a kind of -guitar. Street exhibitions are frequent. Parties of acrobats go about -performing feats. Everyone has heard of the Hindu jugglers. Mr. Ward -describes some tricks he saw done. Thus, the juggler spreads a cloth on -the ground: in a moment a movement is seen under it: the cloth is raised -and under it are pineapples growing. The juggler picks the fruit and -presents it to the spectators to show that it is real. Again, he takes a -large, clay jar, fills it with water, and turns it upside down to let -the water run out; when he turns it up again, it is full of water. -Again, he puts a lean dog into a common basket; opening it, he shows the -dog with a litter of pups; covering these and opening again, there is a -goat; again the basket is put down and raised and shows a live pig; -again—and the pig is dead with its throat cut; then he ends the trick by -again covering and uncovering, when the pig is seen alive and well. -_How_ does he do it? Almost as wonderful as these juggler’s tricks are -the performances of the snake charmers. They carry the dreaded, -poisonous cobras around in baskets and handle them, playing at the same -time on their little flutes, quite as if the creatures were entirely -harmless. - -[Illustration: HINDU SNAKE CHARMERS (BREHM).] - -Nowhere in the world are there more dreadful religious customs than in -India. People there are so crowded that life is hard. The result of this -was that parents often destroyed their little babies, particularly -girls. Often the mothers themselves threw the little beings into the -sacred river, where they were drowned in its waters or were eaten by -crocodiles. At the great religious festivals, men tortured themselves -fearfully, or threw themselves under the chariot of the god that they -might be crushed to death. The dead among the Hindus were usually -cremated—burned upon a great open fire of wood. Formerly the widow of -the dead man mounted the funeral pyre and was burned with his body. The -English government has put an end to many of these practices, and among -them this _suttee_, or burning of the widow. It has really done little -good, as a widow’s life is so sad that she might almost better die. A -widow must shave her head, wear miserable clothing, and serve every one -like a slave: she is despised and harshly treated. - -Few peoples have caused as much wonder as the Gypsies. With their -swarthy complexions, black hair and eyes, and handsome faces, they are a -striking type. They love out-door life, and hate to be within walls. -They wander from place to place, pitching their tents where fancy leads -them. They are tinkers, mending pots and kettles; they are horseshoers, -jockeys, horse traders, horse doctors; they tell fortunes, in which -almost all of us believe a little, and every one fears them a little. -There are many thousands of them in the United States: there are many in -Great Britain, Spain, Italy, Poland, and other European countries; they -are in North Africa, in Mexico, in Brazil, in India. Everywhere they are -the same, and everywhere they talk their own language, the _Romany_. It -is believed that they first came from India, and that they are related -to the Hindus. - - - - - XIX. - TODAS. - - -In the “hill country” of India live many curious brown peoples whose -languages are different from the Aryan tongue of the Hindus. These -peoples, called Dravidians, are considered the earliest occupiers of -India. Among them no tribe is more curious than the Todas. In some ways -they are like the Ainu. Though brown, they are probably really white or -Caucasic. They have the features, strong beards, and hairy bodies of -whites, and in these respects are like the Ainu. - -The Todas live on a tableland whose surface is covered with hills and -rolling prairies. The hills are clad with coarse grass, and in some of -the valleys are deep forests. The sunshine is bright and warm, and the -dry season is long. - -The Todas think only of their cattle. They do not hunt—in fact, they -have no weapons; they do not cultivate any fields, getting what plant -food they use from the Badagas and other neighboring tribes. But they -_do_ raise cattle—buffalo. Their villages are located in the midst of -pasture land. No village is occupied for a whole year, but the people -have always at least two villages and live first in one, then in the -other. This is to have fresh pasture for their cattle and to be secure -in the wet season. Toda villages contain but few houses, most of which -consist of a single room eight feet square; sometimes two or three such -rooms are set side by side—these do not open into each other, but each -has an outside door. The roofs of these houses are thatched and project -a yard or so beyond the house walls. The people sit under the shelter of -these projecting roofs while they work or visit. There are no windows or -chimneys to the houses. Everything in the house has its proper place—the -pestle and mortar for pounding grain, the fireplace, and the raised bank -of clay that serves the old people as a sleeping place. Near the house -is a pen of stones and mud for the owner’s cattle. - -All the cattle of the villages are herded together. There is one dairy -for the village, and all the cattle are milked there by special -dairymen. After milking, these men give out so much milk as is needed to -every one in the village; from the balance they make butter which they -divide to the men of the village according to the number of cattle each -owns. We have already said that the Todas raise no crops. The Badagas -and Kotas live on the land of the Todas; they are stronger and more -vigorous than the Todas, and both tribes have weapons and could easily -defeat them in battle. But they live in peace with them and pay them, as -rent for their land, grains and other produce they need. - -We have spoken of the common village herds. There are other (sacred) -herds, which are cared for by dairymen priests, who are themselves -almost worshipped. The priest has an assistant who cuts wood for him and -otherwise serves him. When the priest milks the sacred cows, and he -alone may do so, he repeats a prayer. He does the same when he carries -the milk into the dairy. The village people treat him and his assistant -with great respect and may not touch them, nor any of the implements -they use. Men and boys may go to the wall that encloses the dairy -buildings, but may not enter. Women may not go near the place. - -The cows in the sacred herds have descended from sacred cows of the -past. In each herd there is an especially sacred “bell-cow.” This means -that she is the owner of an ancient cow-bell which the dairyman priest -keeps in the dairy. It belonged to her mother before her and to _her_ -mother, and so on back. When a bell-cow dies, the bell has to be put -upon her daughter. The priest brings it out from the dairy and waves it -around and around the head of the cow morning and night for three days. -As he does so he says:— - - “What a fine cow your predecessor was. - How well she supported us with milk; - Won’t you supply us in like manner? - You are a god among us. - Do not let the Tirieri[2] go to ruin. - Let one become a thousand! - Let all be well! - Let us have plenty of calves! - Let us have plenty of milk!” - -The cow wears the bell for three days and nights, after which it is -taken off forever. It is not used again until the old cow dies and her -daughter is then made bell-cow in her place. - -Footnote 2: - - Sacred dairy. - -[Illustration: GROUP OF TODAS (VERNEAU).] - -Perhaps you would like to know how the priest fills his time? One day is -much like another with him. When he rises he washes his face, hands, and -teeth. He makes a little lamp from a leaf and after filling it with -butter places five wicks in it. After lighting it he sets it to burn in -front of the ancient bells and other sacred objects. He then takes his -staff and bamboo milk pail and goes to milk the cows. He salutes them -and prays to them before milking. Carrying the milk into the dairy, he -sprinkles some drops upon the sacred bells as an offering and repeats -the names of the gods. He then makes butter from the milk of the -preceding day. His work is now done, and he prepares food for himself -and his assistant. This man then drives the herd to pasture and gathers -firewood. The last thing before going to sleep at night, the priest puts -fresh butter and wicks into the little lamp before the bells. - -The Todas have other curious customs, but we have no space to describe -them. Their salutations, the naming of children, the yearly feast, when -they eat a young buffalo bull (they rarely eat meat at any other time), -and their funeral customs are all interesting. Every man who dies among -the Todas has _two_ funerals, called the green and the dry funeral, a -year apart. - - - - - XX. - ANDAMANESE: MINCOPIES. - - -East of British India and south of Cochin-China in the Bay of Bengal are -the Andaman Islands, on which the Mincopies live. They are small in -stature, black or _dark_ brown, with broad round heads, and crinkly or -woolly hair. They are often called _negritos_, or little negroes. - -An Englishman named Man lived for some years in the Andaman Islands and -became much interested in the little blacks. He learned their language -and has described their customs. - -The Mincopies are true savages, living entirely on wild food; they are -gentle and non-savage in disposition. The islands are well supplied with -food. “The sea which washes their coasts is full of fish and abounds -with turtles; the jungles are filled with wild pigs; the bees furnish -abundance of wild honey.” From plants they get roots and fruits. They -have no cultivated fields and no domestic animals. Although savages, -these little people know how to build good houses. These are huts some -thirty-five by forty feet; the framework is of posts and poles and the -firm thatch is of palm leaves. The huts are arranged about an oval or -elliptical cleared space, where they hold their dances. When off on long -hunting trips the Mincopies build rude shelters of branches and leaves. -In their villages boys and girls, unless they are still babies, do not -sleep in the houses with grown persons, but there are two special -sleeping houses—one for boys and the other for girls. In the houses of -the Mincopies fires are kept burning. It is said that these people do -not know how to kindle fire; if this is true, they are almost the only -people who are ignorant of this important knowledge. They are careful of -the fires they have and feed them well. - -Unless they think they have some reason to fear strangers, the Mincopies -receive them kindly. The little children are taught to respect visitors. -“They are the first served; the best dishes are offered to them; they -are accompanied at their departure; before separating they clasp hands, -and instead of embracing they blow in each other’s faces; then they -engage in an affectionate dialogue. Finally they separate with mutual -promises of meeting again.” - -The adoption of children is common among Mincopies. It is rare that any -child remains with its parents after it is six or seven years old. Some -friend of the family wishes to show his friendship and asks to adopt the -child. The little one goes to his house and belongs to him. The parents -may visit him in his new home, but no longer have any control over him. -His new father may do what he likes with him, even to giving him away to -some other person who may wish to adopt him. When children are about -twelve years of age, they begin a fast, which is kept up until they are -almost men and women; during that time they must not eat turtle, pork, -fish, or honey. After several years of thus fasting, they may again eat -these foods. - -There are rules about foods for grown persons, too. During certain parts -of the year they must not eat some kinds of roots and fruits; their god -Puluga will be displeased if they do. Children must not eat the flesh of -the two water animals, the dugong and porpoise. And to _every_ person -there is some one kind of food which he must not eat in all his life; -this forbidden food differs with the persons. - -We have said a good deal about the kindness of the Mincopies: they are -not always good. They have their quarrels and battles like the rest of -the world. They are quick-tempered and often become angry for a small -offence. When a Mincopy _is_ angry, he acts like a naughty child, -striking and breaking everything around him, even his own choicest -treasures. Trouble sometimes breaks out between two tribes in the midst -of a feast. In their wars they destroy and carry off property; they take -no prisoners among the men, killing the wounded, but children of the -enemy are usually kept alive and kindly treated. Sometimes they try to -harm enemies by witchcraft, or conjuring. They think that Puluga -dislikes the smell of burning beeswax and will, in his anger, send forth -a storm. So, when they know that their enemy is going fishing or -hunting, they burn beeswax so that the angry Puluga will send a storm. - -[Illustration: ANDAMAN MINCOPIES (TYLOR).] - -Most curious is the funeral of a child among the Andamanese. When a -little one dies there is general weeping. Parents and friends paint -their bodies with clay; their heads are fresh shaved, and upon them, -over the forehead, men place a lump of clay, while women put one upon -the top of the head. The mother prepares the little body for burial; she -shaves and paints the head, neck, wrists, and knees with red ochre; she -then folds the little body together and wraps it in great leaves and -binds the bundle thus made with cords. The grave is dug in the floor of -the hut, under the fireplace. After gently blowing a few times upon the -little face in farewell, the child is buried and the fire is rebuilt -over the grave. The mother leaves a few drops of her own milk in a cup -on the grave. The hut is then deserted, a garland of rushes being -fastened around it to show that a death has taken place. The whole -village then moves, that the child’s spirit may not be disturbed. After -three months of mourning, they all return. The little skeleton is dug -up, the bones are painted red or yellow and distributed as keepsakes to -the friends, who wear them as necklaces in memory of the dead child. -This seems dreadful to us, but our people often keep locks of hair cut -from a dead child’s head; it is the same thing. At this time the lumps -of clay, signs of mourning, are removed from the heads and foreheads. -Some days later, there is a gathering of all the friends. The father, -holding his remaining children in his arms, sings a mourning song: the -women take part in the chorus, and all the rest cry noisily. The parents -then dance “the dance of tears,” after which they withdraw to the hut. -The visitors keep up the dance some hours longer. - - - - - XXI. - ARABS. - - -The old home of the Arabs was Arabia; to-day they are found not only in -Arabia, but over half of Asia and all of Northern Africa. Their great -wanderings began with the founding of Mohammedanism about the year 622 -A.D. Full of zeal, the Arabs carried the new religion in every -direction. - -The Arab is a white man, but a dark one. His language belongs to the -Semitic family and resembles the old Hebrew language. Arabic is a soft -and poetical language which is spoken to-day by myriads of people who -are not Arabs by blood. The Arab is of moderate stature; he is thin but -muscular, and has great endurance; he has a long head and a narrow, oval -face; his nose is long, thin, and prominent; his hair and eyes are -black. - -We always think of the Arab as dwelling in tents. This is only partly -true. In Arabia itself about one-fourth of the Arabs are wandering -tent-dwellers; in Northern Africa, especially near the great desert, -many are nomadic. But everywhere we also find settled, town-inhabiting -Arabs also. - -The tents of the desert Arabs are large, low, and flat; the covering is -a firm wool and camel’s-hair cloth. During the daytime, at least, the -sides are raised to permit the air to circulate. These tents are easily -taken down and packed, and as easily set up. Desert Arabs have flocks of -sheep and herds of goats, camels, and horses. Every one has heard of the -beauty, gentleness, and spirit of the Arabian horses—the finest perhaps -in the world. Their owners love them and treat them as tenderly as -children. Horses are rarely used by Arabs as draught animals or burden -bearers, but only for riding. The camel it is upon which the Arab packs -his heavy burdens for desert travel. The nomad Arab lives chiefly on -food drawn from his flocks and herds. Mutton is his most important meat; -couscous is a favorite food (see Kabyles). The nomad Arabs are -pillagers, and fall upon caravans of traders to rob them. Still they are -hospitable to the stranger who comes to their tent asking shelter; in -fact, they treat him with the greatest politeness. A table is set before -him; he is given water to wash his hands; the master himself receives -the food from the servants and places it before his guest. The Arabs -admire strength and agility, and at evening, before their tents, the -young men of the encampment practise tumbling, wrestling, hurling, and -other feats of strength. - -[Illustration: CAMEL AND PALANQUIN (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH).] - -The town Arabs live in comfortable houses. Most of these are of a single -story, though some are of two; they enclose a central open court; they -are flat-roofed; a large gateway gives entrance to the court, and is -high enough for a man on horseback to ride through. The flat house tops -make a favorite resting-place in the cool of the day. Streets in Arab -towns are narrow, crooked, and filthy. In Arab towns are noticed at once -many domes and minarets: the domes usually mark some famous grave; the -minarets, mosques. These graves are those of some pious Mohammedan -saint. There are thousands of them to which the Arabs flock to say their -prayers and to be cured of disease. Often at such tombs dervishes go -through with their strange performances. Some pierce themselves with -swords, with no signs of pain; others spin around and around on their -heels until one wearies of watching them, and wonders why they do not -fall. - -The town Arab is more particular about his religion than the Bedouin -dweller in the desert. He must—and every good Mohammedan _should_—wash -his hands before eating; he must pray five times a day with his face -turned toward Mecca. Mecca is so sacred to them because it was the home -of Mohammed; every Arab and other good Mohammedan tries, once in his -life, to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca, where he must see the _Kaabah_, or -black-stone. Arabs are much given to pious exclamations. Thus before -eating or beginning any business they say _Bismallah_, which means _In -God’s name_, and on finishing the meal or successfully completing the -business they say _Hamdouallah_, _Praise God_. This piety does not -interfere with the town Arab driving hard bargains in business. He loves -trade and money. He frequently goes in caravans to trade in other -places. The Arabs, too, are the slave-traders in Africa. This cruel -business has not yet been stopped completely. The traders buy negroes -where they can, and hunt them almost like wild animals when they cannot -buy them. In some places the hunted beings take refuge in trees, which -have been prepared as places of safety from which they defend -themselves. - -Formerly the Arabs were more important than now. Seven or eight hundred -years ago Arabia was the world’s centre of learning—or at least the Arab -cities were. At a time, when Europe had lost much of what she once -possessed, the Arab world was full of philosophers, physicians, poets, -and astrologers. From the Arabs Europe gained much of the knowledge that -we now possess. But those bright days of Arabian glory are past. To-day -the boys in Arab schools learn little but reading, writing, and -arithmetic. They learn long passages from the Koran—the sacred book of -Mohammedanism. The little fellows—for girls do not go to school—sit on -the floor, and all study aloud, the louder the better, because then the -teacher will know that they _are_ studying. - - - - - XXII. - THE PEOPLES OF AFRICA: KABYLES. - - -We rightly think of Africa as the home of the negroes, but it is a -mistake to think that no other peoples dwell in that continent. The -peoples of North Africa are white peoples; their complexions are often -dark, but in head, form, features, and character they are like -Europeans, rather than negroes. There are many types in North Africa. -There are the modern Egyptians, who look like their great and famous -distant ancestors; there are the Berbers and Kabyles, of whom we shall -say more later; there are Arabs; there are “Jews,” especially in -Algeria, Morocco, and the other Barbary States; there are Moors also, -who are a mixed people with some negro blood. - -True Negro-Africa begins near the Equator and stretches southward. The -Sudan is the great negro country. There are four areas in this Sudanese -negro belt: the upper Nile valley, the Sudan proper, the Senegambian -district, and Guinea. In these four sections the people are negroes, -though here and there somewhat mixed. Most of Africa south of this negro -belt is occupied by negroids, who consist of many tribes and resemble -negroes in their narrow heads and woolly hair; they are, however, less -dark in color, more graceful in build, and more intelligent. Scattered -here and there in Equatorial Africa are bands of Pygmies, men and women -among whom are like boys and girls among us in size. In far Southern -Africa live the Bushmen and Hottentots, among negroid tribes. - -The Kabyles are among the most interesting of North African peoples. -There are two types, the dark and the light Kabyles. The latter have -light skin, fair hair, blue eyes, and much resemble the light whites of -Europe. The Kabyles are tall, well built, and active. They are -industrious and love labor. They are a mountain people and love their -home. Their towns are located upon the slopes or on the summits. The -houses are usually of one story and have flat roofs. There are two -rooms,—one for the family and the other for the animals. When there are -two stories to a house, it shows that the owner has a married son living -with him; the upper story has been built above the old house for the -young couple. A little garden always surrounds the house. The Kabyl -country is rather cold, and the houses are not widely separated, so that -they assist in protecting each other against the winds. In winter the -family lives in a sort of cellar under the house. - -[Illustration: GROUP OF KABYLES: ALGERIA (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH).] - -The Kabyles work hard to raise their little crops. Their fields are down -in valleys or are terraced out on the hill slopes. They raise barley, -wheat, gourds, cucumbers, and melons; they raise flax; they have some -common cultivated plants that have been introduced from Mexico, as the -prickly-pear cactus, maguey, maize, tobacco, and potato. The prickly -pear and maguey are so common that landscapes in Algeria resemble those -of Mexico. The Kabyles raise apples, pears, apricots, olives, figs, -grapes, and nuts. They keep bees, and have quite a trade in wax. The men -are good workers in metals and leather, and trade their wares to their -neighbors. - -The women, like all women in the Mohammedan world, delight in jewelry -and ornaments, and as they are not wearers of veils they have a good -chance to display their treasures. Couscous is a favorite food in -Northern Africa, not only among Kabyles, but Arabs and other peoples. -Kabyl women spend much of their time in its preparation. Flour is mixed -with water into a sort of thick dough, which is divided into little -masses which are rolled between the fingers. These little pellets, -almost like seeds, they steam and eat with bits of meat and hot, peppery -sauce. - -The Kabyles love horseback riding, and are bold hunters. They fight -bravely in defence of their homes. Among their amusements, perhaps -falconry stands first. The falcon, you know, is a bird much like a hawk, -which is trained to chase and kill or capture smaller birds or animals. -It is carried to the field by the hunter on horseback. The bird is -perched upon its master’s wrist, and is blinded by a hood over its head. -When the hunter sees game, he unhoods the falcon and lets it fly after -the victim. - -[Illustration: MAKING COUSCOUS IN THE DESERT (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH).] - - - - - XXIII. - NEGROES. - - -We have already spoken of the district of true negroes. In the Sudan -they are at their best and purest type. The skin is almost black; the -head long and narrow; the face narrow; the hair kinky and woolly. The -lower part of the face projects far beyond the upper part. The lips are -thick. Negroes have an odor which is peculiar to them, and which most -white persons dislike. Many of the negro tribes are composed of persons -who are tall, strong, and well built. - -Almost all negroes are agriculturists, living in settled villages. Their -houses are usually round huts. The Bongo of the upper Nile build huts -about twenty feet in diameter and the same in height, which are firm and -well built, though made only of poles and thatch. The entrance is so low -that one crawls into the hut on hands and knees. On the conical roof are -built benches of straw, on which persons sit to overlook and guard the -planted fields. The floor inside the hut is made of hard, well-beaten -clay. Skins of animals serve as beds. The Wolofs of the Sudan make very -similar huts, but do not construct the seats on the roof. Among both -tribes they build little granaries near the huts; these are made of -basketwork and are set up on posts to place them out of reach of -animals. - -The African negroes are fond of bright colors and tawdry ornaments. -Objects of metal and glass beads are particularly prized. They use rings -of iron, copper, and brass of all sizes for the arms, legs, and fingers. -Sometimes so many rings will be put upon the arms that they completely -cover them. The negroes in some tribes pierce ears, noses, and lips for -inserting ornaments. The Bongo women, for example, pierce a series of -holes along the rim of each ear, along the edges of the nose, and at the -corners of the mouth, and through each hole they thrust a short bit of -grass stalk. The men in negro tribes often bear a tribal mark; this is -usually the scar or scars left by cutting lines or patterns on the face -or chest. Thus the mark of one tribe might be three cuts across each -cheek; that of another a pattern of criss-cross lines upon the forehead; -another tribe in the central lake district had a line of wart-like -swellings, at equal distances from each other, extending from the root -of the nose to the top of the forehead. All these tribal marks were cut -in childhood, and the cutting must have been painful. It is said that -the Bornu baby boys have one hundred and three cuts made on their little -bodies for their tribal sign. - -African negroes often dress their hair into strange and curious forms, -as do also the neighboring negroids. They build it up into great horns, -train it out in little strings, the ends of which they fasten to a -wooden ring, build it into thick mats or wigs, and insert all sorts of -fibres, beads, and ornaments in it. Of course such carefully trained -hair must not be spoiled by lying on it, so they have the same sort of -wooden pillows as the Fiji Islanders, to keep the head off the ground. - -These wooden pillows are often decorated with carvings of human and -animal figures. Many negroes delight in wood-carving and sometimes make -strange masses of many human and animal figures crowded together in the -most curious way. These they paint in bright colors. Near the west coast -of Africa several tribes are ivory carvers, and their artists will cover -an elephant’s tusk with human figures, animal forms, and geometrical -designs; no space will be lost; every spot will be filled. - -[Illustration: NEGRO SMITHS AT WORK (RATZEL).] - -Most of the negro tribes know how to weave, and some of their cloth made -from grass or vegetable fibres is closely and well woven. The most -remarkable art of the negroes, however, is their working of iron. They -know how to get iron from its ore and to work it into desired forms. -They build a little conical smelting furnace or oven of clay, into which -they put their fuel and ore. They then blow air through the fire with -their rude bellows. This consists of two earthen vessels, or boxes of -some sort, over the top of which bladders or skin are tied; tubes lead -from these vessels and the lower end of a stick is tied to the middle of -each bladder covering. The smith takes the upper ends of the sticks in -his hands and works them up and down, first one and then the other. He -thus forces air first into one tube and then into the other: these two -tubes end in a single clay tube which conducts the air into the furnace. -After the blacksmith gets his iron from the ore he works it with heat -and beating to the forms wanted. At Benin City, which was at the head of -a dreadful negro kingdom, they had learned how to cast bronze and made -wonderful objects in it. They made rings, bells, animal figures, plaques -with human figures represented on them, and masks of the human head of -life size. - -Negroes love music and have many instruments, not only rattles, drums, -whistles, flutes, and trumpets, but stringed instruments also. In some -tribes there are wandering minstrels, who go from place to place playing -on their three-stringed guitar and singing songs in praise of the chief -or king whom they visit. They sing in his praise if he pays them well; -if, however, he is stingy, their songs make bitter fun of him. These -minstrels are either men or women: they are feared and disliked, but -well treated, as no one wishes to gain their ill will. - -Some of the most brutal and cruel acts in the world are done among negro -kingdoms like Ashanti, Dahomey, and Benin. No human life is there safe. -The king orders instant death to those who offend him. The executioner’s -knife is kept busy. Cruel butcheries are connected with their religion, -and sometimes the king will have dozens, scores, or even hundreds of men -killed to carry messages to his dead father. It is also among negroes -that we find cannibalism existing in revolting forms and frightful -belief in witchcraft. Any old man or old woman may be accused, at any -time, of being a witch: it takes little to prove their guilt, and they -are speedily executed. - -Negroes often believe that some men can change themselves into wild -animals and then resume their own form. They are especially afraid of -man-leopards: not unfrequently men who have been thought to be such have -been executed. We cannot, however, blame the negroes much for such -ideas. Not long ago white Europeans generally believed in werewolves (or -manwolves), and there are still districts in Europe where such beliefs -exist. - -Many African negroes wear charms to protect themselves against harm. -Such charms are called _gri-gris_. Almost anything may be a gri-gri: a -part of some animal, a plant, a curious stone. Where the negroes have -had much to do with Arabs or other Mohammedans a favorite gri-gri is a -verse from the Koran, written on paper done up in a little leathern -pouch and hung about the neck. Sometimes a man will be almost covered -with gri-gris. He may have so many “as to weigh thirty pounds,” and they -may hamper him so “that he must be helped in mounting a horse.” - -We have already told you that the Arabs still hunt negro slaves. Many of -the negro tribes themselves keep slaves—thus the Wolofs do so. They, -however, treat their slaves more kindly than the Arabs do. - - - - - XXIV. - NEGROIDS. - - -The negroids of Southern and Eastern Africa resemble the negroes. They -are generally tall; they have a fine dark brown color, long narrow -heads, hair less kinky and woolly than the negroes, flat nose and thick -lips. They do not have the negro’s odor. The negroids comprise many -different tribes, but all speak related languages known as the Bantu -languages. The tribes we shall consider are the Zulus, Kaffirs, and -Waganda. - -The Zulus and Kaffirs wear generally but little clothing. A man wears a -cord about the waist with flaps of leather hanging from it in front and -behind; the woman wears a fringed girdle about her waist. Sometimes they -wear a mantle of hairy skins. At great festivals the men deck themselves -finely. A traveller, describing a young man who was going visiting, -says: “He will wear furs, among them the Angora goat; feathers in his -head-dress; globular tufts of beautiful feathers on his forehead or at -the back of his head; eagle feathers in fine head-dresses, as also -ostrich, lory, and peacock feathers. He ties so many tufts and tails to -his waist girdle that he may almost be said to wear a kilt.” - -The negroids, like the negroes, are agriculturists and live in towns of -huts. Some tribes are raisers of cattle and have large herds that yield -milk, meat, and skins. They are hunters, too, and that on a large scale. -They set up long hedges or lines of brush and stakes, which converge -toward certain points where they dig pits and cover them. They then -scatter over a large district and beat it, scaring in the animals and -driving them between the lines of brush into the pits, where they easily -kill them. - -The two great weapons of the southern negroids are the _kerry_ and the -_assegai_. The kerry is a short wooden club with a knob at the end. This -is thrown at the game. The assegai is a spear, the shaft of which is -long and slender and the head of which, made of iron, is long and wide. -Assegais are used all through South and Central Africa. The form and -size of the blade varies with tribes: sometimes it is two feet in length -and several inches across. Mrs. French-Sheldon saw the assegai maker, in -one tribe she visited, using a natural leaf as his pattern, and he was -careful to exactly copy its form. Both negro and negroid tribes in some -parts of Africa, especially Western Central Africa, use throwing-knives; -they are made from a flat piece of iron, worked into several blades -projecting in different directions. They are thrown through the air, and -some one of the ugly blades is quite sure to strike. - -Kaffirs and Zulus make long oval shields almost as tall as themselves, -for protection in battle. A cowskin, with the hair on, is stretched over -a light and simple wooden frame. Each great section of Africans has its -own kind of shield. The Niam-Niams and some Congo tribes weave beautiful -close and light shields of wicker or basket work; they are long and -narrow, and protect the whole body. The splints of which they are woven -differ in color and are worked into rather handsome patterns. In Nubia -they use shields made of thick and heavy hide, like elephant or -rhinoceros hide; these are circular, not very large, and have a round or -conical knob or boss raised at the centre. - -[Illustration: WAGANDA MUSICIANS (RATZEL).] - -Kaffirs and Zulus are fond of war and are brave in battle. They have war -dances in which they are inflamed for the fray. A Kaffir who slays an -enemy may have a great gash cut in his leg on his return home to show -that fact. The scars of such gashes are objects of great pride. The -Kaffirs are fine speakers and their speeches on important occasions are -stirring and impressive. Like negroes, the negroids delight in music and -have many instruments. None, however, is a greater favorite than the -noisy drum. - -Among Zulus and Kaffirs, the sorcerer is much feared and dreaded. When -men are ill, or in trouble, they go to him for help and advice. He goes -through with many strange performances. The people believe that he can -detect thieves and find stolen property, that he can bewitch and cure -bewitchment; he is frequently, also, a rain-maker. There is much -jealousy between the sorcerers or rain-makers in a tribe, and they -sometimes challenge each other to tests of their power. The description -of such a test between two rain-makers, in one of Rider Haggard’s books, -is probably true to life. - - - - - XXV. - PYGMIES. - - -Many centuries ago, the Greek writers, Homer, Herodotus, and Aristotle, -spoke of dwarf peoples, whom they called _Pygmies_, living in Africa. On -an ancient Egyptian wall there is painted a queer little dwarf-like -figure with the word _Akka_ written near it. It is plain that little -African peoples were known both to the Greeks and Egyptians. But for -hundreds of years after the old Greek writers and Egyptian artists were -dead, no one believed in real Pygmies. Every one felt that the accounts -of them were “travellers’ lies,” told to amuse people. But travellers -who have been going into Africa during the last two hundred years and -more have from time to time told us of such tribes, and to-day there can -be no doubt of their existence. There are really Pygmies, and they are -curious and interesting. - -When the great German traveller Schweinfurth was visiting King Munza of -the Monbuttus in “the heart of Africa,” he learned that tribes of -Pygmies lived near. There were nine clusters of them, and they were -called _Akkas_—just like the little creature represented on the old -Egyptian wall—and each cluster had its own chief. At one time -Schweinfurth saw several hundred of these little people together. Munza -traded one of these Pygmies, whose name was Neevoué, to Schweinfurth. -The traveller was kind to the little fellow, and wanted to take him to -Germany, but Neevoué died in Egypt. He was a cruel little creature, not -very bright, and had great difficulty in learning. Later on, in Ashango -Land, much farther to the west, Du Chaillu found the dwarf Obongos, whom -he described, and whose houses he pictured. An Italian traveller named -Miani secured two Akkas in trade. He planned to take them to Italy, but -he died on his journey home. His two Pygmies, however, reached Italy, -where a kind-hearted nobleman took care of them. They were gay and -happy, though fitful, and were rather quick to learn; they learned to -speak, read, and write Italian. - -[Illustration: HUTS OF ASHANGO-LAND DWARFS (DU CHAILLU).] - -So much was known about the Pygmies before Stanley’s journey. He saw -many of them, and tells a good deal about them and their life. The Akkas -were the tribe he saw. They measure from three feet to four feet and six -inches; a full-grown man weighs about ninety pounds. Some of them have -long heads, long, narrow faces, small, reddish eyes placed near -together, and are sour looking and morose. The others have round faces -with fine, large, bright eyes placed wide apart, high foreheads, skin of -a rich ivory-yellow color. All African Pygmies seem to have their bodies -covered with short, rather stiff, grayish hair. Stanley says the Akkas -place their villages near the towns of bigger people, and that sometimes -eight to twelve Pygmy villages will surround one negro (or negroid) -town. These Pygmies are lively and active; they do not cultivate any -plants, but devote themselves to hunting. - -They use little bows and arrows, and small spears. The tips of the -arrows and spears are often poisoned. With these weapons these little -folk attack and kill antelopes, buffalo, and even elephants. They dig -pitfalls and make traps. Some of their traps are like sheds, the roofs -of which are held in place by vines; bananas and nuts are placed in -these as bait; when chimpanzees or other animals try to take the bait, -the roof falls. The Pygmies catch birds for their feathers, and hunt for -wild honey. - -The Pygmies use two kinds of arrow poison. One is dark and thick and -made from the leaves of a plant quite like our Jack-in-the-pulpit or -Indian turnip. The other is believed to be made from red ants,—which are -dried and crushed to powder,—mixed with palm oil. Both are said to act -quickly when fresh. Stanley mentions one man who died within one minute -from a small wound in his right arm and chest. When the poison is old it -acts less rapidly. - -These Pygmies live in low oval huts, with doors two or three feet high. -The houses are arranged in a circle about an open cleared space, in -which the chief’s house stands. About one hundred yards from the -village, along every path that leads to it, is a little guard house, -only big enough for two Pygmies. These are guard houses and toll -stations, and all strangers who pass must pay toll. The Pygmies are -usually on good terms with their big neighbors, and both are useful to -the other. The little people sell their ivory, skins, honey, and poison -to their neighbors, or trade them for vegetable food. The Pygmies, keen -and watchful, are good pickets for the others, and often warn them of -danger from approaching enemies. - - - - - XXVI. - BUSHMEN AND HOTTENTOTS. - - -Far to the south in Africa, in and about the Desert of Kalahari, live -the Bushmen. They are somewhat like the Pygmies. They are -little—full-grown men being from four feet to four feet six inches in -stature. They are of a yellow-brown color; their hair is black and -kinky, but appears to grow in little tufts with bare spaces between; the -jaws project and the lips are thick; they wrinkle early. They are quick -and lively in movements, and are bold hunters. - -Little bands of them wander from place to place, without any fixed home. -They build no houses. Usually they live in holes among the rocks; at -most, they build rude, temporary shelters. They live chiefly on game, -which they kill with the bow and arrow, or sometimes with the spear. -They sometimes trail an animal a long distance, and when they overtake -and kill it, stop at the spot to eat it. They are wonderful at following -the trail of either animals or men, and see signs of their having passed -which a white man would never notice. They get a hard living; they -gather seeds and roots, fruits and gums; they hunt the honey of wild -bees; they catch lizards and snakes. They are so fond of the white -grubs, or pupæ of ants—which we usually, but wrongly, call ants’ -eggs—that the Boers, living near the little people, call them “Bushmen’s -rice.” They also eat the huge eggs of the ostrich, and make water -vessels out of the empty shells. - -Their bows are small and their arrows are hardly more than a foot in -length; the points of bone, stone, or iron are poisoned, and are so -attached to the shaft that they separate and remain in the wound. The -spear and darts which they use are also small and have poisoned tips. In -the quivers with their arrows they carry a little sharpening stone for -grinding the points and a brush for applying the poison. For digging -roots the Bushmen use a pointed stick, which is weighted with a stone -ring. These few simple weapons and tools are all that these poor people -possess, except a few wooden dishes and a smoking pipe, which is said to -be owned by a whole family or band. - -Livingstone says that their arrow poison comes from a sort of -caterpillar or grub, which they crush and dip the arrow tip into. They -always clean their nails carefully after handling the poison, as it -causes damage if it comes into contact with any scratch or cut. The pain -caused by the poison is so great as almost to make the man who has been -wounded crazy. When a lion has been struck with one of these poisoned -arrows he roars terribly and bites and tears the ground and trees. To -cure a person who has been bitten they use an ointment made of the -crushed caterpillar mixed with grease. They believe that the caterpillar -is hungry for grease; when it does not find fat in a person it kills -him; when they supply it the fat it wants, it does no harm. It is said -that this caterpillar is sacred and that they pray to it, asking it to -give them plenty of game when they are hunting. - -[Illustration: GORA-PLAYER: BUSHMAN (RATZEL).] - -These little people are fond of music and drawing. Their finest musical -instrument is a _gora_. This is a hunter’s bow, with a ring on the bow -string. By sliding this ring they change the note which it gives when -twanged. The twang of a bowstring is not a very loud sound; to increase -it a gourd is hung to the lower end of the bow. All over the country of -the Bushmen cliffs and the walls of caves are covered with their -pictures, which represent animals, birds, and men; hunting scenes and -battles are also represented. These pictures are sometimes just pecked -out in the rock; sometimes they are painted; sometimes they are first -pecked out and then filled with color. The colors most used in these -pictures are red, yellow, and black. - -The negroid Kaffirs and the Hottentots who live near the poor Bushmen -hate them and harm them. Meeting them on the road, they sometimes kill -them without pity. In 1804 a Kaffir who went to Cape Town on business -found a Bushman boy eleven years old working as a servant in the -government building. He killed the little fellow with a spear. This, of -course, was long ago, but it shows how the Kaffirs despise the Bushmen. - -The Hottentots live near the Bushmen and are a mixture between them and -the negroids. They are taller than the Bushmen, but have much the same -yellowish brown skin color and the same sort of hair. Their language, -too, is much like that of the Bushmen. In both languages there are some -strange sounds, hard for white men to pronounce, called “clicks.” These -sounds come in the middle of words, and are called “clicks” because they -sound something like the sound made in driving horses. Among the Bushmen -there are nine different sounds of this kind; the Hottentots have only -four. - -[Illustration: BUSHMAN ROCK PICTURE (RATZEL).] - -The Hottentots are cattle-raisers, but do not cultivate plants. They -gather wild fruits and dig roots. They move with their herds from one -pasture to another; their settlements are called _kraals_. Their huts -are dome-shaped and consist of a light framework of poles over which -mattings are hung. When they move it takes only a few minutes to take -the houses to pieces and pack them on to their cattle. The huts are -always set up in a circle, enclosing a clear space where the cattle are -herded. - -Both men and women of the Hottentots wear fur caps, and it is considered -indecent for a woman to be seen with her head bare. Hottentot clothing -consists of leather aprons and cloaks. Hottentots rarely kill their -cattle, which they keep for milk rather than for meat. - -They are quite warlike, and each tribe has a leader. They honor brave -warriors. They are gay in disposition and like to say sharp and funny -things about each other; this often leads to quarrels and fights. When a -man is angry with another, he takes a handful of dust and offers it to -him; if the offender is willing to fight, he seizes the hand and -scatters the dust on the ground; if he refuses to fight, the angry man -throws the dust upon him to show that he is a coward. In fighting to -settle quarrels, they kick and club each other and even use spears. - -[Illustration: HOTTENTOT KRAAL (RATZEL).] - -The Hottentots have many songs and prayers which they repeat to, or -about, their sacred beings. Among their stories are some about the -rabbit and his adventures. They worship the stars which we call the -Pleiades. When these stars rise for the first time in the year, the -people greet them. Mothers take their babies in their arms and teach -them to stretch out their little hands toward the friendly stars. They -then have a dance and sing a song in honor of one of their gods. There -is a large insect called the _mantis_, which, when it stands still, -raises its long front legs into a curious position; the Hottentots think -that it is praying. When a praying mantis appears in a kraal every one -is pleased, as they think it brings good luck. No one thinks of killing -it, and they make an offering to it. - -When a Hottentot man goes hunting, his wife kindles a fire at home and -does nothing while he is gone but carefully tend it. They believe if she -lets it go out that he will fail in his hunting. Hottentot conjurers are -thought to be great snake charmers. It is said that they can hiss in -such a way that all the snakes in the district will be attracted to -them. So much are these conjurers feared that every one wears some -object about him to protect himself against their power. - - - - - XXVII. - MALAYS. - - -The Malays live in the Malay Peninsula, on the great islands near -it,—Sumatra, Borneo, and Java,—and on a host of lesser islands in that -part of the world. They also form part of the population of the great -island, Madagascar, lying east of Africa. - -They are short, with brown skin, dark eyes, straight and coarse black -hair, and broad, round heads. Their forms are slight and graceful. They -are active and gay, quick and intelligent; they are easily offended, do -not readily forgive injuries, and are often deceitful and treacherous. - -The Malays are believed to have come from the continent of Asia not more -than three thousand years ago. - -They are fairly industrious in working their fields, the most important -crop from which is rice. They have other crops, however, and also raise -many fruits. They use the buffalo as a help in field work and for -drawing carts. Those Malays who live near the coast fish, and use both -fresh and salted fish for food. They are good sailors, making journeys -by water to China, Australia and other islands. They are shrewd in -trading. Formerly, many Malays were bold pirates, as indeed in some -parts they still are. - -Malay houses are usually built of boards, are rectangular in form, and -have a two-pitched roof. They are almost everywhere, set up on posts -quite high above ground, and must be reached by means of ladders. - -The Malays are great chewers of betel nut. A piece of the nut is mixed -with a little lime, placed in a leaf, and chewed. It colors the saliva -red and stains the teeth a brownish black. So used are the Malays to -these stained teeth that they no longer admire white teeth. Of a man -whose teeth are not stained with betel they will say, “he has teeth like -a dog,” and seem to consider it a disgrace. They even chip off or file -away the enamel on the front of the teeth of children so that they may -become sooner blackened. - -[Illustration: MALAY FAMILY: JAVA (VERNEAU).] - -All Malays like amusement; even the most civilized celebrate many -festivals. Animal fights and theatrical performances are favorites. -Almost every man among the Malays keeps a fighting cock of which he is -proud and fond; while he works in his field, the bird is tied by a cord -to a stake near him, and he stops now and again to stroke and pet him. -Cock-fights take place frequently, but the birds are not allowed—as in -Mexico—to kill each other. The bull-fights in the Malay region are also -much less cruel than those of Mexico and Spain. In these countries the -bull is made to fight against a trained company of human fighters; among -the Malays he fights another animal of his own kind. The Malay -buffalo-tiger fight is famous. A buffalo and tiger are placed in a pen -together and then excited until they attack each other. The buffalo is -quite frequently the victor. Most curious, however, is the battle -between crickets. The contest between these insects is watched with -great interest and excitement by the Malays. It occurs also in Japan. - -Malays delight in dances and the theatre. At the World’s Columbian -Exposition in Chicago there was a complete Javanese village. It -contained a dance house where dances were given to the sound of the -strange gongs and other musical instruments of the Javan people. The -dancing was by girls who were gayly dressed in velvet, silk, and satin -with gold and silver tinsel. They wore curious gilt helmets. They did -not dance with their feet, but kept time to the music by graceful -movements of the arms, hands, head, and eyes. In the same building they -gave plays, in which the players wore small and curious masks of wood. -In other plays, somewhat like our Punch and Judy, puppets were moved and -played the parts. The Javanese also have shadow plays, where jointed -human figures, cut from cardboard, are moved by sticks and their shadows -are thrown upon a screen. - -[Illustration: BUFFALO CART: JAVA (RATZEL).] - -“Running amuck” is fearfully common among Malays. Suddenly a man, on the -street or in some public place, becomes insane with a desire to kill. -Seizing a weapon, he starts down a street filled with people and strikes -right and left at every one as he runs. The police hurry after the -murderer and are usually compelled to kill him before his dreadful work -can be stopped. The Malays are really a nervous and excitable people; it -is said that frequently a steady look at a person will throw him into a -trance or hypnotized state. - -[Illustration: KRISES: JAVA (RATZEL).] - -Of the various weapons used by the Malays the _kris_ seems to be the -favorite. In Java this was often a remarkable object. A kris is a short -sword or dagger with a fine steel blade which ends in a point, and the -sides of which are wavy instead of straight. Probably they think of this -as a stinging serpent; anyway the handle is frequently in the form of a -serpent’s head. Sometimes this handle is finely carved and often it is -set with gems. Some that belonged to the old Javan princes were a mass -of precious stones. The sheath for the kris might be plain, but it might -also be decorated with carvings or encrusted with jewels. - -Strangest of the Malays are the Dyaks of Borneo and the Battaks of -Sumatra. Both are a little larger and have longer heads than the -Javanese. The Dyaks are great “head-hunters.” No man is respected until -he has brought in a head as a trophy. Usually only the skull is kept; -sometimes this will be engraved with patterns or stained with coloring -matter; sometimes designs are cut in the bone and foil is set in the -patterns. The Battaks are industrious and have made progress in many -ways. They have a system of writing. Inscriptions are usually carved -upon staves of bamboo; they also have books made of strips of palm or -other vegetable substances. The Battaks are among the most dreadful of -cannibals. - - - - - XXVIII. - THE PEOPLES OF THE PHILIPPINES. - - -The Philippine Islands lie northeast from the great Malay Islands. The -group extends for one thousand miles and includes almost two thousand -islands of sizes from barren rock masses too small for use up to the -great Island of Luzon, which is about the size of Ohio. All together the -islands have an area equal to that of New York and the New England -States united. It is uncertain how large a population occupy the -islands, but it is probably between seven and eight million. - -Dr. Blumentritt, an Austrian who has studied the Philippine peoples for -many years, says that fifty-one different languages are spoken among -them. He thinks that the peoples have come at various times to the -islands from various places. He believes that the first people here were -the negritos and that they once occupied the whole region. Perhaps three -thousand years ago Malay tribes, a good deal like the Dyaks of Borneo, -crowded in upon the unfortunate little natives, seizing their land and -driving them into the mountains of the interior and to the more remote -parts of the coast. Later, from eighteen hundred to fourteen hundred -years ago, other Malays crowded in, but this time they were more like -those of Java. Much later, only about five hundred years ago, a third -lot of Malays, bold and hardy seamen, began a movement into the islands. -But just then the Spaniards discovered the Philippines and checked these -pirates before they had gained much of a foothold. Blumentritt speaks of -these invasions of Malays as the first, second, and third Malay -migrations. - -[Illustration: PHILIPPINE NEGRITO (MEYER).] - -The negritos, or old population, are a little people much like the -Mincopies of the Andaman Islands. They are short, black skinned, and -crinkly haired. They do not live to be old, but a person of thirty or -forty looks as if much older. They build no true houses; in bad weather -they put up rude shelters. They are wanderers and have no agriculture; -they make no pottery; they wear but little clothing; some scar or -tattoo; they are fond of ornaments. Their chief weapon is the bow and -arrow, though they also have spears. They are skilful in throwing -stones. They make fire by friction, sawing one sharp piece of bamboo -across another. If a negrito dies, his fellows believe he was bewitched -by some Tagal or other Malay, and will not be satisfied until one has -been killed in revenge. When two negritos wish to swear friendship, they -cut their arms and each sucks blood from the other; they thus become of -one blood and are like brothers. They used to send messages by knotting -grass which either had a meaning itself or helped the person who carried -it to remember what he had been told. There are now perhaps twenty -thousand negritos and they live mostly on the larger islands—Luzon, -Mindanao, and Negros. - -Many tribes in the Philippines represent the first Malay invasion. They -are much alike in life and character; all are bold and cruel; most of -them are head-hunters. They depend, in part, on agriculture, and have -settled villages which are usually in the mountains or forests. The -Igorrotes are a good example of them. They live in North Luzon. Both men -and women tattoo; they gild their teeth and are fond of ornaments. The -men go armed with spears, bows and arrows, and knives. Their peculiar -weapon, however, is a hatchet-knife called _ligua_; the thin broad -blade, set like that of a hatchet, has a concave cutting edge which runs -into a long point above. The houses of the Igorrotes are large, -rectangular, and raised on piles. These people are good agriculturists, -tending their fields—which they irrigate—with care. The girls of the -village are in charge of an old woman, and they all live and sleep -together in one special house; this is unlike the other houses of the -village and is not set up on posts. The Igorrotes have much respect for -the souls of their ancestors. In each village there is a sacred tree in -which they believe these souls abide. Though industrious and settled the -Igorrotes are dreadful head-hunters. They organize war-parties to attack -neighboring tribes for victims. The party shown in the picture were on -such an errand. Only a few days after the photograph was taken they fell -upon a Tingian village, killed thirty-nine persons, and carried away -twenty-five heads as trophies. - -[Illustration: HOUSES OF IGORROTES (MEYER).] - -The Tagals, one of the tribes of the second invasion, are the most -important of the Philippine peoples. They industriously work their -fields and raise rice, yams, maize, and several fleshy-root plants. Of -fruits they cultivate mangoes, bananas, pineapples, cocoanuts, and -others. Of industrial plants they produce manila hemp, cotton, indigo, -and tobacco. Many of these plants they have only had since the coming of -the Spaniards. They have long had domestic animals, among them the -buffalo, pig, dog, hens, and ducks. The Tagals have towns of -considerable size, with well-built houses perched on posts. They are -well dressed in good cloth woven by the women. They are fond of gain and -good traders. They are active in body and mind. They delight in poetry, -and it is said “boys on the street will improvise by the yard.” The -Tagals write their language with an alphabet which was probably brought -from India _long_ ago. They formerly wrote on bamboo or on the bark of -certain trees. The Tagals are passionately fond of cock-fighting. Every -one chews betel nut. - -[Illustration: HEAD-HUNTING PARTY: IGORROTES (MEYER).] - -As to the third migration, it failed to reach the great island of Luzon. -The immigrants were Mohammedan Malays from Borneo. They were sea-rovers -and pirates. They gained possession of the Sulu Islands, the farthest to -the southwest of the Philippines, and had landed on Mindanao when the -arrival of the Spaniards put an end to their movements. They are usually -called _Moros_ or Moors, from their religion. They are polygamous and -keep slaves. Their ruler is called the Sultan of Sulu. - -Such are the people of the Philippines: at least fifty-one tribes, -speaking as many different languages. But there are also many foreigners -there: thousands of Japanese and Chinese; descendants of American -Indians, brought by the old Spaniards from Mexico and Peru; Spaniards -and other whites. And lastly there are all sorts of _mestizos_, or mixed -persons, produced by the intermarriage of all these so many different -stocks—native and foreign. - - - - - XXIX. - MELANESIANS. - - -Several great groups of people occupy the vast island world of the -Pacific. We have already spoken of the Malays. In Australia live many -tribes differing in language and customs. They are mostly dark brown -with bushy or curly hair. They are savages in culture. South of -Australia, in Van Diemen’s Land, or Tasmania, there formerly lived a -dark brown people, not tall in stature, with peculiar features and long -curly hair; they are now all gone. North of Australia, in Papua or New -Guinea, are many tribes with curious and interesting arts and customs. -The real Papuans are dark brown in color and have woolly hair, which, -like that of the Bushmen, _seems_ to grow in tufts with bare spaces -between. They are of medium stature. The islands to the east and south -of Australia and New Guinea are occupied by black, woolly-haired tribes, -who are called Melanesians, and who are related to the Papuans. Among -them are the natives of Fiji, New Britain, New Ireland, and the Solomon -Islands. - -The Fijians of fifty years ago will well represent the Melanesians. -Thomas Williams, _Fiji and the Fijians_, will give us our facts. - -The Fijian hair-dressing was striking. Each chief had a special -hair-dresser, who frequently spent several hours a day in arranging his -master’s hair. The hairs were trained to stand out from the head so as -to form a great mass that might be trimmed into curious shapes. This -smooth, soft, solid, cushion-like mass of hair was stained with -colors—jet black naturally, it might be blue-black, ashy white, or -shades of red. The whole mass of hair, except a band in front, might be -black, while _that_ was white; sometimes the hair behind was twisted -into cords ending with tassels; one man had a knot of fiery red hair on -the crown while the rest of his head was shaved; sometimes the hair mass -measured four feet or more in circumference. Such grand hair-dressing -would be ruined by lying down with the head on the ground—so the Fijians -had a wooden head-rest or pillow, which was set under the neck and held -the head up, off the ground. - -[Illustration: FIJIAN (RATZEL).] - -Men wore a long sash of bark cloth, which was anywhere from three to one -hundred yards long. This was passed between the legs and wound around -the waist any number of times; if it were long and the man wanted to -present a _fine_ appearance it was folded several times up against the -upper part of his body; the ends were allowed to trail behind. The men -wore a turban of the same material, but fine and gauzy; from four to six -feet long, it was wrapped around the head, several times if need be; if -the hair mass was large, however, it would go little more than once. -Women wore little but a fringed waist band, which hung to the knees. - -Like the Polynesians, from whom they probably learned it, the Fijians -used much _kava_, a drink which produces a stupefied or intoxicated -condition. The preparation of kava for the king was a great occasion. -The great kava bowl, made of wood carefully polished, was placed upon -the ground. The guests seated themselves around it. A number of young -men took pieces of the root from which the drink was to be made and -chewed them well in their mouths; they stacked up the pellets in the -dish; water was poured in until the bowl was nearly full and the balls -of chewed root were well stirred about and squeezed in it. Then a man, -especially trained to the work, strained them out with a bunch of fibre, -in which, by twisting, he squeezed the pellets until no more juice or -water ran out. The liquid was now ready for drinking. Prayer and song -had accompanied the making of the kava. The king, receiving a cupful -from a servant, spilled a little to the gods, and then drank. The others -then drank in their order. It was a high honor to drink next after the -king. - -[Illustration: PILE-DWELLING VILLAGE: NEW GUINEA (RATZEL).] - -[Illustration: CANOE: NEW GUINEA (RATZEL).] - -The Fijians carved neat bowls and other vessels from wood. The kava -bowls, though usually plain, were carefully cut and beautifully -polished. The Fijians—almost alone of Pacific Islanders—made pottery; -the vessels were in various strange though rather graceful forms, and -were somewhat glazed. They made remarkable war clubs of fine, heavy, -dark woods which varied much in form, were decorated with carving, and -were handsomely polished. Fijians were not good sailors, but they made -better canoes than some of those made by Polynesians, who _were_ bold -sailors. It is said that the Tongans (Polynesians) gave up their own -style of canoe to adopt that of the Fijians. The canoes were, like those -of many of the Pacific Islands, double canoes; two canoes of the same -shape and size were placed side by side—with some little space -between—and united by a platform of boards; one sail was sometimes -hoisted; paddles were used for sculling and a great steering oar was -employed. A much larger book than this would be needed for describing -all the craft used on the water by Malayans, Melanesians, and -Polynesians. The Fijians enjoyed music and had two or three kinds of -drums, sticks that were beaten together, pan-pipes, a bamboo jew’s-harp, -a conch-shell trumpet, and a little flute that was blown by the nose. - -The Fijians were a polite people—that is, they had rules about -greetings, behavior, and the treatment of superiors. One curious rule -was that a servant or inferior, in case his master fell or got into some -ridiculous position, must also fall or place himself in a similar -ridiculous position. Afterward it was expected that he would be rewarded -for his politeness. Mr. Williams tells us an incident that illustrates -this practice:— - -“One day I came to a long bridge formed of a single cocoanut tree, which -was thrown across a rapid stream, the opposite bank of which was two or -three feet lower, so that the declivity was too steep to be comfortable. -The pole was also wet and slippery, and thus my crossing safely was very -doubtful. Just as I commenced the experiment a heathen said, with much -animation, ‘To-day I shall have a musket.’ I had, however, just then to -heed my steps more than his words, and so succeeded in reaching the -other side safely. When I asked him why he spoke of a musket, the man -replied, ‘I felt certain you would fall in attempting to go over, and I -should have fallen after you; and, as the bridge is high, the water -rapid, and you a gentleman, you would not have thought of giving me less -than a musket.’” - -The _tabu_ is one of the most curious habits of Pacific Islanders. -Though it occurred in Fiji, it was Polynesian, rather than Melanesian. -Tabu was forbidding persons to touch, or use, or make some object. -Chiefs and priests set most of the tabus, but lesser people might -sometimes do so. A man might tabu all the cocoanuts in a district, -setting up some sign or mark to show that he had done so; no one might -thereafter touch a nut there until the tabu had been removed. A chief -might tabu a man’s working; he could not do work of any kind until the -chief removed the tabu. A chief might tabu the building of canoes by the -people of a certain village; the people thenceforth would need to secure -canoes from others. Thousands of tabus were set, and they made much -trouble and inconvenience. The man who broke a tabu was punished, -sometimes by death. - -The Fijians were dreadful cannibals. England governed Fiji for many -years, and it was believed that the practice had disappeared. A few old -men were considered almost as curiosities because they had eaten flesh -of men and were called “the last of the cannibals.” Then suddenly in -1889 the old custom broke out again. A party of Fijians killed some -victims and ate them in a cave. A party in pursuit found evidence of the -dreadful feast. Among these were some of the curious wooden forks used -because it was not proper that the flesh should be touched with the -fingers! - - - - - XXX. - POLYNESIANS. - - -The Pacific Islands lying east from the Melanesian Islands, beginning -with New Zealand and stretching to Easter Island, were occupied by -Polynesians. The best known of their island groups were New Zealand, the -Society Islands, Samoa, and the Hawaiian Islands. These islands are -either volcanic islands or coral islands, and the natural animal and -vegetable life occurring on them is less varied than on the great -islands lying nearer to the Asiatic or Australian continents. - -The Polynesians present a fine type. They are often tall and well built; -their skins, though brown, are frequently light; the features are -regular and the faces handsome. They are quick and intelligent, think -and reason well, take new ideas readily, and are fond of beauty. They -were barbarians, but had made so much progress that they were at the -border-line of civilization. Living in a mass of islands that presented -few natural resources, they had made the most of everything nature gave -them. - -[Illustration: TATTOOED NEW ZEALANDER (VERNEAU).] - -Many Polynesian tribes tattoo. Elaborate patterns are pricked into the -skin, with lines of needles set side by side and dipped in color. The -New Zealanders tattooed their faces with curious curved-line patterns, -each line had its proper place, and the patterns probably had a meaning. -The Marquesas Islanders covered their bodies with elaborate and graceful -patterns. The process was painful and only a small space was done at one -time; the whole work required years. - -Polynesian dress differed somewhat with the region. In New Zealand fine, -soft, and flexible robes and blankets were woven of the native flax. In -Hawaii the king and chiefs had wonderful feather cloaks which hung to -the knees or even to the ankles. The little feathers of which these were -composed were red and yellow; a garment composed only of yellow feathers -could be worn only by the king; when both colors of feathers were used, -they were arranged in diamond-shaped or other ornamental forms, with -spots and lines of dark purple or black feathers. Besides the cloaks, -there were tippets of feathers, which were generally worn by lower -chiefs, who had not, or might not have, feather cloaks. In these feather -garments the dress was made of a sort of netted foundation, into which -these bright feathers were worked. Chiefs also had wonderful helmets of -wickerwork which were covered with feathers. The helmet might be simple, -just fitting the head, or large, ridged, or crested, and rising high -above the head. In some islands the clothing consisted of a fringed -girdle hanging from the waist to the knees. - -[Illustration: HELMETS AND IDOL-HEADS OF FEATHERS: HAWAII (RATZEL).] - -But everywhere in Polynesia the common dress was made of _tapa_. This -was a kind of paper or cloth beaten out of the bark of certain trees. -The bark was removed from the tree and soaked in water; it was laid upon -a large piece of wood and beaten with a sort of club or mallet. This was -made of hard wood and was round at one end for being taken in the hand; -the remainder was squared, and the four faces were either smooth or -ribbed by longitudinal grooves. By this beating the wood was separated -into its fibres, and these were mashed together into a sheet of firm -paper or cloth. This tapa differs with the tree from the bark of which -it is made. Some is thin and dark brown; that from the bark of the -breadfruit tree is fawn-colored; that from the paper-mulberry, best and -finest of all, is beautifully white. The women were so expert at beating -tapa that single strips, four yards wide and two hundred yards long, -were beaten. Such cloth might be left plain, or it might be stained with -colors, or it might be stamped with patterns. Wooden blocks or strips of -bamboo were carved with designs which were smeared with color and -stamped on the cloth; sometimes ferns were laid in coloring matter, then -the form transferred to the tapa. - -The two chief food supplies in Polynesia were breadfruit and cocoanuts; -yams (much like sweet potatoes) and bananas were plenty. A favorite food -in places is _poi_, a sort of gruel or pudding made from the root of -_taro_. It was not eaten with a spoon, but the finger was dipped into it -and stirred around to get a good load of the sticky stuff on it, when it -was stuck into the mouth and sucked clean. Fish were much eaten, though -not all kinds nor at all times. - -The Polynesian oven was a hole, three or four feet across, and a foot -deep, dug in the ground. The bottom was lined with stones, which were -covered with dry leaves, upon which a brisk fire was built. When the -stones were red-hot, the dust and ashes were brushed out of the oven, -and the potatoes, yams, and taro, or the pigs, dogs, fish, and birds -were wrapped in leaves, and laid upon the hot stones. When all the food -to be cooked had been neatly placed, leaves were laid above them, and -hot stones on these. All was then covered in with leaves and earth, and -left until thoroughly baked through. - -Many of the strange peoples we have considered are filthy; Polynesians -were unusually cleanly, and bathed frequently. In some islands surf -bathing was the chief sport. Every traveller to Hawaii has described the -practice. Babies were taken into the sea by their mothers within two or -three days of their birth, and could swim as soon as they could walk. -Old and young, men and women, bathe in the surf, and the heavier the -waves the greater the sport. The surf-bathing board was five or six feet -long, and a foot wide; it was carefully polished. Taking his board and -pushing it before him, the man swam far out to sea, diving under the -billows as he met them. When far enough out, he lay himself on the end -of the board and waited for a great wave. When it came, he poised -himself on its very crest, and paddling with hands and feet rode in upon -it almost to the shore. - -The Polynesians were warriors, and their battles were cruel and bloody. -They rarely ventured into battle until their gods, through their -priests, promised them success. To prepare themselves for war they -practised in warlike arts. Thus they slung stones at marks, threw -javelins, and wrestled. It is said that, in slinging, they were able to -strike a small stick at fifty yards’ distance, four times out of five. -In their javelin practice, the man at whom the weapon was thrown often -caught it and hurled it back; some were so skilled that they “would -allow six men to throw their javelins at them, which they would either -catch and return on their assailants, or so dextrously turn aside that -they fell harmless to the ground.” In going to war, a chief summoned all -his friends and subordinates. When they had gathered, the -gods—especially the war gods—were brought out to assist and encourage -them. During the battle there was great noise and confusion; effort was -made to kill the great chiefs of the enemy, so that their followers -might be discouraged. Many were killed. Survivors fled to some fortress, -or the mountains, or found safety in one of the curious “places of -refuge,” within whose sacred precincts no harm could be done them. - -For weapons, the Hawaiians had spears of great length, javelins, clubs -which were used both for thrusting and striking, a hard wood dagger, and -slings often made of human hair. On the Kingsmill Islands the natives -made weapons, in many shapes or sizes, of wooden shafts, along the sides -of which great numbers of sharks’ teeth were securely lashed. These -weapons were used both for thrusting and striking, and were fearful -things on naked bodies. In those same islands, and on account of these -shark-tooth weapons, the natives had curious protective clothing or -armor of cocoanut fibre. - -[Illustration: KINGSMILL ISLANDER (TYLOR).] - -Many Polynesians were cannibals: some of them dreadful cannibals. Their -eating of human flesh was often connected with their religion. They had -many gods, whom they represented by idols. The Hawaiian war god is an -example. His idol was an image four or five feet high; the upper part -was of wickerwork covered with red feathers; the hideous face was -supplied with a great mouth with triple rows of dog’s or shark’s teeth; -the eyes were of shell, and upon the head was a helmet crested with long -tresses of human hair. - - - - - XXXI. - CONCLUSION. - - -We have spoken of many Strange Peoples. We have gone around the world in -our search. But after all we have examined but a small part. Remember -that there are fifty-one peoples at least in the Philippines alone. We -have not examined the Australians, or the unfortunate Tasmanians, or the -many tribes of Siberia, or the sixty native populations of India. We -have omitted great nations like the southeast Asians,—Siamese, Burmese, -Annamese. In fact there are many times more Strange Peoples in the world -whom we have _not_ examined, than whom we have. But we have examined -enough, I hope, to learn that they are interesting and deserve our -acquaintance and our sympathy. - -There are few unknown peoples left. Travellers have gone to almost all -parts of the world. The spots which represent absolutely unexplored -regions on our maps are now neither large nor numerous. There are many -peoples about whom we know little, but there are not many who are -actually unknown. Those that may be discovered hereafter will be -interesting, but they are not likely to be very different from those now -known. - -Many of the Strange Peoples are becoming less “strange” every year. Old -customs and peculiar practices are dying out in every part of the world. -Travellers, missionaries, and merchants from white men’s lands are -taking our ideas, our tools, our weapons, our dress, our learning, our -religion, and our vices to the remotest parts of the world. Some of the -Strange Peoples here described have already lost most of their old -customs. The Polynesians and Fijians have little of the old life which -we have described. Many American Indian tribes have changed less. Some -populations have still changed little. But a tribe must indeed be remote -and difficult of access to actually escape our touch absolutely. Usually -the change is _not_ improvement. Other people more quickly adopt our -vices than our virtues. Many tribes have become drunken, diseased, and -depraved through the white man’s influence. It is rare, indeed, that a -lower people gains in happiness or virtue by contact with “higher -civilization.” - -Many of the Strange Peoples will disappear. The Tasmanians were killed -off almost like so many animals by the English. American Indian tribes -have suffered almost as badly at our hands. Many tribes have gone; -others are going. The Lipans were once a fairly numerous tribe. In 1892 -I saw all who were left in the United States—four women and one man; six -months later I saw them again—the man was dead and only four women -remained. The Tonkaways are dying out at the rate of one-third each -eight years. The Polynesians, strong, handsome, active, and happy as -they were when James Cook visited their islands little more than one -hundred years ago, have dwindled, and fifty years more may blot them -from the earth. Not all American Indian tribes are dying out; it is -possible too that Polynesian decline began before Cook’s travels. But it -is certain that on the whole the changes brought by the newcomers sealed -the doom of the Indian and Polynesian. - -There have always been movements of peoples from place to place. We have -seen the Malays pouring three great masses of immigrants into the -Philippines. There are white peoples in Asia; there are yellow peoples -in Europe. Recently plenty of whites and of blacks have poured into -America. Such movements contain some danger. The fair whites will -probably never be able to live in the tropical lands. A certain sort of -skin, hair, nose, breathing apparatus, is necessary for men who are to -live and prosper in low, hot, marshy parts of Africa. For Germans to try -to _colonize_ equatorial Africa is probably a fatal blunder. So far as -we know the dark whites—Spaniards, Italians, south Frenchmen—make better -tropical colonizers than we do; but even they are not successful. The -negro is a bad colonizer, he hardly holds his own even in our Southern -states. Of all the peoples of the globe the Chinese seem to be the best -able to colonize differing countries. He seems to go to hot lands and -cold lands, to small islands and to great continents, but flourishes -everywhere. So true is this that some writers have urged that Africa be -opened up for settlement to the crowded millions of the old empire. For -most peoples, however, migration, if they _must_ migrate, is best along -the lines of latitude into lands as much like the old home as possible. -Many Scandinavians live to-day happily where Wisconsin, Iowa, and -Michigan join; and they may be expected to prosper there, for land and -water, soil and products, scenery and climate, are there much what they -were in the fatherland. - - - - - LIST OF BOOKS REGARDING STRANGE PEOPLES. - - -This list makes no pretension to completeness; a few only of the many -books of the kind are mentioned. Those with a prefixed asterisk will be -useful to teachers; those without will interest children; those followed -by an asterisk have directly contributed to this book in reading matter -or illustration. - - ARNOLD: Japonica.* - - BATCHELLER: The Ainu of Japan.* - - BRAMHALL: The Wee Ones of Japan.* - - *BRINTON: Races and Peoples. - - DU CHAILLU: The Land of the Dwarfs.* - - *DENIKER: The Races of Man. - - DOOLITTLE: Social Life of the Chinese.* - - ELLIS: Polynesian Researches.* - - FIELDE: A Corner of Cathay. - - HEARN: Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan. - - HUC: Travels in Tartary, Thibet, and China.* - - *KEANE: Ethnology. - - *KEANE: Man; Past and Present. - - LANE: The Modern Egyptians. - - LEONOWENS: The English Governess at the Siamese Court. - - *LOWELL: Chosön.* - - *LUBBOCK: Origin of Civilization. - - *LUMMIS: The Land of Poco Tiempo.* - - MARSHALL: Phrenologist among the Todas.* - - *MEYER: Album von Philippinen-Typen.* - - MILN: Little Folk of Many Lands.* - - NANSEN: Eskimo Life. - - *PESCHEL: The Races of Man. - - DE QUATREFAGES: The Pygmies. - - *RATZEL: History of Mankind. - - *RATZEL: Völkerkunde.* - - *RÉCLUS: Primitive Folk. - - ROCKHILL: The Land of the Lamas. - - SCHWEINFURTH: The Heart of Africa.* - - SMITH: Chinese Characteristics. - - STANLEY: In Darkest Africa.* - - *TURNER: Samoa. - - *TYLOR: Anthropology.* - - *VERNEAU: Les Races Humaines.* - - WALLACE: The Malay Archipelago. - - WARD: India and the Hindoos.* - - WILLIAMS: Fiji and the Fijians.* - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - ADVERTISEMENTS - - - - - ╔═════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════╗ - ║ AMERICAN INDIANS ║ - ║ ║ - ║ BY FREDERICK STARR, PH.D., ║ - ║ ║ - ║ _Associate Professor of Anthropology, University of Chicago_. ║ - ║ ║ - ║ Cloth. 240 Pages. Fully Illustrated. Price, 45 Cents. ║ - ║ ║ - ║ D. C. HEATH & CO., Publishers, ║ - ║ BOSTON. NEW YORK. CHICAGO. ║ - ╚═════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════╝ - - -[Illustration] - -=W. N. Hailman=, _Supt. of Schools, Dayton, O., formerly U. S. -Commissioner of Indian Schools_: The book is beyond question the most -attractive and conscientious presentation of the subject I have met. - -=M. V. O’Shea=, _School of Education, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, -Wis._: I am glad to say that I regard Starr’s “American Indians” as one -of the most appropriate books for grammar grade reading that I have -seen. - -=Richard E. Dodge=, _Prof. in Teacher’s College, Columbia Univ._, in -“The Journal of School Geography”: The name of the author is a -sufficient guarantee as to the accuracy and value of the little book -whose title is noted above. We have long needed a well-written and true -account of the much misused and misunderstood American Indians, and more -especially an account that would appeal to the young, and give them -different impressions from those gathered from nursery tales, school -primers or Cooper’s stories. The book is attractive in general -appearance, in typography, and illustration, and is well divided into -thirty-three short chapters, each devoted to a pertinent topic. It deals -with all the aspects of Indian life, as is shown by the following -selected chapter headings—Houses, Dress, the Baby and Child, War, -Hunting and Fishing, Picture Writing, Money, Medicine Men and Secret -Societies, Dances and Ceremonials, The Algonquins, the Six Nations, the -Creeks, the Cherokees, The Pueblos, Totem Posts, The Aztecs, etc. The -author has made good use of authorities and includes notes concerning -each author quoted. The book shows that great care has been expended in -selecting and organizing materials, and is authoritative. It should -receive a hearty welcome, and be used not only in schools, but in homes, -as a book for boys and girls, or as a book for a parent to use in -selecting true facts for family talks and conferences. Two valuable maps -are included in the text, and are both very pertinent. - -=Journal of Education, Boston, Mass.=: The book is interesting and -instructive throughout, and should be read widely in school and out. - -=The American, Philadelphia, Pa.=: This book, prepared especially for -younger people, is a careful, interesting history of the chief tribes of -North American Indians, their peculiarities and ways of life. The -picture drawn is good and highly instructive. - -=Tribune, Chicago, Ill.=: Professor Starr is already a recognized -authority on Indian lore, having a personal acquaintance with some -thirty tribes, from Alaska to Yucatan. His book condenses into 240 pages -the main facts gathered by students and explorers among the red men -since the discovery of America. One cannot read many pages without -feeling that the author is deeply in sympathy with the people of whom he -is writing. - - Supplementary Reading - - _A Classified List for all Grades._ - - GRADE I. Bass’s The Beginner’s Reader .25 - Badlam’s Primer .25 - Fuller’s Illustrated Primer .25 - Griel’s Glimpses of Nature for Little Folks .30 - Heart of Oak Readers, Book I .25 - Regal’s Lessons for Little Readers .35 - - GRADE II. Warren’s From September to June with Nature .35 - Badlam’s First Reader .30 - Bass’s Stories of Plant Life .25 - Heart of Oak Readers, Book I .25 - Snedden’s Docas, the Indian Boy .35 - Wright’s Seaside and Wayside Nature, Readers No. 1 .25 - - GRADE III. Heart of Oak Readers, Book II .35 - Pratt’s America’s Story, Beginner’s Book .35 - Wright’s Seaside and Wayside Nature Readers, No. 2 .35 - Miller’s My Saturday Bird Class .25 - Firth’s Stories of Old Greece .30 - Bass’s Stories of Animal life .35 - Spear’s Leaves and Flowers .25 - - GRADE IV. Bass’s Stories of Pioneer Life .40 - Brown’s Alice and Tom .40 - Grinnell’s Our Feathered Friends .30 - Heart of Oak Readers, Book III .45 - Pratt’s America’s Story—Discoverers and Explorers .40 - Wright’s Seaside and Wayside Nature Readers, No. 3 .45 - GRADE V. Bull’s Fridtjof Nansen .30 - Grinnell’s Our Feathered Friends .30 - Heart of Oak Readers, Book III .45 - Pratt’s America’s Story—The Earlier Colonies .00 - Kupfer’s Stories of Long Ago .35 - - GRADE VI. Starr’s Strange Peoples .40 - Bull’s Fridtjof Nansen .30 - Heart of Oak Readers, Book IV .50 - Pratt’s America’s Story—The Colonial Period .00 - Dole’s The Young Citizen .45 - - GRADE VII. Starr’s American Indians .45 - Penniman’s School Poetry Book .30 - Pratt’s America’s Story—The Revolution and the Republic .00 - Eckstorm’s The Bird Book .60 - Heart of Oak Readers, Book IV .50 - Wright’s Seaside and Wayside Nature Readers, No. 4 .50 - - GRADES VIII _and_ IX. Heart of Oak Readers, Book V .55 - Heart of Oak Readers, Book VI .60 - Dole’s The American Citizen .80 - Shaler’s First Book in Geology (boards) .40 - Goldsmith’s Vicar of Wakefield .50 - Addison’s Sir Roger de Coverley .35 - - _Descriptive circulars sent free on request._ - - - - - Elementary Mathematics - - - =Atwood’s Complete Graded Arithmetic.= Presents a carefully graded - course, to begin with the fourth year and continue through the - eighth year. Part I, 30 cts.; Part II, 65 cts. - - =Badlam’s Aids to Number.= Teacher’s edition—First series, Nos. 1 to - 10, 40 cts.; Second series, Nos. 10 to 20, 40 cts. Pupil’s - edition—First series, 25 cts.; Second series, 25 cts. - - =Branson’s Methods in Teaching Arithmetic.= 15 cts. - - =Hanus’s Geometry in the Grammar Schools.= An essay, with outline of - work for the last three years of the grammar school. 25 cts. - - =Howland’s Drill Cards.= For middle grades in arithmetic. Each, 3 - cts.; per hundred, $2.40. - - =Hunt’s Geometry for Grammar Schools.= The definitions and elementary - concepts are to be taught concretely, by much measuring, and by the - making of models and diagrams by the pupils. 30 cts. - - =Pierce’s Review Number Cards.= Two cards, for second and third year - pupils. Each, 3 cts.; per hundred, $2.40. - - =Safford’s Mathematical Teaching.= A monograph, with applications. 25 - cts. - - =Sloane’s Practical Lessons in Fractions.= 25 cts. Set of six fraction - cards, for pupils to cut. 10 cts. - - =Sutton and Kimbrough’s Pupils’ Series of Arithmetics.= Lower Book, - for primary and intermediate grades, 35 cts. Higher Book, 65 cts. - - =The New Arithmetic.= By 300 teachers. Little theory and much - practice. An excellent review book. 65 cts. - - =Walsh’s Arithmetics.= On the “spiral advancement” plan, and perfectly - graded. Special features of this series are its division into - half-yearly chapters instead of the arrangement by topics; the great - number and variety of the problems; the use of the equation in - solution of arithmetical problems; and the introduction of the - elements of algebra and geometry. Its use shortens and enriches the - course in common school mathematics. In two series:— - - _Three Book Series_—Elementary, 30 cts.; Intermediate, 35 cts.; - Higher, 65 cts. - _Two Book Series_—Primary, 30 cts.; Grammar school, 65 cts. - - =Walsh’s Algebra and Geometry for Grammar Grades.= Three chapters from - Walsh’s Arithmetic printed separately. 15 cts. - - =White’s Two Years with Numbers.= For second and third year classes. - 35 cts. - - =White’s Junior Arithmetic.= For fourth and fifth years. 45 cts. - - =White’s Senior Arithmetic.= 65 cts. - - _For advanced works see our list of books in Mathematics._ - - - - - Drawing and Manual Training. - - - =Thompson’s New Short Course in Drawing.= A practical, well-balanced - system, based on correct principles. Can be taught by the ordinary - teacher and learned by the ordinary pupil. Books I-IV, 6 × 9 inches, - per dozen, $1.20. Books V-VIII, 9 × 12 inches, per dozen, $1.75. - Manual to Books I-IV, 40 cts. Manual to Books V-VIII, 40 cts. - Two-Book Course: Book A, per dozen, $1.20; Book B, per dozen, $1.75; - Manual, 40 cts. - - =Thompson’s Æsthetic Series of Drawing.= This series includes the - study of Historical Ornament and Decorative Design. Book I treats of - Egyptian art; Book II, Greek; Book III, Roman; Book IV, Byzantine; - Book V, Moorish; Book VI, Gothic. Per dozen, $1.50. Manual, 60 - cents. - - =Thompson’s Educational and Industrial Drawing.= - - Primary Free-Hand Series (Nos. 1–4). Each No., per doz., $1.00. - Manual, 40 cts. - Advanced Free-Hand Series (Nos. 5–8). Each No., per doz., $1.50. - Model and Object Series (Nos. 1–3). Each No., per doz., $1.75. - Manual, 35 cts. - Mechanical Series (Nos. 1–6). Each No., per doz., $2.00. Manual, 75 - cts. - - =Thompson’s Manual Training No. 1.= Clay modeling, stick laying, paper - folding, color and construction of geometrical solids. Illus. 66 pp. - 25 cts. - - =Thompson’s Manual Training No. 2.= Mechanical drawing, clay - modelling, color, wood carving. Illus. 70 pp. 25 cts. - - =Thompson’s Drawing Tablets.= Four Tablets, with drawing exercises and - practice paper, for use in the earlier grades. Each No., per doz., - $1.20. - - =Drawing Models.= Individual sets and class sets of models are made to - accompany several of the different series in the Thompson Drawing - Courses. Descriptive circulars free on request. - - =Anthony’s Mechanical Drawing.= 98 pages of text, and 32 folding - plates. $1.50. - - =Anthony’s Machine Drawing.= 65 pages of text, and 18 folding plates. - $1.50. - - =Anthony’s Essentials of Gearing.= 84 pages of text, and 15 folding - plates, $1.50. - - =Daniels’s Freehand Lettering.= 34 pages of text, and 13 folding - plates. 75 cts. - - =Johnson’s Lessons in Needlework.= Gives, with illustrations, full - directions for work during six grades. 117 pages. Square 8vo. Cloth, - $1.00. Boards, 60 cts. - - =Lunt’s Brushwork for Kindergarten and Primary Schools.= Eighteen - lesson cards in colors, with teacher’s pamphlet, in envelope. 25 - cts. - - =Seidel’s Industrial Instruction= (Smith). A refutation of all - objections raised against industrial instruction. 170 pages. 90 - cents. - - =Waldo’s Descriptive Geometry.= A large number of problems - systematically arranged, with suggestions. 85 pages. 80 cents. - - =Whitaker’s How to use Woodworking Tools.= Lessons in the uses of the - hammer, knife, plane, rule, square, gauge, chisel, saw and auger. - 104 pages. 60 cents. - - =Woodward’s Manual Training School.= Its aims, methods and results; - with detailed courses of instruction in shop-work. Illustrated. 374 - pages. Octavo. $2.00. - - _Sent postpaid by mail on receipt of price._ - - - - - America’s Story for America’s Children - - - A series of history readers by Mara L. Pratt. In five books. - -=Book I.—The Beginner’s Book.= This is introductory to the series, and -is adapted to third and fourth year classes. Its purpose is to develop -centers of interest, and to present the picturesque and personal -incidents connected with the greater events in our history. - -The book contains about sixty illustrations, four of which are in color. -Cloth. 132 pages. 35 cents. - -=Book II.—Exploration and Discovery: 1000–1609.= The second book tells -the story of the great discoverers and explorers from the time of Leif -Ericson to Henry Hudson. It portrays the pomp and pride of the Spanish, -the simple life and customs of the aborigines, and the sturdy temper of -the early English and Dutch navigators. - -A large number of illustrations from authentic sources add to the -interest and value of the stories. 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