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diff --git a/old/62657-0.txt b/old/62657-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 3ca4558..0000000 --- a/old/62657-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43214 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft, Volume 8, by -Hubert Howe Bancroft - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft, Volume 8 - History of Central America, Volume 3, 1801-1887 - -Author: Hubert Howe Bancroft - -Release Date: July 15, 2020 [EBook #62657] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WORKS OF HUBERT HOWE BANCROFT, VOL 8 *** - - - - -Produced by Melissa McDaniel and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - -Transcriber's Note: - - Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original document have - been preserved. Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. - - In some cases, Bancroft uses both "u" and "v" to spell an - author’s name, e.g. Vetancurt and Vetancvrt. - - Other archaic letter substitutions include "b" for "v" and "i" for - "y" and vice versa. These have been left as printed. - - Possible printer's errors include: - On page 5, córtes extraordinary should possibly be córtes - extraordinarias. - On page 149, Patsun should possibly be Patzún. - On page 270, quarters should possibly be halves. - On page 387 repeated should possibly be repealed. - On page 652, 1855-5 appears to be an error. - Joaquin Eufracio Guzman should possibly be Joaquin Eufrasio - Guzman. - Joaquin Eustacio Guzman should possibly be Joaquin Eufrasio - Guzman. - The index reference to "Atrato River" wasn't found. - The index reference to "Montaiglon, M. de, works of," wasn't - found. - - Possible alternate spellings or printers errors include: - Jutecalpa and Jutigalpa - Tempsky and Tempski - Blazquez and Blasquez - Savana and Sabana - Sutiaba and Subtiaba - Pontaz and Pontaza - Mourgeon and Murgeon - Iztapan and Iztapam - Serapiqui, Sesapiqui, Sarapiqui River - Carataska and Caratasca - Gualcince and Gualcinse - Nandaime, Nandayme, and Nandaimé - mosquitoes and musquitoes - Cuzcatlan and Cuscatlan - Granadans and Granadians - Chimilapa and Chimalapa - Fitzroy and Fitz-Roy - Victor and Víctor - Jil and Gil - Carlos and Cárlos - Quiroz and Quiróz - Angel and Ángel - Vijil and Vigil - Jerardo and Gerardo - - Italics in the footnote citations were inconsistently applied - by the typesetter. - - Accents and other diacritics are inconsistently used. - - Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. - - This volume contains references to the previous seven volumes - of this work. - - They can be found at: - - Volume 1: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41070/41070-h/41070-h.htm - Volume 2: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42808/42808-h/42808-h.htm - Volume 3: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/43123/43123-h/43123-h.htm - Volume 4: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44104/44104-h/44104-h.htm - Volume 5: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/45268/45268-h/45268-h.htm - Volume 6 (Volume 1 of the History of Central America): - http://www.gutenberg.org/files/58658/58658-h/58658-h.htm - Volume 7 (Volume 2 of the History of Central America): - http://www.gutenberg.org/files/58669/58669-h/58669-h.htm - - - - - THE WORKS - OF - HUBERT HOWE BANCROFT. - - VOLUME VIII. - HISTORY OF CENTRAL AMERICA. - - VOL. III. 1801-1887. - - - SAN FRANCISCO: - THE HISTORY COMPANY, PUBLISHERS. - 1887. - - - - - Entered according to Act of Congress in the Year 1887, by - HUBERT H. BANCROFT, - In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. - - - All Rights Reserved. - - - - -CONTENTS OF THIS VOLUME. - - - CHAPTER I. - - LAST DAYS OF SPANISH RULE. - 1801-1818. - - PAGE - - Popular Feeling in Central America—Effect - of Events in Spain—Recognition of American - Equality—Representation in the Spanish - Córtes—Delusive Reforms—End of Saravia's - Rule—President José Bustamante—His Despotic - Course—Demands in the Córtes—Constitutional - Guarantees—Official Hostility—Campaign in - Oajaca—Revolutionary Movements in Salvador—War in - Nicaragua—Conspiracy in Guatemala—Treatment of - the Insurgents—Disrespect to the Diputacion—The - Constitution Revoked—Royal Decrees 1 - - - CHAPTER II. - - INDEPENDENCE ACHIEVED. - 1818-1821. - - President Cárlos Urrutia—His Liberal - Views—Colombian Assaults—Spanish Constitution - Restored—The Gazistas, or Bacos—The Cacos—José del - Valle—Pedro Molina—Liberal Institutions—Extent - of the Political Government—Ecclesiastical - Administration—Work of American Deputies—Party - Excitement in Guatemala—Urrutia Delegates his - Powers—Substitute President Gavino Gainza—Chiapas - and her Government—She Secedes from Spain and - Joins the Mexican Empire—Guatemala Declares for - Independence—Junta Gubernativa—Convocation of a - Congress 23 - - - CHAPTER III. - - UNION WITH MEXICO. - 1821-1822. - - First Acts of Guatemalan Rulers—Intrigues - of Parties—Their Evil Consequences—Gainza's - Intrigues—Independence in the Other Provinces—Rewards - to Gainza—Troubles in Salvador—Dissensions in - Honduras—Local Squabbles in Nicaragua—Predilection - for Imperialism—Costa Rica Neutral—Condition - of Various Sections—Seceding Districts - of Guatemala—Perplexities of the Junta - Consultiva—Iturbide's Devices—Military Pressure—His - Proposals Accepted—Illegal Annexation—Protests and - Resistance—War Begins 42 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - CENTRAL AMERICAN CONFEDERATION. - 1822-1825. - - Secession from Mexico—Arzú's Campaign—Prevarication - of Salvador—Filisola's Victory—His Subsequent - Course—Liberal Triumph in Costa Rica—Honduras - Favors Union—National Independence Secured—Labors to - Organize a Nation—The Constituent Assembly—Provincias - Unidas del Centro de América—Abolition of African - Slavery—Provisional Government—Moderados or - Serviles—Liberales or Fiebres—Principles and - Aims of Parties—Mexican Forces Retire—Seditions - Begin—Salvadoran Force in Guatemala—Confederacion de - Centro América—Fundamental Law—Finances—Adjournment - of the Constituent Assembly 60 - - - CHAPTER V. - - CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT. - 1825-1830. - - General Elections—Meeting of the First - Congress—Manuel José Arce, First President - of the Republic—Foreign Relations—Arce's - Prevarications—Conflict with Guatemala—Party - Bickerings—Liberals Quarrel with Arce—He Joins their - Opponents—Bitterness Engendered—President versus - Guatemalan Rulers—Arrest of Jefe Juan Barrundia—Riots - at Quezaltenango—Murder of Vice-jefe Cirilo - Flores—Arce as Dictator in Guatemala—War against - Salvador—Arce Defeated—He Gives up the Presidency, - and Cannot Recover It—Bloody War of 1826-9—Morazan - the Victor—José Francisco Barrundia, Acting - President—Liberal Measures—Peace Restored—Spanish - Schemes 79 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - CIVIL WAR. - 1829-1838. - - Revolution in Honduras—Conservatives Invade the - State—Second General Elections—Francisco Morazan - Chosen President—Plots of the Serviles—Arce's - Invasion from Mexico—Occupation of Honduras Ports by - Exiled Rebels—Spanish Flag Hoisted in Omoa, and Aid - from Cuba—Salvadoran Authorities in Rebellion—Third - General Elections—Morazan Reëlected—Failure of - Colonization Plans—Ravages of Cholera—Indian Revolt - under Carrera—His Early Life 108 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - DISSOLUTION OF THE REPUBLIC. - 1837-1840. - - Campaign against Carrera—Several Departments of - Guatemala in Rebellion—Jefe Galvez Deposed—Carrera - Takes Guatemala—Murder of Salazar—Carrera Accepts - Money to Leave the City—Dictatorship Offered - Morazan by the Aristocrats and Refused—Carrera's - Second Rebellion—The Republic in Peril—Morazan's - Efforts to Save It—Nicaragua and Honduras Forces - Invade Salvador—Morazan Defeats Them—His Retreat - to San Salvador—He Embarks—Is Refused Hospitality - in Costa Rica—Goes to South America—The Republic is - Dead—Salvador at the Mercy of Carrera 127 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - GUATEMALA AND HONDURAS. - 1824-1840. - - State Government of Guatemala—Barrundia's - Radicalism—His Overthrow—Vice-jefe Flores - Assassinated in Quezaltenango—Downfall - of the Liberals in Guatemala—Aristocratic - Leaders Exiled—Jefe Molina—His Differences, - Impeachment, and Acquittals—Rivera Cabezas' - Reforms—Earthquakes—Galvez' Rule and its - Benefits—Party Opposition to Him—Indian - Outbreaks—Carrera Captures Guatemala—Galvez - Resigns—Subsequent Rule of the Aristocrats—Guatemala - again Independent—Honduras' State Government—Jefe - Dionisio Herrera—Early Dissensions—Comayagua - Assaulted by Rebels—Morazan in the - Field—Honduras Secedes from the Central American - Confederation—Federalism Rooted out of her Territory 145 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - SALVADOR, NICARAGUA, AND COSTA RICA. - 1824-1840. - - Salvador State Government—Liberals - Overthrown—Secession from the Union—San Salvador as - the Federal Seat of Government—Guatemala Imposes her - Will—Jefe Cañas and Comandante Malespin—Nicaragua's - Early Troubles—Siege and Bombardment of - Leon—Organization of State Government—Dissensions - and Warfare—Eruption of Cosigüina—Secession from - the Confederation—Costa Rica as a Confederated - State—Juan Mora's Administration—Towns' Bickerings - Settled—Braulio Carrillo's Rule—Final Secession from - the Central American Republic—Prosperity of the State 165 - - - CHAPTER X. - - DISSOLUTION OF THE UNION. - 1839-1852. - - Interstate Dissensions—Pacto de - Chinandega—Confederacion Centro Americana—Supremo - Delegado Chamorro—Hostility of Guatemala and - British Officials—Arce Invades Salvador—War of - the Confederacy against Guatemala—Helplessness of - Chamorro—End of the Pacto de Chinandega—Condition of - the States—Ferrera's Bad Faith—Salvador and Honduras - against Nicaragua—Horrors of Leon—Vice-president - Joaquin E. Guzman—Honduras and Salvador at - War—Guardiola's Vandalism—Malespin Overthrown—Renewed - Efforts to Confederate—Guatemala an Independent - Republic—Costa Rica Follows—Salvador, Nicaragua, - and Honduras a Confederacy—Its Short Life—Further - Unsuccessful Attempts 186 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - REPUBLIC OF COSTA RICA. - 1841-1856. - - Rule of Carrillo Continued—Plots - for its Overthrow—Invasion of - Morazan—Change of Government—Morazan's - Policy—Opposition—Revolts—Morazan's Defeat and - Death—Satisfaction of the Oligarchs—Measures - of the Victors—New Constitution—Subsequent - Amendments—Sedition—Castro's Administration—Costa - Rica Declared a Republic—Recognition by - Spain—Relations with Other Powers—Boundary Questions - with Nicaragua and Colombia—President Juan Rafael - Mora—His Repressive Measures 215 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - REPUBLIC OF NICARAGUA. - 1838-1855. - - State Government—Director Buitrago's - Conservatism—British Aggression—Director - Sandoval's Rule—Internal Troubles—Guerrero's - Administration—The Mosquito Kingdom—Its Origin - and History—Bubbles—British Pretensions—Seizure - of San Juan del Norte—Diplomatic - Complications—Clayton-Bulwer Treaty—Nicaragua - Recovers her Own—Relations with Foreign - Powers—An American War Ship Bombards San Juan - del Norte—Pineda's Government—Establishment of - the Republic—Party Dissensions—Legitimists versus - Democrats—Chamorro and Castellon—Civil War—Death of - Chamorro—Estrada Succeeds Him 238 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - REPUBLIC OF GUATEMALA. - 1840-1865. - - President Rivera Paz—Carrera's Course—Pretended - Sedition—Dissolution of the Assembly—A - Consejo Constituyente Created—Carrera Becomes - President—Attempt against his Life—Revolt of - Monterrosa—Carrera's Despotism—The Republic - Established—Relations with Other Powers—Revolution of - the Mountain—Constituent Assembly Convened—Carrera's - Forced Resignation and Exile—Liberals - Triumphant—Their Squabbles and Disintegration—The - Moderado Party—Revolution of Los Altos—Intrigues - of the Serviles—Presidencies of Martinez and - Escobar—Causes of their Resignations—Paredes—Recall - of Carrera—Deeds of Vengeance—Carrera again - President—Partial Restoration of Peace 264 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - REPUBLIC OF SALVADOR. - 1839-1865. - - Malespin's Acts—Lindo's Coup d'Etat and Deposal—Jefe - Guzman—Revolt at Santa Ana—President Aguilar—The - Bishop Expelled—Viteri's Alliance with Malespin and - Honduran Oligarchs—President Vasconcelos—British - Hostilities—Salvador's Relations with Foreign - Powers—San Martin's Administration—Destruction of - San Salvador—President Campo—Campaign against Walker - in Nicaragua—Establishment of the Republic—Santin's - Overthrow—Presidency of Gerardo Barrios—War - of Salvador and Honduras against Guatemala - and Nicaragua—The Latter Victorious—Barrios' - Flight—Restoration of Peace—Dueñas as - President—Barrios' Subsequent Return—His Capture and - Surrender by Nicaragua—His Execution in San Salvador 285 - - - CHAPTER XV. - - REPUBLIC OF HONDURAS. - 1840-1865. - - President Ferrera—Revolutionary Movements—Political - Executions—Presidency of Juan Lindo—New - Constitution—Lindo Overthrown—Belize—Honduras' - Troubles with Great Britain—British - Occupation of Tiger Island—Bombardment of - Omoa—Bay Islands—President Cabañas—War with - Guatemala—Guardiola's Assassination—Provisional - Rules of Castellanos and Montes—Alliance with - Barrios—Unsuccessful War with Guatemala and - Nicaragua—Montes Deposed—Establishment of the - Republic—José M. Medina Chosen President—Amendment of - the Constitution 309 - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - WALKER'S CAMPAIGN IN NICARAGUA. - 1855-1856. - - Kinney's Expedition—William Walker Joins the - Democrats—Failure of his Expedition to Rivas—Cholera - Decimates the Legitimists at Managua—Death - of Muñoz—Walker's Victories at La Vírgen and - Granada—Execution of Minister Mayorga—Walker's - Convention with Corral—Provisional Government - Organized—President Patricio Rivas—Commander of - the Forces, Walker—Minister of War Corral Put - to Death for Treason—Recognition by Salvador - and Honduras—Seizure of the Transit Company's - Steamers—Costa Ricans on the War-path—Havoc of - Cholera 327 - - - CHAPTER XVII. - - END OF FILIBUSTERING IN CENTRAL AMERICA. - 1856-1867. - - Recognition of President Rivas by the United - States—Walker's Hostile Attitude—Flight of - Rivas—Walker Makes Himself President—Alliance - against Him—Death of Estrada—The Legitimists - Accept Rivas—Costa Ricans and Nicaraguans in - Rivas—Destruction of Granada—It is Occupied by - Allied Forces—Walker Reoccupies Rivas—Where He is - Besieged—Successes of the Costa Ricans—Failure of - Lockridge's Expedition—Surrender of Walker—War - of Nicaragua and Costa Rica—Commodore Paulding - and Walker's Second Attempt—Walker's Invasion - of Honduras, Capture, and Execution—Government - Reorganized—President Martinez' Administrations 347 - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - POLITICAL EVENTS IN COSTA RICA. - 1856-1886. - - Rewards to Walker's Conquerors—Reëlection of - Mora—His Downfall and Exile—His Return, Capture, - and Execution—Montealegre's Administration—Violence - of Parties—Compromise on Jesus Jimenez—His Peaceful - Rule—President José M. Castro—Charges against - Him—His Overthrow—Several New Constitutions—Jimenez - again President—His Arbitrary Acts—How He was - Deposed—President Carranza—Other Temporary - Rulers—President Guardia's Despotism—Failure of his - Warlike Plans—His Death—Administration of Próspero - Fernandez—Preparations to Defend Independence—His - Sudden Death—Bernardo Soto's Peaceful Rule 371 - - - CHAPTER XIX. - - DEMOCRATIC INSTITUTIONS IN SALVADOR. - 1865-1885. - - Rule of President Dueñas—His Conservatism—Quarrel - with Honduras—The Latter Allied with Salvadoran - Liberals—Battle of Santa Ana—Dueñas Deposed—His - Impeachment, Release, and Temporary Exile—Santiago - Gonzalez Provisional President—Gonzalez Elected - Chief Magistrate—Guatemala and Salvador at - War with Honduras—Murder of Vice-president - Mendez—Earthquakes—President Valle—Trouble with - Guatemala—Exeunt Valle and Gonzalez—Zaldívar's Long - Rule—Constitutional Changes—Alliance with Nicaragua - and Costa Rica—Resistance to Barrios' Plan of - Conquest—Salvador Victorious—Restored Peace—Zaldívar - Eliminated—Revolution—F. Menendez Made President 392 - - - CHAPTER XX. - - DEMOCRACY RESTORED IN GUATEMALA. - 1865-1873. - - President Cerna's Rule—Partial Revolts—Liberals - in the Assembly—Cerna's Reëlection—Riots in - the Capital—Zavala's Course—Cruz' Rebellion, - Defeat, and Death—Arrests of Liberals—Moderation - of the Government—Revolution of García - Granados and Barrios—Plan of Patzicia—Cerna - Defeated and Overthrown—Granados as Presidente - Provisorio—Seditious Movements Quelled—Abolition of - Priestly Privileges—Prelates, Jesuits, and Capuchins - Expelled—War with Honduras—Barrios as Substitute - President—His Severity—Elections—Barrios Chosen - Constitutional President 413 - - - CHAPTER XXI. - - RENEWED EFFORTS FOR CENTRAL AMERICAN UNITY. - 1873-1885. - - President Barrios of Guatemala—End of Reactionary - War—Guatemalan Progress—War with Salvador and - Honduras—Barrios' Successes and Generosity - to the Vanquished—Constitutional Régime in - Guatemala—Barrios' Reëlections—His Visit to the - United States—Peaceful Effort to Unite Central - America—Resort to Arms—Alliance of Guatemala and - Honduras—Barrios Attacks Salvador—His Defeat and - Death—His Plan Abandoned—M. L. Barillas, Provisional - President of Guatemala—Restoration of Peace 431 - - - CHAPTER XXII. - - HONDURAS AFFAIRS. - 1865-1886. - - National Flag and Escutcheon—Order of Santa - Rosa—Medina's Long Rule—His Differences with Dueñas, - and Triumph—War with Salvador and Guatemala—Medina - Defeated and Overthrown—Céleo Arias Succeeds Him—His - Liberal Policy—He is Beset by the Conservatives—His - Former Supporters Depose Him—Ponciano Leiva Becomes - President—His Course Displeases Barrios, Who Sets - Medina against Him—He is Forced to Resign—Marco - Aurelio Soto Made President by Barrios—Attempted - Revolt of Ex-president Medina—His Trial and - Execution—Soto's Administration—He Goes Abroad—His - Quarrel with Barrios, and Resignation—President - Bogran—Filibustering Schemes 453 - - - CHAPTER XXIII. - - POLITICAL AFFAIRS IN NICARAGUA. - 1867-1885. - - President Fernando Guzman—Insurrection—Misconduct - of Priests—Defeats of the Insurgents—Foreign - Mediation—Generosity of the Government—President - Vicente Quadra—Inception of the Jesuits—Aims of - Parties—Internal and Foreign Complications—Costa - Rica's Hostility and Tinoco's Invasion—Presidents - Chamorro and Zavala—More Political Troubles—Jesuits - the Promoters—Their Expulsion—Peace Restored—Progress - of the Country—President Adan Cárdenas—Resistance to - President Barrios' Plan of Forced Reconstruction 470 - - - CHAPTER XXIV. - - INDEPENDENCE OF THE ISTHMUS. - 1801-1822. - - Administration under Spain—Influence of - Events in Europe and Spanish America on the - Isthmus—Hostilities in Nueva Granada—Constitutional - Government—General Hore's Measures to Hold - the Isthmus for Spain—MacGregor's Insurgent - Expedition at Portobello—Reëstablishment of the - Constitution—Captain-general Murgeon's Rule—The - Isthmus is Declared Independent—Its Incorporation - with Colombia—José Fábrega in Temporary Command—José - María Carreño Appointed Intendente and Comandante - General—Abolition of African Slavery 488 - - - CHAPTER XXV. - - DIVERS PHASES OF SELF-GOVERNMENT. - 1819-1863. - - Panamá Congress—Provincial Organizations—Alzuru's - Rebellion and Execution—Secession from Colombia - and Reincorporation—Differences with Foreign - Governments—Crime Rampant—Summary Treatment - of Criminals—Riots and Massacre of Foreign - Passengers—Attempts to Rob Treasure Trains—Neutrality - Treaties—Establishment of Federal System—Panamá - as a State—Revolutionary Era Begins—A Succession - of Governors—Seditious Character of the Negro - Population—Revolution against Governor Guardia and - his Death—Another Political Organization—Estado - Soberano de Panamá—Liberal Party in Full - Control—Stringent Measures 510 - - - CHAPTER XXVI. - - FURTHER WARS AND REVOLUTIONS. - 1863-1885. - - Presidents Goitia, Santa Coloma, and Calancha—Undue - Interference of Federal Officials—Colunje's - Administration—President Olarte's Energy—Enmity - of the Arrabal's Negroes—Short and Disturbed - Rules of Diaz and Ponce—President Correoso—Negro - Element in the Ascendent—Conservatives Rebel, and - are Discomfited—Armed Peace for a Time—Feverish - Rules of Neira, Miró, Aizpuru, Correoso, and - Casorla—Cervera's Long Tenure—Temporary Rule of Vives - Leon—President Santodomingo Vila—Obtains Leave of - Absence—Is Succeeded by Pablo Arosemena—Aizpuru's - Revolution—Arosemena Flees and Resigns—Outrages at - Colon—American Forces Protect Panamá—Collapse of - the Revolution—Aizpuru and Correoso Imprisoned—Chief - Causes of Disturbances on the Isthmus 532 - - - CHAPTER XXVII. - - CENTRAL AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS. - 1886. - - Extent of the Country—Climate—Mountains and - Volcanoes—Earthquakes—Rivers and Lakes—Costa Rica's - Area, Possessions, and Political Division and - Government—Her Chief Cities—Nicaragua, her Territory, - Towns, and Municipal Administration—Honduras' Extent, - Islands, Cities, and Local Government—Salvador, her - Position, Area, Towns, and Civil Rule—Guatemala's - Extent and Possessions—Her Cities and Towns—Internal - Administration—Isthmus of Panamá—Area, Bays, - Rivers, and Islands—Department and District Rule—The - Capital and Other Towns—Population—Character and - Customs—Education—Epidemics and Other Calamities 560 - - - CHAPTER XXVIII. - - THE PEOPLE OF COSTA RICA, NICARAGUA, AND SALVADOR. - 1800-1887. - - Central American Population—Its Divisions—General - Characteristics and Occupations—Land Grants—Efforts - at Colonization—Failure of Foreign Schemes—Rejection - of American Negroes—Character of the Costa Rican - People—Dwellings—Dress—Food—Amusements—Nicaraguan - Men and Women—Their Domestic Life—How They Amuse - Themselves—People of Salvador—Their Character and - Mode of Living 587 - - - CHAPTER XXIX. - - THE PEOPLE OF HONDURAS AND GUATEMALA. - 1800-1887. - - Amalgamation in Honduras—Possible War of - Races—Xicaques and Payas—Zambos or Mosquitos—Pure - and Black Caribs—Distinguishing Traits—Ladinos—Their - Mode of Life—Guatemala and her People—Different - Classes—Their Vocations—Improved Condition of the - Lower Classes—Mestizos—Pure Indians—Lacandones—White - and Upper Class—Manners and Customs—Prevailing - Diseases—Epidemics—Provision for the Indigent 608 - - - CHAPTER XXX. - - INTELLECTUAL ADVANCEMENT. - 1800-1887. - - Public Education—Early Efforts at Development—Costa - Rica's Measures—Small Success—Education in - Nicaragua—Schools and Colleges—Nicaraguan - Writers—Progress in Salvador and Honduras—Brilliant - Results in Guatemala—Polytechnic School—Schools of - Science, Arts, and Trades—Institute for the Deaf, - Dumb, and Blind—University—Public Writers—Absence of - Public Libraries—Church History in Central America - and Panamá—Creation of Dioceses of Salvador and - Costa Rica—Immorality of Priests—Their Struggles for - Supremacy—Efforts to Break their Power—Banishments of - Prelates—Expulsion of Jesuits—Suppression of Monastic - Orders—Separation of Church and State—Religious - Freedom 621 - - - CHAPTER XXXI. - - JUDICIAL AND MILITARY. - 1887. - - Judicial System of Guatemala—Jury Trials in the - Several States—Courts of Honduras—Absence of - Codes in the Republic—Dilatory Justice—Impunity - of Crime in Honduras and Nicaragua—Salvador's - Judiciary—Dilatory Procedure—Codification of Laws - in Nicaragua—Costa Rican Administration—Improved - Codes—Panamá Courts—Good Codes—Punishments - for Crime in the Six States—Jails and - Penitentiaries—Military Service—Available Force of - Each State—How Organized—Naval—Expenditures—Military - Schools—Improvements 638 - - - CHAPTER XXXII. - - INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS. - 1800-1887. - - Early Agriculture—Protection of the Industry—Great - Progress Attained—Communal Lands—Agricultural - Wealth—Decay of Cochineal—Development of Other - Staples—Indigo, Coffee, Sugar, Cacao, and - Tobacco—Food and Other Products—Precious Woods - and Medicinal Plants—Live-stock—Value of Annual - Production in Each State—Natural Products of - Panamá—Neglect of Agriculture—Mineral Wealth—Yield - of Precious Metals—Mining in Honduras, Salvador, - and Nicaragua—Deposits of Guatemala and Costa - Rica—Mints—Former Yield of Panamá—Mining Neglected on - the Isthmus—Incipiency of Manufactures—Products for - Domestic Use 650 - - - CHAPTER XXXIII. - - COMMERCE AND FINANCE. - 1801-1887. - - Early State of Trade—Continued Stagnation - after Independence—Steam on the Coasts—Its - Beneficial Effects—Variety of Staples—Ports - of Entry and Tariffs—Imports and - Exports—Fairs—Accessory Transit Company—Internal - Navigation—Highways—Money—Banking—Postal - Service—Panamá Railway Traffic—Local Trade of the - Isthmus—Pearl Fishery—Colonial Revenue in Finances of - the Federation—Sources of Revenue of Each State—Their - Receipts and Expenditures—Foreign and Internal Debts 663 - - - CHAPTER XXXIV. - - INTEROCEANIC COMMUNICATION. - 1801-1887. - - Ancient Ideas on the North-west Passage—From - Peru to La Plata—Cape Horn Discovered—Arctic - Regions—McClure's Successful Voyage—Crozier's - Discovery—Franklin's Attempts—Finding by - Nordenskiöld of the North-east Passage—Projects to - Unite the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans across the - Isthmuses—Plans about Tehuantepec—Explorations for a - Ship-canal Route in Nicaragua, Panamá, and Darien—The - Nicaragua Accessory Transit Company—Construction of - the Panamá Railway, and its Great Benefits—Further - Efforts for a Canal—Organization of a French - Company—A Ship-canal under Construction - across the Isthmus of Panamá—Difficulties and - Expectations—Central American Railroads and - Telegraphs—Submarine Cables 688 - - - - -HISTORY - -OF - -CENTRAL AMERICA. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -LAST DAYS OF SPANISH RULE. - -1801-1818. - - POPULAR FEELING IN CENTRAL AMERICA—EFFECT OF EVENTS IN - SPAIN—RECOGNITION OF AMERICAN EQUALITY—REPRESENTATION - IN THE SPANISH CÓRTES—DELUSIVE REFORMS—END OF SARAVIA'S - RULE—PRESIDENT JOSÉ BUSTAMANTE—HIS DESPOTIC COURSE—DEMANDS - IN THE CÓRTES—CONSTITUTIONAL GUARANTEES—OFFICIAL - HOSTILITY—CAMPAIGN IN OAJACA—REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS IN - SALVADOR—WAR IN NICARAGUA—CONSPIRACY IN GUATEMALA—TREATMENT - OF THE INSURGENTS—DISRESPECT TO THE DIPUTACION—THE - CONSTITUTION REVOKED—ROYAL DECREES. - - -The opening century was pregnant with important events both in Europe -and America. By 1808 affairs in Spain culminated in the French -emperor's detention of the king and other members of the royal -family at Bayonne, where he forced them finally to resign in his -favor their rights to the Spanish crown. The circle surrounding the -captain-general, audiencia, and archbishop of Guatemala was made up, -not only of European Spaniards, but of Guatemalans belonging to the -so-called noble families. Popular displeasure was manifested both -against the Spaniards and against the provincial aristocracy.[I-1] The -oligarchy was hated throughout the province of Guatemala proper, and -still more in the other provinces of the presidency. - -However, when the news of Napoleon's usurpation reached America, it -caused a strong revulsion of feeling in Central America, as well as -elsewhere in the Spanish dominions, even among the large class which -had hitherto secretly fostered a warm desire for independent national -existence. Creoles of pure Spanish descent, though yearning to be -free from the old thraldom, could not bring themselves to discard the -country which gave them blood, religion, and civilization. As to the -educated Indians, who were also among the wishers for independence, -like all of their race, they looked up to the ruling power with -reverence and fear. Thus arose a struggle between the old veneration -and the love of freedom; a struggle which was to last in Central -America a few years longer, though the people were becoming more and -more impatient, while leaning to the side of independent nationality. -Circumstances seemed to demand that the old connection should not be -ruptured till 1821, when decisive results in New Spain brought on the -final crisis here. When the news of Napoleon's acts of violence and -usurpations reached Guatemala, popular loyalty was aroused, and showed -itself in various ways. Manifestations by the authorities, expressive -of fealty to the mother country and the royal family, met with an -apparently hearty response from the people. - -Advices came on the 30th of June, 1808, of the occurrences at -Aranjuez of March 19th.[I-2] July passed amid much anxiety about -affairs in Spain, and the public mind became depressed by unfavorable -news received on the 13th of August. Next day, at a meeting of the -authorities,[I-3] the state of affairs was anxiously discussed. -The mariscal de campo, Antonio Gonzalez Mollinedo y Saravia, had -succeeded Dolmas on the 28th of July, 1801, in the offices of governor, -captain-general, and president of the audiencia. He had seen forty -years of service in the royal armies,[I-4] and had with him his wife, -Micaela Colarte, and offspring.[I-5] - -[Sidenote: SARAVIA AND FERNANDO VII.] - -President Saravia read to the meeting a despatch from the viceroy of -Mexico, and a copy of the _Gaceta_ giving an account of the abdication -of Fernando VII., and of the surrender by other members of the royal -family of their rights to the Spanish crown. After due consideration, -the meeting declared these acts to have resulted from violence, being -therefore illegal and unjust, and not entitled to recognition. It -was further resolved that the authorities and people should renew -their allegiance to the legitimate sovereign, continue upholding the -laws hitherto in force, and maintain unity of action, for the sake of -religion, peace, and good order. Instructions were received[I-6] to -raise the standard of Fernando VII., and swear allegiance to him, which -were duly carried out.[I-7] - -The opportunity has now arrived for a radical change in the political -status of Spanish America. The colonies have hitherto had no -government, save that of rulers set over them by a monarch whose -will was absolute, whose edicts constituted their code of laws; the -subject being allowed no voice in public affairs, save occasionally as -a timid petitioner. But troubles beset Spain at this time. Her king -is powerless; the friends of constitutional government have now the -control, and proceed to establish the desired liberal régime. In order -to be consistent, and to some extent satisfy the aspirations of their -fellow-subjects in America, the provisional government decrees, and the -córtes upon assembling confirm, all the rights claimed for Spaniards -dwelling in Spain, together with representation in the córtes and other -national councils. - -The Junta Suprema Central Gubernativa in the king's name declares on -the 22d of January, 1809, the Spanish possessions in America to be, in -fact, integral parts of the monarchy,[I-8] and, approving the report of -the council of the Indies of November 21, 1808, in favor of granting -to the American dominions representation near the sovereign, and the -privilege of forming by deputies a part of the aforesaid junta, issues -to the president of Guatemala an order to invite the people of the -provinces to choose their deputy to reside at court as a member of the -governing junta.[I-9] On the 3d of March, 1810, the electors assembled -in Guatemala and chose for deputy the colonel of militia, Manuel José -Pavon y Muñoz.[I-10] The powers given him by his constituents were -general, but enjoined allegiance to the king and permanent connection -with the mother country.[I-11] - -[Sidenote: DIPUTACION AMERICANA.] - -The supreme government, early in 1810, in its anxiety to be surrounded -by the representatives of the people, hastened the convocation of -córtes extraordinary. Fearing, however, that there might not be a -sufficient number chosen for their timely attendance at the opening of -the session, it apprised the provincial authorities, reiterating the -decree a little later,[I-12] that deficiencies would be temporarily -supplied until regularly elected deputies presented themselves to -occupy their seats in the chamber. Guatemala, in common with the rest -of America, was unable to send her deputies in time, and had to be -represented at the inauguration by suplentes, or proxies. These[I-13] -were Andrés del Llano, a post-captain, and Colonel Manuel del Llano. -One of the first acts of the córtes[I-14] was to confirm the principle -that all the Spanish dominions possessed the same rights, promising -to enact at an early day laws conducive to the welfare of the American -portion, and to fix the number and form of national representation in -both continents. - -At the suggestion of the diputacion americana, as the body of American -members was called, a general amnesty for political offences was -decreed, with the expectation of its yielding the best results in -favor of peace and conciliation. Promises of reform, and of better -days for Central America, were held out, but the provincial government -paid little attention to them. Meanwhile a jealous and restless police -constantly watched the movements of suspected persons. Informers and -spies lurked everywhere, seeking for some one against whom to bring -charges. - -The promised blessings proved delusive. Instead of reforms, the people -witnessed the installation of a tribunal de fidelidad, with large -powers, for the trial and punishment of suspected persons.[I-15] This -court was short lived, however, being suppressed about the middle of -the following year, under the order of the supreme government, dated -February 20, 1811. And thus Guatemala was kept quiet and apparently -loyal, when the greater part of Spanish America was in open revolt. - -Saravia's rule came to an end on the 14th of March, 1811. He was -promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general, and appointed by the -government at Cádiz to the command in chief of the forces in Mexico. -On his arrival in Oajaca, the viceroy, who was chagrined at his powers -having been thus curtailed, detained him at that place. In November -1812, the city being captured by the independents, Saravia was taken -prisoner and shot.[I-16] - -[Sidenote: BUSTAMANTE Y GUERRA.] - -The successor of Saravia was Lieutenant-general José Bustamante y -Guerra, appointed by the supreme council of regency, and soon after -confirmed by the córtes generales extraordinarias. He was a naval -officer, and had made several important cruises in the cause of -science,[I-17] and latterly had been civil and military governor of -Montevideo, a position that he filled efficiently. His zeal against the -independents in that country pointed him out as the one best fitted to -retard the independence of Central America. On his return to Spain from -South America he refused to recognize Joseph Bonaparte. - -Bustamante is represented to have been an inflexible, vigilant, -and reticent ruler. He lost no time in adopting stringent measures -to check insurrections, and displayed much tact in choosing his -agents and spies. No intelligent native of the country was free from -mistrust, slight suspicion too often bringing upon the subject search -of domicile, imprisonment, or exile. He never hesitated to set aside -any lenient measures emanating from the home government in favor -of the suspected, and spared no means that would enable him, at the -expiration of his term, to surrender the country entire and at peace -to his superiors. He was successful, notwithstanding there were several -attempts at secession. - -Meanwhile the American representatives had been permitted to lift -their voice in the national councils. They had called attention to -the grievances of their people. In a long memorial of August 1, 1811, -to the córtes, they had refuted the oft-repeated charge that the -friends of independence in America were or had been under Napoleonic -influence. They set forth the causes of discontent,[I-18] which they -declared was of long standing, and called for a remedy. Reference was -made to Macanar's memorial to Felipe V.,[I-19] wherein he stated that -the Americans were displeased, not so much because they were under -subjection to Spain, as because they were debased and enslaved by the -men sent out by the crown to fill the judicial and other offices.[I-20] - -The organic code was finally adopted on the 18th of March, 1812.[I-21] -The instrument consisted of ten titles, divided into chapters, in -their turn subdivided into sections, and might be considered in two -parts: 1st, general form of government for the whole nation, namely, a -constitutional monarchy; 2d, special plan for the administration of the -Indies.[I-22] - -[Sidenote: NEW ORGANIC CODE.] - -In lieu of the old ayuntamientos, which were made up of hereditary -regidores, whose offices might be transferred or sold, others were -created, their members to be chosen by electors who had been in their -turn chosen by popular vote. The ayuntamientos were to control the -internal police of their towns, their funds, public instruction within -their respective localities, benevolent establishments, and local -improvements. They were to be under the inspection of a diputacion -provincial, formed of seven members, elected by the above-mentioned -electors, in each province, under the presidency of the chief civil -officer appointed by the king; the chief and the diputacion were -jointly to have the direction of the economical affairs of the -province. No act of either corporation was final till approved by -the national córtes. In America and Asia, however, owing to great -distances, moneys lawfully appropriated might be used with the assent -of the chief civil authority; but a timely report was to be made -to the supreme government for the consideration of the córtes. Such -were the chief wheels in the machinery of provincial and municipal -administration. Now, as to popular rights, equality of representation -in the provinces of the Spanish peninsula, Asia, and America was -fully recognized. The descendants of Africans were alone deprived of -the rights of citizenship. This exclusion was combated with forcible -arguments by many of the American deputies setting forth the faithful, -efficient services colored men had repeatedly rendered and were still -rendering to the nation, and their fitness for almost every position. -Many of them, they said, had received sacred orders, or had been -engaged in other honorable callings, in which they had made good -records; besides which, they comprised a considerable portion of the -useful mining and agricultural population. Unfortunately for the negro -race, the American deputies were not all of one mind. Larrazábal, -from Guatemala, probably acting both on his own judgment and on the -opinion expressed in 1810 by the real consulado, asserted the black -man's incapacity, advocating that persons of African blood should -be conceded only the privilege of voting at elections. This motion -was supported by a Peruvian deputy. The peninsular members favored -the admission to full rights of colored priests, and all colored men -serving in the royalist armies. The measure was lost, however; but the -article as passed authorized the admission to full political rights, by -special acts of the córtes, of colored men proving themselves worthy -by a remarkably virtuous life, good service to the country, talents, -or industriousness, provided they were born in wedlock, of fathers -who had been born free, married to free-born wives, and were residents -of Spanish possessions, practising some useful profession and owning -property. - -Pursuant to the constitution, the córtes ordered, May 23, 1812, -elections for members to the ordinary córtes of 1813.[I-23] - -The constitution was received at Guatemala on the 10th of September, -1812, proclaimed on the 24th, and its support solemnly sworn to by the -authorities and people on the 3d of November, with great satisfaction -and evidences of loyalty. Gold and silver medals were struck off to -commemorate the event.[I-24] - -The installation of the córtes took place, with the apparent approval -of Guatemala. The president, members of the audiencia, and other -dignitaries who had thriven under absolutism, looking on Americans -as 'our colonists,' became at once liberals and constitutionalists, -pretending to recognize the wisdom of the national congress in -declaring that the Americans were no longer colonists, but citizens -of one common country. Their manifestation of September 15, 1812, was -followed three days after by one from the ayuntamiento of Guatemala -to Deputy Larrazábal, in the same strain, suggesting the creation of a -board advisory to the córtes, on the reino de Guatemala legislation. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: EXPEDITION TO OAJACA.] - -After the fall of Oajaca during the Mexican war of independence, the -patriot chief Morelos regarded the rear of his military operations as -secure. Sympathizing messages had reached him from men of weight in -Guatemala, which lulled him into the belief that attack need not be -apprehended from this quarter. To Ignacio Rayon he wrote: "Good news -from Guatemala; they have asked for the plan of government, and I'll -send them the requisite information." It was all a mistake. His cause -had friends in Central America, and enemies likewise. Among the most -prominent of the latter were Captain-general Bustamante and Archbishop -Casaus. The ecclesiastic, with a number of Spanish merchants from -Oajaca who had sought refuge in Guatemala, prompted the general, then -anxious to avenge the execution of his predecessor, to fit out an -expedition, invade Oajaca, and harass the insurgents even at the gates -of the city. - -About 700 men, mostly raw recruits, were accordingly put in the field, -early in 1813, under the command of Lieutenant-colonel Dambrini, a -man of little ability and unsavory record, and crossed the line into -Tehuantepec. Dambrini could not abandon his money-making propensities; -and having been led to believe he would encounter but little or no -resistance, took along a large quantity of merchandise for trading. On -the 25th of February a small insurgent force was captured in Niltepec, -and Dambrini had its commander, together with a Dominican priest and -twenty-eight others, shot the next day. This was the usual treatment of -prisoners by both belligerents. But on April 20th the Guatemalans were -flanked and routed at Tonalá by the enemy under Matamoros. Dambrini -fled, and his men dispersed, leaving in the victors' possession their -arms, ammunition, and Dambrini's trading goods. The fugitives were -pursued some distance into Guatemalan territory.[I-25] - - * * * * * - -Germs of independence, as I have said, were fostered in secret by -the more intelligent, and slowly began to develop, the movement being -hastened by a few enthusiasts who were blind to the foolhardiness of -their attempt. The government tried all means to keep the people in -ignorance of the state of affairs in Mexico and South America, and when -unsuccessful, would represent the royalist army as victorious. Other -more questionable devices were also resorted to.[I-26] - -Undue restraint and ill treatment, as practised under the stringent -policy of Bustamante, soon began to produce effects. Restiveness and -despair seized a portion of the people; the hopes for a government more -consonant with the spirit of the age, which had been held out from -Spain, evaporated. Men were unwilling to live longer under the heel -of despotism; and the more high-spirited in Salvador and Nicaragua -resolved to stake their fortunes upon a bold stroke for freedom. -It was, indeed, a rash step, undertaken without concert, and almost -without resources. It could but end as it did at every place where a -revolutionary movement was initiated. - -Matías Delgado and Nicolás Aguilar, curates of San Salvador, Manuel and -Vicente Aguilar, Juan Manuel Rodriguez, and Manuel José Arce were the -first to strike the blow for Central American independence. Their plan -was carried into execution on the 5th of November, 1811, by the capture -of 3,000 new muskets, and upwards of $200,000 from the royal treasury -at San Salvador. They were supported by a large portion of the people -of the city, and in Metapan, Zacatecoluca, Usulutan, and Chalatenango. -But other places in the province of Salvador, namely, San Miguel, Santa -Ana, San Vicente, and Sonsonate, renewed their pledges of fealty to the -government, declaring the movement for freedom a sacrilege.[I-27] - -The promoters of the revolt, which had been started in the king's name, -became disheartened and gave up further effort, and with the dismissal -of the intendente, Antonio Gutierrez Ulloa, and other officials, peace -was soon restored. San Salvador had been quiet without other government -than that of alcaldes during the disturbance. - -[Sidenote: AYCINENA IN SALVADOR.] - -Upon the receipt of the news of these occurrences, Bustamante -despatched Colonel José de Aycinena with ample powers to take charge -of the intendencia, and restore quiet. He had been getting troops ready -to send down, but by the mediation of the ayuntamiento of Guatemala he -had suspended preparations, and had adopted the former course. A member -of that body, José María Peinado, was associated with Aycinena.[I-28] -They reached San Salvador on the 3d of December, amid the acclamations -of the fickle populace; their presence and the exhortations of the -missionaries checked all revolutionary symptoms. The authors of the -revolt were leniently treated under a general amnesty.[I-29] Peinado -was a short time after appointed Aycinena's successor as acting -intendente.[I-30] - -Another and a still more serious attempt at revolution, which may be -called a sequel to that of Salvador, had its beginning in the town of -Leon, Nicaragua, on the 13th of December, 1811, when the people deposed -the intendente, José Salvador. This action was seconded on the 22d at -Granada, where the inhabitants, at a meeting in the municipal hall, -demanded the retirement of all the Spanish officials. The insurgents, -on the 8th of January, 1812, by a coup-de-main captured Fort San -Cárlos. The officials fled to Masaya. Villa de Nicaragua—the city of -Rivas in later times—and other towns at once adopted the same course. - -Early in 1812, after the first excitement had become somewhat allayed, -a board of government was organized in Leon, the members of which -were Francisco Quiñones, Domingo Galarza, Cármen Salazar, and Basilio -Carrillo. Bishop Fray Nicolás García Jerez was recognized as gobernador -intendente by all the towns, and his authority was only limited in one -point, namely, he was in no way to favor the deposed officials. The -people of Granada resolved to send two deputies to the board.[I-31] - -[Sidenote: REVOLUTION IN NICARAGUA.] - -The royal officials at Masaya having called for assistance from -Guatemala, Bustamante had 1,000 or more troops placed there under -command of Sargento Mayor Pedro Gutierrez. The people of Leon had ere -this accepted an amnesty from Bishop Jerez, and thereafter took no part -in movements against the crown. Granada, more firm of purpose, resolved -upon defence; caused intrenchments to be built to guard all avenues -leading to the plaza, and mounted thereon twelve heavy cannon. A -royalist force, under José M. Palomar, on the 21st of April approached -Granada to reconnoitre, and reached the plazuela de Jalteva.[I-32] -Early in the morning he opened a brisk fire on the town, and kept it -up for several hours. After a parley, next day the citizens agreed -to surrender, on Gutierrez solemnly pledging the names of the king -and Bustamante, as well as his own, that they should in no wise be -molested. But after the royal troops were allowed to enter the city on -the 28th, Bustamante, ignoring the solemn guarantees pledged by his -subordinate, ordered the arrest and prosecution of the leaders. The -governor accordingly named Alejandro Carrascosa fiscal to prosecute the -conspirators of Granada. The proceedings occupied two years, at the end -of which the fiscal called for, and the court granted, the confiscation -of the estates, in addition to the penalties awarded to those found -guilty. Sixteen of the prisoners, as heads of the rebellion, were -sentenced to be shot, nine were doomed to the chain-gang for life, and -133 to various terms of hard labor.[I-33] The sentence of death was -not carried out, however. The condemned were taken to Guatemala, and -thence transported to Spain, where the majority died as exiles. Four -others were removed as convicts to Omoa and Trujillo. The survivors -were finally released by a royal order of June 25, 1817.[I-34] - -The conduct of the Leonese in leaving Granada to bear alone the -consequences of the revolution had, as I remarked, a bad effect upon -the country.[I-35] From that time dates a bitter feeling between Leon -and Granada, and between Managua and Masaya on the one part and Granada -on the other.[I-36] - -Notwithstanding the existing grievances and the generally depressed -condition of business, the people did not fail to respond to the calls -from the home government upon all parts of the Spanish dominions -for pecuniary aid to meet the enormous expenses of the war against -Napoleon's forces, and other pressing demands. In 1812 there were -collected and remitted as donations $43,538. The citizens of San -Salvador also agreed to give $12,000 for 1812, and an equal sum -in 1813, if they could obtain a certain reform for the benefit of -indigo-planters.[I-37] - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: FANATICISM.] - -We have seen how the first steps toward independence failed. Nor -could any other result have been expected from the degraded condition, -socially and intellectually, of the masses. The people were controlled -by fanaticism, in abject submission to king and clergy. Absurd -doctrines and miracles were implicitly believed in; and every effort -made to draw the ignorant people out of that slough was in their -judgment treason and sacrilege, a violation of the laws of God, an -attempt to rob the king of his rights; certain to bring on a disruption -of social ties, and the wrath of heaven. The lower orders had been -taught that freedom signified the reign of immorality and crime, -while fealty to the sovereign was held a high virtue. Hence the daily -exhibitions of humble faithfulness, the kneeling before the images of -the monarch and before their bishops, and the more substantial proof of -money gifts to both church and crown.[I-38] - -The first efforts on behalf of emancipation were not wholly lost, as -they led to definitive results in the near future. The next attempts -also met with failure, and brought upon their authors the heavy hand of -Bustamante. The first one, in 1813, was known as the Betlen conspiracy, -which derived its name from the convent where the conspirators usually -assembled. Much importance was given to this affair by the government -and the loyalists. The meetings were presided over by the sub-prior -Fray Ramon de la Concepcion, and were sometimes held in his cell, -and at others in the house of Cayetano Bedoya, under the direction of -Tomás Ruiz, an Indian.[I-39] All were sworn to secrecy, and yet the -government suspected the plot, and arrested some persons who had the -weakness to divulge the plan and the names of their associates.[I-40] - -The conspirators, all of whom were men of character and good standing, -soon found themselves in prison, excepting José Francisco Barrundia, -who remained concealed six years, and afterward was one of the most -prominent statesmen of Central America. Major Antonio del Villar was -commissioned fiscal to prosecute the prisoners. He spared no one in -his charges, and managed to bring into the meshes of the prosecution -several persons who were innocent.[I-41] On the 18th of September, -1814, he asked the military court for the penalty of death, by -garrote, against Ruiz, Víctor Castrillo, José Francisco Barrundia -pro contumacia, and Joaquin Yúdice, who were hidalgos; and the same -penalty, by hanging, against the sub-prior and ten others who were -plebeians.[I-42] Ten years of hard labor in the chain-gang of the -African possessions, and a life exile from America, were pronounced -upon others against whom no guilt was proved. The prisoners were all -set free, however, in 1819, under a royal order of the 28th of July, -1817. - -[Sidenote: THE PLOT OF BETLEN.] - -Among the men regarded as the most dangerous, and strongly suspected of -being the real managers of the Betlen plot, was Mateo Antonio Marure, -who had been confined two years in a dungeon for the part he took in -the disturbances of 1811.[I-43] Bustamante dreaded his presence in -Guatemala, and in 1814 despatched him as a prisoner to the supreme -council of regency in Spain, with his reasons for this measure. After -recounting the Betlen affair, and naming Marure as the real instigator -and manager of it, he adds that the conspirators counted on him as a -fearless man to carry it out, and that his bold language and writings -rendered his sojourn in America a constant menace to Spanish interests. - -Another and a worse planned attempt at revolution than the one of -1811 occurred in Salvador in 1814. The government quelled it, and the -promoters were arrested, Manuel José Arce suffering an imprisonment of -several years.[I-44] - - * * * * * - -The reader's attention is now called to matters concerning the -capitanía general of Guatemala, which occupied the government both here -and in Europe immediately before King Fernando's coup-d'état. - -Bustamante, evidently hostile to constitutional government, and loath -to suffer readily any curtailment of his quasi-autocratic powers, -proclaimed, under the pressure of necessity, the national constitution, -and permitted elections under it; but between this and allowing the -diputaciones provinciales and ayuntamientos free action under the -fundamental law, there was a wide chasm. He had no intention of tamely -submitting to such innovations, whatever might be said of their merits -in the abstract. In the first place, he postponed for three whole -months the installation of the diputacion, and when it was installed, -refused to honor the event with a high mass and te deum, which would -have been the proper thing to do. Such a recognition of the importance -of the diputacion might have shaken the faith of the populace in a -one-man power. He next insisted on the diputacion having its sittings -at the government house, where it would be at his mercy. He treated -the body disrespectfully in several ways,[I-45] and as he could not -make it subservient to his will, tried by all means in his power to -destroy its influence and usefulness. In fact, he looked upon it as -a mere consultative corporation, whose advice he might ask for or -not, as suited his fancy. Lastly, he would not permit the acts of the -diputacion to be published; and for the matter of that, there was no -liberty of the press. - -[Sidenote: END OF BUSTAMANTE'S RULE.] - -These complaints were laid before the national córtes[I-46] for -redress, coupled with a petition that the royal authority should remove -Bustamante from office. But grievances were unredressed, and their -author continued wielding power in the country several years more. -Indeed, this was not to be wondered at. The Spanish government had -rarely, if ever, shown inclination to do justice to the ruled against -the high rulers it placed over them, or to punish the despotic acts -of the latter. Residencias had of late become mere matters of form. If -the complainants had wealth and influence at court, they might obtain -the recall of the ruler obnoxious to them, but no other punishment. -The prestige of authority must be upheld; such was the principle acted -upon.[I-47] Guatemala was finally relieved of Bustamante's hated rule -on the 28th of March, 1818. - -The people of Central America, like the rest of the Spanish dominions, -were soon invited to another view in the political kaleidoscope. -Fernando VII., upon his release by Napoleon a few months after the -treaty of Valençay,[I-48] returned to Spain without delay, and on -arriving at Valencia, issued his manifesto of May 4, 1814, setting -aside the constitution, and assuming the authority of an absolute -sovereign. He did this with fair promises, which he carried out -when and how it suited him.[I-49] Among many decrees issued by the -monarch soon after, which were of interest to Central America, was one -enjoining on the archbishop and bishops to see that their subordinates -did their duty faithfully, and entertained only wholesome opinions. -No associations or leagues were to be tolerated which might lead -to a disturbance of the public peace; in other words, liberty and -constitutional government were not to be thought of.[I-50] Another -decree of June 17th, demanded of the deputies from America having -in their possession petitions from their constituents to lay them -before the royal government, in order that they might be acted upon. -Several measures for the protection of morals and the advancement of -civilization were also enacted. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -INDEPENDENCE ACHIEVED. - -1818-1821. - - PRESIDENT CÁRLOS URRUTIA—HIS LIBERAL VIEWS—COLOMBIAN - ASSAULTS—SPANISH CONSTITUTION RESTORED—THE - GAZISTAS, OR BACOS—THE CACOS—JOSÉ DEL VALLE—PEDRO - MOLINA—LIBERAL INSTITUTIONS—EXTENT OF THE POLITICAL - GOVERNMENT—ECCLESIASTICAL ADMINISTRATION—WORK OF AMERICAN - DEPUTIES—PARTY EXCITEMENT IN GUATEMALA—URRUTIA DELEGATES - HIS POWERS—SUBSTITUTE PRESIDENT GAVINO GAINZA—CHIAPAS - AND HER GOVERNMENT—SHE SECEDES FROM SPAIN AND JOINS THE - MEXICAN EMPIRE—GUATEMALA DECLARES FOR INDEPENDENCE—JUNTA - GUBERNATIVA—CONVOCATION OF A CONGRESS. - - -Successor to Bustamante in the position of governor, president, -and captain-general, in March 1818, was Lieutenant-general Cárlos -Urrutia,[II-1] knight grand cross of the military order of San -Hermenegildo, which entitled him to be called excelentísimo señor. It -was a difficult position. The country was at peace, it is true, but -a political volcano was at work, and no one could foretell when the -upheaval of revolution might occur,[II-2] letting loose the elements -of destruction, as had happened in other parts of Spanish America. -However, another constitutional term under the Spanish monarch was -about being inaugurated, and this fact helped to bring on definitive -results. - -Urrutia was a man of experience, with a well-balanced mind, whose -political opinions leaned to the side of progress. He would have been -well adapted to guide the course of events in Central America had -it not been for the infirmities of old age. Guatemala, being as yet -under the sway of Spain, was open to attack from the enemies of that -government, or at least, to such action as they might adopt in aid -of the disaffected portion of the people to secure their country's -independence. The latter was the plan of the Colombian insurgents in -fitting out a combined sea and land expedition to operate against the -ports of Omoa and Trujillo in 1820.[II-3] - -[Sidenote: ATTACK ON TRUJILLO.] - -On the 21st of April the watch-tower at Capiro, in Trujillo, -announced the approach of a Colombian flotilla of small vessels from -the windward. The garrison, commanded by José M. Palomar, at once -made preparations for emergencies. The flotilla, consisting of two -brigantines, four large and as many small schooners, one felucca, and -one sloop, under Commodore Aury, sailed in at two o'clock,[II-4] and -despatched a boat to shore to demand the surrender of the place within -one hour. Nothing further was done on that day, however; but early the -next morning the flotilla moved toward the mouth of the Guaimoreto, -and after reconnoitering the defences, opened a bombardment with ball -and grape-shot on the intrenchment and demolished it, which compelled -the defenders to fall back. The assailants landed 400 men and 15 -horses, and advanced against the garrison, meeting with a repulse at -the fourth parapet. The garrison retreated to the fifth line, at which -the enemy was a second time driven back. The vessels fired broadside -upon broadside on the shore batteries, which were warmly returned. -The bombardment was kept up from nine A. M. till two P. M., when the -flotilla retired out of reach of the batteries. A portion of the land -force then attempted to enter the town by the rear of it, but was -detected and compelled to retire. Early in the morning of the 23d, -the invading troops returned to the vessels, leaving their horses; and -soon afterward the flotilla put to sea, each vessel firing a broadside, -on passing Point Castilla, against the watch-tower. During the night -of the 24th the Colombian vessels dropped out of sight.[II-5] On the -25th the flotilla appeared off Omoa, and for several days was making -attempts to effect a landing, which being unsuccessful, it retired on -the 6th of May, after setting fire to the larger brig, which had been -damaged by the fire from the town. - - * * * * * - -Fernando VII., under compulsion, restored the constitution of 1812 -throughout his dominions. On the 9th of March, 1820, he swore to -support it, and the next day issued a manifesto conveying an apology -for having set it aside in 1814, and giving plausible reasons for -his present change of mind. On the 11th of April he issued another -manifesto, addressed to the people of America, expressing sorrow at -not having sooner reinstated the constitutional government. In another -decree of April 15th he restores to full force and vigor all decrees -of the córtes, both the extraordinary and ordinary, for the better -government and progress of the provinces in America. - -It seems that Brigadier Gavino Gainza, appointed sub-inspector-general -of the forces in Central America, was commissioned to bring out -the royal proclamations and decrees for the reinstatement of the -constitution, and of the laws which were passed under it by the córtes. -There is nothing to show the precise time of his arrival in Guatemala, -but it will suffice to state that the diputacion provincial was -installed at the capital on the 13th of July. - -At a preparatory sitting of the córtes, on the 26th of June, 1820, -Juan N. San Juan and José Sacasa were present as representatives from -Guatemala, and on the 2d of August Juan N. Tuero, or Fuero, presented -his credentials as a deputy elected from Chiapas for the córtes of -1815-16, which body he found closed on arriving in Spain at the end of -1814.[II-6] The necessity of such a diputacion was ably discussed in -the córtes on the 30th of April, 1821, by Deputy Hermosilla, seconded -by Deputy Milla, both supporting the report of the committee on the -subject. On the 17th of June the chamber was officially informed -of the installation of the diputacion, and commended its patriotic -labors.[II-7] - -The 'junta suprema de censura,' created to adjudicate upon alleged -offences against the law regulating the press, had, on the 9th of -August, 1820, nominated, and the córtes confirmed, the members of the -junta de censura for Guatemala.[II-8] - -[Sidenote: BACOS AND CACOS.] - -The reëstablishment of the constitutional régime under such favorable -circumstances soon brought into life two great parties that for a -long time bore the respective names of Gazista, or Baco, and Caco. -The gazista, with José del Valle as its leader,[II-9] was made up -of Spaniards and artisans. The cacos recognized as their chieftain -José María Delgado.[II-10] Their party was composed of members of -the nobility, and of the men calling themselves independents. This -party from the first aspired to independence, and its candidates were -taken from the independent wing at the election of deputies and other -officials. - -The gazistas, or bacos, were numerous and strong, for they had in -their ranks the rulers, many wealthy merchants, and the artisans, and -abundant funds at command, which were scattered without stint among the -needy and ignorant, who were ready enough to sell their votes.[II-11] -They likewise strengthened their influence with the lower class by -means of a pretended hostility to the aristocracy, or to what from that -time went by the name of 'espíritu de familia.' They won the elections, -but their triumph proved to be far from a solid one. - -The cacos now resolved to use every endeavor to accomplish -independence. The connection with the aristocratic element was a -drawback; and the absolute necessity of winning over the mechanics -being recognized, a middle party was at once organized, which attached -itself to the independents, and would have no connection with the -nobles. This arrangement facilitated the accomplishment of the object -in view. - -The political struggle was now fairly inaugurated. Pedro Molina[II-12] -began the publication of _El Editor Constitucional_, to defend -American rights. The _Amigo de la Patria_ appeared at the same time, -and often opposed Molina's radical doctrines. Urrutia, now styling -himself jefe político y capitan general, made an address to the -people, congratulating them and himself on the happy termination of -the election in the several parishes, and giving assurances that every -voter should have full liberty to cast his vote for representative in -the general congress, the diputacion, and the ayuntamiento.[II-13] A -portion of his address was specially devoted to artisans and laboring -men, whom he warned not to allow themselves to be tampered with to the -discredit of the government on the question of trade in cotton goods; -for, he told them, it was a positive misconception that the government -had it in view to decree freedom of foreign trade; on the contrary, it -had endeavored to check illegal traffic, which had been carried on to -the detriment of national interests and the royal treasury. - -The measures adopted by him had to some extent corrected that evil. By -making the traders pay import dues, the treasury had profited, and the -people had been saved from new taxes. Formerly, English goods were paid -for wholly in coin; now, only one sixth of their cost was covered with -money, and the remainder with the produce of the country.[II-14] - - * * * * * - -The gobierno político de Guatemala had jurisdiction over the same -extent of country as the metropolitan,[II-15] namely, 214 leagues from -the ejidos of Motocinta on the west, and 116 leagues from Golfo Dulce -on the Atlantic, to the Pacific coast.[II-16] - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: ARCHBISHOPS.] - -The first archbishop of Guatemala appointed by the Spanish crown in -the present century was Luis Peñalver y Cárdenas,[II-17] who reached -his see the 3d of June, 1802, and on the 26th took possession. -During his brief incumbency he founded several rectorships, and two -primary schools for girls. His sight becoming seriously affected, -he relinquished the mitre, and returned to his native city, secretly -departing March 1, 1806.[II-18] - -Rafael de la Vara de la Madrid, Peñalver's successor, arrived in -Acajutla on the 13th of December, 1807; in Guatemala city on the 4th of -January, 1808; and on the 3d of February took possession of his office. -In April 1809 he visited the province of Vera Paz, where he died on -the 31st of December, much regretted, as he had endeared himself by his -peaceable disposition and affability.[II-19] - -Antonio Bergoza y Jordan, bishop of Oajaca, was nominated for the -succession, but declined the position. - -The next and eighth archbishop of the diocese was Ramon Casaus y -Torres, nominated by the supreme council of regency on the 30th -of March, 1811; who entered the capital on the 30th of July, and -being a consecrated bishop, at once began to perform episcopal -functions.[II-20] His nomination was ratified by the king on the 27th -of August, 1814; the papal bulls of confirmation were issued on the -15th of March, 1815, and Casaus received the pallium on the 28th of -September of the same year. - - * * * * * - -At the sitting of the Spanish córtes on the 25th of June, 1821, the -American deputies laid before that body a memorial setting forth the -condition of their provinces, and the measures which, in their opinion, -would lead to a definitive peace. They not only assured their Spanish -colleagues that Americans were fully conscious of their rights as -freemen, but also of their determination and ability to defend them; -nevertheless, if those rights were respected, and justice was done, -existing difficulties might be obliterated. They believed, however, -that a constitutional system would be impracticable in America, unless -new and efficacious measures were adopted to enable the three branches -of government to act freely within their respective bounds, and -likewise to make effective the responsibility of public officials for -their acts. Another point upon which they laid stress was the inutility -of American deputies at the Spanish córtes unless they were effectively -upheld from their respective countries. They found other faults with -the existing government, and declared that the solution of the great -problem would be found in the establishment of autonomic governments in -America. - -[Sidenote: RIPE FOR INDEPENDENCE.] - -Commerce between Spanish America and the mother country should be -treated as internal trade, the Americans having equal rights and -privileges with their brethren of Europe. The same equality in respect -to civil rights and appointment to office was likewise to exist between -the natives of America and Spain. If such demands were conceded, Mexico -and Central America would pay to Spain ten million dollars within six -years, in yearly installments from January 1, 1823, to be applied to -the cancelling of the national debt. They would also allow Spain two -million dollars yearly for the support of the royal navy.[II-21] - -It was now too late, however, for conciliatory efforts to be -successful. Events crowded upon each other, and were beyond the control -even of the men who made them. Central America was at peace, but the -constitutional system recently established, with its popular elections -and a free press, after the spirit of nationality had gained so much -ground, naturally tended to excite the public mind, emboldening the -timid, and increasing the number of the friends of independence. Party -spirit controlled everything; it was felt even in the domestic circle. -The people were prepared and anxious for a change, when vague rumors -were set afloat of renewed revolutionary efforts in Mexico.[II-22] -Party leaders were of one mind on the desirability of separation. It -was generally admitted that the subjection of the country to Spain -could no longer be maintained. Only a few high officials and Spaniards -dissented. Now was the time, if ever, for a sound head and strong -hand to helm the ship of state. Urrutia, owing to age and physical -ailings, was not the man for the occasion; nor was he, though opposed -to the scheme of secession, able to retard it. Under the circumstances, -the diputacion provincial prevailed on the jefe superior político -to delegate his powers to the sub-inspector of the troops, Gavino -Gainza.[II-23] This officer at first tried to stem the torrent of -revolution, to act as the agent of Spain, disapproving the plan of -separation, but at the same time maintained intimate relations with the -independents and aided their efforts. This party publicly circulated a -paper for signatures to ask Gainza to proclaim independence himself. -He pretended to be indignant; and upon the receipt of the plan of -Iguala, formed in Mexico by Iturbide and Guerrero,[II-24] he issued a -manifesto depicting it in the blackest colors, and ordered that all who -had called on him to declare independence should be prosecuted.[II-25] -The independents became disgusted, but had to make the best of the -situation. They then resolved to play upon his personal ambition, -assuring him that for his coöperation in their plans he would be -retained in command, and afterward chosen the first chief magistrate of -the young nation. While he still hesitated, they despatched Cayetano -Bedoya to Oajaca for military aid from General Bravo. But on the -messenger's arrival at Ciudad Real de Chiapas, he found that the place -had followed the example of Oajaca and Tehuantepec, accepting the plan -of Iguala. This step hastened events in Guatemala, and Bedoya had no -need of going farther. - -The act of Ciudad Real, received September 13th, caused the greatest -excitement in the city of Guatemala, and the government had to give -way. Urged by the diputacion, Gainza summoned, on the 14th, the high -officials and other notables to a meeting next day to resolve on some -action responsive to the demands of the people.[II-26] - -[Sidenote: GAINZA'S MEETING.] - -During the night of the 14th Molina and the cacos scattered their -agents throughout the wards to stir up the masses, and at the same time -to awe the españolistas, or royal partisans. At 8 A. M. on the 15th -a throng of independents filled the porticos, court-yard, halls, and -ante-chambers of the government house. Among them and instructing the -crowds were Molina, Barrundia, Basilio Porras, and other leaders. Soon -after began to arrive at the government house the officials called to -take part in the deliberations of the meeting, namely, two members of -each corporation deputized therefor; the archbishop and prelates of the -religious orders; the chief officers of the army and treasury; who, -together with the diputacion provincial, and under the presidency of -the acting jefe superior político, Gainza,[II-27] at once proceeded to -business. After reading the declarations in Chiapas, several members -briefly expressed their views. The first speaker was Valle, leader -of the gazistas, who eloquently advocated independence as necessary -and just, but ended advising that it should not be proclaimed till -the other sections had formally declared in its favor. The motion was -seconded. The anti-independents[II-28] opposed all action until final -results in Mexico should be received. Every attempt at a vacillating -policy was defeated by the energetic efforts of the independents, -who voted for an immediate declaration of independence.[II-29] Every -vote favorable to independence was received by the people with loud -applause, and every one against it with groans. The popular preference -became so marked and boisterous that the anti-independents, fearing for -their lives, retired from the palace. - -[Sidenote: PROCLAMATION OF INDEPENDENCE.] - -The diputacion and ayuntamiento then, as the legitimate organs to -express the public will, drew up the Acta de Independencia, which was -adopted, signed, and sworn to by all the members present.[II-30] This -instrument, after declaring the aspiration of Guatemalans to be a free -and independent people,[II-31] invited all citizens of the provinces -to choose without delay representatives, on the basis of one for every -15,000 inhabitants, to a national congress that was to meet March 1, -1822. In the mean time the Spanish laws, courts of justice, and public -functionaries were to continue as heretofore. The representatives were -to be chosen by the same juntas electorales that had lately, since -the restoration of the constitution, elected deputies to the córtes, -without excluding, as the constitution did, men of African descent -from the rights of full citizenship.[II-32] The clause giving the last -electoral college, with its majority of Valle's partisans, the power -to choose the members of the constituent congress, is said to have been -inserted in the acta by himself.[II-33] - -On the 17th Gainza issued a proclamation formally placing before the -people the resolutions adopted on the 15th, and enjoining on all the -duty of abiding by them, and of respecting the laws and authorities -recognized by them. Any attempt, by word or deed, to restore Spanish -domination was declared high treason, punishable with death.[II-34] -The powers of the congress would be constituent to adopt a form of -government and frame the national constitution. Meantime Gainza held -civil and military authority, acting with the advice of a provisional -junta consultiva, formed with the diputacion provincial and seven -additional members, representing respectively Leon, Comayagua, Costa -Rica, Quezaltenango, Sololá, Chimaltenango, Sonsonate, and Ciudad -Real.[II-35] Neither the people at large nor the meeting of the 15th -created such a body. It was the creation of the men who remained behind -in the hall, including Valle, who drew up the acta.[II-36] Continuing -his double dealing, Gainza had issued his proclamation, on the 16th, -for the election of representatives to congress. He spoke therein -of the longing for independence since 1810, of the popular love for -the cause which had been so forcibly sustained at the meeting of the -preceding day, and concluded by inviting the whole people to approve -the plan, and to appoint their deputies to complete the work. - - * * * * * - -Before proceeding further with the political situation at the -capital of Guatemala, I will devote a little space to laying before -the reader some information on one of its most important sections, -namely, Chiapas. The population was computed in 1813 at over 100,000 -inhabitants, of whom 70,000 were Indians; the remainder were Spaniards -and mixed breeds, with a few negroes.[II-37] - -As a reward for good services and generous pecuniary contributions -to the nation, the Spanish córtes passed, October 29, 1813, a decree -bestowing the title of city on the town of Comitan, and that of villa -on those of Tusta, Tonalá, Tapachula, and Palenque.[II-38] - -[Sidenote: THE SUBDELEGADOS.] - -In contravention of law, the first name of the three proposed by -the intendente to the president of Guatemala, for chief of each -of the eleven subdelegaciones, was that of some creature of the -intendente. Unfitness for the place or immorality counted for nothing -if the nomination suited the proposer or the confirming power. These -subdelegados, by means of their comisarios, collected the tribute and -speculated with it; each being a tyrant who oppressed the Indians at -his will. - -Education was neglected; ignorance prevailed to such an extent that a -large portion of the inhabitants did not know even the first rudiments -of their religion. The poorer Spaniards and the mixed breeds were -entirely without education. Indeed, in nearly three centuries, not -only had the Indians not learned to speak Spanish, but the native -Spaniards spoke the six Indian tongues of the province better than -their own.[II-39] - -Chiapas, it is well known, had been an episcopal see, with its -cathedral at Ciudad Real, since the first years of the conquest.[II-40] -The country is fertile and well watered. Its agricultural products -were wheat—of which there was a surplus for exportation—maize, beans, -rice, coffee, and cacao.[II-41] A variety of vegetables in abundance, -and the fruits of all climes, could also be obtained. The maguey was -extensively cultivated for pulque and aguardiente. A great deal of -sugar-cane and good tobacco were grown. Indigo and cochineal were -cultivated to some extent. The country had likewise excellent grazing. -Cattle, sheep, goats, horses, and mules abounded. The mines of gold, -silver, lead, copper, and iron were not worked, owing to the poverty -of the inhabitants. The governor-intendente of Chiapas in 1817, Cárlos -Castañon, as appears in the records, was a confirmed royalist.[II-42] - -From the time that Iturbide proclaimed the independence of Mexico, the -canons of the chapter in the diocese of Ciudad Real—bitterly hostile, -like the majority of the Mexican and Central American clergy, to the -reforms of the Spanish córtes respecting the church[II-43]—had been -in communication with that chieftain's auditor de guerra, Fernandez -Almansa, who kept them informed on the progress of the revolution. The -clericals looked upon the Mexican chief as the savior of their ancient -prerogatives and monopolies, and with this end in view, prepared -public opinion for setting aside the authority of Fernando VII. and his -córtes.[II-44] - - [Illustration: CHIAPAS.] - -[Sidenote: CHIAPAS ACCEPTS ITURBIDE.] - -The governor-intendente, Juan N. Batres, together with the ayuntamiento -of Ciudad Real, proclaimed, on the 3d of September, 1821, the -separation of Chiapas from Spain, and her acceptance of Iturbide's -plan of Iguala. On the 8th all the authorities and officers, civil and -military, took the oath to support that act, which was administered -by the governor of the diocese; after which they had high mass and a -sermon in the cathedral, where the secular clergy and the people took -the same oath[II-45] before the aforesaid ecclesiastic authority. -The obligations assumed were to support the Roman catholic apostolic -religion; to secure the independence of the empire, preserving to -that end peace and union between Europeans and Americans; and to obey -Fernando VII., should he adopt and swear to support the constitution -to be enacted by the córtes of the Mexican empire. Chiapas was, -therefore, the first province of the captain-generalcy of Guatemala -to throw off the Spanish yoke; she at the same time separated -herself from Guatemala, and manifested her determination to link her -future with Mexico. All this was made known September 21st by the -comandante-general of Oajaca to Iturbide. The example of Ciudad Real -was unhesitatingly followed by the other towns in the province. - -We have seen that Guatemala, at her declaration of independence, did -not at once accept annexation to the Mexican empire. This course -did not suit the rulers and notables of Ciudad Real, who hastened -to manifest their displeasure at a meeting held September 20th, and -attended by the intendente, ayuntamiento, and other official bodies, -prelates, and a large number of citizens. - -[Sidenote: CHIAPAS A PART OF MEXICO.] - -As a matter of fact, the desire of Chiapas to be detached from -Guatemala and annexed to Mexico existed with some strength even before -the declaration of independence;[II-46] and Guatemala having failed -to return an answer to the letter from the authorities of Chiapas, -announcing her action of the 3d, this neglect had strengthened the -notables of the latter in their resolution to recognize no other -government than that of the Mexican empire under the treaties of -Córdoba. It was also resolved at the meeting not to circulate the -declaration of independence which the jefe político of Guatemala had -sent. These sentiments were duly seconded by the other cities and -towns. - -In order to guard against any action Guatemala might take because -of the course of Chiapas, at a formal session of the diputacion, -presided over by the jefe político, and held on the 22d of October, it -was resolved to send to Mexico a commissioner to take the necessary -steps, and procure his province's separation from Guatemala, even -if the latter should come to be thereafter a part of the Mexican -empire.[II-47] - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -UNION WITH MEXICO. - -1821-1822. - - FIRST ACTS OF GUATEMALAN RULERS—INTRIGUES OF PARTIES—THEIR - EVIL CONSEQUENCES—GAINZA'S INTRIGUES—INDEPENDENCE - IN THE OTHER PROVINCES—REWARDS TO GAINZA—TROUBLES - IN SALVADOR—DISSENSIONS IN HONDURAS—LOCAL SQUABBLES - IN NICARAGUA—PREDILECTION FOR IMPERIALISM—COSTA RICA - NEUTRAL—CONDITION OF VARIOUS SECTIONS—SECEDING DISTRICTS OF - GUATEMALA—PERPLEXITIES OF THE JUNTA CONSULTIVA—ITURBIDE'S - DEVICES—MILITARY PRESSURE—HIS PROPOSALS ACCEPTED—ILLEGAL - ANNEXATION—PROTESTS AND RESISTANCE—WAR BEGINS. - - -Among the first acts of the junta at Guatemala was the promotion of -two officers who were supposed to be reliable supporters of the late -movement.[III-1] Both proved themselves afterward recreant to their -pledges, by their hostility to the republican cause. - -[Sidenote: PARTY STRIFE.] - -The cacos were republicans. They strove to rid the country of -the antiquated errors and practices, including in their plans the -abolishment of the privileges of the clergy, and the restriction of -their power, which had been a constant source of injury to the people -at large. They wanted the adoption of democratic institutions, in order -to place the masses on the level heretofore occupied only by the ruling -class. They succeeded in prevailing on the people to take an interest -and a direct intervention in public affairs. Barrundia, Molina, and -Córdoba led them to the galleries of the junta chamber to witness its -acts, and even take part in its deliberations.[III-2] They attacked -Valle for the clause he inserted in the acta of the 15th, to which I -have alluded in the preceding chapter. On that point they certainly had -a well-founded grievance, but their manner of presenting it resulted -in a loss of confidence in the junta, the organization of new parties, -and general distraction. The point taken by them, however, was decided -in their favor by the junta. But the latter held secret sessions after -the 29th of September, significant of sinister purposes. - -The other party—formerly constituting the ruling class—scouted the idea -of equality. Most of the churchmen had the same feeling; for in joining -the movement for separation from Spain their motive had been to shield -their menaced prerogatives, rather than love for America or freedom. - -On the 18th of September Gainza wrote Iturbide, generalissimo of the -so-called empire of Mexico, that his course had been hailed with joy, -and that political parties had consolidated on the proposition of -independence from Spain; hence he had proclaimed it. And that, since -then, amid the transition from one system to another, the minds of the -people of Guatemala had been fixed on Iturbide, and they had desired to -tender him their congratulations as the liberator of New Spain.[III-3] - -The junta consultiva passed a number of decrees, which were sanctioned -by Gainza. Urrutia, the ex-captain-general, was tendered his salary -and the considerations due his rank and former office if he would -formally recognize the independence.[III-4] He declined with thanks, -departing for Habana soon after. At the time of the adoption of the -acta, peaceable persons were assured of protection to their persons -and property, which pledge was faithfully fulfilled. No opponent of -independence was molested. Officials desirous of returning to their -country were allowed to do so.[III-5] - -The junta, which bore the compellation of excelentísima, unanimously -appointed Gainza captain-general, with the salary of $10,000 a year, -decorating him also with a three-colored scarf, commemorative of -the three guarantees. A gold medal was voted to the members of the -ayuntamiento, who made the solemn declaration of independence on -the 23d of September.[III-6] Committees were next appointed to study -and report to the junta on public instruction, safety and defences, -statistics, industry, and finances. José del Valle was instructed to -form a plan of government.[III-7] - -Several financial measures engaged the attention of the junta. One -of them proposed to levy a duty of ten per centum on gold and silver -exported to Spain. This was never strictly enforced. Restrictions to -foreign commerce, and monopolies existing under the Spanish government, -were abolished. Liberal principles were introduced, including freedom -of the press, which had been guaranteed by the Spanish constitution, -and was now continued in force.[III-8] - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: SALVADOR INDEPENDENT.] - -In Salvador absolute independence had been declared by the ayuntamiento -on the 21st of September, and proclaimed eight days after. Pedro -Barriere, who as teniente letrado was temporarily acting as chief -civil authority, together with the ayuntamiento of San Salvador, -decreed the election of seven persons to form a "junta subalterna -económica y consultiva." There was great commotion stirred on the one -hand by the vicar Ignacio Saldaña, and on the other by the liberals, -Arce, Ramirez, and others. The next day, the people being assembled -to effect the election, Barriere, pretending that his friends, the -so-called serviles, were in peril, retracted his former action. His -words enraged the populace. Then he called out the troops to disperse -the crowds, and arrested the republican leaders Arce, Rodriguez, and -Domingo Lara.[III-9] But on the news of his course reaching Guatemala, -Delgado was despatched to Salvador as a peace-maker, clothed with ample -powers. On his way to the capital he liberated prisoners, all of whom -joined his following and entered the city with him. Barriere was sent -out of the province; the troops were disarmed; peace was restored; a -subordinate junta consultiva was installed, and Delgado continued at -the head of the government.[III-10] - -In Honduras, on the receipt at Comayagua of the news that Guatemala -had seceded from the Spanish crown, the governor-intendente, Brigadier -José Tinoco de Contreras, and the diputacion[III-11] refused to -recognize the government constituted in that city, and took an oath to -support the plan of Iguala. This was a virtual annexation of Honduras -to the Mexican empire. The partidos of Tegucigalpa and Gracias, and -the ports of Omoa and Trujillo, would not accept as valid the act of -the authorities at Comayagua, and maintained relations with those in -Guatemala. The independence from Spain had been declared on the 16th of -October. - -Tinoco took the two ports above named, which were treacherously -surrendered to him.[III-12] He also fitted out a force to march on -Tegucigalpa. A counter-revolution, however, on the 1st of December, -supported by an approaching Guatemalan liberal force, set aside -Tinoco's control and restored that of the junta consultiva.[III-13] - -[Sidenote: LIBERTY IN NICARAGUA.] - -Nicaragua had, since 1813, a diputacion provincial, under the decree of -the Spanish córtes of May 24, 1812. Its jurisdiction extended over the -districts of Leon, Granada, Segovia, Nicaragua, and Matagalpa. Under -the new system, established in 1821, and since Urrutia's retirement, -constant questions of jurisdiction arose between the intendente and the -superior jefe político.[III-14] - -On the 3d of October Colonel Crisanto Sacasa, commandant at Granada, -issued a general order to the officers to report with their troops -next morning, and take the oath to support national independence, -pursuant to the instructions he had received from Captain-general -Gainza. Intendente Saravia had been at enmity with Gainza, and when -the first steps were taken in Guatemala for independence, he threw -off his authority. In this he had the aid of Bishop Jerez and Colonel -Joaquin Arechavala, commander of the militia, all three being natives -of old Spain. They induced the diputacion and the ayuntamiento, by -an act of the 11th of October, to declare Nicaragua seceded from -Guatemala.[III-15] This action occurred in Leon. But Granada refused -to concur, and sent its representatives to the congress called to meet -in Guatemala. Later, October 21st, the authorities in Leon formally -accepted the Iguala plan, thereby annexing the whole province to -the Mexican empire. The country was accordingly divided into two -antagonistic parties, the imperialist and the republican.[III-16] - -Gainza said to the diputacion at Leon, on the 22d of October, that -neither they nor the junta consultiva, nor any other body of men -then existing, could decide upon the future of the country; none had -a legal right to declare for or against annexation to Mexico. This -could be arrived at only by the representatives of the people in -the general congress.[III-17] He appointed Colonel Sacasa comandante -general of the forces in Nicaragua, and directed him to install in -Granada a subordinate junta gubernativa of five members, clothed with -the functions of a jefe político, and which was to continue in power -till the status of the country should be fixed.[III-18] Sacasa frankly -notified the rulers in Leon of what he was to do, and took steps to -carry his orders into execution. But Saravia, with the bishop and -the diputacion, determined that no such junta should be installed. -The diputacion, on the 1st of December, by a special act, forbade its -organization, declaring all attempts toward it subversive of good order -and hostile to the Mexican empire, to which they owed allegiance; and -warning all citizens to abstain from such efforts. - -[Sidenote: COSTA RICA NEUTRAL.] - -Sacasa had every right to expect that Gainza would support him against -attacks from Leon, but he was disappointed. The captain-general wrote -him, on the 22d of December, that it was doubtful if Central America -could maintain a government separate from Mexico, many towns having -already attached themselves to the empire; and that he had expressed -the same opinion to Saravia. Whereupon Sacasa, though a republican, -made no further opposition to the powers at Leon. - - * * * * * - -Costa Rica was privileged by distance to keep aloof from political -troubles threatening the other provinces. She had seceded from Spain -on the 27th of October, and set aside the governor, Juan Cañas; but -when called upon to adopt the plan of the capital or that of Leon, -she declined both, preferring a neutral attitude.[III-19] A meeting -of notables confirmed the act of secession, and set up a provisional -government entirely detached from that at Leon, which was to reside -alternately in Cartago, San José, Heredia, and Alajuela. But this was -found inconvenient, owing to rivalries between the two first-named -towns; and finally it was decided, on the 27th of November, to place -public affairs in the hands of Manuel Peralta, Rafael Osejo, and -Hermenegildo Bonilla, who were to reside at the provincial capital, -Cartago. Under this arrangement peace was preserved, and the province -never was really under the imperial rule.[III-20] - -Dissensions had now brought the country to the brink of civil war, -and no time was to be lost in averting it. Measures were adopted -to hasten the meeting of congress. With the view of restoring peace -between the sections, and of rendering harmless disturbing elements -without resort to arms, the junta at Guatemala concluded to despatch -trusty commissioners to the provinces where secession was rife, who -were to prevail on them to send deputies to the general congress. -Other agents were to be despatched to Mexico to watch the turn of -events at the capital.[III-21] What good results those agents might -have accomplished, it is impossible now to say. They had no occasion -to try their efforts. Events in Mexico succeeded one another with such -rapidity, and their influence on Central America was so powerful, that, -even among the best patriots, many made up their minds to coöperate -toward the union, carried away by the idea that only under the ægis of -the northern empire could peace, safety, and stability be secured. - -Costa Rica, we have seen, was in fact out of the field; at any rate, -it had no share in the political strife. The provinces of Guatemala -proper and Salvador were the only ones, at present, which together -with Granada, in Nicaragua, and some portions of Honduras, attempted to -preserve an independence from Mexico under whatever form of government -might be adopted in that country. The idea of annexation to Mexico -had been, however, growing popular from day to day in Guatemala. The -important section of Quezaltenango adhered to the scheme, on the 13th -of November, inviting Suchitepequez, Sololá, and Antigua Guatemala to -follow the example, which they did soon after. And Cirilo Flores and -Antonio Corzo, who in later years figured as most prominent champions -of democracy and suffered martyrdom for their cause, then supported the -action of Quezaltenango. - -It was contended that Central America, after throwing off the -Spanish yoke, acquired, with independence, the right of forming such -associations as might be mutually beneficial. This doctrine was warmly -advocated by a large portion of the reflecting class. Under such -circumstances, Guatemala and Salvador, hemmed in as they were between -provinces that had already become annexed to Mexico, could not maintain -an absolute independence. - -[Sidenote: ITURBIDE'S EFFORTS.] - -Iturbide had large ideas of imperial sway, and was bent on the -acquisition of entire Central America, aided efficiently, as he was -on this side, by the aristocrats and other dissentient elements, who, -perceiving the insignificance they would come to if the nation finally -became constituted under a democratic government, which their opponents -were aiming at, labored with might and main to defeat the plan.[III-22] -They won over with money and fair promises a part of the people, and -with Gainza, who expected high rank and offices from the new empire, -bound Central America hand and foot, as will hereafter be seen. - -The junta consultiva was much perplexed in view of the situation. The -imperialists daily became more insolent and exacting. At this critical -time—November 28th—Gainza laid before it a letter[III-23] from the -generalissimo, making allusion to the much abused second article -of the acta de independencia, and declaring that Guatemala was not -able to occupy as yet a place in the family of nations, and should -therefore link her fate with Mexico.[III-24] Whereupon the junta, -at the suggestion of the marqués de Aycinena, hastily answered that -the popular wishes must be ascertained before adopting any action; -promising to send the proposal at once to the ayuntamientos and local -authorities, with instructions to call on the people to give a formal -expression of their will on the subject. This promise was kept in a -measure—the ayuntamientos, not the people, were given one month's time -to manifest their preference.[III-25] - -Soon after the arrival of Iturbide's messenger, the persecution of -republicans was begun. The rough element of the population, instigated -by their adversaries, during the night insulted them at their -homes.[III-26] Any one who either by word or writing opposed the plan -of annexation was treated as seditious. At last the opposing parties -had a scuffle in the streets, on the night of November 30th, which -ended in the discomfiture of the republicans engaged in it.[III-27] -Barrundia and Molina were present and exhibited much energy. The latter -was in great peril of losing his life. - -[Sidenote: VOTE OF THE AYUNTAMIENTOS.] - -On the day appointed for the receipt of the returns from the several -ayuntamientos—namely, the 31st of December—the junta provisional -consultiva proceeded to the count. The result was as follows: 21 -ayuntamientos declared that none but the general congress had authority -to decide for or against the union with Mexico; 104 favored the -annexation at once and unconditionally; 11 approved of the union, -provided certain terms, which they appended, were stipulated in the -act of incorporation; 32 left the matter wholly to the provisional -government; and two declined the connection in toto.[III-28] Many -others had not, for some reason, returned any answers; or if they had, -the government in Guatemala failed to receive them on the appointed -day. The result was made known to the regency in Mexico on the 3d of -January, 1822, and on the 5th the subject was discussed in all its -bearings. Valle moved that the decision should be postponed until the -receipt of the returns of the 67 ayuntamientos not yet heard from. -Rivera, Calderon, and Alvarado objected to any action. Gainza advocated -the acceptance of the aid and protection tendered by Mexico.[III-29] -The junta, disregarding all objections adduced, and the marked -differences in the opinions of the ayuntamientos, decreed on the same -day, January 5, 1822, that the whole of Central America should be -annexed to the empire of Mexico, without other conditions than the -fulfilment of the plan of Iguala and the treaties of Córdoba.[III-30] -In a manifesto of that date, it assured the people that, after -obtaining the votes of all the authorities, corporations, and prominent -persons, and in view of the census of population formed in September -1821, it was evident that the vote for the union with Mexico had -reached a majority in Guatemala proper; and including the votes of -Nicaragua, Comayagua, Ciudad Real de Chiapas, Quezaltenango, Sololá, -and other towns which had a few days previously declared themselves -for annexation, it would be found that almost the whole population had -expressed itself in favor of connection.[III-31] No member failed to -record his name in favor of the loss of nationality, though some had, -as before stated, suggested that certain guarantees should be required -previous to the completion of the surrender. - -[Sidenote: GAINZA'S EDICT.] - -Gainza issued a manifesto full of generalities, declared there was no -further need of electing deputies to congress, and assured the people -of a liberal government, and future peace and prosperity.[III-32] -Erelong events came to show how delusive were the promises thus held -out by the incoming régime. It was preposterous on the part of an -unconstituted country, as Mexico then was, with a government whose -existence was precarious, to undertake the task of affording protection -to the people of Central America—to a people that had been brought -under the yoke of the so-called empire in such an unprecedented manner. - -Forgetting, after a few days, the honeyed words of his manifesto, -Gainza,[III-33] on January 9th, issued a stringent edict, countersigned -by José María Celaya as secretary, giving renewed force to his former -edicts of September 17th and December 1st, and forbidding, under the -penalties provided by the laws against sedition, that any one should, -either by tongue or pen, censure or refute the action adopted as the -will of the majority. Conversations on the subject in the streets or -public places were prohibited, and citizens were enjoined to report -at once to the authorities any attempted conspiracy against the new -government which might come to their knowledge. Constitutional alcaldes -and other local authorities were charged with the execution of this -decree. - -Gainza and his junta thus gave way to the wishes of the would-be -oligarchs and the clergy, ignoring the fact, formerly recognized -by them, that to the representatives of the people in congress -exclusively belonged the decision of the question on the future status -of the country.[III-34] The aristocrats and clericals brought about -difficulties to prevent the election of representatives, and took -advantage of them to carry out their designs. The truth is, that the -device resorted to, of acting upon the opinions of ayuntamientos which -they well knew had no authority in the premises, was illegal. And, -indeed, could a population of upwards of one million, scattered over -75,000 square miles of territory, have duly considered so vital a -matter as the abdication of their national autonomy within the short -period of thirty days? The whole secret of the aristocratic success lay -in the pressure brought to bear on the country with a military force -sent by Iturbide to support his pretensions.[III-35] The following -facts appeared in the imperial gazette of Mexico: The regency announced -on the 12th of November to the junta soberana that Chiapas, as well as -the towns of Guatemala, had signified a wish to be received as a part -of the Mexican empire, asking for military aid to uphold its acts. The -regency added, that the military aid must then be quite near Chiapas, -under the orders issued beforehand by the generalissimo, 5,000 men -having already, under the conde de la Cadena, crossed the Tehuantepec -River. The junta graciously assented to the so-called wishes of the -people of Chiapas and Guatemala, giving them the rights of Mexican -citizens.[III-36] - -A division under Brigadier Vicente Filisola, with Colonel Felipe -Codallos as his second in command,[III-37] began its march in November -1821; but a large portion of the men deserted on the way, and the ranks -had to be recruited in Chiapas; and yet Filisola finally arrived in -Guatemala with only 600 men.[III-38] - -[Sidenote: TROUBLES IN SALVADOR.] - -The junta provisional, after its action of January 5th, had no -further reason for continuing, and so dissolved itself on the 21st of -February. Gainza, retaining the offices of jefe superior político and -captain-general, called into life a diputacion provincial.[III-39] His -authority, however, was not regarded in Chiapas, Honduras, Nicaragua, -nor a great part of Salvador. Costa Rica still remained aloof and was -unmolested. - -During Iturbide's occupation of his rickety throne, Central America -had deputies in the imperial congress,[III-40] and the orders of the -emperor's government were generally obeyed. Nevertheless, plucky little -Salvador kept up the struggle against foreign domination. Nearly a -majority of its ayuntamientos, together with the priest Delgado, the -acting political chief, had signified their wish to await the action of -congress; and on hearing of the surrender to Mexico by Gainza and his -junta, entered a protest and seceded, resolving to remain independent -till the representatives of the whole people of Central America should -decide the question of nationality.[III-41] - -But even here dissensions fostered from Guatemala had their pernicious -effects. Santa Ana and San Miguel had voted for annexation to Mexico, -and to uphold this action, seceded from their own province, which in -that year led to a war between Salvador and Guatemala. The government -at San Salvador gave the chief command of its forces to Manuel José -Arce, with orders to bring the people of Santa Ana to reason, peaceably -if he could, forcibly if he must.[III-42] - -Arce marched on Santa Ana, when Padilla, commanding a portion of the -Sonsonate force which had been stationed in that city, retreated within -its own territory. After compelling the town to revoke its act of -secession, Arce went in pursuit of Padilla, occupied Ahuachapam, then -an annex of Sonsonate, and finally routed that officer in the hacienda -El Espinal.[III-43] This was the first act of a bloody war, which will -be treated in another chapter. - - [Illustration: DEFEAT OF PADILLA.] - -In Honduras, the districts of Tegucigalpa and Gracias, together -with the ports of Omoa and Trujillo, repudiated the union with -Mexico.[III-44] Brigadier Tinoco, on hearing that a Salvadoran force -had entered Honduras, resigned his office of governor. Comayagua, -however, continued recognizing the authority of Mexico, but not that of -Guatemala.[III-45] - -[Sidenote: NICARAGUA AND COSTA RICA.] - -In Nicaragua, the city of Granada disregarded the authority at Leon, -and held relations with Gainza, even after Colonel Sacasa had placed -himself under the orders of the former.[III-46] Sacasa had surrendered -his charge in Granada to Cleto Ordoñez,[III-47] who thus became the -leader of the liberal party in Nicaragua. After the act of annexation -to Mexico, and Salvador's act of secession, both Sacasa and Ordoñez -supported the independents. - -Ordoñez, finding himself in possession of irresponsible power, soon -gave a loose rein to his bad instincts. He began to seize private -property, not excepting even that of foreigners. Sacasa's person and -property did not escape.[III-48] - -Costa Rica did not fail, though maintaining a neutral attitude, to -manifest her discontent with the course of Guatemala. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -CENTRAL AMERICAN CONFEDERATION. - -1822-1825. - - SECESSION FROM MEXICO—ARZÚ'S CAMPAIGN—PREVARICATION OF - SALVADOR—FILISOLA'S VICTORY—HIS SUBSEQUENT COURSE—LIBERAL - TRIUMPH IN COSTA RICA—HONDURAS FAVORS UNION—NATIONAL - INDEPENDENCE SECURED—LABORS TO ORGANIZE A NATION—THE - CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY—PROVINCIAS UNIDAS DEL CENTRO - DE AMÉRICA—ABOLITION OF AFRICAN SLAVERY—PROVISIONAL - GOVERNMENT—MODERADOS OR SERVILES—LIBERALES OR - FIEBRES—PRINCIPLES AND AIMS OF PARTIES—MEXICAN - FORCES RETIRE—SEDITIONS BEGIN—SALVADORAN FORCE IN - GUATEMALA—CONFEDERACION DE CENTRO AMÉRICA—FUNDAMENTAL - LAW—FINANCES—ADJOURNMENT OF THE CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY. - - -[Sidenote: DEFEAT OF ARZÚ.] - -Arce's invasion of territory occupied by Guatemala afforded the latter -a sufficient pretext, if any were needed, to declare war against her -high-spirited and troublesome neighbor. Colonel Arzú was thereupon -despatched on the 19th of March, 1822, at the head of a force, which -in a few days had been increased to 1,000 men, to bring Salvador under -subjection. Arzú's dilatory movements, however, defeated the object -of the expedition.[IV-1] He lost two months and more waiting for -reënforcements and artillery, and by indecision as to whether or not -he should heed the protestations of the Salvadorans.[IV-2] The latter -employed the time thus gained in fortifying their city, though short -of arms to equip a sufficient garrison. Aroused at last by Gainza's -positive commands, Arzú continued his march,[IV-3] and avoiding the -fortifications of San Salvador, entered the city on the 3d of June, -taking its defenders by surprise.[IV-4] Having now every advantage, -Arzú might have made himself master of the place had he not carelessly -permitted his troops to disband for purposes of plunder. The result -was, that the Salvadorans had time to rally, and a street fight -ensued, ending with the total discomfiture of Arzú and his force, who -with the loss of their arms were driven from the city.[IV-5] Had the -victors made the most of their success, they might have annihilated -the invading force; but they failed to conduct the pursuit with any -skill.[IV-6] - -Arzú's defeat produced a deep impression in Guatemala, where such a -result had been unexpected, the expedition having been fitted out with -the utmost care. Fears began to be entertained that the Salvadorans -might become aggressors and invade Guatemala. The friends of Mexico -were therefore much pleased on hearing that the Mexican commander, -Filisola, had been ordered to supersede Gainza, who was summoned to -Mexico.[IV-7] With about 600 men Filisola arrived in Guatemala on -the 12th of June, 1822, and ten days later took possession of the -government. He inaugurated a comparatively good state of affairs; -for though as a supporter of the Mexican cause, and specially of the -empire, he aimed at consolidation, yet his policy was a conciliatory -one.[IV-8] He endeavored to obtain the assent of Salvador to union -with Mexico without resorting to force. At first his course presented -a promising aspect, inasmuch as the representatives of the former -apparently made little objection; and on the news of Iturbide's call to -the Mexican throne, among the many congratulations received by Filisola -were those of Salvador, delivered by a special deputation. But the -object, as it turned out, was merely to gain time. The negotiations -were continued several months, hostilities having been suspended -by both belligerents, till early in September it was agreed that -further negotiations should be carried on directly with the executive -and congress of Mexico.[IV-9] This agreement was not carried out, -however, owing to new difficulties raised by San Salvador. Filisola, -who evidently would not assume the responsibility of war, referred -the whole matter to Mexico for instructions. Iturbide, who had just -dissolved the Mexican congress for its opposition to his plans,[IV-10] -felt no inclination to permit little San Salvador to dictate the terms -of union, and disallowing the armistice concluded by Filisola, ordered -him to begin hostilities forthwith if unconditional submission were -refused.[IV-11] - -[Sidenote: FILISOLA'S CAMPAIGN.] - -Leaving his second officer, Colonel Codallos, in charge of the -government at Guatemala, Filisola began the military operations toward -the end of November, taking possession of Santa Ana and marching[IV-12] -upon the city of San Salvador, after having routed several small -hostile detachments which attempted to check his progress. At the same -time he published the decree of the Mexican government of November -4th, making of Central America, or the former captain-generalcy of -Guatemala, three comandancias generales, namely, those of Chiapas, -Sacatepequez, and Costa Rica, the capitals being respectively Ciudad -Real, Nueva Guatemala, and Leon in Nicaragua.[IV-13] The government -of San Salvador was in a precarious situation; although disposing -of an army whose numerical force and equipment were not inferior to -Filisola's, yet it had neither discipline nor experienced officers. -The few encounters which had already taken place between the two -forces had made it evident that the Salvadorans could not cope with -Filisola's military skill. Under the circumstances, the authorities -of San Salvador resolved upon incorporation with Mexico, and demanded -that Filisola should proceed no farther. They declined to inform him of -the terms under which they would submit to annexation, though offering -to lay them before the congress in Mexico. They based this action on -the ground that if their purpose became known in Salvador a revolution -would certainly follow.[IV-14] - -The Mexican commander paid no heed to these ambiguous statements, which -he considered devices to gain time, and continued his march.[IV-15] - -[Sidenote: FALL OF ITURBIDE.] - -It was at this critical moment that the congress of San Salvador, -carried away by hatred to Guatemala and Mexico, resolved upon a -singular step. On the 2d of December, 1822, the act of incorporation -with Mexico was repealed, and the state was placed under the -protectorate of the Anglo-American states, as an integral portion -thereof. Solemn protests were made in the name of that republic -against Filisola's hostile acts. A member of the congress, Juan Manuel -Rodriguez, was commissioned to make known the incorporation to the -government of the United States.[IV-16] For a short time it seems -that hopes were entertained of an armed protection on the part of -the northern republic in favor of the new acquisition; but soon the -folly of such expectations became apparent. Filisola disregarded the -protests,[IV-17] and after several victorious encounters, routed the -Salvadorans under Arce at Mejicanos,[IV-18] and entered the city of -San Salvador without further opposition on the 9th of February, 1823. -Filisola fulfilled the promise he had made the preceding day to the -ayuntamiento, that he would respect all rights, and not treat the -town as a conquered country. The only Salvadoran force remaining was -compelled, on the 21st of February, to surrender at Gualcince, a town -on the other side of the Lempa River.[IV-19] This was the end of the -war.[IV-20] Arce, who departed for the United States, wrote Filisola -from Belize a letter full of firmness and dignity, meanwhile thanking -him for his humane conduct. Delgado remained at his hacienda. The -local authorities swore allegiance to the Mexican empire. Filisola now -returned to Guatemala,[IV-21] where he arrived about the 6th or 7th -of March. He had already received the news of the movement in Mexico -resulting in the overthrow of Iturbide. It was this that hastened his -return to Guatemala, and induced him to adopt a course opposed to his -last instructions from Mexico. Granada, in Nicaragua, had not been -reduced to obedience. Governor Gonzalez Saravia had asked for troops -to accomplish it, but Filisola declined to employ coercion; and after -informing him and Juan Fernandez Lindo, governor of Honduras,[IV-22] -as well as other officials in the provinces, of the state of affairs in -Mexico, assured them that he would take no important step without first -obtaining their assent. Indeed, after he convinced himself that the -imperial government had fallen never to rise again, he arrived at the -conclusion that he had no right to keep annexed to Mexico the Central -American provinces; as the annexation had been made solely, as claimed -by Mexico and her supporters, for the sake of securing stability to -their government, and the respect which would be afforded it from a -long distance by a great and wealthy country. All this prestige had -disappeared, owing to the revolution at Casa Mata in Mexico,[IV-23] the -paper money, and other arrangements made by Iturbide with reference to -these provinces. - -Being asked to summon a congress of all the provinces of Central -America, he complied, issuing a decree on the 29th of March, 1823, -with the view of carrying out the acta of September 15, 1821, which -had been annulled by the incorporation of the country with Mexico. -This was tantamount to a recognition of the independence of Central -America from Mexico.[IV-24] His decree was hailed with joy by the party -friendly to absolute independence. The Mexican or imperialist party -was vanquished, and the people were ready to take an active part in the -coming elections. Peace was not only temporarily restored in Guatemala -and Salvador, but in Nicaragua and Costa Rica party struggles were -brought to a close. - -In Granada, Ordoñez had continued committing many outrages.[IV-25] -He had successfully repulsed Saravia, who had come against him from -Leon. The latter was in the act of preparing another expedition, when -Filisola's decree was promulgated, and he was summoned to Guatemala. -Nicaragua subsequently constituted a junta gubernativa of its -own.[IV-26] - -In Costa Rica, Saravia, with the aid of Bishop Jerez, attempted to -force the province into the union with Mexico, and with that view -endeavored to overthrow the provincial government established at -Cartago. A conspiracy was planned there, and its authors, seconded -in Ciudad Vieja, openly espoused the cause of Iturbide on the 29th -of March. The men of the liberal party fled to San José, and after -strengthening their ranks there and at Alajuela, attacked the -imperialists on the field of Las Lagunas, near Cartago, and defeated -them.[IV-27] The town had to surrender, and was occupied by the -victorious independents, but the seat of government remained in San -José.[IV-28] - -In Honduras, the provincial assembly resolved on the 10th of May to -enter into the union with the other provinces of Central America, with -the view of constituting an independent nation.[IV-29] - -[Sidenote: SEPARATION FROM MEXICO.] - -Central America then, after a fifteen months' connection with -Mexico, was again in the same position it had occupied at the time -of separation from Spain. No advantages had been derived from that -union; but, on the contrary, numerous heavy taxes had exhausted the -country, though the treasury was invariably empty. The whole country -was suffering from other consequences of the internal wars, in the -form of abuses on the part of unscrupulous political parties and -military chiefs; none worse, however, than the military sway imposed -by Mexico.[IV-30] There have not been wanting those who believe the -separation from the northern republic was a false step.[IV-31] The -people had for centuries lived under the same superior government, -subject only to the Spanish crown. Then followed a period when they -often faced one another as foes. Now they were invited to sit side by -side and discuss measures for the benefit of the great family to which -they all belonged. The elections were conducted with enthusiasm on -the part of the republicans, the field having been left to them by the -imperialists.[IV-32] - -Congress assembled on the 24th of June, 1823,[IV-33] under the -presidency of José Matías Delgado,[IV-34] the installation being -graced by the presence of Filisola and the municipal council of the -city.[IV-35] - -On the 2d of July following it assumed the name of Asamblea Nacional -Constituyente. The body was in session nineteen months, closing its -labors on the 23d of January, 1825. Its work was momentous, having to -organize a government imbued with the prevailing liberal spirit; to -improve the imperilled finances; to establish relations with foreign -powers; and, what was of the highest importance, to bring unity out -of chaos. The first step toward the accomplishment of these purposes -was taken on the 1st of July, 1823, with the adoption of the ordinance -which declared the provinces of the former captain-generalcy of -Guatemala to be free and independent states, confederated into a nation -under the name of Provincias Unidas del Centro de América.[IV-36] -Inasmuch as a considerable number of representatives had not arrived -on that date, the ordinance was subsequently ratified on the 1st of -October.[IV-37] The new confederation was recognized by Mexico only a -little more than a year after.[IV-38] - -[Sidenote: ORGANIZATION.] - -Shortly after independence was proclaimed, a division of the powers -of government into three branches was resolved on; namely, the -legislative, to be vested in the asamblea; the executive, composed -of three members, to be elected by and to be subject to that body; -and the judicial, to be exercised by the existing courts.[IV-39] The -executive, as then constituted, was to be merely provisional, and until -a fundamental code should give it a permanent organization. The public -debt was recognized; the catholic religion was declared to be that of -the state; and freedom of the press decreed. - -From the moment that the choice of the executive occupied the attention -of the assembly a division of parties became manifest. The friends of -absolute independence formed a large majority; those of the former -Mejicanistas were few in number. The larger portion of the deputies -was composed of the best men of the country, whatever their party -affiliations, and their intentions were upright. Those of moderate -views from all sections formed themselves into one party, and went -by the name of moderados; their opponents applying to them the -epithets of servil and aristócrata.[IV-40] The radicals formed another -organization, and were called fiebres and liberales, their enemies also -giving them the appellation of anarquistas. - -The liberal party advocated the establishment of a federal republic, -and as a rule was guided by a liberal patriotism, and a desire to -see the abolishment of unjust privileges and antiquated vices in the -government. Its opponents, in favor of a centralized government and -the continuation of the old fueros, struggled against the restrictions -that were being put to the influence of Guatemala. Nevertheless, a -liberal spirit predominated for a time, and three well-known liberals -were chosen to constitute the executive authority, namely, Manuel José -Arce,[IV-41] Doctor Pedro Molina, and Juan Vicente Villacorta.[IV-42] -It must be acknowledged that this government was not a strong one, -the only man of superior talent in it being Molina, and he had little -experience wherewith to found a republic and manage its affairs at such -a critical period. - -A constantly increasing coolness between the government and Filisola -became intensified when the deputies from Costa Rica and Nicaragua -refused to occupy their seats in the assembly while a Mexican army -had virtual sway over the capital. Complaints also came from various -quarters, of abuses committed by the Mexican soldiers,[IV-43] and -demands were made for their departure. Some time elapsed in discussions -and negotiations, partly because of difficulty in raising the needed -funds. But finally, all obstacles being removed, Filisola departed with -his force on the 3d of August, 1823, leaving behind him a good name, -which was little affected by charges preferred against him at a later -date.[IV-44] - -The liberals now were at greater liberty to carry out their plans, -which involved, among other things, the disappearance of old practices, -including titles and compellations,[IV-45] not even the hackneyed 'don' -escaping the general reformatory tendency.[IV-46] A coat of arms was -likewise decreed, showing the national name in golden letters,[IV-47] -as also a flag, the latter consisting of three horizontal stripes, the -middle one being white, with the national coat of arms about half-way -from the mast, and the other two blue. - - [Illustration: SEAL OF CENTRAL AMERICA.] - -[Sidenote: DECREES OF THE GOVERNMENT.] - -Among other decrees enacted by the assembly in 1823, the following are -worthy of mention: One of August 21st, to annul all acts of the late -imperial government affecting Central America; one of August 26th, -declaring the 15th of September to be the national anniversary, and -how it was to be observed—this decree was reiterated by the legislative -assembly on the 15th of October, 1834; one of October 27th, directing -the Central American deputies—those of Chiapas excepted—to withdraw -from the Mexican congress; and one of November 15th, to form a general -census.[IV-48] - -[Sidenote: ARIZA'S REVOLT.] - -Another measure adopted was that which authorized the executive to -dismiss without formality all officials having their appointments -from the Spanish or Mexican governments. Little discretion was shown -in this, and discontent resulted, which was made manifest in the -opposition met with by every measure of the government, even such -as were generally recognized to be of public utility. Financial and -military affairs were in the worst possible condition. To improve the -former was a difficult task, the expenses being greater than during -the colonial period, and several branches of revenue, which formerly -yielded considerable resources, having disappeared with the old -dependence.[IV-49] As to the army, the greater part of it had been -disbanded, and only one battalion of the regular force and a few bodies -of militia formed the entire defensive power of the republic. The -government was almost at the mercy of a handful of men, and it was not -long before they exhibited their lack of discipline and loyalty. The -soldiers had for some time past shown dissatisfaction at the neglect of -the government to pay them their dues. Under the circumstances, it was -rather easy to prevail on them to revolt, and it was done, the leader -being Captain Rafael Ariza y Torres.[IV-50] The authorities, though -aware of his machinations, had taken no decisive measures to defeat -them,[IV-51] other than commissioning Ignacio Larrazábal to make an -investigation. Ariza, fearing that delay might cause the failure of -his plan, in the evening of the 13th of September assumed the title of -commander-in-chief of the forces; and the next morning[IV-52] volleys -of musketry and other manifestations apprised the alarmed inhabitants -of the insurrection. A scene of excitement ensued. The assembly hastily -met, and amidst the confusion a messenger came from Ariza to assure the -chamber of his loyal disposition toward the government, and to add in -explanation that the position of commander had been forced upon him by -the troops. The messenger was peremptorily ordered to retire without -receiving any answer. A number of enthusiastic citizens assailed -a portion of Ariza's men, only to be driven back to the university -building, where the assembly held its sittings. A show of defence -was made there,[IV-53] to enable the assemblymen to seek safety in -flight. Few of their number remained. Negotiations were then begun to -prevent the commission of outrages by the mutinous soldiers,[IV-54] and -the government finally gave way, and conferred on Ariza the title of -commander-in-chief; he thereupon took the official oath on that day. -The concession was made only to gain time, hopes being entertained that -the auxiliaries summoned from the surrounding country and other states -would soon arrive. - -The rebellious captain had in the mean time begun to realize his -awkward position. Assuming a submissive tone, he protested his -readiness to obey the government; whereupon he was commanded to leave -the city and retire to Antigua, where his force dispersed before any -coercive action on the part of the government and its allies became -necessary. Ariza himself escaped by flight the punishment which his -reckless behavior deserved.[IV-55] - -But the difficulties were not yet over. The feeble conduct of the -government, and the humiliating concessions it had made to the rebel, -reflected so much discredit that the labors of the moderado party -for the election of a new executive now gave promise of fruitful -results.[IV-56] On the 4th of October congress reassembled, and the -same day Villacorta, Molina, and Rivera tendered their resignations, -which were accepted; and in their stead, on the 4th of October, Manuel -José Arce was again elected, together with José del Valle and Tomás -O'Horan,[IV-57] and as substitutes for the two first, then absent, José -Santiago Milla and Villacorta, the same person who had resigned.[IV-58] -The new government found at once its attention engrossed by the -troublesome situation, which had arisen from the coming of a Salvadoran -force, called to help against the revolting soldiers. Although -forbidden to approach the city, and ordered to return home, it refused -to comply,[IV-59] and on the 12th of October entered the city of -Guatemala, all remonstrances to the contrary having proved unavailing. -The Salvadorans occupied the capital three weeks, during which rumors -were rife of their plans to pillage the place in retaliation of -Guatemalan troops having occupied San Salvador the previous year. -Brawls and fights between them and soldiers from other provinces were -of daily occurrence. - -The regular garrison and all the inhabitants breathed more freely when -at last, on the 3d of November, the unwelcome guests departed.[IV-60] -The same day the auxiliary troops from Quezaltenango, who had been of -good use in keeping others somewhat in check, also returned home. - -[Sidenote: A CONSTITUTION.] - -The labors of the assembly had been continued in the mean time, and -on the 17th of December, 1823, were decreed and published the bases -of the constitution for the republic,[IV-61] adopting a popular, -representative, federal form of government. Each one of the five -states, Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, which -were to form the confederation of Central America, was to have the -same division of powers, and with the same functions, in its internal -administration, as the general government with respect to the whole -republic.[IV-62] - -The labors of framing the constitution lasted a year longer, and were -terminated only on the 22d of November, 1824, when the fundamental law -of the Central American republic was promulgated, strict obedience -thereto being solemnly sworn on the 15th of April, 1825,[IV-63] and -ratified by the national congress five months later, namely, on the -1st of September. While discussing the constitution, both the liberal -and moderado parties used their best efforts for the adoption of -their respective principles. The former triumphed, being especially -strong in the provinces, whereas its antagonists resided chiefly in -the capital. Although a number of good and able men were among the -members of the congress, their good purposes were repeatedly balked -by party spirit; and thus only an imperfect result was obtained in -the constitution adopted November 22, 1824.[IV-64] It was the first -effort to define the rules for the government of a country which -at that time was beginning the life of an independent nation. The -constitution of the United States had been taken as a model; but it had -not been borne in mind that a difference existed between the people -of the northern and Central American republics at the time when they -respectively gained their independence. However good the intentions of -the framers of the Central American constitution, they fell short of -their object; for in adopting certain forms, altogether inappropriate, -they also introduced contradictory clauses. No provision was made for -a federal district to hold the national capital. Thus Guatemala, where -the federal authorities then and afterward resided, became also the -seat of the state government, and in the course of time collisions -were unavoidable.[IV-65] The constitution further defined the rights -of property and liberty of thought, as well as freedom of the press, -and placed the chief authority of the republic in the hands of -congress,[IV-66] in addition to the legislative power with which it was -vested. Laws were to be enacted by the two houses forming the congress, -one of which was the senate, whose members were also elected by the -people, two for every state. This body acted as an executive council, -with a general supervision to see that the different high officials -and magistrates faithfully discharged their duties. Its president was -ex officio vice-president of the republic.[IV-67] A supreme court of -justice was also created, the members being, like those of congress and -senate, chosen by popular vote.[IV-68] - -[Sidenote: SLAVERY ABOLISHED.] - -Among the most important laws enacted were those of December 31, 1823, -and April 17 and 24, 1824, which emancipated all slaves, and made -free slaves of other countries coming to Central America.[IV-69] The -slave-trade was prohibited, under the penalty of forfeiture of the -rights of citizenship.[IV-70] Of all the nations of North America, -to the Central American republic belongs the honor of having first -practically abolished slavery.[IV-71] - -The new republic also took a deep interest in a project for the union -of all the American states.[IV-72] The project failed, because of its -impracticability. The particulars of this subject are given in treating -of the famous Panamá congress of American nations. - -The exhausted condition of the treasury appearing to be the chief -impediment to all projected improvements, the remedy was looked for in -a foreign loan, about $7,000,000 being borrowed on rather favorable -terms from a London firm.[IV-73] The tobacco and customs revenues -were pledged toward its repayment.[IV-74] It is understood that a -portion of the money was applied to strengthening the fortifications, -and the remainder was distributed among the states for their local -requirements. - -The initiation and execution of the different measures I have made -mention of, and others of less magnitude, were the work of the -constituent assembly, which closed its session on the 23d of January, -1825. If all its resolutions were not wise ones, allowance must be made -for the many difficulties that were in the way, and a full recognition -given its members of the good faith and assiduity with which they -performed their work.[IV-75] - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT. - -1825-1830. - - GENERAL ELECTIONS—MEETING OF THE FIRST CONGRESS—MANUEL - JOSÉ ARCE, FIRST PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC—FOREIGN - RELATIONS—ARCE'S PREVARICATIONS—CONFLICT WITH GUATEMALA—PARTY - BICKERINGS—LIBERALS QUARREL WITH ARCE—HE JOINS THEIR - OPPONENTS—BITTERNESS ENGENDERED—PRESIDENT VERSUS - GUATEMALAN RULERS—ARREST OF JEFE JUAN BARRUNDIA—RIOTS AT - QUEZALTENANGO—MURDER OF VICE-JEFE CIRILO FLORES—ARCE AS - DICTATOR IN GUATEMALA—WAR AGAINST SALVADOR—ARCE DEFEATED—HE - GIVES UP THE PRESIDENCY, AND CANNOT RECOVER IT—BLOODY WAR OF - 1826-9—MORAZAN THE VICTOR—JOSÉ FRANCISCO BARRUNDIA, ACTING - PRESIDENT—LIBERAL MEASURES—PEACE RESTORED—SPANISH SCHEMES. - - -The first constitutional congress of the Estados Federados de Centro -América was installed on the 6th of February, 1825, Mariano Galvez -being chosen president,[V-1] as well as the leader of the liberal -party. A number of the old delegates had been reëlected for the new -body,[V-2] whose principal duties were the election of a president, -and the ratification of the constitution. The latter, as we have -already seen, was on the 1st of September; the former proved a more -difficult task, and was achieved amidst contradictions and stormy -discussions. The provisional executive power elected in 1823 had not -been harmonious. Arce and Valle assumed their duties soon after their -election, and before many days had serious differences, which ended in -Arce's resignation of the presidency of the triumvirate. Being replaced -by José Manuel de la Cerda, he departed for Salvador and Nicaragua, -exerting himself in the pacification of the latter. His services in -this direction won him much good-will, and it was proposed to make -him the first constitutional president of the republic, a proposition -that met with popular favor. Meanwhile his opponent, Valle, was also -working.[V-3] Since May 1824 the congress had been convoked. Both -liberals and moderados had untiringly worked for their respective -candidates. The latter seemed to have every prospect of victory; of -the 79 votes cast, 41 being for Valle, their candidate.[V-4] As 42 -votes were necessary for a choice under the constitution, congress -assumed the right of selecting one of the two candidates. A compromise -between the contending parties was effected, Arce pledging himself -to remain neutral on certain questions upon which the other party was -much disturbed.[V-5] The moderados then voted for Arce, and congress, -on the 21st of April, 1825, declared him to have been duly elected by -a majority of twenty-two votes against five for Valle. The latter was -recognized as the vice-president, and having declined the position, -Mariano Beltranena was chosen in his place.[V-6] The justices of -the supreme court were elected at the same time, and on the 29th of -April[V-7] took possession of their offices. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: RECOGNITION BY THE UNITED STATES.] - -The recognition of the Central American republic as an independent -nation had engaged the attention of the supreme authorities at the same -time that the internal organization was proceeding. The first treaty -concluded by the new republic was on the 15th of March, 1825, with -Colombia, Pedro Molina acting as its plenipotentiary at Bogotá.[V-8] A -few months later, at Washington, on the 5th of December, 1825, a treaty -was entered into with the United States of America, with which power -there had been formal relations since the beginning of the year.[V-9] -Antonio José Cañas represented Central America as her plenipotentiary. -The United States soon after accredited William Miller as chargé -d'affaires near the new republic. Diplomatic relations with Great -Britain and the Netherlands were opened early in 1825. Spain continued -refusing to recognize the independence of Central America, and the pope -followed in her footsteps, as he had done in regard to Mexico.[V-10] - -The republic being now fairly launched, had Arce possessed the -ability all might have gone well. But he either overestimated his -administrative powers, or underrated the magnitude of his task; and -after decreeing some wise measures upon the military defences, he -began to sow dissatisfaction by his vacillating policy. A member -of the liberal party from the first day that he took part in the -political affairs of the country, he now committed the serious error -of abandoning the ground upon which he might have trod with safety. -In his endeavors to please both parties, he succeeded in offending -the liberals without securing the confidence of their opponents, who, -though willing enough to admit him to their ranks, declined rendering -implicit obedience. His former friends now openly assailed him.[V-11] - -A conflict sprang up, also, between the federal government and the -local authorities of Guatemala City, because the latter refused to take -part in celebrating the anniversary of the installation of the first -assembly on the 24th of June, and force was at last brought to bear -upon them.[V-12] - -[Sidenote: ARCE, RAOUL, AND VALLE.] - -The ill-feeling against Arce became intensified when the state -government soon after decreed a transfer of its seat to Guatemala, -and for want of accommodations in public buildings, took possession -of the property of private citizens without their consent. The owners -claimed protection from the federal congress, and serious disturbances -were averted only by a compromise. During this episode the moderados -or serviles kept fanning the flame of discord between Arce and the -liberals, extolling his measures. When the first congress closed its -session, on the 25th of December, 1825,[V-13] the political features -of the country had notably changed. But fortunately the danger to the -republic from the action of the serviles was avoided, because, upon -lots being cast on the 1st of October for the renewals of members -of congress,[V-14] the retiring members happened to be chiefly of -districts where the servile party had majorities before, and were -now replaced by liberals, the preponderance of the latter being thus -increased. The second constitutional congress assembled on the 1st of -March, 1826. Among its members was Valle, who, bent on revenge, erelong -made common cause with the liberals,[V-15] though he was not allowed to -exercise a predominant influence in their counsels. - -On the day congress opened, the president delivered his message -detailing the condition of the country, but most of it had reference -to the relations with foreign powers.[V-16] The impending rupture was -finally hastened by the president's course toward Colonel Nicolás -Raoul, a French officer who had recently arrived from Colombia, -and had been made commander of the artillery and a member of the -council of war.[V-17] Notwithstanding the considerations and favors -conferred on him by Arce, no sooner had he received his appointment -than he openly sided with the liberals and gave utterances against -the government. Therefore, when Raoul was summoned by congress to -aid in the organization of the federal troops, the president, to get -rid of him, sent him to explore the northern coasts.[V-18] Arce then -undertook to increase the federal army to 4,000 men, under the pretext -that such a force was needed for the pacification of Nicaragua, and -the defence of the country against a Spanish invasion, rumors of which -were circulating. In order to facilitate the operation, he proposed -that the members of congress should stir up public enthusiasm in their -respective states; but instead of acceding to his recommendation, -several persons known to be hostile to the government, among them -Raoul, were selected by that body. All remonstrances to the contrary -on the part of Arce[V-19] had no other effect than to imbitter the -liberals against him. Charges were accordingly brought forth, such as -his neglecting to lay before congress an account of expenditures during -his administration, and his having squandered a considerable portion of -the money raised by loan in London. The outcry against his conduct was -growing louder from day to day. - -This unsatisfactory state of affairs determined Arce to dissolve -congress. Still he was loath to use violent means, and in fact, there -was no need of it. One of the clauses of the constitution allowed -the admission of substitutes for the deputies to congress in certain -cases, and both parties had taken advantage of it without opposition. -However, when the question of calling the president to account arose, -the serviles protested against the presence of the liberal substitutes -which gave to that party the majority.[V-20] On the 2d of June the -deputies from Salvador, under instructions from their government, -which was friendly to Arce, abandoned their seats, their example -being followed by those from Costa Rica and most of the serviles, thus -leaving the chamber without a quorum.[V-21] The session was reopened, -however, ten days later, upon the liberals pledging themselves not -to introduce any motion against the president or the serviles, and -thenceforth the discussions were confined to matters of a general -character till the 30th of June, when the session was closed; but the -deputies of Salvador and Costa Rica had not resumed their seats. - -[Sidenote: STATE AND NATION.] - -It was now evident that a collision was unavoidable. The state -government, controlled by the liberals, became fearful that the -serviles, in their endeavor to support the president, might also attack -the authorities of Guatemala, and under the pretext of an invasion -threatening from Chiapas, secretly began to make military preparations. -Salvador and Costa Rica, on the other hand, offered aid of troops -to the federal government. Both parties precipitated the crisis: the -liberals by their heedless attacks on the clergy,[V-22] and specially -by ridiculing its members; the serviles by fanning, jointly with the -clericals, ill feeling among the low, ignorant classes, whom it was -easy to persuade that the liberal party aimed at the destruction of -their religion. This had now become a matter of greater ease, owing -to the irritation already existing, caused by the forced loans and -recruiting for the army decreed by the state government. Strange -though it may appear, the serviles had no suspicion that the federal -authorities were aware of their intrigues. The clash came in May -1826, when Raoul, without having fulfilled his commission on the -northern coast, tendered his resignation, accompanied with a number of -invectives against the executive, which he subsequently repeated in a -second letter.[V-23] He was arrested on the 17th of July, and subjected -to the action of a court-martial for disrespect and insubordination. -This raised a storm of fury in the local legislature, where Raoul's -arrest was considered as an encroachment on the state's authority. -An order of arrest was issued against Captain Espínola, the officer -who had carried out the commands of the federal executive, and the -jefe, or chief of the state, Juan Barrundia, was authorized to raise -a sufficient force to seize Espínola's person,[V-24] and the pecuniary -contingent of the state for federal expenses was withheld.[V-25] - -The troops despatched to arrest Espínola numbered 300 men, and were -commanded by Cayetano de la Cerda, who encountered his man near -Acasaguastlan. To avoid bloodshed, a capitulation was agreed upon -by both parties until they should obtain further orders from their -respective governments.[V-26] - -When news of this agreement reached Guatemala, a few days later, -simultaneously rumors came to the ears of Arce that a coup-de-main -was contemplated by Barrundia, with the evident intent of effecting -his removal. To anticipate the blow,[V-27] on the 5th of September -Arce secretly ordered the commander of the federal forces to arrest -Barrundia at an early hour the following morning, and disarm the state -troops, using force if necessary.[V-28] This was done, the officer -meeting with no resistance.[V-29] The liberals had no suspicion of -Arce's resolve till after its execution. The vice-jefe of the state, -Cirilo Flores, then forthwith assumed the government, and being -tendered the aid of federal troops to support his authority, proudly -rejected it.[V-30] - -[Sidenote: ARREST OF BARRUNDIA.] - -On the following day the chiefs of the other states were apprised of -Barrundia's arrest, in a circular from Arce defending his course, which -he declared to have been pursuant to duty under the constitution.[V-31] -Such was the position assumed by his friends and by the serviles in -general; while the radical liberals, taking a different view, denounced -him as a violator of the constitution.[V-32] However, the energy -thus displayed by Arce was rather favorably looked upon, perhaps -from a feeling of relief arising from the supposition that party -bickerings had been brought to an end, more than from any sympathy -for Arce. The president might now have strengthened his party, but -did not, and went on committing serious mistakes. Instead of turning -the imprisoned Barrundia over to the state assembly, as prescribed -by the constitution, to be tried upon the several charges that had -been ostentatiously preferred against him, he allowed the legal -time for prosecution to elapse, and then released the prisoner under -bonds.[V-33] - -The second constitutional congress was to meet on the 1st of October, -1826, and the liberal party had, since September, industriously worked -to secure a majority. But on the appointed day there was no quorum, the -members of the opposition having refused to take their seats, evidently -to prevent the adoption of any measures against the president.[V-34] -It was rather suspicious that the government at San Salvador, always -friendly to Arce, had forbidden its delegates to occupy their seats in -congress unless it were to discuss the expediency of transferring the -federal authorities to some place distant from Guatemala.[V-35] It soon -became apparent that the president's aim was to have his own assembly, -for on the 10th of October he convoked an extraordinary congress.[V-36] -This was open violation of the constitution, which vested in the senate -the authority for convoking, and moreover limited representation to -only one delegate for every 30,000 inhabitants. Much indignation was -felt by the members of congress, who had constituted themselves into an -organizing commission, but dispersed on the same day that Arce's decree -was published.[V-37] - -[Sidenote: MURDER OF FLORES.] - -Exciting events now followed in quick succession. The vice-jefe Cirilo -Flores and the state authorities had retired on the 8th of October -to Quezaltenango, where he was murdered a few days afterward—on the -13th—by a mob of fanatical Indians.[V-38] The act was attributed -to Arce and his immediate friends, but apparently without much -reason,[V-39] though it must be admitted that intrigues of the servile -party and the preaching of hostile priests aroused the fanaticism of -the populace to such a degree that the slightest cause would bring -about the commission of outrages. The trouble did not end with Flores' -death, for many members of the assembly and representative council were -compelled to flee for their lives. - -The state was now powerless, for even its military forces disappeared -before the federal troops. The liberals in the state and republic saw -their hopes dashed, and many emigrated.[V-40] Arce held the executive -authority of both the federation and the state of Guatemala; and acting -upon the advice of Salvador, he began reorganization, decreeing on the -31st of October the election of a new executive and legislature for -Guatemala, from which the inhabitants entertained hopes of a final -restoration of peace throughout the republic. But those hopes were -frustrated by a sudden change of policy on the part of the Salvador -government, which surprised everybody, all the more from the fact that -it had heretofore firmly supported the president. - -[Sidenote: ARCE'S VICTORY AND DEFEAT.] - -Pedro Molina arrived at San Salvador from Panamá when Arce had in his -charge the affairs of Guatemala, and had decreed the new elections -for the state. Being a political opponent of the president, Molina -refused to go to Guatemala to report the action of the Panamá congress. -It was not a difficult matter for him to find congenial spirits -for an intrigue against the federal executive. An estrangement had -occurred between Arce and Delgado, who aspired to be bishop of San -Salvador,[V-41] and was a man of great political power. Moreover, it -so happened that the jefe of Salvador, owing to ill health, had to -turn over his office to the vice-jefe, Mariano Prado, who was under -the influence of the discontented party. His first act was to repeal -Arce's decree of October 10th convoking an extraordinary congress at -Cojutepeque.[V-42] Then simultaneously forces were levied in Salvador, -ostensibly to protect congress when assembled at Ahuachapan. Internal -difficulties in Honduras led the federal government to interfere;[V-43] -and thus, at the end of 1826, there were a number of forces at work to -drive Arce from the presidential seat. This state of affairs continued -till February 1827, when rumors of an invasion began to circulate in -Guatemala. The next month Salvadoran forces, under Trigueros, started -on their march toward the capital. All doubts about the plans of the -invading army having ceased, Arce displayed unusual activity in his -preparations to meet the enemy. With the aid of the newly chosen jefe -of Guatemala, Aycinena, he increased the garrison to 2,000 men, and -leaving the executive authority in charge of Vice-president Beltranena, -took personal command of the troops. He made an effort, however, to -avert an encounter, but without avail;[V-44] and they fought, a few -days later, at Guadalupe, a short distance from Guatemala, the invaders -being repulsed, and the following day, March 23d, utterly routed at -Arrazola.[V-45] This victory caused great exultation in Guatemala, and -Arce's prestige grew rapidly. Money and reënforcements were cheerfully -placed at his command, and he allowed himself to be carried away by -evil counsels to pursue an aggressive policy and punish Salvador.[V-46] - -[Sidenote: CÁSCARAS IN SALVADOR.] - -The federal army marched in April into the state of Salvador, and -reënforced from Sonsonate and Santa Ana,[V-47] reached Nejapa without -opposition, that place being about twelve miles from the city of -San Salvador. After certain negotiations for peace, which had no -satisfactory result, Arce attacked the city on the 18th of May, at -the head of 2,000 men, and was repulsed with heavy loss. His slow -movements had given the Salvadorans time to act.[V-48] His retreat -was in good order to Santa Ana; but from this place, desertions -having greatly diminished the force, it degenerated into flight, of -which the pursuing Salvadorans failed to take advantage. Arce reached -Cuajiniquilapa toward the end of May, with only 300 men. This early -failure of a war from which were to flow such great results brought -odium on Arce; but by the efforts of friends, confidence in him was -restored, and about 700 men were obtained to resume operations by -taking Santa Ana.[V-49] For several months no events of importance -occurred. The time was employed by Arce in strengthening his force, -with which he made a fruitless attempt to intercept a Salvador -division that assailed Sonsonate. Overtures for peace were again made -by Salvador, but though not absolutely rejected, no understanding was -arrived at. They gave rise, however, to a discussion as to whether the -federal president was, as he thought himself, authorized to decide upon -the question of peace or war without consulting the state government -of Guatemala.[V-50] Piqued at the opposition he had met, which he -supposed to arise from want of confidence, Arce received with pleasure -a request from Vice-president Beltranena to give up the army and -return to Guatemala and take charge of the government.[V-51] Brigadier -Francisco Cáscaras was thereupon made commander of the army on the -12th of October, 1827. Soon after Arce's return to Guatemala he took -steps to restore peace, and issued, on the 5th of December, a decree to -convoke a new congress,[V-52] and at the same time ordered a suspension -of hostilities. But his commissioner, Juan de Dios Mayorga, who was -to notify the authorities at San Salvador of his measures, was not -allowed to proceed to that city, the Salvadorans, now reënforced with -officers exiled from Colombia,[V-53] being more than ever opposed to -conciliation. Hostilities were resumed and conducted with alternating -success;[V-54] but on the whole, disadvantageously for the federal -force, owing to Cáscaras' lack of strategy, and the temporizing policy -of the enemy; for the latter, whenever pressed, would make overtures of -peace, protesting a willingness to terminate the war, though breaking -their promises as fast as they were made.[V-55] Cáscaras' situation -was daily becoming perilous, on account of the numerous desertions of -his troops. At last, on the 17th of December, a bloody encounter took -place in the streets of Santa Ana, which terminated in a capitulation, -under which both forces were to leave the place the next day. Cáscaras -left it as stipulated, but Colonel Merino with the Salvadorans -remained.[V-56] Cáscaras returned to Guatemala toward the end of -December, the Salvadorans having regained possession of Santa Ana, and -of all the other places formerly occupied by the federal army. - -Shortly after, with Aycinena's assistance, another federal army -was organized, but Arce took good care to give positions in it -only to trusted friends.[V-57] As soon as the organization was -nearly completed, detachments were sent to check the enemy's raids -in Chiquimula, and then, under the command of a foreigner named -William Perks, the army marched against the Salvadoran headquarters -at Ahuachapan. Once more stratagem was resorted to by the wily -Salvadorans, who made proffers of peace, the farce ending as -usual.[V-58] In the mean time troubles broke out in the federal army, -and Perks, the commander, was deposed by the field-officers and sent to -Guatemala as a prisoner.[V-59] The command then devolved upon Colonel -Antonio José Irisarri. Arce tried in vain to have Perks reinstalled, -and his efforts in that direction only served to increase the ill -feeling, which grew so strong that on the 14th of February, 1828, he -turned over the executive office, though without a formal resignation, -to Beltranena,[V-60] who conferred the command of the federal army -on Brigadier Manuel Arzú. This officer marched at once against the -Salvadorans, refusing to listen to any overtures for negotiations -from their chief, Merino. The armies met at Chalchuapa on the 1st of -March, and the federal troops obtained a victory, which drove the foe -back to San Salvador.[V-61] Arzú followed and made an assault on that -city, in which both sides gave proofs of extraordinary bravery. The -assault failed; at the end of six hours' fighting the assailants had to -retreat behind their intrenchments.[V-62] From this time San Salvador -and San Miguel became the theatres of war. A series of encounters, -none of sufficient importance to be lengthily described, followed, with -varying success for either side.[V-63] The Salvadorans having besieged -the remnants of the federal army under Colonel Manuel Montúfar, at -Mejicanos, after eight months compelled them to surrender, on the 20th -of September. Their commander and general staff were held as prisoners -of war.[V-64] - -[Sidenote: GUATEMALA AND SALVADOR.] - -The division of the federal army that occupied the department of San -Miguel, which had been defeated by General Morazan at Gualcho on the -6th of July, being intercepted on its retreat toward the Lempa, laid -down its arms, under honorable terms, at San Antonio, on the 9th of -October.[V-65] - -The condition of federal affairs was now far from encouraging. It -may be that Arce, had he been replaced, might have turned disaster; -but his application had met with a refusal, and he took no further -part in the political events of the republic.[V-66] After all hostile -forces had been either captured or expelled from Salvador, Morazan -made a triumphant entry into the state capital on the 23d of October, -1828.[V-67] Shortly before this a commission had come from Costa Rica -to mediate between Guatemala and Salvador, but the latter demanded too -much.[V-68] Morazan's presence in San Salvador greatly strengthened the -warlike party, and the idea of invading Guatemala gained favor from -day to day, till it was finally carried out. After peace overtures -had been rejected by the federal authorities, Morazan began his march -toward Guatemala in the latter end of November 1828.[V-69] The news -struck terror into the hearts of the now defenceless Guatemalans, -and no steps to meet the emergency could be taken, owing to lack of -order, official rivalries, and party intrigues. It was, as a saving -measure, finally decided in the assembly to detach the state from the -federation, though it was never sanctioned or carried out. To increase -difficulties, a revolution broke out in the department of La Antigua, -placing it under the protection of Morazan,[V-70] who, at the head of -about 2,000 men, assuming the title of 'ejército aliado protector de -la ley,' laid siege to the city of Guatemala, assailing it from the -side of the Garita del Golfo, on the 5th of February. He was repulsed -after a brisk fire.[V-71] This was followed on the 15th by a sally of -the garrison, which annihilated at Mixco a considerable portion of the -invading army.[V-72] - -[Sidenote: SUCCESS OF MORAZAN.] - -In consequence of this reverse, Morazan raised the siege of Guatemala, -and concentrated his forces at La Antigua. The success of Mixco was the -last experienced by the federal army; for with the same neglect which -had characterized its operations almost throughout the whole campaign, -no advantage was taken of the victory, nor of several military errors -of Morazan.[V-73] A strong division under Pacheco sallied out of -Guatemala toward the towns of Zumpango and El Tejar, as if to confine -Morazan in La Antigua; but Pacheco disseminated his force, and was -beaten.[V-74] Early in March Morazan's troops reoccupied Mixco, and -when attacked, shortly afterward,[V-75] by the federal forces at Las -Charcas, signally defeated them, and the fate of the servile party in -Guatemala was thus sealed.[V-76] - -Through the mediation of General Verveer, minister from the -Netherlands, an attempt was made to bring peace to the distracted -country. Commissioners representing the several belligerents assembled, -on the 27th of March, at the house of Ballesteros, and discussed the -propositions laid before them, which were rejected, and they then -retired. Morazan, who was anxious for a compromise, specially as -he had good reasons to apprehend the dissolution of his army by the -small-pox epidemic which had broken out, urged Verveer to invite the -commissioners to hold another conference. It took place; and those of -Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua presented four propositions, which -were likewise rejected by the federal and Guatemalan negotiators.[V-77] -Morazan had felt certain that those proposals would be accepted, and -believed them to be exceedingly generous in view of the fact that the -city could no longer hold out. However, hostilities were resumed, and -on the 9th of April the forces under Morazan attacked the city, and a -part of it was taken and plundered.[V-78] - -[Sidenote: FALL OF GUATEMALA CITY.] - -Aycinena applied on the 11th to Morazan, as commander-in-chief of the -allied army of Honduras and Salvador, for a suspension of hostilities, -in order to negotiate a capitulation which he was disposed to enter -into. Morazan replied at once that he could agree to nothing but the -unconditional surrender of the city, though offering to guarantee the -lives and property of all persons existing therein.[V-79] The fighting -continued, and on the 12th the place capitulated. The occupation was -effected on the following day,[V-80] and immediately Vice-president -Beltranena and his ministers of relations and treasury, Aycinena and -his secretary Piélago, and Ex-president Arce[V-81] were placed under -arrest.[V-82] Morazan, assuming then all the powers of state, restored -Juan Barrundia to the position of jefe of Guatemala,[V-83] whereof he -had been deprived by Arce. The capitulation of April 12th was on the -20th declared void, on the ground that the federal commander had failed -to comply with its terms in not giving up all the arms his forces held -at the time of the surrender.[V-84] Morazan treated the functionaries, -both federal and of the state of Guatemala, who had taken part in the -revolution of 1826 to 1829, with much rigor.[V-85] - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: MORAZAN'S MEASURES.] - -A period of reaction, or restoration as it was properly called, was now -inaugurated. During several years the servile party had held undisputed -control of public affairs in Guatemala, crushing out all opposition -to the best of its ability. Its policy had been one of intolerance, -and its downfall was hailed with joy. Morazan seemed to have been -chosen by providence to inflict condign punishment on those who had -so cruelly exercised a usurped power. Surrounded as he was by so many -diverse elements, the severity of the blows he dealt must not be all -laid to his account. The state assembly, which had been dissolved in -1826, having again met on the 21st of April, 1829,[V-86] with its old -president, Nicolás Espinosa, was practically a tool in the hands of -the victorious general, and enacted several vigorous laws against the -vanquished party.[V-87] On the 4th of June the assembly passed an act, -which was sanctioned by the consejo representativo on the 12th, and by -Jefe Barrundia on the 13th, declaring null all elections made pursuant -to the unconstitutional decree of the president of the republic -dated October 31, 1826, and the subsequent ones of 1827 and 1828. It -furthermore stamped as revolutionists and usurpers all persons who by -virtue of those decrees had obtained and held office of the federation -or the state of Guatemala, and as such guilty of high treason, and -amenable to the death penalty.[V-88] On the same day was issued a -so-called amnesty law; but the number of exemptions from its benefits -made its name a piece of irony.[V-89] The position of the prisoners -taken in Guatemala at the time of the capture of said city, and others, -became a more complicated one, in consequence of a decree passed by the -assembly of Salvador on the 9th of June, declaring that it would not -recognize in the assembly of Guatemala any authority to grant, without -the assent of the other states, amnesty to the factious disturbers of -public order; and that the capitulation entered into between Morazan -and Aycinena having been annulled, the captives were really prisoners -of war of the allied states.[V-90] A number of the prisoners were, -however, permitted to go into exile within fifteen days, paying -first the expenses of their support while in prison, and one third -of the value of their estates[V-91] into the federal treasury, as -indemnification for the damages they had inflicted on the country. That -privilege was not granted to the president and vice-president and their -ministers, the former chief of Guatemala, and others. In fact, it was -a proscription of all the principal men who had sided with the servile -party.[V-92] It was also decreed that all salaries paid from October -1826 to April 1829 should be refunded. Harsh measures were used to -force a compliance. - -The federal congress that was dismissed in October 1826 assembled on -the 22d of June,[V-93] under the presidency of Doroteo Vasconcelos, -and on the 25th José Francisco Barrundia[V-94] assumed the office of -president of the republic, he being the senior senator, and having been -specially called thereto by the congress, though the real power in the -country was Morazan. - -[Sidenote: EXPULSION OF FRIARS.] - -The chief point of discussion in congress[V-95] was, what to do with -the prisoners. Some members favored their execution, and though others -disapproved of such a disposal of them, none had sufficient courage -to openly condemn such vindictiveness. The discussions continued till -July 9th, when a number of the prisoners were sent under an escort -to Sonsonate, to be embarked at Acajutla and expatriated.[V-96] Two -days later a similar blow was struck at the church, evidently because -of the sympathy of its head men with the servile party.[V-97] During -the night between the 10th and 11th of July, an armed force, acting -under orders of Morazan, who issued them in accordance with the -views of the acting president and the jefe of Guatemala, seized the -archbishop and the friars of several orders, and despatched them to -the Atlantic coast, where they were embarked for Habana. Several of -the friars are represented to have died on the voyage.[V-98] Whether -there was sufficient cause for so violent a proceeding is doubtful. -However, the federal congress thanked the executive for his zeal. The -sentence of expatriation against the archbishop was not formally issued -till about a year after.[V-99] On the 28th of July the assembly of -Guatemala decreed the suppression of all monastic establishments of -men, excepting only the Bethlehemite hospitallers, who were allowed -to remain as secular priests, and prohibited in the nunneries vows -and professions in the future. All the temporalities of the suppressed -convents were declared confiscated to the state. The federal congress -approved this act on the 7th of September, declaring that the nation -would no longer receive or recognize within its territory any religious -orders.[V-100] - -Peace being finally restored, the large army of Morazan was gradually -dissolved, and the leader became a candidate for the presidency. The -necessity of an energetic man, such as Morazan was, at the head of -affairs, was quite apparent, for new difficulties were threatening from -different quarters. Costa Rica, disapproving the course of Salvador, -declared her secession from the union, and it was only after much -persuasion that she retracted it. The federal government, and that -of the state of Guatemala, now in charge of Pedro Molina,[V-101] -clashed on several occasions, and specially when, in 1830, the -question of constituting Guatemala city as a federal district again -came upon the tapis. The state rejected the plan, as on every previous -occasion.[V-102] A project of Molina to reform the confederation met -with the same fate. He favored the model of the Swiss republic at that -time, abolishing the expensive machinery of a federal government, which -was almost continually at variance with the different states.[V-103] -The failure of this scheme brought with it the downfall of Molina, who -was afterward suspended on fictitious charges and tried, and though -acquitted, was not reinstated.[V-104] - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: SPANISH EFFORTS.] - -The plan of King Fernando VII. of Spain for the reconquest of his -former American dominions, and the steps he was taking to accomplish -it, naturally caused a sensation in Central America, where that monarch -would be sure to find elements favorable to his views. The so-called -nobles, who had endeavored, after the downfall of Iturbide and the -separation from Mexico, to establish in Central America an aristocratic -republic, such as that of Genoa or Venice, had been again balked in -their aims by the successes of Morazan. In their disappointment they -turned their eyes to Fernando, and through special agents, as well as -through Archbishop Casaus, made known to the captain-general of Cuba -that the circumstances Central America was then in were most propitious -for the restoration of the royal sway; for, as they asserted, all -honest, right-thinking men and women in the country yearned for it, and -the Indians were likewise anxious for the change. Therefore, the only -opposition thereto lay in the comparatively small number of aspirants -to public offices, who made revolution in order to control the public -funds for their own benefit. Such reports were full of encouragement -for the Spaniards who were intriguing in behalf of Fernando's -interests, which were probably also their own. - -Positive information was at last received from a reliable source -that Spain was preparing, in Habana, an expedition to land at Omoa -and march on Guatemala, where it expected to find the requisite -coöperation.[V-105] This report coincided with the departure of -the Spanish expedition under Brigadier Barradas to Tampico.[V-106] -President Barrundia, on the 3d of September, 1829, issued a stirring -address; and the congress, in October and November, with the sanction -of the executive, passed an act forbidding Spaniards to enter or land -in Central American territory under any pretext. The ports of the -republic were closed to the Spanish flag, and to the products and -manufactures of Spain, her colonies, and dependencies. - -There were not a few Spaniards who, together with the self-styled -nobles of native birth, desired to see the flag of the old country -waving again over Central America. That anxiously wished for day -had become almost the only subject of conversation in their circles, -of which the assembly of Guatemala took due warning. In November it -declared the sequestration of all property belonging to Spaniards who -dwelt in the republic, coupled with the assurance that none should be -restored till Spain had formally recognized the independence of Central -America.[V-107] - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -CIVIL WAR. - -1829-1838. - - REVOLUTION IN HONDURAS—CONSERVATIVES INVADE THE STATE—SECOND - GENERAL ELECTIONS—FRANCISCO MORAZAN CHOSEN PRESIDENT—PLOTS - OF THE SERVILES—ARCE'S INVASION FROM MEXICO—OCCUPATION OF - HONDURAS PORTS BY EXILED REBELS—SPANISH FLAG HOISTED IN OMOA, - AND AID FROM CUBA—SALVADORAN AUTHORITIES IN REBELLION—THIRD - GENERAL ELECTIONS—MORAZAN REËLECTED—FAILURE OF COLONIZATION - PLANS—RAVAGES OF CHOLERA—INDIAN REVOLT UNDER CARRERA—HIS - EARLY LIFE. - - -It is difficult for us to realize how long it takes and how hard it is -for progressive man to throw away the fetters, temporal and spiritual, -which in times past he stupidly forged for himself. Intellectual light -breaking in on our old savagism finally tells us that the hurtful -manifestations of nature are not the chastisements of offended deity; -and then we wonder how we could have been so stupid so long, with our -pope-worship and king-worship, and our servility to their satellites. -Then when we first gain our liberty we know not what to do with it. -We feel lost without the harness, the reins, the whip and spur. The -people of Central America, high or low, knew little at this juncture -of self-government. In times past they had observed that rulership -consisted largely of personal wranglings for place, from king and pope -down to the lowest aspirant; of wars, political and ecclesiastical, -brother against brother, priests and people butchering and burning as -if the great object of religion and civilization was to preserve upon -this earth as long as possible the hell which we all hope in one way or -another to escape hereafter. - -Note further in regard to Central America the strange union of widely -distinct classes in their efforts to sacrifice the country for self. -Though from somewhat different motives, we see join hands the highest -and the lowest, a self-styled aristocracy and the ignorant rabble, -aided by the priests who would not see their power slip from them in -the general overturnings, all spending their energies and blood in the -direction of utter destruction for themselves, their families, and -their country. Fortunately there were others at hand whose ideas of -self-government were different; who earnestly desired that this new -plant of liberty—a boon which had so unexpectedly dropped down to them -from heaven—should have in their midst a healthy growth, in spite of -ignorance, ambition, or superstition. - - [Illustration: HONDURAS.] - -[Sidenote: TROUBLES IN HONDURAS.] - -The legislative assembly of Honduras, pursuant to the proscriptive -law enacted by the federal congress in August 1829, issued a decree of -expulsion, and the government of the state transmitted to Guatemala a -list of those who had come within its provisions.[VI-1] Some exiles -from Honduras and other states of Central America went to Belize to -carry on their plots from that quarter, and soon caused a sedition -in the department of Olancho. The vice-jefe, Vijil, used his best -endeavors to bring the seditious to terms peaceably, but failed.[VI-2] -It became necessary then to resort to force, and Lieutenant-colonel -Terrelonge was authorized to move his troops from Trujillo against -Olancho. The state of Guatemala was also requested to send its force -stationed in Chiquimula to Gracias, for the purpose of aiding in -the preservation of order. The assembly of Guatemala, on the 24th -of November, 1829, directed that 500 men, subject to the orders of -the chief of the state, should repair at once to Honduras and quell -the insurrection. The wording of the decree caused a disagreement -between the president of the republic and Jefe Molina. The latter -insisted that the 500 men to be sent to Honduras should be under -his orders. President Barrundia could not accede to it, because the -command of a military force operating out of the state belonged by -law to the federal government,[VI-3] and through his minister of -war, Nicolás Espinosa, applied to the Guatemalan legislature for a -change in the decree. Espinosa's communication caused much sensation, -and the assembly repealed the act of November 24th, and in its stead -provided that the money needed to muster in and equip 500 men should be -furnished the general government out of the state treasury. - -Morazan, jefe of Honduras, and general-in-chief of the Central American -forces, had marched with a division upon the departments of Olancho -and Opoteca, and to him were despatched the troops newly raised in -Guatemala. Colonel Vicente Dominguez was one of the chief promoters -of the revolution of Honduras.[VI-4] Morazan's military reputation -made easy his road to victory. He encountered no great difficulties. -The year 1830 was inaugurated with new triumphs. The Olancho rebels -surrendered to him at Las Vueltas del Ocote, and on the 21st of January -solemnly bound themselves to recognize and obey the government.[VI-5] -Morazan next, on the 19th of February, routed the insurrectionists of -Opoteca.[VI-6] Morazan, after pacifying Honduras, intended marching -into Nicaragua, if political measures should prove insufficient to -establish regularity there. He first despatched Dionisio Herrera to -the seat of Nicaraguan differences, who fulfilled his trust with zeal, -and Morazan had no need of going to the state. Herrera had been chosen -jefe, and was duly inducted in his office on the 12th of May. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: REVOLT AND ELECTION.] - -The time for renewing the supreme federal authority having arrived, -elections were held throughout the republic. Congress opened its -session with due solemnity on the 27th of March, 1830. The supreme -court of justice was likewise installed.[VI-7] The election of -president of the republic had been also made. Morazan, José Francisco -Barrundia, José del Valle, Antonio Rivera Cabezas, and Pedro Molina -obtained votes; but by far the largest number of them had been polled -for Morazan and Valle.[VI-8] - -The votes were counted in June. Morazan had the largest number; but -in order to ascertain if the election had been legal, it was necessary -first to declare if the basis was to be the number of votes which the -citizens of the republic had the right to poll, or that of the votes -actually given and counted. If the former, there had been no popular -election, and congress had to decide the point between Morazan and -Valle; in the latter case, Morazan had been popularly elected.[VI-9] - -[Sidenote: MORAZAN PRESIDENT.] - -The congress consisted for the most part of friends of Morazan, and he -was declared president. He made a triumphal entry into Guatemala on the -14th of September, and should have been inaugurated on the 15th; but it -was decided that Barrundia should turn over to him the executive office -on the 16th, in the midst of the festivities of national independence. -This was done by Barrundia with that republican simplicity which had -ever characterized the man. All the states sent their congratulations -to Morazan, and to Barrundia for the good judgment and success of his -administration.[VI-10] Mariano Prado, the distinguished citizen of -Salvador, who did such good service to the liberal cause as vice-jefe -of that state during the campaign that ended in April 1829, was elected -vice-president. - -One of Barrundia's measures that did him honor was his saving the -island of Roatan to Central America. The British had driven away -the few inhabitants and small garrison and taken possession.[VI-11] -Barrundia made energetic though courteous remonstrances, and the island -was restored after Morazan had become president. - -The country now required peace. Morazan exerted himself to foster -education and national industry. Agriculture and trade began to revive; -but it was not to be continued long, for the demon of political strife -was let loose again. The servile party, though defeated, had not -remained inactive. In 1831 it prepared a plot for the destruction of -the liberals, which had ramifications everywhere. Arce was to invade -the republic from Mexico through Soconusco. Dominguez was to occupy -Honduras with elements gathered for the purpose at Belize. Meantime, -Ramon Guzman seized the fort at Omoa with 200 negroes.[VI-12] Arce -effected his invasion with about 100 men, exiled and discontented -Central Americans,[VI-13] and was defeated at Escuintla de Soconusco, -on the 24th of February, 1832, by the forces under General Raoul. -He succeeded in escaping with a few men into Mexico again.[VI-14] -Guzman, being hard pressed at Omoa by the government troops under -Colonel Terrelonge, hoisted the Spanish flag over the fort, and -despatched, on the 10th of August, the schooner _Ejecutivo_, whose -name had been now changed to _General Dominguez_, to ask assistance -from the captain-general of Cuba, offering himself and those with him -as subjects of the Spanish king. But the vessel was captured on her -return with supplies, and the rebel garrison surrendered on the 12th of -September, after a siege of five months.[VI-15] Almost at the same time -that Omoa was seized by the rebels, the port of Trujillo was occupied -by Vicente Dominguez, who had in his company Pedro Gonzalez.[VI-16] -The Central Americans had two armed schooners at Izabal, besides two -national vessels under Terrelonge, and an armed schooner at Belize. -Duplessis, a Frenchman, commanding the national vessel _Fénix_, was -captured by Dominguez, taken to Omoa, and shot in the plaza.[VI-17] - -Dominguez' vanguard reached Yoro on the 7th of March, 1832, and was -defeated at Tercales on the 9th, and again at Olanchito. He fled to -Trujillo, leaving behind 200 muskets, other arms, some money, and other -things.[VI-18] He then transferred himself to Omoa, and with 600 men, -on the 26th of March, attacked the government troops at Jaitique, being -defeated. He was again routed at Opoteca, pursued in all directions, -captured, and taken to Comayagua, where he was put to death on the -14th of September.[VI-19] The rebel plot thus defeated was a formidable -one. Archbishop Casaus from Habana moved his clergy. Bishop Fray Luis -García of Chiapas favored Ex-president Arce, whose friends confidently -asserted that he also had the support of the Mexican government.[VI-20] -Arce's plans were also in combination with the jefe of Salvador, José -María Cornejo.[VI-21] The fallen party would not admit that they had -been vanquished, that their principles were antiquated and repugnant to -the people; they still believed that a reaction was not only possible, -but right and natural. - -[Sidenote: HONDURAS AND SALVADOR.] - -Cornejo's intrigues led to a disturbance of the peace in Salvador. The -state assembly had been installed in February 1831, and the tendencies -of its members elect, together with Cornejo's workings, had awakened -mistrust among the liberals of Guatemala. The assembly of the latter -state directed the executive, in congratulating the Salvador assembly -upon its installation, to remind it of the necessity of harmony and of -upholding liberal principles.[VI-22] - -On the news of the invasion of Honduras, already described, -reaching Guatemala, Morazan decided to establish his headquarters -in San Salvador as a more convenient centre for future operations. -His relations with the authorities of Salvador were anything but -harmonious; neither could they be harmonious under the circumstances. -Mariano Galvez, jefe of Guatemala,[VI-23] desiring to avoid conflicts, -despatched Colonel Nicolás Espinosa with letters to Cornejo, advising -him that his agent was instructed to use his best offices to settle the -differences between him and Morazan. Espinosa, when near Atiquizaya, -heard that orders for his arrest had been issued, and therefore went -back. Galvez became justly indignant at the conduct of Cornejo's -agents. - -[Sidenote: SALVADOR SECEDES.] - -The president of the republic started from Guatemala on the 29th of -December, 1831, accompanied by his ministers, and journeyed toward -San Salvador without any military force other than his body-guard; -consequently Cornejo had no cause to apprehend any sudden blow at his -authority.[VI-24] Nevertheless, on the 6th of January, 1832, Cornejo -broke out in open rebellion, commanding the national executive, then -at Santa Ana, to quit the state forthwith or he would be driven away. -Morazan, having no means of resistance, obeyed. This insult to the -republic was followed next day, January 7, 1832, by an act declaring -the suspension of the federal compact and the secession of the state -of Salvador. Congress then empowered the executive to repel invasions. -The jefe of Guatemala admitted the obligation of his state to aid -the general government with all its means.[VI-25] The assembly of -Nicaragua, backed by the jefe Dionisio Herrera, who was a stanch friend -and supporter of Morazan, passed an act disallowing the legitimacy of -the Salvador authorities and their acts, and providing means to support -the federal government.[VI-26] - -Costa Rica, through her minister of state, Joaquin Bernardo Calvo, in -a note from San José of March 3, 1832, to the government of Guatemala, -signified her readiness to support the laws, and with that end to -place at the disposal of the federal executive all the aid in her -power. A Guatemalan force was stationed on the frontier of Salvador, -first under Colonel Cárlos Salazar, and afterward under Colonel Juan -Prem, a distinguished officer of the campaign of 1829. Even now Galvez -hoped to avert war, sending commissioners to confer with Cornejo at -Ahuachapan. The latter received them, and appointed his own to continue -the conferences; but they were suddenly brought to an end without -results.[VI-27] Further efforts on behalf of peace were useless; the -contest had to be decided by war.[VI-28] - -Morazan with a force of Salvador and Honduras men marched from -the river Lempa to Portillo. Cornejo had 600 men in Jocoro of the -department of San Miguel. The latter were signally defeated on the 14th -of March, losing 500 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners.[VI-29] This -was soon followed by pronunciamientos in several departments against -Cornejo and in favor of Morazan. The latter lost no time in marching -upon San Salvador, which he took by assault on the 28th of March, -notwithstanding the obstinate resistance of Cornejo and the garrison, -the assailing force being made up of Nicaraguans and Hondurans.[VI-30] -The state authorities were deposed, sent to Guatemala under a guard, -and subsequently tried by a special court created ex post facto, with -the name of jurado nacional.[VI-31] Morazan then assumed control of -Salvador until constitutional authorities should be reorganized.[VI-32] -This step, illegal as it was, gave dissatisfaction, not in Salvador -alone, but in the other states, which subsequently seceded from the -union; and though later retractions took place, it may be said that the -confederation was dissolved at this period.[VI-33] - -Meantime, the federal congress had continued its sessions, striving -to promote the welfare of the country by a liberal policy. Among the -acts adopted at this time, and deserving special mention, was that -of May 2, 1832, abolishing the exclusiveness of the Roman religion, -and recognizing freedom of conscience and of worship.[VI-34] This -law, though practically of little effect, inasmuch as there were but -few foreigners in the country, showed that a spirit of toleration -was gaining ground. Another important measure was the adoption of -Livingston's Louisiana code, and trial by jury. This form of trial was -not understood by the people, and fortunately fell into disuse. - -[Sidenote: ELEMENTS OF DISUNION.] - -Notwithstanding the acts of disunion passed by the several states, -there was no serious disturbance during the remainder of 1832 or in -1833. In the middle of the latter year[VI-35] congress adjourned, -and there were fair prospects of peace. Indeed, the liberals had -been made to see the folly of disunion. The states, relinquishing -their antagonisms, quietly returned to the confederacy. The federal -government, on the 20th of April, 1833, convoked a new congress to -adjust differences. But now a new element of discord appeared. This -was the jealousy felt by the smaller states toward Guatemala, which -being larger in extent and population, naturally had a corresponding -influence in the national congress.[VI-36] These states demanded -an equal voice in that body, and insisted that this right should -be recognized before proceeding to the elections.[VI-37] Guatemala, -heeding the anxiety of the liberal leaders, assented to the demand. -Some of the states proceeded with their elections, but it soon became -obvious that the plan of compromise could not be satisfactory or -permanent, and it was dropped. The proposed congress accordingly did -not meet.[VI-38] - -Rumors were current for some time in 1833 of an intended invasion of -Salvador by Arce, by sea from Acapulco,[VI-39] but they proved to be -unfounded. The federal government transferred its seat on the 5th of -February, 1834,[VI-40] first to Sonsonate, and later to San Salvador, -which for the time being quieted the jealous feeling of the several -states against Guatemala. But after a few weeks the dissensions between -the federal and state governments, of so frequent occurrence when the -former was in Guatemala, were renewed in San Salvador. On the 23d of -June, 1834, a fight took place between troops of the two parties, and -the affair ended in another overthrow of the local authorities,[VI-41] -who were proscribed under ex post facto laws.[VI-42] The state -government went first into the hands of General Salazar, who called -himself jefe provisorio, and afterward into those of the vice-president -of the republic. Neither had any legal authority in the premises. -This state of affairs caused dissatisfaction in Salvador. Political -disturbances were also experienced in other states. The flame of -discord was fanned everywhere by the oligarchs, who found their task -made easier by the extreme religious liberalism of the ruling party. -Their influence was felt when, on the 7th of February, 1835, after -San Salvador, together with a few surrounding towns, was constituted a -federal district,[VI-43] a new constitution, based on the former one of -1824, was generally rejected.[VI-44] - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: ELECTION AND DEATH OF VALLE.] - -Elections for supreme authorities of the republic were decreed on -the 2d of June, 1838. The end of Morazan's term was approaching, and -his popularity was to be again put to the test. There was really but -one man that could compete with him, José del Valle, who was leading -a retired life devoted to scientific and political studies; but his -reputation was a national one, eminently Central American, and a large -portion of the people summoned him to rulership. He was elected, but -died before the certificates of election were opened. - - * * * * * - -The death of Valle occurred on the 2d of March, 1834. The highest -honors were paid to his memory.[VI-45] This untoward event necessitated -another election to carry out the decree of June 1833, and José -Francisco Barrundia having declined to be a candidate, Morazan -encountered no opposition and was reëlected.[VI-46] For the office of -vice-president, no one having obtained the constitutional number of -votes, congress, on the 2d of June, 1834, chose from among candidates -having forty votes and upward José Gregorio Salazar, to be inducted -in office on the 16th. Mariano Prado, the former vice-president, had -been as such at the head of the federal executive authority in 1831; -but he was chosen jefe of the state of Salvador, and took charge of -that office on the 25th of July following. The vice-presidency and the -office of a state jefe were incompatible. He chose the latter, and was -most unfortunate in the discharge of its duties. There being then no -vice-president, José Gregorio Salazar had charge of the executive in -1834 as the senior senator, Morazan having for a time, and with the -permission of the senate, absented himself. Upon being elected on the -2d of June, Salazar continued in charge, and it was by his order that -the federal authorities transferred themselves to the city of Santa Ana -during San Martin's insurrection against the national government. The -day after the inauguration of Morazan for the second presidential term, -congress closed its session.[VI-47] - -No important event affecting the confederation occurred during the -remainder of 1835, but the atmosphere was filled with folly and -misrule, foreboding the storm which was to make of Central America for -many a day the theatre of the bloodiest of civil wars. - - * * * * * - -It has been shown that the party in power pursued in general a liberal -policy—too liberal, in fact, as later events proved. In view of the -tardy development of the country in the old way, inducements were -offered for foreign immigration, and an English company was organized -for the purpose of fostering colonization in the department of Vera -Paz.[VI-48] Settlers were sent out, and several hundred thousand -dollars expended, but the scheme failed because of unskilful and -dishonest management.[VI-49] Nevertheless, the servile party turned -this incident to account, filling the minds of the lower classes, -especially the Indians, with prejudice against the government, which it -accused of an intent to exterminate the native population by throwing -open the country to foreign influence, religion, and administration of -justice. The innovations in this last respect had, more than anything -else, imbittered the natives, and on the 6th of March led to an -outbreak at Ostuncalco, where the Indians had become irritated at being -compelled to work at the construction of prisons.[VI-50] An armed force -was sent to quell the disturbance, out of which the judges and some -officials had great difficulty to escape with life. - -[Sidenote: REVOLT AND CHOLERA.] - -Scarcely was this trouble over when a worse one stole in—the cholera. -The scourge began its ravages in Central America early in 1837,[VI-51] -and soon spread throughout the towns of the republic. The governments -of the different states, and notably that of Guatemala, used the -utmost efforts to relieve suffering. Physicians and medical students, -provided with medicines, were despatched to the several districts. -But their efforts were largely frustrated by the opposition of the -servile party, which never ceased its work even in these days of awful -distress. Determined to bring to an end the influence of the liberals, -the servile party hesitated at nothing. All means to that end were -made available. The priests made the ignorant masses believe that the -waters had been poisoned in order to destroy the natives and make way -for foreigners.[VI-52] Their deviltry was crowned with success. The -low murmurs of hatred soon swelled to loud cries of vengeance against -the government and foreign residents. Several physicians became the -victims of popular fury, being put to death with cruel tortures.[VI-53] -Others barely escaped death. The greatest violence was in the district -of Mita, where it assumed the form of a general insurrection. The -government despatched a body of troops to dissolve a large assemblage -of insurrectionists. The instructions were to use gentle means to allay -the disturbance, resorting to force only in case of necessity. The -magistrate of the district, having imprudently left the strong body -of infantry behind, had no sooner attempted to explain his mission -than the mob fell upon him and his guard of forty dragoons, killing a -number of them and putting the rest to flight. This was on the 9th of -June.[VI-54] The leader of the mob on this occasion was Rafael Carrera, -a mixed-breed, who now for the first time, at the age of twenty-one, -possibly a few years older, appeared on the stage, to become afterward -the bitterest foe of the liberal party, and eventually the dictator of -the country. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: RAFAEL CARRERA.] - -Rafael Carrera was a native of Guatemala, of Indian descent, of a -violent, irascible, and uncommunicative disposition, base-born, -ignorant, though gifted with talents, bold, determined, and -persevering. From common servant he became a pig-driver, and while such -obtained much influence among the lower class of Indians—an influence -which was due no less to his blood connections and the force of -circumstances than to his bravery and capabilities.[VI-55] - -Carrera was at first a mere tool of the priests, and seemed to have -been a believer of the lies they had circulated. After he became -powerful, they and their allies, the so-called nobles, humored his -idiosyncrasies, and often had to put up with his insults and abuse. He -had upon them the heel of insane revolt.[VI-56] - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -DISSOLUTION OF THE REPUBLIC. - -1837-1840. - - CAMPAIGN AGAINST CARRERA—SEVERAL DEPARTMENTS OF - GUATEMALA IN REBELLION—JEFE GALVEZ DEPOSED—CARRERA TAKES - GUATEMALA—MURDER OF SALAZAR—CARRERA ACCEPTS MONEY TO LEAVE - THE CITY—DICTATORSHIP OFFERED MORAZAN BY THE ARISTOCRATS - AND REFUSED—CARRERA'S SECOND REBELLION—THE REPUBLIC IN - PERIL—MORAZAN'S EFFORTS TO SAVE IT—NICARAGUA AND HONDURAS - FORCES INVADE SALVADOR—MORAZAN DEFEATS THEM—HIS RETREAT - TO SAN SALVADOR—HE EMBARKS—IS REFUSED HOSPITALITY IN COSTA - RICA—GOES TO SOUTH AMERICA—THE REPUBLIC IS DEAD—SALVADOR AT - THE MERCY OF CARRERA. - - -Only a week after the success of the insurgents on the field -of Ambelis, a numerous armed force was sent against them by the -government, which achieved victory near Mataquescuintla.[VII-1] The -revolution might have ended here but for the excesses of the government -troops, which roused the Indians, and rendered reconciliation -impossible.[VII-2] Henceforth the war was one of races. Carrera, upheld -as he was by the priests, found no difficulty, in his visits from -village to village, to induce the native population to join the revolt, -which, notwithstanding the triumphant language of the military officers -in their reports—calling the rebels cowards and themselves intrepid -and invincible—was fast spreading. Carefully avoiding encounters with -the regular army, Carrera succeeded in getting together a large force, -which, though raw and undisciplined, often surprised and defeated -detachments of the regulars, seeking a refuge when pursued in the -inaccessible mountain fastnesses.[VII-3] - -To make matters worse, the departments of Sacatepequez, Chiquimula, -and Salamá, declared themselves independent of the government, and -the rebels of the first district,[VII-4] concentrating at La Antigua, -threatened to attack the capital. In the latter place a division had -occurred in the liberal party,[VII-5] some of whose members from this -time sided with the serviles; which circumstance made it more difficult -to place the city of Guatemala in a proper state of defence. A mutiny -of the federal troops in the city[VII-6] increased the danger, but it -soon was quelled with the execution of the ringleader. On the 27th -of January, 1838,[VII-7] Galvez despatched the vice-president, José -Gregorio Salazar, and the secretary of relations, Miguel Álvarez, -as commissioners, to confer with General Carrascosa, the commander -of the rebel forces, and bring about an amicable arrangement. The -commissioners signed at Guarda Viejo[VII-8] a convention containing -the following stipulations: 1st, resignation of Galvez; 2d, occupation -of the capital by the forces of Sacatepequez; 3d, the forces in the -capital to go out, and place themselves under the orders of General -Morazan; 4th, the forces of Sacatepequez to guarantee the persons and -property of all; 5th, the commissioners would arrange the manner of -evacuating the city; 6th, upon the ratification of these clauses, they -were to be carried out within twenty-four hours. Nothing was done, -however,[VII-9] and after four hours' waiting, Carrascosa continued -his march toward the gate of Buenavista, where he met the government -commissioners, who assured him, with great mortification, that the -convention had not been ratified.[VII-10] - -[Sidenote: ATTACK ON GUATEMALA.] - -Sacatepequez' force, 800 strong, entered the capital during the night -of the 29th of January, from the Calvario side, reaching the plazuela -de San Francisco, afterward known as plaza de la Concordia. The roar of -artillery apprised the inhabitants at 1 o'clock in the morning that the -struggle had begun. Generals Prem and Gorris, colonels Yañez, Arias, -Mariscal, Cerda, and Córdoba, and the other officers of the garrison, -made a stout defence. Their troops, though inferior in number, were -for their discipline more efficient than their assailants, who were -mostly raw recruits. It was quite evident that Carrascosa and his -colleague Carballo would waste their efforts unless they were strongly -reënforced. But the opponents of Galvez were resolved to depose -him,[VII-11] even if they had to make use of Carrera to accomplish -their purpose. It was a fatal thought. - -José F. Barrundia was authorized by President Morazan to enter into -peaceable negotiations with Carrera, and the clergymen José María de -Castilla, Manuel María Zeceña, and José Vicente Orantes. Barrundia, -together with Manuel Arrivillaga, started for the hacienda of La Vega -to confer with Carrera; but at Ojo de Agua they ascertained that he was -at Mataquescuintla, and declined to hold any conferences, and yet an -arrangement with other opponents had been signed at Santa Rosa. This -document, which was shown by Father Duran to Barrundia, stipulated -the immediate coming of a bishop, the abolition of the code and of -other liberal measures decreed by Barrundia, and that Carrera should -become the commander of the reform forces, or in other words, the -arbiter of the country, which was what the clergy wanted. Barrundia was -indignant, but he had to submit and keep calm, else he might lose his -life. He merely said that the arrangement needed some discussion, which -might lead to the adoption of some amendments. Duran had not worked -to promote Barrundia's nor Molina's ideas, but his own interests. He -coolly replied that the matter had been well considered, and admitted -of no changes. - -Barrundia wrote Carrera, asking for an interview to explain Morazan's -views, but Carrera appeared angry at the mention of Morazan's name, -and declined the invitation, saying that the time for negotiations had -passed, and that his march against Guatemala was in order.[VII-12] He -became much mollified on receiving from La Antigua a request for his -coöperation,[VII-13] and was now satisfied that the fate of the country -was in his own hands. Three days after Carrascosa's failure, Carrera -joined him with a numerous force of Indians, and after some fruitless -negotiations, marched into the city on the 1st of February,[VII-14] -at the head of about 10,000 men, women, and children, the troops of -the government having retreated in an opposite direction. The result -of this was that Galvez ceased to be the jefe of the state, and was -succeeded by the vice-jefe, Pedro Valenzuela.[VII-15] - -[Sidenote: CARRERA TAKES THE CAPITAL.] - -The entry of Carrera's hordes into Guatemala might well create -consternation. Outlaws and robbers were among the leaders; the soldiers -were in rags,[VII-16] and equipped with a variety of arms, from the -rusty musket down to clubs, and knives secured at the end of long -poles, while others carried sticks shaped like muskets, with tin-plate -locks. Conspicuous among the mass of followers were thousands of women -having bags to carry away the booty, and who gazed with amazement -on the fine houses.[VII-17] Shouting 'Viva la religion! Mueran los -extranjeros!' the invaders entered the main plaza. After a few hours -the work of rapine began.[VII-18] No regard was paid by Carrera and his -hordes to the wishes of the vice-jefe Valenzuela, who had asked that -only the force from La Antigua should occupy the plaza. - -The leader of the opposition urged Carrera to leave the city; but -he manifested much indignation at such a request, and several of -his chiefs refused compliance. Carrera himself wanted to sack the -city,[VII-19] and it was only with great effort that he was prevented. -In lieu of pillage he was given $11,000,[VII-20] $10,000 for his troops -and $1,000 for himself. He was also flattered with the commission of -lieutenant-colonel and the appointment of comandante of Mita. A number -of those who had defended the city having voluntarily joined the -Sacatepequez force, Carrascosa was now better able to meet emergencies. -He at once, by order of the vice-jefe, made known to Carrera that -the interests of the public service demanded that he should repair to -Mita and take charge of the comandancia there. He made no resistance, -and went away with his horde,[VII-21] the inhabitants again breathing -freely for a time.[VII-22] Thus were the serviles balked once more. -Carrera was sent away from Guatemala, Valenzuela remaining in charge -of the state executive. Morazan was at San Salvador recognized as the -chief magistrate of the republic, and Vijil held the executive office -of that gallant little state. - -[Sidenote: MORAZAN VERSUS CARRERA.] - -Carrera and his supporters continued, however, their menaces, creating -no little alarm, which was quieted on receipt of the tidings that -Morazan was marching toward Guatemala with 1,500 men. On his arrival -he found not only that the serviles had been deriving advantages from -the disturbed political situation, but that the western departments -of Los Altos, namely, Quezaltenango, Totonicapan, and Sololá, had -declared themselves, on the 2d of February, a separate state under -an independent government.[VII-23] Without interfering with those -arrangements, Morazan endeavored to secure by peaceful means the -submission of Carrera, or rather, the disbanding of his force; failing -in which, he opened, on the 30th of March, the campaign against him. -Three months of military operations ensued, the federal arms being -victorious at every encounter, but without obtaining any definitive -result, for the enemy defeated in one place rallied in another, -continually increasing in numbers, and never crushed.[VII-24] Morazan -returned at last to Guatemala, where in the mean time servile influence -had become predominant.[VII-25] The most strenuous efforts, even to -fulsome sycophancy, were used by the serviles to win him to their side, -and to prevail on him to accept the dictatorship.[VII-26] - -The president returned in July to San Salvador to quell a revolt. A few -weeks later, on the 20th of July, 1838, the eleventh and last federal -congress of Central America, presided over by Basilio Porras, closed -its session.[VII-27] Subsequent efforts to bring it again into life -proved unavailing, and from this time the dismemberment of the republic -made rapid progress. Two days after the adjournment of congress, on -the 22d, the state government of Guatemala was also dissolved, and -was temporarily intrusted to the federal authorities,[VII-28] though -the executive office finally was assumed by Mariano Rivera Paz, as -president of the council, which satisfied the people, and peace was -unbroken, it being understood that a constituent assembly would be -summoned at once. - -[Sidenote: SALAZAR DEFEATS CARRERA.] - -As soon as Morazan was at some distance from Guatemala on his way to -San Salvador, Carrera, the supposed beaten rebel leader, for whose -capture a liberal reward had been offered,[VII-29] began to show -signs of rallying. He gathered a numerous force, with which, about the -middle of August, he defeated the federal troops, first at Jalapa and -next at Petapa. He then, unresisted, took possession of La Antigua, a -portion of which was pillaged, and forthwith started on his march for -Guatemala.[VII-30] A general clamor for Morazan was aroused; but it -was impossible for him to reach Guatemala in time, and the danger was -imminent that Carrera would not only take the city, but also carry out -his threats of burning every house in it. In this emergency, General -Cárlos Salazar, with the garrison of 900 men, sallied forth, and aided -by a thick fog, surprised Carrera at Villanueva, where the latter was -concentrating his forces, now about 2,400 strong, with the plunder -secured at La Antigua. A battle ensued, the bloodiest that occurred -in 1837 or 1838, and Carrera was routed,[VII-31] with the loss of 350 -killed and 24 prisoners, one of whom was the notorious Father Duran, -the representative and agent of the aristocrats near the person of -Carrera;[VII-32] besides giving up a number of federal prisoners and -losing three pieces of artillery, 305 muskets, and a large number of -other arms, besides ammunition. A portion of the defeated forces fled -to La Antigua, and a smaller one joined the rebel Mangandí, who had -500 men. The latter, being ignorant of Carrera's mishap, approached -Guatemala on the 11th, at 10 o'clock in the morning, causing no little -commotion; but on learning of his leader's defeat, he retired to the -mountains. The war might have ended here had the victors followed up -their success; but petty annoyances prevented Salazar from doing so, -and he threw up his command in disgust,[VII-33] though he was afterward -induced to resume it. - -The greater part of the clergy friendly to Carrera never forsook him. -It was not so with the aristocrats, Manuel Pavon, Luis Batres, and -Pedro and Juan Jose Aycinena, who feared at times that they could -not control him. After his defeat at Villanueva they called him an -'antropófago sediento de sangre humana.'[VII-34] At that time they -asked the vicar-general, Larrazábal, to fulminate censures against -Carrera, which he did.[VII-35] Friar Bernardo Piñol also railed -against him from the pulpit in the cathedral.[VII-36] However, not long -afterward Carrera was called from that same pulpit 'hijo predilecto del -Altísimo.' - -[Sidenote: CARRERA AGAIN DEFEATED.] - -The lack of energy on the part of the authorities after the affair -of Villanueva[VII-37] enabled Carrera to reorganize his forces, with -which he made a successful raid, in the latter part of October, against -Ahuachapan and Santa Ana,[VII-38] returning afterward to Guatemala, -when, on the 4th of November, he was attacked in Chiquimulilla by -Colonel Carballo, defeated, and driven back to the mountain recesses -of Mita.[VII-39] Morazan had in the mean time concentrated forces in -Guatemala, and aided Carballo's operations by marching against the -Indian chieftain from a northern direction. But all efforts to crush -the enemy failed, though the federal troops were everywhere victorious; -many of Carrera's followers were taken and shot, but he always managed -to escape.[VII-40] This warfare, or rather chase, was kept up nearly -two months. At last a capitulation was concluded, on the 23d of -December, at Rinconcito. Carrera and his followers were to surrender -their arms[VII-41] and recognize the government, which in turn was -to confirm the former in his office of comandante of the district of -Mita, and respect the lives and property of its inhabitants.[VII-42] -Thus was Carrera a second time given a legal standing. General Guzman, -who treated with him, seemed to place on the treacherous and barbarous -mountaineer the same faith as if he were a civilized man and a -respecter of treaty stipulations.[VII-43] The agreement was not carried -out by Carrera, for he delivered only a small portion of useless arms, -and kept his force under the pretext that the safety of his district -demanded it. The government not only had the weakness to enter into -this arrangement, but also that of not enforcing its fulfilment to -the letter. This rendered the renewal of hostilities but a question of -time. - -I have mentioned the congressional decree of May 30, 1838, granting the -states the privilege of acting as best suited their views. This was -tantamount to a dissolution of the union; and when Morazan's second -presidential term expired, on the 1st of February, 1839,[VII-44] not -even an outward tie remained to hold together the several states. -Morazan, and he alone, did not relinquish all hope of restoring the -republic, and without delivering up an office which had ceased to -exist, the strife was continued under his leadership. His efforts, -supported by force though they were, met with resistance on the part of -Nicaragua and Honduras, united by a treaty of alliance since January -18, 1839, which had been entered into for the purpose of maintaining -the independence and sovereignty of the two states.[VII-45] Similar -agreements were made in the following months between nearly all -the other states, always protesting a willingness to form a federal -convention of the Central American states, but opposing the idea of -confederation.[VII-46] - -[Sidenote: FIGHTING IN SALVADOR.] - -A conciliatory spirit, to bring to an end the war against Salvador, -and to act as mediator, was effected in these treaties; but it had no -influence for good, and the hostilities continued between Nicaragua and -Honduras on the one part, and Salvador on the other. Troops of the two -former states entered Salvador territory in March 1839, and surprising -a federal party at the crossings of the Lempa River, called Xicaral -and Petacones, took without resistance the town of San Vicente; but -having advanced to the heights of Xiboa, were repulsed and beaten by -Colonel Narciso Benitez.[VII-47] The allies were signally defeated at -Espíritu Santo, near the Lempa, by the Salvadorans, called federals, -under Morazan, on the 6th of April.[VII-48] Equally successful were -Morazan's operations during the rest of the year. His officers invaded -Honduras, took the capital and Tegucigalpa, and routed the allies in -several encounters.[VII-49] - -But affairs underwent a change against him early in the following -year. A joint force of Nicaraguans and Hondurans, under Manuel -Quijano,[VII-50] attacked the federals under Cabañas at the hacienda -del Potrero, on the 31st of January, 1840, and forced them to leave the -state of Honduras.[VII-51] A formidable servile coalition was being -formed against Morazan. Nicaragua was resolved to drive this jefe -of Salvador from the executive chair. Honduras, under Jáuregui, was -controlled by Quijano's sword. Los Altos had become again a department -of Guatemala, which was subject to Carrera's will. This chieftain, -in his pronunciamiento of March 24, 1839, had avowed his intention -to champion the sovereignty of the several states as concordant with -his own ideas.[VII-52] Morazan thought the situation might be saved -with an extraordinarily bold move, attacking the serviles in their -headquarters, and made preparation to bring matters to a final issue -in the city of Guatemala. The serviles, on their part, pursuing their -aim of overthrowing Morazan, entered into a league with Carrera, and -invited him to take possession of Guatemala. - -[Sidenote: TRIUMPH AND DEFEAT OF MORAZAN.] - -Morazan convoked the assembly of Salvador, and caused the vice-jefe, -Silva, to assume the executive office of the state, in order to enable -himself to take command of the forces for the campaign in Guatemala, -which at first amounted to 900 men. He was afterward joined by many -who had been persecuted by the aristocrats, who pledged themselves -to conquer or perish at his side, and faithfully carried out the -promise.[VII-53] Morazan marched upon the city of Guatemala, and his -movement created the greatest alarm when he neared Corral de Piedra. -Consternation then seized the serviles.[VII-54] Preparations were made, -however, for defence. All men capable of bearing arms were called -to the service,[VII-55] and Carrera established his headquarters -at Aceituno, his plan being to catch the men of Salvador between -the fortifications of the city and his own force.[VII-56] The plan -failed. Morazan entered the city on the 18th of March at sunrise, by -the Buenavista gate, and after some fighting, made himself master of -it, and of all the defences.[VII-57] Liberals who were in the prisons -were set free. Among them was General Agustin Guzman, whom Carrera -had outrageously treated, confining him shackled in a dungeon. Guzman -hailed the victor who returned him to freedom, but was unable to -afford any aid; the shackles had made him a cripple. The numerous -prisoners taken were all treated with every kindness. Such had always -been his practice. However, it was not destined that he should enjoy -his victory. Carrera attacked him on the next day—the 19th—and after a -fight of twenty-two hours, compelled Morazan to retreat.[VII-58] His -forces had been shattered at the Calvario. The number of assailants, -known as cachurecos, was overwhelming.[VII-59] At 4 o'clock in the -morning he left the city by the plaza de Guadalupe with upwards of 400 -men, and was far away before the escape became known. No pursuit of the -fugitives was attempted.[VII-60] - -[Sidenote: FALL OF MORAZAN.] - -On arriving at San Salvador, Morazan found the tables turned against -him. He was openly insulted in the streets; and becoming convinced that -it would be impossible to raise a new army and continue the war, he -concluded to cease the struggle and leave the country. He accordingly -called a meeting and made known the necessity of such a course in order -to save the state from anarchy. On the 5th of April he embarked at -La Libertad upon the schooner _Izalco_, together with Vice-president -Vijil and thirty-five of his supporters.[VII-61] The vessel reached -Puntarenas, where the chief of Costa Rica, Braulio Carrillo, who had -congratulated Guatemala on the defeat of Morazan, refused him residence -in the state, though it was granted to some of his companions.[VII-62] -Morazan and his remaining companions continued their voyage to South -America, where he remained about two years. After a time, touching -at David, in Colombia, he issued a stirring manifesto to the Central -American people.[VII-63] He was the last champion of the 'Confederacion -de Centro América,' whose establishment had been greeted with so much -joy on the 1st of July, 1823. - -The governments of Nicaragua and Honduras, which had promised Guatemala -aid to resist Morazan, on hearing of his downfall congratulated the -victor on the defeat of the 'common enemy of all the states.' They -thought that with the fall of Morazan, Central American nationality -would be revived. They could not yet see that they had been the dupes -of the aristocrats and their clerical allies in Guatemala, who, while -holding out the promise of reuniting Central America, had been all -along working for the destruction of federal nationality. - -After the departure of Morazan and Vijil, Antonio José Cañas, by -virtue of his position as a councillor of state, assumed the rulership -of Salvador, and called the assembly to hold a special session. It -was expected that, Morazan being out of the way,[VII-64] with so -honorable and upright a man as Cañas at the head, concord would be -restored. But Salvador was still the subject of abuses, and on the -remonstrances of Cañas, the government of Guatemala despatched a -diplomatic mission to San Salvador. It was composed of the former -pig-driver Rafael Carrera, and Joaquin Duran, and had for an attaché -Francisco Malespin, a military officer whose sword had been dyed in -the best blood of Quezaltenango.[VII-65] A convention was concluded -on the 13th of May, 1840, placing Salvador at the mercy of Guatemala, -Cañas having to submit to the conditions imposed.[VII-66] The most -humiliating condition of the understanding was not mentioned in the -convention, namely, that the attaché Francisco Malespin should remain -in San Salvador, with the office of comandante de armas. This treaty -convinced the people of Salvador that they could expect no favor from -the aristocracy of Guatemala, their implacable foe. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -GUATEMALA AND HONDURAS. - -1824-1840. - - STATE GOVERNMENT OF GUATEMALA—BARRUNDIA'S - RADICALISM—HIS OVERTHROW—VICE-JEFE FLORES ASSASSINATED - IN QUEZALTENANGO—DOWNFALL OF THE LIBERALS IN - GUATEMALA—ARISTOCRATIC LEADERS EXILED—JEFE MOLINA—HIS - DIFFERENCES, IMPEACHMENT, AND ACQUITTALS—RIVERA CABEZAS' - REFORMS—EARTHQUAKES—GALVEZ' RULE AND ITS BENEFITS—PARTY - OPPOSITION TO HIM—INDIAN OUTBREAKS—CARRERA CAPTURES - GUATEMALA—GALVEZ RESIGNS—SUBSEQUENT RULE OF THE - ARISTOCRATS—GUATEMALA AGAIN INDEPENDENT—HONDURAS' STATE - GOVERNMENT—JEFE DIONISIO HERRERA—EARLY DISSENSIONS—COMAYAGUA - ASSAULTED BY REBELS—MORAZAN IN THE FIELD—HONDURAS SECEDES - FROM THE CENTRAL AMERICAN CONFEDERATION—FEDERALISM ROOTED OUT - OF HER TERRITORY. - - -Having sketched the life of Central America, first as an appendage of -the Spanish crown, next as a portion of the short-lived Mexican empire, -and lastly as a confederation of states, embracing the period from 1801 -to 1840, it is well now to glance over the internal affairs of each -state separately, for the period after its accession to the federal -union down to 1840, beginning with Guatemala as the most important. - -I have said elsewhere that the states were organized on the same -principle as the confederation, namely, under a popular, democratic, -representative government. The first constituent congress or assembly -of the Estado de Guatemala was installed at La Antigua on the 16th of -September, 1824,[VIII-1] under the presidency of the clergyman José -María Chacon, and its first act was to call Alejandro Diaz Cabeza de -Vaca to be the provisional chief of the state.[VIII-2] On the 30th, -the votes for jefe and vice-jefe having been counted, and neither of -the candidates having the requisite majority, the congress named Juan -Barrundia to be jefe and Cirilo Flores to be vice-jefe, the former -assuming the reins of government on the 12th of October, and at once -inaugurating a radical policy, which tended to widen the breach between -liberals and serviles.[VIII-3] No person opposed to him in politics was -allowed to have a voice in public affairs. However, no open rupture -occurred, even during a tumult in February 1825, when the Franciscan -friars of the college de propaganda fide refused to take the oath -recognizing the constitution of the republic. The rabble supported -the friars,[VIII-4] but owing to the energetic attitude of the state -government, the priests had to submit. - -The assembly continued its labors. A coat of arms was decreed January -20, 1825, and on the 2d of May took place the installation of the -executive council, whose prerogatives and duties were similar in state -matters to those of the federal senate in national affairs. On the same -date was also installed the superior court of justice. The framing -of a state constitution was not completed till the 11th of October, -on which date it was decreed.[VIII-5] After passing a law for the -political division of the state into departments,[VIII-6] the assembly -adjourned sine die one month later. Clouds had already appeared in the -political horizon, the state authorities having transferred the seat of -government from La Antigua to Guatemala, against the opposition of the -national executive. - - [Illustration: ARMS OF GUATEMALA.] - -[Sidenote: BARRUNDIA AS JEFE.] - -The liberal party has been accused of having, with the connivance -of the jefe Barrundia, committed frauds at the elections held in -January 1826 for a partial renewal of the representative council. In -the first ordinary legislature, which met on the 1st of February, -a law was passed for new elections to fill the council. But these -and other arbitrary measures of the liberal party gave rise to such -warm discussions in the assembly, that Barrundia at last ignored the -authority of the council as then existing.[VIII-7] The latter then -denounced him, and called the vice-jefe to assume the government. But -through the mediation of commissioners of the federal government, -harmony was restored. This harmony was not to last long, new -complications arising from another quarter. I have, in detailing -federal affairs at this period, spoken of the plans attributed to -president Arce to overthrow the liberal party, and the events which -culminated with the deposal of Barrundia from his position as jefe -of the state. The first resolution taken by the legislature and -representative council was to remove the capital to Quezaltenango. -The new jefe, Flores, was at the same time empowered to organize -a military force, raise funds, and adopt other proper measures to -uphold the state's sovereignty.[VIII-8] Flores had advocated the -removal of the state capital, but strenuously opposed the selection of -Quezaltenango as an unfit place for the seat of government of a liberal -state.[VIII-9] The assembly paid some heed to his remonstrances, and -tarried a while at San Martin Jilotepec, where it was resolved that -Barrundia should resume the reins of government; but he declined, -pleading ill health.[VIII-10] The assembly remained at that place till -the 29th of September, and then concluded to repair to Quezaltenango, -considering Jilotepec not quite safe. - -[Sidenote: PIERZON'S CAMPAIGN.] - -Flores, accompanied by a few deputies, arrived at Quezaltenango on the -8th of October, and was received with a shower of flowers. He at once -set himself to complete the defence of the district, which had been -already begun by Colonel José Pierzon,[VIII-11] who had mustered into -the service of the state several hundred men.[VIII-12] Having reason to -apprehend an attack from the federal authority, Pierzon was ordered to -Patsun to watch the enemy. It was during his absence that the events -occurred leading to the murder of Jefe Flores by an ungovernable -fanatical mob, of which a description is given elsewhere. Upon hearing -of those occurrences, and of the friars at Quezaltenango having called -the Indians of the neighborhood to take up arms for the common defence, -Pierzon retreated to Totonicapan,[VIII-13] encountering the Quezaltec -rebels on the 18th of October near Salcajá, and easily defeated them. -He gave no quarter. He demanded the immediate surrender of all arms in -Quezaltenango, guaranteeing the lives of the inhabitants, otherwise he -would destroy the place.[VIII-14] The rebel authorities had to submit, -and on the following day Pierzon recovered possession of the place. -Several draconic ordinances were issued to keep in check the spirit of -rebellion.[VIII-15] The leaders of the riots had, however, fled, thus -escaping the punishment they so richly deserved. - -Juan Barrundia now made another effort, from Sololá, to resume his -former authority, but his prestige was lost, and most of his friends -had forsaken his cause.[VIII-16] Pierzon abandoned Quezaltenango on -the 25th of October, and was pursued, overtaken, and defeated by the -federals, under Brigadier Cáscaras, at Malacatan.[VIII-17] Pierzon, -together with his friends Saget and Fauconnier, escaped, and were -proscribed, but they managed to cross into Chiapas.[VIII-18] But it -seemed that it had been preordained that he should perish at the hands -of his foes. On his way to San Salvador to take part in the war against -the federal government, he was taken prisoner, brought to Guatemala, -and shot, on the 11th of May, 1827, without a trial.[VIII-19] - -Another body of liberal troops, under Cayetano de la Cerda, not -being aware of Pierzon's defeat at Malacatan, prepared to march -from Los Altos to Guatemala, but the soldiers were induced to rebel, -and thus the last armed force of the state disappeared. The members -of the assembly and council who were not in prison either secreted -themselves or emigrated, and the state was left without authorities. -The federal president assumed power, and replaced the jefes políticos -and military commanders with his own creatures. He published, on the -31st of October, a decree for new elections of state authorities. -The new assembly met on the last day of the year, and on the 1st of -March, 1827, Mariano Aycinena was chosen by popular vote chief of the -state.[VIII-20] It is hardly necessary to state that the elections were -wholly controlled by the servile party, whose views were reflected in -the new jefe's policy. Lest the existing courts should not deal to the -liberals subjected to criminal prosecution such punishments as their -enemies desired, a military court, with three voting members, was -created, to adjudicate verbally upon all causes for treason.[VIII-21] -During the seven months of its existence—to the 29th of October, -1827—it sentenced to the death-penalty upwards of ten persons, but the -sentence was carried out in one case only.[VIII-22] - - [Illustration: GUATEMALA MEDAL OF ABOUT THIS DATE.] - -[Sidenote: RULE OF AYCINENA.] - -The history of Guatemala during Aycinena's rule was identical with that -of the federal government, this jefe being a supporter of President -Arce, and affording him all possible aid in his warfare against -Salvador, all of which has been narrated. Toward the end of 1828, -however, the successes of the arms of Salvador, together with certain -alleged false steps of Aycinena,[VIII-23] aroused such a spirit of -discontent against him and his administration, that on the 20th of -October the assembly passed an act for the renewal of all the chief -authorities of the state.[VIII-24] Soon afterward the project was -entertained of detaching Guatemala from the federation. Neither of the -plans led to the proposed results. The latter was disapproved by the -representative council, and the former was useless, as the incumbents -were continued in office.[VIII-25] This caused the breaking-out of a -revolution at La Antigua in January 1829,[VIII-26] which, though easily -quelled, hastened the march of the liberal forces under Morazan from -San Salvador upon Guatemala.[VIII-27] After this leader took the city, -on the 13th of April, 1829, Aycinena and the other chief men of his -administration being thrown into prison, Juan Barrundia was placed at -the head of the government,[VIII-28] and the authorities of La Antigua -were transferred to Guatemala.[VIII-29] The deposed congress[VIII-30] -of 1826 also reassembled on the 21st of April.[VIII-31] It must be -remarked, in connection with the state's affairs at this time, that, -though nominally in the hands of Barrundia and the assembly, they -were virtually under Morazan's control. To meet his constant demands -for money to support his forces, a number of financial schemes were -devised, the property of the serviles being almost exclusively affected -by them. Their property, as well as that under control of the church, -was taxed severely.[VIII-32] Not satisfied with depleting the resources -of the enemy, under the decrees of June 4th and August 22d, the late -officials were made amenable to prosecution in a summary manner, -though finally a sort of ironical amnesty was granted them, involving -expatriation, which was enforced on the 28th of August.[VIII-33] - -[Sidenote: RULE OF MOLINA AND RIVERA CABEZAS.] - -New elections for state authorities resulted in the choice of Pedro -Molina as jefe,[VIII-34] and he was inducted in August 1829. His -subsequent disagreement with the temporary president, José Francisco -Barrundia, the novel ideas he suggested for remodelling the federation, -and the intrigues of his opponents, among whom has been named the -vice-jefe Rivera Cabezas, brought on his overthrow, when he was -superseded on the 9th of March, 1830, by said vice-jefe.[VIII-35] - -During the administration of Rivera Cabezas the state of Guatemala -enjoyed the blessings of peace. There was only an encounter between the -people of Ilotenango, now Quiché, in Sololá, and those of Chiquimula -in Totonicapan, upon land questions. There were a few wounded. Rivera -Cabezas arranged the matter to the satisfaction of both towns. He also -accomplished many reforms, ascertained the amount of the state debt, -and introduced a proper economy in the expenditures.[VIII-36] - -While internal dissensions were exciting the people of Guatemala, they -were forced to undergo, on the 23d of April, 1830, the tribulations -resulting from one of the severest shocks of earthquake experienced -in the country.[VIII-37] Nearly all the inhabitants passed the night -in the streets, public squares, or in the open fields. The assembly -adjourned the following day, and the state authorities removed to -Jocotenango. Fortunately, no more shocks occurred, and the public -alarm gradually subsided, the damage done being less than had been -supposed.[VIII-38] The clergy made use of the earthquakes to arouse the -rabble against the liberals.[VIII-39] - - * * * * * - -After the removal of the national seat of government to San Salvador, -Guatemala found itself in a great measure freed from the constant -bickerings between the federal and state authorities. The servile -party gained by it; but for all that, the liberal spirit of the -federal administration was still felt. Pursuant to a decree of the -assembly at Jocotenango, elections for state authorities were made, -and José F. Barrundia was the popular choice for jefe, and Gregorio -Marquez for vice-jefe. Barrundia declined the office, pleading a -previous election as senator. The assembly refused his resignation, -and Barrundia reiterated it, till his wishes were granted.[VIII-40] -The vice-jefe Marquez then assumed pro tempore the executive office, -and retained as his secretary-general the clergyman of talent, -Antonio Colom. New elections were called for, to be made by the same -electoral bodies which had effected the last, and Mariano Galvez was -chosen jefe, assuming office in August 1831.[VIII-41] This chief of -the state endeavored to steer a middle course in the management of -public affairs, but he was only partially successful.[VIII-42] Several -important measures were adopted to relieve the burdens of the people, -and to advance their intellectual development.[VIII-43] - -[Sidenote: RULE OF GALVEZ.] - -Galvez was not content with encouraging science and literature; he -also directed his efforts to the advancement of arts and industries, -and the improvement of towns, public health, etc. Friars who had -become secularized were granted the rights enjoyed by other citizens, -and could, therefore, bequeath and accept inheritances.[VIII-44] At -Galvez' suggestion, the assembly passed the act of February 27, 1834, -to enable nuns to abandon their convents, if they so desired, taking -the dowries they brought with them. Later, marriage was declared to -be a civil contract that could be dissolved.[VIII-45] The measures -affecting the clergy in their privileges and revenues, the introduction -of the Livingston code with trial by jury, and the colonization by -an English company at Vera Paz, gave rise to displeasure among the -ignorant, which the clergy and the serviles did not fail to fan into a -flame that erelong became a conflagration.[VIII-46] Added to this was -the jealousy engendered by San Salvador having been made the national -capital.[VIII-47] - -The first outbreak occurred in March 1837, when the Indians of San -Juan Ostuncalco rebelled. It was at once quelled, but the ravages of -cholera caused in June the uprising at Mita. It has been shown in -another place that here, at this juncture, Rafael Carrera made his -first appearance in the political field, inaugurating the war that -eventually dissolved the republic, and through its consequences brought -Guatemala to the verge of ruin. On the 16th of June, 1837, the assembly -met in extra session, but was unable to effect any favorable change -in the situation. There were two bitterly opposing parties striving -for control. To make matters worse, insurrections broke out in several -parts,[VIII-48] ending with the capture of the capital by Carrera on -the 31st of January, 1838, and the replacing of Galvez by Valenzuela on -the 2d of February. That same day the departments of Los Altos, namely, -Sololá, Totonicapan, and Quezaltenango, declared themselves detached -from Guatemala to constitute the sixth state of the federation, under -the name of Los Altos.[VIII-49] A constituent assembly was installed at -Quezaltenango on the 25th of December, and Marcelo Molina elected first -jefe of the state. He was inducted in office on the 28th.[VIII-50] - - [Illustration: LOS ALTOS.] - -[Sidenote: STATE OF LOS ALTOS.] - -The constituent assembly adopted, May 26, 1839, a constitution which -was democratic and representative, with the Roman catholic as the -religion of the state.[VIII-51] Later, it passed instructions to guide -the executive in his relations with the other states. They were based -on equity and justice, and prompted by a spirit of fraternity.[VIII-52] -The state concluded with Salvador, on the 10th of August, a treaty -defensive and offensive, but it came to naught, for reasons that will -be explained. - -The jefe, Molina, was an honest man and an able jurist. He loved Los -Altos, and considered it a necessary organization for the greater -lustre of the Central American republic; but he had little knowledge -of human nature, and was easily deceived. The government of Guatemala -pursued toward him, since April 13, 1839, a machiavelian policy, and -led him into the fatal belief that it really desired the prosperity -and happiness of the new state, which had become the residence of -the liberals who had left Guatemala, fleeing from Carrera,[VIII-53] -and constantly published severe strictures against Carrera and the -aristocratic clique which surrounded him. Molina had been persuaded -that the Guatemalan authorities were friendly toward the state of -Los Altos, though requiring that it should discourage the attacks of -the exiled liberals. However, Molina, abiding by the constitutional -clauses declaring freedom of the press to be inviolable, answered that -the government of Guatemala had the right of prosecuting the writers -before the courts of Los Altos for libel. This ill feeling was all -that Pavon, the Guatemalan machiavelian minister, desired for future -hostile proceedings. The opportunity was not wanting, and the state of -Los Altos was destroyed by Carrera on the 29th of January, 1840, and -reincorporated with Guatemala.[VIII-54] Molina, though credulous and -vacillating, at the last moment showed himself to be possessed of a -brave heart. He well knew that his administration had been a just one, -that all charges against his government, on the part of Guatemala, -by Pavon and his fellow-aristocrats, were false. He did not forsake -his post. Carrera grossly insulted him, and sent him as a prisoner to -Guatemala. General Guzman was reviled, forced to wear rags, beaten, and -his hair and beard pulled out. Other citizens were shamefully treated, -and their homes plundered.[VIII-55] - -[Sidenote: RIVERA PAZ AS JEFE.] - -Affairs in Guatemala had undergone a great change since the removal -of Galvez from the position of jefe. His successor, Valenzuela, was -deposed July 22, 1838, by a popular movement, and Mariano Rivera Paz -placed at the head of affairs.[VIII-56] His first official act was -one deserving of special commendation, as it exhibited a conciliatory -spirit which, unfortunately, had been a stranger in the country during -many years past. Three days after being installed, at his special -suggestion the state assembly nullified all acts of proscription, -and decreed a general amnesty for all persons implicated in political -offences since September 1821.[VIII-57] - -From the moment Rivera Paz was made the provisional head of the state -government, reaction set in and went on with flying colors. Measures -in consonance with the wishes of the retrogressionists were adopted -one after another as fast as they could be drawn up.[VIII-58] These -decrees should have satisfied Carrera and his supporters; but it seems -that they did not; his faction became more and more recalcitrant. He -found himself closely pressed; but, unfortunately, General Guzman was -persuaded to enter into arrangements with him at El Rinconcito. This, -however, did not bring peace to the state for any length of time. - -In the latter part of January 1839 Rivera Paz was deposed by Cárlos -Salazar, military commander of Guatemala,[VIII-59] but reinstalled by -Carrera on the 13th of April.[VIII-60] This disturbed condition lasted -some time longer. The state declared itself independent on the 17th of -April of the same year, and the only form of union maintained with the -other states was by special treaties of allowance,[VIII-61] in which -the states mutually acknowledged their independence and sovereignty, -and pledged themselves to reconstruct Central America. All efforts, -however, to reëstablish order were in vain, owing to the political -complications caused by Carrera's rebellion in March 1839. His capture -of Guatemala on the 19th of March, 1840, and the end of the struggle -between him and Morazan, which has been narrated, did not materially -change the state of affairs; at all events, resolutions subsequently -adopted by the assembly had little weight.[VIII-62] The only important -ones were the restoration of the fuero eclesiástico,[VIII-63] and the -creation of a medical faculty in the university. Thus, after sixteen -years of continual strife, Guatemala found herself again an independent -and impoverished state. Neither of the parties which had striven for -supremacy had gained anything. The commonwealth was practically under -the dictatorship of an Indian chieftain, whose will even those who had -helped him to attain his position dared not dispute. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: CARRERA'S TRIUMPH.] - -From the moment that the plan of a Central American confederation was -contemplated, Honduras manifested her willingness to be one of its -members; and upon the federal constituent assembly fixing, on the 5th -of May, 1824, the basis of organization for each separate state, a -local assembly of eleven deputies was assigned to Honduras. The state -constituent assembly met at the Mineral de Cedros,[VIII-64] and on the -16th of September Dionisio Herrera was chosen jefe del estado, and -José Justo Milla vice-jefe. In July 1825, the territory was divided -into seven departments,[VIII-65] and on the 11th of December the state -constitution was promulgated. This ended the labors of the constituent -body, which four months later was replaced by the ordinary legislature, -the installation of which at Tegucigalpa was followed by that of the -representative council at Comayagua. - -Honduras was not allowed to enjoy a long term of peace. The assembly -ordered new elections for chief of state, on the ground that Herrera's -tenure of office had been intended to be merely provisional; -but he held to a different opinion, and refused to surrender his -authority. Matters were made worse by the enmity existing between -Herrera and Irias, the governor of the diocese.[VIII-66] Anarchy -now prevailed, some of the departments, especially Gracias, refusing -Herrera recognition. This state of things was mainly instigated by -the president of the republic, Arce, who strove to overthrow the -liberal party in Honduras. Under the pretence that Santa Rosa, in -the department of Gracias, out of which the federal government drew -a revenue from tobacco, needed protection, Arce despatched there 200 -men under Milla, the vice-jefe,[VIII-67] who, after a short encounter -with Herrera's force, marched upon Comayagua,[VIII-68] arriving -there early in April 1827. The town had been hastily fortified, and -energetically resisted thirty-six days; but not receiving timely -reënforcements, succumbed on the 9th of May, 1827.[VIII-69] Herrera -was sent as a prisoner to Guatemala, and new elections were ordered in -Honduras.[VIII-70] A new legislature on the 13th of September chose -Gerónimo Zelaya jefe, but he was recognized as such only in Santa -Bárbara. All liberals were dismissed from office. Francisco Morazan, -who had been imprisoned, notwithstanding the safe-conduct given him -after the fall of Comayagua, managed to escape, and subsequently -rendered efficient aid to defeat the federals at Trinidad.[VIII-71] -The government installed by Milla disappeared, Morazan temporarily -assuming the reins in November. The further interference of the federal -government in the internal affairs of Honduras has been fully narrated -elsewhere. The country was not exempt from internal troubles from -the close of 1829[VIII-72] to the beginning of 1833, requiring nearly -always the final intervention of the federal government to bring them -to an end.[VIII-73] - -[Sidenote: LIBERAL IDEAS IN HONDURAS.] - -Morazan's ascendency awakened in Honduras more liberal ideas than -had ever prevailed in the country, as was evidenced in the laws then -enacted.[VIII-74] During the following years Honduras was comparatively -tranquil, the political agitations of the republic scarcely affecting -her. There was a local sedition in December 1836, and the early part -of 1837, contributing to render much worse the financial condition of -the state, which had been bad enough before.[VIII-75] The friends of -the federation decreased from day to day. Honduras accepted the act of -the federal congress authorizing the states to constitute themselves as -they liked; and in June 1838 the legislature and executive called for -a constituent assembly to do so, which met at Comayagua on the 7th of -October.[VIII-76] - -The declaration of independence was solemnly promulgated in a single -sentence on the 26th of October, 1838.[VIII-77] All further efforts on -the part of Morazan and his fellow-federalists to restore the disrupted -republic proved unavailing, as we have seen.[VIII-78] At the end of -January 1840, the secessionists were victorious, and federalism was -rooted out. - -I append a list of Honduras rulers after Morazan's short provisional -administration in 1827-28.[VIII-79] - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -SALVADOR, NICARAGUA, AND COSTA RICA. - -1824-1840. - - SALVADOR STATE GOVERNMENT—LIBERALS OVERTHROWN—SECESSION - FROM THE UNION—SAN SALVADOR AS THE FEDERAL SEAT OF - GOVERNMENT—GUATEMALA IMPOSES HER WILL—JEFE CAÑAS AND - COMANDANTE MALESPIN—NICARAGUA'S EARLY TROUBLES—SIEGE - AND BOMBARDMENT OF LEON—ORGANIZATION OF STATE - GOVERNMENT—DISSENSIONS AND WARFARE—ERUPTION OF - COSIGÜINA—SECESSION FROM THE CONFEDERATION—COSTA RICA AS - A CONFEDERATED STATE—JUAN MORA'S ADMINISTRATION—TOWNS' - BICKERINGS SETTLED—BRAULIO CARRILLO'S RULE—FINAL SECESSION - FROM THE CENTRAL AMERICAN REPUBLIC—PROSPERITY OF THE STATE. - - -Salvador, from the earliest days that utterance was given to the -idea of liberty and independence from Spain, was ready to echo -and champion it, and was the first to effect an organization for -self-government.[IX-1] The state was divided into four departments, -San Salvador, San Vicente, San Miguel, and Sonsonate.[IX-2] Under the -direction of the constituent assembly a state government was organized, -with Juan Vicente Villacorta as jefe,[IX-3] and Mariano Prado as -vice-jefe. After installing a superior court, the constituent assembly -adjourned sine die on the 23d of November, 1824. - -For a long time past there had been differences between Guatemala -and Salvador upon ecclesiastical matters. The latter not only claimed -an authoritative voice in the political affairs of Central America, -but also to be placed upon an independent footing as regarded the -ecclesiastical. Hence the anxiety to have a bishopric erected at San -Salvador. This matter assumed a threatening aspect, and engaged the -attention of ecclesiastics and statesmen, as well as the public at -large in both sections of the country. The details will be given in -a separate chapter treating of the church in Central America. It is -in order to state here, however, that the disputes about the diocese -of San Salvador had a deep influence in the country's politics. The -contending parties had taken up the question. The liberals in both -states sided with José Matías Delgado, who had been appointed by the -Salvador legislature the first bishop. The servile element, on the -other hand, supported the archbishop of Guatemala. But after a time -Delgado, who was not unmindful of his purposes, supported President -Arce, thus forsaking his former friends, and joining the servile party. -A marked change occurred soon after, however, the relations between -Arce and Delgado becoming cold because the latter suspected that Arce -really sympathized with the archbishop. The liberals failed not to -strengthen that suspicion, nor to fan the flame.[IX-4] - -Jefe Villacorta, owing to impaired health, surrendered the government -to the vice-jefe, Mariano Prado,[IX-5] whose first act was one of -opposition to the national government, by repealing Arce's convocation -of October 10th for a new congress, and issuing one of his own, on -December 6, 1826, appointing Ahuachapan, in Salvador, as the place -of assemblage. Prado now began the military preparations which were -followed by a war between Salvador and the federal government, and -which terminated with the overthrow of the servile party by Morazan. - -[Sidenote: RULE OF CORNEJO AND PRADO.] - -A liberal policy was for a short time pursued in Salvador under the -rule of José M. Cornejo, who had become the jefe in January 1829,[IX-6] -and peace reigned during the next three years. But in 1832 it was -again disturbed. The government of the state, becoming dissatisfied -with its former hero, Morazan, attempted to secede from the union, but -was brought under subjection.[IX-7] Cornejo was deposed, and, together -with those who aided him in the rebellion, was sent to Guatemala as -a prisoner, to be dealt with according to law.[IX-8] Elections for -authorities were then held, and Mariano Prado was chosen jefe,[IX-9] -and Joaquin San Martin y Ulloa vice-jefe. A period of liberalism now -commenced, like that of Guatemala in 1829. Several liberal measures -were adopted, one of which was the establishment—decreed August 21, -1832—of a single, very moderate, direct tax.[IX-10] This enactment, -intended to relieve the exhausted treasury, met with violent opposition -in San Salvador, and sedition broke out on the 24th in several wards; -but the rioters were dispersed. Prado issued a proclamation expressing -his resolution to uphold the law and maintain order; but as the -excitement continued, he ordered that the supreme authorities should -transfer themselves to the villa de Cojetepeque on the 31st.[IX-11] On -the 14th of November there was also a seditious movement in San Miguel, -which was quelled by Colonel Benitez. - -The vice-jefe, San Martin, was in accord with the revolutionists, and -kept up a correspondence with Galvez in Guatemala, who wanted Prado -overthrown. This was known in San Salvador, and gave encouragement to -the remnants of Cornejo's party. The removal of the capital was not -sufficient. Another revolt broke out at San Salvador early in 1833, -and Prado, together with the members of the co-legislative bodies -and of the superior court, had to abandon their places. On the 13th -of February the state followed the example of Nicaragua and seceded -from the union. The vice-jefe, San Martin, who had gone into hiding -on the 9th of February to save himself from harm, was called by the -revolutionists to assume the executive authority.[IX-12] In July a -revolt broke out among the Indians of Santiago Nonualco. Headed by -Anastasio Aquino, they formed the plan of exterminating the white and -colored population, and installing a government of natives.[IX-13] The -utmost cruelties characterized this war of races, which was fortunately -soon suppressed. Most of the ringleaders, among them Aquino, were -captured. The chief was executed on the 24th of July, 1833, at San -Vicente.[IX-14] But peace did not follow the suppression of this -rebellion. Salvador, always jealous of Guatemala, insisted on having -the federal government removed from her rival's territory. At last, -in February 1834, the federal authorities came to reside in Sonsonate, -and later, in June, at San Salvador. It was a great mistake to expect -harmony. Before the month was out there was a street fight of several -hours between troops of the two powers. The federals were victorious, -and the state's jefe, San Martin, was deposed.[IX-15] The executive -authority was assumed first by Cárlos Salazar, commander of the federal -forces, and afterward by Gregorio Salazar, the vice-president of the -republic. Neither of them had a legal title.[IX-16] From this time the -state remained wholly under the control of the federal government and -the liberal party, which became still more cemented when in 1835 the -capital was made the federal district. In the great struggle between -Morazan and Carrera, of which a detailed account has been given in a -former chapter, Salvador had to rely entirely on her own resources when -her territory was invaded in 1838 and 1839. - -[Sidenote: MORE TROUBLE AT SAN SALVADOR.] - -After Morazan's signal defeat at Guatemala, Salvador no longer was -disposed to make sacrifices; indeed, she was too exhausted to raise a -new army. However, she was by no means willing to uphold the victorious -Carrera; but being unable to resist, had for a while to submit to -the force of circumstances, and to recognize the government placed -over her.[IX-17] But as soon as Carrera went back to Guatemala, that -government was overthrown by the people, and the jefe, José Antonio -Cañas, had to resign,[IX-18] Norberto Ramirez becoming the jefe -provisional.[IX-19] More than any other of the Central American states, -Salvador needed a period of peace to recover from the wounds inflicted -in nearly twenty years of warfare. She had upheld the principles of -liberty and union long after the others had given them up, and now -required a prudent and wise government to restore her almost extinct -life and strength. - - * * * * * - -While the other provinces experienced but few difficulties in -organizing themselves after the separation from Spain and Mexico, -Nicaragua suffered for years from intestine strife. This was not -exactly a contest between two political parties, but rather between -towns, and between the partisans of one leader and another; in -other words, the results partly of sectional hatred, and partly -of personal ambition. Persecutions for political causes were of -daily occurrence.[IX-20] A junta gubernativa, recognized by the -general government, had been installed at Leon,[IX-21] where Basilio -Carrillo was the commander of the forces, and claimed the right to -rule the province; but there was another junta at Granada, where the -notorious Cleto Ordoñez held sway in accord with the jefe político, -Juan Argüello, which, of course, ignored the pretensions of the -Leonese authorities. Managua, though siding with Leon, had become the -headquarters of the anti-republicans, with Bishop García at their head, -who strove to rid the place from Leonese influence. Most of the other -towns were in a similar condition; so that it may be asserted that -the whole province was in a state of anarchy. The junta gubernativa -of Leon accepted, on the 2d of July, 1823, the decree of the national -government of March 29th, calling for a national congress, and declared -Nicaragua united with the other provinces that had formerly been the -reino de Guatemala. - -[Sidenote: NICARAGUAN COMPLICATIONS.] - -On the 13th of January, 1824, a popular uprising in Leon caused -the junta gubernativa to remove Basilio Carrillo from his command, -replacing him with the jefe político, Cármen Salazar.[IX-22] Early in -the same year Justo Milla came with the appointment of intendente from -the general government, and with instructions to pacify the country; -but his mission failed.[IX-23] On the 22d of July Ordoñez had himself -proclaimed comandante general by the garrison and populace. Some of the -wards of Leon attempted, on the 6th of August, to overthrow Ordoñez and -restore Melendez, the successor of Milla; but they were overpowered, -and the city was sacked.[IX-24] On the 14th the forces of Managua, -under Colonel Crisanto Sacasa, captured portions of the city of -Granada. After twenty days of incessant fighting the besiegers retired -in good order. On the other hand, a division of Leonese and Granadans -attacked Managua on the 24th of August, with the same result. - -A junta gubernativa had been installed on the 9th of the month at El -Viejo, in opposition to that of the capital,[IX-25] and organized a -force of 2,000 men, intended to lay siege to Leon. The united forces -of El Viejo and Managua, commanded by Sacasa and the Colombian Juan -José Salas, assaulted Leon, captured the suburbs, and penetrated to -the plazuela de San Juan. The garrison, composed of Leonese and some -Granadans, now found itself confined to the chief plaza and contiguous -blocks. During the siege, which lasted 114 days, there was incessant -fighting, both besiegers and besieged exhibiting bitter animosity. -Sacasa was mortally wounded, and died twelve days after. The fighting -often took place inside of the houses, and even of the churches. -Upwards of 900 houses were either demolished or burned, and the number -of dead and wounded on both sides was large, probably over 900 killed. -The contest ceased only on the 4th of January, 1825, when the besieging -forces retired.[IX-26] - -The villa de Managua laid down its arms on the 22d of January, 1825, -peaceably receiving Manuel José Arce, who had entered Nicaragua with -an auxiliary force from Salvador, and with instructions to pacify the -state. In consequence of his arrival, the dissensions were quieted for -a time.[IX-27] Arce, without bloodshed, also disarmed the troops of -Ordoñez at Granada, and despatched him, together with Bishop García, -to Guatemala. After having made arrangements for elections, the -peace-maker returned to Salvador, leaving, however, a portion of the -force at Leon. - -[Sidenote: RULE OF ARGÜELLO.] - -On the 10th of April, 1825, preliminary arrangements being completed, -the first constituent assembly of Nicaragua met under the presidency of -Juan Manuel Zamora, and ten days later Manuel Antonio de la Cerda was -installed as jefe of the state,[IX-28] and Juan Argüello as vice-jefe. -Unfortunately there were disagreements on the part of Cerda with both -the constituent assembly and Argüello, which delayed the labors on the -state constitution, so that it was not decreed till the 8th of April, -1826.[IX-29] - -The convention then adjourned sine die, and the regular or ordinary -assembly met on the 13th of August, at Leon, but in the middle of the -following month removed to Granada.[IX-30] Meantime the dissatisfaction -with Jefe Cerda had assumed such proportions that the legislative -body resolved to impeach him. He was, accordingly, suspended, and -Argüello placed temporarily in charge of the executive authority. New -elections were also decreed.[IX-31] But Argüello had not fostered all -these troubles merely to surrender the government to a new man, and by -intrigues contrived to bring about, in February 1827, the dissolution -of the assembly.[IX-32] - -The indefatigable Colonel Cleto Ordoñez made, with the aid of troops -of Leon and Senator Hernandez, an unsuccessful attempt[IX-33] to seize -the government, declaring Argüello suspended. An effort was also made -by the president on behalf of Cerda, but it was defeated by Herrera, -the jefe of Honduras. The state of war continued; Arce reluctantly had -removed, at Argüello's request, the few men of Salvador that had been -stationed in Nicaragua since 1825,[IX-34] and thus the only adversary -of importance Argüello had was Cerda. The contest remained for a long -time undecided. Argüello took Granada, while Cerda's headquarters were -first at Managua, and, when that place seceded, at Rivas, the ancient -town of Nicaragua. - -In September 1828, Cerda's party had made so much headway that Argüello -and his followers had vessels in readiness to effect their escape -should the jefe gain another victory. But the priests, who worked -against the latter, inspired the disheartened Argüellistas with renewed -courage, and in another encounter they were victorious. Cerda's star -now waned. A revolt planned by two of his officers was quelled, and the -leaders were shot.[IX-35] This severity, and the heavy taxes he levied, -increased his foes.[IX-36] At last, on the 8th of November, 1828, -when Rivas was almost without troops, one of his officers, who was a -relative, named Francisco Argüello, made him a prisoner, and before -his troops could come from Jinotepe to his rescue, a force of the -vice-jefe entered Rivas. A military court was at once organized, and -Cerda, being subjected to its action,[IX-37] was sentenced to death, -and executed.[IX-38] - -[Sidenote: HERRERA'S RULE.] - -Argüello was now free from his strongest adversary; but the struggle -went on as new pretenders sprang up, and its effects in the course -of time were most disastrous. It brought the state to a condition of -desolation unequalled in Central America. Dionisio Herrera, chief of -Honduras, undertook, under instructions of the federal government, in -1829, the task of pacifying Nicaragua. He visited Leon, and succeeded -in conciliating parties and restoring order; and when new elections -took place in May 1830 he was himself chosen its jefe.[IX-39] Managua, -the last place to hold out, was finally, without the use of force, -prevailed upon to recognize the newly constituted authorities, and -in June was already enjoying the benefits of peace. In order to -consolidate the peace throughout the state, Herrera made the leaders of -parties leave its territory. His rule was a quiet one for the next two -years, and until Nicaragua was called upon by the national government -to furnish her contingent of troops to suppress revolutionary movements -beyond her boundary.[IX-40] - -The revolutionary spirit showed itself again in 1832. On December 3, -1832, the state assembly attached the federal revenue, and refused -further recognition of the general government. A few months later a -revolt broke out against Herrera. The movement originated in Managua, -and was seconded in Masaya and Matagalpa. Granada and Leon opposed it. -Jefe Herrera at first was loath to resist it, and laid his resignation -before the legislature, and it was accepted on the 1st of March, -1833. But that body, under popular pressure, four days after revoked -the resolution, and recalled Herrera to hold the executive authority, -with the extraordinary powers that had been decreed him on the 8th of -February previous.[IX-41] - -The insurrection had spread also in Metapa, Chocoyos, Nandaime, San -Jorge, and throughout the department of Nicaragua. At the head of the -movement was an ecclesiastic. Herrera exhausted all peaceful means, -and had to employ force, and Managua was taken on the 29th of June, -1833.[IX-42] Nicaragua and other places accepted the amnesty tendered -them.[IX-43] But it seemed almost impossible to maintain peace for -any length of time. In May 1834 Granada and Metapa rebelled, under one -Cándido Flores. The rebels were successful for several months, and took -possession of Managua. But on the 13th of August they were defeated; a -few days later Granada was recovered, and four of the ringleaders were -shot. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: A GREAT EARTHQUAKE.] - -In the morning of the 20th of January, 1835, there was an eruption -of the volcano Cosigüina,[IX-44] attended by one of the most terrific -earthquakes ever experienced in Central America.[IX-45] The event was -a memorable one for the Nicaraguans, and its abatement was attributed -to the efficacious intercession of their saints; and in commemoration -of it they still have a feast of thanksgiving every year on the 23d of -January.[IX-46] - - * * * * * - -A short period of peace followed. Puny are the efforts of man at -killing each other when heaven fires its artillery! The exhausted state -seemed unable to continue its suicidal course. The tranquillity was -broken, however, though only for a short time, in 1837.[IX-47] The -assembly had, on the 21st of February, 1835, recognized José Zepeda -and José Nuñez as the duly elected jefe and vice-jefe respectively. -Colonel Zepeda was a distinguished patriot, who had rendered important -services to the cause of liberty. His election was hailed with approval -in Nicaragua, and in the other states of the union. He took possession -of office April 23, 1835.[IX-48] The government experienced no serious -difficulty during 1836 in the administration of public affairs. It -was engaged in improving the public roads, and in other matters of -general utility. But 1837 was inaugurated with infamous crimes, with -the murders of the jefe Zepeda, and of the citizens Roman Valladares, -Evaristo Berríos, and Pascual Rivas, which resulted from a revolt of -the garrison at Leon.[IX-49] The movement was promptly suppressed, -and the ringleader, Braulio Mendiola, executed. The vice-jefe, Nuñez, -assumed rulership, and during his administration a second constituent -assembly was convened, and commenced its labors on the 31st of March, -1838.[IX-50] One month later, on the 30th of April, the state seceded -from the federation, an act which may be called a mere formality, -inasmuch as Nicaragua had not taken part, to any notable degree, in the -affairs of the general government. Nominally, however, the idea of a -union of the Central American states was upheld, and still expressed in -the new state constitution framed by the assembly and confirmed on the -12th of November, 1838.[IX-51] All this was pure affectation, however, -for Nicaragua lent her hearty aid to eradicate the last remnants of the -federation. The coveted sovereignty was attained at last. Later events -will show whether or not it brought Nicaragua prosperity. The present -generation had grown up midst the noise of war, hearing the battle-cry -of one or another contending party, and it could hardly be expected -that it could appreciate the blessings of peace.[IX-52] - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: EVENTS IN COSTA RICA.] - -Costa Rica, owing to her geographical position, was almost isolated, -politically, from the rest of Central America. It would be wrong, -however, to infer that her participation in the general affairs of -the republic had been one of mere formality or policy for her own -convenience or safety. Nowhere had the idea of a union been more -warmly embraced. Four months only had elapsed after the bases for the -organization of the state had been adopted by the national constituent -convention, when Costa Rica's first assembly met,[IX-53] and on the -21st of January, 1825, decreed a state constitution.[IX-54] In the -middle of April the first ordinary legislature began its labors, -and on the 24th of September Juan Mora was installed as chief of the -state.[IX-55] This was a happy choice; for during his rule Costa Rica -escaped the evils which protracted warfare wrought in the other states -of the union. Following the example of Salvador, a decree was passed -in September creating a bishopric independent from Nicaragua, and -appointing Fray Luis García the first bishop; but the decree became a -dead letter. - -The first effect of Mora's quiet rule was the enlargement of Costa -Rican territory. Dissatisfied with the jefe, Cerda of Nicaragua, the -district of Guanacaste, or Nicoya, which formerly belonged to that -state, declared its separation, and asked to be incorporated with Costa -Rica.[IX-56] The arrangement was approved by the federal congress on -December 9th, and since then Nicoya formed one of the five departments -of that state.[IX-57] Nicaragua protested; Costa Rica refused to -restore the territory, and the matter remained an open subject of -discussion, but never leading to hostilities.[IX-58] - -Early in 1826 an attempt was made[IX-59] by a Spaniard named José -Zamora, at Alajuela, to overthrow the government. He attacked the -quarters of the garrison, but after several hours' fighting was -repulsed, with most of his followers slain, wounded, or made prisoners. -A few days afterward he was captured and shot.[IX-60] During several -years this was the only public disturbance. The struggle between -serviles and liberals in the other states did not affect Costa Rica, -which prudently maintained neutrality. She endeavored, however, to -bring on peace between the belligerents, by accrediting, in 1828, -Manuel Aguilar as special envoy to Guatemala and Salvador; but his -mission proved fruitless, chiefly owing to the success of the Salvador -arms, and the irreconcilable feeling thereby engendered.[IX-61] It -was the unsatisfactory result of this effort, which in a great measure -prompted Costa Rica, after Mora's reëlection in 1829, to secede from -the union till the federal authority should be reorganized. When this -took place, the secession act was revoked in January 1831. - -In March 1833 the second term of office of Mora expired; and in -acknowledgment of his beneficent and wise policy, the assembly -decreed that his portrait should be placed in the hall of sessions, -with a highly complimentary inscription.[IX-62] Costa Rica had made -great progress from both the material and intellectual points of -view. A number of clergymen endeavored to introduce a decree of the -ecclesiastical authorities of Guatemala to burn certain so-called -forbidden books. They failed, the result being the importation of -a large number of the denounced works. Jefe Mora treated the pious -proposal with the contempt it deserved.[IX-63] - -[Sidenote: RULE OF GALLEGOS AND CARRILLO.] - -Mora's successor duly elected was José Rafael Gallegos, who assumed -his duties in April 1833.[IX-64] The state at this time was enjoying -liberty, and perfect freedom of the press.[IX-65] It was the asylum of -the exiles from other Central and South American states. It was not, -however, altogether exempt from the spirit of localism. Cartago had -been the capital, and wanted to recover that position. San José felt -as a loss the absence of the supreme authorities. Heredia and Alajuela -would not be less than the other two places. Guanacaste was the only -one out of the question. Hence the resolution adopted[IX-66] that the -state capital should alternately be at San José, Cartago, Heredia, and -Alajuela. A later law, of June 9th, prescribed that the residence of -the supreme authorities at each of said places should be for the period -of four years. Gallegos' rule was of short duration. He resigned in -March 1834.[IX-67] - -Braulio Carrillo was elected jefe, and went into office in April -1835.[IX-68] In his time several liberal innovations were made, in -addition to those introduced some time previously; namely, suppression -of tithes and decrease of holidays;[IX-69] those enactments aroused the -clergy, and prompted them to fan, in retaliation, the flame of discord -existing between San José and Cartago, which culminated in an open -revolt on the 24th of September, 1835. - -An alliance was entered into by Cartago with Alajuela and Heredia, to -refuse recognition to the government, and to convoke a new assembly -with equal representative rights for the different towns.[IX-70] The -allied forces marched upon San José, then the seat of government; but -were defeated in several encounters, and they again submitted.[IX-71] -The result of this revolt was the further strengthening of San José, to -which place was conveyed all the armament of the state. The government -was equally successful in the following year, when an armed force -from Nicaragua, led by the Costa Rican Manuel Quijano, formerly in his -country's military service, Pedro Abellan, and Manuel Dengo, entered -the department of Guanacaste, and marched upon its chief town, where -they expected to find support; but they only met with disappointment. -They were first repulsed by the inhabitants, and afterward routed by -the troops.[IX-72] - -[Sidenote: REVOLT IN COSTA RICA.] - -The peace thus restored was not of long duration. Braulio Carrillo was -succeeded as jefe of the state[IX-73] by Manuel Aguilar, in April 1837. -A plot intended to overthrow the government was soon after detected, -and the authors were sent into exile.[IX-74] But Carrillo had also -been disappointed at Aguilar's election, and being influential with the -soldiery, he had but little difficulty in getting together a party with -which, on the 27th of May, 1838, he deposed this official, sending him, -together with the vice-jefe, Juan Mora, into banishment.[IX-75] This -was the first instance in Costa Rica when the legitimate government -of the state was overthrown by force of arms. It cannot be said that -the change was altogether for the worse. Under Carrillo's active and -energetic rule the country made rapid progress in a material point -of view.[IX-76] He saw at once the hopelessness of reëstablishing the -Central American confederation,[IX-77] or of reorganizing it so as to -render it beneficent to the several states; and therefore, instead -of making fruitless efforts in that direction, strove rather to -isolate Costa Rica. This policy he impressed on the second constituent -convention, which met on the 1st of November, 1838,[IX-78] and on -the 15th the formal separation was declared, the convention still -manifesting a willingness to maintain a sort of union by means of -special treaties.[IX-79] - - [Illustration: COSTA RICA.] - -He also took effective steps to pay off Costa Rica's share of the -foreign debt, contracted by the Central American republic. The state -was for a long time exempted from the afflictions and consequent -injurious results which visited the other states during the bitter -last struggle in 1840 between Morazan and Carrera for the existence -of the republic. The other states were impoverished and brought to the -verge of ruin, whereas Costa Rica, with comparative tranquillity, was -constantly marching forward. - -[Sidenote: COAT OF ARMS AND FLAG.] - -The president, on the 21st of April, 1840, decreed a coat of arms and -flag for the state of Costa Rica.[IX-80] This was abrogated by the -provisional government two years later.[IX-81] - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -DISSOLUTION OF THE UNION. - -1839-1852. - - INTERSTATE DISSENSIONS—PACTO DE CHINANDEGA—CONFEDERACION - CENTRO AMERICANA—SUPREMO DELEGADO CHAMORRO—HOSTILITY OF - GUATEMALA AND BRITISH OFFICIALS—ARCE INVADES SALVADOR—WAR - OF THE CONFEDERACY AGAINST GUATEMALA—HELPLESSNESS OF - CHAMORRO—END OF THE PACTO DE CHINANDEGA—CONDITION OF - THE STATES—FERRERA'S BAD FAITH—SALVADOR AND HONDURAS - AGAINST NICARAGUA—HORRORS OF LEON—VICE-PRESIDENT JOAQUIN - E. GUZMAN—HONDURAS AND SALVADOR AT WAR—GUARDIOLA'S - VANDALISM—MALESPIN OVERTHROWN—RENEWED EFFORTS TO - CONFEDERATE—GUATEMALA AN INDEPENDENT REPUBLIC—COSTA RICA - FOLLOWS—SALVADOR, NICARAGUA, AND HONDURAS A CONFEDERACY—ITS - SHORT LIFE—FURTHER UNSUCCESSFUL ATTEMPTS. - - -[Sidenote: ENGLISH INTERVENTION.] - -The government of Nicaragua, on the 13th of September, 1839, following -the advice of Minister Pavon of Guatemala, asked for the mediation of -Frederick Chatfield, the British consul, in an endeavor to bring to -an end the existing dissensions with Salvador. Chatfield declined to -interfere, on the plea that Salvador, in a treaty with the state of -Los Altos, on the 10th of August, had insulted the British crown.[X-1] -However, on the 27th of May, 1840, he sent to the government of -Nicaragua an extract of a despatch of March 2d from the British -foreign office, saying that his sovereign would cordially mediate -between the two states, provided such mediation was asked for by both, -or by all the governments interested, in which event he, Chatfield, -was authorized to use his good offices. But he was at the same time -directed to add that Great Britain was not disposed to enter into any -engagement binding her to employ armed forces in Central America. This -course was not pleasing to Pavon, but fully satisfied the executive of -Nicaragua. Chatfield's mediation was never called for. - - * * * * * - -Buitrago, director of the state of Nicaragua, was drawn by the -force of public opinion to give his assent to the state taking part -in a convention intended to reorganize the republic of Central -America.[X-2] The Nicaraguan delegates used their best endeavors -for the accomplishment of their mission; but from the beginning they -found their efforts hindered by the machiavelism of the aristocrats -of Guatemala, and in disgust left the convention after filing a -protest.[X-3] They returned to it afterward, however, and on the 11th -of April, 1842, the convention made a declaration in seven articles -establishing a 'gobierno nacional provisorio,' having at its head -a 'supremo delegado,' with a council composed of one representative -chosen by each of the respective state assemblies.[X-4] Antonio José -Cañas was appointed supremo delegado. But this great effort on the -part of the men imbued with a truly patriotic spirit came to naught, -because the assembly of Guatemala indignantly rejected the compact -of Chinandega, and Ferrera of Honduras acted in bad faith. Costa Rica -accepted it with certain restrictions.[X-5] - -A second effort was made on the 27th of July at Chinandega by the -delegates of Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua, who passed an act to -form a league under the name of Confederacion Centro Americana.[X-6] -Sixteen of the articles in the constitution conformed with the -instructions given by the aristocrats of Guatemala through the state -assembly to the commissioners despatched to the villa de Santa Rosa -on the 28th of September, 1839; and yet, after their adoption by -the convention of Chinandega, these same persons made opposition to -them. The fact was, that they had been all along using deception, -appointing commissioners to several diets, but never intending that -a reorganization of Central American nationality should be arrived -at.[X-7] - -[Sidenote: PACTO DE CHINANDEGA.] - -Guatemala accredited a legation at Leon, Gerónimo Carcache being the -envoy. He tried to exculpate his government for its opposition to the -compact of Chinandega, asserting at the same time its firm resolve to -uphold the treaty concluded in October 1842, by Pavon, Arriaga, and -Duran, and accepted by Costa Rica in May 1843.[X-8] This opposition, -notwithstanding the organization of the executive and council, under -the compact of Chinandega, was effected at San Vicente, in Salvador, on -the 29th of March, 1844; Fruto Chamorro, delegate from Nicaragua, being -chosen supremo delegado, Juan Lindo, delegate from Honduras, president -of the council, and Justo Herrera, ex-jefe of the same state, secretary -of that body. The installation of the confederate government was at -once communicated to the several states. - -Honduras, on the 27th of April, recognized and accepted what had -been done at San Vicente. Salvador and Nicaragua expressed much -satisfaction. The reactionary government of Guatemala kept silent, and -on being pressed for an answer, returned a cold and laconic one, to the -effect that the matter would be laid before the legislative body; that -is to say, the assembly which, on the 17th of April, 1839, had declared -the Central American confederation dissolved.[X-9] It could not be -expected that such an assembly would give its assent. The committee to -which the subject was referred made an unfavorable report, which the -assembly accepted. Costa Rica suggested amendments to the 'pacto de -Chinandega.'[X-10] This document never had any practical value, for the -governments which were parties thereto took no account of the duties -it imposed on them. It will be seen that the executive of Honduras was -its covert enemy, and that the government of Salvador openly infringed -a number of its clauses. - -[Sidenote: MALESPIN AND ARCE.] - -Malespin, president of Salvador, was arranging affairs for a change in -favor of a theocratic régime to please Viteri, bishop of San Salvador, -when news came that the state had been invaded at Atiquizaya by Manuel -José Arce. The ex-president had with him troops of Guatemala, and -a supply of arms and ammunition to put in the hands of Malespin's -enemies. The question will be asked, Why did the aristocrats of -Guatemala cause the invasion of Salvador, her executive being their -agent Malespin, who was, moreover, under the control of Bishop Viteri? -This is easily explained. Malespin was, in the eyes of the aristocrats, -another Carrera, disposed at times to slip out of their hands. It was, -therefore, important to have him superseded by Arce, when affairs in -the state would go on smoothly and to their satisfaction. In Arce -ruling over Salvador, they would have, besides, a support against -Carrera.[X-11] But the people of Salvador, albeit much dissatisfied -with Malespin and Viteri, were decidedly opposed to Arce with -aristocratic surroundings. His invasion of the state only served to -strengthen Malespin's power for a time. The president set the whole -state in motion to meet the emergency. He did even more: he asked -for the assistance of the supremo delegado of the confederacy, which -was promised him. Each state was to furnish 1,000 men; but meanwhile -Salvador was to place 2,000 men at the disposal of the confederate -executive.[X-12] The general government agreed to use its utmost -endeavors to avert the subjugation of Salvador by Guatemala. Malespin -was enjoined, on his part, to confine his military operations within -the territory of his own state. He easily got together in a few days -at San Salvador 4,000 men, with which force he marched to the front. -One portion of the vanguard, under Lieutenant-colonel Pedro Escalon, on -the 5th of May, reached the Chingo Valley in pursuit of Arce, Aquilino -San Martin, and Guillermo Quintanilla, who fled to their headquarters -at Coatepeque. They were attacked there, and took to flight a second -time, leaving a large quantity of arms and ammunition. Another portion -of the vanguard occupied Chalchuapa, placing a force and the artillery -at Santa Ana.[X-13] - - [Illustration: GUATEMALA AND SALVADOR.] - -Malespin, in disregard of the command he had received from the supremo -delegado, marched triumphantly to Jutiapa, in Guatemala; in consequence -of which, the government of Rivera Paz assumed that Guatemala was in a -state of war, her territory having been invaded; and Carrera was called -upon to use her forces against the invaders. A forced loan was decreed, -and a change took place in the cabinet, Manuel F. Pavon assuming the -portfolios of relations, government, and war.[X-14] Pavon was certainly -the man for the occasion.[X-15] He returned an answer to a note from -the minister of the supremo delegado, which Milla, his biographer, has -pronounced an able and conclusive one. But it was in reality a mass of -abuse against Salvador and Malespin. He did not attempt to show that -Arce's invasion was not the act of the Guatemalan government, as he -should have done; but claimed that the war against Malespin was not a -consequence of Arce's act, but of the malice of the Salvadoreños.[X-16] - -[Sidenote: TREATY BETWEEN HONDURAS AND SALVADOR.] - -The bad climate of Jutiapa soon began to decimate the Salvador army, -reducing it to about 3,000 men. Moreover, the government of Salvador, -then in charge of Vice-president Guzman, could not easily procure means -for the support of such a force. It was quite evident that the time -for upsetting Carrera had not yet come; and Malespin's defeat would -only bring greater outrages upon the people. Patience was necessary -under the circumstances. It was consequently decided to abandon -Jutiapa and recross the rio de la Paz, which was effected on the 17th -of June.[X-17] The assembly empowered the government to negotiate for -peace, and a convention was entered into at the hacienda de Quezada -on the 5th of August, 1844,[X-18] under which friendly relations were -restored, and Guatemala promised to accredit a commissioner near the -confederate government.[X-19] This convention was, however, annulled -by the Guatemalan commissioners, because the supremo delegado had -refused to ratify it.[X-20] But the government of Guatemala determined -that it should be held valid by Malespin's accepting it as law for -the Salvadoreños. Bishop Viteri undertook to accomplish this, and -succeeded.[X-21] Malespin gave his assent to the convention being -ratified by the supremo delegado, and made a declaration of peaceful -intentions toward Guatemala.[X-22] He refers to the liberals residing -at Leon, who had been driven from Honduras by Ferrera, and from -Salvador by himself; and he accuses them of being the cause of much -trouble, for which they should be discountenanced by honorable men. -The pacto de Chinandega, as we have seen, had become a dead letter. -Honduras and Salvador entered, on the 10th of July, 1844, at San -Salvador, into a treaty, which was ratified by both governments.[X-23] - -Chamorro's government was notified by Ferrera that auxiliary forces -from Nicaragua would no longer be allowed to traverse Honduran -territory.[X-24] Chamorro's minister, M. Aguilar, remonstrated against -a measure which would prevent the arrival of friendly troops to defend -the confederacy, whereof Honduras was a component part.[X-25] Chamorro, -using his lawful authority, ordered J. Trinidad Muñoz, who commanded -the Honduras force of operations, not to obstruct the passage of the -Nicaraguan troops. Muñoz disobeyed the order; and upon the Nicaraguans -arriving at Choluteca, on the 17th of August, he required them to leave -the territory of Honduras forthwith; which not being done, he assailed -and conquered them on the 19th, after a three hours' fight.[X-26] This -action had a great influence on the fate of Central America; for it -satisfied the aristocrats of Guatemala that the supremo delegado had no -means for enforcing his authority or for carrying out his plans. It was -virtually a declaration of war between Honduras and Nicaragua. Malespin -was likewise emboldened by it to assail Nicaragua. The latter must -then move with the utmost activity against Ferrera, before Malespin, -now at peace with Guatemala, could come to his aid. But difficulties -that could not be overcome were in the way; and it was only on the -23d of October that upwards of 1,000 Nicaraguans appeared before -Nacaome, which they assaulted the next day, and after two hours of hard -fighting, were repulsed.[X-27] - -[Sidenote: WAR ON NICARAGUA.] - -Trinidad Cabañas and Gerardo Barrios, two of Morazan's officers, -made, on the 5th of September, 1844, an attempt at San Miguel to -overthrow Malespin without bloodshed; but having failed, they went off -to Nicaragua by way of La Union. Malespin's minister, José Antonio -Jimenez, then demanded of the Nicaraguan government that Cabañas -and Barrios should be either expelled or surrendered to Salvador -for punishment. The demand was rejected. The two officers were by no -means discouraged. They persevered in their efforts, which, more than -anything else, finally brought about the tyrant's overthrow. By virtue -of a special decree, Malespin took, on the 25th of October, personal -command of the state forces, placing the executive office in charge -of the vice-president, Joaquin Eufracio Guzman, who on the same day -entered upon the discharge of his duties, giving Malespin unlimited -powers for the defence of the state. Such authorization did not justify -Malespin's carrying the war into Nicaragua.[X-28] This state, after -the defeat of its troops at Nacaome, had removed them from Honduran -territory, and sued for peace. And yet Malespin, in violation of -the laws of Salvador, made preparations for an offensive war against -Nicaragua. - -It will be well, before relating the events of this campaign, to -cast an eye upon the present lamentable condition of the four states -thus bent upon each other's destruction. Guatemala was ruled by the -aristocrats with a rod of iron. Her financial affairs were completely -disorganized. In Salvador Malespin had no other rule of conduct than -his own will and Bishop Viteri's evil counsels. He believed himself -surrounded by enemies, and indeed he was.[X-29] Honduras was in a -disturbed state, and the victim of Ferrera's despotism. Nicaragua -was in anything but a satisfactory situation. The men who with their -superior talents, statesmanship, and influence might have carried the -ship of state safely through the coming storm, Francisco Castellon and -Máximo Jerez, were in Europe working to undo the evils wrought against -Central America by Pavon and Chatfield. The director of the state, -Manuel Perez,[X-30] lacked the prestige that the occasion required. -Casto Fonseca, the commander of the forces, had been given the rank of -'gran mariscal.'[X-31] - -The pacto de Chinandega had ceased to exist. Owing to hostile acts -of Malespin, Chamorro had to seek safety in flight. Ferrera treated -Chamorro with contumely, and shamefully abused him in a report to the -chambers of Honduras, in January 1846.[X-32] Malespin and his army -against Nicaragua entered Honduras, and at Nacaome made an address to -the president and army of Honduras.[X-33] The two allied presidents -had a conference at Sauce on the 7th of November, and agreed that -Malespin should be recognized as the general-in-chief of their forces. -At Choluteca proposals for peace came from Leon; and on the 21st of -the same month the treaty of Zatoca[X-34] was concluded, which was -disgraceful to the Nicaraguan negotiators.[X-35] A secret clause was -also agreed to, binding Nicaragua, among other things, to retire her -troops from Chinandega to Chichigalpa. But the authorities and people -of Leon preferred death with honor to submission to such degrading -demands. The treaty and secret clause were indignantly rejected. Perez, -the director, surrendered the executive office to Senator Emiliano -Madrid. - -[Sidenote: ATTACK ON LEON.] - -In the night of November 21st the allied forces encamped in the -barranca de San Antonio.[X-36] On the 26th, at 8 in the evening, they -were in front of Leon, and threw bombs into the city. The next morning -at 3 o'clock Malespin, being drunk, ordered an assault, which resulted -disastrously for the invaders; for at sunrise he found his camp strewn -with corpses.[X-37] The attack was, however, continued that day till -4 o'clock in the afternoon, when the allies found themselves short of -ammunition, and with many of their chief officers killed or wounded. -Discord now broke out among them, and the Hondurans wanted to abandon -the campaign; but J. Trinidad Muñoz, acting for Malespin, quieted them, -and the struggle went on. That night Muñoz erected intrenchments, -and at break of day on the 28th the allies were in condition to act -vigorously.[X-38] - -Commissioners came out to the allied headquarters, and on the 1st of -December a treaty was negotiated,[X-39] to which no ratification was -given in the city, and the war continued. Meanwhile there was much -agitation in Salvador, with occasional revolutionary attempts, which -becoming known at Leon, emboldened the authorities and citizens to keep -up the fight, notwithstanding the other departments had turned against -them.[X-40] - - [Illustration: SOUTH-WESTERN NICARAGUA.] - -José Francisco Montenegro and Juan Ruiz were the commissioners of Rivas -and Granada, near Malespin. Their mission brought about the creation of -a new government, which had no recognition in Leon. Senator Silvestre -Selva lent himself to be made by Malespin and his allies director -supremo of Nicaragua, under the stipulation of ratifying the convention -of December 1st, adding the name of Pio Castellon to the list of the -proscribed.[X-41] - -[Sidenote: SIEGE OF LEON.] - -Several partial actions took place in other parts of the department -of Leon, which turned out favorably for the invaders.[X-42] But -Malespin was furious at his failure thus far to capture Leon. The -firing of his guns was incessant. He made a final effort, throwing -himself at the head of a force upon the works of Sutiaba, which were -in charge of Gerardo Barrios; and after some hours' hard fighting was -repulsed, leaving the field covered with his killed and wounded. But -there was no unity of action in the city at this time. Some officers -believed that Casto Fonseca, though brave, was not competent to make -a proper defence; and one of them, named José M. Valle, alias El -Chelon, suggested that he should turn over the command to Cabañas. -Fonseca looked upon the suggestion as an insult, and in consequence -Valle retired, and Cabañas became an object of suspicion to Fonseca. -The siege with its horrors continued. The fatal spirit of localism -that maintained discord between the several towns, specially between -Granada and Leon, was now as ever, and till the transfer of the capital -from Leon to Managua, a great misfortune for the whole country. The -besiegers made the most of it.[X-43] - -A vessel arrived at this time at Realejo with arms for the besieged, -of which Malespin got information from the Englishman Manning, and -through Selva's agent he obtained possession of 1,000 muskets, 200 -rifles, 200 barrels of powder, 200 quintals of lead, and 12,000 flints. -With this supply the operations against Leon were pushed with still -greater vigor, and the city succumbed to an assault by Guardiola on -the 24th of January, 1845. Malespin now gave full sway to his bloody -instincts, by shooting a number of prominent citizens and surrendering -the town to the soldiery for plunder.[X-44] The outrages committed defy -description.[X-45] - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: INDEPENDENCE OF SALVADOR.] - -While Malespin was engaged in the Nicaragua campaign, the state of -Salvador was preparing to throw off the yoke, and his brother Calixto -was issuing arbitrary orders without the knowledge or assent of -Vice-president Guzman. At last, at midnight between the 30th and 31st -of December, 1844, the garrison at San Salvador was surprised by a -party of armed men from the Calvario, and captured, together with the -arms in the barracks.[X-46] After that the revolt went on gaining large -proportions; but the rebels were defeated in the plain of Jucuapa, -Cojutepeque, on the 4th of January, 1845. - -The liberal chiefs Cabañas and Barrios, who escaped from Nicaragua, -reached La Union. Barrios,[X-47] with the view of rousing the -Salvadorans, spread the report that Malespin had succumbed at Leon. -Cabañas, a truthful man, disliked the scheme, but finally allowed his -companion to pursue his plan without contradiction. They both entered -San Miguel on the 28th of January, 1845, and loudly congratulated his -friends and acquaintances on Malespin's defeat. The whole department -was soon in commotion, and letters poured upon Guzman to sound the -cry for liberty. Calixto Malespin continued his arbitrary acts, and -Guzman concluded to oust him from his command, without bloodshed if -possible. In this he was successful on the 2d of February;[X-48] the -barracks were soon surrendered to him, the troops following his lead. -The capital seconded the movement, and was soon followed by the other -departments.[X-49] The government sent a circular to the other states -announcing the change effected, and it was recognized by all but -Honduras.[X-50] - -The chambers of Salvador assembled on the 15th, before which Guzman -made an energetic speech, and Malespin was not only dethroned, but his -election to the presidency was declared null.[X-51] However, there -was much to do yet to uproot him from Central American politics, as -he had the support of Honduras. In an encounter at Quelepa Cabañas was -defeated, which gave the reactionists courage to approach San Vicente; -but public opinion was now so clearly pronounced against Malespin that -Bishop Viteri turned against him, and began his efforts to win over -to the clerico-oligarchic party the new president, Joaquin Eufracio -Guzman.[X-52] He at once issued a decree of excommunication against -Ex-president Malespin.[X-53] But the government of Honduras being -bent on supporting Malespin at all hazards, Guardiola landed at La -Union with an armed force, and occupied San Miguel; notwithstanding -which act Guzman did not declare war against Honduras. Attributing -it to ignorance of the true state of affairs in Salvador, he sent -a second note, which, like the first, remained unanswered. Malespin -continued—with the assent of Honduras, and without that of Nicaragua, -which had assumed neutrality in the contest—calling himself -general-in-chief of the armies of Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua, -and declared Guzman, the Salvadoran chambers, and the inhabitants of -upwards of 100 towns which had set him aside, guilty of treason. - -Guzman was now menaced from several quarters; namely, from Malespin's -partisans in San Salvador, the military at Comayagua, J. Trinidad -Muñoz, who wanted to destroy the liberals that had escaped from Leon, -and lastly, Rafael Carrera, who, though at times inclined to wheedle -the liberals, generally had his claws ready to tear them to pieces. -Guzman found the panther more untractable than the other wild beasts. -It was therefore necessary to place in Guatemala experienced tamers; -but he was unsuccessful in this. His commissioners, though they -managed by fawning to approach Carrera, met with poor success in their -mission.[X-54] - -[Sidenote: TREATY OF PEACE.] - -Guzman marched against Belloso at San Vicente and defeated him. He -next went to San Miguel, which he entered amidst the plaudits of the -people.[X-55] Malespin entered with him into a convention at Jocoro, -binding himself to surrender all national property of Salvador and -to leave the country. But the authorities of Honduras disapproved the -arrangement, and it fell to the ground;[X-56] the war continued, till -on the 18th of April a treaty of peace and friendship was concluded -at Chinameca, to which the minister of Salvador, Dueñas, added another -clause, requiring that both Salvador and Honduras should disband their -troops immediately after the ratification of the treaty.[X-57] Honduras -failed to ratify it, and proposed that new conferences should be held -at Gualcinse, and at the same time despatched 900 men upon that place -under Malespin. Armed parties from Honduras invaded Salvador; and, -indeed, Ferrera was using all possible means to exasperate the latter -state into committing acts of hostility against the former, so that -Carrera might have an opportunity to take a hand in the game. - -The chambers of Salvador assembled at this time, and Minister Dueñas -reported a treaty of peace, amity, and alliance with Guatemala.[X-58] -He seemed to expect aid from that side of the river Paz.[X-59] -Nicaragua had extended a friendly reception to two Salvador -commissioners.[X-60] The chambers gave Guzman ample powers for the -defence of the state. This did not include authority to invade any -other state, unless as a retaliatory measure. A resort to this was -finally resolved upon, and a Salvadoran army under Cabañas marched -the 24th of May upon Comayagua, meeting with defeat there on the 2d of -June, and again at Sensenti on the 10th of the same month.[X-61] The -Hondureños inhumanly put to death all the wounded Salvadoreños left at -Comayagua and Santa Rosa. Ferrera, now flushed with victory, thought -that he could dictate terms to Salvador.[X-62] It was a mistake on his -part, for the people of Salvador rose en masse to repair the disasters -of Comayagua and Sensenti. - - [Illustration: SALVADOR AND HONDURAS.] - -[Sidenote: GUARDIOLA'S VANDALISM.] - -Guardiola committed many acts of vandalism in La Union, in consequence -of which Minister Dueñas, on the 25th of July, addressed a circular to -the agents of foreign nations protesting against the seizure of foreign -goods in the government's warehouse at that port. Cabañas, after the -disasters before related, arrived at San Miguel with scarcely fifty -men, and endeavored to collect his scattered forces; but his efforts -were unavailing, and Guardiola marched into the city—which had been -abandoned by nearly all the inhabitants—and gave it up to be plundered -by his soldiers.[X-63] - -All that part of Salvador on the Lempa and the district of Chalatenango -were in the hands of the enemy, who acted as the master of a conquered -country. One of the commanders was the notorious Manuel Quijano. -The Salvadoreños attacked him and were defeated. The Hondurans now -felt certain that they could capture San Salvador. But on the 15th -of August Guardiola with 900 men attacked the Salvadoreños at the -hacienda del Obrajuelo and was routed, losing two thirds of his -force and most of his war material.[X-64] He evacuated San Miguel at -midnight. The authorities of Honduras soon after published a suspension -of hostilities in order to negotiate a peace.[X-65] An armistice was -afterward signed at Sumpul.[X-66] Muñoz of Nicaragua, for motives of -his own, exerted himself to bring about peace between Honduras and -Salvador, to which end he despatched Sebastian Escobar as commissioner -to the two belligerents. Sensenti was finally fixed upon as the place -for holding the conferences, and a treaty of peace, amity, and alliance -was concluded on the 27th of November, 1845, under which Malespin and -Espinosa were forbidden to set foot in Salvador without leave of her -government.[X-67] - -[Sidenote: GUATEMALAN INDEPENDENCE.] - -The government of Guatemala, with a view of not too openly going -counter to public opinion in the states desiring to see a national -government established, inserted in the treaty concluded with Salvador -on the 4th of April, 1845, a clause apparently intended to promote that -end.[X-68] And yet it was at the same time considering the expediency -of declaring the entire independence of Guatemala, and gathering -material which was made public in a manifesto in March 1847. Indeed, -she had no desire to carry out the stipulations, though she named -Joaquin Duran and Doctor Mariano Padilla her commissioners.[X-69] -Pretexts were not wanting, and new commissioners appointed, namely, -Marure and Rodriguez, both of whom favored Guatemala's absolute -independence. The result was the abandonment of the plan of -reorganization as entirely impracticable.[X-70] The declaration of -independence was made in the decree of March 21, 1847.[X-71] Carrera, -the president, in a manifesto, set forth the causes that had prompted -such a measure, which he called one of regeneration, and asked the -people to greet it with the same enthusiasm that was shown in 1821, -when the cry for separation from Spain was raised.[X-72] - -The secessionists pronounced it an able effort; but it caused a -disagreeable impression in the states, and in none more so than in -Salvador. It wounded public sentiment. Carrera had no legal right to -take such a step. The constituent assembly had placed him in charge -of the executive, but had not made him a legislator. For all that, -the separation from the rest of Central America became an accomplished -fact, and Carrera was declared a hero, the founder of the republic, and -coin was struck with his bust on it.[X-73] This act was ratified on the -14th of September, 1848, by the constituent assembly of Guatemala, when -Carrera was no longer in power. - -Lindo was ruling in Honduras and Guerrero in Nicaragua, but these two -states were in accord with Salvador, from fear of British pretensions, -on the necessity of a Central American union. They constituted, early -in 1848, the diet of Nacaome, which urgently invited Guatemala and -Costa Rica to join it; but the former peremptorily declined, alleging -that the decree of March 21st precluded her taking any step backward. -Costa Rica sent deputies to Nacaome.[X-74] The celebrated Ecuatorian -general, Juan José Flores, arrived in Costa Rica in July 1848, and was -received with much consideration, which flattered his vanity. He wanted -the aid of Costa Rica for his own plans, and got himself into the good -graces of President Castro. The dissolution of the Colombian republic -had enabled him to become the ruler of Ecuador; and being of the same -way of thinking as Pavon and his fellow-secessionists of Guatemala, -he counselled a complete separation of the states of Central America. -Several influential men of Costa Rica favored the policy of a wholly -independent government for their state.[X-75] - -[Sidenote: REPUBLIC OF COSTA RICA.] - -Congress, on the 30th of August, 1848, consummated the work of final -separation, with a decree declaring that the title 'Estado de Costa -Rica' was not in consonance with the 22d article of the constitution, -which established the principle of Costa Rica's sovereignty, freedom, -and independence; that with this understanding, and as a free, -sovereign, and independent nation, other powers had treated with her -on a footing of equality. It was therefore resolved, carrying out -the wishes of the municipal districts, that the term 'república' be -substituted for that of 'estado.'[X-76] President Castro sanctioned its -promulgation on the 31st. - -Notwithstanding so many difficulties, the friends of union never -resigned the hope of accomplishing their purpose. In November 1849 -commissioners of Honduras, Salvador, and Nicaragua assembled at Leon, -and on the 8th agreed upon a basis of union of the three states, -the terms of which were subsequently promulgated;[X-77] and it was -left optional with Guatemala and Costa Rica to join it or not. The -remnants of the aristocratic element, with the support of British -officials,[X-78] opposed the union, and in order to defeat it, promoted -revolutions in Nicaragua and Honduras. The compact went into effect, -however, on the 9th of January, 1851, when the national representatives -assembled in Chinandega, José F. Barrundia, representative from -Salvador, being chosen their president.[X-79] - -The national constituent congress was installed at Tegucigalpa on the -9th of October, 1852, and began its labors on the following day.[X-80] - -[Sidenote: A SHORT-LIVED FEDERATION.] - -Trinidad Cabañas was on the 13th elected jefe supremo of the -federation, but he declined the honor, being desirous of disarming -opposition to the new organization on the part of his political -opponents. His resignation was accepted on the 26th, and Francisco -Castellon chosen on the 28th.[X-81] An organic law was enacted -on the 13th of October, and communicated to the government of the -federation.[X-82] The supreme executive authority, on the 20th of -November, 1852, was held by Pedro Molina, vice-jefe, four senators, -and two acting ministers of state. The federation thus organized was -not destined to be long lived. Upon the allegation that the congress -had created a dictatorship, and referred the organic statute to the -people instead of the legislatures of the states, the assemblies -of Salvador and Nicaragua set aside the federation, and declared -themselves independent states.[X-83] Nicaragua may have receded from -that act; but whether it was so or not, the union between Honduras and -Nicaragua was dissolved by the war which broke out in February 1863 -between Salvador and Guatemala, Honduras joining one of those states, -and Nicaragua the other. Further efforts have been made from time to -time—1871-76, and even as late as 1885—to accomplish the union of the -states under one government; but obstacles have been in the way, the -chief doubtlessly being the personal ambition or jealousy of rulers, -and the project still remains as a possible event to come about in -a few years, as it is believed to be much desired by the majority of -Central Americans.[X-84] - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -REPUBLIC OF COSTA RICA. - -1841-1856. - - RULE OF CARRILLO CONTINUED—PLOTS FOR ITS OVERTHROW—INVASION - OF MORAZAN—CHANGE OF GOVERNMENT—MORAZAN'S - POLICY—OPPOSITION—REVOLTS—MORAZAN'S DEFEAT AND - DEATH—SATISFACTION OF THE OLIGARCHS—MEASURES - OF THE VICTORS—NEW CONSTITUTION—SUBSEQUENT - AMENDMENTS—SEDITION—CASTRO'S ADMINISTRATION—COSTA RICA - DECLARED A REPUBLIC—RECOGNITION BY SPAIN—RELATIONS - WITH OTHER POWERS—BOUNDARY QUESTIONS WITH NICARAGUA AND - COLOMBIA—PRESIDENT JUAN RAFAEL MORA—HIS REPRESSIVE MEASURES. - - -Carrillo, believing himself clothed with unlimited authority, on the -8th of March, 1841, issued what he called a 'ley de garantias,' giving -himself a life tenure of office and inviolability.[XI-1] The supreme -government was made to consist of the executive, and two chambers, -named respectively 'consultiva' and 'judicial,' whose members were to -be chosen by electoral colleges.[XI-2] Intending to celebrate with -éclat the inauguration of the cámara consultiva, Carrillo recalled -from exile Juan Mora and four others.[XI-3] The consultiva, following -Carrillo's wishes, elected Manual Antonio Bonilla segundo jefe.[XI-4] -The enemies of the present ruler were numerous, and increasing. They -called Morazan to their aid, through General Bermudez of Peru. - -[Sidenote: MORAZAN AND SARAVIA.] - -Morazan sailed from Chiriquí in Panamá, and after visiting several -places in Central America landed with about 500 men at Caldera[XI-5] -on the 7th of April, 1842. With him were generals Saget, Cabañas, -Saravia, and Rascon.[XI-6] Carrillo heard of the invasion in the -evening of the 8th, and at once assumed personal command of the troops -to operate against the enemy, turning over the executive office to -Bonilla, the vice-jefe,[XI-7] and providing other measures for an -active campaign. Nearly 1,000 men under Colonel Vicente Villaseñor -composed the expedition, among whose captains and lieutenants were some -of the wealthiest persons in the country.[XI-8] Morazan had issued a -manifesto assuring the Costa Ricans that his policy would be one of -order, union, and progress, to accomplish which Braulio Carrillo must -be ousted from power. As the government forces approached the invaders, -Villaseñor made known its contents to his command, and asked whether -they were for fighting or for a peaceable arrangement. Both officers -and men almost unanimously[XI-9] favored the latter, and a convention -was concluded at Jocote on the 11th of April, by virtue of which the -two forces fraternized, becoming one army. It was further agreed that -a constituent assembly should be called to reorganize the state, the -government meanwhile remaining in charge of Morazan, or in his absence -in that of Vicente Villaseñor.[XI-10] This convention was accepted -on the next day at San José by Carrillo, with a few additions which -did in no wise vitiate it, and Morazan afterward ratified the whole -at Heredia.[XI-11] He was enthusiastically welcomed at Alajuela and -Heredia, and with an augmented force marched on San José, which he -entered without hindrance. As jefe supremo provisorio he made José -Miguel Saravia his sole minister of state, and issued a proclamation -embodying complete forgetfulness of all past political offences, and -tendering an asylum in Costa Rica to all persons, of whatever party, -suffering persecution in the other states.[XI-12] He next appointed -a committee to revise the laws enacted by Carrillo, with the view of -repealing such as were deemed unwise or arbitrary, and a number of -them were accordingly annulled, the preposterous one of March 8, 1841, -not being, of course, excepted. The state constitution of January -21, 1825, was revived, and the people were called upon to elect a -constituent assembly, which was to meet at San José on the 10th of -July.[XI-13] This body, composed of thirteen members, one of whom was -the distinguished ex-jefe Juan Mora, was installed on the appointed -day under the presidency of José F. Peralta, deputy for Cartago, and -on the 15th of July unanimously elected Morazan provisional jefe of the -state.[XI-14] - -The great political change thus effected in Costa Rica greatly alarmed -the reactionists; and specially those of Guatemala, who lost no time in -adopting measures to destroy Morazan. This chief, on the other hand, -took steps toward the reorganization of Central America, equipping -troops therefor. Some of his measures were deemed too severe, giving -rise to rebellion in some localities. There were intimate relations -between Carrera of Guatemala and General Antonio Pinto of Costa Rica, -as well as between the serviles of both states, who, together with the -clergy, worked to promote a revolt. An attempt in Guanacaste by Colonel -Manuel A. Molina failed, and caused his arrest, trial, and execution -at Puntarenas.[XI-15] Colonel Molina was a son of Pedro Molina, the -noted champion of free principles, and however legal his execution may -have been, it was certainly impolitic. His sentence might have been -commuted, thus averting the disruption which at once broke out in the -liberal ranks.[XI-16] - -[Sidenote: WAR AND REBELLION.] - -Saget was at Puntarenas attending to the embarkation of 45 officers, -200 men, 2,000 or 3,000 muskets, and about 1,300 pounds of powder -and lead. At Alajuela were 300 recruits of that department and 100 -of Cartago, all commanded by Florentin Alfaro. This officer was won -over by Morazan's enemies, and revolting on the 11th of September -marched upon San José, where the people followed his example. The -revolutionists then called General Pinto to the command.[XI-17] -Morazan's body-guard of forty Salvadorans thrice repulsed the -assailants, but finally had to retreat to the chief barracks.[XI-18] -The jefe, together with Cordero, Cabañas, and Saravia, and 80 men -sustained another terrible onslaught on the 12th. The besiegers were -constantly on the increase till they numbered 5,000, and the besieged -on the decrease by death and desertion.[XI-19] Chaplain José Antonio -Castro came to propose a capitulation based on Morazan's abandonment -of the country, and a pledge of security to his supporters. Believing -that his loyalty and military honor were at stake, Morazan declined -the propositions.[XI-20] Pinto's secretary, Vicente Herrera, was very -virulent, demanding Morazan's blood; and the chaplain reported that -the jefe wanted war, refusing to recognize any authority on the part of -his adversaries to give pledges, which enraged their commander and his -secretary all the more.[XI-21] The fight continued, and blood flowed -freely.[XI-22] Mayorga, comandante at Cartago, rebelled, and Morazan's -situation had become a desperate one on the 13th. No reënforcements -could reach him, and provisions were exhausted. Juan Mora and Chaplain -Castro endeavored to bring about an arrangement, but the terms offered, -being oppressive, were rejected. The firing was resumed between one -and two o'clock in the morning of the 14th. Morazan and his handful -of supporters, worn out by fatigue, hunger, and wounds, made their way -through the besiegers and reached Cartago,[XI-23] Cabañas covering the -retreat with 30 men. Mayorga's wife, who disapproved her husband's -disloyalty, sent them word of their danger. But it came too late. -Morazan and the rest were surrounded and captured. Young Francisco -Morazan and Saravia, arriving a little later, were also secured. -Deception toward Cabañas was used,[XI-24] and treachery toward Morazan, -who was promised his life. - -[Sidenote: BLOODY WORK.] - -Early the next morning, an officer named Darío Orozco came to inform -Morazan and his companions that they were to be put in irons, by demand -of the troops. Saravia rose and seized a pistol to blow his brains out; -but Morazan prevented the suicide, though only for a few moments. He -then walked a while smoking, and finally submitted to have the shackles -put on his feet, and just as it was being done he had a horrible -convulsion which ended in death. It is said that he had swallowed -poison. The shackles were riveted on a corpse![XI-25] Villaseñor -stabbed himself with a dagger, and fell to the ground covered with -blood, unfortunately for him, not dead. Morazan was shackled. The -prisoners were at once taken to San José. Morazan, though wounded, -rode on horseback, and Villaseñor was carried in a hammock; but on -arriving at the Cuesta de las Moras, Captain Benavides, a Peruvian who -commanded their guard, made them walk to the court-house. Morazan on -the way conversed with Pardo and Vijil, and remembering that it was the -15th of September, remarked to Vijil, "How solemnly we are keeping the -anniversary of independence!" The other prisoners were confined in the -building called Los Almacenes, and Morazan was left with Villaseñor as -his sole companion. - -Moderate men strongly urged a strict observance of law, aside from -prejudice or passion;[XI-26] but their voice was drowned in the uproar -of the enemies of Morazan,[XI-27] clamoring for his death without form -of trial, regardless of the requirements of the constitution of 1825, -and of the fact that he was the legitimate chief of the state.[XI-28] -But nothing availed to save his life. Pinto, like his prototype Pontius -Pilate, after a slight hesitation, signed the order of execution of -both Morazan and Villaseñor, to be carried out within three hours. -Morazan then summoned his son Francisco, and dictated to him his last -will and testament; some of its clauses are epitomized below.[XI-29] -After placing in charge of Montealegre a handkerchief and a few other -objects for his wife, so soon to become a widow, he walked with dignity -and a firm step to the place of execution. Villaseñor, who was nearly -dead from his wound, was carried in a chair. On arriving at the fatal -spot Morazan embraced Villaseñor, saying, "My dear friend, posterity -will do us justice." Barrundia thus describes the last moments of -the ex-president: He gave the order to prepare arms, saw that a good -aim was taken, then gave the command to fire, and fell to the ground. -Still raising his bleeding head, he cried out: "I am yet alive;" when -a second volley despatched him. Thus on the 15th of September, the -anniversary of Central American independence, just as the sun was -sinking in the west, the soul of the noble patriot returned to the -region whence it came.[XI-30] - -[Sidenote: MORAZAN'S GREATNESS RECOGNIZED.] - -Morazan's death caused much satisfaction to the ruling powers of -Guatemala and Honduras.[XI-31] In Guatemala it was an occasion for -rejoicing, with high mass and other religious ceremonies.[XI-32] -The time came, however, when Morazan's greatness was recognized -in Guatemala and Honduras, when the servile element no longer had -a voice in public affairs.[XI-33] Relations had been suspended by -the Guatemalan government with that of Costa Rica, while the latter -recognized Morazan as its chief.[XI-34] Treaties of union and mutual -defence had been made by the states of Guatemala, Salvador, Nicaragua, -and Honduras against Costa Rica on the 7th and 16th of October.[XI-35] -After Morazan's downfall an attempt was made to prevail on the new -government to subscribe to these treaties, but it failed.[XI-36] - -[Sidenote: CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY.] - -On the 23d of September the civil and other authorities at San José -passed acts setting aside the supreme powers that had ruled the state -since its occupation by Morazan, and proclaiming J. M. Alfaro as jefe -provisorio, with Antonio Pinto as comandante general.[XI-37] These -acts were subsequently confirmed by the people of the state.[XI-38] -Among Alfaro's first measures were to forbid the return of political -exiles, including Carrillo; to check attempts at rebellion; to -invite Morazan's soldiers to return to their homes;[XI-39] to restore -confiscated property; to establish an official journal; and to raise a -forced loan.[XI-40] Disregarding the remonstrances of Guatemala, the -government, of which José María Castro was now minister-general, by -its decree of the 5th of April, 1843, called upon the people to send -deputies to a constituent assembly. This body was installed on the 1st -of June, and soon after adopted the groundwork upon which was to be -erected the fundamental law of the state.[XI-41] The assembly likewise -enacted a law declaratory of the rights of man; and another on freedom -of the press under certain limitations. Among the other acts worthy -of mention passed by this body were the following: The jefe, Alfaro, -was to hold his office till the promulgation of the constitution and -the election of his successor under it. All his acts were approved, -and a vote of thanks was awarded him. A similar vote was given to -General Pinto. Francisco M. Oreamuno was chosen segundo jefe, and a -short time afterward he was called to fill the executive chair, upon -leave of absence being given to Alfaro.[XI-42] The assembly adjourned -on the 22d of September, to meet again on the 13th of November. -The constitutional bases, nicknamed by the conservatives "de los -tribunos," did not meet the approval of the government. The assembly -then adopted a constitution, which made provision for two chambers, -the executive authority being exercised by a jefe, as formerly, and all -the functionaries constituting the supreme powers being chosen by the -whole people. The promulgation of the new fundamental law was made on -the 11th of April, 1844,[XI-43] and all officers were required to take -an oath to support it. Pinto, the comandante general, refused to do so -without first consulting Alfaro and others. He tried to make an armed -opposition, but did not succeed, and was dismissed, Colonel José María -Quiroz superseding him.[XI-44] - -The publication of the new fundamental law was celebrated with feasts -for three days. But the fact of Pinto's dismissal from the command -of the forces caused serious divisions in families,[XI-45] which has -been felt ever since in the political events of the country. The two -chambers decreed by the constituent assembly complicated the political -machinery, and the enemies of the new constitution exaggerated its -defects. The necessity of a senate in Costa Rica was not clear, for -the composition of the house of deputies was such that it required -impulsion rather than checks. Therefore, what would be the mission of -the senate?[XI-46] - -[Sidenote: MOYA, GALLEGOS, AND ALFARO.] - -Alfaro reassumed the duties of the executive office on the -28th of June, on which date Castro resigned his position of -secretary-general,[XI-47] to take a seat in the chamber of deputies, -which was installed on the 3d of July. The first duty of this body -was to count the votes for senators; but the returns were coming in -very slowly, so that the senate did not assemble till the 12th of -November.[XI-48] Both houses then on the 15th declared Francisco María -Oreamuno duly elected jefe of the state. He took possession of the -office with reluctance.[XI-49] The spirit of localism which caused so -much trouble in 1835 was still rampant, and Oreamuno found himself -confronted by it. Whatever measure was proposed in favor of any one -locality was certain to displease the others. Rather than contend -with such difficulties, he tendered, on the 26th of November, his -resignation, which was not accepted; but he was resolved to retire, -and one day, being more than usually disgusted, he abandoned his post -and went off to his home in Cartago.[XI-50] His successor was Rafael -Moya, then president of the senate,[XI-51] who exerted himself to -do away with localism, and to promote harmony between the several -sections; but his senatorial term expiring on the 30th of April, 1845, -he could no longer continue holding the executive authority, and the -chamber of deputies called to assume its duties Senator José Rafael -Gallegos,[XI-52] who was made chief of the state at the expiration -of Juan Moran's second term. He took the chair on the 1st of May. An -ominous cloud could already be descried away in the horizon. The new -constitution had thus early become an object of abuse, even by the -men who had enthusiastically proclaimed it, and acrimoniously censured -Pinto for refusing it recognition.[XI-53] - -During the elections a bloodless revolt of four regiments -simultaneously occurred, on the 7th of June, 1846, at San José, -Cartago, Heredia, and Alajuela, to overthrow the organic law. The -movement was seconded at once by the people,[XI-54] and José María -Alfaro was summoned to assume the reins of government, Gallegos -returning to the presidency of the senate. Every one recognized -Gallegos as an upright man, against whom no complaint was made.[XI-55] -Alfaro accepted the rôle, went into office on the 9th, and immediately -proceeded to carry out the purposes of the revolution. Elections took -place under the existing constitution, Alfaro being chosen jefe, and -José M. Castro vice-jefe and secretary-general. The latter being the -intellectual superior of Alfaro, every branch of the administration -finally fell under his control. - -The constituent assembly met on the 15th of September, and completed, -on the 21st of January, 1847, the new constitution, which was -promulgated at once, to have effect from and after the 7th of -March.[XI-56] Experience having shown that several clauses of this -instrument were practically inexpedient, and that others were not -clearly worded, under article 187 of the same congress subsequently -adopted a number of amendments, which had been asked for by a majority -of the municipalities.[XI-57] The elections for supreme authorities, -decreed on the 17th of February, took place; the constitutional -congress assembled on the 1st of May, and after counting the votes for -president and vice-president on the 5th, declared Castro duly elected -for the first position and Alfaro for the second. They were inducted -into office on the 8th.[XI-58] - -Castro's administration had to overcome serious obstacles which might -bring on political convulsions in the near future.[XI-59] Indeed, -several disturbances broke out at Alajuela, headed by Alfaro and his -friends, which were, however, easily quelled by President Castro, and -once by Vice-president Mora, when the president was absent.[XI-60] The -last of these troubles caused some bloodshed.[XI-61] Albeit the revolts -were put down, the state continued much agitated. Inflammatory writings -against the president were secretly circulated, which the government -gave importance to, and the official press tried to counteract their -influence. Castro concluded to resign his office, but congress by -a unanimous vote refused to accept the resignation.[XI-62] Costa -Rica having by the act of her congress, on the 30th of August, 1848, -declared herself a sovereign and independent nation, under the title -of República de Costa Rica, that body, on the 29th of the following -September, adopted a flag, coat of arms, and seal.[XI-63] - -[Sidenote: INDEPENDENCE DECLARED.] - - [Illustration: ARMS OF COSTA RICA.] - -Costa Rica was the first state of Central America to be recognized as -an independent nation by Spain, which was done in the treaty of May -10, 1850, which was ratified by Costa Rica March 6, 1851. The republic -made a concordat with the Roman pontiff, for the understanding of -ecclesiastical affairs, on the 7th of October, 1852. She has endeavored -to maintain cordial relations with the powers of Europe and America. To -that end she concluded treaties with the United States of America, the -Hanseatic Towns, France,[XI-64] Great Britain, Belgium, Holland, Italy, -Germany, and several of the Spanish-American republics. With Guatemala -a treaty was entered into in February 1850, and the government awaited -the result of the efforts of the other three states to constitute -themselves under one nationality; and when they failed, and the states -assumed the rôle of independent republics, it made similar diplomatic -arrangements with them as foreign nations.[XI-65] - -[Sidenote: THE BOUNDARY QUESTION.] - -The boundaries of Costa Rica with Nicaragua on one side, and with -Panamá, one of the states of Colombia, on the other, have been a -source of constant anxiety, repeatedly occupying the minds of the -diplomates of the three countries. Fortunately, the points in dispute -have been peaceably discussed by the governments, though the press -and politicians have not always touched upon them with the same -spirit. The district of Nicoya or Guanacaste, at one time under the -government of Nicaragua, became annexed to Costa Rica in 1824. This -annexation was accepted by the Costa Rican assembly, and the federal -congress allowed it, in a decree of December 9, 1825, as a provisional -arrangement, to be in force till an opportunity was had to run the -boundary between the two states. This congress took no further action -in the premises; and since the dissolution of the Central American -union, the district remained attached to Costa Rica. Nicaragua never -assented to the segregation, though she made no attempt to recover the -territory by force of arms. She has, however, endeavored to sustain -her right to it in repeated diplomatic negotiations.[XI-66] The time -came when Nicaragua, being invaded by William Walker's filibusters, -and the independence of all Central America threatened, the citizens -of the five republics at once saw the necessity of having the question -amicably settled.[XI-67] The other republics, more particularly -Salvador, brought their influence to bear, and a treaty was concluded, -duly ratified, exchanged, and published as the law, to govern the -boundary between Nicaragua and Costa Rica.[XI-68] Under its second -article, both contracting parties ceded a portion of their claims, -Costa Rican territory not reaching the lake, nor the Flor River, but -merely the centre of Salinas Bay. On the other hand, Nicaragua no -longer claimed territory to the Salto or Alvarado River, but limited it -to the aforesaid bay, and to the line prescribed in the treaty.[XI-69] -The acts of several congresses of Nicaragua in after years indicated -that the treaty was recognized beyond cavil or dispute. Not a word was -officially uttered by Nicaragua in seven years against its validity. -After such a period had elapsed, Tomás Ayon, her minister of foreign -affairs, in a report to the national congress, disputed its validity, -and the boundary question was reopened,[XI-70] giving rise to grave -diplomatic discussions, and no little ill feeling between the citizens -of both countries from 1868 to 1883.[XI-71] At last, early in 1883, -a treaty was signed in Granada by plenipotentiaries of both countries -to bring the dispute to an end.[XI-72] President Cárdenas, in laying -the treaty before the Nicaraguan congress early in 1885, urged its -favorable consideration; but no action was taken. - - [Illustration: COSTA RICA.] - -[Sidenote: DIVERS TREATIES.] - -[Sidenote: DISPUTED TERRITORY.] - -Under the Gual-Molina treaty, concluded at Bogotá, March 15, 1825, the -Provincias Unidas del Centro de América and the Republic of Colombia -agreed to respect the boundaries then existing between them, and to -enter at an early convenient opportunity into a special convention -directed to fix the dividing line.[XI-73] The antecedents of the -subject will be found in a note at foot.[XI-74] All subsequent royal -provisions, down to 1803, tend to confirm the limits of Costa Rica -that were fixed for Cherino on the Atlantic side. But on the 20th of -November, 1803, a royal order placed the island of San Andrés, and -the coast of Mosquito from Cape Gracias á Dios to the River Chagres, -under the supervision of the viceroy at Bogotá. Nueva Granada, now -República de Colombia, has maintained that this royal order made a new -territorial division between the capitanía general of Guatemala and the -vireinato of Nueva Granada; and to the latter belongs all the territory -alluded to in the royal order, and that said territory was recognized -as hers by the Gual-Molina treaty. On behalf of Costa Rica, it has -been alleged that the Spanish crown never made a territorial division -with a mere royal order. The division of provinces, vice-royalties, -and captain-generalcies was effected under a pragmatic sanction, a -royal decree, or a royal cédula. The royal order aforesaid made no -division of territory, but merely placed San Andrés and the Mosquito -Coast under the care of the viceroy at Bogotá because Spain at that -time had military and naval resources at Cartagena. Nevertheless the -order had no effect; it became a dead letter, the viceroy never having -protected that coast. Such was the impression of the Central American -negotiator of the treaty of 1825.[XI-75] With this same understanding -the federal government of Central America made a contract in 1836 to -settle an Irish colony in the region of Boca del Toro,[XI-76] which -was not carried out because the New Granadan authorities drove away the -settlers, and have ever since held control of the region, disregarding -Costa Rica's claims.[XI-77] - -Several diplomatic efforts were fruitlessly made to fix the -boundary.[XI-78] The last one was made at San José on the 25th of -December, 1880, in the form of a convention to refer the settlement of -the question at issue to the arbitration of a friendly power, namely, -the king of the Belgians or the king of Spain, and in the event that -neither of them could or would undertake it, then the president of the -Argentine confederation.[XI-79] It is understood that the matter was -finally submitted to the king of Spain, and that the resolution was -long pending. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: PRESIDENT MORA.] - -Political disturbances continuing in 1849, Castro resigned the -presidency on the 16th of November,[XI-80] before congress, which had -met in extra session October 2d; his resignation was accepted,[XI-81] -and the same day Juan Rafael Mora was chosen vice-president, and on the -24th president of the republic, being inducted into office on the 26th -of November.[XI-82] One of his first acts was to grant an amnesty for -political offences. The bonds of discipline and subordination having -become relaxed, Mora had before him a difficult task to restore peace -and order.[XI-83] He dealt severely with the authors of revolutionary -movements. Castro became a fugitive, and the others were exiled. For -his efforts to restore order, congress, on the 25th of June, 1850, -granted him the title of benemérito de la patria. - -The president's policy was one of repression by all means; but finding -himself opposed in the chamber, he resigned the executive office, and -his resignation not being accepted, took upon himself to dismiss the -congress, calling on the people to choose new representatives.[XI-84] - -The continued revolutionary attempts placed the government in a -difficult position, and prompted the president to adopt severe -measures; hence the orders of exile issued against prominent -citizens.[XI-85] - -Mora and Oreamuno were on the 3d of May, 1853, elected president and -vice-president respectively.[XI-86] Peace was now restored, and the -government devoted its attention to the promotion of education, and of -the material interests of the country.[XI-87] - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -REPUBLIC OF NICARAGUA. - -1838-1855. - - STATE GOVERNMENT—DIRECTOR BUITRAGO'S CONSERVATISM—BRITISH - AGGRESSION—DIRECTOR SANDOVAL'S RULE—INTERNAL - TROUBLES—GUERRERO'S ADMINISTRATION—THE MOSQUITO KINGDOM—ITS - ORIGIN AND HISTORY—BUBBLES—BRITISH PRETENSIONS—SEIZURE OF - SAN JUAN DEL NORTE—DIPLOMATIC COMPLICATIONS—CLAYTON-BULWER - TREATY—NICARAGUA RECOVERS HER OWN—RELATIONS WITH FOREIGN - POWERS—AN AMERICAN WAR SHIP BOMBARDS SAN JUAN DEL - NORTE—PINEDA'S GOVERNMENT—ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REPUBLIC—PARTY - DISSENSION—LEGITIMISTS VERSUS DEMOCRATS—CHAMORRO AND - CASTELLON—CIVIL WAR—DEATH OF CHAMORRO—ESTRADA SUCCEEDS HIM. - - -Little, if anything, has been said in this history of the internal -affairs of Nicaragua since 1838. Under her first constitution, that -of 1826, the chief executive officer of the state was called jefe -del estado, and his term of office was for four years. The second -organic law, promulgated in 1838, gave that functionary the title of -director supremo, limiting his tenure of office to two years. Pablo -Buitrago seems to have been the first director called upon to enforce -the constitution of 1838.[XII-1] He was declared by the chambers, -on the 4th of March, 1841, to have been constitutionally chosen. His -first step was to remove from the office of ministro general Francisco -Castellon, who held it ad interim under appointment by Patricio -Rivas,[XII-2] calling to succeed him Simon Orozco, whom he could more -easily control. - -[Sidenote: BUITRAGO, OROZCO, PEREZ.] - -Buitrago treated a communication from Morazan, sent him from San -Miguel, with contumely; and afterward, when the ex-president, as jefe -of Costa Rica, accredited near him two commissioners, he declined to -receive them.[XII-3] His course won him commendation from the rulers -of Guatemala.[XII-4] His term of office came to an end on the 1st of -April, 1843, and he was temporarily succeeded by Juan de Dios Orozco. -The official press asserted that the election for director had been -made with perfect freedom. But no candidate having received the -requisite number of votes, the assembly chose Manuel Perez to fill -the position.[XII-5] The state was at peace,[XII-6] but was not to -enjoy that benefit long. In a previous chapter I have spoken of the -desolating war waged within her borders by the tyrants of Salvador and -Honduras. She was, moreover, harassed by the intemperate demands for -British claimants made by Chatfield, the ally of the aristocrats of -Guatemala, who went so far as to dictate to Nicaragua how to recognize -and pay these claims.[XII-7] The assembly then authorized the executive -to arrange the matter in the best way possible, and Castellon, the -ministro general, proposed to Chatfield to submit the disputed claims -to arbitration, naming Bishop Viteri as the Nicaraguan arbitrator. -Finally, a legation was despatched to London, Castellon being the -minister and Máximo Jerez the secretary.[XII-8] The British authorities -resolved, however, to use coercion in order to force a settlement -of the claims, the corvette _Daphne_ blockading the port of Realejo -in August 1846; and the government, being without funds to meet such -demands at once, had to pledge the revenue from the tobacco monopoly -during the next four years. - -Leon, after its terrible conflict with the forces of Salvador and -Honduras, aided by Nicaraguan allies, was in a shattered condition, and -most of the families dwelling therein were in mourning, and reduced -to indigence. Muñoz, who so efficiently coöperated to that result, -had secured the coveted reward, the command in chief of the western -department. The seat of government was at San Fernando, and Blas -Antonio Saenz assumed the executive duties on the 20th of January, -1845.[XII-9] Under the sword of Muñoz the elections for director -supremo were effected, and José Leon Sandoval obtained a plurality -vote.[XII-10] He was declared duly elected on the 4th of April. The -assembly passed several important measures.[XII-11] - -[Sidenote: REVOLUTION UPON REVOLUTION.] - -Peace had not been restored. Disturbances were breaking out in -several parts. There were revolutionary movements in Managua, and the -government sent thither Ponciano Corral to make an investigation, -and quell the sedition. His report brought about the imprisonment -of several citizens.[XII-12] Manifestations in favor of Cabañas at -Rivas were put down with an iron hand. On the 24th of June there was -a revolt at Leon, which Muñoz quelled, and the government had its -authors confined in San Juan del Norte.[XII-13] The executive had -proclaimed neutrality in the contest between the government of Salvador -and Malespin, who was sustained by Honduras; and though he concluded -with Salvador at San Fernando a treaty of peace, friendship, and -alliance, he also entered into a similar one with Honduras.[XII-14] The -latter treaty was intended to be a reality, and it is undeniable that -Nicaragua was a faithful ally and coöperator of Honduras down to the -treaty of Sensenti. The treaty with Salvador was not made in good faith -on the part of Nicaragua. - -The town of Chinandega was, in the latter part of July, captured by 200 -revolutionists under José M. Valle, alias El Chelon,[XII-15] who had -come with sixty or eighty men on a schooner from La Union, and landed -at Cosigüina.[XII-16] On the 26th Muñoz was attacked in Leon, but -defeated his assailants.[XII-17] The government abandoned San Fernando -and went to Managua.[XII-18] Muñoz, victorious again at Chichigalpa, -marched on Chinandega, which he occupied without opposition; but having -to return to Leon, the insurgents retook it. He came back with a large -force on the 16th of August, and reoccupied the place.[XII-19] Sandoval -had, on the 9th, forbidden the men who accompanied Morazan to Costa -Rica from entering Nicaraguan soil. A ministerial crisis occurred at -this time, Rocha and César resigning their portfolios, which were given -to Máximo Jerez and Buitrago.[XII-20] Their tenure was necessarily -short, and they were superseded in the latter part of the year by -Fruto Chamorro and José Guerrero, the latter being almost immediately -succeeded by Lino César. This new arrangement gave the director an -homogeneous cabinet. The government was now a decidedly conservative -one. - -The revolution came to an end in the latter part of September 1845, -an amnesty being issued excepting only the chief leaders, and persons -guilty of common crimes.[XII-21] - -[Sidenote: SANDOVAL AND MORALES.] - -This short truce enabled Sandoval to pay an official visit to the -several districts. In Chinandega the inhabitants having abandoned their -homes, he issued orders to bring them back.[XII-22] The government -was levying heavy taxes. The citizens of Leon, Chinandega, El Viejo, -and other places, who were the victims of the self-styled "ejército -protector de la paz," were compelled to support the régime which -had its being out of the destruction of the first-named town. It is, -therefore, not a matter of surprise that the people of many towns went -off to the woods. The insurrection broke out again, Valle appearing in -Segovia, and reëntering Chinandega on the 26th of November. The amnesty -decree was thereupon revoked.[XII-23] The state of Honduras took part -in the war, sending an army under Guardiola to the aid of Sandoval. The -insurgents were defeated first by Muñoz, and soon after by Guardiola, -who occupied Chinandega.[XII-24] At the end of the campaign Muñoz -signified a desire to leave the state, and asked for a passport; but -the government replied with words of fulsome praise that his services -could not be spared.[XII-25] This was precisely what Muñoz had fished -for.[XII-26] - -Efforts were made by Buitrago and others to prevail on Sandoval -to call the chambers of 1846 to sit in Leon, but he objected to -the proposition. The assembly met first in San Fernando June 7, -1846, and on the 14th of August sanctioned every past act of the -government.[XII-27] At a later date it removed to Managua, and -adjourned leaving much unfinished business, for which it was summoned -to an extra session,[XII-28] and after doing what was required of it, -retired on the 18th of December. - -The end of Sandoval's term was approaching, and elections for supremo -director took place. The assembly met again on the 12th of March, 1847, -and Senator Miguel R. Morales assumed the executive. Minister Salinas -in his annual report made a number of suggestions to the chambers; -namely, an amendment of the constitution in the direction styled by the -conservatives, "moderado y de órden;" good relations with the pope, and -cordial friendship with the priests; public instruction based upon the -requirements of the council of Trent. The office of supremo director -passed, on the 6th of April, into the hands of José Guerrero, who -had been chosen for the constitutional term.[XII-29] Acceding to the -repeated petitions of the people of the western department, Guerrero -decreed[XII-30] to make Leon the residence of the government, and the -transfer was effected July 20th, the people of that city greeting the -director and his officials with joy. The assembly, however, preferred -to sit at Managua, and did so on the 3d of September.[XII-31] - -The country stood in need of a new constitution, but this could -not be framed at the present time, because the whole attention of -the government and people was absorbed by the questions with Great -Britain, which were a menace to Nicaraguan territory, and even to the -independence of all Central America. These difficulties were connected -with the possession of the territory known as the Mosquito Coast, or -Mosquitia. The Spanish authorities to the last moment of their rule -over Central America acted in a manner indicative of Spain's claim of -full sovereignty over that territory, disallowing the pretended right -of the Zambo chief who under British protection had been dubbed King of -Mosquitia.[XII-32] - -[Sidenote: THE MOSQUITO COAST.] - -A British agent claimed some years afterward that the relations of the -Spanish and Mosquitian authorities had been in 1807, and even before, -such as are held between independent powers.[XII-33] The so-called -king of Mosquitia claimed sovereignty over an extent of country 340 -miles long from north to south, and about 235 miles in breadth. He -also claimed the district of Talamanca in Costa Rica, and that of -Chiriquí in Panamá.[XII-34] The British authorities maintained a sort -of protectorate over these Indians, occasionally sending presents to -their chiefs.[XII-35] - - [Illustration: MOSQUITIA.] - -[Sidenote: KING GEORGE FREDERICK.] - -George Frederick and his half-brother Robert, like their father George, -who was killed in 1800, were of mixed negro and Indian blood. They -were first taken to Belize to receive some education,[XII-36] and -next to Jamaica, where they were the objects of some attention on -the part of Lord Albemarle, the governor-general. George Frederick's -education was an indifferent one. In 1815 he was back in Belize to -be crowned there at his own request, Chaplain Armstrong performing -the ceremony, and his chiefs taking the oath of allegiance in regular -form.[XII-37] He was then proclaimed king of the Mosquito shore and -nation, and a British war vessel conveyed him and his chiefs to Gracias -á Dios.[XII-38] It seems that kingly life afforded him little or no -satisfaction. Aware of his lack of qualifications, and fully sensible -that he could not retrieve himself from vicious habits, especially -from the bottle, which soon controlled him, his heart failed him, and -his life became embittered.[XII-39] The British government at first -manifested a friendly interest, sending him presents, and Chaplain -Armstrong his advice; but the latter was disregarded by the king -and his chief minister, who often remarked that a present of rum -would be more welcome. The instruction on government was beyond his -understanding, and looked on as falsehood. Such was the effect of -his West India education in civilization. It has been asserted that -he was murdered in 1824.[XII-40] Robert, his brother, succeeded, -and was deposed, his successor being James, descended from an older -branch of the family,[XII-41] who took the name of George Frederick. -Mosquito annals do not record what became of him. The next king was -Robert Charles Frederick, who believing himself a real monarch, for -and in consideration of abundant contributions of rum, to which he -was much addicted, began to make large grants of land, some of which -carried with them the rights of absolute sovereignty. Most of these -grants were afterward cancelled, and the king was taken by the British -authorities to Belize, and kept under control. He died there, leaving, -in a so-called last will, dated in February 1840, to Superintendent -Macdonald the regency of his dominions during the minority of his heir, -the princess Inez Ann Frederick.[XII-42] Macdonald, whether as such -regent or as an officer of the British crown, appointed his private -secretary, Patrick Walker, to reside at Blewfields, and have charge of -the affairs of Mosquitia; since which time the shore began to assume -much importance, at least in a political sense. Walker established a -council of state, and soon opened a dispute about boundaries with the -Central American states, giving rise to grave questions which occupied -the attention of other governments, and of which I will treat later. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: COLONIZATION FAILURES.] - -Several attempts were made since the early days of the present century -to colonize the Mosquito shore, for which large tracts of land were -granted. Among the most important was one made to the Scotchman Sir -Gregor MacGregor,[XII-43] who soon after started a wild project, -which later was known as the Poyais bubble, and ended, about 1823, -disastrously for the dupes who had been drawn into it.[XII-44] In -1839 the British Central America Land Company of London made another -experiment on the same place where MacGregor had tried his, and -it ended in failure.[XII-45] A German colony named Carlsruhe, near -Blewfields, which was started about 1844, had to be abandoned in 1849 -after losing about two thirds of the emigrants. - -The climate of the coast is moist, hotter than in the interior, and not -as healthy. The greater part of the soil is fertile, and it may be said -that the country possesses many natural elements of wealth.[XII-46] -Blewfields, the capital of Mosquitia, is on the river and lagoon of the -same name. In the latter part of 1847 Blewfields and its dependencies -had 599 inhabitants, of which 111 were white and 488 black,[XII-47] in -two villages, the larger, Blewfields, having 78 houses, and the lesser, -Carlsruhe, 16. Few of the houses were built of boards. One of this kind -was then occupied by Walker, the British agent and consul-general, with -whom the sovereign resided.[XII-48] - - * * * * * - -On the 12th of August, 1841, Macdonald, superintendent of Belize, came -to San Juan del Norte on the frigate _Tweed_, bringing with him the -so-called king of the Mosquitos or Moscos. At the same time an armed -sloop, under the Mosquito flag and commanded by Peter Shepherd, entered -the port. The comandante and revenue officer, Lieutenant-colonel -Quijano, went to see the commanding officers at Shepherd's house, but -was not received, on the plea that both the king and superintendent -were unwell. An official letter from him was left unanswered. At -last, the superintendent's secretary, together with the captain of -the frigate and the king's secretary, called on Quijano and told him -that on the following day his letter would be answered, requiring his -recognition of the Mosquito king as the ally of her Britannic Majesty. -Quijano refused, and his visitors retired. He reiterated his refusal -in a letter to the superintendent, and in the name of his government -solemnly protested against his pretension, as well as against the -insults inflicted on his country.[XII-49] He was finally notified that -if he interfered with any British or Mosquito subject, both he and his -government would be held responsible.[XII-50] - -[Sidenote: BRITISH INTERFERENCE.] - -The demands and insults of the British officers continued until the -15th, when they seized Quijano and carried him on board the frigate, -intending to take him to Belize.[XII-51] The Nicaraguan government, in -a note to British Vice-consul Foster, denounced the acts of the British -officials at San Juan as high-handed, accusing Macdonald of usurping -the name of her Britannic Majesty in supposing her to be an ally of -the so-called Mosquito king.[XII-52] The whole American continent -became indignant at the British proceedings in San Juan. There was one -exception, however, which must be classified as vile. Ferrera, jefe -of Honduras, under the influence of the servile element of Guatemala, -allied with Chatfield, recognized the Mosquito nation.[XII-53] - -Chatfield informed Nicaragua that the whole Central American territory -lying between Cape Gracias á Dios and the mouth of the San Juan River -belonged to the Mosquito king, without prejudice to other rights the -king might have south of the San Juan.[XII-54] In January 1848 two -British war vessels occupied the port of San Juan without resistance, -replacing the Nicaraguan officials by Englishmen as servants of the -Mosquito king, after doing which they sailed away; but no sooner had -the intelligence reached the interior than a force was despatched -to San Juan, which reoccupied the place and sent to the capital as -prisoners the intruders.[XII-55] Whereupon the British returned -in force in March 1848, and defeated the Nicaraguan detachment. -Hostilities being further prosecuted, the Nicaraguans had to succumb -before the superior power of their foe, and consented to an armistice, -providing that they would not disturb San Juan, or attempt to -reoccupy the port, pending the negotiations which must follow on these -events.[XII-56] - -[Sidenote: TREATIES.] - -Nicaragua, by her ablest diplomates, defended her rights to the -disputed territory both in Europe and America, without obtaining -a satisfactory result, until the fears of Central Americans for -the independence of their country were brought to an end by the -Clayton-Bulwer treaty, otherwise called the Ship Canal convention, -concluded at Washington between the United States and Great Britain on -the 19th of April, 1850, by the first article of which neither power -could occupy, fortify, colonize, nor exercise dominion over Nicaragua, -Costa Rica, the Mosquito Coast, or any other portion of Central -American territory, nor make use of a protectorate in any form.[XII-57] -Thus was this vexed question terminated, England resigning all her -claims to the Mosquito Coast, and by a subsequent treaty concluded -at Managua on the 28th of January, 1860, known as the Zeledon-Wyke -treaty, ceded to Nicaragua the protectorate absolutely.[XII-58] Since -then Nicaragua has subjected the Mosquito Coast to a prefecto.[XII-59] -Nevertheless, it is understood that the Indian reserve is still -ruled by a chief chosen by the natives, assisted by a council, which -assembles at Blewfields; but subject to the supreme authority of the -Nicaraguan government. - - * * * * * - -Nicaragua, as soon as she assumed the position of an independent -nation, hastened to open friendly relations with other powers.[XII-60] -Spain made with the republic July 25, 1850, a treaty of friendship, -commerce, and navigation, the first and second articles of which fully -recognize Nicaragua's independence.[XII-61] Early efforts were made to -arrange ecclesiastical affairs with the papal see, a concordat being -finally concluded at Rome November 2, 1861.[XII-62] - -With the other Central American states Nicaragua made treaties, which -underwent from time to time alterations, as circumstances seemed to -demand for her own or the general defence. Several of these will be -made apparent in the course of my narrative. Nicaragua has endeavored -to maintain cordial relations with her neighbors.[XII-63] The republic -entered into friendly diplomatic relations with the powers of Europe -and America, most of them having treaties of amity, commerce, and -extradition of criminals. Its relations with the United States have -generally been intimate, made so by considerations of neighborhood, -business interests, and similarity of institutions, as well as by -a mutual desire to forward the construction of a ship canal across -Nicaraguan territory. They have been disturbed at times, however, -while Nicaragua was a transit route between the eastern states of -the American union, and during the execution of schemes of American -filibusters, such as those of Kinney and Walker. - -[Sidenote: ARBITRARY ACTS.] - -While the Mosquito question was pending between Nicaragua and Great -Britain, circumstances were hastening a practical solution of it. -An American company, acting under a Nicaraguan charter, opened a -transit route for passengers through the state, beginning at San -Juan del Norte, which place rapidly filled up with emigrants from the -United States, who becoming numerically predominant, met in a primary -capacity and organized an independent government.[XII-64] After an -indiscreet attempt on the part of a British commander to levy duties -on an American steamer, which was disavowed by his government, the -British protectorate over San Juan at last virtually ceased. The town -and port remained under the direct control of the inhabitants, most -of whom were Americans, as a free city.[XII-65] The prosperity of the -place was retarded by a dispute with the persons into whose hands the -transit had fallen, which produced bitter feeling, and resulted in -alleged insults to Solon Borland, United States minister to Nicaragua, -whose belligerent instincts carried him away to interfere in matters -which were foreign to his office. The sloop of war _Cyane_, Commander -Hollins, was despatched by the American government to look into -the case. Hollins assumed a hostile attitude,[XII-66] made arrogant -demands, and the latter not being complied with, he bombarded the -town on the 13th of July, 1854, and landing a party of marines, burned -it to the ground.[XII-67] This act has been generally condemned. The -American government hardly contemplated it; but not having punished -Commander Hollins, it must bear the odium. Notwithstanding these -difficulties, peaceable relations were not disturbed.[XII-68] Nicaragua -also has treaties with Belgium, Italy, France, England, Peru, and other -nations.[XII-69] - -A squabble occurred in 1876 at Leon, in which the German consul and a -Nicaraguan citizen were concerned, giving rise to a conflict between -the German and Nicaraguan governments, the former making of it a casus -belli, and demanding, backed by a naval force, a considerable sum of -money.[XII-70] - - * * * * * - -The political situation in the interior of Nicaragua, during the -winter, of 1848-9, was anything but satisfactory to the lovers of -peace. Parties were again venting their animosities. The leader -Bernabé Somoza captured Rivas, and afterward became notorious for -deeds of cruelty and robbery. Director Norberto Ramirez[XII-71] -despatched there a strong force under J. T. Muñoz. Somoza was defeated -and captured at San Jorge on the 14th of June.[XII-72] Ramirez was -succeeded by José Laureano Pineda in 1851,[XII-73] against whom a -revolt broke out August 4, 1851, having J. Trinidad Muñoz for its -leader. Pineda and his ministers Francisco Castellon and F. Diaz Zapata -were arrested. The plan failed, however. Leon, Muñoz' headquarters, -was taken by government forces assisted by troops from Honduras, -and Muñoz surrendered.[XII-74] On the expiration of Pineda's term in -1853, Chamorro became chief of the state, having been elected by the -suffrages of the moderados. The new director was a well-meaning man, -and hoped by pursuing a moderate course to allay party bickerings. -But his political opponents, together with a portion of the military -element, did not permit him to develop his policy in peace. - -The legislative assembly rejected, April 30, 1853, a provisional -constitution which had been framed and published by the national -constituent assembly on the 13th of October, 1852,[XII-75] and at the -same time declared the state to be independent and sovereign. This was -followed on the 28th of February, 1854, by another decree of the state -constituent assembly assuming for the state the title of República -de Nicaragua, and giving its executive the name of president.[XII-76] -The coat of arms and flag of the new republic were decreed April 21, -1854.[XII-77] - -[Sidenote: CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY.] - -A constituent assembly, called on the 11th of December, 1853, to meet -on the 8th of January, 1854, for the purpose of framing a constitution -for the republic, was installed on the 22d of that month.[XII-78] It -continued its session without interruption, and on the 7th of April -assumed, for urgent cases, the powers of an ordinary legislature, -enacting that, in the event of a temporary vacancy in the office of -president, his duties should devolve on the member of the constituent -assembly called by him to assume them. Chamorro was then chosen -provisional president, to hold the office till the 1st of March, -1855. The new charter of the republic was sanctioned on the 30th of -April,[XII-79] which was in force only in Granada and other towns -acknowledging Chamorro's government. - - [Illustration: NICARAGUA.] - -[Sidenote: LONG AND BLOODY WAR.] - -The opposition of the liberals culminated in an attempt at revolution -in Leon, promoted by Castellon, Jerez, and Mariano Salazar. The -government then residing at Managua defeated their plan for the -time, and banished the leaders and a few of their influential -followers.[XII-80] The exiles sought refuge in Salvador and Honduras, -and with the favor of Cabañas, who was then on bad terms with -Chamorro,[XII-81] obtained resources for a second attempt against -the government of the latter. With a few men and a quantity of arms -and ammunition, they went from Tigre Island to Realejo. The invaders -were enthusiastically received, Leon, Chinandega, and immediate towns -proclaiming Castellon provisional director, which office he assumed -June 11, 1854.[XII-82] This was the beginning of a long and bloody -war, which Salvador and Guatemala vainly tried to avert.[XII-83] -Chamorro approached Leon, but finding it had declared for Castellon, -retired to Granada and fortified the place, sustaining afterward an -irregular siege of several months from thrice the number of his force, -under Jerez, till the early part of 1855. Castellon, meantime, gained -possession of the republic, Granada excepted; but the long siege of -this town wrought a change in the feelings of the unstable people, and -in a short time Chamorro or his party recovered Managua, Masaya, and -Rivas, after a series of bloody encounters. The siege of Granada was -consequently raised.[XII-84] Even Chamorro's death, which occurred at -this time,[XII-85] did not favor the democrats. He was succeeded by -José María Estrada. Corral was the general-in-chief of the legitimist -forces, and was organizing at Masaya an army to capture Leon. The -government had called the constituent assembly, which met on the 8th of -April with only fourteen members, and on the 10th resolved that Estrada -should retain the executive until a president should be chosen under -the constitution. This greatly displeased Corral, who had expected to -be called to that position. He had his headquarters in Managua, and -threatened to be revenged of the men who had slighted him.[XII-86] - -Meanwhile Muñoz had gone to Honduras and returned with a small division -of troops, the chief command of both the democratic and Honduran forces -being vested in him. By his advice Castellon appointed Rosalío Cortés -and P. Aleman commissioners to ascertain the views of the legitimist -chiefs with reference to peace negotiations. Estrada consented to -receive Cortés, but not Aleman, and the former had interviews with -him and his supporters, prevailing on them to enter into negotiations -either in their official or private capacity. Muñoz had authorized -Cortés to tell Corral he wished to have a direct understanding -with him.[XII-87] Cortés first saw Corral, and by his advice next -had interviews with Estrada, Vega, and others, all of whom showed -a willingness to treat for peace, and asked him to return to Leon, -which he did, touching at Managua, where Corral assured him of his -disposition to come to an understanding with Muñoz. - -[Sidenote: DEMOCRATS AND LEGITIMISTS.] - -The situation of the democrats was improved since the return of Muñoz. -That of the legitimists was not so good, but the rulers felt confident. -By its moderate course the legitimist government was gaining favor in -democratic towns. Estrada's confidence was increased with the arrival -of two foreign ministers accredited to his government.[XII-88] By this -time Corral had an efficient division at Managua. His subordinate, -Colonel Tomás Martinez, who in late years became president of the -republic, not only cleared Nueva Segovia of Hondurans, but also -occupied the town of San Márcos in Honduras. Lieutenant-colonel Andrés -Murillo obtained a victory over the democrats at Tecuaname on the -17th of May. A few days after—May 31st—Estrada's government decreed an -amnesty to all soldiers, from private to sergeant inclusive, presenting -themselves within twenty days.[XII-89] On the 13th of June came two -men who afterward were fatal to the legitimists, Santos Guardiola, -and the clergyman Manuel Alcaine. The latter was a commissioner from -Salvador to both belligerents, and his efforts on behalf of peace -had been favorably entertained by Castellon. Estrada listened to him, -but did not accept his proposals.[XII-90] Alcaine went back to Leon, -and reported that the legitimists were bent upon exterminating the -democrats, and his statements were fully believed. All hope of bringing -the war to an end by peaceful negotiations was now abandoned.[XII-91] - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -REPUBLIC OF GUATEMALA. - -1840-1865. - - PRESIDENT RIVERA PAZ—CARRERA'S COURSE—PRETENDED - SEDITION—DISSOLUTION OF THE ASSEMBLY—A CONSEJO CONSTITUYENTE - CREATED—CARRERA BECOMES PRESIDENT—ATTEMPT AGAINST HIS - LIFE—REVOLT OF MONTERROSA—CARRERA'S DESPOTISM—THE REPUBLIC - ESTABLISHED—RELATIONS WITH OTHER POWERS—REVOLUTION OF THE - MOUNTAIN—CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY CONVENED—CARRERA'S FORCED - RESIGNATION AND EXILE—LIBERALS TRIUMPHANT—THEIR SQUABBLES - AND DISINTEGRATION—THE MODERADO PARTY—REVOLUTION OF LOS - ALTOS—INTRIGUES OF THE SERVILES—PRESIDENCIES OF MARTINEZ - AND ESCOBAR—CAUSES OF THEIR RESIGNATIONS—PAREDES—RECALL OF - CARRERA—DEEDS OF VENGEANCE—CARRERA AGAIN PRESIDENT—PARTIAL - RESTORATION OF PEACE. - - -[Sidenote: REIGN OF DESPOTISM.] - -Carrera had become so inflated by flattery that he actually believed -himself able to govern upon instinct Guatemala, and even all Central -America.[XIII-1] He tried to shake off aristocratic control, and -showed pugnaciousness toward the assembly and the administrator of the -diocese. Obedience not being in every instance given to his whims, he -threatened, in August 1840, to resign the command of the troops, which -he held with the rank of lieutenant-general.[XIII-2] The aristocrats -were much alarmed, and the assembly, in flattering terms, declined -accepting the resignation. He now appeared in the rôles of financier, -political economist, and enemy of the nobles, presuming to dictate -a policy for the protection of manufactures, agriculture, and other -interests. His displeasure with the nobles was because he believed them -hostile to the masses.[XIII-3] They managed to mollify him, and he then -contented himself with issuing a long address, on the 9th of October, -reiterating his anxiety for the general welfare, and remonstrating -against the intrigues of his personal enemies.[XIII-4] - -A reign of despotism was now established, which continued upwards -of thirty years. Liberal laws were abrogated one after another, and -retrogressive ones substituted, including a complete restoration to the -clergy of the fueros they had been deprived of by the liberal córtes of -Spain in 1820. Carrera's enmity to the assembly became more apparent -from day to day. He showed it by word, and by the press.[XIII-5] He -could not write a line, but others wrote for him, and printed articles -appeared over his name.[XIII-6] José Francisco Barrundia had returned -from his exile, and had been chosen a deputy, but he resigned on the -11th of March, 1842, giving powerful reasons for his course.[XIII-7] -Indeed, Barrundia would have been out of place in a body mostly made up -of ultramontane priests, self-styled nobles, and reactionists. - -The treasury was so exhausted that the assembly had no means to pay -its clerks. But the ecclesiastical coffers had an abundance of money -from the tithes tax, and Carrera's troops had to be paid, or he would -resent the neglect. This was made evident in September 1844. Rivera -Paz, the president, with the utmost difficulties, managed to procure -money for the pay of the soldiers from day to day; but for some reason -unexplained, it did not reach them. Carrera found a way to secure his -ends. He had a conference with some of his officers, and the result -was that the battalion of regular troops revolted on the 20th, and -sacked a number of shops, and the stalls in the market-place, getting -an abundant supply and ruining several traders.[XIII-8] Carrera -then gathered his soldiers in the barracks, and in order to keep up -appearances, the next day without much ado or any form of trial, had -six men shot.[XIII-9] - -Rivera Paz, finding his position unbearable, resigned it. The assembly -accepted his resignation, to take effect after his successor should -be appointed, and qualify. Carrera was chosen, but declined the -office. Venancio Lopez and Bernardino Lemus, appointed in the order -named, followed his example. Rivera Paz had to remain as nominal -head of the government, Carrera being the actual ruler, whose demands -clashed with the fiery-tempered Viteri, minister of state. They had -a serious quarrel, which culminated in the arrest by Carrera, on -the 7th of December, 1841, of Rivera Paz, together with Viteri and -his subordinates.[XIII-10] But after explanations he retired his -force, and calm was restored. On the refusal of Carrera to accept the -presidency resigned by Rivera Paz, December 14, 1841, the councillor -Venancio Lopez was called upon to assume the office.[XIII-11] The -lieutenant-general asked for a passport to leave Guatemala, his object -being only to obtain more honors and money. His plan seems to have -succeeded.[XIII-12] Lopez gave up the presidency, and Rivera Paz for -the third time, on the 14th of May, 1842, was appointed to fill it. - -[Sidenote: SANGUINARY POLITICS.] - -The assembly adjourned on the 4th of November, 1843, to meet again -on the 1st of April, 1844. But Carrera had resolved to suppress -it, and pretending an intended seditious movement at Pinula, he had -the supposed rebels fired upon, and the criminal farce ended with a -simulated capitulation at Guadalupe on the 11th of March, 1844, by -which the assembly was set aside, and a council of government was to -take its place.[XIII-13] The assembly was convoked, ratified its own -dishonor, gave the government full power to regulate administrative -affairs, and decreed its own dissolution.[XIII-14] The decree -convoking members for the new council[XIII-15] was issued on the -26th of April, and it was formally installed on the 8th of December, -having among its members a number of liberals. Rivera Paz resigned the -presidency,[XIII-16] and Carrera was chosen his successor, assuming on -the 11th of December an office that he had virtually controlled since -the 13th of April, 1839. At the election of justices of the supreme -court, the nobles were defeated.[XIII-17] The consejo, or congreso, -as it had begun to call itself, became an object of bitter enmity on -the part of the aristocrats and serviles; and Carrera's overthrow was -also contemplated by them, pretending coöperation with the liberals -for its accomplishment. The plan fell through before maturity, owing -to distrust between the leaders of the two parties. Carrera was -informed of his danger by the confession of a dying man, but never -penetrated to the sources of the plot.[XIII-18] During Carrera's -absence from the capital on furlough in February 1845, Joaquin -Duran occupying the executive chair, a revolt took place, headed by -Monterrosa and an officer named Mendez, but not being seconded by -the people, they entered into a capitulation with Duran to leave the -city, on his solemnly pledging them that they would not be molested. -They accordingly went out on the 5th as promised, and on the next day -Sotero Carrera, A. Solares, and Vicente Cruz entered at the head of -their respective forces. Carrera arrived afterward, and was received in -triumph.[XIII-19] - -[Sidenote: CONSTITUTION AND CONGRESS.] - -At the expiration of his furlough Carrera reassumed the reins of -government. Joaquin Duran resigned the portfolio of treasury and war, -being succeeded by Brigadier Gerónimo Paiz. The state was now virtually -under the control of a triumvirate composed of Rafael and Sotero -Carrera, and Paiz.[XIII-20] The subsequent resignation of Minister -Nájera and appointment of José Antonio Azmitia inspired a little -confidence.[XIII-21] The constituent congress passed liberal laws, -and issued a new constitution on the 16th of September, 1845, that -did not suit the aristocrats, and they made it an object of ridicule -and contempt.[XIII-22] The congress closed its session on the 21st -of the same month. Carrera had obtained another leave of absence, and -Brigadier Vicente Cruz, the vice-president chosen by congress, assumed -the executive office.[XIII-23] The aristocrats kept a strict watch on -Cruz, and breathed more freely when Carrera with his ministers Paiz -and Azmitia were again at the head of the government. The succeeding -congress on the 1st of February, 1846, rejected the constitution framed -the previous year, and authorized the government to call another -constituent congress. This was the result, not only of aristocratic -intrigue, but of violent threats on the part of Carrera and his minions -against all attempting to sanction the act of the 'desorganizadores' to -undermine his power.[XIII-24] - -Carrera and Paiz, aided by Sotero Carrera, corregidor of La Antigua, -now ruled supreme. Citizens had no protection unless they approved of -every act. During the funeral services of Archbishop Casaus a plot was -made to assassinate Carrera, which failed, and the conspirators were -seized and tried. Those who had powerful friends were sent into exile; -the rest had to perish in the damp dungeons of the fort.[XIII-25] - - * * * * * - -Guatemala, in view of the political change resulting from the -dissolution of the federal compact, decreed by her assembly, on the -14th of November, 1843, a new coat of arms for the state.[XIII-26] -On the 6th of April, 1857, the government was empowered to make -in the coat of arms such changes as it might deem judicious, but -preserving the inscription, Guatimalæ Respublica sub Dei Optimi Maximi -protectione. The change was decreed on the 31st of May, 1858.[XIII-27] -A law of March 14, 1851, confirmed in that of May 31, 1858, establishes -the national flag.[XIII-28] - -The national independence of Guatemala was erelong recognized by -foreign powers, with which she opened diplomatic relations and made -treaties.[XIII-29] The formal recognition by Spain took place in the -treaty of May 29, 1863, subsequently ratified by both governments. -Guatemala has endeavored to maintain friendly relations with all. With -the United States they have been quite cordial. During Carrera's rule -his government gave recognition to the imperial régime of Maximilian -in Mexico.[XIII-30] During the South American struggle between Chile -on one side, and Peru and Bolivia on the other, Guatemala maintained -herself neutral. She accepted in 1881 the invitation of the United -States government to be represented at a proposed American congress to -be held in Washington, but which did not take place. In that same year, -owing to the maltreatment of a French citizen, a difficulty arose with -France, but it was amicably settled, the French flag being saluted, and -a pecuniary compensation allowed by Guatemala.[XIII-31] - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: REVOLUTION AND ROBBERY.] - -On the 8th of April the official journal gave to the public a decree -appointing Pedro Molina, Alejandro Marure, and J. M. Urruela a -committee to frame a constitution for the new republic,[XIII-32] a -project of which they presented in due time; but, though conservative, -the government would not adopt it.[XIII-33] The self-styled nobles were -delighted with their republic, and made it appear in the official paper -that the people in the departments were equally so. But a scarcity of -breadstuffs, attributed by many to the contrivances of monopolists, -created disturbances in some districts, alarming the government. -Certain taxes were temporarily removed, and other measures were adopted -to alleviate the distress.[XIII-34] - -In May there was a revolutionary movement in Sacatepequez.[XIII-35] -Robbery and murder became of frequent occurrence in several -departments. The government saw a serious revolution at hand, and -made efforts to meet it. It tried, however, to show that the public -peace was not disturbed.[XIII-36] All measures to check the revolution -were unavailing, and the policy of the rulers of Salvador made the -condition of affairs more alarming to Carrera and his supporters. -Their political opponents now thought the overthrow of the tyrant was -not far distant. His counsellors advised him to call a constituent -congress, and provisionally place the executive office in the hands -of Vice-president Cruz, to which he acceded. The decree for summoning -the congress was issued, and Cruz assumed the presidency on the 25th -of January.[XIII-37] Nájera and Azmitia retired, which indicated a -change of policy. This greatly exercised the reactionists, and the -ayuntamiento of Guatemala, on the 4th of February, urgently begged -Carrera to resume his office, whereupon Cruz threw it up, and the -former took the chair at once. He organized a new cabinet,[XIII-38] the -personnel of which was a challenge to the whole liberal party, which -thereby was roused to action. The first act of the government was to -revoke the decree calling the constituent assembly. All hope of reform -was now given up. - -The revolution went on, and notwithstanding occasional reverses -made much headway, Serapio Cruz, a brother of the vice-president, -and an estimable man and experienced soldier, taking sides with the -mountaineers. The government was sinking under the weight of its -depravity; and yet in those moments of despair, it struck a blow at its -opponents. Molina was arrested on the 10th of May. A similar order was -issued against Barrundia, but he escaped the clutches of the sbirri, -first giving the government his mind in the _Album_, which publication -was of course suppressed.[XIII-39] Together with Molina were conveyed -to the fort José Marino Vidaurre and the printer Luciano Luna. An order -of the court of first instance, issued at the petition of Molina's -wife, was treated with contempt by Palomo Valdez, acting comandante of -the department, who merely said that Molina had been imprisoned upon a -verbal order of the president. The prisoners, were released after some -time of suffering in the dungeons of the fort. The _Gaceta_ repeatedly -contained abusive remarks against the republicans of France, The French -consul demanded a retraction, and not being heeded, struck his flag and -discontinued relations with the government.[XIII-40] - -[Sidenote: POLITICAL UNREST.] - -The position of the government was daily becoming more untenable, when -it concluded to call a constituent assembly, to begin its labors on -the 15th of August.[XIII-41] A scandalous occurrence took place a few -days before the installation of the assembly, when the comandante, -Palomo Valdez, violently arrested the deputy M. Pineda de Mont, who -was released at the demand of that body, but the perpetrator of the act -went unpunished. - -Carrera made known his intention to resign[XIII-42] on the installation -of the assembly, and the insurgent chief Francisco Carrillo tendered -his submission to that body. The liberals could not expect to elect -any candidate of their own, and the reactionists, though having a -working majority in the assembly, from motives of policy abstained -from presenting one of their party; but they finally fixed upon a -political nonentity, who was known to be in accord with Nufio and the -revolutionists of Chiquimula, named Juan Antonio Martinez,[XIII-43] -believing that though a liberal he would not be antagonistic to their -interests. The assembly was installed on the 15th of August with Pedro -Molina presiding, when Carrera sent in three documents, one of which -was his resignation,[XIII-44] which was accepted, no attempt being made -to detain him, as it was the general desire that he should leave the -country.[XIII-45] Martinez was appointed his successor.[XIII-46] The -new president kept Carrera's officers in their commands.[XIII-47] His -appointment did not satisfy the chiefs of the revolution,[XIII-48] and -through commissioners they made known their demands, dated August 27th, -in 18 articles.[XIII-49] The government rejected them, but in a decree -requiring their submission offered certain terms, which in their turn -were not accepted, and the war went on. - - [Illustration: LOS ALTOS.] - -[Sidenote: POLITICAL PARTIES.] - -Colonel Nufio had made an arrangement with commissioners Dueñas and -Angulo of Salvador for the organization of Los Altos as a separate -state. This roused the aristocrats, and their spokesman, Andreu, -made such broad statements in the chamber that the president accused -him of falsehood, and closed the discussion. The affair widened the -breach among the liberals. Luis Molina now organized a third party, -that took the name of moderado, most of whose members were from -the liberal party and the latter was left an almost insignificant -minority. The aristocratic party, albeit divided in appearance, -was really united.[XIII-50] They were disquieted, however, by the -attitude of Salvador in upholding the independence of Los Altos, -which had been organized as a state;[XIII-51] but did not despair of -breaking up the friendship between the liberals and the government -of Salvador.[XIII-52] The aristocrats set themselves to work to have -a motion made by a liberal in the assembly for the confirmation -of Carrera's decree of March 21, 1847, to create the republic of -Guatemala. Such an act on the part of the liberals would alienate from -them the support of the Salvadorans, and reduce them to a nullity. -And yet Barrundia made the motion,[XIII-53] and it was received with a -shout of applause, and passed on the 14th of September, with only two -negative votes.[XIII-54] This ratification was hailed with ringing of -bells and salvos of artillery. - -[Sidenote: DEATH OF VICENTE CRUZ.] - -The revolutionists of Los Altos being defeated at San Andrés,[XIII-55] -were obliged to submit, but the situation of the government was made -precarious by the defeat of Nufio by the brothers Cruz, who approached -the capital.[XIII-56] Unable to negotiate peace, Martinez resigned the -executive office, and José Bernardo Escobar succeeded him on the 28th -of November.[XIII-57] The new president found all his plans antagonized -by the aristocrats and moderados, and the clergy especially mistrusted -him and his ministers.[XIII-58] He might easily have dissolved the -assembly, but the act would have been repugnant to his principles. He -concluded to retire, but his resignation was not accepted.[XIII-59] -Vicente Cruz demanded the surrender of the capital, offering security -for life and property, a few persons only excepted.[XIII-60] The -negotiations for peace having failed, Escobar a second time sent in his -resignation, and it was accepted, with marked disrespect on the part of -the serviles and moderados.[XIII-61] Manuel Tejada was chosen president -on the 30th of December, and declined the honor. Mariano Paredes was -then appointed, on the 1st of January, 1849, and took the oath which -had been prepared by Paredes, but he soon perjured himself, following -explicitly the advice of Luis Batres, and thus becoming a tool of -the aristocrats to bring back Carrera to power.[XIII-62] Arrangements -were made with the mountaineers, under which Brigadier Vicente Cruz, -having recognized the government, entered Guatemala on the 9th of -February.[XIII-63] It was noticed, however, that Serapio Cruz and other -chiefs remained outside. The men of Agustin Perez afterward committed -several murders, and Vicente Cruz went against and defeated them on the -20th of March, but while engaged in the pursuit was struck by a bullet -in the chest and fell dead.[XIII-64] - -Carrera was known to be on the frontier, and Batres undertook to -obtain the assent of the chiefs of the mountain for his return. Not -all of them assented, however, Serapio Cruz issuing a very significant -manifesto. General Agustin Guzman, the loyal liberal leader, well -understood Batres' aims, and having a force at Huehuetenango made a -move on Quezaltenango, defeating a large party of Indians, on the way, -at San Bartolome. This move further complicated affairs, and Batres -resolved to get rid of him by subterfuge.[XIII-65] There were constant -skirmishes on the frontier, Carrera having under him a considerable -number of Indians.[XIII-66] He finally reached Quezaltenango, and -the assembly empowered the government to institute measures for an -active campaign.[XIII-67] On the 13th of April, just ten years after -the occupation of Guatemala by Carrera, his second entry had been -announced. Paredes swore to defend the city against Carrera,[XIII-68] -which oath he never intended to keep. Major Victor Zavala, -corregidor and comandante of Suchitepequez, made common cause with -Carrera.[XIII-69] Paredes, by the advice of Luis Batres and against -the wishes of the liberal and moderado leaders, opened negotiations -with Carrera, which resulted in the submission of the latter and his -forces at Quezaltenango, whereupon it was decreed that all hostilities -against him were to cease; the order forbidding his return was revoked, -his rank of lieutenant-general was restored, and finally he was given -the command-in-chief of the army. The compact between the oligarchy -and barbarism was consummated.[XIII-70] He assumed the command on the -8th of August, and on that date and the 18th he issued proclamations -conveying his purpose of restoring peace and order, and assuring the -people that he was free from hatred.[XIII-71] But the work of vengeance -soon began. Efforts were made to convene the assembly with the object -in view of arresting the liberal deputies who voted for Carrera's -proscription in 1848,[XIII-72] but many of them had fled, and only -those remaining were confined in the fort by Carrera's order without -remonstrance on the part of the president. It is also said that some -persons were shot. Such of the prisoners as did not crave Carrera's -pardon were forced to leave the country.[XIII-73] - -[Sidenote: THE WAR OF 1850.] - -The difference in the principles underlying the policy of the rulers -of Guatemala and Salvador, and the bitter animosity existing between -them, brought about a war in 1850, in which Salvador, Honduras, and -the democrats of Nicaragua were allied against Guatemala.[XIII-74] -President Vasconcelos invaded Guatemala,[XIII-75] at the head of an -allied force of Salvadorans, Hondurans, and Nicaraguans, but seems -to have met with a signal defeat at the hands of an inferior force -under Carrera, near Arada, in Chiquimula, on the 2d of February, which -compelled a precipitate retreat into Salvadoran territory.[XIII-76] -Carrera then marched across the line and established his headquarters -in Santa Ana. This move demanded vigorous measures on the part of -Salvador for self-defence.[XIII-77] - -Carrera wrote the government of Salvador February 22d, that, -understanding it wished to make peace, but hesitated to propose it -because of the presence of Guatemalan troops in Salvador, he would -recross the line, starting on the next day.[XIII-78] Yet the war -continued, until a definitive treaty of peace between Guatemala and -Salvador was concluded at Guatemala on the 17th of August, 1853, and -ratified by Guatemala on the 14th of September.[XIII-79] - -The civil strife raging in Guatemala led to differences with Honduras, -whose government was accused of favoring the rebels of the mountain. -Recriminations and border raids ensued, which culminated in a three -years' war between the two countries, Guatemala aiding Guardiola and -other enemies of Cabañas, the president of Honduras, in their attempts -to overthrow the latter.[XIII-80] At last a treaty was concluded -at Guatemala on the 13th of February, 1856, which the government of -Guatemala ratified on the 5th of April.[XIII-81] - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: REORGANIZATION OF GOVERNMENT.] - -The victorious aristocrats now saw their opportunity to reorganize the -government under a system more in accordance with their ideas; that is -to say, investing the executive with power to crush revolution. Paredes -summoned the constituent assembly which had been called by Carrera's -decree of May 24, 1848, and it was installed on the 16th of August, -1851. This body on the 19th of October adopted a new constitution -under the title of Acta Constitutiva de la República de Guatemala, -containing 18 articles.[XIII-82] Another decree regulated the election -of representatives of the church and other corporations in the national -congress.[XIII-83] - -[Sidenote: CARRERA REX.] - -The constituent assembly having by the 18th article of the acta -reserved to itself the right of choosing the president for the -constitutional term from January 1, 1852, to January 1, 1856, chose the -only possible candidate, Rafael Carrera,[XIII-84] who on the appointed -day assumed the executive office. His reputation for courage, respect -for the church, and other circumstances secured a firm support to his -administration. On the 21st of October, 1854, Carrera was proclaimed by -a general junta of superior authorities president for life,[XIII-85] -and the house of representatives on the 29th of January, 1855, passed -an act exempting the president from all responsibility for the acts -of his government, and devolving it on his ministers.[XIII-86] This -change was a near approach to the monarchical system, for which Carrera -was supposed to have a decided penchant.[XIII-87] Notwithstanding the -strong power thus placed in his hands, a revolt at Quezaltenango the -next year almost overthrew him, requiring the use of all his forces -to defeat it, at the expense of much disaster and a large number of -executions. It was only by great efforts that he succeeded, after so -many years of warfare, in quieting the revolted mountaineers. This was -accomplished only after peace had been signed with Honduras. His strong -supporters, Manuel Francisco Pavon and Luis Batres, died, the former in -1855, and the latter in 1862.[XIII-88] - -From this time, peace being finally restored, with only occasional and -partial disturbances, the régime established with Carrera at its head -was generally acquiesced in. The republic took an active part in the -campaign against William Walker and his filibusters in Nicaragua. The -services rendered by its forces will appear in the description of the -operations of that campaign in a separate chapter. - -The year 1863 was inaugurated with another bloody war with Salvador, -the details and consequences of which will be treated elsewhere. It -is sufficient to say here that Guatemalan arms were successful, and -Carrera's power became still more consolidated, and its supremacy -was felt over the rest of Central America. He ruled the country -uninterruptedly till his death early in April 1865. The highest honors, -civic, military, and ecclesiastic, were paid to his remains.[XIII-89] -Carrera died in the full conviction that he had been the instrument -of providence in saving society and good order in Guatemala. He had -been so assured by his supporters, and had come to believe it, in the -face of the fact that he had been guilty of heinous crimes and was -notoriously immoral.[XIII-90] So die those who pass hence from the -murderer's gallows under the banner of the cross, and with priestly -consolation. - - [Illustration: SALVADOR.] - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -REPUBLIC OF SALVADOR. - -1839-1865. - - MALESPIN'S ACTS—LINDO'S COUP D'ETAT AND DEPOSAL—JEFE - GUZMAN—REVOLT AT SANTA ANA—PRESIDENT AGUILAR—THE - BISHOP EXPELLED—VITERI'S ALLIANCE WITH MALESPIN AND - HONDURAN OLIGARCHS—PRESIDENT VASCONCELOS—BRITISH - HOSTILITIES—SALVADOR'S RELATIONS WITH FOREIGN POWERS—SAN - MARTIN'S ADMINISTRATION—DESTRUCTION OF SAN SALVADOR—PRESIDENT - CAMPO—CAMPAIGN AGAINST WALKER IN NICARAGUA—ESTABLISHMENT - OF THE REPUBLIC—SANTIN'S OVERTHROW—PRESIDENCY OF GERARDO - BARRIOS—WAR OF SALVADOR AND HONDURAS AGAINST GUATEMALA AND - NICARAGUA—THE LATTER VICTORIOUS—BARRIOS' FLIGHT—RESTORATION - OF PEACE—DUEÑAS AS PRESIDENT—BARRIOS' SUBSEQUENT RETURN—HIS - CAPTURE AND SURRENDER BY NICARAGUA—HIS EXECUTION IN SAN - SALVADOR. - - -The constituent assembly of Salvador, installed at Zacatecoluca on -the 1st of August, 1839, after a recess reopened its session on the 2d -of January, 1841, and on the 4th there was laid before it an address, -signed by Colonel Francisco Malespin, as comandante general, and his -officers who took part in the revolt of September 20th, spoken of -elsewhere. In the document they disclaimed hostility to Jefe Cañas or -his minister, or any intent to override the laws, asserting that they -were, on the contrary, actuated by a strong desire to give security to -the state, and save themselves from impending destruction.[XIV-1] This -address was regarded by the liberals as a threat, inasmuch as Malespin -with the garrison had wrongfully assumed a right to deliberate upon -public affairs. - -Norberto Ramirez, now jefe of Salvador by the grace of Malespin, could -no longer brook that officer's interference, and resigned,[XIV-2] Juan -Lindo being called to succeed him on the 7th of January. The assembly -and chief magistrate of the state were both now under the sword of -Malespin, which in its turn was controlled by Carrera of Guatemala. -That body, on the 30th of January, 1841, passed an act to call the -state in future República del Salvador.[XIV-3] The second constitution -of Salvador was adopted on the 18th of February.[XIV-4] Under it the -legislature had two chambers. Lindo, the jefe, had a most unpleasant -position, believing himself surrounded by conspirators. Counting on -Malespin's support, on the 6th of November, 1841, with a coup d'etat -he dissolved the chambers, because among its members were some friends -of Morazan.[XIV-5] His act caused much indignation in several towns, -and on the 13th of January, 1842, three senators, namely, J. V. Nuila, -Lupario Vides, and Antonio José Cañas, at San Vicente, resolved to -restore constitutional order. The legislative body in consequence -assembled there, and made a stirring address to the people, embodying -the policy they intended to pursue.[XIV-6] Lindo tried to justify his -act of November 6th, but failed, and Senator Escolástico Marin was -called to temporarily occupy the executive chair,[XIV-7] with authority -to establish the state capital where most expedient.[XIV-8] The -government continued for the time being in San Vicente, and the people -were called upon to choose a president of the state. - -[Sidenote: ARCE, MARIN, GUZMAN.] - -Marin held the executive authority a few days only. He had been -preceded by Pedro Arce, and was succeeded by Juan José Guzman. The -difficulties of the state had not come to an end. Guzman favored the -conservative element, as shown in his decree of June 3, 1842, issued -after hearing that Morazan was in Costa Rica, to cut off all relations -with that state.[XIV-9] He left the executive office in July, and -resumed its duties again in September, declaring in a proclamation that -he would deal mercilessly with disturbers of the public peace. - -The two legislative chambers were installed at San Vicente on the 17th -of September, and on the 20th counted the votes for president of the -state. No candidate having the requisite majority, Guzman was asked -to continue provisionally in charge of the government. His inaugural -address was a repetition of his manifesto of the 7th, greatly pleasing -the conservatives.[XIV-10] But harmony was not long to prevail between -Salvador and Guatemala. The trouble arose from the independent action -of Salvador in granting an asylum to the remnants of Morazan's forces -against the protests of Guatemala and Honduras, even though the final -decree of admission contained some very severe clauses.[XIV-11] Another -cause of dissatisfaction against Salvador was that Guzman would not -muzzle the press. The independence of Guzman, and the disposition -shown by Malespin not to be at all times a facile instrument of the -aristocrats, prompted the latter to promote an insurrection of the -volcaneños of Santa Ana for their overthrow.[XIV-12] Salvador, though -under the pressure of aristocratic control, still had a leaven of -progression that made itself felt. The publication of _El Amigo del -Pueblo_ was an evidence of this fact. The Aycinenas, Pavon, Luis -Batres, and Chatfield, unable to compete with it in the field of -discussion, demanded its suppression.[XIV-13] - -Guzman in his correspondence with Pavon upheld that journal, and -Malespin would read it with satisfaction.[XIV-14] Guatemala resolved at -least to use coercion. Carrera established his headquarters at Jutiapa -to favor the volcaneños in their rebellion.[XIV-15] - -[Sidenote: REVOLUTION.] - -The cordial reception given in October to Colonel M. Quijans, -commissioner accredited by Nicaragua to Salvador to negotiate a treaty -of friendship and alliance, was displeasing to Bishop Viteri, who took -advantage of Guzman's absence at San Vicente, in the latter part of -that month, to bring about a quarrel between him and Malespin. The -latter at this time was said to be in poor health, and the bishop often -visited him, and in other ways manifested interest for him. Viteri -had directed his clergy to abstain from interference in political -affairs, and yet he preached against Morazan and those who had -banished Archbishop Casans. The Dominican Vazquez[XIV-16] was virulent, -declaring that the ecclesiastical authority would never be under the -civil, and threatening the people that the priests would abandon them -to suffer from plagues, epidemics, war, and famine, if they continued -their iniquitous hostility to the church.[XIV-17] - -The revolution was now a fact. Viteri and Malespin supported Fray -Vazquez, or Fray Veneno, as he was nicknamed. Once Vazquez fulminated -from the pulpit a number of diatribes against President Guzman, at -the same time bestowing much praise on Carrera. The result was an -order from Guzman, then at San Miguel, to bring the friar there as -a prisoner. The bishop remonstrated to Malespin against the order, -demanding an escort, as he wished to end the insults to the church by -himself leaving the state. Malespin tried to dissuade him from his -purpose, and he grew more energetic.[XIV-18] A great tumult ensued -one night in the city, when Viteri, Malespin, and Vazquez received an -ovation from the rabble of La Vega and San Jacinto, amid repeated cries -of "Mueran los judios! mueran los herejes! mueran los impíos!" - -Malespin went off to San Miguel, and had some violent correspondence -with the president; the latter threatened to expose his intrigues if -he did not forthwith depart from San Miguel, and then retired to his -hacienda, leaving the state in the hands of Malespin.[XIV-19] Guzman's -downfall was hailed with joy in Guatemala and Honduras. In Comayagua -it was celebrated with salvos of artillery. After Malespin's return -to San Salvador, to please the bishop several persons were banished, -and the _Amigo del Pueblo_ was suppressed. The executive office, by -Guzman's abandonment of it, went into the hands of Pedro Arce, the -vice-president. The two chambers of the assembly opened their session -on the 30th of January, 1844. No presidential candidate having a -constitutional majority, the assembly chose Malespin president, and he -assumed his new duties on the 5th of February, after reading before -the two bodies in assembly convened a discourse on his great love -for law, justice, and peace. It would have sounded well from the lips -of a liberal, and it is barely possible that Malespin expressed his -sentiments at that moment. But his education, his habits, and the fatal -influence of the men that swayed him, constantly took him out of the -right path. As he was under the control of Bishop Viteri, the country -must go back to the days of obscurantism. The effects of it were soon -made patent.[XIV-20] - -The bishop succeeded in driving out of the state the opponents of his -theocratic ideas, and in bringing about a change in the government; -in fact, everything had been conceded him, and his influence was -paramount. And yet he was not satisfied. He would have the Salvadorans -believe him a deity, but they arrived at the conclusion that by a -great fatality their first bishop had turned out to be a pernicious -revolutionist. - -In connection with the general history of Central America, I have -given the principal events of Salvador down to 1845, when, under the -treaty of Sensenti, after a long and exhaustive war with Honduras, -the state was rid of the ominous rule of the brutal Malespin. With -the discontinuance of the war there was no need of raising further -loans; the military establishment was reduced to a minimum, and the -authorities and people hastened to restore the constitutional régime; -to which end elections of senators and deputies were at once had, in -order that the assembly should meet on the 15th of January, 1846, for -the term of Vice-president Joaquin Eustacio Guzman, who had charge of -the executive authority, would expire on the 1st of February.[XIV-21] -On this date he surrendered the office to Senator Fermin Palacios. The -assembly did not meet till four days after. The presidential election -did not yield a sufficient majority in favor of any one, and the -assembly then appointed Eugenio Aguilar.[XIV-22] The president was a -good Christian, and attended with regularity to his religious duties -as a catholic; and yet Viteri called him a heretic; the reason of it -being that Aguilar was a stickler for a constitutional government of -the people, and the bishop was an oligarch. The latter now invented -the fiction that the president had the intention of exiling him; he -had the people in the wards of Candelaria, San Estévan, and Calvario -told that their bishop was to be sent out of the country in the night -of the 11th of July. He was believed by the simple-minded people when -he assured them that Aguilar and others[XIV-23] were at the bottom of -it. His report made a commotion though not quite so great a one as he -had expected. Nevertheless, he made the most of it, writing to the -president, on the 11th of July, that he knew of the plot to repeat -with him what had been done with Archbishop Casans, in 1829.[XIV-24] -Aguilar was greatly surprised, and believing that with a few words -he could convince the bishop of his error, that same afternoon paid -the prelate a visit. He found a large concourse of people, before -whom the charge was reiterated, and no assurance to the contrary was -accepted. A tumult following, the president had the chief guard-house -reënforced. Fortunately, a heavy rain scattered to their homes the -crowds in the streets; but a considerable number of men ran into -the episcopal residence. That night, several persons representing -Viteri went to the barracks and demanded Aguilar's resignation. The -president meekly assured them of his willingness to retire to private -life rather than be the author of any disturbance. Viteri now thought -Aguilar was vanquished, but he had not counted on the determination -of other Salvadorans to uphold the laws and the government. Quiet -was restored for the time, and Aguilar went to his home at midnight -unmolested. The next day there was much rioting, and an attempt failed -to release the prisoners in the jail.[XIV-25] The rioters were finally -defeated, and the bishop had nothing to show for his conduct but the -blood shed at his instigation.[XIV-26] Aguilar again, after the people -had upheld his authority, showed the weakness of his character in -placing the executive office in the hands of Senator Palacios; which -emboldened Viteri to continue his intrigues and cause further trouble. -He issued a pastoral on the 16th of July, printed in his own house, -which reiterated the accusation against the president, and other -matters; that pastoral[XIV-27] was fatal to his views, for the people -of Salvador made Aguilar resume the presidency. The president, in a -long manifesto, explained his conduct, and issued a decree to enforce -the articles of the penal code against ecclesiastics who made use of -their ministerial office to promote political disturbances.[XIV-28] -The bishop, condemned by public opinion, fled to Guatemala, and the -president then on the 29th revoked a decree of Palacios of July 12th, -and ordered Viteri not to return to Salvadoran territory. - -[Sidenote: A WEAK EXECUTIVE.] - -Peace and order prevailed after Viteri's departure, and the people -again devoted themselves to their usual vocations. But the bishop -managed with Malespin and the Honduran oligarchs, notwithstanding the -treaty of Sensenti, to bring about a revolution in Salvador.[XIV-29] -Malespin attacked Chalatenango, in Salvador, whereupon orders -were given to send troops after him.[XIV-30] Viteri who had once -excommunicated Malespin, and aided in his overthrow, now said that he -was destined by divine providence to defend the religion and rights of -the people of Salvador, which had been infamously abused and usurped -by their government. Malespin preached religion, and acted like the -famous king of the Huns. But his prestige was gone, and at Dulce Nombre -de la Palma he met with his first reverse, when he retreated to Dulce -Nombre de María, a town twelve miles from the Honduran frontier, and -invited Viteri to join him; but that worthy sent him his blessing, -and would not expose his person to the hazards of war. Malespin was -defeated again by eight hundred men under General Nicolás Angulo, and -fled into Honduras, leaving arms and ammunition. Efforts were made -to induce the people of Santa Ana to join Ignacio Malespin; but the -bishop's letters to rouse them availed but little. He found no favor -among the volcaneños, and on his way along the coast to reach Santiago -Nonualco was captured, prosecuted, and executed, with some of his -accomplices.[XIV-31] Francisco Malespin was killed at San Fernando, -near Honduras, the inhabitants cutting off his head, and carrying it as -a trophy to San Salvador.[XIV-32] Bishop Viteri in 1847 went to reside -in Nicaragua, becoming a citizen of the state, to which diocese he was -subsequently translated by the pope. Nothing worthy of mention occurred -within the state in 1847. The Salvador government now represented -the liberal party in Central America, and devoted its attention to -education, arts, and industries. - -[Sidenote: PRESIDENT VASCONCELOS.] - -The presidential term under the constitution being only of two years, -elections were orderly effected, and the assembly opened its session on -the 25th of January, 1848. Doroteo Vasconcelos was the popular choice -for the presidential term of 1848, and entered upon his duties on the -7th of February, 1848.[XIV-33] In a conciliatory address he eschewed -all spirit of partisanship, tendering to all his fellow-citizens peace, -justice, and union.[XIV-34] For all that, the oligarchs abhorred him. -Indeed, his government and Carrera's could not exist so near each -other. The aristocrats well knew he was not to be won over to their -side, as well as the difficulties they must work against to undermine -his popularity. But they looked for early success from internal -dissension and other sources.[XIV-35] Aguilar's administration had -refused to recognize the republic of Guatemala, and Vasconcelos' could -do no less.[XIV-36] - -The territory was twice invaded by troops of Guatemala in pursuit of -insurgents, against which Vasconcelos remonstrated, and satisfaction -was given and accepted with good grace. He was observing a policy of -expectancy, albeit on his guard. Guatemala was then in the throes -of revolution from which he expected to see the Central American -nation spring into a second life; but he was mistaken in the means -he employed. A few proclamations, written in Guatemala by well-known -persons, and appearing in the name of Francisco Carrillo, spoke of -the independence of Los Altos as the aim of a revolution such as -Vasconcelos wanted.[XIV-37] Not that he expected to see an absolute -equality of the state, but that there should not be such differences as -existed under the constitution of 1824. He believed himself supported, -and steadily marched on upon a path that led to his ruin, carrying down -with him the whole liberal party of Central America. - -Vasconcelos labored for a federation of three states—Guatemala, -Salvador, and Los Altos—which once consolidated, Nicaragua and Honduras -would doubtlessly join, and later on attract Costa Rica to do the same. -This idea had no opposition before the revolution of August 1848, in -Guatemala. Vasconcelos received many offers of support to prosecute -his plan. He accordingly instructed Dueñas and General Angulo to enter -into arrangements with General Nufio of Chiquimula, and made every -possible effort to force Carrera's resignation on the 15th of August, -1848; but some of the liberals of Guatemala, after ridding themselves -of Carrera, neglected Vasconcelos. Dueñas was sent there with ample -powers for the organization of a republic of Central America, but he -was slighted, and accomplished nothing. During his stay in Guatemala, -a decree was enacted on the 14th of September, 1848, according to -which that state was declared a sovereign nation and independent -republic.[XIV-38] Vasconcelos, with all his liberalism, and placed as -he was at the head of a liberty-loving democratic people, was still -under the influence of the old colonial traditions. He as well as his -people looked with admiration at the greatness of the United States of -America, but lacked the courage to emulate their example. The United -States had no official church, but Salvador recognized one. Licenciado -Ignacio Gomez was despatched to Rome to negotiate the recall of Bishop -Viteri, the appointment of another prelate, and the conclusion of a -concordat.[XIV-39] His mission was so far successful that on the 3d of -July, 1848, Tomás Miguel Pineda y Zaldaña was preconizated as bishop -of Antigona in partibus infidelium, and given the administration of -the diocese of Salvador, with the right of succession. The news of -this appointment was received with joy, and Vasconcelos erroneously -expected to have a support in the new prelate,[XIV-40] when there was -more likelihood of his coinciding with Pavon and his confrères. Indeed, -Zaldaña, from his greater wariness, was a more dangerous man than -Viteri. - -The legislative chambers met on the 5th of February, 1849. The -president's term would end with the beginning of 1850, and there could -be no reëlection under the constitution.[XIV-41] But Vasconcelos' -friends insisted on his being reëlected, necessitating an amendment of -the fundamental law, and in spite of opposition obtained an act of the -assembly permitting the reëlection.[XIV-42] This was an unfortunate -move, as it divided the liberal party, and encouraged Dueñas, who -wanted the presidency, and was not scrupulous as to the means of -attaining it, to redouble his manœuvres, even though he must call to -his aid Carrera and Luis Batres. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: BRITISH INTERMEDDLING.] - -In 1849, Salvador became involved in a quarrel with the British chargé -d'affaires, Chatfield, resulting from alleged claims preferred by -him with his usual haughtiness, on behalf of fellow-subjects of his. -Vasconcelos' government looked on these claims as unjust, and refused -them recognition. Chatfield then caused the blockading by a naval force -of La Union, the port from which Salvador derived the greater portion -of her revenue.[XIV-43] Unable to resist, her government agreed on -the 12th of November, 1849, to acknowledge the indebtedness, and make -provision for its payment. The blockade was then raised.[XIV-44] But -this did not end the disagreements between Chatfield and the Salvador -government. On the 6th of August he made peremptory demands,[XIV-45] -coupled with a menace that if not complied with at once the coasts -of the state would be blockaded by British war ships then coming to -act under his instructions. The government of Salvador did not comply -with the demands,[XIV-46] and on the 16th of October port La Union was -blockaded by the British ship _Champion_, whose commander notified the -authorities that if within ten days full satisfaction were not given -for the insults to the British flag, the blockade would be extended -to the whole coast, another vessel being despatched to Acajutla to -enforce it. No satisfaction having been given as demanded, that menace -was carried out. The difficulties remained unsettled in the latter part -of February 1851, though the British war vessels had retired.[XIV-47] -But they were subsequently arranged in an amicable manner. With the -exception of these troubles, and the repeated differences with the -other states of Central America, Salvador has maintained friendly -relations with foreign powers, most of which have treaties with her on -terms satisfactory to all concerned.[XIV-48] - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: MULTIPLIED HOSTILITIES.] - -Vasconcelos was not more successful in preserving peace within the -state than in forcing Guatemala to abandon the policy she had adopted -of maintaining an absolute autonomy. In his invasion of that neighbor's -territory early in 1851, as we have seen in the previous chapter, he -was worsted, which roused popular indignation against him, followed by -a revolt, and his deposal by congress.[XIV-49] On the 1st of March, the -substitute, J. F. Quiroz, was called to occupy the executive chair, and -did so.[XIV-50] The president for the constitutional term 1852-3 was -Francisco Dueñas, who succeeded in settling the differences existing -between Salvador and Guatemala. - -A serious disagreement having occurred between Salvador and Honduras, -leading to hostilities, the government of Guatemala, then at war -with Honduras, despatched a force to Ahuachapan in aid of Dueñas, -who apprehended an invasion.[XIV-51] Toward the end of this term José -María de San Martin was chosen for the next. The state now returned in -peace to its interior affairs, adopting important improvements.[XIV-52] -There were not wanting, however, some attempts to disturb the public -peace, which were fortunately defeated. But the country became at -that time the victim of other calamities, such as cholera, scarcity -of food resulting from a visitation of locusts, and an earthquake -which destroyed San Salvador on the 16th of April, 1854,[XIV-53] in -consequence of which the capital was removed to Cojutepeque, where it -remained for some time. - -Rafael Campo and Francisco Dueñas were elected president and -vice-president, respectively, for the ensuing term of 1856-7; and the -latter being in charge of the executive office in January 1856, in -Campo's absence, fitted out a contingent of troops to aid Nicaragua in -her struggle with Walker's filibusters. Campo despatched reënforcements -in 1857, the Salvador forces being under command of General Gerardo -Barrios, who, according to Perez, never went beyond Leon,[XIV-54] but -undertook to arrange the internal affairs of Nicaragua, convoking a -junta de notables, which proclaimed Juan Sacasa president. This had no -effect, however. - -The state had, in 1856, constituted itself as a free and independent -nation, under the name of República del Salvador.[XIV-55] This act was -confirmed March 19, 1864, by the national constituent congress. - -[Sidenote: CAMPO AND BARRIOS.] - -General Belloso, Colonel Choto, and other officers of the expedition -deserted in June from Leon. Barrios sent troops after them, and they -were arrested in Salvador and taken as prisoners to Cojutepeque, where -they told President Campo that Barrios had invited them to make a -revolution against his government. They were set at liberty on the 8th. -Barrios landed at La Libertad with his forces on the 6th, and marched -to San Salvador, whence he wrote Campo he had occupied that place to -defeat the revolutionary schemes of Belloso and Choto. Orders were sent -him to dissolve the forces and go to Cojutepeque with 200 men. On the -11th Barrios, together with his officers, made a pronunciamiento to -depose Campo and call Dueñas to the presidency.[XIV-56] The president -on the 12th called troops to the support of his government, placed -San Salvador and Cojutepeque under martial law, and declared all -acts emanating from the vice-president void. But it seems that the -latter refused to lend himself to Barrios' plan, but on the contrary, -supported Campo.[XIV-57] Barrios himself submitted.[XIV-58] - -Campo's successor was Miguel Santin del Castillo. This president's -tenure of office was of short duration. In 1858 a coup d'etat of -Barrios, then a senator, in which he was aided by the vice-president -Guzman, his father-in-law, forced Santin to resign. Barrios -subsequently obtained from the legislative assembly, sitting from -January 17 to February 12, 1859, the sanction of his coup d'etat, -as well as the constitutional amendments that he had not been able -to carry through legally during Santin's rule, namely, to extend the -presidential term from two to six years, and that of the deputies from -two to four years.[XIV-59] The year 1859 was one of restlessness, -engendered partly by the ungrounded fear of invasion by Santin's -friends, who had taken refuge in neighboring states, and partly by -Barrios' efforts to secure his own election to the presidency, in -which he was successful. In August 1859 the existing disagreements -between Salvador and Honduras, resulting from intrigues of refugees -from the former, were brought to an end through the mediation of -Guatemala.[XIV-60] - -[Sidenote: INVASION OF SANTA ANA.] - -The republic seemed to have attained a comparatively stable condition -at the incoming of 1860. Barrios had been elected president, and -recognized as such by the assembly.[XIV-61] He concluded in 1862 -to hold diplomatic relations with the vice-president, who under the -constitution of Honduras was entitled to occupy the executive chair -of that state at the death of President Guardiola, and was favored -by public opinion, although Carrera of Guatemala was upholding -Medina, a usurper of the presidency. A treaty of alliance, both -defensive and offensive, was entered into between Salvador and -this vice-president,[XIV-62] which displeased Carrera; he demanded -explanations, and they were given him.[XIV-63] The latter found -an excuse to pick a quarrel with Barrios in the question with the -Salvador clergy, who had been required to take an oath of allegiance -to the government,[XIV-64] which they refused to do, Bishop Pineda y -Zaldaña and a number of his subordinates repairing to Guatemala, where -they were honorably received. Barrios was accused in the official -journal of setting aside the conservative policy promised at his -inauguration.[XIV-65] An expedition, under Colonel Saenz, believed to -have been aided by Carrera, invaded Santa Ana at the cry of Viva la -religion! Viva el obispo! and took the city, but were soon driven away -by the citizens. Carrera disclaimed any connection with this affair. -Some time after came Máximo Jerez, as minister of Nicaragua, proposing -a plan of national union for Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua, with -the intention of inviting Guatemala and Costa Rica to join them; but -the project failed because of the refusal of Honduras to enter into -the arrangement. Carrera had meantime dissuaded President Martinez of -Nicaragua from the scheme. - -The Guatemalan government was preparing for war against Salvador, and -succeeded in winning the coöperation of Martinez.[XIV-66] Honduras, -being an ally of Salvador, Florencio Xatruch was assisted by Carrera -to make a revolt in several departments against the government of -Honduras. Salvador tried to avert hostilities. Friends of peace, among -them the American and British representatives, mediated, but all was of -no avail.[XIV-67] - -[Sidenote: OFFICE-SEEKERS WAR.] - -The war contemplated by Carrera was unpopular in Guatemala, where -the people of late years had been enjoying peace and prosperity, -and feared a recurrence of the former desolations. But their ruler -was prompted by a deadly animosity to Barrios, and by the fear that -the alliance of the latter with Jerez would endanger conservatism, -and consequently his own power. Whereupon he resolved to crush at -one blow the disturber of the public peace, as Barrios was called -by the oligarchs.[XIV-68] He invaded Salvador with a large force, a -proclamation preceding him to inform the people that the war would -be against Barrios and not themselves. He felt certain of a speedy -victory, and blindly assailed Coatepeque, where Barrios was entrenched. -He was repulsed with such heavy losses[XIV-69] that he had to retreat -to his own capital, which he entered March 6th at the head of only -3,000 men. But this reverse did not discourage him. He fitted out -another army, and started upon a second campaign that should be -decisive[XIV-70] against Salvador and Honduras, the latter having -espoused Barrios' cause. Meantime Martinez of Nicaragua had gained a -battle at the town of San Felipe on the 29th of April, against a united -force of Jerez' partisans and Salvadorans.[XIV-71] Moreover, Honduras -was invaded by 800 Guatemalans under General Cerna. The Salvadoran and -Honduran troops were defeated[XIV-72] by the allied Guatemalans and -Nicaraguans, on the plains of Santa Rosa, which prompted revolts in -the greater part of the departments of Salvador, proclaiming Dueñas -provisional president, who organized a government at Sonsonate.[XIV-73] -Intrigues were successfully brought into play upon several Salvadoran -commanders to induce them to revolt against Barrios, and to aid his -enemies.[XIV-74] One of those officers was General Santiago Gonzalez, -commanding the troops at Santa Ana during Barrios' temporary absence at -San Salvador. He made a pronunciamiento on the 30th of June, telling -the soldiers that a similar movement had taken place the previous -day at the capital, and Barrios was a prisoner, and his government -dissolved. On discovering the deception some battalions escaped and -joined the president at San Salvador, Gonzalez being left with a -small number of troops. Carrera was now near Santa Ana, and demanded -Gonzalez' surrender and recognition of Dueñas as provisional president, -which, being declined, Carrera attacked and easily defeated him on -the 3d of July,[XIV-75] the Salvadoran artillery and a large quantity -of ammunition falling into the victor's hands. Carrera was now master -of the situation,[XIV-76] and his opponent virtually without means of -defence, superadded to which the influence of the clergy had turned -the Indians to Carrera's side. Barrios continued his efforts, however, -and held out four months at San Salvador, though closely besieged and -suffering from want of food and ammunition.[XIV-77] He had refused to -listen to proposals offering him the honors of war, believing that once -in Carrera's hands his fate would be sealed.[XIV-78] At last further -defence was impossible, and Barrios escaped out of the city early on -the 26th of October, and subsequently out of the country.[XIV-79] The -surrender of the city took place the same day, and on the 30th Dueñas, -now placed at the head of affairs, decreed thanks and honors to Carrera -and Martinez, and their respective armies.[XIV-80] - -[Sidenote: DEATH OF BARRIOS.] - -Barrios, having with him arms and ammunition, embarked at Panamá in -1865, on the schooner _Manuela Planas_ for La Union, to place himself -at the head of a movement initiated by Cabañas in that port and San -Miguel in his favor. It was only on arrival that he heard of the -failure of that movement,[XIV-81] and on his return the schooner was -struck by lightning in waters off Nicaragua at the Aserradores. He -sent to Corinto for water and provisions, and the consequence was that -a Nicaraguan force came on board and captured him. He was taken to -Leon on the 30th of June.[XIV-82] The government of Salvador demanded -his extradition that he might be tried, the national congress having -impeached him. The result of this was a convention entered into at -Leon July 14, 1865, between Gregorio Arbizú, minister of Salvador, -and Pedro Zeledon, plenipotentiary for Nicaragua, by which the latter -government assented to the surrender of Barrios, under the express -stipulation that his life should be spared whatever might be the result -of his trial.[XIV-83] But the government of Salvador, in disregard of -this obligation, had Barrios sentenced to death by a court-martial, -and he was executed at 4:30 in the morning of August 29th, against the -remonstrances of the representative of Nicaragua. The latter could do -nothing but protest, and throw the infamy of the deed upon Dueñas and -his administration. - - * * * * * - -Bishop Zaldaña returned to his diocese at the termination of the war -in the latter part of 1863, and issued a pastoral letter recommending -concord and union among his flock. The provisional government called -on the people to choose a constituent assembly to reorganize the -government and frame a new constitution. This assembly met on the -18th of February, 1864, and on the same date sanctioned the last -revolutionary movement, which deposed Barrios from the presidency, -and called Dueñas to fill it. His acts to that date were approved, -and he was recognized as provisional executive till a constitutional -one should be elected. That body at a later date promulgated a new -constitution in 104 articles, which like the fundamental charters -of the other Central American states at that time was exceedingly -conservative. The only religion recognized was the Roman catholic. - -At the elections which took place ten months after the promulgation -of the new charter, Dueñas was apparently elected president for the -first constitutional term, and the constitutional congress recognized -him as such. He took formal possession of the office February 1, 1865. -Congress closed its session on the 21st of the same month. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -REPUBLIC OF HONDURAS. - -1840-1865. - - PRESIDENT FERRERA—REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS—POLITICAL - EXECUTIONS—PRESIDENCY OF JUAN LINDO—NEW CONSTITUTION—LINDO - OVERTHROWN—BELIZE—HONDURAS' TROUBLES WITH GREAT - BRITAIN—BRITISH OCCUPATION OF TIGER ISLAND—BOMBARDMENT - OF OMOA—BAY ISLANDS—PRESIDENT CABAÑAS—WAR WITH - GUATEMALA—GUARDIOLA'S ASSASSINATION—PROVISIONAL RULES OF - CASTELLANOS AND MONTES—ALLIANCE WITH BARRIOS—UNSUCCESSFUL WAR - WITH GUATEMALA AND NICARAGUA—MONTES DEPOSED—ESTABLISHMENT OF - THE REPUBLIC—JOSÉ M. MEDINA CHOSEN PRESIDENT—AMENDMENT OF THE - CONSTITUTION. - - -The house of representatives of the Estado Libre y Soberano de -Honduras, on the 30th of December, 1840, chose Francisco Ferrera -president,[XV-1] and he took possession of the office on the 1st of -January, 1841. The chamber closed its session on the 6th of March. - -It is unnecessary to repeat here the history of Honduras down to 1844, -as it has been given in connection with other sections of Central -America. The state assembly was installed on the 11th of January, with -ceremonies more religious than political, as befitted a country where -the influence of the church was so overwhelming.[XV-2] The chamber -bepraised Ferrera with as much gusto as the church had smoked him with -incense at the cathedral, and on the 26th he was formally declared a -benemérito de la patria, and confirmed as a general of division, which -rank had been conferred on him by the government in March 1839.[XV-3] - -Much was said at the opening of the legislative session about peace, -but the fact was, that a number of towns were greatly agitated, owing -to the heavy burdens weighing on them, and to the displeasure caused -by many citizens having been driven into exile. Among these towns -were Texiguat, La Plazuela, and Comayagüela. Santos Guardiola was -sent against them, and was not successful, though he asserted in a -proclamation that he had defeated the rebels. The war spread,[XV-4] and -Ferrera deemed it expedient to leave the executive office in charge of -the ministers for a time, and to personally take command of the forces -to operate against the insurgents. Guardiola defeated them at Corpus -on the 1st of July, and captured their correspondence, with Rivera, -Orellana, and the other leaders.[XV-5] - -[Sidenote: REVOLUTION AND ELECTION.] - -An insurrection of the troops at Olancho took place in December, -which was soon quelled, and stringent measures were adopted by Ferrera -against its promoters.[XV-6] Amid this state of affairs Ferrera's term -was approaching its end, and he could not be reëlected a second time -under the constitution of 1839. Elections were held, and arrangements -made so that he could continue in power as minister of war with the -chief command of the forces.[XV-7] Guardiola had been also dubbed a -benemérito, and his friends wished to raise him to the presidential -chair, but did not succeed.[XV-8] No candidate obtained the requisite -majority, and the legislature chose Coronado Chavez president.[XV-9] - -Ex-jefe Rivera, taking advantage of the absence of Ferrera with -most of his forces in Nicaragua, invaded Honduras for the purpose of -overthrowing the existing government. The people failed to coöperate -with him, and he was defeated and made prisoner. On the 4th of January, -1845, he, with Martinez, Landa, and Julian Diaz arrived at Comayagua -in irons. The official journal announced that Rivera was to be tried -and punished. He was in fact doomed to the scaffold before he was -tried.[XV-10] - -Guardiola's atrocities in La Union and San Miguel, spoken of in a -former chapter, won him additional honors from the subservient assembly -of Honduras. He was a second time declared a benemérito, and awarded -a gold medal. Chavez, the tool of Ferrera, was not neglected. He was -given the title of Padre conscripto de la patria, with an accompanying -medal.[XV-11] The assembly closed on the 23d of March, well satisfied -of the wisdom of its measures. Another presidential election came up, -and no one having the requisite number of votes, the assembly, January -14, 1847, chose Ferrera, who declined the position, and Juan Lindo was -then appointed, Ferrera continuing as war minister, with the command of -the troops annexed, which was what he desired. Guardiola was retained -in the office of minister of foreign relations, though unfit for it. - -When the army of the United States was in Mexico, Lindo seemed greatly -exasperated thereby; the president, without first obtaining the -sanction of the representatives, issued manifestos, on the 1st and 2d -of June, 1847, which were an open declaration of war against the United -States.[XV-12] - -Lindo desired to control affairs for an unlimited time, and the -constitution allowing him only a two-years tenure, and containing, -besides, several clauses repugnant to him, it was doomed.[XV-13] A -constituent assembly was accordingly called to frame a new charter, -which was adopted at Comayagua February 4, 1848.[XV-14] - -Lindo continued as president under the new régime.[XV-15] The -legislature had assembled at Cedros on the 10th of June, 1849, when -the president reported the state at peace, and its relations with the -other states on a satisfactory footing. But he acknowledged that his -government was harassed by party contentions. Order had been maintained -thus far by a strict impartiality toward the factions, with the -coöperation of some good and influential citizens.[XV-16] This was not -to last long; for on the 12th of February, 1850, Guardiola, deceived by -representations of Felipe Jáuregui and the aristocrats of Guatemala, -in which the British chargé, Chatfield, had no little part, made a -pronunciamiento at Tegucigalpa, where the government then was, and -Lindo had to flee. The latter finally entrenched himself at Nacaome, -near the bay of Fonseca, and asked for assistance from the governments -of Salvador and Nicaragua, which under the terms of their confederacy -they were bound to afford him. Salvador at once sent a considerable -force under General Cabañas, and Nicaragua prepared to do the same -if necessity required it. Guardiola's movement was not seconded -elsewhere. But he marched against Nacaome, and at Pespire commissioners -of Salvador and Lindo made him understand his false position, and an -understanding was then had, on the 25th of March, by which he submitted -to Lindo's authority.[XV-17] - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: WAR AND TREATIES.] - -The treaties of 1783 and 1786 between Great Britain and Spain reserved -to the latter the sovereignty over Belize, otherwise called British -Honduras, granting to the settlers merely the privilege of cutting dye -and other woods,[XV-18] using the spontaneous products of the soil, -fishing along the coast, repairing their vessels, and building houses -and stores. The colonists were not to set up any government, either -civil or military, construct forts or defences, maintain troops of any -kind, or possess any artillery.[XV-19] - -[Sidenote: BELIZE.] - -Governor O'Neill of Yucatan made an expedition in 1798 against the -English settlers during war between the two nations, and destroyed a -number of settlements on the Rio Nuevo, but was afterward repulsed -by the colonists and slaves of Belize. This circumstance was -claimed to have given the victors the right of conquest over the -territory occupied by them. But neither Spain, nor Mexico after her -independence, recognized that pretension, nor was it admitted by the -British parliament.[XV-20] Furthermore, the treaty signed in London, -December 26, 1826, between Great Britain and Mexico was negotiated on -the express condition that the treaty of July 14, 1786, between the -Spanish and British crowns should be held valid and observed in all -its provisions.[XV-21] Therefore the conclusion we must arrive at is, -that the sovereignty over Belize belongs to Mexico and not to Great -Britain. Mexico's claim has been recognized by the settlers, when it -suited their interests, but they were never equally disposed to abide -by the obligations of the treaty of 1826.[XV-22] Their encroachments -on Yucatan have continued to the extent that they now hold much more -than was conditionally allowed them for wood-cutting by the treaty of -1783.[XV-23] - -Affecting to forget that they were entitled merely to the usufruct of -the country, the settlers set up as early as 1798 a government,[XV-24] -raised troops, built forts, tilled the soil, and exercised every -right implying full sovereignty. Alexander M'Donald, while holding -the office of superintendent,[XV-25] on the 2d of November, 1840, set -aside the laws and usages of the country, declaring that from said date -the law of England should be the law of the settlement or colony of -British Honduras, and that all local customs and laws repugnant to the -spirit of the law of England, and opposed to the principles of equity -and justice, should be null.[XV-26] In later years the government -has been in the hands of a lieutenant-governor, with an executive -and legislative council, and the colony has the usual judicial -establishment.[XV-27] - -The assumption of sovereignty is not Mexico's only cause of complaint. -Since the war of races broke out in Yucatan in 1847, the people of -Belize have sold arms and ammunition to the revolted Indians. Early in -1848 the authorities promised that the Indians should not be aided, -directly or indirectly; but the promise was not fulfilled.[XV-28] -The population is mainly negro, originally introduced as slaves; -the rest, excepting a few white men, is a hybrid race resulting from -intercourse with Europeans and Indians. The total population in 1871 -was nearly 25,000, of which there were probably 1,000 more males than -females.[XV-29] Slavery was abolished by an act of the inhabitants on -the 1st of August, 1840.[XV-30] - -The chief product of the country is mahogany, of which some 20,000 tons -were exported annually, but the demand for it lately has decreased. -Its logwood is much valued, and about 15,000 tons are yearly exported. -Besides these staples, the country produces other woods of value, -and the cahoon or coyal palm in abundance, from the nuts of which is -extracted a valuable oil. Sarsaparilla and vanilla are found in the -interior. Of domestic animals there are enough for the needs of the -people. The colony during the last fifteen or twenty years has been on -the downward course. - -In former times the port of Belize was an entrepôt for the neighboring -states of Yucatan, Guatemala, and Honduras,[XV-31] but after the -opening of direct trade between those states and the United States -and Europe, and the diversion of trade on the Pacific to Panamá, -that source of prosperity ceased. Total tonnage entered and cleared -in 1877, exclusive of coasting trade, 73,974, of which 46,168 were -British. Value of imports, in ten years ending in 1877, £1,781,175; -for that year, £165,756, of which £84,540 were from Great Britain. -Value of exports for 1877, £124,503, of which £94,548 went to Great -Britain.[XV-32] The average rate of duties on imports is ten per cent -ad valorem; machinery, coal, and books entering free. The gross amount -of revenue for 1863, £27,398; for 1877, £41,488. Public expenditure for -the latter year, £39,939. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: ENGLISH COERCION.] - -The relations of Honduras with Great Britain were during many years -in an unsatisfactory state, due in a great measure to the schemes -of certain officials of the latter government, who pushed ungrounded -claims against the former in the furtherance of their plans to gain -control of a large extent of the Central American coast. On the 3d -of October, 1849, a British war ship at Trujillo demanded the sum -of $111,061, alleged to be due to subjects of her nation. The demand -not being complied with, an armed force was landed from her the next -day, which occupied the fort and town. The British commander finally -accepted on account $1,200—all that the Honduran comandante could -procure—and on reëmbarking fired a volley.[XV-33] - -On the southern coast the British steamship _Gorgon_, on the 16th -of November, seized the island of Tiger, hoisting the British flag -at Amapala.[XV-34] The authorities of Honduras, after protesting -against the act, called the attention of the United States -representative to the British proceeding, for this island had been -ceded to his government in September previous.[XV-35] It is presumed -that Chatfield's purpose, among other things, was to prevent the -construction of a canal across Nicaragua by Americans. But Admiral -Hornby, commanding the British naval forces in the Pacific, disapproved -of the proceeding, removing his men and restoring the Honduran flag -under a salute of twenty-one guns.[XV-36] - -A preliminary convention was entered into at San José, Costa -Rica, December 29, 1849, between Felipe Jáuregui, calling himself -commissioner of Honduras, and Chatfield, the British chargé d'affaires, -in nine articles, some of which involved undue responsibility on the -part of Honduras.[XV-37] This treaty was disavowed by her government, -March 22, 1850, in a note to Admiral Hornby, declaring that Jáuregui -had no authority to make it, and its stipulations being offensive -to the dignity of the state, the legislature would never sanction -them.[XV-38] Meanwhile Honduras had agreed with Chatfield to accredit a -commissioner to arrange with him for the settlement of British claims. -This was done; and the long and tedious question was finally arranged -on the 27th of March, 1852, Honduras assuming an indebtedness of -$80,000.[XV-39] - -[Sidenote: FUTILE PROTESTS.] - -The debt question was not the only source of disquietude for Honduras -in her relations with Great Britain. British officials, on trumped-up -pretexts, usurped and held, during several years, portions of her -territory. M'Donald, superintendent of Belize, occupied Roatan and -other islands belonging to Honduras situated in the bay of this name. -The Honduran government protested against such usurpation, but no -attention was paid to its remonstrances. It does not appear, however, -that Great Britain was claiming territorial rights over the Bay -Islands, as they were called.[XV-40] Soon afterward, a number of Cayman -islanders settled in Roatan, and in the course of a few years there -were about 1,000, when the superintendent of Belize found a pretext to -assume the control. In 1849, the islanders applied to Colonel Fancourt, -then superintendent of Belize, for a regular government. He promised -to comply with their wishes, but was unable, and they continued -choosing their authorities. At last, in August 1850, the war schooner -_Bermuda_, Lieutenant Jolly commanding, took formal possession of -Roatan, Guanaja or Bonaca, Utila, Barbarreta, Morat, Elena, etc., in -behalf of the British crown, declaring them a British appendage under -the name of Colony of the Bay Islands; against which the acting chief -magistrate, William Fitzgibbon, protested on the 15th of September, -1850, in the name of the sovereignty of Honduras.[XV-41] The islands -were, in August 1852, under the rule of a lieutenant-governor.[XV-42] -A treaty was finally concluded between the queen of Great Britain and -Honduras, on the 28th of November, 1859, respecting the Bay Islands, -the Mosquito Indians, and the claims of British subjects, which settled -the question in favor of the latter power.[XV-43] Still one more -trouble has occurred between the two nations, in which the weaker one -had to submit to the demand of the other at the mouth of her cannon. -On the 19th of August, 1873, the war ship _Niobe_, Sir Lambton Loraine -commanding, bombarded Fort San Fernando of Omoa.[XV-44] The bombardment -ceased on the Honduran authorities agreeing to redress the alleged -grievances, and paying damages.[XV-45] With other nations of Europe and -America—excepting the sister states, with which repeated bickerings -have occurred, leading sometimes to war—Honduras has succeeded in -maintaining friendly relations.[XV-46] The boundary between Honduras -and Nicaragua was finally agreed upon in a convention dated September -1, 1870.[XV-47] In 1866 the Honduran government entered into a -concordat with the pope for an understanding on affairs ecclesiastical. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: PRESIDENT CABAÑAS.] - -President Lindo, having been a third time elected to the presidency -for the term to begin February 1, 1852, published on the 25th of -November, 1851, a manifesto to the people, suggesting the expediency -of calling some other citizen to the executive chair, pleading at -the same time need of rest.[XV-48] The people took him at his word, -and chose Trinidad Cabañas president, who was inducted into office -at Comayagua on the 1st of March, 1852,[XV-49] and on the next day -in his address to the assembly pledged his word to pursue a liberal -policy in observance of the principles that had guided him throughout -his career. His election was hailed as an auspicious event, and a -safeguard against Guatemala's encroachments.[XV-50] The state was at -peace in the interior, and with the other states of Central America, -except Guatemala, with which the relations were not harmonious, owing -to the usurpation by the latter of a portion of Honduran territory on -the Copan side. This, with divergence in political principles between -the two rulers, soon brought on a bloody war,[XV-51] which has been -detailed in a previous chapter.[XV-52] The fruitlessness of this -contest prompted Salvador and Nicaragua to use their endeavors for -peace; but they proved unavailing. What Guatemala's superior resources -failed to accomplish on the field of battle was, however, brought -about by means of intrigue, with the coöperation of the party opposed -to Cabañas in Honduras, headed by General Santos Guardiola, which -received efficacious aid from Carrera. General Juan Lopez supported the -revolutionary movement with 700 men,[XV-53] and Cabañas was overthrown -on the 6th of July, 1855.[XV-54] - -At last, being unable to cope with the daily increasing forces of -the enemy, he abandoned the field, and retreated to Salvador. The -serviles again took possession of the government under Lopez.[XV-55] -The presidential election took place amid this turmoil. The state -was divided into two factions, one supporting Lindo and the other -Guardiola. The friends of Lindo, not feeling certain of success, -proposed Lopez as a compromise candidate, he being credited with -the expulsion of Cabañas, but finally abandoned the plan and -cast their votes for Guardiola, who assumed the executive office, -February 17, 1856, on his return from Nicaragua, where he had been -defeated by William Walker. Lindo had meantime been in charge of the -government.[XV-56] A system of despotism was now established, Guardiola -being but a satellite of Carrera.[XV-57] - -[Sidenote: POLITICAL DESPOTISM.] - -The country at this time was in a distressed condition. Agriculture -was neglected, most of the field hands having emigrated. Business -of all kinds was at a stand-still. There was no available revenue, -for every one of its branches was burdened with debt. The state -had a contingent of troops serving in Nicaragua against Walker, -supported from a special forced loan. To the credit of Guardiola's -administration must be recorded, however, that it secured peace -with Guatemala, and a settlement of questions pending with Great -Britain. At the end of his term he was reëlected. Early in 1861 the -government had a difference with the vicario capitular. The see being -then vacant, this ecclesiastic assumed the right of excommunicating -the president, whom he accused of persecuting the church; but the -government forbade the publication of his decree, and expelled its -author from the state.[XV-58] This difficulty was subsequently arranged -through the metropolitan of Guatemala. Disturbances occurred at -various places,[XV-59] which were brought to an end in a short time. -On the 11th of January, 1862, the president was assassinated.[XV-60] -At first it was feared that discord would reign again, and the other -Central American governments prepared to mediate in the interests of -peace.[XV-61] Fortunately, good counsels prevailed, and anarchical -tendencies were for a time checked. - -[Sidenote: BRIEF REIGNS.] - -Guardiola's constitutional successor, Victoriano Castellanos, was in -Salvador, and much against his will was pushed by Barrios to accept -the position. He repaired to the frontier, and had the oath of office -administered to him by the alcalde of the little town of Guarita; which -was considered a strange proceeding on his part by Senator José María -Medina, who had received the executive office from J. F. Montes,[XV-62] -and invited him to the capital to enter upon his duties.[XV-63] -Castellanos concluded soon after an alliance offensive and defensive -with Barrios, and at a time when their states were at peace with the -other governments of Central America. This step, and the diatribes of -the press in Salvador and Honduras against the governments of Guatemala -and Nicaragua, paved the way for fresh troubles in Central America. -Castellanos held the government about ten months, nearly all the -time in a turmoil; and at his death was temporarily succeeded by José -Francisco Montes, who followed in the footsteps of his predecessor, -continuing the alliance with Barrios, and hostilities against Guatemala -and Nicaragua. The serviles, assisted by the troops of these two -states, being victorious, overthrew him, and on the 21st of June, -1863, placed at the head of affairs, as provisional president of the -republic of Honduras, the senior senator, José María Medina,[XV-64] -who issued a decree of outlawry against Montes.[XV-65] In December -the capital was for a time transferred to Gracias, and on the last -day of the same month Medina surrendered the executive office to -Francisco Inestroza.[XV-66] On the 15th of February of the following -year, the presidential election took place, and Medina and Florencio -Xatruch appeared to have obtained the popular suffrages, the former for -president and the latter for vice-president.[XV-67] - -Disturbances at Olancho were with little difficulty brought to an -end, the rebels being defeated at Tapescos. A constituent assembly -was convoked and met to reform the constitution, which was done on -the 19th of September.[XV-68] On the 29th of October, the constituent -assembly just prior to adjournment appointed Medina provisional -president,[XV-69] the date for the election of the constitutional one -being fixed on the 1st of December. Another decree of the same date -granted a full amnesty for all political offences committed since -February 4, 1848. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -WALKER'S CAMPAIGN IN NICARAGUA. - -1855-1856. - - KINNEY'S EXPEDITION—WILLIAM WALKER JOINS THE - DEMOCRATS—FAILURE OF HIS EXPEDITION TO RIVAS—CHOLERA - DECIMATES THE LEGITIMISTS AT MANAGUA—DEATH OF MUÑOZ—WALKER'S - VICTORIES AT LA VÍRGEN AND GRANADA—EXECUTION OF MINISTER - MAYORGA—WALKER'S CONVENTION WITH CORRAL—PROVISIONAL - GOVERNMENT ORGANIZED—PRESIDENT PATRICIO RIVAS—COMMANDER OF - THE FORCES, WALKER—MINISTER OF WAR CORRAL PUT TO DEATH FOR - TREASON—RECOGNITION BY SALVADOR AND HONDURAS—SEIZURE OF THE - TRANSIT COMPANY'S STEAMERS—COSTA RICANS ON THE WAR-PATH—HAVOC - OF CHOLERA. - - -Certain men of the United States, with ideas somewhat warped in regard -to the relative rights of humanity, now come forward, as in the line -of their destiny, to interfere in the affairs of their neighbors. -The legitimist government of Nicaragua, in May 1855, felt certain of -ultimate triumph over its democratic opponents at Leon. Circumstances -seemed to point that way, when the infusion of this foreign element at -this time came to defeat all preconceived plans. - -[Sidenote: DEFEAT AT RIVAS.] - -News arrived from the United States of the organization in New York, -Philadelphia, and Washington, by H. L. Kinney, Fabens, American -commercial agent at San Juan del Norte, and others, of an expedition -ostensibly to establish a colony on the Mosquito Coast for the purpose -of developing its resources, but really designed to overthrow the -governments of Central America, and usurp sovereignty over the whole -country.[XVI-1] Remonstrances against the scheme were duly made to -the American government, which partially succeeded in their purpose. -However, the project was not exactly the source of the dire calamities -that were erelong to befall Nicaragua.[XVI-2] The real danger lay in -another direction, to explain which I must go back in my narrative -to previous events. An American named Byron Cole, who had conceived -plans with respect to Central America, and was well informed on her -affairs, arrived at Leon, in August 1854, when the democratic leaders -became convinced that they could not take Granada. They entered into -a contract with him to bring an expedition of foreigners, under the -garb of colonists, who should receive grants of land.[XVI-3] Cole -transferred his contract to William Walker, who at once set to work -in organizing the expedition.[XVI-4] He sailed from San Francisco, -California, May 4, 1855, on the brig _Vesta_, with 58 men,[XVI-5] -touched at Amapala to meet Captain Morton, Castellon's agent, and on -the 13th of June reached Realejo, where he received the greetings -of the government he was to serve from Lieutenant-colonel Félix -Ramirez.[XVI-6] At Leon he refused to serve under General Muñoz.[XVI-7] -He was made a colonel of the Nicaraguan army, and with 55 foreigners -and 100 natives was despatched to the department of Rivas, having -in his company colonels Ramirez and Mendez, and Máximo Espinosa, the -last-named going there as prefect. Muñoz at once informed Corral of -the movement, and the town of Rivas was reënforced and prepared for -defence. Walker obtained some advantages at first, on the 29th of June, -but being assailed on his left by Colonel Argüello, his foreigners -were dispersed, and Ramirez' native force fled, and entered Costa -Rican territory.[XVI-8] Walker and his phalanx reached San Juan del -Sur, whence they returned to Realejo on the brig _San José_;[XVI-9] -and shortly after, Estrada, the legitimist president, went to Managua -in June, staying there until early in July, when the first cases of -cholera occurred.[XVI-10] The mortality in Managua from the epidemic -was greater than in any other town, owing to the concentration of -troops there. The army which had been organized for assailing Leon was -destroyed within a few days; and only a small body of officers of all -grades, some of them in a dying condition, transferred themselves to -Granada, entirely abandoning Managua. The epidemic was still doing its -work, when the action of El Sauce took place on the 18th of August, -between forces respectively commanded by Guardiola and Muñoz, in which -the former were defeated, and abandoned the place to their assailants; -but just as success was crowning democratic efforts, Muñoz was killed -by a bullet entering his side.[XVI-11] The victors, now under Colonel -Sarría, did not pursue the enemy, but resolutely countermarched to -Leon, and meeting Jerez on the road, who wished to lead them against -the legitimists, they refused to follow him. - -[Sidenote: SAN JUAN DEL SUR EXPEDITION.] - -Another expedition under Walker, composed of 50 foreigners and 120 -natives, whose immediate chief was J. M. Valle, alias El Chelon, sailed -from Realejo on the 23d of August, and landed at San Juan del Sur on -the 29th, his main object being to take up a position on the transit -route between the two oceans. The news of his landing reached Granada -on Guardiola's return from his ill-fated fight at El Sauce. Guardiola -went to Rivas, and assuming command of 500 men, in the night between -the 2d and 3d of September, marched against Walker. Once on the main -road he heard that the latter had gone to La Vírgen, on Lake Nicaragua, -and rapidly countermarched to that place, expecting to surprise the -enemy. But he made the mistake of attacking an opponent whom he could -not see, and in a little while his men became dispersed, and hurried -back to Rivas. This may be said to have been the end of Guardiola's -career in Nicaragua.[XVI-12] Corral was now placed in command of the -legitimist forces in the south. - -Castellon, the head of the democratic government, died of cholera on -the 2d of September, and Senator Nazario Escoto was called to succeed -him. - -Walker's force, after his victory at La Vírgen, became greatly -augmented with native democrats.[XVI-13] His movement on La Vírgen was -intended to show that he had a sufficient force to take the offensive. -After the action he returned to San Juan del Sur, where he received -from Corral a paper hinting at a desire to enter into confidential -relations with him, to which he paid no attention. His plan was to -make a dash upon and occupy the legitimist seat of government, the -battered city of Granada.[XVI-14] In furtherance of which Espinosa -was despatched to Leon to ask the government for a diversion toward -Managua, so as to draw resources away from Granada. General Pineda -was accordingly stationed with a respectable force in Pueblo Nuevo. -The legitimists, under General Hernandez, attacked Pineda on the 11th -of October, defeated and drove him out of the place, after which -he demanded of the government at Leon the surrender of the town, -together with its garrison and military stores, as the only means of -averting the bloodshed which must follow any attempt at resistance. -The democrats suffered reverse, but Walker gained his point. Granada -was left with a weak garrison. He had a force of 250 natives and about -80 Americans, with which he left San Juan at daybreak on the 11th of -October, arriving at La Vírgen early the same morning. In the afternoon -Colonel Hornsby seized the steamboat _Vírgen_, and the next morning the -troops were embarked and informed that their destination was Granada. -They effected a landing at 3 o'clock in the morning of the 13th, and -took Granada with little resistance from the insignificant civic guard -which constituted the garrison.[XVI-15] The place was taken before a -majority of the inhabitants knew who their visitors were. President -Estrada, and the ministers Nicasio Castillo and Francisco Barberena, -saved themselves on foot in different directions, which the other -ministers, Mayorga and Ruiz, failed to do. The fact is, that persons -who did not get away at the moment of the invasion found themselves -unable to do so, and at the mercy of the enemy. Walker, however, -checked the abuses of his soldiery, and liberated nearly 100 political -prisoners, who had been kept in chains and at hard labor, and who now -joined his banner to a man. He next issued a proclamation guaranteeing -the lives, liberty, and property of legitimists promising to be -peaceable.[XVI-16] - -[Sidenote: ATTITUDE OF THE BELLIGERENTS.] - -Walker now manifested a disposition to treat with Corral, who had -prepared five hundred men for an attempt to recover Granada. Juan J. -Ruiz, Estrada's minister of war, was despatched by water in company -with John H. Wheeler, the American minister, to convey a message to -Corral at Rivas; but on finding that the legitimist general had gone -off to the eastern department, he escaped into Costa Rica. Another -commission went by land, and meeting the legitimist army near Nandaime, -communicated to the general Walker's message to this effect: peace, -on the condition that the two leaders should govern the republic, -Corral as president, and Walker as commander of the forces.[XVI-17] The -proposition was not accepted. The expedition which had been prepared -for an effort to recuperate Granada finally went to Masaya, where the -legitimist government became organized, with President Estrada, and his -ministers, Castillo and Barberena. - -[Sidenote: ASCENDENCY OF THE FILIBUSTER.] - -The officers who had won the victory at Pueblo Nuevo, fearing that -their country would become a prey to the foreign adventurers, proposed -to Escoto's government a fusion of the parties, to drive Walker and -his myrmidons out of the country. This effort failed.[XVI-18] Walker -and Valle, for their successful campaign in the south, were on the 22d -of October promoted to brigadier-general. The first named, angered by -Corral's refusal to accept his proposals, and ignoring his own pledges -to the prisoners taken at Granada, reduced to close confinement some -of the most prominent, among them the ex-minister Mayorga,[XVI-19] -whereupon a commission, composed of the Frenchman Pierre Rouhaud of -Granada, and Fermin Arana, represented to Corral the necessity of his -coming to amicable arrangement with Walker, but he declined a second -time. Meanwhile an incident occurred which greatly aggravated the evils -of the situation. Parker H. French[XVI-20] brought fifty men to Walker -from California, who, under a so-called Colonel Fry, were to capture -Fort San Cárlos, which they failed to do. The steamer then returned to -Granada to leave the recruits, and to La Vírgen to land the rest of the -passengers. This was done just as some legitimist troops, under Captain -F. Gutierrez, arrived. Gutierrez asserted that he had been fired upon -from the house of the Transit company, and returned the fire, keeping -it up till hostilities from the other side ceased. The result was, -that two or three passengers from the United States were killed. The -San Cárlos also fired shots at the river steamer on her return from -the north with passengers, a gun killing a woman and child.[XVI-21] -This news reached Granada together with Corral's second refusal. Walker -then resolved upon retaliation, to avenge the slain of San Cárlos and -La Vírgen, and to frighten the legitimists into accepting terms of -compromise. Mayorga, a young man of twenty-nine, generally esteemed for -his fine qualities, was the chosen victim, and shot in the morning of -the 23d.[XVI-22] Rouhaud and Arana went on the 22d to Masaya, reporting -Mayorga's fate, and urging the absolute necessity of disarming Walker's -wrath to avert greater calamities.[XVI-23] Added to their statement was -a petition from the prisoners in favor of peace, and the alarming news -that four hundred more riflemen had arrived to swell Walker's army. The -legitimist authorities concluded then to negotiate for peace, and sent -Corral to Granada on the 23d for that purpose, which was tantamount -to a capitulation. The chief clauses agreed upon between him and -Walker were: suspension of hostilities; recognition of Patricio Rivas -as provisional president; and reorganization of the two contending -forces into one army, with Walker as its commander-in-chief.[XVI-24] -Corral returned to Masaya, and Estrada, submitting to the force of -circumstances, approved it, though his army was disposed to disregard -the capitulation.[XVI-25] However, he filed a protest declaring that -the arrangement had been forced upon him, and therefore void.[XVI-26] -He called on the other governments to come, without further invitation, -and save the independence, sovereignty, and liberties of Nicaragua; and -to that effect appointed commissioners with unlimited powers[XVI-27] to -conclude adequate treaties. The fall of Cabañas in Honduras opened an -opportunity in that direction. Estrada dissolved his government October -28th, and departed for Chontales, but soon after had to take refuge in -Honduras. - -[Sidenote: MURDEROUS PROCEEDINGS.] - -Fermin Ferrer and Valle, alias El Chelon, were despatched as -commissioners to obtain the assent of the government at Leon to the -convention of October 23d, which, in view of Walkers rebellion, was -given only after some hesitation.[XVI-28] A commission was despatched -to Walker to thank him for his services, which had made possible a -peace, and to authorize him to ratify the arrangement. After which the -government, October 28th, dissolved itself. The commissioners[XVI-29] -arrived at Granada on the 31st, and found there the provisional -president, Patricio Rivas,[XVI-30] who had arrived from San Juan del -Norte on the 30th, and occupied the presidential chair. He had at -first appointed Corral minister of war, Walker general of division and -in chief of the forces, and Norberto Ramirez minister of relations. -Corral was pleased with this arrangement, as Rivas was disposed to -rely on him; but Walker became suspicious, and the result was that, -Corral's opposition notwithstanding, Rivas was made a blind tool of -Walker, and in obedience to orders appointed a new cabinet with a -majority of democrats; namely, Máximo Jerez, of relations; Fermin -Ferrer, of public credit; Parker H. French, of the treasury; Corral -retaining the war portfolio. The latter now saw the abyss his weakness -had thrown him into. The man who, ignoring the duty he owed his cause, -threatened with death any one proposing to him plans against Walker, -now writes Martinez, comandante at Managua, that all is lost, and he, -Martinez, must take some steps to save the country. With this letter -were enclosed others to the same effect addressed to generals Guardiola -and Pedro Xatruch, who had returned to Honduras.[XVI-31] These letters -went into the hands of Walker,[XVI-32] who at once called to his -presence the legitimists then in the city to forbid the departure of -any of them, and laid the letters before Rivas and his cabinet. Corral -acknowledged the authorship, declaring that he was solely responsible -for them. It was then decided to confine in prison Corral and his chief -supporters. This was on the 5th of November, the day after Corral's -troops had been, without any previous notice, disarmed.[XVI-33] On the -6th, it was decreed that Corral should be dealt with as a traitor and -tried by court-martial, which was done in the presence and with the -approval of the government, notwithstanding its illegality.[XVI-34] -The trial took place, and the prisoner was sentenced to death.[XVI-35] -The prisoner's family used the utmost exertions to have the sentence -revoked, but Walker was inflexible, and the penalty was inflicted -on the 8th of November,[XVI-36] causing the utmost consternation -in the native community. The portfolio of war was given to Selva -by a decree of November 5th. Valle went to Managua to place Pascual -Fonseca in command, vice Martinez, and to report if the latter made -any resistance, in which event Walker would have shot his legitimist -prisoners. But as none was offered, Martinez having had timely warning, -Walker had them released.[XVI-37] - -Walker was now master of Nicaragua. As a matter of fact, the secondary -leaders were scattered and powerless, and but for the execution -of Corral, and the wanton imprisonment of subordinate officials -and private citizens, the conservative party would have submitted -with a good grace to the new order of things, if pledged security -of life and property. It is undeniable that the legitimists feared -the Yankees[XVI-38] less than they did the native democrats. Walker -pretended a great respect for religion, without whose support, he -said, no government could have stability.[XVI-39] He succeeded in -borrowing from the vicar 963 ounces of fine silver belonging to the -church; and it is evident that he placed great reliance on a numerous -foreign immigration to keep his ranks well filled.[XVI-40] A decree -was issued at this time by the government, and published in its -official journal, which might be called one for the confiscation of -the property of absentees, who were required to return to their homes -under heavy pecuniary penalties, collectible without any previous legal -process.[XVI-41] - -[Sidenote: RELATIONS, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN.] - -The exiles who reached Honduras[XVI-42] endeavored to obtain help -from the government, but Guardiola, now chief of the state, declined -giving any, and in fact permitted no hostile words against Walker -or the Yankees. Cabañas had come to Granada for aid to recover -his lost position,[XVI-43] which alarmed Guardiola, who despatched -Manuel Colindres with the ostensible mission of negotiating a treaty -of friendship with the government, but really to watch Cabañas. -Colindres announced himself from Yuscaran, but on reaching Leon, and -ascertaining that Cabañas got no assistance, went back pleading fear -of the cholera, which was doing havoc in the foreign force; but the -recognition by his government was already accomplished. The cabinet of -San Salvador also returned a satisfactory answer to a circular from -Nicaragua.[XVI-44] Guatemala apparently inclined toward neutrality, -until Estrada applied to Carrera for assistance, and was told that -he would be recognized as the legitimate president of Nicaragua, but -must first establish his government somewhere.[XVI-45] Estrada, being -unable to set it up in Honduras, asked for 50 men to escort him to -Nueva Segovia in Nicaragua, but did not get them, though he laid before -Guardiola the letters from Carrera and Pedro de Aycinena. In Costa -Rica, the situation of Nicaragua was differently viewed. President -Mora despatched Nazario Toledo to Guatemala to arrange for concerted -action against Walker.[XVI-46] Mora in an energetic proclamation asked -the people to prepare for the defence of their lives and property -at a moment's call.[XVI-47] Walker watched the conduct of Costa -Rica, believing it prompted by British influence mainly against the -United States. Rivas' relations with the cabinet of Washington were -not encouraging. It is true that Wheeler, the American minister, had -prematurely recognized him, but he had not been upheld in it by his -government. Parker H. French, being accredited in November 1855 as -minister at Washington with powers to negotiate a treaty, was not -received in any diplomatic capacity.[XVI-48] He was thereupon recalled, -and diplomatic relations were discontinued with Wheeler.[XVI-49] -President Pierce issued a proclamation against the departure from -the United States of filibustering expeditions, which were declared -disgraceful and criminal. Cabañas, in whose behalf Jerez had used his -best endeavors, having been refused by the government any aid,[XVI-50] -retired to Salvador,[XVI-51] and Jerez resigned his portfolio on the -8th of January, 1856. Soon after, the cabinet was reduced to one, -Fermin Ferrer, who served as ministro general. - -Walker now endeavored to gain the good-will and coöperation of the -legitimist party, but his intrigues, cajolings, and even threats failed -to secure the desired effect.[XVI-52] The legitimists saw in Walker's -disagreement with the democrats their opportunity to bring about the -fusion of all Nicaraguans against the common enemy; but both Walker and -the democrats concluded that they must work together for their mutual -safety; hence the removal of the capital to Leon.[XVI-53] - -[Sidenote: SEIZURE OF STEAMSHIP PROPERTY.] - -Walker now committed one of the greatest blunders of his life in -quarrelling with the founders and chief men of the Accessory Transit -Company, whose ships had brought him much to recruit his needed men and -military supplies.[XVI-54] He and Edmund Randolph, after studying the -company's contracts made in 1851, arrived at the conclusion that there -were good reasons to revoke their charter and acts of incorporation, -and to make a grant to other parties.[XVI-55] This was secretly done -without communicating their plans to President Rivas or his cabinet. -After completing their arrangements in New York, Walker and Randolph -drew up a decree suppressing the Accessory Transit Company, which was -laid before Rivas, who issued it on the 18th of February, 1856. On -the following day he, in obedience to Walker's command, signed a new -charter in favor of Randolph.[XVI-56] Cleto Mayorga, E. T. C. Kewen, -and George F. Alden were appointed commissioners to ascertain the -amount of the company's indebtedness, and to attach their property, all -of which was done with the utmost rapidity.[XVI-57] The transportation -men raised a loud cry, of course, calling upon the United States -government to recover their lake steamers and other valuables; but -the attempt was unsuccessful. The company, however, had means which -they brought into the service of the Central Americans to compass the -destruction of Walker. - - [Illustration: WALKER'S EXPEDITION.] - -Costa Rica had failed to notice the communication notifying her of the -new order of things established in Nicaragua on the 23d of October, -1855. Walker now thought the time had come to demand from that -cabinet a frank explanation of its course.[XVI-58] But it persisted in -leaving unanswered the Nicaraguan notes, and refused to receive Louis -Schlessinger, the envoy sent, who retired threatening war and Walker's -resentment.[XVI-59] Costa Rica accepted the challenge of war, President -Mora, with the authorization of the legislative body, resolving to -carry the arms of the republic into Nicaragua, and to aid in driving -out the foreigners. War was accordingly declared, the strength of -the army raised to 9,000 men, and a loan levied for expenses.[XVI-60] -After surrendering the executive office to Vice-president Oreamuno, -Mora placed himself, on the 8th of March, at the head of an army about -3,000 strong,[XVI-61] and in a few days was in Bagaces, at the extreme -end of the gulf of Nicoya, ready to cross the frontier into Nicaragua. -Walker, who seemed to misjudge Costa Rican prowess, sent only 500 men -under Schlessinger, who on the 20th[XVI-62] encountered the enemy's -avant guard, and after a few minutes' fighting were put to flight, -losing a quantity of arms and several killed and wounded.[XVI-63] A -number of prisoners captured by the Costa Ricans were at once tried by -court-martial and shot.[XVI-64] Schlessinger with a few men reached -Rivas, where Walker had concentrated his forces, and unsuccessfully -tried to exculpate himself.[XVI-65] - -[Sidenote: COSTA RICA TO THE RESCUE.] - -The Costa Ricans marched to Rivas, and as they approached Walker -retired on the Transit company's lake steamers to Granada. Two columns -of 300 each dislodged on the 7th of April the Nicaraguan garrisons -left by Walker in La Vírgen and San Juan del Sur, and on the following -day the rest of the army occupied Rivas. But Walker soon came upon -them. Under cover of the thick plantain and cacao plantations, he -entered unperceived in the morning of the 11th. His attack began about -8:30 and lasted till night. He captured the main plaza, and from the -church and houses kept up a deadly fire on the enemy, stationed only -two blocks away. The latter fought desperately, till Walker, finding -himself closely pressed by Costa Rican reënforcements from La Vírgen -and San Juan del Sur,[XVI-66] and surrounded by burning buildings, -gave orders for retreat, which was silently effected under cover of -the darkness, never tarrying till he reached the Gil Gonzalez River. -He left behind a considerable number of rifles, revolvers, and other -arms, and about 50 saddled horses, besides his seriously wounded in the -church. The Costa Rican victory was complete, though at the expense -of heavy casualties.[XVI-67] The victors were relentless toward the -first prisoners that fell into their hands. According to Mora's report, -the wounded in the church were bayoneted, and seventeen others shot. -Walker tried to make out that he had won a great victory, and the event -was celebrated in Granada with salutes and ringing of bells; and his -government published that the Costa Ricans had been dispersed and were -in full flight.[XVI-68] - -[Sidenote: UNSTABLE POWER OF THE PIRATE.] - -Mora expected heavy reënforcements from Punta Arenas, and had formed -the plan, after securing eastern Nicaragua between the Pacific and -the great lake, and cutting off the transit communication, already -suspended by a general order, to assail Walker in his stronghold of -Granada. He was further encouraged in this by news that forces of -Salvador and Honduras were already on the western frontier, under -Belloso and Xatruch, ready to coöperate with him. But the breaking out -of cholera in his army, with terrible havoc in its ranks, necessitated -the abandonment of the project for the time. And a report having come -of plottings in Costa Rica against his authority, with his brother José -Joaquin and his personal staff, he returned home, leaving General Cañas -in command of the remnants of the army, with orders to send it back to -Costa Rica in the most convenient manner, which was done, many of the -men being left dead or dying on the march. Cañas found it unavoidable -to leave his wounded and sick in Rivas, and fearing retaliation because -of the executions of prisoners at Santa Rosa and Rivas, he wrote Walker -on the 26th of April, recommending these men to his protection, and -proposing an exchange of prisoners, of whom he had twenty, according to -the usages of war. This letter had the desired effect.[XVI-69] - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -END OF FILIBUSTERING IN CENTRAL AMERICA. - -1856-1867. - - RECOGNITION OF PRESIDENT RIVAS BY THE UNITED STATES—WALKER'S - HOSTILE ATTITUDE—FLIGHT OF RIVAS—WALKER MAKES HIMSELF - PRESIDENT—ALLIANCE AGAINST HIM—DEATH OF ESTRADA—THE - LEGITIMISTS ACCEPT RIVAS—COSTA RICANS AND NICARAGUANS - IN RIVAS—DESTRUCTION OF GRANADA—IT IS OCCUPIED BY - ALLIED FORCES—WALKER REOCCUPIES RIVAS—WHERE HE IS - BESIEGED—SUCCESSES OF THE COSTA RICANS—FAILURE OF LOCKRIDGE'S - EXPEDITION—SURRENDER OF WALKER—WAR OF NICARAGUA AND COSTA - RICA—COMMODORE PAULDING AND WALKER'S SECOND ATTEMPT—WALKER'S - INVASION OF HONDURAS, CAPTURE, AND EXECUTION—GOVERNMENT - REORGANIZED—PRESIDENT MARTINEZ' ADMINISTRATIONS. - - -After the departure of the Costa Rican forces from Rivas, toward -the end of April or beginning of May 1856, Walker visited the town, -treating harshly the principal citizens—men who loved their country -better than they loved designing interlopers—and causing one to be -hanged.[XVII-1] This was done to terrify his enemies. Leaving Hornsby -as military governor, with a garrison, Walker went back to Granada. -His army here was also being decimated by the epidemic, but its ranks -were replenished from the passengers brought by the steamships, which -still were his efficacious auxiliaries. Meanwhile the presence of the -combined forces of the other states in the west was felt in the towns -of the western departments, chiefly in Chontales and Matagalpa,[XVII-2] -the natives yearning for relief from foreign domination. A meeting of -military officers held on the 20th of April at Matagalpa, and presided -over by General Fernando Chamorro, adopted resolutions in favor of -restoring Estrada as the legitimate president.[XVII-3] This movement -came to naught; Chamorro, being defeated, passed into Honduras. - -The democratic party, desirous as much as possible of being away -from Walker's oppressive influence, had the government seat removed -to Leon.[XVII-4] The general started from Granada May 31st with his -best officers and 300 infantry, for Leon, where he was greeted as a -conquering hero.[XVII-5] While there he approved of, or maybe prompted, -the decree of June 10th, convoking congress, and for the election of -a chief magistrate. He had in view to bring about his own election as -president, intending after that to throw off his democratic friends, -whose loyalty he distrusted. Very satisfactory news, both to him -and the government, came at this time. The government of the United -States had recognized Father Agustin Vigil as minister plenipotentiary -accredited at Washington by Rivas. This recognition was of great -advantage to Walker.[XVII-6] - -[Sidenote: DISSENSIONS.] - -On the 11th, after Walker had departed on his return to Granada, -leaving Colonel Bruno Naztmer in command, this officer ordered foreign -soldiers to take the place of the natives in the steeples of the -cathedral. Minister of war Jerez countermanded it, and being disobeyed -by Naztmer,[XVII-7] the government became much alarmed, Rivas and -Jerez starting forthwith for Chinandega,[XVII-8] whence Walker was -directed to concentrate the foreign forces in Granada. Upon hearing at -Masaya of the occurrences of the 11th and 12th, he countermarched as -far as Nagarote, ordering Naztmer to bring there his command; after -which he quartered his troops in Granada, placing, however, strong -garrisons in Managua and Masaya. Rivas thereupon declared Walker a -usurper, traitor, and enemy of the republic, depriving him of his -rank and command.[XVII-9] Walker, on his part, deposed Rivas, calling -Fermin Ferrer, minister of hacienda and government at Granada, who -had identified himself with his cause, to assume the executive office, -for the main purpose, it seemed, of decreeing an election for supreme -authorities, pursuant to the convocation of June 10th, though Rivas had -revoked it on the 14th.[XVII-10] - -Under the national constitution, the chief magistrate was not chosen by -the direct suffrages of the people; neither did it permit a military -officer in actual command, much less a foreign one, to be voted for. -Nevertheless, in disregard of that law, the people of the region -controlled by Walker's bayonets were made to give him their suffrages -for the office of president, and 15,835 votes appeared as cast in his -favor.[XVII-11] He was declared elected, and on the 12th of July was -inducted into office with much pomp.[XVII-12] Wheeler, the American -minister, recognized Walker as the legitimate president, and Rivas' -government protested against it,[XVII-13] and declared all relations -between the Nicaraguan government and Wheeler suspended. - -Walker's first act was to appoint his cabinet, the chief of it being -Fermin Ferrer.[XVII-14] One of his earliest decrees sounds the keynote -to all this silly usurpation and accompanying infamy; it was the -annulling of the federal law abolishing slavery.[XVII-15] Another -infamous measure was the confiscation of the estates of Nicaraguans who -might take up arms against him. - -In a circular of July 3d Rivas appealed to the other Central American -governments for aid to drive out the invaders. The call was answered, -and his government recognized by Guatemala, Honduras, and Salvador, -these three powers agreeing to unite their forces against Walker. Costa -Rica was invited to coöperate, and promptly did so.[XVII-16] - -[Sidenote: DEFEAT OF THE LEGITIMISTS.] - -While the events thus far recorded were occurring, Estrada, the -legitimist chief, entered Nicaragua, and established his government in -Somotillo, appointing Pedro Joaquin Chamorro his minister-general, and -General Tomás Martinez commander of the army to be raised.[XVII-17] -On hearing that Rivas had been recognized, it was concluded to leave -Somotillo, via Nueva Segovia to Matagalpa, where Gros aroused the -Indians. But on the way, at Ocotal, on the 13th of August, a party -of democrats attacked and defeated them. Estrada tried to flee, but -was overtaken and hacked to death.[XVII-18] The town was plundered, -and papers scattered, after which the assailants went away. Afterward -an instrument was picked up in which Nicasio del Castillo was named -Estrada's successor, who at once assumed the responsibilities of the -position. However, General Martinez and Fernando Guzman, who, though -respecting Estrada's good motives, had disapproved of his persistence -in going contrary to accomplished facts, after his death held a -consultation and concluded that the best policy was to coöperate with -Rivas' government, bearing in mind the principle of legitimacy, though -disregarding means and persons. Martinez and Guzman went to Leon, and -succeeded with the assistance of the allied generals, and Gregorio -Arbizú, the commissioner of Salvador, in making an arrangement by -which there should be but one government in the republic, with certain -legitimists in the cabinet;[XVII-19] pursuant to which the latter was -organized as stated below.[XVII-20] Castillo accepted the arrangement -and assumed the duties to which he was called. - - * * * * * - -The allied forces, having entered Nicaragua, occupied Leon in -July, and in October advanced upon Managua, forcing Walker, after -several encounters near Nindirí and Masaya, to reconcentrate in -Granada.[XVII-21] Masaya was occupied by the allies October 2d. There -was much division among them, owing to old rivalries, and the need of -an influential commander was evident.[XVII-22] General Martinez was -earnestly requested to hasten his movements and join the army. He had -organized at Matagalpa a body of troops that subsequently bore the name -of Ejército Septentrional, with which he came on; but cholera having -played havoc among his Segovians at Tipitapa, he had to remain in -Nindirí till the scourge abated, when he joined the allies.[XVII-23] - -[Sidenote: THE BELLIGERENTS IN ACTION.] - -Walker's forces consisted of about 1,200 effective men, mostly -Americans, the rest being English, French, and Germans.[XVII-24] The -climate was his worst enemy. A number of his men succumbed daily, -victims of cholera and fever.[XVII-25] The ranks were further depleted -by desertions.[XVII-26] This was one of the chief reasons why Walker -abandoned Managua and Masaya to concentrate in Granada, keeping, -however, the transit line from San Juan del Sur to La Vírgen. The -filibuster chief now took advantage of the division of the allied -forces—Belloso and Jerez in Masaya, Zavala and Estrada in Diriomo—and -on the 11th of October made a dash with 800 men on Masaya, which -had a garrison of 1,000. He entered the place at eight o'clock and -took positions in Monimbó, south of the town. Early on the 12th he -advanced as far as the blocks contiguous to the plaza, which he would -undoubtedly have taken but for Zavala's attack on Granada.[XVII-27] -On hearing of Walker's movement, Zavala started to the relief of -Masaya. At Diriá he was informed that Walker was routed and in full -retreat to Granada. He then changed his course, and turned up at the -burying-ground of Granada with the view of getting the start of the -enemy; but as the latter did not come, and he had positive information -of the place being weak, he resolved to occupy it at once, though a -heavy rain somewhat retarded the movement. He might have taken the -town by surprise either from the north to south, but went round by -Jalteva.[XVII-28] The allied force had not till then been detected from -the city. But on the officer of the day descrying groups, he went to -ascertain if they were Walker's men, and immediately giving the alarm, -preparations were made to meet the expected assault. Nevertheless, the -allies at two o'clock in the afternoon occupied the buildings on the -plaza, excepting the church, where the foreign sick were intrenched. -Zavala took Walker's house, and finding there a flag, rushed out -waving it, until a bullet struck the flag, and another his surtout, -when he realized his danger. Both the Guatemalans and legitimists gave -themselves up to excesses.[XVII-29] The night of the 12th came on, and -the church had not been taken. Hearing the cannonading or receiving a -report, early that morning Walker hurried back, it being preferable to -save Granada than to take Masaya. In the morning of the 13th, Zavala -learned that the enemy was rapidly approaching, and vainly tried to -check them at Jalteva. Zavala and Estrada fled in the direction of -Diriomo, leaving a considerable number of drunken men in the streets, -who were butchered. Several Guatemalans fell prisoners.[XVII-30] -Zavala's assault of the place where Walker had his base of supplies was -a failure, but it saved the allied army.[XVII-31] - -[Sidenote: VERY FAIR FIGHTING.] - -A Costa Rican division under General José M. Cañas started for -Nicaragua, November 2d, and notwithstanding the enemy's efforts to -hinder it, occupied San Juan del Sur and the road to La Vírgen, thus -cutting off Walker's communication with either point. It concentrated -at Rivas on the 13th, and was joined by Jerez with 300 Nicaraguans. -It was now in communication with the main combined army, which was -preparing to assail Granada. Belloso received information from a friend -in that city that Walker was on the point of making another dash on -Masaya with 600 men. The allied army, in the city and vicinity, was -now of about 3,600 men,[XVII-32] and leaving out wounded, sick, and -servants, the effective force must have been no less than 3,000. The -filibusters came on the 15th under Bruno Von Naztmer, a German, and -were met outside by Nicaraguans and 600 Guatemalans at three o'clock -in the afternoon. The enemy opened fire, and the Guatemalans fled -panic-stricken. However, the first charge of the filibusters was -checked, and they now assumed the defensive. The Guatemalans returned -to the charge, and heavy fighting followed, which lasted till night. -The next morning Walker took command, Naztmer being wounded, and pushed -his operations into the town, where the allies had concentrated in the -night, burning a number of buildings; but he soon convinced himself -of the impossibility of accomplishing his purpose, and retreated to -Granada in the night of the 18th.[XVII-33] At a council of war, it was -resolved to evacuate the city, after setting fire to the buildings, -leaving a garrison to keep the enemy in check. This work of destruction -was intrusted to Henningsen, who at once ordered the citizens to -leave the place within a few hours before it was consigned to the -flames. And all the time the authors of this vandalism were calling -the Central American defenders of life, home, and liberty savages -and greasers, and themselves lovers of freedom and disseminators of -civilization![XVII-34] - -In the early morning of the 24th the allied forces marched out of -Masaya by the Carretas road; at 2 o'clock in the afternoon they were -defiling on the low hills of the Otra banda, from which they could see -the bonfire, made by the self-styled regenerators of Latin America, -consuming seven churches and the public buildings, together with the -dwellings of the citizens of Granada. The same day the allies had -skirmishes with the enemy, and were defeated.[XVII-35] Martinez with -his men from the north next day operated against the San Francisco -building, and the filibusters in fear of being cut off abandoned it, -and concentrated in the plaza. The night of the 25th was a very rainy -one. The 26th the filibusters, being hard pressed in the plaza and -Guadalupe street, kept up a constant cannonade to keep open the way to -the lake. On the 27th the filibusters had been driven from the plaza -and reduced to Guadalupe street between La Sirena, a high house on the -east of the parish church, and the ruins of the church. The Guatemalans -pressed them from the south; the Nicaraguans from the north.[XVII-36] -Henningsen's force was on the 1st of December only 150 men, out of 300 -that he had retained to hold the position of Granada with, and being -invited by Zavala to surrender, proudly refused.[XVII-37] - -[Sidenote: WALKER WORSTED.] - -Walker had occupied San Jorge, distant three miles from Rivas, where -Cañas and Jerez were intrenched, leaving his sick and wounded with -a small guard on the island of Ometepec,[XVII-38] where he thought -they would be safe; but a party of Indians with their priest Tijerino -captured them on the 1st of December, and destroyed everything on the -island that could be of use to the enemy. Walker did not lose sight -of his lieutenant Henningsen, to whom he finally sent relief on the -steamboat _Vírgen_, with which Henningsen captured the small fort that -had so harassed him, and then, December 13th, left on the boat, taking -with him the 115 emaciated men that remained of his original force. The -site of Granada was now fully in possession of the allies,[XVII-39] who -discovered in the woods a number of wounded filibusters, and treated -them humanely, excepting one whom they put to death. - -December 11th had been a day of joy in the allied camp, owing to the -arrival of General Florencio Xatruch with the first contingent of -Honduran troops;[XVII-40] but they were cut up in the attack of the -13th by Henningsen. This officer's success in extricating himself with -so much loss to his opponents caused a panic among the allied leaders, -and the breaking out anew of dissension. Belloso and his Salvadorans -went back to Masaya, reporting the discomfiture of the army. Whether -out of spite, or from ignorance of the state of affairs, the general -ordered Cañas to return to Costa Rica, and Jerez to retreat to Masaya. -The latter, as a subordinate, had to obey; but Cañas, having come -to fight the filibusters, would not go back, and accompanied Jerez -to Masaya. Thus was Rivas evacuated by the allies, and reoccupied by -Walker without firing a shot. - -The lake steamers were of great advantage to Walker for the quick -transportation of men and supplies, and on the other hand, made it -necessary that the allied chiefs should have strong garrisons in -Granada and Masaya, preventing a movement on La Vírgen and Rivas. -The president of Costa Rica determined to deprive Walker of those -facilities. To this end he despatched his brother, General José Joaquin -Mora, with troops to the confluence of the San Cárlos and San Juan -rivers, who reached it on the 19th of December, and then going down in -canoes to San Juan del Norte, without encountering much resistance, -captured on the 24th four steamers.[XVII-41] They then went up the -San Juan with the steamers, two of which were left at the junction -with the Sarapiquí, and on the 28th took the Castillo Viejo with the -steamboat _Vírgen_, laden with artillery, rifles, and ammunition. -They next possessed themselves of Fort San Cárlos, and soon after of -the steamboat of the same name, which had incautiously approached the -fort. All this being accomplished, Mora was placed in communication -with the allied forces of Granada, and left Walker without means of -transportation by water, or to communicate with the northern sea-coast. -Had the allies acted with reasonable promptness, both on land and -water, Walker's end would have been a matter of only a few days. But -it was retarded by their lack of union and generalship.[XVII-42] His -situation was now critical. Desertions, which were frequent, sickness, -and scarcity of food, daily decreased his force. For all that, he -resisted in Rivas several assaults from both the land and lake till the -23d of February, and struck some heavy blows to the besiegers in San -Jorge.[XVII-43] - -[Sidenote: THE INVADERS BESIEGED.] - -The allied leaders had, after a council of war on the 23d of -January, at Nandaime, appointed a general-in-chief, and heads of the -several departments. The chief command was conferred on Florencio -Xatruch.[XVII-44] His tenure lasted but a few days, José Joaquin -Mora being finally selected by the governments commander-in-chief, -when he was recognized as such in general orders of February 19th and -20th.[XVII-45] - -The allies came to the conclusion that it was advisable to closely -besiege the enemy rather than to attempt further assaults. Xatruch -occupied and held, March 26th, the barrio de la Puebla, south of -the city, which was the only means of free ingress and egress for -the filibusters. Thus was Walker penned. But his friends abroad had -not forgotten him. Three Americans, Lockridge, Anderson, and Wheat, -brought 500 men to San Juan del Norte in March, and undertook to ascend -the river. Lockridge occupied La Trinidad, but Titus was repulsed -at the fort. They then concluded to invade Costa Rica, as was then -supposed, for they essayed to go up the Sarapiquí; but soon after -entering the river their steamer blew up, and the expedition came to -naught.[XVII-46] - -The besieged, on hearing of the arrival, April 3d, with reënforcements, -of General Martinez, whose prowess they had learned to respect, became -alarmed, and the next day eighty deserters entered the allied lines. An -assault in force was made April 11th, which failed. Walker's casualties -were quite small, while those of the assailants were heavy.[XVII-47] -The latter secured possession of San Juan del Sur, in order that Walker -should receive no further aid from that quarter. It was now evident -that the filibusters could not hold out much longer. The original -force of 1,000, though more or less augmented with the arrival of every -steamer, had become reduced to about one half that number. The garrison -had an abundance of plantains, but no meat other than that of asses, -mules, and horses. - -[Sidenote: CAPITULATION OF WALKER.] - -An officer of the United States corvette _Saint Mary's_, which had been -some time lying at San Juan, came on the 24th to Mora's headquarters -to solicit in the name of Commander Charles H. Davis a truce of six -hours, which was granted, for the removal from Rivas of the women, -children, and other non-combatants. Walker, becoming apprised by that -officer of the failure of Lockridge's attempt to succor him, signified -a willingness to capitulate, not to the general-in-chief of the -besieging forces, as was natural, but to commander Davis. To this Mora -assented, in order to bring the war to an end at once, and save himself -from certain complications he apprehended.[XVII-48] The capitulation -being signed and carried out, Walker and sixteen officers, after -bidding adieu to the army on the 1st of May, departed under the escort -of Zavala, for San Juan del Sur, where they embarked on the _Saint -Mary's_.[XVII-49] Davis then delivered the city of Rivas to Mora, and -the rest of Walker's men, about 400 in number, were transported to the -United States.[XVII-50] - -The war being ended, the allied troops retired to their respective -states. But prior to their departure there was an affair which might -have ended in a sanguinary conflict had it not been for the prudent -course pursued by most of the generals. The trouble arose from the -hot-headedness of Zavala, the commander of the Guatemalans, who had -been led to believe, by an evil counsellor, that the government would -not return him some arms he had lent, nor furnish him transportation, -nor even pay him the honors due his rank. All this was unfounded, but -he maltreated the officer of the guard at the government house, and -grossly insulted the president, his ministers, and others, threatening -to hang them on the church of La Merced. His conduct was violent and -scandalous.[XVII-51] Máximo Jerez and hundreds of soldiers rushed to -the government's defence, and there would have been bloodshed but for -Barrios of Salvador, who had command of 1,800 men, and prevailed on -Zavala to go back to Chinandega, whence he marched to Guatemala, where -he was received with the honors he had fairly won. - -Mora returned to Costa Rica, leaving the command in charge of Cañas. It -is said that he had planned to extend the boundaries of Costa Rica to -the lake, which he deemed an easy undertaking, as the Costa Ricans had -the lake steamers, and the Nicaraguans would be sure to break out into -civil war.[XVII-52] War was declared by Costa Rica against Nicaragua -on the 19th of October, 1857, and accepted by the latter in defence of -her territory.[XVII-53] But upon a second invasion by Walker, peace was -concluded on the 16th of January, 1858.[XVII-54] - -[Sidenote: SECOND AND THIRD EXPEDITIONS.] - -Walker arrived safely in his own country. But he was not yet satisfied -with the misery and desolation he had wrought upon a foreign and -unoffending people. He must play the vampire further; he must conquer -Nicaragua and be a great man. Taking advantage of the rupture between -this republic and Costa Rica, he prepared another expedition, with -which, eluding the vigilance of the United States authorities, he -sailed from New Orleans for San Juan del Norte. He was arrested, -however, at Punta de Castilla, December 8th, and sent back by Commodore -Paulding, commanding the American home squadron.[XVII-55] The officer's -course obtained the highest commendation and gratitude in Central -America, and particularly in Costa Rica and Nicaragua, the latter -conferring upon him high honors. Loyal men who took up arms in the -country's defence were also rewarded.[XVII-56] But like a wild beast -maddened by its wounds, Walker was still bent on blood, if blood were -necessary to subjugate Central America to his will. He fitted out -a third expedition, and landing with its avant guard at Trujillo on -the 6th of August, 1860, seized the funds of the custom-house, which -were pledged to the British government for the payment of Honduras' -indebtedness to its subjects.[XVII-57] The British war vessel _Icarus_ -entered the port on the 20th, and her commanding officer, Norwell -Salmon, demanded that Walker should forthwith leave the place, which -he did, fleeing to the eastern coast, where he and his men underwent -the utmost suffering in that uninhabited marshy region. A party of -Hondurans harassed them, and Walker was wounded in the face and leg. -Finally, General Mariano Álvarez arrived with a Honduran force at -Trujillo, and together with Salmon proceeded to the mouth of Rio -Tinto, arriving there on the 3d of September. Walker surrendered to the -_Icarus_, and was turned over to Álvarez, who had him tried at Trujillo -by court-martial. He was sentenced to death, and executed on the 12th -of September. Thus ended on the scaffold the career of William Walker, -filibuster, pirate, or what you will.[XVII-58] - - * * * * * - -The provisional government of Nicaragua on the 14th of January, -1857, organized a consultive council of five members and three -substitutes,[XVII-59] which was installed on the 20th. To that body -were referred the strictures of ministers Cardenal and Castillo, upheld -by General Martinez, the two former having resigned their portfolios -because the president had declined to transfer the seat of government -to the eastern department.[XVII-60] The council did not approve of -their course, and suggested that Martinez, under a clause in the -agreement of September 12, 1856, should summon R. Cortés and P. J. -Chamorro to fill the vacancies in the cabinet. It does not appear, -however, that Martinez took any steps in that direction. - -The old dissensions which Walker's war had kept in abeyance now -threatened to break out afresh. Legitimists and democrats alike saw in -bloodshed and desolation the only means to settle their differences. -Martinez and Jerez, with some of their friends from the east and west, -and assisted by General Gerardo Barrios, commissioner of Salvador, -labored in vain to effect an amicable arrangement.[XVII-61] Jerez -concluded that the only recourse now left to avert a war was for -himself and Martinez to assume the responsibility of jointly governing -the country dictatorially until it could be again placed under a -constitutional régime. This plan being accepted, the two leaders -organized themselves, on the 24th of June, into a junta de gobierno, -otherwise called Gobierno Binario, which was recognized by both -parties, and the dreaded calamity of war was avoided. The organization -was completed with the appointment of Gregorio Juarez and Rosalío -Cortés as the cabinet. Martinez and Jerez continued at the head of -affairs until the 19th of October, when war with Costa Rica having -been accepted, they resolved to assume personal direction of military -operations, and resigned the executive office into the hands of the -ministers. Martinez was then made general-in-chief of the forces, with -ample powers, and Jerez second in command.[XVII-62] - -[Sidenote: REORGANIZATION OF GOVERNMENT.] - -The first acts of the new government were to reconstitute the supreme -and other courts, and to summon the people to choose a constituent -assembly for framing a constitution,[XVII-63] and a president of the -republic. At the suggestion of Cortés, and with the assent of Jerez, -Tomás Martinez was named to the people as a proper person for the -executive office, and he was elected almost unanimously.[XVII-64] He -took the oath of office on the 15th of November, promising to pursue -a policy of peace and conciliation,[XVII-65] and appointing Juarez, -Macario Álvarez, and Cortés, his ministers respectively for foreign -relations, treasury, and government.[XVII-66] During his first term -there were several changes in the personnel of the cabinet.[XVII-67] - -Martinez' administration not only gave Nicaragua the longest period of -internal peace she had ever had, but promoted her prosperity in every -branch, and notably in finances. At the time of its inauguration, the -government had not one hundred dollars in the treasury. The liberating -army had not been paid during the late war, and the only way to adjust -the arrears was by issuing warrants, which the merchants soon got -possession of at sixty to eighty per cent discount, and returned to -the treasury at par in payment of import duties on merchandise, thus -greatly reducing the revenue from that source. The government also -adopted the unusual course of assuming to indemnify private persons -for the losses they had sustained during the civil war, those resulting -from the burning of Granada included.[XVII-68] And yet Martinez, after -his victory of April 29, 1863, against the united forces of Salvador -and Honduras, succeeded within six years in doubling the amount of -public revenues, and in arranging for the payment of the foreign debt. - -[Sidenote: NEW CONSTITUTION.] - -The constituent assembly, on the 19th of August, 1858, adopted -a new constitution, declaring Nicaragua to be a sovereign, -free, and independent republic under a popular representative -government.[XVII-69] Two days later the assembly resolved to continue -acting as an ordinary legislature, and decreed that all public -functionaries should retain their respective offices until the new -constitutional régime should have been installed. Prior to this, -on the 30th of January, that body had declared illegitimate all the -provisional administrations which had ruled Nicaragua from 1854 till -the 8th of November, 1857, excepting only the gobierno binario from -June 24, 1857.[XVII-70] - -[Sidenote: PRESIDENT MARTINEZ.] - -During the first years of Martinez' rule, the most friendly relations -seemed to exist between him and the leaders of the two political -parties. Jerez was intrusted with important diplomatic duties.[XVII-71] -At the beginning of 1861, the president in his message to congress -stated that the country was at peace at home and abroad, Salvador -being the only nation that had suspended diplomatic relations with -Nicaragua.[XVII-72] Again, in January 1863, the president congratulated -congress that peace reigned, and the country was prospering. He said -with pleasure that no Nicaraguan was undergoing penalty for political -causes.[XVII-73] The country was at the same time an asylum for the -persecuted and exiles of other states. However, this hospitality -extended to exiles gave rise to serious differences with Salvador, -whose demands were invariably disregarded, until Barrios threatened -to blockade the port of Realejo.[XVII-74] The consequence was, that -Nicaragua and Guatemala, pursuant to the treaty made September 20, -1862,[XVII-75] became allies in the bloody war that broke out this -year against Salvador and Honduras, details of which have been given -in the history of Salvador for this period.[XVII-76] Martinez having -been reëlected president for the quadrennial term from March 1, -1863,[XVII-77] offered his resignation on the ground that there might -be opposition to his holding the office a second term. But congress, on -the 5th of February, 1863, declined to accept it, and requested that -he should continue at the head of affairs at least for a time. During -the war with Salvador and Honduras, Martinez commanded the army in the -field, and Nicasio del Castillo acted as president. At the end of the -campaign, Martinez and the troops were rewarded for their services, he -being raised to the rank of captain-general.[XVII-78] He resumed the -executive office August 31, 1863.[XVII-79] The most stringent orders -were issued against Jerez and others, declaring them traitors, and -decreeing that revolutionists were severally answerable with their -property for the expenses the government had been put to by their acts. -However, on the 20th of April, 1864, an amnesty law was passed, though -not including the chief leaders.[XVII-80] - -Toward the end of Martinez' second term some attempts at revolution -were made, and easily quelled. They arose from a representation that -Martinez contemplated retaining power for life; but in a proclamation -of April 24, 1866, he pronounced the statements false.[XVII-81] -Following the example of Washington, he insisted on his countrymen -calling another citizen to the executive chair, and Fernando Guzman -having been chosen,[XVII-82] he surrendered his authority to him on -March 1, 1867. His rank as captain-general had been confirmed, and upon -his tendering a resignation, congress refused to accept it.[XVII-83] -However, scarcely one year later, congress suppressed the rank -altogether.[XVII-84] Ex-president Martinez' death occurred on the 12th -of March, 1873, and his remains were buried with high honors on the -20th.[XVII-85] - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -POLITICAL EVENTS IN COSTA RICA. - -1856-1886. - - REWARDS TO WALKER'S CONQUERORS—REËLECTION OF - MORA—HIS DOWNFALL AND EXILE—HIS RETURN, CAPTURE, - AND EXECUTION—MONTEALEGRE'S ADMINISTRATION—VIOLENCE - OF PARTIES—COMPROMISE ON JESUS JIMENEZ—HIS PEACEFUL - RULE—PRESIDENT JOSÉ M. CASTRO—CHARGES AGAINST HIM—HIS - OVERTHROW—SEVERAL NEW CONSTITUTIONS—JIMENEZ AGAIN - PRESIDENT—HIS ARBITRARY ACTS—HOW HE WAS DEPOSED—PRESIDENT - CARRANZA—OTHER TEMPORARY RULERS—PRESIDENT GUARDIA'S - DESPOTISM—FAILURE OF HIS WARLIKE PLANS—HIS - DEATH—ADMINISTRATION OF PRÓSPERO FERNANDEZ—PREPARATIONS TO - DEFEND INDEPENDENCE—HIS SUDDEN DEATH—BERNARDO SOTO'S PEACEFUL - RULE. - - -In describing the early operations of the Costa Ricans in Nicaragua -against Walker in 1856, I alluded to the sudden departure of President -Mora and his brother from Rivas for Costa Rica, because of tidings -received of an attempted insurrection against the government, then -temporarily in charge of Vice-president Oreamuno. This revolt was soon -quelled, and the leaders and officers connected therewith were arrested -and expatriated. Oreamuno having died, Vicente Aguilar was chosen -vice-president on the 17th of September, but resigned the position the -next month.[XVIII-1] A change of ministry took place on the 26th of -September, the distinguished statesman taking charge of the portfolio -of foreign relations.[XVIII-2] The president, owing to war against the -filibusters, suspended the action of the constitution on the 15th of -November, but repealed the decree a few days later.[XVIII-3] - -The successful termination of the war was hailed in Costa Rica with -great joy, and the men who gave this glorious page to her history were -highly honored. The president was made a captain-general,[XVIII-4] and -the officers, as well as the rank and file, were promoted and otherwise -rewarded.[XVIII-5] - -The elections for president and vice-president of the republic took -place, and congress on the 4th of May, 1859, declared that Juan Rafael -Mora had been reëlected, and Rafael G. Escalante chosen for the second -position.[XVIII-6] - -Mora's administration had initiated a number of measures tending to the -advancement of the country. Among other improvements was that of the -fine national palace in San José. Costa Rica had enjoyed a long period -of internal peace with an increasing prosperity. Mora was quite popular -with the masses, but encountered opposition from the property owners, -merchants, and army men. For this reason he could not strengthen his -government, and found himself at the mercy of a coup de main the -moment the people thought their interests were jeopardized by his -power.[XVIII-7] Hence the revolutionary movement that hurled him from -his executive office in the night of August 14, 1859. A provisional -government, composed of his political enemies, was at once organized, -meeting with no opposition on the part of the people. It was a palace -revolution, and no blood was spilt. Mora was kept in confinement, -though otherwise well treated during three days at the end of which he -was taken to Puntarenas, and sent out of the country on an American -steamer. He settled with his family in Salvador, where he introduced -the cultivation of coffee. - -[Sidenote: VICENTE AGUILAR.] - -The new government now took steps to have itself confirmed by a -constituent assembly, and to cause its provisional president, José -María Montealegre, regularly elected. The influential man of the -administration was Vicente Aguilar, ex-vice-president, a wealthy man, -and the deadly enemy of Mora. He was the minister of the treasury and -of war, and by his instigation some reactionary and despotic measures -were adopted, thereby increasing the general uneasiness. The country -was henceforth divided into two political parties, each claiming to be -the representative of law and order.[XVIII-8] - -The constituent assembly, pursuant to convocation, met on the 16th of -October, and on the 26th of December adopted a new constitution in 142 -articles, which was promulgated the next day. This fundamental law was -liberal except in the matter of religion, as it neither recognized nor -tolerated any form of faith but the Roman catholic. All other rights of -man were conceded.[XVIII-9] The constituent congress adjourned sine die -on the 27th of December, and the ordinary congress opened its session -on the 22d of April, 1860, on the next day declaring that José María -Montealegre had obtained a popular majority for the office of president -of the republic, and appointing the 29th for his inauguration. On the -24th that body designated the persons who were to fill the executive -chair in the temporary or absolute absence of the president.[XVIII-10] - -[Sidenote: DEATH OF MORA.] - -Before many months had passed, Costa Rica witnessed a catastrophe -which filled the whole of Central America with sorrow, indignation, -and shame. Mora, the deposed president, had solemnly protested against -the revolutionary acts which deprived him of his office. There were -not wanting men, who, either honestly or with evil intent, beguiled -him into the belief that he was wanted back, and would meet with a -cordial reception and support. He allowed himself to be thus deceived, -and committed the error of going against an accomplished fact, in an -attempt to recover by force the executive authority, which was now -legitimately held by Montealegre. He landed in September at Puntarenas -with a few friends, was received with apparent enthusiasm, and got -together about 300 or 400 men;[XVIII-11] but believing it safer to -increase his force before marching to the capital, he tarried behind, -thus allowing the government an opportunity to organize superior -forces, and to issue relentless decrees. The government's forces -assailed Mora on the 28th of September at La Angostura,[XVIII-12] -and defeated him. He soon found himself forsaken by his men, and -though aware that stringent orders for his arrest had been issued, -he surrendered to his enemies on the 30th, when he was tried by a -drum-head court-martial, and shot three hours after.[XVIII-13] This -judicial murder of this honorable, just, and progressive man, who had -rendered such great services in saving national independence, caused -general consternation and displeasure. His invasion was not approved -of, but no one had imagined that his life could be in peril if he -were captured. Public opinion was pronounced against such relentless -vengeance. Even Nicaragua, which had grievances against Mora, and had -excluded his supporters from her territory, regretted his untimely -end.[XVIII-14] In Costa Rica his death was attributed to bitter -personal and sordid animosity. Public opinion was not at fault. Mora -wrote his wife, one hour before his execution, on his faith as a -Christian, that Vicente Aguilar justly owed him upwards of $200,000; -and if he ever expected to die in peace with his God, he should make -restitution of that sum to Mora's family. Aguilar, as minister of war, -signed the orders for the execution, and was responsible for Mora's -death. These orders included the execution of two others, namely, -General J. M. Cañas, and Manuel Argüello, a young lawyer. The latter -was saved by General Máximo Blanco, but Cañas was shot two days after -Mora.[XVIII-15] - -The penalty of death was doubtless intended by Aguilar to be a -settlement of accounts with the man he detested; but it did not -satisfy him; he added confiscation, and to the end showed himself -relentless in his animosity to Mora's family and supporters. But he -did not long survive his victims, dying on the 26th of April, 1861, -of ossification of the heart. After his death, a milder policy was -inaugurated. A general amnesty, from which were excluded only a few -military men who while in active service had joined revolts, was -issued;[XVIII-16] exiles returned to their country, and regularity -in affairs was restored. The government gained in popular esteem -by a scrupulous observance of the promises made at the time of its -creation, restoring internal peace based on constitutional liberty and -a proper economy.[XVIII-17] However, Mora's friends, though disposed -to do justice to Montealegre's administration, never would forgive -its origin and early acts. They and their political confrères -brought on a reaction against it. Party excitement became great, and -there was danger of civil war. Two presidential candidates for the -next term, namely, Aniceto Esquivel and Julian Volio, were in the -field, the former being a warm friend of the administration, and the -latter independent. Montealegre was the first to suggest a compromise. -There was in Cartago a former minister of Mora, Jesus Jimenez, who was -finally agreed upon by all parties for the executive office, and was -accordingly elected.[XVIII-18] He took possession of the chair on the -7th of May, Montealegre surrendering it with greater alacrity than he -had occupied it in 1859.[XVIII-19] [Sidenote: JIMENEZ AND CASTRO.] - -Jimenez, during his administration, fully answered expectations. He -maintained peace by pursuing a just and conciliatory policy. The -country kept on its career of progress and prosperity.[XVIII-20] -The next president duly chosen was the founder of the republic, José -María Castro, for the term from May 8, 1866.[XVIII-21] The number of -ministers of state having been reduced to two, the president decreed -the organization of a privy council whose members were to serve without -pay.[XVIII-22] Castro's government was a strictly economical one. It -diminished the number of officials, and suppressed the president's -guard of honor. The result was that the treasury was enabled to meet -obligations contracted for the development of education, and of the -interests of the country.[XVIII-23] - -During the presidential election in 1868, party agitation jeopardized -the public peace. The press became virulent, not sparing even the -families of prominent men. The government was accused of making -no effort to check such abuses, or to restore harmony. There would -certainly have been a resort to arms but for the moderation of the -two chief officers of the army, generals Lorenzo Salazar and Máximo -Blanco.[XVIII-24] These officers and others placed themselves at the -head of a pronunciamiento which took place at San José on the 1st of -November to depose Castro and suspend the constitution of December 27, -1859. Jesus Jimenez, the first designado, was then called to assume -the executive office, with ample powers to call a constituent assembly. -He accordingly placed himself at the head of affairs, and convoked the -assembly, to meet on the 1st of January, summoning the people also to -choose the next president, together with senators and representatives -for the next constitutional term to begin May 1, 1869.[XVIII-25] - -The new constitution was framed on the 18th of February, and -promulgated in April 1869, consisting of 149 articles, and containing -very liberal principles.[XVIII-26] - -[Sidenote: REVOLUTION.] - -The ordinary congress met, and declared Jimenez to be the -constitutional president for the next term, and he was inducted into -office with the usual formalities.[XVIII-27] But owing to congress -having refused to pass a railroad bill, Jimenez lost his temper, -resigned his office, and left the capital. But the resignation was -not accepted, and he was induced to return. Subsequently, on his -representing that the country was in danger from internal disturbances -due to party violence, that body decreed a suspension of the -constitution.[XVIII-28] This order of things lasted until the 27th of -April, 1870, on which day sixteen men, among whom were Tomás and Víctor -Guardia, Pedro and Pablo Quiroz, and Próspero Fernandez, captured the -artillery barracks of San José by a coup de main. There were a few -killed and wounded, among the former being the commander, Colonel A. -Biscoubi, a French officer who distinguished himself in the defence of -San Salvador in 1863.[XVIII-29] - -After the capture of the barracks the president was seized, and kept a -prisoner about twenty-four hours. Bruno Carranza was then proclaimed -provisional president, and assumed the duties on the 28th. Jimenez -and his ministers were detained to answer charges that would be -preferred against them.[XVIII-30] Jimenez was allowed to reside in -Cartago under surveillance; but, fearing for his life, as he alleged, -escaped.[XVIII-31] The men who brought about the overthrow of the -oppressive government of Jimenez were not left unrewarded.[XVIII-32] -All proscriptive orders which had emanated from it were revoked, and -persons in exile were enabled to come back. - -The people were again summoned to elect a constituent assembly to meet -on the 8th of August, which took place; it declared the constitution -of 1869 no longer in force, and temporarily revived that of December -1859. Carranza resigned on the same day that the convention assembled, -and Tomás Guardia[XVIII-33] was appointed his successor on the 10th. -One of Carranza's last acts, July 30th, was to suspend the treaty -of friendship with Guatemala of 1848, because the latter had closed -diplomatic relations with Costa Rica.[XVIII-34] It is to be said to the -credit of Carranza's short rule that though clothed with dictatorial -powers they were used very sparingly.[XVIII-35] - -[Sidenote: TOMÁS GUARDIA.] - -Public tranquillity was constantly menaced, till finally a number of -assemblages passed resolutions to rescind the powers conferred on the -constituent assembly, and granted the authority of a dictator to Tomás -Guardia, whereupon on the 10th of October that body was dissolved by -him.[XVIII-36] That same day he decreed a full amnesty to Ex-president -Jimenez and his ministers Agapito Jimenez and Eusebio Figueroa. He -next, on the 13th, created a council of state with prominent political -men,[XVIII-37] assumed personal command of the forces, and appointed -Rafael Barroeta his substitute. In May 1871, several prominent citizens -were ordered to reside on the Golfo Dulce.[XVIII-38] - -A constituent assembly was convoked on the 12th of August,[XVIII-39] -and met on the 15th of October, which adopted another fundamental -law for the republic on the 7th of December. It was a most liberal -constitution, recognizing all the rights of man. On religion it -accepted the Roman catholic as the only one to be supported, but -tolerated other forms. Foreigners were allowed the privilege of -trading and other lawful industries, including navigation of rivers -and coasts, of holding property, marrying, and testating. They could -not be compelled to become citizens, but if they wished it, one -year's residence sufficed to obtain naturalization. The government was -declared to be popular, representative, alternative, and responsible. -It was divided into three branches; namely, legislative, executive, and -judicial.[XVIII-40] - -The national congress being installed May 1, 1872, on the 30th declared -Tomás Guardia duly elected president, and on the same date appointed -José Antonio Pinto and Rafael Barroeta first and second vice-president -respectively. The same body June 20th granted Guardia leave of -absence, with permission to visit foreign countries for the benefit -of his health, and authorized the government to appropriate out of the -treasury a sum not exceeding $25,000 for his travelling expenses. José -A. Pinto had charge of the executive in his absence.[XVIII-41] Guardia -reassumed his office on the 26th of January, 1873. - -The policy Guardia's government had pursued toward Guatemala, Salvador, -and Nicaragua caused these three powers to prepare for any emergency -which might arise. They accordingly entered into a treaty of alliance -on the 26th of August, 1873.[XVIII-42] Minister Montúfar had been the -only one to endeavor to check Guardia's hare-brained plans; but he was -despatched to Europe with the intent of dismissing him in his absence. -Costa Rica, on the 24th of October, addressed a circular to other -governments remonstrating against that treaty.[XVIII-43] Her government -implied that the treaty had been prompted by private animosity, which -the others indignantly denied.[XVIII-44] - -[Sidenote: MORE PRESIDENTS.] - -This state of affairs created much alarm in Costa Rica, as well as -elsewhere in Central America, and Guardia, professing to give way -to the demands of public opinion, which pointed to him as the sole -promoter of war, temporarily resigned the executive office into -the hands of the first designado, Salvador Gonzalez, on the 21st -of November.[XVIII-45] Gonzalez formed a new cabinet, with José M. -Castro as minister of foreign affairs, and fixed upon a policy that -would secure public confidence at home and peace with the other -states.[XVIII-46] Gonzalez and his ministers had believed in Guardia's -sincerity, but they soon discovered that he had been playing a -hypocritical rôle. Pretending indignation at what he called lowering -the country's honor, and trailing its flag in the dust,[XVIII-47] he -resumed the presidential office on the 1st of December, and the next -day placed it in charge of Rafael Barroeta,[XVIII-48] who held it till -the 28th of February, 1874, when Guardia resumed it. The latter was -again granted a leave of absence May 19, 1875, and was absent several -months.[XVIII-49] - -Some further correspondence passed between the governments of Costa -Rica and Nicaragua, resulting from an abortive attempt at revolution -in Guanacaste, when the insurgents, being defeated, escaped into -Nicaragua. A force of Costa Ricans landed from a steamer, killed some -persons and arrested others in territory claimed to be within the -neutral district, under the boundary treaty of 1858, which both parties -had bound themselves to respect till the question of limits should -be finally settled.[XVIII-50] Congress, in March 1876, authorized -the executive to station troops in Guanacaste, on the frontier of -Nicaragua, and defend the country's honor, if assailed. He was also to -arrange, if possible, the troubles with that republic. Guardia visited -the frontier, where General Máximo Jerez and a number of officers also -went via Puntarenas.[XVIII-51] - -On the 27th of March a general amnesty was issued to all political -offenders, which implied that the government was confident the public -peace would not be disturbed.[XVIII-52] - -Congress declared, May 3d, that Aniceto Esquivel had been -constitutionally chosen president of the republic,[XVIII-53] and on -the 9th appointed Tomás Guardia and Vicente Herrera first and second -designados in the order named. On the 8th Guardia took the chief -command of the forces; and as the constitution did not allow of his -reëlection to the presidential chair, he could reoccupy it at pleasure -by virtue of his position as first designado.[XVIII-54] - -[Sidenote: MORE REVOLUTIONS.] - -Esquivel inaugurated his administration under favorable circumstances. -He pledged himself to pursue a conciliatory policy, at home and abroad, -though never failing to uphold the rights of Costa Ricans in foreign -lands. Discord, however, broke out, and the opponents of Guardia vented -their hostility by the press. A revolt, with bloodshed, occurred in -Cartago, July 29th, and 30th, to depose Esquivel,[XVIII-55] which -movement proved successful. Vicente Herrera, second designado, was -called to occupy the executive seat.[XVIII-56] The new ruler made -Saturnino Lizano his minister-general, closed diplomatic and commercial -relations with Nicaragua,[XVIII-57] and on the 11th of August -established censorship of the press as a necessity for the preservation -of order. - -Herrera's administration was noted for its illiberality toward -foreigners, and for religious bigotry.[XVIII-58] The press was gagged; -capitalists and merchants were heavily mulcted on the pretext of their -being malecontents; men of reputation and standing were driven from -their homes upon the reports of paid spies; and other outrages were -committed. - -A revolutionary movement on the 11th of September, 1877, forced -Herrera to surrender the executive office[XVIII-59] to Tomás Guardia, -who assumed the duties, the municipal governments recognizing him -as provisional president with unlimited powers.[XVIII-60] On the -24th he called on the people to choose a constituent assembly to -meet on the 23d of December. The same day he created a gran consejo -nacional, delegating the choice of the majority of its members to the -municipalities. That body, under its constitution, had devolved upon it -several important duties.[XVIII-61] A general amnesty law for political -offences was decreed October 15th, and on the 17th the gran consejo -nacional issued a ley de garantías, declaring life, liberty, and -property inviolable.[XVIII-62] This law was in force only about three -months. - -[Sidenote: ARBITRARY RULE.] - -Costa Rica was not, it seemed, to be free from actual or impending -trouble. Guatemala refused to recognize Guardia's government, and -the latter closed relations with her as long as Barrios should be her -ruler.[XVIII-63] Early in the following January rumors came that the -republic would soon be invaded by a party of men who had in Nicaragua -organized a government, and purposed establishing it in Costa Rica by -force of arms, if necessary. The invasion took place through Limon, -under the leadership of Federico Mora, who called himself provisional -president. In consequence of this the law of guaranties, and the -elections for the constituent assembly, were suspended, and a decree -issued for the punishment of the invaders when taken.[XVIII-64] The -attempt to overthrow Guardia failed, Mora being defeated at El Zapote -and Matina, and fleeing to Nicaragua. The campaign lasted only eight -days.[XVIII-65] Quiet having been restored for a time, an amnesty was -granted to political offenders.[XVIII-66] - -Very little worth mentioning occurred in 1879, except that in October -Costa Rica suspended relations with Salvador. Guardia on the 10th -of July, 1880, restored the law of guaranties, and repeated those of -January 21 and February 1, 1878, appointing August 1st for the election -of deputies, and the 29th of the same month for the instalment of the -constituent assembly. This body met on the appointed day,[XVIII-67] but -had been in session only about three weeks, when from the liberal views -introduced and discussed, and likely to be incorporated in the new -constitution, it became apparent that Guardia would not be the popular -choice for the next presidential term. The last day's proceedings -were an indication of the doom of despotism.[XVIII-68] Guardia and -his satellites, alarmed at their impending downfall, resolved that -their safety lay in dissolving the assembly, suspending the law of -guaranties, and imposing on the people anew the dictatorship. This was -done at once on the pretext of suppressing an imaginary revolution. -The military being all powerful, Guardia on the 28th of September -revived the gran consejo nacional to meet at San José on the 16th of -October. He continued his usual arbitrary practices of imprisoning and -exiling such persons as made themselves obnoxious to him.[XVIII-69] -In 1881 he revisited Europe, and in his absence Salvador Lara acted -as president. A constituent assembly was convoked, which adopted a -constitution containing very liberal clauses, on the 7th of December. -This constitution Guardia suspended on his return to power, early -in 1882, but restored with amendments by his decree of April 26th. -Guardia's health had not been much benefited by his journey to Europe, -and death overtook him at Alajuela in the evening of July 6, 1882. The -highest honors were paid to his remains, such as were never seen in -Central America before or after the independence. They were buried in -San José.[XVIII-70] - -Saturnino Lizano had charge of the executive office until the 20th -of July, when he surrendered it to the designado General Próspero -Fernandez, who being subsequently elected president was inducted -into office on the 10th of August.[XVIII-71] The new administration -soon restored diplomatic intercourse with Guatemala, Salvador, and -Honduras.[XVIII-72] - -[Sidenote: CHURCH AFFAIRS.] - -The relations of the government with the church became strained in -1883. Early that year a decree was issued forbidding the entry of -members of the society of Jesus into the republic, though a few who -had charge of a college at Cartago were allowed to remain. The clergy -began an agitation, and had to be advised by the government, and the -bishop as well, to moderate their zeal.[XVIII-73] But the trouble did -not end. The old struggle between the civil and ecclesiastical powers -was revived. Bishop Thiel, with the aid of the jesuits, attempted to -interfere with and to place himself above the government, which, on -its part, under the authority conferred by congress, resolved to uphold -its supreme authority at all hazards. Hence a decree of July 18, 1884, -expelling the bishop and the jesuits from the country.[XVIII-74] Other -important measures affecting the clergy were also adopted at this -time.[XVIII-75] The bishop was recalled in the following year. - -The republic was at peace, when a measure of the legislative assembly -of Guatemala came to create a great alarm. I refer to the decree of -February 28, 1885, declaring the union of Central America in the form -of a single republic, to carry out which scheme President Barrios -assumed military command over Central America. The news of this was -received by President Fernandez from Barrios himself in a telegram on -the 7th of March.[XVIII-76] The national congress was then summoned -to meet on Sunday the 8th, and the president called on the people -to prepare for the defence of Costa Rican independence. The call was -responded to with much enthusiasm. Congress clothed the executive with -extraordinary powers.[XVIII-77] But fate had decreed that Fernandez -should be saved the vexation of spirit and anxiety which the situation -must have caused him. He died suddenly in Aténas between 3 and 4 -o'clock in the morning of March 12th. Fernandez was greatly esteemed -both as a private and public man. His funeral took place from the -presidential mansion on the next day, with the honors due his position -as the national chief magistrate.[XVIII-78] - -[Sidenote: PEACE AND WAR.] - -The first designado, General and Licentiate Bernardo Soto, immediately -assumed the duties of president, as well as of commander of the -forces,[XVIII-79] and at once called to form his cabinet José M. -Castro, Mauro Fernandez, and Santiago de la Guardia.[XVIII-80] -Preparations for war were continued, and other nations advised of -Costa Rica's disapproval of Guatemala's action.[XVIII-81] Peace was -proclaimed on the 19th of April, and the president on the 30th called -congress to meet on the 8th of May, when he would surrender the -extraordinary powers it had clothed him with. - -General Fadrique Gutierrez attempted a revolution in August, -which failed. He was taken prisoner, tried by court-martial, and -cashiered.[XVIII-82] - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -DEMOCRATIC INSTITUTIONS IN SALVADOR. - -1865-1885. - - RULE OF PRESIDENT DUEÑAS—HIS CONSERVATISM—QUARREL WITH - HONDURAS—THE LATTER ALLIED WITH SALVADORAN LIBERALS—BATTLE - OF SANTA ANA—DUEÑAS DEPOSED—HIS IMPEACHMENT, RELEASE, - AND TEMPORARY EXILE—SANTIAGO GONZALEZ PROVISIONAL - PRESIDENT—GONZALEZ ELECTED CHIEF MAGISTRATE—GUATEMALA AND - SALVADOR AT WAR WITH HONDURAS—MURDER OF VICE-PRESIDENT - MENDEZ—EARTHQUAKES—PRESIDENT VALLE—TROUBLE WITH - GUATEMALA—EXEUNT VALLE AND GONZALEZ—ZALDÍVAR'S LONG - RULE—CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGES—ALLIANCE WITH NICARAGUA AND - COSTA RICA—RESISTANCE TO BARRIOS' PLAN OF CONQUEST—SALVADOR - VICTORIOUS—RESTORED PEACE—ZALDÍVAR ELIMINATED—REVOLUTION—F. - MENENDEZ MADE PRESIDENT. - - -[Sidenote: PRESIDENT DUEÑAS.] - -Francisco Dueñas, called to preside over the destinies of Salvador in -1865, by the grace of President Carrera of Guatemala, was a member of -the legal profession, and had already figured in public affairs. He -was from early youth destined for the cloister, and in due time took -the vows as a Dominican. But being of an ardent temperament, he came -after a while to think himself adapted for a political leader rather -than to serve God under a monk's habit.[XIX-1] He accordingly entered -the political field, and soon attained prominence. In 1845 he was a -minister of state, and had previously been a deputy to the federal -congress, wherein for lack of eloquence he made no display; but in -committees and private conversations with his colleagues, he often -managed to have his ideas accepted. He was one of the deputies who -voted against the fatal decree leaving the states free to constitute -themselves. He was then a friend of Central American nationality, and -often defended it almost as warmly as Barrundia. Pretending to follow -public opinion, he was affiliated with the liberals. But his chief -aim was even then the furtherance of his own political advancement. -Thus we see him join the oligarchic clique, and ally himself with -Carrera of Guatemala, from which time he discountenanced every attempt -to restore true democracy. The republic became one in name only, for -his government was personal and absolute.[XIX-2] With the aid of the -oligarchs he managed to sustain himself for years, the country enjoying -peace and material prosperity, for which, as well as for his not -neglecting public education, he should have some credit.[XIX-3] - -In December 1868, he was elected president for the next term, and -public affairs continued in a nominal condition for some time, the most -friendly relations being maintained with foreign powers, and specially -with the other Central American states. But in the latter part of -1870 serious differences occurred with the government of Honduras, the -latter imputing to Salvador marked favors to Honduran and Nicaraguan -refugees, who were constantly plotting to overthrow the administration -of President Medina. At last the Honduran government accredited -two commissioners, namely Céleo Arias, and Teodoro Aguiluz, in San -Salvador, with the view of settling those differences, if possible, -in a friendly manner. Salvador on her part named Rafael Zaldívar her -commissioner to treat with them, and their conferences began on the -16th of January, 1871, but they led to no satisfactory result.[XIX-4] -At the fourth and last conference, on the 21st of January, the Honduran -commissioners, after protesting against Salvador's course in rejecting -their demands, proposed as a last resort to preserve friendship—in -view of the fact that all hope of arriving at an understanding had -disappeared, as confidence between the two governments no longer -existed—that the legislatures of both states should be convoked to -meet on the 12th of March, and the two presidents, Medina and Dueñas, -resign their offices. After which elections for chief magistrates -should be held, with the express condition that during those elections -both Medina and Dueñas should reside out of their countries. Four -days having elapsed without any answer having been returned to that -proposition, the Honduran commissioners on the 25th renewed their -protest, declared the conferences closed, and demanded their passports. -However, after this, Zaldívar signified to them an acceptance of the -proposal concerning the resignation. This inspired some hope that -peace might yet be consolidated. But it proved to be a vain hope; for -the government of Honduras on the 7th of February suspended all treaty -stipulations between the two republics, and Salvador despatched in the -same month a body of troops to invade her neighbor's territory;[XIX-5] -in consequence of which President Medina on the 5th of March declared -war against Salvador, or rather against Dueñas' government.[XIX-6] - -[Sidenote: HOSTILITIES WITH HONDURAS.] - -The liberal party took advantage of the situation to adopt active -measures for the overthrow of despotism, and the restoration of -democratic principles. General Santiago Gonzalez, who had been called -to head a movement, made an address to the people, which produced a -great excitement. Dueñas tried to strengthen himself by means of a -so-called plebiscite, but this only served to show that a revolution -was impending. Gonzalez applied for aid to the government of -Honduras,[XIX-7] which, being then on the point of waging war against -Dueñas, was prevailed on to place under command of that officer the -forces he had organized to invade Salvador through Sensuntepeque. -With his Salvadorans and Honduran allies Gonzalez made himself master -of the departments of Santa Ana and Sonsonate,[XIX-8] from which he -could procure abundant supplies. The government forces, which had been -kept in suspense, not knowing which would be the invaders' objective -point, attacked them at Santa Ana, and after four days' hard fighting, -though much superior in numbers, were utterly routed on the 10th of -April, with heavy casualties; the main army was put to flight, and the -reserve forsook their standard.[XIX-9] Gonzalez was then proclaimed -provisional president, and Dueñas' government collapsed, he, together -with Tomás Martinez, ex-president of Nicaragua, who commanded in chief -the government's army, and others, seeking a place of safety in the -United States legation, then in charge of General A. T. A. Torbert, -minister resident. The next day Gonzalez and his army marched into -the capital amid the most enthusiastic acclamations. His first step -was to protect the person of Dueñas against possible violence from his -exasperated enemies, among whom were the friends of the never-forgotten -Gerardo Barrios, whom Dueñas had caused to be shot in cold blood, and -to obtain his surrender that he might answer before the nation for his -alleged illegal acts.[XIX-10] Both Dueñas and Martinez were surrendered -to the provisional government on its giving a pledge that their lives -would not be imperilled. The surrender of Dueñas was made on the 20th -of April, with his own acquiescence; he was then transferred as a state -prisoner to the military school building.[XIX-11] Martinez was released -and permitted to leave the republic.[XIX-12] - -Ex-president Dueñas was, on the 13th of April, 1872, declared by -the senate legally deposed, and amenable to the laws for acts of -usurpation. Murders, among which was reckoned the execution of -Ex-president Barrios, unjustifiable executions, and imprisonments of -citizens, incendiarism, misappropriation of public moneys, and other -misdemeanors. It was further ordered that the accused should be turned -over to the jurisdiction of the courts for trial, pursuant to article -71 of the constitution.[XIX-13] In July of the same year, while the -constitution was in suspense, during a temporary internal disturbance, -the supreme court set him at liberty, which caused much agitation in -Salvador. He left the country after giving bonds in $100,000 that he -would not land in any port of Central America. He went to and remained -in Europe some time, then returned to America, residing a while in -New York, and afterward in San Francisco, California. Subsequently he -was permitted free access to his country, and was treated with high -consideration both in Salvador and Guatemala. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: NEW CONSTITUTION.] - -The constituent assembly, which had been convoked by the provisional -government, was installed July 28, 1871, and began its labors on the -31st, when the provisional president gave an account of his official -acts, all of which were legalized at once.[XIX-14] The following -persons were, in the order named, designated to take charge of the -executive, provisionally, in the event of disability of Gonzalez; -namely, Rafael Campo, Manuel Gallardo, and Cruz Ulloa. - -On the 16th of October, the assembly adopted a new fundamental law -in twelve titles, which may be said to have been in perfect accord -with democratic principles.[XIX-15] This constitution was amended -on the 9th of November, 1872, in a few particulars by a constituent -assembly, the presidential term being made of four years instead of -two. He could neither be reëlected for the next immediate term, nor -act as president even a single day beyond the time for which he was -chosen.[XIX-16] This same assembly in 1872 enacted several secondary -laws of importance, to wit: on freedom of the press; trial by jury in -criminal and libel cases; use of martial law; elections by universal -suffrage; public instruction; codification of the laws in force since -1821; and appropriation of private property for great public uses. - -The presidential election under the new charter of 1871 resulted in -Gonzalez, the provisional president, being chosen the constitutional -chief magistrate, his term to begin on the 1st of February the -following year. The amendment to the constitution of November 9, 1872, -extended it to February 1, 1876. - -[Sidenote: CALAMITOUS TIMES.] - -The political relations of the governments of Salvador and Guatemala -with Honduras had, early in 1872, become so unfriendly that a war was -unavoidable. Salvadoran and Guatemala forces invaded Honduras, and were -successful in their operations, the details of which will be given in -connection with the history of the latter country.[XIX-17] President -Gonzalez and his victorious army on their return to San Salvador in -June received an ovation. Subsequent events demanded the despatch of -more troops to Honduras, which, together with Guatemala's, completed -the work of the first campaign. The government also felt compelled -to exile a number of persons who were manifestly conspiring for the -destruction of the liberal régime.[XIX-18] The ministers addressed -an exposé to the constituent congress, which had been in session -since September 27th, reviewing the policy of the administration, and -submitting for its sanction the late war measures, at variance with the -constitution. All the acts of the president were subsequently approved -by congress.[XIX-19] - -The only other event of 1872 worthy of mention was the murder of the -vice-president, Manuel Mendez, on the night of the 1st of September, -in the public street,[XIX-20] by a man named Juan Melendez. At first -it was supposed that the act might have been prompted by other motives -than personal revenge; the latter proved, however, to be the real -cause. The assassin fled into Honduras, but was finally discovered and -surrendered to Salvador, where he was tried and executed.[XIX-21] - -The year 1873 in its first part was a calamitous one for Salvador. -A series of earthquakes caused destruction in many places, specially -on the 19th of March, ruining the capital for the eighth time in its -history. The national congress, after approving the government's acts -to the date of closing its session, left the country to devote its -best energies in repairing the havoc of that catastrophe. The rest of -the year and 1874 formed, indeed, a period not only of restoration -but of marked progress in every respect. National industries went -on developing, public instruction, under the fostering care of the -authorities, was constantly being spread among the masses, and the -financial condition had become much improved. Peace reigned at home, -and the relations with foreign powers were on an amicable footing; -cordiality seemed to preside over those with the other Central American -states. The future, at the inception of 1875, promised concord and -good-will as well as undisturbed progressiveness.[XIX-22] But these -expectations were not realized. The public peace was disturbed on two -occasions; the first, by the Indians of Dolores Izalco, who, because -of a dispute with the authorities anent their community lands, rose in -arms, and on March 14th assaulted the garrison of the city of Izalco, -to be repulsed with considerable loss. Their head men were arrested and -imprisoned some months, until, promising good behavior in the future, -they were released.[XIX-23] The other affair was a more serious one, -calling for energetic action on the part of the military power. An -armed mob of reactionists and religious fanatics, led by one Tinoco and -a clergyman named José Manuel Palacios, on the 20th of June, fell upon -the city of San Miguel, slaying the small garrison, together with the -comandante general, Felipe Espinosa, and several citizens, sacking the -business houses, and burning down a portion of the town. Such deeds of -blood, robbery, and incendiarism as those of the 20th to the 24th had -seldom been witnessed in Central America. Troops arrived from La Union, -and the Honduran port of Amapala, on the 24th, and the malefactors -fled, but not before about thirty of their number, including Father -Palacios, were taken prisoners. A considerable part of the stolen goods -was recovered. Reënforcements followed, and the department was secured -from further molestation. President Gonzalez was at San Miguel on the -27th.[XIX-24] - -On the other hand, a sanguinary and disastrous war with Guatemala -caused an entire change in the administration. - -The general assembly had, on the 1st of March, convoked the people to -elect on the first Sunday of December a president and vice-president -for the second constitutional term to begin February 1, 1876, and end -February 1, 1880. Andrés Valle was chosen president, and Santiago -Gonzalez, vice-president. The latter offered his resignation, but -the assembly did not accept it. They were inducted into office on -the appointed date. But previous to this, Guatemala having assumed a -menacing attitude, congress decreed that in the event of the president -going to the field at the head of the army, Valle, then a senator, -should act in his stead, pro tempore. On the same date a forced loan of -$500,000 was also ordered to be raised. - -[Sidenote: PENDING HOSTILITIES.] - -The difficulties arose from a supposed understanding of President -Gonzalez with Guatemalan refugees in Salvador, and the government -of Ponciano Leiva in Honduras, with the ulterior object of bringing -about the downfall of Barrios. The latter alleged also that Gonzalez -intended to uphold with his forces the government of Leiva, which, -according to him, was entirely unpopular, because of its subserviency -to Salvador. This intervention was deemed not only an attack against -Honduran autonomy, but a menace to Guatemala. Gonzalez was notified -that if he persisted in that course, Guatemala would then interfere -in favor of General Medina, who was then trying to overthrow Leiva. -The result of this attitude was a renewed assurance by Gonzalez of -friendly feeling, and a proposition to hold a verbal conference on -Honduran affairs, which Barrios accepted, and such a conference was -held now with President Valle at Chingo, and a convention was signed -on the 15th of February, under which Marco Aurelio Soto, an Honduran -by birth, was to undertake the pacification of his country, backed -by equal forces of Guatemala and Honduras.[XIX-25] Barrios contended -that, though Valle was president, Gonzalez was the real power in -Salvador, whom he accused in a public manifesto of hypocrisy and -treachery. Angry words continued, the two nations being now armed -for the conflict, till they agreed to disband their forces. Both -governments claimed to have done so, imputing to the other a wilful -neglect of its obligation. The probability is, that, distrusting one -another, they merely pretended compliance, keeping their troops ready -for action. Barrios sent 1,500 men into Honduras, and came himself -with a force to threaten Salvador on the west, and actually invaded the -latter without a previous declaration of war. At last, on the 20th of -March, José María Samayoa, minister of war in charge of the executive -of Guatemala, formally declared all official relations with Salvador -at an end, and then again on the 27th, alleging that Salvadoran troops -had invaded Guatemala, decreed the existence of war, giving Barrios -unlimited power to make such uses of this declaration as befitted the -dignity of Guatemala.[XIX-26] The government of Salvador on the 26th of -March decreed the treaty of amity and alliance concluded with Guatemala -January 24, 1872, to be no longer in force.[XIX-27] - -[Sidenote: THE WRATH OF BARRIOS.] - -Barrios' plan for the campaign was to assail Salvador on the west -direct from Guatemala with an army under his personal command, and -at the same time by a movement from Honduras under General Gregorio -Solares on the eastern departments of San Miguel and La Union. - -The Mexican general, Lopez Uraga, adjutant-general of Barrios, was -stationed with a garrison at Jutiapa to guard the army supplies. At -this time the Salvadorans unsuccessfully attacked an isolated position -on the frontier, which roused the ire of Barrios. He then directed -Uraga to move the supplies to Chingo, whence he started himself to -the invasion of Salvador. Solares had not yet been heard from. He had -first of all to get Medina and Leiva out of the way in Honduras. The -Guatemalan president then marched to the Coco hacienda, and hearing -that Chalchuapa was abandoned, occupied it at once. The Salvadorans had -their headquarters at Santa Ana. The armies which were to encounter -each other on the field of battle were the most numerous Central -America had ever seen. Barrios with 8,000 or 9,000 men laid siege of -Ahuachapan. Uraga stationed himself at Chalchuapa with about 1,500, and -Chingo was left with a handful of men.[XIX-28] - -The Guatemalans who have occupied Apaneca were driven away, and on -returning thereto encountered the Salvadorans on the 15th of April, -and after a fight lasting from eight in the morning till nightfall, -were routed, and pursued as far as Atiquizaya, sustaining heavy -losses.[XIX-29] - -Meantime the belligerent armies in the east were not idle. Solares -after hard fighting from the 17th to the 19th of April won a signal -and decisive victory at Pasaquina over the Salvadorans commanded by -generals Brioso, Delgado, Sanchez, and Espinosa; the results of which -were that he obtained control of the departments of San Miguel and -La Union, menacing those of San Vicente and Usulutan, and even the -official residence of President Valle; thus depriving the government of -large resources, and disheartening the army of Gonzalez in Ahuachapan -and Santa Ana.[XIX-30] After this victory, Solares being reënforced, -the Salvadorans, now reduced to 800 or 900, precipitately retreated -to San Miguel, but by desertions on the march dwindled down to less -than 200. The defence of San Miguel became impossible, and Solares -occupied it, as well as La Union. There being insufficient elements to -defend San Vicente, the government ordered the scattered garrisons to -concentrate at the capital. - -[Sidenote: CONVENTION AND TREATY.] - -The condition of the army of the west was not much better. There were -in Ahuachapan about 2,600 men, and in Santa Ana hardly 3,500. The -former was greatly decreased by constant fighting during the holy week, -and on the day after easter hardly exceeded 900 demoralized troops. -An unsuccessful attempt was made against Chalchuapa. A few days later -Salvadoran commissioners visited Barrios' headquarters, as he was, it -is averred, on the point of raising the siege of Ahuachapan.[XIX-31] -He then marched to Atiquizaya, and the next day to Chalchuapa, where -the negotiations for peace were held,[XIX-32] which resulted in a -convention, preliminary to a treaty of peace, concluded on the 25th -of April, ratified the next day, and coupled with the condition -sine qua non of a complete change in the personnel of the Salvadoran -government.[XIX-33] - -Under the preliminary convention of April 25th, Rafael Zaldívar -was chosen provisional president, and on the 1st of May appointed -his cabinet.[XIX-34] A definitive treaty of peace, friendship, -and alliance, offensive and defensive, was signed at Santa Ana May -8th,[XIX-35] in which Honduras joined on the 27th of May. General -Gonzalez had meantime repaired on board the British war ship _Amethyst_ -at La Libertad, transferring himself afterward to the American mail -steamship _Costa Rica_, on which he left Central America. - -Pursuant to the 6th clause of the convention of April 25th, the people -were called upon to choose, on the first Sunday of June, a president -and vice-president, as well as representatives to the legislative -assembly, the latter to meet at San Salvador on the 1st of July. This -clause having been duly carried out, the Guatemalan forces withdrew -from Salvador, in accordance with the 7th.[XIX-36] The elections -took place, the national congress being installed July 3d, and Rafael -Zaldívar declared to have been duly chosen constitutional president to -continue the term from February 1, 1876, to February 1, 1880. He was -accordingly inducted into office on the 19th of July. - - * * * * * - -Rafael Zaldívar had previously served in both houses of congress, in -the cabinet, and filled several diplomatic missions, notably that of -minister plenipotentiary in Berlin.[XIX-37] On his return he became -President Dueñas' right-hand man and supporter. He was president of the -last general assembly at the time of Dueñas' downfall, and considering -his life in danger, he concealed himself, and finally escaped out -of the country.[XIX-38] After this he lived in exile about five -years.[XIX-39] - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: CONSTITUTIONAL CONGRESS.] - -The new administration had no home or foreign complications to distract -its attention from the usual routine of duties, and progress was -soon noticeable in every branch of industry as well as of the public -service. The executive, on the 3d of April, 1879, called the people to -choose a constituent congress to effect reforms in the constitution -of November 9, 1872. This body was duly installed June 9th, under -the presidency of Teodoro Moreno; but after appointing a committee to -frame a constitution, it adjourned July 2d to meet again between the -1st and 15th of January, 1880. It reassembled on the latter date, and -proceeded to consider the project of a fundamental law laid before it -by that committee. Some amendments were finally adopted on the 19th -of February, and Zaldívar was reëlected president for the ensuing term -from February 1, 1880, to February 1, 1884. - -Nothing worthy of special mention occurred till the end of 1882. The -constitutional congress opened its session on the 5th of January, -1883, when the president gave an encouraging account of the political -situation. Peace reigned, and the people were devoted to their -industrial pursuits. The relations with the other nations of the earth -were cordial, Salvador, though a small power, being the recipient of -respect and regard from all others. With Costa Rica the relations, -interrupted since October 1879, were renewed, and with Nicaragua -the most perfect understanding existed. The treaty of alliance with -Guatemala and Honduras was in full force.[XIX-40] - -But this happy state of things was not to last. At 2 o'clock in the -morning of April 16th, a body of men armed with rifles, shot-guns, -revolvers, and machetes attacked the garrison at Santa Tecla, crying -Viva la religion! Viva el Doctor Gallardo! Mueran Zaldívar y Barrios! -They were repulsed by the troops commanded by Colonel Matías Castro -Delgado, who captured forty prisoners. The government forces went in -pursuit of the others in the region of the neighboring volcano.[XIX-41] -The insurrectionary movement had ramifications in other towns, namely, -La Libertad, San Salvador, Santa Ana, Ahuachapan, and Sonsonate, where -its authors expected to be seconded. The president at once placed the -departments of San Salvador, La Libertad, and the west under martial -law. This and other prompt measures prevented any further action on the -part of the would-be revolutionists. Quiet having been fully restored, -the decree of martial law was repealed.[XIX-42] - -Another change in the constitution was made this year. The executive -called a convention on the 18th of October to meet between the 15th and -20th of December, to revise the charter of February 19, 1880, adapting -the fundamental institutions of the country to its present needs; and -also to take cognizance of other matters which the executive would lay -before it.[XIX-43] - -[Sidenote: CHRONIC REVOLUTION.] - -A new constitution was adopted soon after, containing all the political -rights recognized in the most liberal instruments of the kind, -guaranteeing also the free exercise of all religions not repugnant to -morality and public order.[XIX-44] President Zaldívar was reëlected -and reinaugurated on the 1st of February, 1884.[XIX-45] But obtaining -leave of absence to visit Europe, where his family had been some time, -he turned over the executive office to the first designado, Angel -Guirola, who was to hold it till his return.[XIX-46] He was again in -San Salvador in August, and resumed his duties. - -Another period of trouble is now again impending on Salvador. Elsewhere -I give the particulars of the undertaking of Barrios, president of -Guatemala, to reconstruct Central America as one republic by force -of arms. It is unnecessary to do more than glance at the same here. -On finding a deliberate opposition to his project on the part of the -governments of Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, he placed his -army in the field to support any movements in those republics toward -the end he had in view. The people of Salvador responded to the call -of their authorities,[XIX-47] who in a short time had about 1,800 -volunteers enrolled, and relied, moreover, on the aid of the other -three governments equally interested in defending their autonomy. About -12,000 men were stationed on the western frontier under the direct -command of President Zaldívar, but no act of hostility was committed, -out of respect for the American minister, who had been mediating, and -obtained from Barrios that he would not invade Salvador if his own -territory were not assailed. But this pledge went for nothing. The -Guatemalans invaded Salvador March 30th, compelling the Salvadorans -who had been fortifying the hacienda del Coco to abandon that position, -though only after severe fighting, and retire into their fortifications -of Chalchuapa.[XIX-48] The latter were assailed by the whole force -of the enemy, but the garrison returned the fire with success, and -gallantly met the desperate onslaught until a signal victory crowned -their well-directed efforts. Barrios, the intrepid leader of the -Guatemalans, lost his life, but this did not put an end to the fight -for several hours yet.[XIX-49] The discomfited assailants began their -retreat to the frontier at six o'clock, or a little later, in the -evening, unpursued.[XIX-50] - -[Sidenote: FRANCISCO MENENDEZ.] - -With the friendly intervention of the foreign diplomatic corps an -armistice was signed, giving time for negotiations, which culminated in -a treaty of peace with Guatemala, the particulars of which are given -elsewhere.[XIX-51] With Honduras[XIX-52] a treaty was concluded, with -the assent of the three allies, which restored friendly relations. -Zaldívar called congress to hold an extra session, and laid before it, -May 4th, an account of the campaign and its results, and concluded, -asking that body to accept his resignation. This was unanimously -refused; nor was his subsequent request for a year's leave of absence -granted. But on his declaring his intention of taking the unused time -of the leave given him in 1884, that body acceded, and allowed him to -be absent twelve months. On the 14th, he placed the executive authority -in the hands of the second designado, General Fernando Figueroa, his -minister of the treasury, who had the support of Zaldívar's friends; -and on the following day departed for Europe.[XIX-53] An insurrection -had already broken out in the west, promoted by political adversaries, -whose leader was General Francisco Menendez. The government reported -a victory over the insurgents at Armenia the 19th of May, but the -revolution gained ground so rapidly that Menendez, who had been -proclaimed presidente provisorio, made his triumphal entry in San -Salvador on the 22d, midst the acclamations of the populace.[XIX-54] -The revolution was successful, and the new government was afterward -recognized by foreign powers.[XIX-55] - -In August, Menendez called on the people to choose a constituent -convention, and preparations were made therefor; but disturbances -having occurred in several places, he prolonged his dictatorship and -redeclared martial law.[XIX-56] Zaldívar was charged with improper uses -of the public funds, and the government refused to recognize a certain -indebtedness incurred in his administration. His property in Salvador -was seized, and an attempt was made by certain persons to lay hands on -some real estate of his in Costa Rica, but they were not permitted to -do so.[XIX-57] Shortly after there was a rupture with Nicaragua, which -did not last long, a treaty of peace being signed at Amapala in January -1886. - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -DEMOCRACY RESTORED IN GUATEMALA. - -1865-1873. - - PRESIDENT CERNA'S RULE—PARTIAL REVOLTS—LIBERALS IN THE - ASSEMBLY—CERNA'S REËLECTION—RIOTS IN THE CAPITAL—ZAVALA'S - COURSE—CRUZ' REBELLION, DEFEAT, AND DEATH—ARRESTS OF - LIBERALS—MODERATION OF THE GOVERNMENT—REVOLUTION OF GARCÍA - GRANADOS AND BARRIOS—PLAN OF PATZICIA—CERNA DEFEATED AND - OVERTHROWN—GRANADOS AS PRESIDENTE PROVISORIO—SEDITIOUS - MOVEMENTS QUELLED—ABOLITION OF PRIESTLY PRIVILEGES—PRELATES, - JESUITS, AND CAPUCHINS EXPELLED—WAR WITH HONDURAS—BARRIOS AS - SUBSTITUTE PRESIDENT—HIS SEVERITY—ELECTIONS—BARRIOS CHOSEN - CONSTITUTIONAL PRESIDENT. - - -Upon the demise of President Carrera, April 14, 1865, the government -devolved for a time on Pedro de Aycinena, minister of foreign affairs, -who summoned the legislative body to choose a successor in the -executive seat. The person then selected was Vicente Cerna,[XX-1] who -took possession of the chair with the usual formalities on the 24th -of May, and in his manifesto and inaugural made known that his policy -would be that of the preceding administration, being assured of the -coöperation of the late president's ministers, whose qualifications -he could not too highly extol.[XX-2] Though a brave man, and not -an unskilful general, Cerna was not gifted with the extraordinary -acuteness of Carrera; and not possessing the support and overawing -power which the late ruler had over the liberals, omens of trouble -began to appear in the political horizon. The fact is, that the -assembly and people, at the time of his election, had expected some -reforms of the former policy. But at the end of nearly two years these -expectations had vanished, and insurrections were erelong set on foot; -for the liberal party, though kept under so many years, had not died -out. Justo Rufino Barrios, hitherto a refugee in Chiapas,[XX-3] now -appeared on the theatre of war, rendering efficient aid to the most -influential opponent of the government, Serapio Cruz, one of Carrera's -generals, who had early in February 1867 initiated a revolution in -Sanarate, recruiting men and capturing arms from Guastatoya.[XX-4] -Though corpulent, Cruz was energetic and strong, active in his -movements, and possessing a knowledge of the mountainous region, could -not be easily subdued by the government.[XX-5] However, it so happened -that Brigadier Solares pressed him hard, and he had to flee, when -his followers abandoning him, he asked for a safe-conduct out of the -country, which was given him on the 8th of April, and he was taken -under a guard to the frontier of Salvador.[XX-6] The government did not -sanction this proceeding of Solares. - -[Sidenote: BARRIOS' PRONUNCIAMIENTO.] - -A pronunciamiento took place at the Malacate hacienda, belonging -to Barrios, August 3d, the same year, which also failed, the -insurgents being defeated, and their leader, Francisco Cruz, and -thirty-seven others captured by Indians friendly to the government, and -sentenced.[XX-7] Serapio Cruz with twenty men invaded Guatemala from -Chiapas in March 1869. The government decreed stringent measures.[XX-8] -Cruz on the 27th of April destroyed a small party of troops under -Lieutenant Abelar in the mountains. He was on the 2d and 3d of May -at Huehuetenango,[XX-9] and on the 4th marched to Momostenango with -five hundred Indians and some ladinos. About one hundred of his men -had fire-arms, a number only machetes, and the rest were unarmed. He -continued his march to Santa María Chiquimula, thence to Santa Lucía, -five leagues distant, but abandoned it on the 6th, upon the approach of -government troops, going to Sacapulas, as if to return to the mountains -of Nebaj. Colonel Battle reported May 20th from Nebaj the utter -discomfiture of Cruz that morning. His men had taken flight, scattering -in the mountains.[XX-10] Another report of the 23d stated that Cruz -with only 23 men was on the 21st fleeing through the unsettled region -of Chimal, as if bound to Chiapas by way of Chaculá. It seems that -being pursued from all directions, he fled from Verapaz, where he found -no followers, to Canillá, and succeeded in entering the Sierra Madre. -In Guatemala it was reported, July 30, 1869, that Cruz had again taken -refuge in Chiapas.[XX-11] - - * * * * * - -While the government had been thus harassed by insurgents in arms, -the liberal opposition in the legislative chamber was daily growing -in strength. Deputy Miguel García Granados repeatedly denounced the -arbitrary acts of the ministers. After a while there came to be but -few less liberals than conservatives in the legislature, and when -Cerna's term was approaching its end, the opposition felt strong enough -to have a candidate of their own at the presidential election. Cerna -was brought forward by his party for the next term—May 24, 1869, to -December 31, 1872. The liberals nominated General Victor Zavala, who -had won so much distinction in the Walker campaign, and was popular -with the military element.[XX-12] Zavala was defeated, though he had a -respectable support in the assembly,[XX-13] which was an omen of a not -distant change in the political situation. - -On the 24th of May, 1869, the date of Cerna's second inauguration, -there was a great popular excitement at the capital. A revolution was -impending. At the approach of night every precaution was adopted by the -ministers to guard the president's mansion and the public buildings. -The troops were kept in the barracks under arms. As darkness increased, -cries of Viva Zavala! were repeatedly heard, shots were fired, several -persons being wounded, and one killed in the plaza del teatro. Zavala's -friends tried to prevail on him to lead them in an attempt to overthrow -the administration. He refused to do so, from motives of prudence -and unwillingness to cause bloodshed. He strongly doubted that such a -movement could be successful, and was probably right, but his course -on that occasion lost him the regard of the more enthusiastic portion -of his political supporters. There had been an escape from a sanguinary -revolt, but the public mind remained greatly agitated. - -[Sidenote: DETERMINED REVOLUTIONISTS.] - -Cerna in his inaugural address had said that the troubled state of the -country had demanded his acceptance of a reëlection, and that this -opportunity, when the republic was at peace with the other Central -American states, and with all foreign powers, was a favorable one for -good citizens to aid the government in securing quiet at home. But -his advice was unheeded. Neither he nor his ministers were allowed -any peace. García Granados continued his agitation in the legislative -chamber, his denunciations of the government growing from day to day -louder and more menacing. The president and his cabinet were aware -that a large portion of the middle class in the chief towns sided -with the liberal agitator, and that the leaven of liberalism already -was working in the army. Several superior officers were accordingly -distrusted, and the lower ones serving under them were of course looked -on as unreliable. The treasury was empty, and the country burdened -with a heavy debt, both internal and foreign.[XX-14] Meantime, Serapio -Cruz was daily gaining strength on the north-western frontier. He was -supplied with money by the liberals, with which he bought arms for -his followers. His Indian allies kept him advised of every advance of -government troops.[XX-15] He was exceedingly active and successful in -the latter part of 1869, having at this time from 700 to 1,000 men, and -being efficiently seconded by J. Rufino Barrios. Various collisions -with the government troops were favorable to the insurgents. The -latter assaulted Huehuetenango, a strongly garrisoned place, and were -repulsed, but not before they had burned down a large part of it. In -December 1869, Cruz approached the capital, and by rapid movements -evaded the superior forces of the government. - -On Saturday, the 15th of January, 1870, the liberals in the capital -had made preparations for an outbreak the following day, when Cruz -was expected to march in and support them. Early on Sunday there was -much excitement in the city. Unfortunately for their cause, Cruz had -relaxed his vigilance. Before noon it was whispered that on the road -leading from the eastern gate to Palencia, a severe encounter had taken -place; next came a report that Cruz had been defeated and killed, soon -followed by another that his head was on its way to the city. This -proved to be a fact.[XX-16] The victors marched into the capital with -their ghastly trophy, the head of the man who had expected at that -moment to be master of the place.[XX-17] - -[Sidenote: EXCEPTIONAL CLEMENCY.] - -All hope of success for the liberals was now at an end, at least -for a time. The correspondence of their chief men with Cruz having -been captured, the government ordered their arrest, but most of them -escaped. José María Samayoa, the wealthiest of them, was imprisoned a -short time, and then banished, and went to sojourn in San Salvador. -García Granados, after being some time concealed, was ultimately -discovered, and sought asylum at the British legation, from which, by -the intercession of other foreign representatives, he was permitted -to leave the country. He went to reside in Chiapas.[XX-18] The -administration must be commended for its magnanimity. Not a single -execution or confiscation of property followed its triumph. Whatever -the motive was which prompted clemency to such bitter opponents[XX-19] -against the opinion of many firm supporters, it may not be denied -that it eventually brought about the government's overthrow; for -the condition of the liberals, though overspread with gloom, was not -altogether hopeless. The government strengthened their bands by failing -to satisfy the people with liberal measures.[XX-20] The discontent grew -apace. Neither the authorities nor García Granados were idle during -1870, both laying in a supply of breech-loading rifles. - -Early in 1871, the liberals of Salvador, with the assistance of the -president of Honduras, overthrew the government of Dueñas.[XX-21] This -was a heavy blow to the conservatives. García Granados was organizing -an expedition in Chiapas, probably in concert with the liberals of -Salvador, and as soon as Dueñas' downfall was accomplished, he invaded -Guatemala, where he was joined by J. Rufino Barrios, who, upon the -defeat of Cruz, had retired into Mexican territory. Vicente Mendez Cruz -invaded on the 5th of March at Charulá and proceeded to the sierra of -Nebaj, relying on the aid of the Indians of Chajul. He was joined by -another party under E. Giron, and together they occupied Coban, which -was ungarrisoned. Barrios with about sixty men encountered, April -4th, on the Tacaná heights, a government force, which retreated to San -Márcos. Lastly, Lieutenant-colonel Juan Viteri joined them with some -servants of his hacienda.[XX-22] - -[Sidenote: GARCÍA GRANADOS.] - -García Granados, by way of Cuilco and Tejutla, reached, May 10th, -Serchil, distant three leagues from San Pedro Sacatepequez. He, -together with Barrios, occupied San Márcos, and on the approach of -Lieutenant-colonel Calonge, retreated toward Coatepeque.[XX-23] The -result of the operations was that on June 1st Calonge, at the head -of 800 men, was routed by García Granados near La Antigua, losing his -artillery, 500 rifles, and ammunition. Of the government troops hardly -100 men got back to the capital. The people of Jutiapa revolted, and -sent a commissioner to General Gregorio Solares, then at Santa Ana, in -Salvador, to invite him to command a considerable force for coöperation -with García Granados. Solares lost no time in answering the call. - -The officers of the liberating army held a meeting on the 3d of June -at the town of Patzicia, and in a preamble and series of resolutions -made known their purpose to overthrow Cerna and his administration, -and establish a republic based on democratic principles, to which -effect Miguel García Granados was called to act as provisional -president with ample powers.[XX-24] García Granados had previously -made a proclamation to his countrymen detailing the arbitrary acts of -the government, one of which had been the order to confine him and -other representatives of the people[XX-25] in the dungeons of Fort -San José. He was fortunate, however, in escaping arrest. He now urged -the necessity of overthrowing a despotism under which the nation could -make no progress whatever.[XX-26] Again, after the pronunciamiento of -Patzicia, he issued another manifesto, pledging himself to labor for -the establishment of a republican government. - -The troops sent against the insurgents at first made little or no -resistance. They were disaffected men, and led by lukewarm or faithless -officers.[XX-27] Cerna then took the field with the troops which could -be spared from the defence of the capital, a good portion being his -faithful battalions of Santa Rosa and Chiquimula Indians; but it was -too late. He was in no condition to cope with the enemy, most of his -best officers having deserted him. There were several encounters, -in only one of which he had any chance of success. On the 23d of -June he surprised the insurgents on the hills between Totonicapan -and Quezaltenango, in Tierrablanca; his brave Indians drove back the -Quezaltenangos, but Barrios came with reënforcements of his best -troops, and regained the lost ground. At this moment Cerna was no -longer fit to command, being taken very ill.[XX-28] His friends hurried -him off, and his men were utterly routed, and made a hasty retreat -in the afternoon. Next morning Colonel Julio García Granados went -in pursuit, and captured nearly 100 prisoners and a quantity of war -material. - -[Sidenote: IMPORTANT VICTORY.] - -Cerna reached Chimaltenango, and thought of fortifying himself there. -With reënforcements received from the capital he now had 2,100 men. The -insurgent army, though increased in Los Altos, was only 1,200 strong; -but it was flushed with victory, and counted on the superiority of -its Remington and Winchester rifles. García Granados resolved not to -attack Cerna in Chimaltenango, but to march by way of San Andrés Itzapa -to La Antigua, and occupy the heights of Santa Lucía, thus menacing -the capital.[XX-29] On reaching Chicoj he heard that Cerna was at La -Antigua. Changing his plans, he marched to Chimaltenango, and thence to -Santiago, a town six leagues from Guatemala, where he spent the night. -In Zumpango he was advised of the occupation of Amatitlan by Solares, -whom he at once directed to harass Cerna on his march to the capital. -Granados' intent was to meet Cerna on the Mixco road; and to this end -early on the 29th of June repaired to San Lúcas, to ascertain with -certainty the time when Cerna would pass through Rancho de San Lúcas -toward Bárcenas. He occupied that town, and after a consultation with -his second in command, Barrios, went with a body of cavalry to the -Mixco heights, where he presently heard shots from the direction of -San Lúcas. Cerna had made ready for the struggle. Barrios saw victory -on the San Lúcas hill; and without waiting the return of his chief, -directed Julio García Granados with 800 men to support his front, -and rapidly marched with 400, and occupied the hill, thus winning -the day. Cerna's troops, finding their retreat cut off, disbanded by -hundreds, and by nightfall the number of prisoners and deserters, most -of the latter with their arms, exceeded 1,000.[XX-30] The victory was -complete; for of Cerna's 2,400 men—he had lately received 400—scarcely -30 entered the capital that day.[XX-31] - -The provisional president passed the night in Bárcenas, and the next -morning after the civil authorities of Guatemala had met him outside -and quietly delivered the keys of the city together with the castle -and barracks, he, accompanied by Barrios, the other leading officers, -and the troops, marched into the capital amid the most enthusiastic -plaudits.[XX-32] With the exception of a few hostile cries against -Cerna, Bolaños, the comandante general, and others, perfect order -prevailed; no acts of violence or retaliation were permitted.[XX-33] - -The task of reorganizing public affairs was an arduous one.[XX-34] The -first attempt to appoint a cabinet was unsuccessful. Persons who were -tendered portfolios declined them. However, Felipe Galvez, who had -been secretary-general during the campaign, became minister of foreign -affairs, public instruction, and ad interim of hacienda; and Arcadio -Estrada, minister of government, justice, and ecclesiastical affairs. - -The act of Patzicia was accepted by the principal towns in the -republic, save those of the departments of Santa Rosa and Chiquimula. -The government decreed several liberal measures, and restored -diplomatic relations with Costa Rica.[XX-35] - -[Sidenote: DOWNFALL OF THE CLERGY.] - -The new administration had hardly initiated reforms when an -insurrection broke out in Santa Rosa, promoted by the priests and -their aristocratic allies. It does not appear that García Granados had -at first intended open hostility to the religious orders. The tone -of his address, early in September 1871, to the Santa Rosa Indians, -indicated that his plans involved absolute religious tolerance.[XX-36] -The priests would not rest contented with the loss of their former high -standing.[XX-37] Had they remained quiet, it is not likely they would -have been molested. The president's call on the insurgents of Santa -Rosa to submit was disregarded, but their movement was quelled by the -end of the month with much bloodshed.[XX-38] An amnesty was granted to -rebels surrendering to the authorities. The decree of martial law was -repealed; and the ministers then in charge of the executive made García -Granados a captain-general and Barrios a lieutenant-general.[XX-39] - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: SUPPRESSION OF RELIGIOUS HOUSES.] - -The new régime now resolved to cut loose of the ecclesiastical incubus, -and to establish the supremacy of the civil authority in the state -on a firm basis. Its first step was to carry out a decree of the -revolutionary government, dated May 24, 1870, to expel the society of -Jesus forever from the republic.[XX-40] This was not effected without -some scandal and disturbance from the zealous partisans of the order. -Seventy-three jesuits, most of whom were foreigners, were sent away -on an American steamship, bound to Panamá.[XX-41] They did not go so -far down, however, as will be shown elsewhere. The decree under which -this expulsion was effected resembled that of April 2, 1767, issued by -Cárlos III.[XX-42] - -Archbishop Piñol of Guatemala, and Ortiz Urruela, bishop of Teya -in partibus infidelium, for their marked hostility in promoting -rebellion, were, on October 17th, ordered to leave the country, and -they departed without offering any resistance. The tithes tax was at -once suppressed.[XX-43] On the 7th of June, 1872, religious communities -of men were extinguished, causing great excitement, but owing to the -energy of the government it soon died out.[XX-44] Nor did the action -of the government stop here. The fuero eclesiástico in both civil -and criminal causes was done away with March 12, 1873, and freedom of -worship decreed on the 15th.[XX-45] - -The turn of the nunneries came at last. On the 28th of February, 1874, -it was ordered that all the nuns should be concentrated in one convent, -the Santa Catarina, and be allowed to receive their families and -friends without hindrance. This convent was placed under the immediate -protection and vigilance of the civil authorities, which roused the ire -of the ecclesiastics, who endeavored to nullify the order.[XX-46] The -consequence was, that in February 1874, President Barrios decreed the -suppression of many religious houses, prohibiting professions in the -future, and permitting nuns who so desired to leave the cloister, and -to each one so departing would be given a monthly allowance of twenty -dollars. On the 3d of March the nuns residing in Santa Catarina were -put out of the cloister.[XX-47] - - * * * * * - -The aspect of public affairs in Central America at the inception of -1872 was not promising of stability and peace. Honduras, together -with Archbishop Piñol, Bishop Ortiz Urruela, the jesuits, and their -conservative friends, all combined, had assumed a reactionary attitude, -with the avowed intent of upsetting the governments which were laboring -to consolidate democratic principles, and serious complications were -apprehended.[XX-48] The two governments thus menaced were, however, -fully prepared for the emergency.[XX-49] - -President Medina, of Honduras, having become the leader of the -reactionary element, Guatemala and Salvador entered into a treaty of -alliance and despatched troops against him, after a formal declaration -of war.[XX-50] The president took command of the Guatemalan troops for -the campaign, leaving the executive office temporarily in charge of -Barrios. The war was but a short one, ending advantageously for the -allies, who, after concluding a satisfactory arrangement, retired their -troops. García Granados returned to Guatemala on the 10th of June, -and reassumed his executive duties, Barrios going to Quezaltenango as -comandante general of Los Altos.[XX-51] The cabinet was now organized, -as appears in the note at foot.[XX-52] The reactionists would not keep -still. Colonel Vicente Mendez Cruz, jefe político of Amatitlan, placed -himself at the head of an insurrection.[XX-53] - -[Sidenote: ELECTION OF BARRIOS.] - -The reactionary forces took the name of "ejército de la reaccion -dirigido por los santos padres," and their avowed object was to bring -Cerna back to uphold their rights and religion, which they claimed to -have been assailed by heretical rulers. The government adopted active -measures, and the rebellion was quelled in a short time, Cruz losing -his life at the hands of his own men.[XX-54] After peace was nearly -restored, García Granados, who had gone to the front, returned to the -capital, and resumed the presidency.[XX-55] On the 29th of March he -convoked the people to chose a constitutional president, although the -constituent assembly, which had been installed March 10, 1872,[XX-56] -had failed to frame a constitution.[XX-57] The elections were to begin -April 20th, and last seven days. The term for which the elect should -hold the office was to be established by the new charter, taking into -account the time already served. The assembly was to be summoned for -the 5th of May, to count the votes. The election took place, and Justo -Rufino Barrios was declared by the assembly on May 7th to have been -popularly elected. He was formally inducted into office on the 4th of -June, 1873.[XX-58] - -The late administration must be held to have been somewhat weak. -García Granados was an enlightened and able man, but easy, unassuming, -indolent, and kind-hearted; too much so, indeed, for the place he -had been called to fill at a period demanding of him great energy, -and an unbending will. His was not a disposition to deal harshly with -any one, or inflict suffering. Another drawback was his connection by -the ties of family and early association with the men and women who -were laboring to undo the work of the revolution he had accomplished. -Among his own relatives were some of his most strenuous opponents. -The reactionists took advantage of his good nature to keep the country -in a turmoil, hoping thus to restore the old régime of fanaticism and -general retrogression. They defeated themselves, however, bringing into -existence the iron power of Barrios, who tolerated no opposition to his -will, nor overlooked sedition in any form. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI. - -RENEWED EFFORTS FOR CENTRAL AMERICAN UNITY. - -1873-1885. - - PRESIDENT BARRIOS OF GUATEMALA—END OF REACTIONARY - WAR—GUATEMALAN PROGRESS—WAR WITH SALVADOR AND - HONDURAS—BARRIOS' SUCCESSES AND GENEROSITY TO THE - VANQUISHED—CONSTITUTIONAL RÉGIME IN GUATEMALA—BARRIOS' - REËLECTIONS—HIS VISIT TO THE UNITED STATES—PEACEFUL - EFFORT TO UNITE CENTRAL AMERICA—RESORT TO ARMS—ALLIANCE OF - GUATEMALA AND HONDURAS—BARRIOS ATTACKS SALVADOR—HIS DEFEAT - AND DEATH—HIS PLAN ABANDONED—M. L. BARILLAS, PROVISIONAL - PRESIDENT OF GUATEMALA—RESTORATION OF PEACE. - - -Justo Rufino Barrios, now president of the republic by the popular -choice, was born about 1834 in San Márcos, department of Quezaltenango. -He received his education in Guatemala, and fitted himself for a -notary public, and received his commission as such; but it does not -appear that he performed notarial duties.[XXI-1] He was of about -middle height, and rather light complexion, with a cold, distant -look, and plain and unassuming in his dress. His manners were brusque, -unrefined, and unconventional, as if it were easier for him to despise -good manners than to acquire them. However, after a while they become -more polished. Without any claim to enlightenment, or to a knowledge -of public affairs,[XXI-2] it is not too much to say that he possessed -natural talents, a far-reaching mind, and a disposition to labor -unremittingly for the welfare of his country, though at the same time -looking after his own aggrandizement. His energy of character and -iron will have been generally recognized. Whatever his enemies may -say, the fact stands that his country owes him much; for example, -liberal institutions, internal peace, and with them the advancement of -intellectual pursuits, industries, and wealth.[XXI-3] - -The cause of education was fostered as it had never been before, -efforts being constantly made to elevate the lower classes;[XXI-4] and -the country was endowed with many of the improvements of the age, like -the railroad and the telegraph. Acts of despotism and brutality without -number have been rightly imputed to Barrios,[XXI-5] some well founded, -but most of them inventions of his enemies, among whom were of course -the would-be oligarchs and the priests, together with their fanatical -followers. Still, it must be said that his government was one in which -fear of the sword was constantly holding its opponents in check.[XXI-6] - -[Sidenote: COSTLY INSULT.] - -The efforts of the reactionists to regain the upper-hand were finally -defeated in the latter end of the year, when an amnesty was granted -to the remnants of rebels in Santa Rosa and elsewhere.[XXI-7] In the -following year an outrageous act was perpetrated by a military officer, -bringing upon his government a serious complication with a foreign -power. Colonel Gonzalez, a native of Spain, who had been intrusted with -the responsible command at the port of San José, for some disagreement -with the British vice-consul, had him seized and beaten as a common -criminal in the most barbarous manner. Realizing, on the next morning, -the responsibility he had incurred, he tried to escape on the American -mail steamship, but his infamous conduct had preceded him, and he -was driven away. Both he and his accomplice, Bulnes, were promptly -arrested, tried, and sentenced to undergo heavy penalties.[XXI-8] The -British government demanded prompt reparation of the insult, which -Barrios unhesitatingly acceded to. Guatemala saluted the British flag -at San José with every mark of respect,[XXI-9] and was mulcted in the -sum of $50,000, which she paid.[XXI-10] - -The government had another foreign difficulty on its hands in 1875, -resulting from a hasty recognition of the independence of Cuba on the -6th of April. In August, Commodore E. Butler, of the Spanish royal -navy, arrived at Guatemala, bearing a note from Conde de Valmaseda, -captain-general of the island, to President Barrios, demanding -satisfaction. It was finally agreed[XXI-11] that Guatemala would at -once accredit a minister at Madrid to discuss the subject and arrange -it satisfactorily. This was done, and the difficulty was amicably -settled.[XXI-12] - -[Sidenote: FURTHER HOSTILITIES.] - -The political outlook at the beginning of 1876 was not such a one as -promised a continuance of peace. Serious troubles were impending over -three of the important sections of Central America. Barrios had brought -about the assembling of a diet, which was installed in Guatemala -January 15th, with the object of reorganizing the country under one -government.[XXI-13] Civil war raged in Honduras, and while the diet -was sitting, Barrios was moving his troops; 600 men were stationed in -Esquipulas, and 1,200 more marched to Jutiapa.[XXI-14] Salvador was -not slow in preparing for hostilities. On the 23d of January, however, -Guatemala and Salvador agreed to disarm.[XXI-15] - -It was believed in Guatemala that Enrique Palacios, and about 3,000 -of her refugees sojourning in Salvador, had been wheedled and promised -aid by President Gonzalez for the overthrow of Barrios, and that they -were exasperated, and would insist on those promises being carried -out. On the other hand, Barrios was chagrined at the failure of the -diet to arrive at a conclusion in favor of consolidation.[XXI-16] He -now resolved, whether with the purpose of pursuing the reorganization -scheme or with that of further securing himself, or both, to change the -rulers of Salvador and Honduras, replacing them with his supporters. -The task in Honduras was an easier one, that country being in -the throes of revolution. Salvador, as he thought, with a hostile -government in Honduras, and war threatening from the side of Guatemala, -must succumb. The results of his policy were as he had planned them. -The fortune of war favored him,[XXI-17] and from 1876 to 1884 he could -count on the resources of Guatemala, Salvador, and Honduras[XXI-18] to -effect what he undertook to accomplish single-handed at another time. -But this will be treated of at the proper time. - -After his successful campaign, Barrios was received in triumph at his -capital,[XXI-19] and erelong other honors poured upon him. Costa Rica -made him a general of division of her army.[XXI-20] The constituent -assembly declared him a benemérito de la patria; and the legislature -of conquered Salvador voted him a sword of honor.[XXI-21] The political -atmosphere, however, became cloudy immediately after the return of the -forces. Barrios would have dismissed his ministers then had they not -been preparing their reports to present to the constituent assembly -which was to assemble in a short time.[XXI-22] - -The assembly was installed on the 11th of September, 1876,[XXI-23] -and passed a few acts; namely, October 19th, approved all the acts -of Barrios during the time he had held the executive office, and -his budget for the fiscal year from July 1, 1876, to June 30, 1877; -October 23d, declared that the proper time for framing a national -constitution had not yet arrived; the work was therefore postponed to -a more suitable period. The presidential term for Barrios was fixed at -four years from the date of the decree.[XXI-24] The change of ministers -Barrios desired to make finally took place.[XXI-25] - -[Sidenote: MURDEROUS PLOT.] - -With the exception of an insignificant affair in Quiché, the year 1877 -had nearly run itself out without any alarms or disturbances, when on -the 1st of November a plot was detected in the capital, having for its -objects, as appeared, to murder the president and other leading men, -sack the city, and effect a general change in affairs. The persons -implicated were tried by court-martial and convicted; seventeen of the -chief leaders being executed in the plaza de armas, and accomplices of -a lower degree sentenced to other penalties. Most of the latter were -subsequently pardoned.[XXI-26] - -On the 9th of November, 1878, the president issued a convocation for -a constituent assembly of 71 members to meet on the 15th of March -following, for the purposes of framing a national constitution, and -resolving upon such matters as the government would submit to its -deliberations.[XXI-27] The assembly was installed on the appointed -day, and the president, whose term of appointment in 1876 had not -expired, surrendered his dictatorial powers. In a lengthy message -he gave a detailed account of public affairs, with the assurance -that the republic was enjoying peace and prosperity.[XXI-28] For -further particulars he referred to the reports of his ministers. This -much-valued peace continued uninterrupted, notwithstanding the efforts -of refugees in Chiapas to invade Guatemala with views hostile to the -government. But they were balked by the action of Mexico at Barrios' -request, in keeping the parties away from the frontier.[XXI-29] The -constituent assembly adopted on the 11th of December, 1879, a new -constitution for the republic, which was promulgated a few days after. -It recognized the great principles of democracy and social reform, -and was in harmony with the social condition and political needs of -Guatemala.[XXI-30] - -[Sidenote: BARRIOS DICTATOR.] - -Pursuant to the requirements of the constitution, the government -issued on the 13th of December, 1879, and 12th of January, 1880, -decrees for the elections of president of the republic and deputies to -the assembly, which took place without any disturbance. Justo Rufino -Barrios was chosen, by popular suffrage, president of the republic -for the term from March 1, 1880, to March 1, 1886.[XXI-31] Peace -continued without interruption,[XXI-32] and the government was enabled -to devote its attention to the advancement of the country's educational -and material interests. Judicial and administrative reforms were -introduced, and the army was reorganized, receiving marked improvements -in every branch. Agriculture and commerce progressed, and the national -finances had never been in so promising a condition.[XXI-33] - -Barrios took advantage of this quiet to pay a visit to the United -States. He landed at New Orleans, and thence repaired to Washington, -where he was received with the high consideration due to the chief -magistrate of a friendly nation. In other cities of the union he was -also welcomed and hospitably entertained.[XXI-34] His visit was one -of business rather than of pleasure, having the double object of -inviting the American government, Mexico having likewise done so, -to act as mediator for the final settlement of their long-pending -boundary question; and also of bespeaking the influence and good -offices of the same power to bring about the union of the five Central -American states, in order that they might form a single republic. -The first request was acceded to, and the boundary difficulty was -terminated.[XXI-35] As regarded the other matter, the United States, -while recognizing the wisdom of the five Central American republics -becoming consolidated, declined to interfere. - -[Sidenote: BARRIOS RESTLESS.] - -Barrios made a flying visit to Europe, and returned by way of the -United States, embarking at San Francisco, California, for his -country, where he arrived early in November 1882.[XXI-36] On the 29th -of December he laid before the legislative assembly, then sitting in -extra session, his resignation of the executive office, pleading the -precarious state of his health, which demanded rest and special care. -He said that the constitutional régime being restored and consolidated, -his further services might be dispensed with. He considered the -occasion a propitious one for a change in the chief magistrate.[XXI-37] - -Barrios' act caused much anxiety to his friends,[XXI-38] but the -assembly, while appreciating his motives, declined to accept the -resignation, alluding to the alarm the news of it had created among -the people. It did not seem to concur with him on the point of internal -peace being secure, apprehension existing against reactionary projects -which might arrest the progress of the past few years. The chamber -promised, however, to devise some means of conciliating the demands of -his health with the need of his services.[XXI-39] It was understood -that if the project of the union of the states, then engaging the -attention of their governments, should be carried out, the measure to -be suggested by the assembly would be granting him a leave of absence. -The decision of the legislature was received with great satisfaction by -the people. Barrios accepted it, and on the 6th of January, 1883, in -an address to the people, announced his resumption of the presidency, -though only for a short time.[XXI-40] - -Meanwhile the scheme of Central American reconstruction had not been -neglected. Barrios at an early day renewed negotiations with that -object in view. Salvador and Honduras seemed to be in full accord -with his plan; but Nicaragua and Costa Rica had failed to see the -practicability of its realization. Delfino Sanchez, a Guatemalan -commissioner, and Salvador Gallegos, minister of foreign affairs of -Salvador, together visited Honduras, whose president, ministers, and -influential citizens renewed assurances of concerted action. They -next repaired to Nicaragua, and then to Costa Rica, at both of which -places they met with cordial receptions, and their propositions were -attentively considered, leading them to expect a successful result to -their joint mission.[XXI-41] Those governments consented to accredit -five delegates each to a congress, which was to sit in March 1884, -either at Ahuachapan, or Santa Tecla, in Salvador, with powers limited -to discuss and subscribe to the plan for a general constitution, -and organic laws intended for the reorganization of Central America. -Costa Rica's promise was subject to sanction by her legislature. She -subsequently receded, and officially made it known to the government of -Nicaragua.[XXI-42] - -The project was early in 1884 as far from realization as ever. Barrios -in his message of that year to the national assembly alludes to the -result as a sore disappointment to him; adding that no one had dared -to declare himself against the lofty idea, and yet there had been so -many elements, both of personal ambition and localism, hostile to its -success,[XXI-43] that the use of force would have had to be resorted -to, which had formed no part of his peaceful plan, to conquer the -covert and persistent opposition. But his government would not let -slip any opportunity favorable to its realization, continuing meantime -with its liberal institutions, laws, and general policy, to exhibit -unequivocal proofs of a fraternal spirit. He soon had a falling out, -however, with President Soto of Honduras, who, believing himself in -peril of overthrow, or other form of revenge, at the hands of his more -powerful neighbor, was charged with abandoning his slippery position, -and seeking safety in a foreign land, well provided with pecuniary -means to lead a luxurious life. But on this subject more particulars -are given in connection with Honduras history in another chapter. - -With Nicaragua a general treaty of friendship, defensive alliance, -commerce, navigation, and extradition of criminals was concluded at -Guatemala, December 27, 1883.[XXI-44] - -[Sidenote: ATTEMPTED ASSASSINATION.] - -An attempt was made, with a metallic bomb, against the life of -President Barrios, as he was walking in the Plaza del Teatro with the -minister of war, J. Martin Barrundia, on the evening of April 13, 1884. -The bomb burst, happily, failing of its object. No one was injured; -but the incident served to excite alarm and indignation against the -perpetrators of the crime throughout Central America. Expressions of -sympathy and congratulation at the narrow escape of Barrios and his -companion, came in from the diplomatic corps, and from all classes of -society.[XXI-45] - -The investigations made by the authorities led to the discovery of the -perpetrators, and they were tried, convicted, and sentenced.[XXI-46] -But the president, exercising his prerogative, granted them a full -pardon on the 4th of July, and they were at once set at liberty. - -Barrios, who had been visiting the western departments, returned to -the capital on September 13th, having with him as national guests -the presidents of Salvador and Honduras with their suites, and Tomás -Ayon, representing the chief magistrate of Nicaragua, who had been -unable to respond in person to the invitation of the government of -Guatemala, and be present with the others at the inauguration of the -southern railroad.[XXI-47] The visit of these personages lasted till -the termination of the festivities, when they took their departure the -21st; Barrios and his ministers accompanying them as far as Port San -José. - -The scheme of Central American unification was never lost sight of. -Barrios had been watching for a propitious opportunity, and early in -1885 resolved to initiate it. He accordingly issued, on the 28th of -February, a decree wherein, after explaining in a long preamble the -advantages which would accrue to all concerned from his action, he -proclaimed, in accord with the legislative assembly of Guatemala, the -consolidation of the five states into one republic, and the manner -of effecting it.[XXI-48] He likewise made a manifesto to the people -of Central America at large, assuring them that he was not prompted -by personal ambition, or the desire of holding power, for he had had -abundant experience of its bitterness.[XXI-49] - -The president of Honduras on the 7th of March telegraphed to Guatemala -the resolutions adopted that same day by the state assembly in favor of -Central American consolidation.[XXI-50] - -[Sidenote: DIVERSIFIED OPINIONS.] - -The people of Guatemala and Honduras seemed to be generally disposed to -support their governments. But it proved to be otherwise in Salvador, -Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, though many citizens of the three states -favored the initiative of Guatemala. The administration of Salvador -having failed to second the movement, Barrios' passionate temper was -roused. He wrote President Zaldívar that, relying upon the assurances -of Salvador and Honduras,[XXI-51] he had launched his decree of -February 28th, and as he had not shown the proper disposition to fulfil -his pledges, the government of Guatemala would employ its abundant -resources to force compliance;[XXI-52] for he was resolved to carry -out his enterprise at all hazards. He announced at the same time the -appointment of Francisco Menendez, a Salvadoran general of division, -to command the western departments of the latter republic,[XXI-53] -with instructions to raise over them the standard of Central America, -and expressed the hope that Zaldívar would not permit obstacles to -be thrown in that officer's way. Zaldívar telegraphed him on the -9th to await the visit of their mutual friends, Menendez and Avilez, -and not act hastily, nor look upon him as a foe, for he had no wish -to be one. Barrios then concluded to wait for the coming of those -commissioners.[XXI-54] - -[Sidenote: COERCION CONDEMNED.] - -The decree of February 28th, which was now raising such a political -storm, had been officially communicated to the foreign diplomatic -and consular corps on the 6th of March. The German minister was the -first to answer it; he seemed to commend the effort about to be made. -The other representatives acknowledged its receipt in more or less -expressive terms. The Spanish minister endeavored, however, though -unofficially, to dissuade Barrios from carrying out his plan without -the concurrence of the other states. His effort, he said, was to -avert bloodshed. Barrios was indisposed to brook this interference, -returning on the 10th a haughty reply to the effect that the question -of Central American unification was not an international one, and -solely concerned the people of Central America. He therefore requested -him to discontinue his officious intervention, and finally added, that -if Zaldívar fulfilled his engagements, paying attention only to the -wishes of patriotic citizens, there would be no bloodshed. The minister -then went to Guatemala, and wrote an explanatory letter, closing his -interference, to which Barrios replied that, being engaged with other -important affairs, he could not give his letter all the attention it -demanded; but he was glad the discussion had been brought to an end. -The government of Mexico, to which the Guatemalan minister, Francisco -Anguiano, had made known Barrios' action, replied through its minister -of foreign affairs, Ignacio Mariscal, disapproving of the movement, -and signifying its intention to provide for the defence of Mexico's -frontiers and interests.[XXI-55] - -The government of the United States also looked with disfavor on the -plan of forcible organization, promptly ordering naval forces to the -Central American coasts for the protection of American interests. -The Nicaraguan congress had, on the 8th of March, resolved to reject -the union decreed by Guatemala, and to energetically oppose what they -called Barrios' attempt to impose his will, and to constitute himself a -dictator over Central America. The executive was accordingly empowered -to make provision, singly or conjointly with other states, for national -defence at whatever sacrifice. The government of Costa Rica adopted -a similar course, the executive being clothed with extraordinary -powers.[XXI-56] - -[Sidenote: DEATH OF BARRIOS.] - -Finally, the three republics of Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa -Rica appealed to the governments of the United States and Mexico to -interfere on their behalf against Barrios' projects. Mexico responded -at once. President Diaz notified Barrios on the 10th by telegraph, -that the governments and people of those three republics had rejected -his scheme, which had, moreover, produced an impression on the Mexican -people, demanding on the part of their government the assumption -of an attitude suitable to an emergency by which the independence -and autonomy of nations of this continent had been menaced. Barrios -telegraphed back that his answer would go by mail. He afterward issued -an address to the Mexican nation, of a friendly nature.[XXI-57] But the -die was cast. War was now unavoidable. The three opposing governments, -for their mutual protection, entered on the 22d of March into an -alliance offensive and defensive,[XXI-58] and took active measures to -give effect to the union. Guatemala on her part, and her ally Honduras, -had not been slow in their preparations for the impending strife. -Regardless of all opposition, Barrios was still bent upon his difficult -task, and for its accomplishment marched an army into Salvadoran -territory. The events of this campaign are given in another chapter, in -connection with the history of Salvador, where the fighting took place. -Let it suffice to say here that the invaders met with disaster, and -Barrios lost his life, fighting heroically, on the 2d of April.[XXI-59] -His remains were rescued, it is said at the cost of twenty lives, and -conveyed to Guatemala, where they were interred with civic and military -honors. His widow, Francisca Aparicio de Barrios, and their seven -children, being escorted to the port of San José by a military guard, -embarked for San Francisco, accompanied by friends. They afterward -transferred themselves and their belongings to New York, where Señora -Barrios established her residence, it being understood that the family -has been left amply provided with pecuniary means.[XXI-60] - -Upon the news reaching Guatemala of the disasters which had befallen -the army operating in Salvador, and of the death of the president, -the legislative assembly, and the provisional president, Alejandro -Sinibaldi,[XXI-61] in accord with it, revoked on the 3d of April the -decree of February 28th. Subsequently, through the mediation of the -diplomatic corps, preliminaries of peace were agreed to, but not before -the president of Salvador had signified an unwillingness to treat -with Sinibaldi and Barrios' ministers. The former then surrendered the -executive office to the second designado, Manuel Lisandro Barillas, and -the ministers retired with him. - -The new government on the 15th of April restored peace with -Salvador and her allies Nicaragua and Costa Rica.[XXI-62] All treaty -stipulations existing between Guatemala and Salvador on the 28th of -February last were also restored, to remain in force until a new treaty -should be concluded.[XXI-63] An amnesty was granted to all Guatemalans -who took part in the late president's movement, and to all Guatemalans -who were absent for political offences committed six months prior to -the aforesaid date; the government signifying its intention of making -the amnesty general as soon as circumstances would permit.[XXI-64] With -the change of ruler diplomatic relations were reëstablished with the -government of Mexico.[XXI-65] - -[Sidenote: PEACE AT LAST.] - -The cabinet of Salvador now proposed to the other four republics -the meeting of a congress of plenipotentiaries on the 15th of May -at Santa Tecla, with the object of reconstructing Central America as -one republic, or at least of adopting measures conducive to that end. -President Zaldívar then signified his intention of resigning his office -on the assembling of congress, and as soon as it should have arrived at -some resolution on the scheme. Guatemala deemed it premature. Nicaragua -declined. Honduras accepted the proposition. The government of Costa -Rica, though her magistrate was clothed with ample powers, did not feel -justified in entering into such an arrangement without first obtaining -the assent of congress, which was not then in session, and would not be -for some time.[XXI-66] - -Peace and quiet being generally reëstablished, martial law was removed, -the country placed under the rule of the constitution, a general -amnesty decreed, and a constituent congress convoked.[XXI-67] Congress -assembled on the 24th of August, the acting president manifesting much -confidence in its wisdom to accomplish much good to the country. But -it does not appear that after a long session, it accomplished any thing -worth recording.[XXI-68] - -The election took place on the 22d of November, Barillas being chosen -president by a unanimous vote of the electoral college. Colonel Vicente -Castañeda, a deputy, was elected vice-president.[XXI-69] Barillas was -quite the opposite of Barrios in some respects. He was a man of the -kindest and most benevolent instincts, who would rather suffer wrong -than do wrong. The discontented were not long in taking advantage of -his clemency to create disturbance. A number of generals and others -were detected in a diabolical plot, intended to murder Barillas and -destroy the foreigners. The parties implicated were arrested, and -surrendered to the courts, the president refusing to interfere. - -The ministers were requested to resign their portfolios, which were -intrusted to the following persons, all young men of recognized -abilities and progressive ideas, namely: A. Lazo Arriaga, of foreign -relations; Abel Cruz, of government and justice; Escobar, of the -treasury and public credit; Cárlos Herrera, a son of the late Manuel -M. Herrera, one of Barrios' best assistants, minister of fomento; -and Manuel Valle, journalist, poet, and orator, minister of public -instruction. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII. - -HONDURAS AFFAIRS. - -1865-1886. - - NATIONAL FLAG AND ESCUTCHEON—ORDER OF SANTA ROSA—MEDINA'S - LONG RULE—HIS DIFFERENCES WITH DUEÑAS, AND TRIUMPH—WAR WITH - SALVADOR AND GUATEMALA—MEDINA DEFEATED AND OVERTHROWN—CÉLEO - ARIAS SUCCEEDS HIM—HIS LIBERAL POLICY—HE IS BESET BY THE - CONSERVATIVES—HIS FORMER SUPPORTERS DEPOSE HIM—PONCIANO LEIVA - BECOMES PRESIDENT—HIS COURSE DISPLEASES BARRIOS, WHO SETS - MEDINA AGAINST HIM—HE IS FORCED TO RESIGN—MARCO AURELIO SOTO - MADE PRESIDENT BY BARRIOS—ATTEMPTED REVOLT OF EX-PRESIDENT - MEDINA—HIS TRIAL AND EXECUTION—SOTO'S ADMINISTRATION—HE GOES - ABROAD—HIS QUARREL WITH BARRIOS, AND RESIGNATION—PRESIDENT - BOGRAN—FILIBUSTERING SCHEMES. - - -There is very little to record for Honduras in the five years from -1865 to 1870; the country enjoyed comparative peace under the same -conservative system existing in Guatemala and Salvador. President -Medina being reëlected was again inducted into office on the -1st of February, 1866, and a few days later the military rank of -lieutenant-general was conferred on him.[XXII-1] On the 16th of the -same month congress decreed a change in the national coat of arms and -flag, in the manner described at foot.[XXII-2] - -Early in 1868 Medina and congress, with the approbation of the council -of state,[XXII-3] resolved upon the creation of an order of merit -to reward important civil, military, and religious services rendered -to the nation, and other praiseworthy acts of its citizens. Congress -then on the 21st of February established the Órden de Santa Rosa y de -la Civilizacion de Honduras.[XXII-4] The executive promulgated the -decree on the 24th with the signature appended of Trinidad Ferrari, -minister of the interior. The idea met with the approval of some, and -excited the ridicule of others. The order soon fell into discredit, -many unworthy persons having obtained it, and its suppression was -decreed.[XXII-5] - -Medina was chosen president for another term of four years. In order -to do this, the clause in article 33 of the national constitution -forbidding reëlection for the next immediate period was repealed, which -Medina's partisans effected through a constituent assembly convoked ad -hoc.[XXII-6] He was accordingly reinaugurated February 1, 1870. - -Honduras was now to experience another series of troubles, which lasted -several years. In the last days of December 1869, disturbances were -apprehended in Olancho and Paraiso, in connivance with Nicaraguan -exiles, for which reason those refugees were concentrated in Comayagua. -Some seditious attempts were made in the following year, but were -easily put down. - -[Sidenote: TROUBLES WITH SALVADOR.] - -Early in 1871, serious differences existed between the governments of -Honduras and Salvador, or, to be more exact, between presidents Medina -and Dueñas, on several points. The causes, as well as the fruitless -efforts made by Honduran commissioners in San Salvador to effect a -peaceable settlement of long-existing differences, are fully explained -elsewhere.[XXII-7] Medina, on the 7th of February, declared all -treaties between the two republics suspended, and war soon broke out. -A Salvadoran army, under General Xatruch, invaded Honduras and took -Comayagua, that commander styling himself provisional president. The -Honduran government had entered into a correspondence with the United -States ministers resident at Tegucigalpa and San Salvador, calling -their attention to the 14th article of the treaty of July 4, 1864, -between their nation and Honduras, under which the former recognized -the rights of ownership and sovereignty of the latter in the line of -the Honduras interoceanic railway, the works on which, it said, were in -danger of interruption by the Salvadoran invaders. From the tenor of -its notes, it would seem as if it expected the United States to hoist -their flag over Comayagua, which might have hindered the operations -of Xatruch. Medina's pretension was untenable, the understanding being -that the obligation of the United States did not attach till after the -completion of the work.[XXII-8] Moreover, the Honduran government could -not reasonably expect that those ministers had an armed force at their -command. The United States had no need, even if willing to accept the -duty of protecting those works, to adopt any measures, being assured by -the Salvadoran government that the neutrality of the Honduras railway -would not be interfered with in any manner. - -Medina was not idle in devising means to injure the enemy. He occupied -Sensuntepeque on March 17th, and next Ilobasco. Dueñas' forces under -General Tomás Martinez attacked the latter place on the 19th, and -being repulsed retreated to Cojutepeque. General Santiago Gonzalez -with Hondurans and disaffected Salvadorans occupied San Vicente on the -19th, the reserve remaining in Sensuntepeque, which revolted against -Dueñas.[XXII-9] The campaign in Salvador ended at Santa Ana, where -the fate of Dueñas' government was decided.[XXII-10] Peace was then -concluded between the new government of Salvador and that of Honduras. -Medina started after Xatruch, who then had about 700 men in Gracias; -but the news of the result at Santa Ana reaching there his troops -deserted him. The war was soon over, Xatruch himself in a proclamation -of May 11th signifying his intention to leave the country. After this -the political situation was for a while satisfactory. Still Medina -deemed it expedient to invite a plebiscite, and ascertain if the -people wished him to continue at the head of affairs the rest of his -term.[XXII-11] The result was as he desired it. - -A great commotion was caused in August by 300 or 400 Indians and -revolutionists, against whom the government forces never obtained but -partial successes. The disturbance lasted until an understanding was -arrived at with the rebel leaders on the 13th of December.[XXII-12] - -[Sidenote: PERPETUAL WAR.] - -Further trouble was impending, this time between Medina and the -liberal governments lately established in Salvador and Guatemala. He -claimed of Salvador an indemnity for his services in overthrowing -Dueñas, which that government deemed preposterous and disallowed. -The two governments, which had entered into an alliance offensive -and defensive, on the other hand accused Medina of having formed a -coalition with the oligarchs to restore the latter to power.[XXII-13] - -Medina closed official relations with Salvador March 25th; and this -act, being looked upon by Salvador and Guatemala as a declaration of -war, they invaded Honduras, and soon after a victory over Medina's -general, Velez, occupied the principal towns, all of which revolted -against Medina, and a provisional government was set up[XXII-14] with -Céleo Arias at the head of affairs. Medina had temporarily placed the -executive office in charge of Crescencio Gomez, and taken command -of his troops in the field. Upon Comayagua being occupied by the -Salvadorans, Gomez and his officials fled to Gracias. Medina attempted, -May 27th, to recapture Comayagua, but was repulsed.[XXII-15] - -Omoa had been given up July 20th to Juan Antonio Medina, a Salvadoran -general, for Arias' government. Medina, the president, suffered -a defeat on the same day at Potrerillos, and a crushing one on -the 26th, in Santa Bárbara, at the hands of the allied forces of -Arias, Guatemala, and Salvador, escaping with only six officers to -Omoa,[XXII-16] where he joined the other man of the same surname, who -had a few days previously accepted the executive office, transferred -to him by Crescencio Gomez, proclaiming himself provisional president, -and appointing a cabinet. But a revolt of the troops put an end to this -arrangement, José M. Medina, his substitute Gomez, and others being -made prisoners, and sent at once to Comayagua, where they arrived on -or about August 9th.[XXII-17] Arias' government now had but little -difficulty to secure its tenure of power. Ex-president Medina was held -in confinement to answer such charges as would be preferred against him -before the next national congress.[XXII-18] A full amnesty was decreed -for all political offences committed from March 5, 1871, to November -1, 1872, the only persons excluded from its benefits being José María -Medina, and his ministers, Manuel Colindres and Rafael Padilla, who -were also to abide the action of congress.[XXII-19] - -The constitution of 1865 having become a dead letter, the provisional -government, in a decree of November 15th, recognized as existing -in their full force all the rights of citizens under republican -institutions,[XXII-20] though reserving the privilege of suspending -some of them in the event of public disturbance. This decree was -countersigned by the three ministers of state.[XXII-21] The people were -on the 17th of March, 1873, convoked to choose deputies to a convention -which was to frame a new constitution. The last Sunday of the following -April was named for the elections.[XXII-22] - -[Sidenote: COMING OF CONSERVATIVES.] - -Guatemala was experiencing troubles in her eastern departments. An -expedition of conservatives landed at Trujillo from the ship _General -Sherman_, menacing the government of Arias, and at the same time aiding -the faction which was trying to overthrow that of Guatemala.[XXII-23] -The latter and Salvador attributing the scheme to President Guardia -of Costa Rica, jointly accredited a minister in Nicaragua, the result -of whose mission was a tripartite defensive alliance. Arias decreed -martial law, and reassumed the dictatorship which the people conferred -on him the previous year.[XXII-24] - -The revolutionary forces under Miranda were signally defeated by the -Guatemalan commander, Solares, on the north side of the Chamelecon -River on the 9th of August, with great loss, General Casto Alvarado -and Colonel A. Muñoz being killed, and a large quantity of war material -falling into the victor's hands.[XXII-25] The presidents of Guatemala -and Salvador, after the insurrection in the former republic had been -quelled, held conferences at Chingo on the situation in Honduras, and -came to the conclusion that Arias' government, being unpopular, could -not sustain itself without their material as well as moral support, -which would be a heavy burden. He was then asked in a joint note to -give up the executive office to some one more in the confidence of -the people. He refused to accede to the demand, and the allied troops -approached Comayagua to carry out their suggestion. The first notice -of their intent was the proclamation in the town of Aguanqueterique, -of Ponciano Leiva as provisional president, who organized his -administration at Choluteca on the 23d of November, and on the 8th of -December declared all the acts of Arias null.[XXII-26] - -The allied forces of Leiva under his minister of war, General Juan -Lopez, of Guatemala under Solares, and of Salvador under Espinosa, laid -siege to Comayagua on the 6th of January, 1874, and after seven days' -resistance, Arias, together with his ministers and chief supporters, -had to capitulate on the 13th. Ex-president Medina was released from -confinement, and eventually, having recognized the new ruler, was set -free, when he went to live in La Paz.[XXII-27] - -[Sidenote: LEIVA SUCCEEDS ARIAS] - -Leiva's government was soon recognized by the other states. It was -of course expected to pursue a policy in accord with the governments -that gave it existence. But it seems that Leiva preferred to follow an -independent course,[XXII-28] and in a short time the two powers that so -elevated him were in antagonism, Guatemala using her influence against -and Salvador for him, as will be seen hereafter. A constituent congress -convoked by Leiva adjourned in May, after adopting three important -measures; namely, confirming Leiva as provisional president, restoring -the constitution of 1865, and ordering Arias into exile for five -years.[XXII-29] The political state of affairs was not satisfactory to -Guatemala. The elections had yielded a majority of conservatives and -reactionists in congress, and many if not most of the public offices -had gone into the hands of men of that party, one of the most prominent -being Manuel Colindres. The regular congress was installed on the 20th -of January, 1875, and the next day the executive sent in his message, -giving in detail the condition of public affairs. February 1st he took -the oath of office as constitutional president, having been elected by -the people.[XXII-30] A full amnesty for political offences was granted -by congress February 9th, and promulgated the same day by the president -and his minister of relations and justice, Adolfo Zúñiga. - -The people of Honduras were not allowed, however, to enjoy the benefits -of peace but for a short time; for Ex-president Medina instigated, as -it was generally believed, by President Barrios of Guatemala, raised -at Gracias, on the 21st of December, the standard of revolution, -proclaiming himself provisional president.[XXII-31] He afterward -suffered for his lack of wisdom. The government at once prepared to -meet the emergency. Salvador organized a force to support it, and -Guatemala resolved to sustain Medina, whose real plan was to hurl -Gonzalez from the executive chair of Salvador, as well as Leiva from -that of Honduras. - -The revolution assumed proportions, and Medina had come to believe -himself master of the situation. The presidents of Salvador and -Guatemala arranged at Chingo, on the 15th of February, 1876, to -intervene in Honduras and stop the revolution. At this time it was -thought that Leiva could not hold his own, his forces having been -routed at Intibucá, and his authority being felt only in the eastern -departments. The rebels had captured the capital, Comayagua, and -delivered it to the horrors of an exterminating war. But the battle of -Naranjo changed the aspect of affairs, Leiva's troops gaining there -a decisive victory, which restored his authority over almost the -whole extent of the republic.[XXII-32] There was no further need of -Guatemala and Salvador pacifying Honduras; peace had been virtually -restored, and only a few scattered parties of rebels in the departments -of Copan and Gracias had to be eliminated.[XXII-33] But soon after -another contestant for the presidential office appeared on the field, -namely, Marco Aurelio Soto, ex-minister of foreign relations of -Guatemala,[XXII-34] whom a Guatemalan force supported. A treaty of -peace was concluded, however, with the mediation of Salvador, at Los -Cedros June 8, 1876,[XXII-35] and the executive office went into the -hands of Crescencio Gomez by transfer from Marcelino Mejía, to whom the -treaty had given it. Gomez decreed August 12th to turn over the office -to Medina, who declined accepting it; but as the republic was thereby -left without a chief magistrate, he concluded on the 18th to call Marco -Aurelio Soto to fill the position,[XXII-36] denying in a manifesto that -Guatemala purposed controlling the affairs of Honduras.[XXII-37] - -[Sidenote: PRESIDENT SOTO.] - -Soto announced August 27th from Amapala[XXII-38] his assumption of the -executive duties, declaring that his policy would be fair and friendly -at home and toward the other Central American states, and that he -was free from internal or foreign entanglements. He was soon after -recognized by other governments as the legitimate chief magistrate -of Honduras.[XXII-39] Under his administration the people were once -more enabled to devote themselves to peaceful pursuits. On the 27th -of May, 1877, in an extensive message to congress, he set forth the -condition of public affairs, and what his government had done in every -branch of the public service during the last nine months. He assured -the representatives that no branch had been neglected; and expressed -the hope that if peace and order were preserved, the country would -erelong begin to reap the benefits of his measures.[XXII-40] He had -been chosen by the people, on April 22d, constitutional president, and -the extraordinary congress acknowledged him as such on the 29th of May. -He was formally inaugurated on the following day. - -Ex-president Medina, and the Salvadoran general Ezequiel Marin, -together with two colonels and several other officers of less rank, -and a number of civilians, for an attempted rebellion in the latter -end of 1877, were subjected to the action of a court-martial at Santa -Rosa, on the charge of high treason and other offences,[XXII-41] and -sentenced to death. The cause being taken, for revision, to the supreme -council of war, the sentence against Medina and Marin was confirmed, -the court having found no extenuating circumstances; one lieutenant and -one sergeant obtained a commutation to ten years' confinement in the -fortress at Omoa. The other prisoners were set at liberty, but with a -warning never again to engage in similar conspiracies, or the sentence -of the court-martial against them would be enforced. Medina and Marin -were shot at Santa Rosa at 8 o'clock in the morning of February 8, -1878.[XXII-42] The other two men were at once despatched to their -prison at Omoa. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: AN INFAMOUS RULER.] - -José María Medina has been styled a genuine liberal, and his friends -gave him credit as a commander of resources, and an able administrator. -His military record showed that he surrendered the fortress of Omoa to -General Carrera, and followed him to Guatemala, where he was rewarded -for that service with a lieutenant-colonelcy. He never won any action -of importance. During the insurrection of Olancho in 1864, he never -went beyond Yoro until informed that the affair was over. He issued the -order of December 25, 1864, countersigned by his minister, Francisco -Cruz, empowering all his officers to put prisoners to death,[XXII-43] -and that in the face of several constitutional clauses abolishing the -death penalty, and forbidding the trial of citizens by military courts. -He was also guilty of incendiarism in burning many towns and haciendas, -and of confiscation. He made himself and his satellites wealthy at -the expense of his country and his victims. He reached the presidency -by the favor of the oligarchs of Guatemala. As a ruler he was an -unmitigated tyrant; as an administrator he left nothing to entitle him -to a place among the benefactors of his nation—no schools, no material -improvements of any kind. In lieu thereof he left the national name -dishonored abroad, the national character degraded, financial ruin, -corruption, immorality, poverty, bitter animosities, and almost every -misfortune that could have befallen hapless Honduras. - - * * * * * - -Nothing worthy of particular mention occurred from this time on till -November 2, 1880, when the national capital was removed to Tegucigalpa. -In December of the same year Marco Aurelio Soto was reëlected -president,[XXII-44] and the people continued enjoying the benefits -of peace. The national assembly met at Tegucigalpa on the 19th of -February, 1883. Doctor Soto was again installed as president by virtue -of a reëlection, and in an able and lucid address congratulated the -representatives of the people that since their last meeting in 1881 -quiet had reigned, and the liberal constitution framed in 1877 had -worked successfully. Relations with Costa Rica, interrupted in 1878, -were renewed on the 15th of last October; and those with the rest of -the Central American states, as well as with other powers, were on the -most friendly footing. The long-pending boundary question with Salvador -had been referred to the arbitration of President Zavala of Nicaragua. -The government had, on the 15th of September, 1882, sanctioned the -plan of Central American unification. Finances were in a satisfactory -state, large payments having relieved the treasury of heavy burdens. -The administration of justice had become improved, and public education -advanced. Agriculture was progressing, trade on the increase with -the facilities afforded it; and mining had engaged the attention of -capitalists both at home and abroad.[XXII-45] - -President Soto sent in his resignation to congress on March 10th, -pleading ill health. It was not accepted, and instead a leave of -absence was granted him with a liberal pecuniary allowance for -expenses.[XXII-46] Congress thought proper, however, to utilize his -intended visit to Europe to place on a better footing the financial -affairs of the republic.[XXII-47] Before taking his departure, Soto -placed, on the 9th of May, the executive office in charge of the -council of ministers, namely, Enrique Gutierrez, Luis Bogran, and -Rafael Alvarado. This was in accordance with the constitution. In -bidding good by to his fellow-citizens, Soto congratulated them upon -the reign of peace at home,[XXII-48] and the cordiality existing with -other nations. He promised to come back as soon as possible to complete -his term, and to surrender the trust to his successor.[XXII-49] - -[Sidenote: SOTO AND BARRIOS.] - -A serious quarrel occurred soon after, while Soto was in San Francisco, -California, between him and Barrios. He received, as he considered -it, from a reliable source, information that Barrios, being displeased -with his government, had resolved to promote a revolution in Honduras -as an excuse for war and for overthrowing that government. He wrote -Barrios on July 6, 1883, that his government having been ever loyal -and friendly to and fulfilled its treaty obligations with Guatemala, -he must attribute to personal motives Barrios' intended course. He -was not, he said, disposed to give the latter an opportunity to sow -distraction in his own country, and to let loose again the dogs of -war in all Central America. To avert those calamities he was ready to -bring about a legal transfer of his office, and would lay his final -resignation before congress. But he wished Barrios to know that he -did so actuated by patriotic motives, and not by fear, for he had -sufficient power in Honduras to sustain himself, and to defend her -against unjust aggression. Barrios returned a scathful answer on August -3d. After denying Soto's accusations, he attributes his resignation to -a preconceived resolve to desert by actual flight his post, and lead -abroad a life of ease and luxury upon his ill-gotten wealth; and now -was using his, Barrios', name as a pretext to justify his conduct. He -asserts that Soto left Honduras with the intention of not returning, -and indeed, with a full knowledge that the Hondurans would never permit -his return.[XXII-50] The writer in the plainest language accuses him -of having enriched himself at the expense of a country which he had -ruined, and of private parties alike. As to Soto's brave words, they -are taken, he says, at their true worth in Guatemala, where he is well -known. It would be easier and less costly to hurl him from power, than -it was to raise him to and keep him at the head of the government. - -Barrios concluded that he would take no further notice of Soto's -remarks, as there was a broad sea between them. His charges about -Soto's incompetency, disloyalty, and general dishonesty are certainly -exaggerated. Soto sent his resignation from San Francisco, and congress -unanimously accepted it on the 3d of September.[XXII-51] - -General Luis Bogran was spontaneously and almost by unanimity chosen by -the people president of the republic,[XXII-52] and assumed the duties -on the 30th of November, soon after organizing his cabinet with the -ministers named below.[XXII-53] - -The country continued at peace, and there was no reason to apprehend -any immediate disturbance. In the attempt made by Guatemala to -reorganize Central America by force of arms, in the early part of 1885, -Honduras pledged her coöperation, but had little opportunity to take -an active part. Upon hearing of the Guatemalan defeat, and of the death -of President Barrios on the 2d of April, she wavered, but finally made -peace with Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. - -[Sidenote: PEACE RESTORED.] - -About the middle of 1885 there were near Trujillo some slight -disturbances, but quiet was restored. A filibustering expedition was -expected at Trujillo on the ship _Dorian_, said to have been fitted out -by Ex-president Soto, with the view of recovering power. The government -of Belize, at the request of the Honduran authorities, despatched the -gun-boat _Lily_ to Trujillo, where she arrived September 29th, and made -known the object of her visit.[XXII-54] No such expedition came to -create disturbance. Still later, in 1886, a similar attempt was made -but failed, the ship supposed to have been engaged for the purpose -being captured at sea by an American cruiser. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII. - -POLITICAL AFFAIRS IN NICARAGUA. - -1867-1885. - - PRESIDENT FERNANDO GUZMAN—INSURRECTION—MISCONDUCT - OF PRIESTS—DEFEATS OF THE INSURGENTS—FOREIGN - MEDIATION—GENEROSITY OF THE GOVERNMENT—PRESIDENT VICENTE - QUADRA—INCEPTION OF THE JESUITS—AIMS OF PARTIES—INTERNAL AND - FOREIGN COMPLICATIONS—COSTA RICA'S HOSTILITY AND TINOCO'S - INVASION—PRESIDENTS CHAMORRO AND ZAVALA—MORE POLITICAL - TROUBLES—JESUITS THE PROMOTERS—THEIR EXPULSION—PEACE - RESTORED—PROGRESS OF THE COUNTRY—PRESIDENT ADAN - CÁRDENAS—RESISTANCE TO PRESIDENT BARRIOS' PLAN OF FORCED - RECONSTRUCTION. - - -The administration of President Fernando Guzman entered upon its duties -on the 1st of March, 1867, under good auspices. Peace reigned, the -country was prosperous, and the public treasury equally so.[XXIII-1] -This was the first time that the government could lay so flattering -a picture before the nation. Guzman pledged himself to use his best -endeavors to consolidate republican institutions.[XXIII-2] He promised -further to pursue a conciliatory policy, and this was received with -joy throughout the land, a policy which was initiated on the same -day of his inauguration with an amnesty to all citizens undergoing -prosecution or punishment for political offences. Those in exile were -invited to return to their homes; among them was Máximo Jerez, who had -been sojourning in Costa Rica, and accepted the pardon. The bishop -of the diocese was apprised of the president's desire for continued -harmony between the civil and ecclesiastical jurisdictions, which was -responded to in the same spirit by the prelate. There was then every -prospect of a long peace. At the opening of the congressional session, -January 25, 1869, the president made a cheering report, and it was -believed that the course of the government was generally well received; -but when it was proposed in congress to vote an approval of it, some -remarks were made in the senate which the president was displeased at, -and he tendered his resignation of the executive office on the 19th of -March.[XXIII-3] Congress unanimously refused to accept it. The session -lasted fifty-seven days, coming to an end March 22d, and in the course -of it several laws were enacted to benefit agriculture and commerce; -but on the other hand, congress was accused of having too lavishly -voted pensions to military men. - -[Sidenote: REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT.] - -The public peace was disturbed by a revolutionary movement June 26th, -when a party of men calling themselves liberals assaulted and captured -the barracks at Leon. The chief leaders of this revolution were Máximo -Jerez, Ex-president Martinez,[XXIII-4] Hilario Oliva, and Pascasio -Bermudez.[XXIII-5] On the following day they organized a provisional -government, Jerez being its chief, with unlimited powers to overthrow -the existing authorities, and implant the liberal principles set forth -in the plan accompanying his proclamation of the same date.[XXIII-6] -The next step was to levy a contribution of $62,000 in Leon, and then -to occupy the port of Realejo. Jerez installed the government on the -29th with Buenaventura Selva as minister-general, but on the same day -transferred the supreme authority to Francisco Baca, retaining himself -the chief command of the forces.[XXIII-7] - -The government at Managua adopted stringent measures to quell the -revolt.[XXIII-8] A number of the clergy having taken a prominent -part in it, promoting discord and animosity against the government, -some parish priests abandoning their flocks and taking up arms, and -even upholding principles not acceptable to their church,[XXIII-9] -superadded to which were their consorting with gamblers and drunkards, -and shedding blood, the bishop's attention was called to all that on -the 12th of August, with a request that he should check such violations -of the constitution of the country, of canonical law, and of the -concordat with the pope.[XXIII-10] But he returned no answer. Both -he and his vicar-general were in Leon and could not be ignorant of -such doings, and yet, whether from apathy, negligence, or complicity, -tolerated them.[XXIII-11] - -[Sidenote: CHURCH AND STATE.] - -Commissioners from Honduras, Salvador, and Costa Rica exerted -themselves to bring about a friendly settlement of the differences, -but their efforts proved unavailing,[XXIII-12] and the forces of the -opposing governments soon came to blows. The insurgents obtained some -advantage in the unsuccessful attacks made in Correvientos and Chocoya -or Metapa, on the 28th of July, by General Urtecho.[XXIII-13] They -claimed to have again repulsed the enemy's attack under Medina against -Nagarote on the 30th of August, inflicting heavy loss of men, arms, and -ammunition.[XXIII-14] The official organ of the government at Managua -makes no mention of this affair. - -President Guzman took command of the forces in the field,[XXIII-15] -leaving the executive office temporarily in charge of Senator Pedro -Joaquin Chamorro. The insurgents took Jinotepe, and about the middle of -September were concentrated in Masatepe, surrounded from north to south -by the well-fortified and garrisoned towns of Managua, Granada, Rivas, -and Nandaimé. An attempt made by them October 13th against Matagalpa -proved disastrous, and they had to retreat to Leon. On the 14th they -were utterly undone by Guzman at Niquinohomo. Their force, 1,500 -strong, attacked Guzman at a little past one o'clock, and was repulsed -with heavy losses. The next morning Guzman went in pursuit, and on -approaching Jinotepe the enemy dispersed in all directions, abandoning -the western department.[XXIII-16] Guzman reached Pueblo Nuevo on the -21st, and sent a proclamation on the 22d to the Leonese, assuring them -that he had no desire of doing them any injury, but he must punish the -men who had so unreasonably caused the desolation and misery of the -past four months.[XXIII-17] However, upon a mediation being offered -by General Charles N. Riotte, United States minister resident, at the -request of the insurgent leaders, for a settlement of the difficulties -without further bloodshed, Guzman accepted it, and the war terminated -with the surrender of the rebels.[XXIII-18] - -[Sidenote: PEACE AGAIN.] - -The acting president, on the 29th of October, gave Guzman a vote of -thanks for his services, and conferred on him the rank of general -of division. After a short visit by the government and Guzman to -Granada, and peace being fully restored, Guzman resumed at that place -the presidential office on November 25th.[XXIII-19] On the 17th of -December he decreed the reëstablishment of the constitution from the -1st of January, 1870. The national congress was installed on the 20th -following, and on the 22d gave vote of thanks to Guzman.[XXIII-20] -Nothing worthy of particular notice occurred this year, except the -election of president for the next term, Vicente Quadra having been -the candidate favored with the requisite majority of votes. He took -possession of the office on the 1st of March, 1871.[XXIII-21] Congress -being about to close its session, the executive in a special message, -March 30th, called its attention to important affairs demanding prompt -measures. The treasury was exhausted, and the government needed -resources to meet its obligations. It also should be clothed with -powers and means to face the complications that might arise from the -disturbed relations of Salvador with Honduras. But congress suspended -the session for twenty days, though not without having first authorized -the president to raise loans for covering the more pressing needs of -the treasury, and empowered him to act as he might think best on behalf -of the honor and interests of the country during the recess.[XXIII-22] -In the war between the above-named states, Nicaragua maintained the -strictest neutrality, and had the good fortune to escape being mixed up -in that trouble. - -The country being at peace, both at home and abroad, the government -was enabled to devote its whole attention to the finances, which were -in an unsatisfactory state, owing to a marked decrease of the revenues -in the two last fiscal years.[XXIII-23] The general situation, if -not good, was nevertheless far from discouraging. But a new element -was now ushered in, which was destined to become erelong an agent of -disturbance. I refer to the coming of seventy members of the society -of Jesus, who on their expulsion from Guatemala landed unopposed at -Realejo, and journeyed to Leon, where a portion of the inhabitants -gave them a warm reception. Discussions ensued; some were in favor of -giving the new-comers convents, turning over to them public education, -and allowing them every privilege as they had had at their late field; -others demanded that they should be sent away. The government took no -action, other than permitting them to remain, and they soon ingratiated -themselves with the masses.[XXIII-24] - -[Sidenote: PARTIES AND PRINCIPLES.] - -Toward the end of the year rumors of an impending revolution were -rife. There was no cause for it. Quadra's administration certainly was -deserving of public support.[XXIII-25] But it seemed the fashion of -Nicaragua either to be on the eve of or in the throes of revolution, -or at least to talk of one.[XXIII-26] At the present time there were -three political parties, and a club aspiring to that rank. The party -in power was called by some of its members liberal conservador, -and by others republicano. This party had a large following of -well-to-do and sedate citizens. It had no monarchical, aristocratic, -or theocratic tendencies; on the contrary, its principles were liberal -and progressive, but it moved slowly, from fear of disturbing peace -and order. Another party was formed, of men who at one time used to -call themselves democrats, but had lately taken a conservative for -a leader, become associated with the clergy, and adopted the name -of moderado. The third party, hardly entitled to the rank, was made -up of young men anxious for the greatest development of liberty and -progress. Its members were scattered, or affiliated with other parties. -Then there was the club, composed of a few hot-heads who insisted on -being the mountain, and parodying the French Jacobins of 1793. The -fears of revolution were on the increase in the first part of 1872. -The self-styled moderados of the five states were working together in -Leon, the native clergy and the jesuits being the common centre of the -revolutionary propaganda, and the government of President Medina of -Honduras encouraging them. - -The congressional elections took place in October with much agitation -and disturbance in several localities.[XXIII-27] There was considerable -independence exhibited by the voters. The liberal conservatives -obtained a working majority, and high hopes were entertained from the -congress which was to sit on the 1st of January, 1873. - -The year 1872 was a happy one for Nicaragua. Not only was peace -consolidated, but party animosity greatly decreased. Trade and -agriculture yielded good results; the public administration was much -improved; the treasury also felt easy, and public credit was restored. -Congress assembled on the appointed day, and the president's message -contained an encouraging report. He said that the rights of citizens -had been respected, and an asylum allowed to the refugees of other -states, including the jesuits.[XXIII-28] He labored to impress upon -the representatives the necessity of providing means to increase the -revenue; but nothing had been done at the end of February, and the -president saw, besides, that notwithstanding his moderate, impartial, -and conciliatory policy, a considerable portion of the citizens refused -to lend him their coöperation. In view of all this, and of his advanced -age and ill health, he tendered his resignation on the 1st of March, -setting forth the reasons for his doing so; but the chambers refused -to accept it.[XXIII-29] Congress adjourned on the 20th of March to -continue its labors in 1874. Several important laws had been passed, -for which the legislature deserved credit. On the other hand, it -was blamed for a lavish bestowal of pensions, and for an excessive -number of pardons and other favors to criminals. The jesuit question -was resolved February 12th in favor of permitting the priests to -remain.[XXIII-30] - -[Sidenote: PRESIDENT QUADRA.] - -The relations with Costa Rica were most unsatisfactory, and the -government took action to meet any possible emergency. Pursuant to -its decree of August 28th, congress assembled September 16th, when -President Quadra's message made known that events had taken place -calling for an abandonment of the policy he had hitherto pursued of -absolute abstention from interference in the affairs of the other -Central American states.[XXIII-31] His administration reported the -intrigues of President Guardia of Costa Rica with discontented -Nicaraguans for its overthrow. It was generally believed that a -disturbance of the public peace was impending, and that Costa Rican -money had circulated among the men concerned in the plot.[XXIII-32] -These men, some of whom were officers in the service of Nicaragua, -concealed themselves, and a number of them went to Costa Rica to -tender their services to the enemy of their country. Meantime a body -of armed men raised by the reactionary party of Central America made -its appearance in Honduras, which alarmed the governments of Guatemala -and Salvador. These powers represented to Nicaragua the movements -to be unquestionably the work of Costa Rica, proposing an alliance -against the latter.[XXIII-33] A defensive alliance was concluded on the -26th of August, the plenipotentiaries being Anselmo H. Rivas and B. -Carazo. This treaty was approved by the three governments.[XXIII-34] -It contained, besides, two other clauses; namely, the allied -powers were to endeavor to bring about a settlement of the boundary -question between Nicaragua and Costa Rica, and coöperate toward the -reorganization of Central America under a single government.[XXIII-35] - -Congress closed the session on the 15th of October, and shortly after -the government was apprised of the departure from Puntarenas, Costa -Rica, on the vessel named _Tigre_, of an expedition of Nicaraguans -under Tinoco bound to Nicaragua.[XXIII-36] The expedition landed on -the 3d of November, not in Nicaraguan territory, but in San Bernardo, a -small port of Honduras. Nicaragua at once sent a force to the frontier, -and Minister Delgadillo started for Honduras to obtain permission -from the government to pursue the invaders within her limits, -which being granted, the Nicaraguans marched from Somotillo into -Honduras, and acting in accord with another force from Salvador, the -invaders abandoned Corpus, and repaired to Tegucigalpa, where Tinoco -capitulated.[XXIII-37] The Nicaraguan government's force then returned -home.[XXIII-38] - -The elections for president and members of congress took place within -the last three months of 1874 under no hindrance, and without any -serious disturbance of the peace.[XXIII-39] Quadra's message of January -13, 1875, announced that public confidence in a continued peace was not -yet fully restored; but a disposition to work and maintain order was -taking deep root among the masses.[XXIII-40] - -[Sidenote: PRESIDENT CHAMORRO.] - -Pedro Joaquin Chamorro, the elect of the people for the next -presidential term, was inducted into office on the 1st of March, -1875.[XXIII-41] Quadra returned with alacrity to private life. The new -administration soon had to deal with seditious attempts which had been -prepared during Quadra's rule. One of Chamorro's first acts was to -issue an unconditional pardon to the parties implicated, hoping that -it would bring the government's opponents to a better feeling. But the -result was quite different; for they began a series of plots, and it -then became necessary to issue, on the 17th of November, 1875, a decree -of expulsion and of partial banishments. This quieted the country, and -peace would have become consolidated but for the opportunities afforded -the agitators in the neighboring states to start another conflagration. -Costa Rica became the asylum of the discontented of Nicaragua, who -took advantage of the interrupted relations between the two governments -to promote a war that might give them the control of affairs in their -country. - -Costa Rica suspended diplomatic and commercial relations with -Nicaragua; but the latter concluded not to decree a suspension of -trade, with the view of not injuring innocent persons. No actual -war existed, but it might break out at any moment, in view of Costa -Rica's menacing attitude.[XXIII-42] At last the government found -itself threatened from various quarters. It then called on all -patriotic citizens for new sacrifices, to which they responded with -enthusiasm.[XXIII-43] Martial law was proclaimed, and the president -assumed personal command of the forces, the executive office -being temporarily placed in charge of Senator Pedro Balladares. -When the danger of war had passed, the decree of martial law was -repealed.[XXIII-44] Elections for supreme and local authorities took -place without hindrance and in good order. But the country suffered -severely from natural causes.[XXIII-45] - -Peace reigned during the last two years of Chamorro's rule, which -enabled him to devote his attention to the advancement of the country's -interests. Notwithstanding the past difficulties, the national finances -had attained a better organization, and the national credit was on -a higher plane. The people showed a growing disposition to employ -themselves in the arts of peace, their civil and political rights -being fully respected by the authorities. Friendly relations existed -with foreign powers, and no complications were apprehended with -the neighbors.[XXIII-46] The elections for president, deputies, and -senators were effected at the usual time, the government abstaining -from all interference. General Joaquin Zavala, having been the popular -choice for chief magistrate, took possession of his office with the -customary formalities on the 1st of March, 1879, promising to follow -the conciliatory policy of his predecessor. He congratulated the -representatives on the stability which the republic was evidently -arriving at.[XXIII-47] - -[Sidenote: PEACE AND PROGRESS.] - -Congress closed the session on the 1st of April. The results of its -three months' labors were quite important.[XXIII-48] Though acting -with independence, the utmost harmony prevailed in its relations -with the executive. At the opening of the next legislative session in -January 1881, the president made known that peace had been undisturbed -both at home and abroad, and there was no cause to apprehend any -immediate change. As far as the government's scanty means permitted, -works of public utility had been fostered.[XXIII-49] Public education -made considerable progress. The finances were duly attended to, and -a few reforms introduced.[XXIII-50] The president congratulated the -nation on the fact that all had been accomplished with the ordinary -revenues. The public credit stood higher than ever. The foreign debt -had been cancelled, and the internal, which amounted to $1,600,000, -reduced to one half this sum.[XXIII-51] Congress adjourned March 6th. -Several important measures were introduced and discussed, but left for -completion in the following year.[XXIII-52] - -[Sidenote: JESUIT DISTURBANCES.] - -The apprehensions felt by a large number of citizens of serious -troubles from the presence of the jesuits were realized in May 1881. -On the 6th there was an Indian insurrection in Matagalpa, accompanied -with considerable bloodshed, and the jesuits were said to be the -instigators.[XXIII-53] Twenty members of the order residing in that -place were arrested and taken under guard to Granada. A still more -alarming revolt took place in Leon. At the opening of the Instituto de -Occidente, an educational establishment under the special protection -of the national authorities, Professor J. Leonard, from Spain, made -certain remarks, at which the jesuit fathers took umbrage.[XXIII-54] -They, together with a certain Apolonio Orozco, accused Leonard and -Calderon of being free-thinkers and assailants of religion. The forty -or fifty fathers living in Leon took the matter in hand energetically, -and in two days there was hardly a person in the place who had not -been told that the religion of their fathers was imperilled by the -propaganda of the free-thinkers of the instituto. Relying on the -support of a fanatical rabble, they assumed a bold attitude, and -demanded prompt action on the part of Bishop Ulloa y Larios. But the -latter would not uphold them. This greatly exasperated them. Meantime -the rabble became seditious. Parties of armed men intrenched themselves -in the old Recoleccion convent, and laboring under the excitement -produced by the speeches of their leaders and the free use of rum, -they resisted the troops engaged in an effort to preserve order, -eight or ten being killed, and many more wounded. The mob retreated -to the Recoleccion, resolved to continue the fight, defying the local -authorities, who, in fact, did not show much disposition to put them -down, the prefect being a friend of the jesuits. The commander of the -forces was an aged soldier, who could not do much active service. -However, he captured the two chief leaders, Bermudez and Duvon, -and sent them to Managua, where they were imprisoned. The supreme -government adopted prompt measures, despatched troops to Leon, who -brought the rebels under subjection, and then expelled the jesuits -from the country.[XXIII-55] It was believed that the real object of -those movements was to overthrow Zavala and place Pedro Balladares in -the executive chair. The question for a time seemed to be who should -rule—the government or the jesuits. Zavala's energy settled it. - -In July 1882 there was a slight rebellion in Gracias á Dios, and -later disturbances in Matagalpa, Telica, and Subtiaba; but though -causing some expense, because the government had to station a strong -force there during a considerable time, public works were not thereby -interrupted. The president, in his message to congress at the inception -of 1883, expressed himself as gratified with the report he had to make, -and retained the most perfect confidence in the future progress and -prosperity of the republic. His successor, Adan Cárdenas,[XXIII-56] -elected by popular suffrage, was placed in possession of the office -on the 1st of March, 1883.[XXIII-57] Congress adjourned on the 12th -of March. The new government issued a decree pardoning all who were -concerned in the revolutionary disturbances at Matagalpa and Leon in -1881 and 1882. - -The question of reconstructing the republic of Central America was -now being considered by the five governments.[XXIII-58] Nicaragua -was at peace and progressing both morally and materially. It must be -confessed, however, that priestcraft and bigotry still reigned almost -supreme. The country had suffered, however, during the last two years -from epidemics and other causes.[XXIII-59] - -[Sidenote: DISCOMFITED REVOLUTIONISTS.] - -On the receipt at Managua in March 1885 of information respecting the -resolution of the assembly of Guatemala to effect the reconstruction -of Central America by force, and the order of President J. Rufino -Barrios, styling himself general-in-chief of the Central American -forces, the people became greatly excited, manifesting a resolution to -oppose Barrios' schemes with all their might. The government entered -into an alliance offensive and defensive with Salvador and Costa Rica -to provide for their mutual defence against Barrios, and troops were -organized, President Cárdenas taking command of the Nicaraguan forces -in the field, first calling Pedro Joaquin Chamorro to temporarily -occupy the executive office.[XXIII-60] Nicaragua at once despatched 500 -men to the aid of Salvador, and prepared 500 or 600 more.[XXIII-61] -After the defeat and death of Barrios, the scheme of forcible -reconstruction was abandoned by Guatemala, and peace being restored, -Nicaragua returned to her normal condition. In the latter part of 1885, -however, a movement was made with the view of overthrowing Cárdenas. -A party of revolutionists, calling themselves liberals, landed at -Nancital; but being unable to effect their purpose, took refuge in -Honduras, where they were disarmed.[XXIII-62] - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV. - -INDEPENDENCE OF THE ISTHMUS. - -1801-1822. - - ADMINISTRATION UNDER SPAIN—INFLUENCE OF EVENTS IN - EUROPE AND SPANISH AMERICA ON THE ISTHMUS—HOSTILITIES IN - NUEVA GRANADA—CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT—GENERAL HORE'S - MEASURES TO HOLD THE ISTHMUS FOR SPAIN—MACGREGOR'S - INSURGENT EXPEDITION AT PORTOBELLO—REËSTABLISHMENT OF THE - CONSTITUTION—CAPTAIN-GENERAL MURGEON'S RULE—THE ISTHMUS IS - DECLARED INDEPENDENT—ITS INCORPORATION WITH COLOMBIA—JOSÉ - FÁBREGA IN TEMPORARY COMMAND—JOSÉ MARÍA CARREÑO APPOINTED - INTENDENTE AND COMANDANTE GENERAL—ABOLITION OF AFRICAN - SLAVERY. - - -The intimate relations of the Panamá Isthmus with Central America, -and indeed with the whole Pacific coast, led me in the first instance -to give its history; and in continuation of that purpose, I herewith -carry on the narrative of events in that quarter, although in the later -political partition Panamá is not classed among the Central American -states. - - * * * * * - -We have seen in a preceding volume how Panamá, formerly the entrepôt -for the trade of Spain with her South American colonies on the Pacific, -in the course of the eighteenth century descended from her lofty -position, and became veiled in obscurity, until the name of the once -famous Castilla del Oro is well-nigh consigned to the pages of modern -mythology. The events of the following century, which so beneficially -changed the political condition of most of the American provinces, only -tended to impoverish the Isthmus. However, its important geographical -position, making it a bridge between the two great oceans, brought back -for a time the old prosperity, notably by reason of the discovery of -gold in California, the building of a railway, and the much-discussed -project of an interoceanic ship canal. - -[Sidenote: UNDER THE VICEROYS.] - -The Isthmus was enjoying in 1801 its usual tranquillity under the rule -of the Spanish viceroy at Santa Fé de Bogotá, Pedro de Mendinueta y -Muzquiz, as well as under the more immediate one of Brigadier Antonio -Narvaez y la Torre, the governor and comandante general. He was in -1803 promoted to mariscal de campo, and relieved on the 15th of March -the same year, by Colonel Juan de Márcos Urbina, who at his death in -1805 was succeeded[XXIV-1] by Brigadier Juan A. de la Mata. The latter -is represented to have been a man of estimable character, and as he -was both respected and liked, he found during his term but little -difficulty to rule the three provinces of Portobello, Veragua, and -Darien, and the partidos of Natá and Alange, into which this region -had been divided.[XXIV-2] Pursuant to the customary policy of Spain, -an asesor, or legal adviser, was appointed to consult with him, while -the military functions of the governor, in case of his being prevented, -were assumed by another substitute, also nominated beforehand, with the -title of teniente de rey. - -The judicial organization was equal to those of other Spanish -colonies; matters of little importance were decided by the ordinary -alcaldes or the city councils, and only appeals were brought before -the courts of Bogotá.[XXIV-3] There was also an extensive financial -department, comprising the custom-houses of Portobello, Chagres, -and Panamá, a general treasury with its dependent offices and the -different administrations of customs and monopolies belonging to the -crown. But their product was not sufficient to cover the expenses of -the provinces, with their numerous officials and a permanent military -force,[XXIV-4] required as garrisons for Portobello, Chagres, and -Panamá, all of which places were then fortified, and temporarily -financial subventions from Peru became necessary. The reason was -the decline of commerce which involved a corresponding neglect of -husbandry, and other branches, agriculture producing only what was -required for home consumption. Stock-raising, for which the soil of -Veragua was so well adapted, decreased; and mining in Portobello and -Darien was scarcely worthy of mention. Such a depressing state of -affairs could but have a degenerating influence on the inhabitants, -which, if not fostered by the government, at least was allowed to -go on without an effort to check it. Education was at a low ebb -everywhere; in the capital there was one primary school and a Latin -class. Nearly all books not of a certain religious character[XXIV-5] -were forbidden, intercourse with foreigners was hindered, and the -diffusion of liberal ideas was effectually repressed. The facility -of obtaining the few means of subsistence required in such a climate -contributed to produce that state of indolence which characterized the -inhabitants at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Most of their -time was spent in bull-fights, gambling, and religious performances, -there being more than one hundred holidays in the year. The regular -clergy, as in other parts of Spanish America, had always been powerful -in Panamá, and possessed, notwithstanding the decadence of the country, -a number of establishments independent from those belonging to the -bishopric.[XXIV-6] - -[Sidenote: HAPPY DAYS.] - -Thus all was lethargy in Panamá while the new viceroy of New Granada, -Antonio Amar y Borbon, quietly assumed the government at Bogotá. -Few of the inhabitants of the Isthmus had a clear understanding of -the political convulsions that had taken place in France and in the -United States. The masses were totally indifferent to and suffered -little from the policy of the government, which carefully suppressed -all information about the countries where anti-monarchical principles -prevailed. The course pursued by the crown in this respect was as -fruitless as was another effort made at the time to revive trade by -reëstablishing on January 20, 1803, the casa de contratacion de Indias. -The hope of Panamá again becoming the great entrepôt for all ports -on the Pacific was not realized. Not a single vessel came from Spain -during the year; and open trade with foreign countries being unlawful, -smuggling was resorted to by the merchants of Panamá and Jamaica, -their rendezvous being generally in the neighborhood of Chagres, where -English vessels transferred their cargoes to small boats, which took -the goods on shore.[XXIV-7] This trade was continued, even in 1804, -after Spain had declared war against England, an event which otherwise -caused much excitement on the Isthmus. But the people, instead of -preparing for defence, contented themselves with invoking the Lord -of hosts for favor to the Spanish arms, and for relief of their own -distress, or in other words, their laziness.[XXIV-8] - -The government and priesthood, acting in accord, thus kept most of -the population under control; and it was only in 1808 that liberal -ideas began to have expression in the province, and this was due -altogether to foreign influence. The government of the mother country, -having declared the American possessions to be no longer colonies, but -integral parts of the monarchy, their people having the same rights as -the people of Spain[XXIV-9]—although the declaration of the córtes to -this effect was not generally known or appreciated, to the intelligent, -its significance was fully understood. The movements for independence -made in other provinces could no longer be concealed from the people, -and the idea rapidly gained ground that Spanish domination of America -was approaching its end. This greatly exacerbated the ill feeling -always existing, though only to a limited extent on the Isthmus, -between the Spaniards and the native Panameños.[XXIV-10] - -In connection with it, a system of espionage was established by the -rulers, the discussion of politics was discountenanced, and the holding -of meetings forbidden. But this policy was without effect; the liberty -to trade with Jamaica, granted in 1809 with a view to appease the -discontent of the Isthmians, invigorated not only their commercial -but also their political life.[XXIV-11] Newspapers from Jamaica were -occasionally received, and the contract with an enlightened people gave -rise to new ideas. - -[Sidenote: REVOLUTIONARY WAR.] - -In New Granada the first resistance occurred at Cartagena, where the -governor, Francisco Montes, opposed the establishment of a diputacion -provincial, and assumed an attitude hostile to the liberal cabildo. He -made his report to the viceroy, but before any redress could be made -he was arrested on June 14, 1810, and sent away to Habana.[XXIV-12] -Hardly one month later a similar movement broke out at Bogotá, where -several previous plans to overthrow the viceregal authority had -failed;[XXIV-13] but the agitation being continued, on the 20th of -July a trifling incident[XXIV-14] sufficed to cause an outbreak. Three -days later the viceroy was imprisoned and the government placed in -charge of a junta.[XXIV-15] The revolutionary movement in Bogotá as -in Cartagena did not at the time purpose to break wholly with Spain; -its real object was to obtain an autonomic government without ignoring -the supremacy of that of the mother country.[XXIV-16] It was with such -intent that both juntas extended invitations to all the provinces of -New Granada to meet in congress and discuss the form of government -to be adopted. The governor of Panamá declined to take part, and -endeavored to persuade the people of the Isthmus that there was no -need for such a revolution.[XXIV-17] That the absence of the Panameños -from the congress, which met early in 1811, had not been of their own -choice, was not a secret to that body; and when the fundamental act -of the federation was passed, it contained a clause binding all those -represented in the congress to labor for the freedom of the other -provinces which were still under Spanish control.[XXIV-18] - -It seemed, however, as if Panamá was more distant than ever from -gaining her independence. Early in 1812 a new viceroy, Benito Perez, -arrived, and being unable to get to Bogotá, established his residence -on the Isthmus,[XXIV-19] where the audiencia and other offices were -also established. Thus Panamá became temporarily the capital of New -Granada, an honor little cherished at that time by the friends of -independence. Perceiving the unsafe condition of the government, -the new viceroy took steps to increase his military force. Upon his -request, three men-of-war were sent from Cuba and a battalion of -soldiers from Spain, part of which reënforcements were despatched -to Santa Marta, then at war with Cartagena. The latter place was -blockaded, and being hard pressed for supplies, the insurgents -despatched two commissioners with the avowed object of treating -with the viceroy for an armistice. The project was favored by the -vice-admiral of the English squadron at Jamaica, Charles Sterling, -who guaranteed the commissioners a safe return. They arrived at Panamá -in October 1812, and at once began pretended negotiations, their real -purpose being to gain time for the besieged town, obtain if possible a -suspension of hostilities, and ascertain the feeling of the population. -But some correspondence intercepted by the governor of Santa -Marta,[XXIV-20] and forwarded to Viceroy Perez, apprised the latter, -who at once had the commissioners arrested and brought to trial. They -would have been severely dealt with but for the timely interference -of Sterling, who energetically demanded their release, which the -viceroy at last acceded to, returning them to Cartagena. They had -meantime become satisfied that the intelligent part of the population -strongly favored the emancipation, and that the new governor, Cárlos -Meyner,[XXIV-21] could not prevent any effort for independence. The -only opposition to be feared would be from the viceroy and the chief -officers of the garrison, most of whom were loyal and energetic. But -fortune seemed to smile on the revolutionary party; several vessels -with troops and military supplies despatched by Perez to the relief of -Santa Marta, then besieged by the insurgents, fell into the hands of -the latter, and the viceroy himself was removed from his position by -the government in Spain.[XXIV-22] His successor was the mariscal de -campo, Francisco Montalvo, who with some reënforcements furnished by -the government of Cuba proceeded from Habana directly to Santa Marta, -where he arrived in May 1813, and forthwith began to push the military -operations against the revolutionists of Cartagena. - -[Sidenote: THE VICEREGAL PARTY.] - -The natives of Panamá rejoiced on hearing of the establishment of the -viceregal seat at Santa Marta, and for obvious reasons. The danger -was removed that Panamá might become the theatre of a bloody war, and -on the other hand, there would be less difficulty in working for the -emancipation of the province. The cause of independence gained more -and more sympathy; and when toward the close of 1813 it was proposed -to form a confederation, comprising New Granada, Quito, Venezuela, -and Tierra Firme, the idea was eagerly embraced by the patriotic party -on the Isthmus. The friends of independence gradually became bolder; -they openly manifested their dislike of Spanish rule at parties and -in public songs, and induced the cabildo to demand and obtain from -the government at Cádiz the removal of the bishop,[XXIV-23] and the -transfer of the officials of the audiencia, then in Panamá, to other -places. But the latter met with opposition from the senior oidor, -Joaquin Carrion, who well understood the workings of the patriotic -party, and disregarding the protestations of the city council, -continued alone to exercise the jurisdiction of the audiencia -till 1816. Strange though it may appear, and perhaps owing to the -listlessness Panamá had thus far exhibited, when revolution prevailed -everywhere else, the city came to be looked upon by the government -in Spain as most loyal; whereupon the córtes resolved to reward it, -establishing there a diputacion provincial,[XXIV-24] which did not then -come to pass, for only one month later King Fernando suppressed all -such bodies, together with the constitution of 1812.[XXIV-25] - -Unwilling to relinquish her hold on the American colonies, Spain, -early in 1815, fitted out an expedition comprising sixty-five large and -several smaller transport vessels, convoyed by the line-of-battle ship -_San Pedro Alcantara_ of seventy-four guns and several frigates; the -total number of sailors, soldiers, and marines being 15,000,[XXIV-26] -all well provided with artillery and supplies, the soldiers being -veterans of the war against Napoleon's army. - -[Sidenote: GOVERNOR HORE.] - -The original plan had been to send both fleet and army to Montevideo, -but subsequently it was considered more urgent to regain possession -of Venezuela and New Granada, and to strengthen the forces on the -Isthmus.[XXIV-27] The general-in-chief was Mariscal de campo Pablo -Morillo, a brave man of firm character, who, in nine years, had risen -from sergeant to general. Soon afterward more forces were sent out -from Spain to coöperate with those of Morillo, after which they were -to be stationed at Panamá. Their commander, Alejandro de Hore, was -appointed governor. Military supplies were also sent to equip troops -for a campaign in Peru. The expectations of the Isthmians were now -almost beyond the possibility of realization. It made but little -difference that a part of Hore's force fell into the hands of the -insurgents of Cartagena,[XXIV-28] and that Hore himself barely escaped -with the auxiliaries that Morillo could furnish almost at any time; -he was always able to maintain the Spanish régime on the Isthmus. No -sooner, indeed, had he arrived at Panamá and established the government -on a military basis,[XXIV-29] than he displayed his harsh, despotic -character.[XXIV-30] An extensive system of espionage was organized, -and it is said that Hore treated the members of the patriotic party -"according to their proclivities for independence, always availing -himself of some false pretext to strike." Much as the Isthmians -suffered under his iron rule, their anxiety became greater when it was -said that Morillo was on his way to Panamá to place the city in a state -of defence; fortunately it proved to be a false alarm. - -Hore was a partisan of absolute authority; but when it suited his -purposes he would support liberal ideas and policies. Thus we see him -coöperating with the people of Panamá in opposing the reinstatement of -the jesuits.[XXIV-31] He did not like priestly interference in state -affairs. The governor also manifested a strong inclination to foster -trade with foreigners, and it is said that he never refused to honor, -with his acceptance, such gifts as the smugglers awarded him. - -[Sidenote: ENGLISH EXPEDITION.] - -Early in 1819, news arrived that a formidable expedition had been -prepared in England by friends of the insurgent cause, and was on its -way to America, intended to wrest the Isthmus from Spanish domination. -The rumor proved well founded. A former officer of the revolutionists, -one Gregor MacGregor, together with José María del Real, the agent -in London of the "United Provinces of New Granada," had, with the -aid of some English merchants, fitted out an expedition,[XXIV-32] -which, consisting of three ships, carrying 417 fighting men, sailed -from Gravesend on the 18th of December, 1818, and in the following -February cast anchor off Aux Cayes in Hayti. Here they were joined -by two other vessels, and together they continued the voyage to San -Andrés, the rendezvous, of which, on the 4th of April, 1819, they -took formal possession in the name of the United Provinces. Four days -after, the squadron appeared off Portobello and captured the place, -meeting with scarcely any resistance. Governor Hore had expected the -landing at Chagres, and made preparation to meet the invaders.[XXIV-33] -Most of the troops were forthwith landed, and the town having been -almost entirely deserted, the soldiers found ready quarters, and -garrisons were placed in the forts, and the batteries were manned. -MacGregor issued a high-sounding bulletin, in which he set forth that -"the first division of the army of New Granada had won immarcesible -glory." Detachments were sent out to reconnoitre, and no hostile force -being discovered, the march to Chagres and Panamá, was spoken of as if -neither nature nor the Spaniards would offer any obstacles.[XXIV-34] -Two exiles from New Granada, José Elías Lopez and Joaquin Vargas -Besga, who had accompanied the expedition, were made governor and -vice-governor respectively. After a te deum, and a few days time, the -inhabitants of the town who had returned to their homes were harangued -to induce them to take up arms against the Spanish yoke. About 100 -men, mostly colored, responded to the appeal and enlisted, forming the -nucleus of a regiment called América Libre, which, under the command -of some foreign officers, was to be the advanced guard on the march to -Panamá. The scheme proved a failure, for soon these same free Americans -disbanded or deserted, most of them joining the enemy. - -The condition and general discipline of the invading force were far -from satisfactory. The men clamored for their pay, and there being no -money in the military chest, the people were called upon to furnish -funds, which caused them to again leave the place. Sickness also -broke out among the troops, several of the officers and men becoming -victims of the climate. Discipline was neglected, and all semblance -of order disappeared. The soldiers sold their ammunition and effects -for liquor.[XXIV-35] This same carelessness prevailed even when toward -the end of April news came of the near approach of Spanish forces from -Panamá. It seems that as soon as Hore heard of the loss of Portobello -he concentrated his forces, and with about 500 men marched across the -Isthmus, bent upon expelling the invaders. Taking a route different -from the usual one, and favored by the carelessness of the English and -the thick forests surrounding Portobello, Hore arrived near the town -unperceived on the 29th of April. - -On the same day a vessel with supplies and provisions for the invaders -had arrived from Jamaica, an event which was gayly celebrated in the -town. In the evening the alcalde and some priests took part in the -carousals, which were kept up to a late hour, with a complete neglect -of duty on the part of the officers. At six o'clock next morning one -division of Hore's troops, under the command of Lieutenant-colonel -José de Santa Cruz, surprised the soldiers and took the town, killing -all who came in their way. Among the slain were the newly appointed -governor, Lopez, and many of the officers, who perished either at their -quarters or while attempting to reach the fort. MacGregor leaped over -the balcony of the government house, ran to the beach, and thence swam -to one of his vessels. Unsuccessful attacks were made on the forts, -though the beseiged were unable to use the unwieldy guns, unsupported -as they were by the vessels, which made no preparation to aid them. The -Spaniards were not disposed to storm the forts, but knowing that the -garrisons had suffered severely, they demanded their surrender. This -was refused; and notwithstanding the cowardly conduct of some of the -officers, the negotiations might have been broken off, but the soldiers -declined further to fight. A capitulation was then entered into, under -which the invaders, after delivering up their arms, were to retain -their baggage and reëmbark to go whither they chose. At this juncture, -orders came from MacGregor not to surrender, giving assurance that the -ships would soon be ready to open upon the Spaniards. But the surrender -had already been made, and the men, about 340 in all, had been disarmed -and marched to the main plaza, where, instead of being permitted to go -their way, they were declared prisoners, to be conveyed as convicts -to Panamá.[XXIV-36] On learning the result, the gallant MacGregor, -from whose coming the New Granadinos had expected so much put to sea, -leaving his companions to their fate.[XXIV-37] - -[Sidenote: FAILURE OF THE EXPEDITION.] - -The matter did not end at Portobello, however. Hore despatched his -prisoners to Panamá on the 2d of May, and reported his achievement to -Viceroy Sámano, who commanded that the prisoners, none excepted, should -be shot.[XXIV-38] But for some reason Hore did not carry out the order. -The prisoners were, nevertheless, subjected to cruel treatment, being -kept in chain-gangs at work on the fortifications, roads, and streets, -which, added to the ravages of the deadly climate, soon reduced their -numbers. Several of the officers were shot afterward at Cana in Darien -on the pretext of their having attempted to escape.[XXIV-39] When after -seventeen months of suffering the release of the survivors was ordered -on September 20, 1820, only 121 remained,[XXIV-40] who were at an early -day taken to Chagres, whence they embarked for Jamaica. - -Important events had meantime taken place in Spain, by which -constitutional régime was restored. A change in the government of -the Isthmus soon followed, the people for the first time being called -upon to exercise the right of suffrage.[XXIV-41] The newly organized -ayuntamiento[XXIV-42] was composed of men well disposed toward -independence. The change of system curtailing Hore's powers so preyed -upon his mind that he died.[XXIV-43] This was a serious loss to the -Spanish cause, whose interests the deceased had ever been ready to -uphold by fair or foul means. - -[Sidenote: COMING OF SÁMANO.] - -Brigadier Pedro Ruiz de Porras, who succeeded Hore in the military -command, if not a partisan of independence, was a friend of -constitutional government. The civil governor, or gefe político, Pedro -Aguilar, showed so much indifference that little opposition was feared -from him. The new cabildo demanded the installation of a diputacion -provincial, the election of a deputy to the Spanish córtes, and other -measures provided for in the national constitution.[XXIV-44] These -demands were not, however, complied with. The independent party saw -the necessity of close relations with their friends outside of Panamá, -and developed them, without disregarding the precautions demanded by -the presence of a strong hostile garrison in their midst. They were -now greatly hindered by the sudden appearance in Panamá, of Viceroy -Sámano, who came by way of Jamaica. His object was to establish his -government on the Isthmus, which the cabildo and constitutionalists -opposed on the ground of his having forfeited the viceregal office by -a refusal to take the oath to support the constitution. He had been -detained several days at Las Cruces, but the military party proved the -stronger, and admitted him into the city. His coming caused general -uneasiness,[XXIV-45] as he was known to be a man of bad temper. -However, as he met with no further opposition, and as his health was -precarious, he limited himself to levying a forced loan.[XXIV-46] - -Free ideas had, however, gained too strong a hold to be easily -suppressed by the mere opposition of the ruler, and when in 1821 -a new city council was elected, the members[XXIV-47] were again -liberal-minded men. They repeated the demand for the establishment of a -diputacion provincial, and for the election of a deputy to the Spanish -córtes; but the viceroy only returned evasive answers. Fortunately, -the province was soon relieved of him, by his death, on the 3d of -August, 1821.[XXIV-48] Then the press resumed a bold tone, and hopes -were revived in political circles. Soon after came to succeed Sámano, -the mariscal de campo Juan de la Cruz Mourgeon.[XXIV-49] He had been -appointed as captain-general of New Granada only, with the promise of -the office of viceroy when he should have reconquered two thirds of New -Granada.[XXIV-50] - -Mourgeon brought from Spain some troops, adding to their number at -Puerto Cabello in Venezuela. His rule was based on principles entirely -opposite to those of his predecessor, namely, on the constitution -and the new organic laws of the monarchy. Members for the diputacion -provincial and a deputy to the Spanish córtes were elected, and the -former was installed amidst the usual demonstrations. This liberal -policy permeated his whole administration; the press was protected, -patriotic societies were formed, and to strengthen the ties between -Spaniards and Americans a masonic lodge was founded, and offices of -trust and honor were bestowed on men from both branches. Every effort -was made by the new ruler to do away with the old rivalry. But it all -came too late. The idea of independence had become deeply rooted, -and could not be affected by the new policy, the duration of which -was also uncertain. The natives of the Isthmus exhibited a remarkable -circumspection, which deluded the captain-general and the Spaniards. -Mourgeon felt confident of Panamá's loyalty, and still more so after -José de Fábrega, a native of the Isthmus, was appointed temporary -comandante of Tierra Firme;[XXIV-51] and began to think of securing -his promised viceregal office by the reconquest of Quito or Ecuador. He -accordingly set himself to make preparations for that undertaking; but -the impoverished condition of Isthmian finances greatly hampered him. -Nevertheless, though with the utmost difficulty,[XXIV-52] he fitted out -a squadron, composed of the corvette _Alejandro_, and three schooners, -on which he embarked two battalions of infantry, two dismounted -squadrons of cavalry, and some artillerymen; and assuming personal -command of the force, set sail on the 22d of October, 1821.[XXIV-53] - -[Sidenote: SUB-REVOLUTION.] - -This was the most propitious opportunity the friends of independence -could hope for, and they lost no time in availing themselves of it. -Secret meetings were held, at which they matured their plans. While -thus engaged at Panamá, a revolutionary movement broke out in the -villa de Los Santos, which, not being the result of any preconcerted -plan, caused the greatest alarm at the capital. The outbreak had -been, indeed, one which merely proclaimed independence, without -pretending to establish any form of government.[XXIV-54] The governor, -local authorities, and other prominent officials, after a hasty -consultation, resolved upon gentle means to quell the disturbance, and -commissioners were despatched at once to Los Santos to restore peace -if possible.[XXIV-55] But the more impatient among the friends of -independence hoped that their mission would fail, and that the spirit -of sedition, known to exist throughout the Isthmus, would boldly assert -itself as soon as the capital should give the signal. But this signal -could not as yet be given. Both the cabildo and diputacion countenanced -the revolution, and it was believed that Fábrega would not oppose a -movement to free his own country; but resistance was certain from the -troops of the garrison. Any sudden insurrection would, therefore, be -untimely, and probably end in disaster. - -New plans were devised, and it was finally resolved to undermine the -military power by encouraging desertions,[XXIV-56] and at the same time -to spread among the masses the scheme of independence. Four prominent -citizens[XXIV-57] undertook the first task, to facilitate which a fund -was raised, and were very successful. Desertions became frequent, and -their number increased from day to day, till the government began to -suspect the cause, but the independent agents were reticent. Measures -were adopted which only partially succeeded in checking desertions. The -garrison was soon so reduced that there were hardly men enough to guard -the jail, hospital, and powder magazine. In the night of November 27, -1821, sixty soldiers disappeared, together with their muskets.[XXIV-58] -The government now became convinced that a revolution was impending, -and took measures to resist it. The few remaining troops were -distributed in the most convenient places, and artillery was placed at -street-crossings. - -The day so anxiously waited for, the memorable day in the history of -the Isthmus, came at last. On the 28th of November, 1821, at the call -of a number of citizens, the ayuntamiento held a session, and the -governor, diputacion provincial, bishop, and other chief officials were -invited to take part in their deliberations. The meeting was held with -open doors; people might come and go as they chose. The question was, -Should or should not the Isthmus of Panamá declare its independence -from Spain? A motion to that end met with approval.[XXIV-59] - -[Sidenote: DECLARATION AND REORGANIZATION.] - -The next subject discussed was the form of government to be -adopted, which resulted in a voluntary annexation to the republic -of Colombia,[XXIV-60] to whose general congress the Isthmus was to -accredit a deputy. Other resolutions were passed concerning the -military force in the state,[XXIV-61] and the organization of a -new government, which was intrusted to the former governor, José de -Fábrega, who now assumed the title, Jefe Superior del Istmo. All the -civil, municipal, and ecclesiastical authorities were to continue -in office, and in the same manner the existing laws were to remain -in force, when not conflicting with the independence, and until a -new code could be framed. Fábrega was directed to adopt measures for -preserving peace, to obtain the surrender of Chagres and Portobello, -and to raise a loan to meet necessary expenses. The several authorities -and officials of all grades were to take the oath of allegiance, -and copies of the proceedings were to be circulated, together with -requests for pecuniary contributions. A special committee then drew -up a formal minute of the declaration and of the resolutions passed, -and amid the cheers of the multitude, the document was signed by José -de Fábrega, the bishop José Higinio Duran y Martel, a number of other -citizens,[XXIV-62] and the public notary José de los Santos Correoso. -Thus ended the 28th of November, 1821.[XXIV-63] Two days later the -support of the declaration of independence was publicly sworn to with -great solemnity, and on the 1st of December a similar proclamation was -made at Santiago de Veragua.[XXIV-64] - -On the day, however, that the celebration occurred at Panamá, the -inhabitants were thrown into consternation by the arrival of two -Spanish frigates accompanied by Mourgeon's transports. It was at -first feared that he had returned from Ecuador,[XXIV-65] till it -was ascertained that the war ships had come in quest of the general, -and the transports for reënforcements. The alarm was well founded, -for the place had no means of defence. Nevertheless, the authorities -made preparations for resistance, and the town soon assumed a warlike -appearance. The suspense lasted six days, at the end of which the -commanders of the frigates offered to surrender to the new government, -the only condition required in return being that the latter should pay -the wages due the crews. It will be a matter of surprise that so modest -a demand was not complied with. It is true that the treasury was empty, -but it does not appear that any efforts were made to procure the funds. -An agreement was, however, entered into, the two commanders binding -themselves not to assail the Isthmus, nor afford aid to Mourgeon, but -to surrender to the government of Peru, which was done.[XXIV-66] - -About the time that Panamá became free, other Spanish colonies also -secured their independence. Consequently, Panamá found no difficulty to -effect a union with the then republic of Colombia, whose constitution, -framed in the latter part of 1821,[XXIV-67] became the political -groundwork of Tierra Firme. In January, 1822, Fábrega assured the -people that there was no further cause to fear Mourgeon's attacks, -should he attempt them; troops in sufficient number for defence had -arrived; but funds for their support were at the same time called -for. However, as late as October, 1827, there were apprehensions of -a Spanish invasion, and Bolívar, the president of Colombia, issued -a military order for the protection of the coast.[XXIV-68] Early -in February 1822, José María Carreño was appointed intendente and -comandante general of the Isthmus, with a command independent from -Cartagena, and Fábrega was made governor and comandante general of -Alange, Veragua, and annexes.[XXIV-69] This same year Mexico received -with high honors a Colombian minister, and formally recognized the -independence of the republic.[XXIV-70] - -[Sidenote: ABOLITION OF SLAVERY.] - -The republican government, among its first acts, not only prohibited -the importation of African slaves, but made provision for extinguishing -slavery within its limits in the near future. Slaves were allowed to -purchase their own freedom, and all children born of slave parents -after the 21st of June, 1821, were declared free, the masters being -required to feed, clothe, and educate them, in return for which the -children were to work till their eighteenth year for the masters of -their mothers.[XXIV-71] In 1850 the government redeemed, by offering -compensation to the owners, all colored men and women who had not at -that time attained their freedom.[XXIV-72] - - - - -CHAPTER XXV. - -DIVERS PHASES OF SELF-GOVERNMENT. - -1819-1863. - - PANAMÁ CONGRESS—PROVINCIAL ORGANIZATIONS—ALZURU'S - REBELLION AND EXECUTION—SECESSION FROM COLOMBIA AND - REINCORPORATION—DIFFERENCES WITH FOREIGN GOVERNMENTS—CRIME - RAMPANT—SUMMARY TREATMENT OF CRIMINALS—RIOTS AND - MASSACRE OF FOREIGN PASSENGERS—ATTEMPTS TO ROB TREASURE - TRAINS—NEUTRALITY TREATIES—ESTABLISHMENT OF FEDERAL - SYSTEM—PANAMÁ AS A STATE—REVOLUTIONARY ERA BEGINS—A - SUCCESSION OF GOVERNORS—SEDITIOUS CHARACTER OF THE NEGRO - POPULATION—REVOLUTION AGAINST GOVERNOR GUARDIA AND HIS - DEATH—ANOTHER POLITICAL ORGANIZATION—ESTADO SOBERANO DE - PANAMÁ—LIBERAL PARTY IN FULL CONTROL—STRINGENT MEASURES. - - -[Sidenote: PANAMÁ CONGRESS OF NATIONS.] - -Owing to its geographical position, Panamá was selected as the place -of meeting of a congress of American states, called at the suggestion -of Bolívar, the liberator of South America, in 1822, for the purpose, -as it was understood, of devising measures to counteract the menacing -plans of the so-called holy alliance of European monarchs.[XXV-1] The -government of the United States being invited to send representatives -agreed to do so, and did appoint plenipotentiaries, declining, however, -to bind itself to any course of action, but to remain a passive witness -of the proceedings, so long as the executive and congress should be -in ignorance of the real aims and tendencies of that assembly. Its -representatives did not take any part in the deliberations.[XXV-2] -England, which had recognized the independence of Colombia in 1824, and -Holland, having been likewise invited to be present by commissioners, -partly complied, but refrained from participating in the work of the -congress.[XXV-3] - -The congress assembled on the 22d of June, 1826, the only American -nations therein represented being Colombia, Central America, Peru, -and Mexico.[XXV-4] Chile had reluctantly promised her attendance, -but failed to comply, owing to civil war. Buenos Aires refused her -coöperation. Without waiting for further arrivals, the commissioners -present entered into certain covenants, establishing the contingent of -land and naval forces each nation was to contribute to the projected -league; and likewise agreeing upon the points to be submitted to the -acceptance of the several allies. Some not very practical propositions -were agreed to.[XXV-5] Bolívar was displeased at the course of affairs, -and disappointed at the failure of a plan which, if realized, would -have been his crown of glory.[XXV-6] He thereupon turned his attention -to other objects. - -The congress then adjourned to meet again at Tacubaya in Mexico. This -step was attributed to the influence of the Mexican plenipotentiary -Michelena, who, it has been said, had in view to secure his country's -predominance in America.[XXV-7] It was also resolved at the adjournment -that the legations should divide themselves, one member from each -going to report to his government what had been done, and the others -repairing at once to Mexico. The ministers of Colombia and Central -America, after waiting two years in vain for the ratification by -Mexico of the treaties, had finally to depart, deeply regretting the -dissolution of a body upon which Spanish America had centred her hopes, -and the enlightened world had so long fixed its attention.[XXV-8] - -[Sidenote: PANAMÁ AND VERAGUA.] - -A congress held in Angostura,[XXV-9] in December 1819, under the -presidency of Simon Bolívar, constituted the republic of Colombia, with -the former viceroyalty of Nueva Granada, including Ecuador, and the -captain-generalcy of Caracas or Venezuela. One of its departments was -the Isthmus divided into two provinces, namely, Panamá, which embraced -the region of Darien, and Veragua.[XXV-10] - -The secession of Venezuela after some years having brought on the -disruption of Colombia, a convention assembled at Bogotá[XXV-11] -in 1831 organized the Estado de la Nueva Granada with the central -provinces, those of the Isthmus forming a section of the new -organization.[XXV-12] The new state was divided into provinces, -under governors who received their appointments from the general -government.[XXV-13] The decree was dated November 21, 1831. The new -constitution, sanctioned by the convention on the 29th of February, -1832, was published in Panamá on the 28th of April.[XXV-14] Each -province was subdivided into departments.[XXV-15] - -Civil war broke out in 1831. Colonel Alzuru, who had arrived from -Guayaquil with troops, by the instigation of some prominent men, rose -in arms in Panamá to detach the provinces from Nueva Granada. On the -news reaching Bogotá, the national government despatched Colonel Tomás -Herrera with a force to quell the rebellion; and upon his approaching -the city, the more prominent families fled to the island of Tabogá. -Those who had prompted Alzuru's act now forsook him, and rendered aid -to Herrera, with all the information they possessed. The rebels were -attacked on their way to La Chorrera, while crossing marshy ground, and -defeated. Alzuru was taken prisoner, tried by court-martial, and shot -in the cathedral plaza of Panamá. - -[Sidenote: REPUBLIC OF PANAMÁ.] - -General José Fábrega restored order in Veragua, and made it known to -the general government on the 30th of August.[XXV-16] The garrison at -Panamá, together with Tomás Herrera, the comandante general, assured -the president of the Nueva Granada convention of their unswerving -fealty.[XXV-17] Later, in March 1832, an attempt was made by two -subalterns[XXV-18] to induce the sergeants of their battalion to join -them in a conspiracy for upsetting the government. The two officers -were tried and executed, and two of the sergeants sent into exile. -Chaos reigned throughout the republic in 1840; then came revolution. -The chief men of Panamá met in a junta and resolved to detach the -Isthmus and form an independent republic. Cárlos Icaza, the governor, -who was a Panameño, signified his acquiescence, and the proclamation -of independence was made, Tomás Herrera assuming by appointment -of the junta the office of jefe superior, on the 18th of November, -1840.[XXV-19] On the 21st the governor of Veragua, Cárlos Fábrega, -was asked to join the movement; but he answered from Santiago on -the 29th declining;[XXV-20] whereupon Herrera issued addresses, on -the 5th and 11th of December, announcing his march with troops to -Veragua.[XXV-21] The expedition, however, marched only a part of the -distance, the people of Veragua submitting to the force of necessity. -The independence existed de facto nearly two years. In 1841 Tomás -Herrera and Cárlos de Icaza were chosen president and vice-president, -respectively, of the ephemeral republic. Mariano Arosemena, secretary -of foreign affairs, despatched Pedro de Obarrio as a special -commissioner to the government of Costa Rica to notify it of the -organization of the state of the Isthmus, and apply for its formal -recognition.[XXV-22] During this period of independence, persons and -property were protected, and commerce was liberally encouraged.[XXV-23] - -The government had carefully avoided the commission of any act of -hostility against Nueva Granada; but the time came when news reached -Panamá that the government of Bogotá was fitting out a force to bring -the Isthmus into subjection. Whereupon the officers of the British -chargé d'affaires at Bogotá were asked to obtain the consent of Nueva -Granada to receive a commissioner in the interest of peace.[XXV-24] -But the other parts of Nueva Granada having become pacified in the -course of 1841, two commissioners came from the general government, -and the people of Panamá, being convinced of the folly of resistance, -peacefully submitted.[XXV-25] Herrera so managed that he was appointed -governor of the restored province.[XXV-26] The constitutional -reforms of 1842 and 1843 tended to reëstablish good understanding -between the provinces, and Panamá again appeared satisfied with the -connection.[XXV-27] - -[Sidenote: PROVINCE OF CHIRIQUÍ.] - -The Canton de Alange, detached from Veragua, and the districts of -David, Dolega, San Pablo, and Alange, were on the 24th of July, -1849, formed into a separate province under the name of Provincia de -Chiriquí, with its governor and assembly of seven members.[XXV-28] This -organization continued several years, though the province subsequently -took the name of Fábrega, and so continued until August 1851, when -it resumed the former name of Chiriquí.[XXV-29] The territory which -in early days was embraced in the province of Veragua appeared in -August 1851 divided into three provinces, each having a governor and -legislature; namely, Chiriquí, Veragua, and Azuero.[XXV-30] This new -arrangement lasted only till April 30, 1855, when the province of -Azuero was suppressed.[XXV-31] - -The district, or as it was called, Canton de Bocas del Toro, was -organized by decree of the government of Chiriquí or Fábrega, with a -jefe político at its head. But a law of the republic[XXV-32] formed -into a canton or district the territories of San Andrés, Darien, and -San Martin. Another law of April 12, 1851, applied the former one to -Bocas del Toro.[XXV-33] - - * * * * * - -Owing to grievances complained of by foreigners against acts of the -officials on the Isthmus, the relations of the national government with -foreign powers have been at times complicated. The first difficulty -arose from the arrest in 1836 of Russell, the British vice-consul, and -led to the blockade of the whole Atlantic coast of the republic, which -finally compelled Nueva Granada to submit to such terms as the British -commander chose to impose.[XXV-34] Another trouble with the British -government resulted from a certain claim of one Mackintosh, which for -a time interrupted diplomatic relations in 1856.[XXV-35] - -[Sidenote: RAN RUNNELS' ISTHMUS GUARD.] - -On the 26th of January, 1854, the consuls of the United States, -France, Great Britain, Brazil, Portugal, Denmark, Peru, and Ecuador -addressed a protest to the governor of Panamá, against the neglect of -his government to afford protection to passengers crossing the Isthmus, -notwithstanding that each passenger was made to pay the sum of two -dollars for the privilege of landing and going from one sea to the -other.[XXV-36] Governor Urrutia Añino, on the 14th of February, denied -the alleged neglect, as well as the right of those officials who had -no recognition from the New Granadan government to address him in such -a manner. He pointed to the public jail, which was full of prisoners, -some already undergoing punishment, and others being tried or awaiting -trial. He also reminded the consuls that only a short time had elapsed -since three men were executed for crimes.[XXV-37] It was a fact, -nevertheless, that the government could not cope with the situation—the -Isthmus being infested with criminals from all parts of the earth, that -had been drawn thereto by the prospect of plunder—in view of which a -number of citizens and respectable foreigners combined in organizing -the Isthmus guard, whose chief was Ran Runnels, charged with the -duty of guarding the route between Panamá and Colon, and empowered to -punish even with death all persons guilty of crimes. Urrutia Añino, the -governor, unhesitatingly acquiesced in the arrangement.[XXV-38] - -Americans had occasional misunderstandings with the authorities, -a notable one occurring in 1855, when the local governor of Panamá -returned unopened an official letter from the consul of the United -States, who at once threatened to strike his flag; but the matter was -settled amicably by the chief officers of the Isthmus.[XXV-39] A more -serious affair was the demand of the state government that steamships -arriving at Panamá or Colon should pay tonnage money.[XXV-40] This -raised the protest of the American consul and the railway and steamship -agents. The controversy was finally terminated by the executive of -the republic declaring that the law under which the tonnage money was -claimed had been enacted by the state of Panamá, without any right to -legislate on such matters, as they were of the exclusive province of -the general government.[XXV-41] - -The lack of proper protection, as well as a marked spirit of hostility -on the part of the lower class toward foreigners,[XXV-42] was made -further evident in the riot of the fifteenth of April, 1856, when a -considerable number of American passengers were killed, and others -wounded, much property being also appropriated.[XXV-43] - -[Sidenote: PANAMÁ RIOT.] - -As might have been expected, exaggerated accounts of this affray flew -far and wide. The official report, however, showed smaller figures, -though bad enough—of foreigners, 15 slain and 16 wounded, of whom one -died afterward; of natives, 2 killed and 13 wounded. The conduct of -the police and people was certainly most blamable. The affair might, -perhaps, have been averted if the authorities had shown proper energy. -I will admit, however, that there was cause of provocation.[XXV-44] - -Consequent on this affair, the city of Panamá, which, owing to the -misgovernment of previous years, was already on the decline, had to -suffer still more. Many business houses closed their doors, because -the American transient passengers, who during their stay were wont to -scatter gold, thenceforth remained on shore only a few minutes.[XXV-45] -Much diplomatic correspondence passed between the American and New -Granadan governments on the subject, the former sending a commissioner -to Panamá, to investigate the circumstances,[XXV-46] and finally -claiming a large indemnity. At last a convention was concluded on the -10th of September, 1857, between Secretary Cass, and General P. A. -Herran, minister of New Granada, for the settlement of all claims, the -latter having acknowledged the responsibility of his government for the -injuries and damages caused by the riot.[XXV-47] - -The relations with Americans on the Isthmus continued to be -unsatisfactory for some time longer. Notwithstanding that New Granada -was apparently inclined to cordiality, cases of injustice or ill -treatment to American citizens often occurring, at last the president -of the United States asked congress, on the 18th of February, 1859, -for power to protect Americans on the Isthmus.[XXV-48] In later years -Americans have seldom had any serious cause of complaint. - -The question of neutrality of the Isthmus has occasionally been on -the tapis. A case in point occurred in 1864, during the sectional war -in the United States, when a number of southern confederates went on -board the American steamer _Salvador_ at Panamá, with the purpose of -seizing her at sea, and turning her—as she had guns on board—into a -confederate cruiser, to be used in capturing the first treasure steamer -from California. The men engaged in the enterprise were themselves -arrested at sea on the _Salvador_,[XXV-49] by an American war vessel. -The admiral, Pearson, asked the government of Panamá for permission to -send the prisoners overland to Colon, where they might be embarked for -New York. The request was refused;[XXV-50] in consequence of which the -prisoners were sent to San Francisco.[XXV-51] - -At the commencement of the French intervention in Mexico, the -legislature of Panamá asked the general government of Colombia to allow -no French troops to pass over the Isthmus. The United States government -was not called upon to aid this policy. In the autumn of 1864 a body -of French marines arrived at Colon to cross to the Pacific and replace -invalids of the fleet on the Mexican coast. The president of Panamá -refused them a pass, and asked the railroad company not to transport -them. The French officers argued that American and English troops had -on several occasions been allowed to cross. It so happened that at this -time some American soldiers arrived and crossed over to the Pacific -under a permit previously granted by the former president of the state. -The French then alleging the so-called 'most-favored-nation' clause -also crossed over.[XXV-52] - -[Sidenote: ISTHMUS ROBBERIES.] - -With other nations occasional misunderstandings have taken place, but -in no instance did they lead to serious complications.[XXV-53] Minor -riots, attended with more or less killing and wounding of foreigners, -had occurred in 1850 and in 1851, both on the Atlantic and Pacific -sides.[XXV-54] The gold-dust train from California was thrice assailed -by robbers, while crossing from sea to sea, without success. The last -attempt was in September 1851, by Americans, several of whom were -captured.[XXV-55] - - * * * * * - -Whilst the Isthmus was under the direct rule of the national -government, peace and quiet reigned. The few political commotions that -occurred at long intervals had no effect detrimental to public morals, -nor to the obedience paid by the people to the authorities. It is a -fact that when, upon the discovery of the gold placers in California, -the large influx of foreigners first arrived, they were surprised at -the extraordinary prestige the authorities enjoyed, and at the blind -obedience paid to their mandates.[XXV-56] Bayonets were not necessary -to enforce order. This was owing to the harmony then existing between -the government and the clergy.[XXV-57] And throughout the land for -sixteen years from 1840, peace prevailed, save certain disturbances in -the provinces of Azuero and Veragua in July 1854.[XXV-58] - -[Sidenote: PANAMÁ A STATE.] - -Nevertheless, the white population of Panamá had been for some time -past discontented with the general government, and a desire had sprung -up to get rid of a yoke which was deemed oppressive. The supreme -authorities at Bogotá were not unaware of this, and whether prompted -by the fear of losing the territory, or by a sentiment of justice, or -by both, concluded to allow the Isthmians the privilege of controlling -their local affairs, which was hailed with joy by all classes. An -additional clause to the national constitution was then enacted by the -New Granadan congress, on the 27th of February, 1855, by which Panamá -was made a state, and a member of the confederation with the four -provinces of Panamá, Azuero, Chiriquí, and Veragua,[XXV-59] its western -boundary being such as might come to be fixed upon by treaty with Costa -Rica.[XXV-60] A constituent assembly of 31 members was convoked March -13th by the national executive, to meet at Panamá on the 15th of July -to constitute the state. The assembly was presided over by Francisco -Fábrega, and on the 18th passed an act for the provisional organization -of the state. Justo Arosemena, being chosen jefe superior provisorio, -took possession of office at once, and appointed Cárlos Icaza Arosemena -government secretary.[XXV-61] The city of Panamá was declared to be the -capital, and residence of the superior authorities of the state. - -The constitution of the now entitled Estado de Panamá was promulgated -on the 17th of September, 1855. It was a liberal instrument, including -freedom of religion. The executive authority was vested in a governor, -who was to assume the office on the 1st of October of the following -year, and hold it two years. A vice-governor and two designados were -also to be elected by popular vote, to take charge of affairs should -the governor die or be otherwise disenabled to discharge his duties. -In the absence or inability of all the elect, then the superior -civil authority of the capital was to act as governor.[XXV-62] A -misunderstanding having occurred between the jefe superior and the -assembly, the former resigned his office on the 28th of September, and -having insisted on his resignation being accepted, Francisco Fábrega, -who had been elected vice-governor on the 22d, was inducted into the -executive office on the 4th of October.[XXV-63] - -Notwithstanding the hopes of a bright future, from this time the -Isthmus was the theatre of almost perpetual political trouble, and -revolution became chronic, preventing any possible advancement. In 1856 -there was a stormy electoral campaign,[XXV-64] that culminated in a -coup d'etat, for which the responsibility must be about equally divided -between the executive, Francisco Fábrega, and the demagogues.[XXV-65] - -[Sidenote: DISPUTED ELECTION.] - -The election for governor took place on the 15th of August, 1856. The -white element claimed Bartolomé Calvo, a colored man from Cartagena, -and a conservative in politics, to have been elected by 4,000 majority. -The negroes insisted that Manuel M. Diaz, a white man, had been chosen. -The declaration by the legislature as to who was the elect had not been -made, as required by law, by the 15th of September. The radicals then -demanded that the vice-governor, who was in their interest, should -assume the executive. On the 15th of September trouble was expected -against the white men, many of whom took refuge on the American -sloop of war _St Mary's_.[XXV-66] Calvo was finally declared by the -legislature on the 18th of September to have been constitutionally -chosen for two years; and Francisco Fábrega the vice-governor.[XXV-67] -If not a man of high order of talent, Calvo possessed good judgment, -and he eventually succeeded in making himself respected, even by -those who opposed his election. His course was moderate, and it may -be said of him that he was an honest man, and his administration a -successful one. The finances were improved, and public education was -encouraged.[XXV-68] After serving nineteen months he resigned office -and left the state.[XXV-69] Ramon Gamboa, as first designado, succeeded -him for the rest of the term. - -José de Obaldía was chosen by popular vote over J. M. Hurtado, the -government candidate, amid a great political commotion, his election -being recognized by the legislature at midnight. His term began on -the 1st of October, 1858. Obaldía was one of the most talented and -best informed men in the republic, and an eloquent orator. However, -though a power in the tribune, he proved himself unfitted for a -ruler.[XXV-70] During his term, on the 17th of April, 1859, the colored -population attempted to assail the whites, and after some violence -were dispersed by a force sent against them.[XXV-71] Another outbreak -of the negroes against the whites took place the 27th of September, -1860, necessitating the landing of an armed force from the British ship -_Clio_, which, after order was restored, returned on board.[XXV-72] - -[Sidenote: ESTADO SOBERANO DE PANAMÁ.] - -Governor Obaldía was succeeded by Santiago de la Guardia,[XXV-73] -elected against the opposition of the liberal negro vote. In September -1860 the states of Cauca and Bolívar seceded from Nueva Granada, and -formed a confederation under the name of Estados Unidos de Colombia, -with General T. C. Mosquera at the head. By a clause of their agreement -any other state opposing them was to be conquered and annexed. Wishing -to keep Panamá neutral in the horrible struggle going on in the -rest of the republic, Guardia entered into a convention on the 6th -of September, 1861, with Manuel Murillo Toro, who represented those -states, by which Panamá was to join the confederacy, but to take no -active part in the family quarrel.[XXV-74] Early in July 1862 the state -assumed the official name of Estado Soberano de Panamá, which it has -retained to the present time. - -This contest, out of which the liberal party came triumphant throughout -the country, was known as 'la revolucion de Mosquera.' The minister of -Nueva Granada in Washington, on the plea that a mere naval force could -not afford security to the Isthmus transit, asked the United States -to provide also a land force of 300 cavalry, but the request was not -granted.[XXV-75] - -[Sidenote: GOVERNOR DIAZ.] - -The efforts of Guardia to keep the Isthmus out of the general turmoil -were of no avail. A force of about 150 or 200 men under General Santa -Coloma came from Cartagena to Colon, with the apparent purpose of -enabling the governor to carry out certain liberal measures. The latter -protested against such a violation of a solemn agreement; but the force -insisted on coming across to Panamá, and there was no way of preventing -it. In the course of a few weeks Guardia, being convinced that he was -being employed as a puppet, removed himself and the capital to Santiago -de Veragua. As soon as he was gone, with the connivance of Santa -Coloma, a party of men, all but one of whom were of the colored race, -assembled at the town hall and deposed Guardia, naming one of their -own party, Manuel M. Diaz, provisional governor.[XXV-76] A few days -after, on the 19th of August, in a skirmish between forces of the two -factions, Governor Guardia and two or three others were killed.[XXV-77] -The government continued with Diaz at the head,[XXV-78] till under the -national constitution framed by the convention of Rio Negro,[XXV-79] -which constituted the nation under the name of Estados Unidos de -Colombia, the Isthmus became one of the federal and sovereign states. -To Governor Diaz was assigned the duty of carrying out Mosquera's -stringent decrees against the clergy, an account of which is given in -the next chapter. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI. - -FURTHER WARS AND REVOLUTIONS. - -1863-1885. - - PRESIDENTS GOITIA, SANTA COLOMA, AND CALANCHA—UNDUE - INTERFERENCE OF FEDERAL OFFICIALS—COLUNJE'S - ADMINISTRATION—PRESIDENT OLARTE'S ENERGY—ENMITY OF - THE ARRABAL'S NEGROES—SHORT AND DISTURBED RULES OF - DIAZ AND PONCE—PRESIDENT CORREOSO—NEGRO ELEMENT IN THE - ASCENDENT—CONSERVATIVES REBEL, AND ARE DISCOMFITED—ARMED - PEACE FOR A TIME—FEVERISH RULES OF NEIRA, MIRÓ, AIZPURU, - CORREOSO, AND CASORLA—CERVERA'S LONG TENURE—TEMPORARY - RULE OF VIVES LEON—PRESIDENT SANTODOMINGO VILA—OBTAINS - LEAVE OF ABSENCE—IS SUCCEEDED BY PABLO AROSEMENA—AIZPURU'S - REVOLUTION—AROSEMENA FLEES AND RESIGNS—OUTRAGES AT - COLON—AMERICAN FORCES PROTECT PANAMÁ—COLLAPSE OF THE - REVOLUTION—AIZPURU AND CORREOSO IMPRISONED—CHIEF CAUSES OF - DISTURBANCES ON THE ISTHMUS. - - -A constituent assembly installed on the 6th of May, 1863,[XXVI-1] -decreed a constitution to conform with the national one.[XXVI-2] Pedro -Goitia, who for some time past had been president of the constituent -assembly, was chosen president of the state, to hold the position -till the 1st of October, on which date the elect of the people was to -assume the executive authority.[XXVI-3] After this, the state being -tranquil, the military force was placed on a peace footing. But Goitia -was not permitted to complete even the short term for which he had -been appointed. He had to resign the position, General Peregrino Santa -Coloma being chosen by the legislative assembly to fill it, and he took -possession of the office on the 13th of August.[XXVI-4] Santa Coloma, -being afterward as was made to appear elected president, held the -executive office a short time only, for the reason that he was chosen -a representative in the national congress at Bogotá.[XXVI-5] José -Leonardo Calancha, as vice-president, now took charge of the executive, -which he was allowed to hold only till the 9th of March, 1865, when he -was deposed.[XXVI-6] - -[Sidenote: RAPID SUCCESSION OF RULERS.] - -Jil Colunje[XXVI-7] was placed at the head of affairs by the -revolution, and a convention called on the 8th of April to meet -on the 1st of July, and reconstruct the state.[XXVI-8] Colunje was -appointed president for the term from August 9, 1865, to September 30, -1866.[XXVI-9] At the expiration of that term Vicente Olarte Galindo, -who had been apparently elected, became president on the 1st of -October, 1866, and appointed José M. Bermudez his secretary of state. - -Olarte's election is represented as an enthusiastic one, and intended -as a reward for the services he rendered to the better portion of the -Isthmian community, with his defeat of the Caucano invaders.[XXVI-10] - -He found himself in a constant disagreement with the legislature of -the state, which he forced to submit to his dictation.[XXVI-11] The -whole negro party of the arrabal was his mortal enemy, but he managed -to keep it under by making it feel occasionally the effect of his -battalion's bullets. In the last attempt against his power, the negroes -were severely punished, and they never tried again to measure strength -with him.[XXVI-12] His power was now more secure than ever, and his way -became plain to procure the election as his successor to the presidency -of his brother, then residing in Chiriquí. - -[Sidenote: BLACK PROCEEDINGS.] - -The negroes were in despair, as they could find no means of seizing the -government. From the time of Guardia's deposal they had been enjoying -the public spoils, and could not bear the idea of being kept out of -them, when their number was four or five times larger than that of the -white men. The success of Olarte's plans would be the death of their -aspirations, which were the control of public affairs, by ousting the -whites, who were mostly conservatives.[XXVI-13] It became, therefore, -a necessity to rid the country of that ogre; and as this could not -be done by force of arms, poison was resorted to. The plan was well -matured, and carried out in San Miguel, one of the Pearl Islands, where -Olarte went upon an official visit. Olarte's death occurred on the 3d -of March, 1868, without his knowing that he had been poisoned. This -crime was not the act of one man, but of a whole political party, which -took care to have the death attributed to a malignant fever. It became -public, however, through the family of another man, who also became a -victim.[XXVI-14] No official or post-mortem examination was made, and -the matter was hushed up. - -Olarte's death was greatly deplored by the better class of the -community, and high honors were paid to his remains,[XXVI-15] by the -legislature and the community, the foreign consuls and their countrymen -joining. In the absence of the first designado, Manuel Amador Guerrero, -the second, Juan José Diaz, took the reins of government.[XXVI-16] -His tenure of the presidential office was a short one, however; for -in the morning of the 5th of July, a revolution by the black men of -the arrabal broke out in Panamá, headed by General Fernando Ponce, -commander of the national forces, and Diaz was overthrown.[XXVI-17] -They said that the liberal party had been cheated out of its majority -at the late election for deputies, by the unlawful devices of its -conservative opponents; and it was but logical to conclude that the -same practices would be again resorted to at the coming election of -president of the state.[XXVI-18] There was really no cause for this -revolution. The excuses alleged by the promoters were frivolous. They -only wanted to seize power and secure the spoils. - -Ponce was placed at the head of affairs as provisional president, -to rule in accordance with the national and state constitutions, -and existing laws; and in his absence, the following persons, in the -order named, were to assume the duties: Buenaventura Correoso, Pablo -Arosemena, Mateo Iturralde, Pedro Goitia, and Juan Mendoza.[XXVI-19] -Thus was the movement accomplished; a provisional government was -recognized by the foreign consuls, and by four of the interior -departments, which submitted to the change rather than become -involved in civil war. On the 20th of July a general amnesty was -decreed.[XXVI-20] - -[Sidenote: PANAMÁ AND CHIRIQUÍ.] - -The situation was by no means enviable. The military element was -not united, much animosity existing between the state battalion -'Panamá,' and the 'Santander,' which led to a second revolution on -the 29th of August, and Ponce resigned the presidency to Buenaventura -Correoso,[XXVI-21] who received it on the next day. Cárlos Icaza -Arosemena was appointed secretary of state. Correoso[XXVI-22] was not -permitted to enjoy his office peaceably. He used his best endeavors -to that end; but was erelong summoned to crush a revolt of the -conservatives in Chiriquí, at the head of which were the prefect -of that department, and Colonel Arístides Obaldía, a son of the -ex-president. - -The conservatives desired change. To accomplish this, the people of -the interior armed themselves to come to the capital and crush the -negro element.[XXVI-23] Correoso sailed with a considerable force -provided with superior arms on the steamboat _Montíjo_,[XXVI-24] and -had the good fortune to return triumphant with 350 men on the 16th of -November. The conservatives, about 400 strong, under Obaldía, attacked -Correoso's force of about equal number, at the Hatillo, near Santiago, -and were defeated,[XXVI-25] after which, the government of the 29th of -August being proclaimed, prisoners were set at liberty. The revolution -was at an end. Correoso then summoned a constituent assembly, which -elected him constitutional president for the term of four years ending -September 30, 1873. With occasional attempts at disturbance, which were -successfully quelled or peaceably adjusted, Correoso held the office -till the 1st of October, 1872, when he resigned it, and was succeeded -by Gabriel Neira to fill the rest of the term. Neira was not permitted -to hold the position long, for a little before eleven o'clock in the -forenoon of April 5, 1873, the revolutionary party of the arrabal, -headed by Rafael Aizpuru, commander of the state troops, and fourth -designado, revolted against the government, marched into the city, and -made prisoners President Neira and Secretary Eladio Briceño. Dámaso -Cervera, as fifth designado, was called by the superior court to the -presidency.[XXVI-26] - -The Pichincha—battalion of national troops—interfered to restore Neira. -After some firing, it was agreed that Cervera should continue in power, -and Neira remain in the custody of the national force.[XXVI-27] - -[Sidenote: ISTHMUS RECONSTRUCTION.] - -The national force having taken part in the troubles, its efficiency to -protect the transit was rendered doubtful, for which reason troops were -landed from the United States ships of war by order of Rear-admiral -Steedman.[XXVI-28] Finally, terms of peace were arranged in the evening -of May 9th, based on the conditions that Neira's government should be -reëstablished. The state militia surrendered their arms to the foreign -consuls the next day, the Pichincha performing the duties of the state -force. Meantime, till Neira's return, Colonel Juan Pernett was to -act as president.[XXVI-29] Neira heard of the change at Barranquilla -on the 13th of May, and returned at once. On the 21st he made José -María Bermudez secretary of state, and Colonel Pernett comandante -general.[XXVI-30] The votes for senators and representatives to the -national congress were counted on the 15th of July, and the names of -the elect were published.[XXVI-31] - -The people of the arrabal made another disturbance on the 24th -of September, attacking the government outposts at Playa Prieta. -Hostilities were continued during twelve or fourteen days, when the -rebels, under Correoso, abandoned their ground, and were afterward -defeated in the country. Meantime an American force of nearly 200 -men, sent on shore by Rear-admiral Alony, a second time within four -months, occupied the railway station and the cathedral plaza.[XXVI-32] -The minister resident of the United States, William L. Scruggs, on -the 19th of December, 1873, laid before the Colombian government, -of which Colunje was secretary for foreign affairs, a protest of the -Panamá railway company upon the recent disturbances of the Isthmus, -and a demand that the transit should in future be under the immediate -protection of the Colombian government against the acts of violence of -local factions.[XXVI-33] The latter acknowledged the justice of this -demand on the 26th of December, pledging that in future there would be -a national force stationed in Panamá, for the purpose of protecting the -transit. - -On the 1st of October the constituent assembly, which had been summoned -on the 1st of August, assembled. Neira sent in his resignation, -requesting the appointment of a chief of the executive who could -secure peace. The assembly appointed Neira provisional president, -and a number of designados.[XXVI-34] Afterward the assembly passed -an act reducing the presidential term to two years.[XXVI-35] A new -constitution in seven titles, comprising 144 articles, was issued on -the 12th of November, and nine transitory articles on the following -day.[XXVI-36] A general amnesty to political offenders was decreed on -the 15th of November. President Neira having attempted in the morning -of the 14th of November to make a revolution with the Herrera battalion -for the purpose of setting aside the assembly, in which he failed, and -afterward concealed himself, that body met at 8 o'clock and deposed -him. Whereupon Gregorio Miró, the first designado, was summoned to -assume the executive for the term ending September 30, 1875, which he -did on the 16th,[XXVI-37] appointing José M. Bermudez his secretary of -state, and Ramon Vallarino Brájimo secretary of the treasury. These two -departments of government were abolished on the 25th of July, 1874, and -the office of secretary-general created, which was intrusted to Pablo -Arosemena on the 11th of August.[XXVI-38] This arrangement lasted only -till the 8th of April, 1875, when the offices of secretary of state and -of the treasury were reëstablished.[XXVI-39] - -[Sidenote: CHRONIC UNREST.] - -Miró's administration was a restless one, owing to constant -conspiracies based on various causes. The last one was headed by Rafael -Aizpuru, who claimed to be acting in the interest of the federal policy -in that stormy period of Colombian history.[XXVI-40] An attempt was -made to establish a provisional government with Aizpuru at its head, -annulling Miró's authority. The latter took the field, leaving Juan -J. Diaz, the second designado, in charge of the executive; but after -some unsuccessful efforts to quell the rebellion, his official term -came to an end, and Pablo Arosemena[XXVI-41] succeeded him on the 1st -of October; but he was allowed to retain the position only till the -12th, when he was ousted by General Sergio Camargo, commander of the -federal force,[XXVI-42] and Rafael Aizpuru was placed at the head of -affairs, first as 'jefe provisional del poder ejecutivo,' and later -was recognized as provisional president.[XXVI-43] Dámaso Cervera became -secretary of state, and Francisco Ardila of the treasury. - -A constituent assembly, presided over by B. Correoso, met on the -25th of November, and on the 28th approved all Aizpuru's acts, and -authorized him to retain the executive office until a constitutional -president should be chosen by it. The assembly on the 6th of -December adopted another constitution for the state, containing -126 articles.[XXVI-44] On the same day Rafael Aizpuru was elected -constitutional president, and was at once inaugurated.[XXVI-45] A law -of December 25, 1876, ordained that the president of the state should -take possession of his office on the 1st of January following his -election. His term was for two years.[XXVI-46] The republic being now -the prey of a general civil war, promoted by the clergy, the state -of Panamá, complying with the demands of the national government, -sent an armed brig with troops and arms to the port of Buenaventura, -and the Colombia battalion to the headquarters of the army of the -Atlantic.[XXVI-47] The legislature, early in 1877, authorized the -executive to raise troops for the defence of the state, and to obtain -money by voluntary or forced loan.[XXVI-48] - -[Sidenote: ISTHMUS POLITICS.] - -Buenaventura Correoso, having been elected, assumed the presidential -office on the 1st of January, 1878; but being worried by the frequent -disturbances, and desirous of averting further scandals, resigned in -December following, and was succeeded by the designado José Ricardo -Casorla.[XXVI-49] This president was disturbed by two revolutions. -The first was occasioned by the battalion 3d of the line, under the -supposition that the state authorities were hostile to the national -government.[XXVI-50] The second partook more of the nature of comedy -than of tragedy. General Aizpuru, having returned from Bogotá, whither -he had gone as a senator from Panamá, went off to Colon on the 7th of -June, and proclaimed himself provisional chief. That same night Casorla -was arrested near his residence, and carried off to Colon, where he was -held by the revolutionary chief. The second designado, Jerardo Ortega, -then took charge of the executive.[XXVI-51] But under a subsequent -arrangement Casorla was surrendered, and replaced in the executive -office, which he resigned three days later into the hands of Jerardo -Ortega, who held it till the 1st of January, 1880, when Dámaso Cervera, -chosen for the next constitutional term, was inaugurated,[XXVI-52] his -term of office being two years. - -The legislative assembly, June 13, 1881, passed a law amending the -constitution. Under this law the assembly[XXVI-53] after 1882 was -to meet on the 1st of October, and within the first fifteen days of -its ordinary sittings count the votes for president of the state, -and for senators and representatives to the national congress. Among -other things, it was enacted that the present assembly would name -the substitutes of the executive for the term to begin on the 1st of -January, 1882. Cervera succeeded in maintaining order during his term, -though constantly disturbed with intrigues of the most reprehensible -character. - -Rafael Nuñez, who had been declared the president elect of the -state,[XXVI-54] should have appeared to assume the executive duties -on the 1st of January, 1882, for a term ending on the 31st of October, -1884; but as he failed to do so, Dámaso Cervera, the first designado, -was summoned to take charge pro tempore of the office.[XXVI-55] -Nuñez resigned the position in November 1882, on the ground of ill -health; and though he offered, at the request of the legislature, -to reconsider his action, he never came to fill any part of his -term.[XXVI-56] Nothing worthy of mention occurred in the politics -of the Isthmus during this year, except a continued opposition on -the part of the so-called ultra-liberals to Cervera's occupancy, -notwithstanding which he had been chosen 1st designado for 1883, and on -the 1st day of January following was again placed in possession of the -presidency.[XXVI-57] - -[Sidenote: PANAMÁ PRESIDENTS.] - -The election for president of the state for the next term became a -question upon which there was a disagreement between the superior -court during recess of the legislative assembly, which decreed the -election should take place on the fourth Sunday of July, and Cervera, -who claimed that it ought not to be till the following year. The -latter proposition was acted upon.[XXVI-58] Cervera obtained early -in the year a month's leave of absence, during which the executive -office was in charge of the second substitute, J. M. Vives Leon, whose -first act was to suppress the comandancia general, and to muster -out of service a number of officers of all grades.[XXVI-59] The -state was in constant expectation of war, owing to affairs in other -states, and particularly to the presence of agents of the general -government having no recognized official position. In the apprehension -of political troubles, the states of Panamá and Cauca entered into a -convention[XXVI-60] to support one another's interests in the expected -contest. Cervera thought, however, that the time was now past when -the national troops could interfere in the internal affairs of the -state.[XXVI-61] - -The presence of federal forces on the Isthmus had often been a source -of danger to the state government. But it was required by international -obligation, and its necessity could but be recognized in view of the -fact that the construction of the interoceanic canal, already under -way, demanded the employment of thousands of men from all parts of the -world, who in the event of strikes or for other causes might commit -outrages.[XXVI-62] The election of senators and representatives to -the national congress was effected this year by the legislature, -Dámaso Cervera, Ricardo Nuñez, and José C. de Obaldía being chosen to -the former position.[XXVI-63] Cervera having been also elected first -designado of the presidency for 1884, he again was placed in possession -of the chief magistracy of the state on the 1st of January.[XXVI-64] - -An abortive attempt was made, at the instigation of Cervera's -political enemies, to have him removed. One of the justices of the -superior court, on the 2d of July, impeached and suspended him from -office. General Benjamin Ruiz, as second designado, was accordingly -handed the reins of government. But Cervera resisted, and appealed to -General Wenceslao Ibañez, commanding the national brigade, to support -his authority. Meantime, the superior court by a majority decided -on the 6th that Plaza's decree should have no effect, and that Ruiz -had illegally assumed the president's functions.[XXVI-65] Ibañez, -however, on the 8th insisted on Cervera's leaving the government, -and himself took control, his troops besieging Cervera in the state -house. The latter then applied to the superior court for a leave to -proceed to Bogotá to take his seat in the senate. Ruiz again seized -the presidency, and appointed B. Correoso secretary-general. By some -misunderstanding he was recognized by the national executive. At this -time, General Eloi Porto, who ranked Ibañez, arrived in Panamá, and -through his good offices Cervera was replaced.[XXVI-66] Ruiz might have -been permitted to rule a while had he followed in Cervera's footsteps; -but he began to remove prefects, and to despatch commissioners into -the interior, the peace of the state being again jeopardized, which -compelled Cervera to remain. - -[Sidenote: FIGHTING AT SEA.] - -A revolution broke out at David in the night of September 19th, -proclaiming a genuine suffrage, and setting aside the declarations -made by the judges of election for president of the state and deputies -to the assembly. Movements of the same kind followed in other parts. -In the night of the 27th Cervera's authority was pronounced in Panamá -at an end, and Ruiz was made the executive. Cervera on the 14th of -October proclaimed that public order had been disturbed by Ruiz and his -supporters,[XXVI-67] and established martial law. An encounter between -a government force on board the steam-tug _Morro_, and another of the -rebels on the steamboat _Alajuela_, took place at sea in the afternoon -of the 15th of October. The former experienced damage and loss of -crew.[XXVI-68] Cervera, who was on board, was blamed for the repulse. -The _Alajuela_ kept away a while, and then returned to land some -wounded men. The rebel chiefs, B. Ruiz, Gonzalez, and Andreve, marched -into the interior, respectively to Veragua, Aguadulce, and Penonomé. -This condition of affairs being telegraphed to the national government, -the executive decreed that public order was disturbed in Panamá, and -directed the commander of the national forces to arrest the guilty -persons.[XXVI-69] General Gónima, the federal commander, repaired to -Aguadulce, and prevailed on Ruiz and his friends to lay down their -arms, which he reported to Cervera on the 2d of November.[XXVI-70] - -The elections for president of the state took place on the 27th of -July, 1884. Juan Manuel Lambert was chosen,[XXVI-71] and was recognized -by the assembly in October. But the intrigues of the liberal party, -supported by Gónima, deprived Lambert of his office.[XXVI-72] - -On the 1st of October, upon the assembling of the legislature, Cervera -sent in his resignation; and no notice having been taken, he reiterated -it on the 20th, reminding that body that it had enacted measures which -would necessitate his retaining power till the end of December, when -his term should cease on the 31st of October, and the president elect -assume his duties. The resignation was not accepted, and the assembly -on the 21st, by all the votes present, but one, desired him to continue -at the head of the government.[XXVI-73] - -[Sidenote: PANAMÁ POLITICS] - -The assembly had on the 14th of October passed an act empowering -the executive to call a convention to be elected by direct popular -vote on the 7th of December, and to assemble on the 1st of January, -1885.[XXVI-74] The convention met on the appointed day. It has -been alleged that the election of members thereto was a mere -farce.[XXVI-75] In the still unsettled condition of affairs President -Cervera concluded, on the 24th of November, to retain in service -a force of officers for any emergency that might occur.[XXVI-76] -Still, he considered his position one that was by law untenable, -and on the next day laid his irrevocable resignation before the -superior court, alleging that he had held power too long—four years -and eleven months—and referring to the interference of the federal -government, he said that he must either submit to or oppose its -influence. His opposition would prolong an anomalous situation in -the country.[XXVI-77] The court, in view of the reasons adduced, -accepted the resignation, and summoned the second designado, Vives -Leon, to the presidential seat, which he held till the 6th of January, -inclusive, on which date the convention almost unanimously chose -General Ramon Santodomingo Vila president of the state.[XXVI-78] A -few days previously—on the 3d—Benjamin Ruiz and the other liberals -in the convention, after declaring that they would hold as traitors -all liberals who, by joining the conservatives, who would strengthen -the latter to make themselves masters of the state, abandoned the -chamber.[XXVI-79] - -The new president at once appointed his secretaries and his so-called -cabinet.[XXVI-80] In the apprehension of disturbances at Colon, the -executive requested the commander of the American war vessel _Alliance_ -to land a force there to guard the transit.[XXVI-81] The request was -complied with, but the force not being needed then was reëmbarked. - -The Isthmus now becomes again the theatre of deadly strife, with its -concomitant bloodshed and general destruction, to the disgrace of the -nation of which it forms a part, and the scandal of the world. A plot -by some men of the national force to seize the revenue cutter _Boyacá_ -having been detected, thanks to the loyalty of other members of the -same force, the executive notified the convention that the time had -come to proclaim martial law, which he did on the 9th of February. -The convention accordingly closed its session on the 11th.[XXVI-82] -On the 17th, Santodomingo Vila obtained a leave of absence to proceed -to Cartagena, where his military services were required, and Pablo -Arosemena, the first designado, was summoned to assume the executive -authority.[XXVI-83] At about five o'clock in the morning of the 16th of -March the population was awakened by the cries of Vivan los liberales! -Viva el general Aizpuru! accompanied with numerous shots. Aizpuru, at -the head of about 250 men, attacked the Cuartel de las Monjas, and the -tower of San Francisco, which were defended by a handful of government -troops, and a running fight from corner to corner ensued.[XXVI-84] -The assailants overran the city. The British war ship _Heroine_ then -landed some marines and sailors to protect the railroad. The president -called for troops from Colon, which came at once under General Gónima, -and entering the city early on the 17th, compelled the portion of the -revolutionists who had remained in the city to rejoin their main body -in the plains.[XXVI-85] - -[Sidenote: PANAMÁ RIOT.] - -Upon the government troops leaving Colon, a notorious man, Pedro -Prestan,[XXVI-86] with a motley gang, among whom were many of the worst -characters, seized the town,[XXVI-87] and sacked several merchants' -houses, demanding forced loans from such as were known to have -pecuniary means.[XXVI-88] It is stated, however, that he gave orders -for the protection of foreigners and their property. - -The revolutionists under Aizpuru encamped at Farfan refused to listen -to any propositions. Their chief, on the 24th of March, notified the -foreign consuls of his intention to assail the city of Panamá, which -he also made known to President Arosemena.[XXVI-89] This functionary -at once resigned his office into the hands of the superior court, and -sought safety on the British ship _Heroine_. No other designado having -been appointed by the convention, General Gónima assumed civil and -military control, and appointed B. Correoso his secretary-general. -Another decree proclaimed the neutrality of the state of Panamá -in the war raging in the rest of the republic. This proceeding -restored calm for a while, as it was taken to be the result of an -understanding between the revolutionists and the government. But it -seems to have become known too late at the headquarters of Aizpuru and -Prestan.[XXVI-90] - -On the 29th of March the American mail steamer _Colon_ arrived at the -port of the same name from New York, and the government directed that -she should not deliver arms to the rebels. This gave rise to most -high-handed proceedings on the part of Prestan, culminating in the -arrest by his orders of the American consul, Mr Wright, Captain Dow, -general agent of the steamship line, Connor, the local agent at Colon, -Lieutenant Judd and Cadet Midshipman Richardson, of the United States -war steamer _Galena_.[XXVI-91] Soon afterward Richardson was released -and sent on board the _Galena_ to tell his commander, Kane, that -the other prisoners would be kept in confinement till the arms were -surrendered, and if the _Galena_ attempted to land men, or to do any -hostile act, the boats would be fired upon, and every American citizen -in the place would be shot. Kane, knowing Prestan's character, did not -attempt any hasty act. Prestan then went to the prison and told Consul -Wright that he must order Dow to deliver the arms, or he would shoot -the four prisoners before that night. Wright complied, and they were -set at liberty. - -[Sidenote: ACTION OF THE REBELS.] - -But Kane took possession of the _Colon_, and in the night landed a -force and three pieces, under Lieutenant Judd, with orders to release -at all hazards Dow and Connor, who had been again imprisoned.[XXVI-92] -No sooner had the Americans occupied the offices of their consulate, -and of the railway and Pacific mail companies, than a force of -Colombian national troops[XXVI-93] came on, driving the rebels before -them into the intrenchments. During the whole morning the firing -was kept up, and ended about 12, noon, when the rebels being routed, -Prestan and his rabble set fire to the town at various places, and -fled.[XXVI-94] A strong wind blowing, the flames spread violently, -and the town was consumed with all its contents.[XXVI-95] The American -forces continued some days longer holding the place, Commander Kane's -authority being recognized, and the Colombian officers coöperating with -him in the preservation of order.[XXVI-96] - -But to return to Panamá. Aizpuru took advantage of the situation, -Gónima being left with only 60 soldiers, and a few civilians that had -joined him, to occupy the principal streets, on the 31st. To make the -story short, by 3 o'clock in the afternoon he was master of the place, -Gónima having surrendered.[XXVI-97] Aizpuru announced in a proclamation -on the 1st that he had assumed the functions of jefe civil y militar, -to which he had been called by the supporters of free political -principles, and on the 4th appointed his advisers,[XXVI-98] and adopt -measures to protect the city from incendiarism, and specially to guard -the interoceanic transit. Marines and sailors having been landed on the -8th of April from the United States frigate _Shenandoah_, by Aizpuru's -request, both ends of the Isthmus were on the 10th guarded by American -forces. Soon after the United States sent reënforcements of marines and -sailors with special instructions to protect the transit and American -citizens and their interests, avoiding all interference in the internal -political squabbles. Several war vessels of the U. S. home squadron, -under Rear-admiral Jouett, arrived at Colon.[XXVI-99] In the night of -the 24th of April, while the revolutionists were erecting barricades, -against an understanding with the American commander, the marines under -Commander McCalla took possession of the city, as a necessary measure -to protect American property, and Aizpuru and others were arrested. -However, on the next day, Aizpuru having pledged himself not to raise -barricades or batteries, the prisoners were released, and the Americans -retired to their encampment outside.[XXVI-100] - -[Sidenote: RESULT OF COLUNJE'S SYSTEM.] - -On the 27th a well-equipped Colombian expedition of about 850 men, -under General Rafael Reyes, arrived from Buenaventura to support M. -Montoya as civil and military chief of Panamá until a constitutional -government could be organized.[XXVI-101] With the good offices of the -foreign consuls, a peaceable arrangement was entered into, by which -Aizpuru bound himself to disband his forces, deliver all arms, and -retire to private life.[XXVI-102] But having failed, as it was alleged, -as late as the 2d of May to surrender all the rifles and caps in the -hands of the rebels, he and others were arrested and confined in the -town hall.[XXVI-103] On the 12th Aizpuru was sent to Buenaventura and -held at the disposal of the supreme government of Colombia.[XXVI-104] -It is understood that the rebel leaders were called upon to pay -large sums of money to meet the government's necessarily increased -expenditures; and that, in order to secure payments, their property -was seized. This is the result of Colunje's system, which Correoso -followed. He has been now repaid in the same coin. - -The Isthmus being now pacified, and 500 more Colombians having -arrived on the 9th of May, under Colonel Dominguez, being another -portion of Reyes' force to relieve Santodomingo Vila at Cartagena, the -American marines, who had been expressly sent out by their government, -returned home, leaving a good name for discipline and general good -conduct.[XXVI-105] The flagship _Tennessee_ of Admiral Jouett, and -the _Galena_, Commander Kane, went to sea from Colon on the 11th of -May. The former conveyed General Reyes, with relief for the Colombian -government's troops at Cartagena. - -After the death of President Olarte in 1868, the Isthmus for many years -did not enjoy a single day of peace. The general wealth having declined -throughout the country, and more so in the interior, poverty prevailed. -Capital, both foreign and native, abandoned so dangerous an abode. The -cattle ranges and estates disappeared; likewise agriculture, except on -a small scale.[XXVI-106] - -The black men of the arrabal in the city of Panamá, after they were -made important factors in politics, accustomed themselves to depend -on the public funds for a living, and the people of the interior, who -were always peaceable and industrious, came to be virtually their -tributaries. The state became the puppet of the men at the head of -the national government, or of political clubs at Bogotá, whose agents -incited disturbances, removing presidents indisposed to coöperate with -or to meekly submit to their dictation, substituting others favorable -to their purposes, and thus making themselves masters of the state -government, together with its funds, and with what is of no less -import, the state's vote in national elections. - -[Sidenote: SOCIETY AND POLITICS.] - -Since the establishment of the constitution of 1863, Panamá has -been considered a good field by men aspiring to political and social -position without risking their persons and fortunes. They have ever -found unpatriotic Panameños ready to aid them in maintaining the -quondam colonial dependence, and investing them with power, that they -might grow fat together on the spoils. Almost every national election, -since the great war of 1860, has brought about a forced change in -the state government. The first victim, as we have seen, was Governor -Guardia, deposed by national troops under Santa Coloma. That was the -beginning of political demoralization on the Isthmus. Every similar -illegal device to insure party triumph and power at Bogotá has been, I -repeat, the work of agents from the national capital assisted by men -of Panamá to push their own interests, and supported by the federal -garrison.[XXVI-107] - -The office of chief magistrate is desired for controlling political -power, and the public funds to enrich the holder and his chief -supporters. Patriotism, and a noble purpose to foster the welfare -of the country and the people in general, are, if thought of at all, -objects of secondary consideration. At times, the presidency is fought -for with arms among the negroes themselves, and the city is then a -witness of bloody scenes. The aim of every such effort is to gain -control of power for the sake of the spoils. - -Panamá cannot, being the smallest and weakest state of the Colombian -union, rid itself of the outside pressure. Neither can it crush the -unholy ambition of its politicians. Both entail misfortunes enough. But -the Isthmus must also share the same sufferings as the other states in -times of political convulsion in the whole nation.[XXVI-108] - -In view of the fact that the Isthmus of Panamá may before many years -become much more than it has heretofore been, a great highway of -nations, and that the great interests which will be constantly at stake -on the route will demand an effectual protection, it is self-evident -that measures of a permanent character must in time be adopted to -secure that end. Panamá, as an appendage of Colombia, and at the mercy -of an irresponsible population, cannot afford that protection; neither -is Colombia, with her constantly recurring squabbles, better able to -fulfil any international obligations she might assume in the premises. -Without intending to cast any slur upon her, or to doubt her honorable -intentions, all—herself among the number—must own that it would be -extremely dangerous to lean on so weak a reed. The question therefore -occurs, and must soon be solved, What is to be the future status of -the Isthmus? A strong government is doubtless a necessity, and must be -provided from abroad. Shall it assume the form of a quasi independent -state under the protectorate of the chief commercial nations, -eliminating Colombia from participation therein? or must the United -States, as the power most interested in preserving the independence of -the highway, take upon themselves the whole control for the benefit of -all nations? Time will tell. - -[Sidenote: PANAMÁ A DEPARTMENT.] - -Since the foregoing remarks were written, a change has taken place -in the political organization of the United States of Colombia, by -which the government has been centralized, the name of the republic -being changed to República de Colombia, and the state of Panamá, -being reduced to a mere national department, to be ruled by a civil -and military governor appointed by the national executive at Bogotá. -Under the new order of things, General Santodomingo Vila, the former -president, became civil and military ruler, with powers to inaugurate -the departmental organization.[XXVI-109] He took possession of -his office, and dictated several measures toward that end, and the -suppression of gambling and other abuses. But without good grounds, -after recognizing the press to be free, suddenly suspended that -freedom, though he soon after restored it. Meantime, however, he caused -the suspension for sixty days of the _Star and Herald_ and _Estrella_ -newspapers, alleging their hostility to the government because they -declined to publish some of his measures.[XXVI-110] - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII. - -CENTRAL AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS. - -1886. - - EXTENT OF THE COUNTRY—CLIMATE—MOUNTAINS AND - VOLCANOES—EARTHQUAKES—RIVERS AND LAKES—COSTA RICA'S AREA, - POSSESSIONS, AND POLITICAL DIVISION AND GOVERNMENT—HER - CHIEF CITIES—NICARAGUA, HER TERRITORY, TOWNS, AND MUNICIPAL - ADMINISTRATION—HONDURAS' EXTENT, ISLANDS, CITIES, AND - LOCAL GOVERNMENT—SALVADOR, HER POSITION, AREA, TOWNS, AND - CIVIL RULE—GUATEMALA'S EXTENT AND POSSESSIONS—HER CITIES - AND TOWNS—INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION—ISTHMUS OF PANAMÁ—AREA, - BAYS, RIVERS, AND ISLANDS—DEPARTMENT AND DISTRICT - RULE—THE CAPITAL AND OTHER TOWNS—POPULATION—CHARACTER AND - CUSTOMS—EDUCATION—EPIDEMICS AND OTHER CALAMITIES. - - -Central America proper embraces the region situated between the state -of Chiapas in the republic of Mexico on the north, and the former -state, now department, of Panamá on the south, extending from about -latitude 7° to 18° north, in length from 800 to 900 miles, and in -breadth varying from about 30 to about 300 miles. The united area -of the five republics comprised therein is about 175,000 square -miles.[XXVII-1] - -[Sidenote: PHYSICAL FEATURES.] - -The climate of this region on the Atlantic coast is about the same -as that of the West Indies, somewhat modified by various causes. The -Atlantic coast from Trujillo downward, including the Mosquito region, -is low and insalubrious. That of the Pacific coast is better in every -respect, the heat not being so oppressive, which is due to a drier and -purer atmosphere. The result is, that while the coasts on the Atlantic -are nearly uninhabited, those on the Pacific are lined with towns and -well settled. - -Beginning with Guatemala, and going southward, in Los Altos, the -highlands of the republic, the average temperature is lower than -anywhere else. Snow falls occasionally near Quezaltenango, but soon -disappears. The heat is never excessive.[XXVII-2] In the vicinity of -the city of Guatemala, the thermometer ranges from 55° to 80° with an -average of 72°. In Vera Paz, the north-eastern department, it is nearly -10° warmer. The whole coast from Belize down to Izabal and Santo Tomás -is hot and unhealthy.[XXVII-3] The state of Salvador, lying entirely -on the Pacific slope, has probably a higher average temperature than -Guatemala or Honduras; but the heat is oppressive only at some points -on the coast.[XXVII-4] Honduras has a fine climate, excepting the -portion spoken of on the coast of the Atlantic.[XXVII-5] Nicaragua, -with the exception of her department of Segovia, which borders on -Honduras and has the same surface and temperature, has a topography -and climate of her own, with an average temperature in the lake region -of about 79° to 80°, due more to favorable causes than to elevation. -In Costa Rica there is almost every degree of temperature, from the -intensest heat of Puntarenas to the constant spring of San José, or -the autumnal temperature of the belt above Cartago. The coast from -Chiriquí lagoon to the north is hot, wet, and unhealthy.[XXVII-6] -Properly speaking, there is no dry season on the Atlantic coast of -Central America. However, from June to September, inclusive, there is -less rainfall on the Atlantic side. During these months the Pacific -slope has its rainy season, but the rains are brief, occurring in the -afternoon and night.[XXVII-7] - -At a short distance from the Pacific coast the country is -traversed from north-west to south-east by an unbroken chain of -mountains,[XXVII-8] at least to Nicaragua Lake, and covered with -diversified vegetation. This cordillera is a connecting chain between -the Rocky Mountains of the northern, and the Andes of the southern, -continent.[XXVII-9] On the slopes and summits are fine table-lands, -some of which are quite extensive, and all temperate and surpassingly -fertile. It may be asserted that no portion of the earth presents a -greater diversity of level on an equal extent of surface than Central -America, or a greater variety of climate. - -The majority of the highest peaks are volcanoes, and no less than -thirty volcanic vents are said to be in activity. Extinct craters, -rent rocks, lava beds, scoriæ, vitrified, charred, and pumice stones, -hot and sulphurous springs, mark Central America as a most volcanic -region.[XXVII-10] - -[Sidenote: HISTORIC EARTHQUAKES.] - -In a region abounding with volcanoes, and where great convulsions of -nature have taken place, earthquakes—violent ones, at times—frequently -occur.[XXVII-11] The great shocks experienced by the city of Guatemala -in 1751, 1757, 1765, and the one of 1773, which caused the abandonment -of the old site, have been elsewhere mentioned.[XXVII-12] The year 1809 -was noted for a succession of violent temblores, causing much distress -among the inhabitants of Guatemala and Honduras, and doing much damage, -particularly in the latter state.[XXVII-13] Since that time the five -republics have constantly had such visitations, causing at times loss -of life and damage to property. I give in a note a number of such -occurrences.[XXVII-14] The Isthmus of Panamá has likewise repeatedly -experienced the effects of earthquakes, some of which have created much -alarm and injured property.[XXVII-15] - -[Sidenote: LAKES AND RIVERS.] - -From the lofty sierras and volcanic cones descend streams, which, -meeting on the plains below, form beautiful lakes, or swell into rivers -that roll on to either ocean. They are numerous, and though not of -great length, because of the narrowness of the region they traverse, -are by no means insignificant.[XXVII-16] The country has several lakes, -some of which have occupied the attention of scientists, statesmen, and -merchants, and I will have occasion to treat of them in connection with -interoceanic communication and commerce farther on.[XXVII-17] - - * * * * * - -The republic of Costa Rica is that portion of Central America extending -between Nicaragua and Panamá, and having on one side the Pacific Ocean, -and on the other the Atlantic.[XXVII-18] Costa Rica has the islands of -Colon, San Cristóbal, Bastimento, La Popa, and others in Boca del Toro; -the Escudo de Veragua in the Atlantic, the Cocos, Caño, San Lúcas, and -Chira in the Pacific; these latter two and smaller ones lying within -the gulf of Nicoya. - -The political division of the republic is in provincias and -comarcas;[XXVII-19] namely, provincias of San José, Cartago, Alajuela, -Heredia, and Guanacaste, and the comarcas of Puntarenas and Limon. The -provincias and comarcas are alike divided into cantones, and the latter -subdivided into barrios. At the head of each provincia and comarca -is a governor, and of each canton a jefe político, all of executive -appointment. The police department is under the governor, unless, in -special cases, the supreme government should assume the immediate -control over it in certain localities. Each provincial capital has -a municipal corporation,[XXVII-20] acting, like the governors and -other subordinate authorities, under the general ordinances, made and -provided for the government of the whole republic. - -The cities of the republic are San José, Cartago, Heredia, Alajuela, -Liberia, Puntarenas, and Limon. There are, besides, seven or eight -villas, and nine or ten pueblos.[XXVII-21] - -The republic of Nicaragua, probably the most important section -of Central America, is bounded on the south by Costa Rica, on the -north-west by Honduras, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the -south-west by the Pacific.[XXVII-22] Nicaragua has a few insignificant -isles or cays on her coasts of both oceans. - -[Sidenote: POLITICAL DIVISIONS.] - -The republic is politically divided into seven departments; namely, -Granada, Leon, Rivas, Chinandega, Chontales, Matagalpa, and Nueva -Segovia. Their capitals or head towns are respectively Granada, -Leon, Rivas, Chinandega, Acoyapa, Matagalpa, and Ocotal.[XXVII-23] -The departments are subdivided into distritos, and the latter into -cantones. For the purposes of civil administration there is a prefect -at the head of each department, who is also a subdelegado of the -treasury; a subprefect rules over each district, and the cantones have -jueces de paz.[XXVII-24] These officials are appointed by the executive -government. The capitals of departments and head towns of districts -and cantones have elective alcaldes, and regidores constituting -the municipal corporations.[XXVII-25] In each department there is a -gobernador de policía, who likewise derives his appointment from the -national executive. - -[Sidenote: NOTABLE CITIES.] - -The principal cities of the republic are Granada, Managua, Masaya, -Leon, Rivas, and Chinandega. Managua was an insignificant town, but -being situated between Granada and Leon, was made the national capital, -in order that the government might be rid of the complications arising -from their constant rivalry, and intrigues to control the destinies -of Nicaragua. The position of the capital is a splendid one, the -surroundings being very picturesque.[XXVII-26] The streets are not -paved; the town has not a building worthy of mention. The government -house is a low, square edifice, with balconies in the old Spanish -style, without any exterior ornamentation or architectural character, -Leon, the old capital, is situated on a beautiful plain, and spreads -over a very wide area.[XXVII-27] In the central part the streets are -paved and lighted. There are some fine buildings in the city, those -most worthy of notice being the cathedral, a strong piece of masonry, -often used as a fortress in times of civil war, the old and new -episcopal palaces, the university, government house, two churches of -greater architectural beauty than the cathedral, four buildings which -were formerly convents, and now devoted to objects of public utility. -The place being in the region of earthquakes, and the temperature -extremely warm, the buildings are made to meet these conditions. There -is also a fine stone bridge, which García Jerez had constructed. Near -Leon, and with only the width of a street from it, is Subtiaba, which -has a separate municipality, and whose church is the largest, after -the cathedral, and the oldest of the temples in Nicaragua.[XXVII-28] -I give in a note some information on other cities deserving of special -notice.[XXVII-29] - -The republic of Honduras is bounded on the north and east by the bay of -Honduras and the Caribbean Sea, extending from the mouth of the River -Tinto to the mouth of the Wanks or Segovia. On the south it is bounded -by Nicaragua—the line of division following the Wanks for about two -thirds of its length, and thence deflecting to the south-west, to the -sources of the Rio Negro, flowing into the gulf of Fonseca; it has a -coast line of about sixty miles on this gulf from the Rio Negro to the -Rio Goascorán. On the west and south-west are the republics of Salvador -and Guatemala.[XXVII-30] - -Honduras possesses in the gulf of Fonseca the islands Tigre, Zacate -Grande, and Gueguensi; and in the Caribbean Sea the group known as Bay -Islands; namely, Roatan, Guanaja, or Bonaca, Utila, Helena, Barbaretta, -Morat, and other smaller isles. - -The republic is politically divided into seven departments: Choluteca, -Comayagua, Gracias, Olancho, Santa Bárbara, Tegucigalpa, and Yoro. -Nacaome is the capital of Choluteca, and Jutecalpa of Olancho. The -other capitals bear the same names as the departments to which they -belong. The departments are subdivided into districts, and at the head -of each of the former is a jefe político, appointed by the executive, -who is the organ of communication between the supreme government and -the people.[XXVII-31] - -[Sidenote: TOWNS AND HOUSES.] - -The principal cities in the republic are Comayagua, anciently called -Valladolid, the former capital, and Tegucigalpa, the present seat of -government. The former is on the right bank of the Humuya or Ulúa -River, and on the southern border of the wide and fertile valley -of Comayagua. From its position, upwards of 2,000 feet above the -sea-level, surrounded by high mountains, its temperative is mild -and equable. The political disturbances of the country have reduced -Comayagua to a low condition,[XXVII-32] and the loss of its standing as -the capital has tended to bring it down still lower. Most of the houses -are of a single story, and built of sundried bricks. The former fine -fountains, monuments, and public buildings have gone to decay. The only -building still in good condition is the cathedral, which is a rather -imposing edifice.[XXVII-33] Tegucigalpa enjoys a cool temperature, -and has an excellent climate. The city is the largest and finest in -the republic. It is built with regularity, and has six churches, the -parochial edifice comparing favorably with the cathedral at Comayagua. -There are also a number of magnificent convents, and the university -also deserves mention.[XXVII-34] There are other places in the state -not entirely devoid of interest, a few particulars about which I append -in a note.[XXVII-35] - -The republic of Salvador, the only one of Central America not having -a coast line on the Atlantic, is bounded on the north and east by -Honduras, on the south-east by Fonseca Bay, on the south by the Pacific -Ocean, and on the north-west by Guatemala.[XXVII-36] It possesses -the small islands called Punta Zacate, Martin Perez, Conchagüita, and -Mianguera in the bay of Fonseca. - -For the purposes of government the republic is divided into fourteen -departments; namely, San Salvador, Cuscatlán, San Vicente, La -Paz, Usulután, San Miguel, Gotera,[XXVII-37] La Union, Cabañas, -Chalatenango, Santa Ana, Ahuachapan, Sonsonate, and La Libertad. The -departments are subdivided into districts, and the latter into cities, -villas, pueblos, and aldeas. The chief towns of the departments bear -the same names as the latter, excepting those of Cuscatlán, La Paz, -Gotera, La Union, Cabañas, and La Libertad, which are respectively -called Cojutepeque, Zacatecoluca, Osicala, San Cárlos, Sensuntepeque, -and Nueva San Salvador. They all have the rank of cities. Chinameca, -Jucuapa, Ilobasco, Suchitoto, Metapan, and Izalco enjoy the same -distinction. There are, besides, about 36 villas, and 176 pueblos. - -[Sidenote: MUNICIPAL REGULATIONS.] - -At the head of each department is placed a governor, who has a -substitute to fill the office in his absence, both being appointed -by the national executive for a constitutional term. They may be -impeached for misdemeanors in office before the senate.[XXVII-38] -The alcaldes of district head towns are the chief authorities of -their respective districts, and like the alcaldes of other towns, are -subordinate to the governor. In the event of absence or disability of -an alcalde, the regidor depositario assumes his duties pro tempore. -Alcaldes are represented in distant country places by comisionados -of their own appointment. Each town has for its internal management -a municipal corporation chosen by the direct votes of the citizens, -and consisting of one alcalde, one síndico, and from two to six -regidores, according to population.[XXVII-39] Such corporations act -under the general ordinances provided for the government of municipal -districts.[XXVII-40] - -The principal cities are San Salvador, San Miguel, Santa Ana, which -has been the capital, Cojutepeque, which has also been the seat of -government, Sonsonate, Zacatecoluca, San Vicente, Sensuntepeque, -Chalatenango, Santa Rosa, Ahuachapán, and Santa Tecla or Nueva San -Salvador. - -San Salvador was first founded at a place now called Bermuda, about -eighteen miles to the northward of the present site. During the -Spanish domination it was the residence of the gobernador intendente. -After the separation from the Spanish crown it became the capital of -Salvador, and for a while was the federal district, and seat of the -Central American government. The city, as I have stated elsewhere, -has been repeatedly shattered by earthquakes, but in each instance -rebuilt, notwithstanding efforts to abandon the site. Both the town -and its position are beautiful. It is in the midst of a broad elevated -plateau in the coast range, between the valley of the Lempa River and -the Pacific Ocean, 2,115 feet above the sea.[XXVII-41] The place has -a cathedral, and other churches, a national palace, a university, and -other government buildings. Excepting the central and paved park, San -Salvador is embowered in tropical fruit-trees. - -San Miguel is justly considered the second city of Salvador. Its -houses have a home aspect, comfort in the interior, and elegance in the -exterior. It is supplied with water by an aqueduct. There are fountains -to refresh the air and to please the eye. Two iron bridges cross the -San Miguel River, said to have been constructed by Guzman at an expense -of $90,000 of his own money. Back of the town is the majestic volcano -of San Miguel. In the bay of Fonseca is the excellent port of La Union, -to the west that of La Libertad, and beyond that of Acajutla at a short -distance from Sonsonate and the Izalco volcano. - -The republic of Guatemala is bounded on the north and west by the -Mexican states of Yucatan and Chiapas; on the east by British Honduras, -the bay of Honduras, and the republics of Honduras and Salvador; and on -the south by the Pacific Ocean.[XXVII-42] - -[Sidenote: DEPARTMENTAL GOVERNMENT.] - -The state is divided for the purposes of civil government into -departments; namely, Guatemala, Sacatepéquez, Amatitlan, Escuintla, -Chimaltenango, Sololá, Totonicapan, Quiché, Quezaltenango, Retalhuleu, -Suchitepéquez, Huehuetenango, San Márcos, Peten, Baja Verapaz, Alta -Verapaz, Livingston Izabal, Chiquimula, Zacapa, Jalapa, Jutiapa, and -Santa Rosa.[XXVII-43] They are subdivided into municipalidades, each -of which forms regulations or ordinances for the management of its own -affairs, subject to approbation or amendment by the supreme government. -At the head of each department is a jefe politico, and some of them -likewise have a sub-jefe. - -The general government makes its administrative action felt in the -departments. Down to 1879 the laws relating to civil administration in -them were not only confused, but contained clauses which were, some -of them, opposed to the principles of modern legislation, and others -directly contrary to the liberal and progressive system the nation had -adopted since 1871.[XXVII-44] Hence the necessity of prescriptions -consonant with the existing situation.[XXVII-45] A decree was also -issued to insure common principles and rules for the municipal -corporations.[XXVII-46] Under the new order of things, the sum total -of receipts by all the municipalities in 1883 was $530,040, and of -expenditures $489,422.[XXVII-47] - -Guatemala, the capital, together with the whole republic, has had -its beauties more or less extolled by every foreign traveller who has -visited it and published a book, from 1822 to late years. These praises -were well deserved; but they fall short of what they now should be, -considering the improvements introduced by the energetic administration -of President Barrios, which placed it on a level with many cities of -greater pretensions and resources.[XXVII-48] - -The city stands about 5,300 feet above the sea, upon a fertile -plateau traversed by the Rio de las Vacas, being almost surrounded -by ravines. It is laid out in wide, regular, well-paved, and clean -streets, forming right angles, and has extensive suburbs. The number -of houses is probably 5,000, most of them of one story. There is, -however, a considerable number with two stories. They are mostly -constructed with solidity and comfort, and many have fountains, -gardens, and courts.[XXVII-49] Besides the cathedral, archepiscopal -palace, government house, mint, and other public buildings, there -are several beautiful churches, and a number of fine and extensive -edifices, formerly occupied by religious orders, and now devoted -to practical uses.[XXVII-50] There are many reservoirs filled with -potable water, some of them of handsome construction, and surrounded -by beautiful grounds. Water is supplied the city by aqueducts from -a distance of several miles.[XXVII-51] Most of the houses also -have wells. The city is likewise well provided with educational and -benevolent establishments, as well as places of amusement, such as the -theatre and the hippodrome.[XXVII-52] From the Jocotenango ward to the -circus there is a fine boulevard along which runs the tramway from the -Calvary. The city will soon be in communication with Port San José by -railway, as it has long been by telegraph with the other chief towns. -The monkish, funereal appearance which Guatemala presented prior to -1871 has disappeared, being succeeded by a pleasing aspect of life. The -city police has been organized and equipped in American style, and the -body of men is second to none in Spanish America.[XXVII-53] - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: PANAMÁ ISTHMUS.] - -Panamá was formerly a state, but under a recent organization of the -republic of Colombia, has been reduced to the condition of a national -department. It lies partly between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific, -and is bounded on the south-east by the state of Cauca in the same -republic, and on the west by Costa Rica.[XXVII-54] - -There are a number of islands belonging to the department, among -which are the Mulatas archipelago, the Pearl group, Coiba, Taboga, -and Flamenco.[XXVII-55] The range of mountains traversing the Isthmus -is a continuation of the Andes, but the elevation in some parts does -not exceed 300 feet above the sea. From this ridge flow about 150 -streams into the Atlantic, and more than double that number into the -Pacific.[XXVII-56] - -The state has been hitherto divided into departments; namely, -Panamá, Colon, Coclé, Chiriquí, Los Santos, and Veragua,[XXVII-57] -which are subdivided into distritos parroquiales. At the head of -the distrito capital and departamento de Panamá is a governor, and -the other departments have prefectos. Each distrito is under an -alcalde.[XXVII-58] - -[Sidenote: BUILDINGS AND POPULATION.] - -The city of Panamá is laid out with regularity, on a rocky peninsula, -presenting a fine appearance from the sea, as it stands out from the -dark hills inland with an air of grandeur. The Ancona hill 540 feet -high rising a mile westward of the city—helps to render the place -conspicuous. But on entering, the visitor finds himself disappointed. -The principal streets cross the peninsula from sea to sea, intersected -by the Calle Real, running east and west. The place has a quiet and -stately appearance, without promising comfort. The houses are mostly -of stone built in the Spanish style, the larger ones having heavy -balconies in the upper stories, with court-yards or patios. There is -little relief or variety.[XXVII-59] The smaller ones are of a single -story. The churches and public buildings, namely, the cathedral, casa -de la gobernacion, cabildo or town hall, ecclesiastical seminary, -and four convents for friars and one for nuns, were strongly built; -but years of neglect and the deteriorating effects of the climate -have brought many of them to decay; notwithstanding which some of the -ecclesiastical edifices are still used for the service of God, whilst -others, not utterly ruined, are applied to other purposes.[XXVII-60] -The place was at one time tolerably well fortified, but the -fortifications no longer exist; the south and west ramparts are, -however, in good condition forming an agreeable promenade. The drainage -is very bad; many necessary things to insure cleanliness and comfort -are wanting; good potable water being scarce and high-priced.[XXVII-61] -The city has enjoyed the benefit of gas light for several years -past, and since the construction of the canal was begun, it has -had many improvements introduced, among them a fine and spacious -hospital.[XXVII-62] - -The place next in importance on the Isthmus is Colon, otherwise known -as Aspinwall, on the island of Manzanilla. It is the Atlantic port -of the Isthmus, and contains the stations, offices, and wharf of the -railway company, as well as those of the several steam-ship companies, -and likewise a number of buildings of the ship-canal enterprise. The -town was progressing rapidly, and had a number of fine modern buildings -other than those before mentioned, but it was ruined by the vandalic -act of revolutionists, which event has been elsewhere described in this -volume.[XXVII-63] - -The official census of population in the Isthmus of Panamá for 1880 -showed the number of inhabitants to have been 307,598.[XXVII-64] The -report laid by the state government before the assembly in September -1882 stated that the population had increased since 1880 to 343,782, -which was due to the influx of men employed on the canal-works. There -have been many fluctuations since. The proportion of negroes and -mixed breeds has ever been larger than the pure whites in the city -of Panamá and on the Caribbean Sea coast, and after the opening of -the canal-works it became greatly increased with laborers from the -coast to the south, Jamaica, etc., almost all being negroes. In the -interior departments the case is quite different, the majority of the -inhabitants being of pure whites. - -Efforts made from time to time to develop foreign colonization -through land grants have never led to any advantageous acquisition of -immigrants.[XXVII-65] - -[Sidenote: ISTHMUS SOCIETY.] - -The number of American indigenes on the Isthmus is computed at about -10,000.[XXVII-66] The chief of the Savaneries claimed the sovereignty -over the land they occupied, and their rights thereto were recognized -by the authorities of Veraguas.[XXVII-67] - -The Manzanillos occasionally visit Portobello and neighboring villages, -and at one time, if not always, were in a state of warfare with the -Bayanos. The latter hate the Spaniards and their descendants, but are -friendly to the English.[XXVII-68] - -In 1873, a law was enacted to compel the wild Indians to adopt the -usages of civilized life, and prompt action was recommended by the -executive of Panamá in 1874, but nothing came of it.[XXVII-69] - -There are but few families of the higher class in Panamá, and time is -required to establish a footing of intimacy with them. Considerable -has been said in Europe against the character of the women of Panamá, -which is not borne out by fact. Much real worth exists among them. -Indeed, the native women of the Isthmus generally, possess the best -qualifications. They are not only pretty, graceful, and refined, -but are dutiful daughters, and excellent wives and mothers. Those -in the higher positions, even while laboring under the disadvantage -of a limited education, which during a long time was the case with a -majority of them, have, as a rule, been of industrious and economical -habits. In later years the young girls of the better class have been -enabled to acquire an education. The same cannot be said of the women -of the lower classes, whose moral scale is quite low, marriage with -them being the exception rather than the rule. For this state of things -the upper class is partly responsible, inasmuch as from a misguided -feeling of charity it looks upon the practice with indifference instead -of frowning upon it.[XXVII-70] - -The women of Panamá, since the early days of railway travelling, -have abandoned their former ways of dressing and of arranging -their beautiful hair, adopting European fashions and putting on -hats. The women of the lower order, till very recently, wore the -polleras;[XXVII-71] but this is becoming a thing of the past. These -women are very untidy; they move about their houses slipshod and -stockingless. The dress of the native laboring man is a pair of cotton -or linen trousers and a shirt. - -The young men of the educated class are well-mannered, and most of -them have an average share of ability, but application and steadiness -of purpose are wanting. Like their sisters, they are kind and -affectionate to their families and relatives.[XXVII-72] Nearly all the -male inhabitants speak English as well as their native language, and -a number, who have been abroad, are conversant with French and even -German. - -In their domestic life, notwithstanding their constant intercourse -with people of other nations, the Panamanians keep themselves secluded, -much as they did before the railway was constructed. They still hug a -portion of their old opinions and prejudices. Nevertheless, the fullest -liberty of conscience and of religion being recognized by the Colombian -laws, all forms of worship may be publicly practised.[XXVII-73] - -[Sidenote: EDUCATION.] - -The government of Panamá has not always manifested a proper interest in -the diffusion of knowledge among the masses. It must be acknowledged, -however, that during the existence of the central régime, prior to -1860, the children throughout the Isthmus had a better opportunity -to acquire instruction, there being schools with paid teachers in -nearly all the towns.[XXVII-74] After the revolutionary period became -inaugurated, the funds of the government hardly ever satisfied the -greed of political leaders, or sufficed to meet the cost of a large -military force, and public instruction suffered. This occurred more -particularly in the interior, and even the capital has seen its public -schools closed for the want of funds.[XXVII-75] The legislators in -1871 gave a new organization to this branch of the public service, -but for various reasons nothing was accomplished until 1873, when the -philanthropic Manuel J. Hurtado undertook the task of getting some -light out of the existing chaos. His efforts soon began to yield good -results, though more satisfactory ones might have been obtained had -the state government afforded larger means.[XXVII-76] Normal schools -have been also established for training teachers, and several other -educational institutes have been founded, one for females under women -of a religious order. Nevertheless, the majority of young men possessed -of means go abroad or to Bogotá to complete their education. - -The Isthmus has not produced any notable literary or scientific men, -properly so-called, though there are and have been among its people -bright intellects. In political and diplomatic life, however, may -be mentioned as notabilities Justo Arosemena, José Obaldía, Pablo -Arosemena, and Jil Colunje. - -The newspaper press has been during many years represented on the -Isthmus by the _Star and Herald_,[XXVII-77] which is the vehicle for -the communication of news between Europe and the United States on the -one side, and the countries in Central and South America on the other. -It has been for many years, and continues to be, entitled to rank as a -first-class newspaper. Its local edition now appears daily in English, -Spanish, and French; the edition for Europe and the United States, -to leave by each departing steamer, is in English; and the one for -Central and South America is in Spanish, the publication then bearing -the name of _La Estrella_.[XXVII-78] Several other newspapers have been -published, besides the official organ, from time to time in English and -Spanish, or wholly in Spanish, but they have been short-lived. - - * * * * * - -Bull-worrying is a popular amusement among all classes.[XXVII-79] -Cock-fighting is also much patronized on Sundays and -holidays.[XXVII-80] Horse-riding, and in later years driving, are -recreations of the better classes. Public and private balls, and an -occasional play, concert, or circus, when artists cross the Isthmus, -help to break the monotony of life.[XXVII-81] - -[Sidenote: HEALTH AND DISEASE.] - -The Isthmus has suffered, not only from revolutions, but from -calamitous visitations in the form of epidemics, particularly -small-pox; also by convulsions of nature, and devastating -fires.[XXVII-82] - -Asiatic cholera visited Panamá in 1849,[XXVII-83] at a time when the -Isthmus was crowded with strangers, early in the California gold fever. -The destruction of life was heart-rending, as it spared no class or -condition.[XXVII-84] Malignant fevers, pulmonary and throat diseases, -and other maladies do their work of destruction, and yellow fever often -carries off its victims from among unacclimated strangers.[XXVII-85] -The tablon, a disease imported in 1873 from Cartagena, assumed an -epidemic form, and carried off many of the aged and children.[XXVII-86] - -Few, if any, precautions are taken to improve the sanitary condition -of the capital, and much less of any other town. In fact, any partial -efforts will be of little avail so long as drainage is so bad, and -the habits of the lower classes continue so filthy. The necessity -of sanitary measures is generally admitted, and ordinances have been -enacted to that effect;[XXVII-87] but their observance is spasmodic at -best. - -The public hospital of Panamá city in 1865 was a poor affair.[XXVII-88] -In late years, through the efforts of the private charity, improvements -have been introduced, and greater pains taken in the care of the sick -poor. The canal company has likewise made ample provision for the -attendance of its sick employés and laborers. - -Hurricanes and floods have helped to destroy life and property, and -cause general distress. Fire has on several occasions left large -numbers of people without shelter and utterly ruined.[XXVII-89] - - - - -CHAPTER XXVIII. - -THE PEOPLE OF COSTA RICA, NICARAGUA, AND SALVADOR. - -1800-1887. - - CENTRAL AMERICAN POPULATION—ITS DIVISIONS—GENERAL - CHARACTERISTICS AND OCCUPATIONS—LAND GRANTS—EFFORTS - AT COLONIZATION—FAILURE OF FOREIGN SCHEMES—REJECTION - OF AMERICAN NEGROES—CHARACTER OF THE COSTA RICAN - PEOPLE—DWELLINGS—DRESS—FOOD—AMUSEMENTS—NICARAGUAN MEN AND - WOMEN—THEIR DOMESTIC LIFE—HOW THEY AMUSE THEMSELVES—PEOPLE OF - SALVADOR—THEIR CHARACTER AND MODE OF LIVING. - - -The total population of the five states of Central America in 1883 was -set down at about 2,831,847 souls,[XXVIII-1] divided as follows: in -Costa Rica, 182,073; Nicaragua, 400,000; Salvador, 612,813; Honduras, -360,000; and Guatemala, 1,276,961. The figures for Costa Rica and -Guatemala are the results of actual count, the others by computation. -The census of August 10, 1885, showed Costa Rica's population to be -189,425; that for Guatemala, January 1, 1884, exhibited 1,278,311, to -which must be added an increase during that year of 6,293.[XXVIII-2] -The population of the last-named state on June 30, 1885, has been -computed at 1,303,009.[XXVIII-3] - -[Sidenote: COLONIZATION COMPANIES.] - -The republic of Central America, as well as the several states -that formed it, has from the earliest days of its national autonomy -endeavored to encourage foreign immigration, offering inducements, such -as liberal grants of land, exemption from taxes and military service, -and the privileges of citizenship. At the same time care has been had -to respect the property and other rights of foreigners. Colonization -decrees were passed in 1831, 1834, and 1836,[XXVIII-4] the legislators -feeling as sanguine of good results as they were earnest and sincere -in their purpose. An English company, called the Eastern Coast of -Central America Commercial and Agricultural Company, organized in -London, was the first to enter the field, having obtained from the -state of Guatemala a grant of land which included the whole department -of Vera Paz.[XXVIII-5] Dishonesty presided over the operations of the -company.[XXVIII-6] About 300 persons, many of them from the refuse of -the population of London, were sent out, without proper preparations or -knowledge of the country, to places in or near the hot and insalubrious -coasts, where the unhappy creatures wandered, suffered, and almost all -perished. Meanwhile, the directors of the company labored in vain to -induce the British government to sanction their proceedings.[XXVIII-7] -The whole project ultimately failed, the directors being in their turn -deceived by the men in whom they had reposed most confidence. After -wasting many lives, and misappropriating some £40,000, lost of course -by the share-holders, the charter became forfeited for non-fulfilment -of its terms.[XXVIII-8] - -Another colonization scheme was started in May 1842, and ratified -in a further convention of October 1843, between a Belgian company -established in Brussels, and the government of Guatemala.[XXVIII-9] The -company, under that contract, assumed the obligation of introducing at -least 100 families of five members each, annually, till 1,000 families -had been settled. The colonists were to be catholics, and from the -moment of their landing were to be considered Guatemalan citizens, with -all the rights and duties of such.[XXVIII-10] - -All the articles of the agreement were most favorable to Guatemala, -and yet the company, which was under the patronage of the king of the -Belgians, signed it without his approval being first obtained. It is -known that his government disapproved many parts of it. It would seem -as if the Belgians were bent on getting possession of the district on -any terms, hoping afterward to retain it by negotiation as a Belgian -colony. The company fulfilled the conditions for the first two years, -but the great mortality of colonists at Santo Tomás made it impossible -to induce others to emigrate; and though the Belgian government -rendered pecuniary aid to the amount of $200,000, the settlement shared -the fate of the one attempted by the British in 1836. The company was -dissolved, and the government of Guatemala resumed possession of the -district, including the port of Santo Tomás.[XXVIII-11] - -[Sidenote: IMMIGRATION AND COLONIZATION] - -Since that time Guatemala has not failed to pass laws for the -encouragement of foreign immigration, and the protection of foreign -settlers.[XXVIII-12] In 1883 the government entered into a contract -with F. F. Millen to introduce 10,000 immigrants from Europe or the -United States, the former agreeing to give each immigrant, of upwards -of 21 or under 50 years of age, a grant of 45 hectáreas of land, -upon his complying with the terms of it.[XXVIII-13] Vain efforts had -been made by the American government prior to the civil war to obtain -permission from the Central American republics for the colonization, -under its patronage on their waste land, of negroes voluntarily -emigrating from those states. The scheme was opposed in toto by the -leading men.[XXVIII-14] - -In 1867 and 1868 a considerable number of immigrants, many of whom were -Americans and some Cubans, settled in Honduras, the government by its -liberal laws and other facilities encouraging foreign immigration. This -policy it has continued to pursue, and in late years many foreigners -have been drawn to the country by the discovery of valuable gold -placers.[XXVIII-15] - -Salvador has done little or nothing toward increasing her population -by immigration; but foreigners of good moral character and industrious -habits are always welcomed and protected in their rights. They can also -become naturalized after five years' residence, or at the end of three -years by contracting marriage with a native of the state. - -In Nicaragua the executive was authorized on the 6th of May, 1853, to -enter into colonization contracts.[XXVIII-16] One such was made with -James Welsh May 11, 1859, and another with Adolph Adlesberg May 11, -1861, neither of which had effect.[XXVIII-17] - -A colonization decree was issued by President Rivas, November 23, 1855, -granting each immigrant 250 acres of public land, and 100 additional to -each family.[XXVIII-18] The liberality of the grants, together with the -facilities then afforded by the Transit route brought a rapid increase -of immigration. In 1861 a contract to foster colonization was made with -Gottel.[XXVIII-19] Again, on the 7th of March, 1865, an immigration -law was enacted granting a number of privileges to persons availing -themselves of it. A number of Americans came, and in March 1867 the -town of Guzman was founded.[XXVIII-20] - -The government of Costa Rica has often offered inducements, in the -way of land grants, for European immigration.[XXVIII-21] It must be -said, however, that the Costa Ricans are jealous of foreign influence, -and though willing to have the benefits of foreign capital, are -not disposed to share with foreigners the wealth which that capital -develops. Nevertheless, foreigners are permitted to hold real and other -kinds of property, and to become citizens of the country.[XXVIII-22] - -[Sidenote: LAND GRANTS.] - -In 1849 a grant of land of 20 leagues in length by 12 in breadth -was made to a French company for 1,000 colonists.[XXVIII-23] The -conditions of the contract were not carried out, though a considerable -number of immigrants formed under it an establishment. The project -failed.[XXVIII-24] In the fall of 1850, 51 persons, after two months' -sail from Bremen, arrived at San Juan del Norte, and underwent great -hardships and privations to reach San José. After three years only -three families remained.[XXVIII-25] - -A similar grant to that of the French company was made on the Atlantic -coast to a British company,[XXVIII-26] which had no effect. - -Still another concession was made May 7, 1852, to a German company, -organized at Berlin, who seemed to be actuated by a desire to carry -out their obligations, even though the people and government of -Costa Rica early showed a disposition to look upon their scheme with -disfavor.[XXVIII-27] Baron Bülow was the director of the company. He -died in 1856, and in all probability his enterprise died with him. -Another attempt was made by Crisanto Medina, to whom a large grant of -land was made for colonization purposes, at Miravalles, at the foot -of the volcano of that name. The grant embraced a fine plateau about -2,500 feet above the sea.[XXVIII-28] In 1852 thirty-seven Germans were -settled there, and possibly a few more came afterward, but the project -was abandoned.[XXVIII-29] - -In 1856 there was an arrival of French immigrants.[XXVIII-30] On the -23d of April, 1858, another colonization law was passed.[XXVIII-31] The -idea of augmenting the population by offering inducements to foreign -immigrants has not been abandoned. Thus we see further contracts -entered into with private parties to that end.[XXVIII-32] - -[Sidenote: CLASS DISTINCTIONS.] - -The most numerous class of population in Central America, next to -the pure Indians, are the ladinos, most of whom are half-breeds, -which include the mestizos, mulattoes, quadroons, octoroons, and -zambos.[XXVIII-33] The mestizos are of a light yellow hue; numbers of -them, however, are found as white as the natives of southern Europe. -They are generally a fine-looking race of men, resembling in bodily -and mental features the creoles or pure native whites, though more -hardy. In temperament they are passionate, revengeful, treacherous, and -cowardly, ambitious and yet lazy, sensuous, and in a majority of cases, -at least in the lower class, devoid of moral principle. The pure Indian -is more reliable than the mestizo, the latter having all the vices of -the two races out of which he sprang. - -The ladino class furnishes the domestic servants, muleteers, small -farmers and tenants, herdsmen, and not a few beggars and robbers. In -revolutionary times many of its numbers have been banditti, preying, -under the garb of guerillamen, upon both friend and foe. A considerable -number of ladinos, however, become mechanics and traders, and many -have attained high positions in the church and the state, and become -distinguished for their talents and abilities.[XXVIII-34] The zambos -and other mixtures of the negro race, like most of the negroes and -mulattoes, reside in the coast districts. They do the heaviest work in -the towns, and often engage in agriculture. - -The Creoles, or pure native whites, calling themselves Americans, -though less numerous, form the ruling class. In the towns they are -the leading element, filling the most desirable positions, such as -those of land and mine owners, merchants, manufacturers, lawyers, -physicians, mechanics, officials, and higher clergy.[XXVIII-35] The -creole is generally well built, and of about medium height, with a -pleasing expression of countenance. His eyes are usually black like -his hair and beard. He lacks the steadfastness of the Anglo-Saxon, -and the trustworthiness of the German, often allowing himself to -be swayed by passion and caprice. There are, nevertheless, many -honorable exceptions, which are probably the result of education and -contact with the people of other and older nations. Indeed, whatever -may have been the defects of character of the creole, when he lived -comparatively isolated from the world, and entertained the conceit of -his own excellence and superiority, a great change for the better is -noticeable in many individuals in after years, since Central America -has been enjoying facilities of communication with other peoples, which -has enabled her sons and daughters to study their ways, and to adopt -whatever is good in them, not to mention the bad ways which have also -taken root. - - * * * * * - -The population of Costa Rica is represented to be nearly all white, -the Indians not being numerous, and the negroes and mixed breeds -living on the coast.[XXVIII-36] The Costa Ricans are a well-formed -people. There is, perhaps, not as much manly dignity and female grace -as are yet to be found in Spain; nor is the color of their females, -as a rule, to be compared with that of their European sisters; but -what is lacking in that is fully compensated by elegance of form, -regularity of features, splendid eyes, and an abundance of glossy -hair,[XXVIII-37] and not least by their affability and sweetness of -manner. The people are generally intelligent, and noted for the absence -of hauteur in their manner.[XXVIII-38] They are sedate, industrious, -economical, fairly honest,[XXVIII-39] and peaceable. Upon occasions -they have shown themselves possessed of good soldierly qualities when -their independence or rights have been in peril, as during Walker's -filibuster war; but they cannot be called a warlike people.[XXVIII-40] -They are not ambitious, aspiring to a moderate independence to be -attained without an excessive effort. Indigence is almost unknown. All -Costa Ricans own property of some kind, and even the humblest of them -has the ambition of possessing a piece of land. - -[Sidenote: DOMESTIC AFFAIRS] - -The houses of the wealthy and well-to-do are quite comfortable. -They are built with ordinary doors and windows, and of one or two -stories.[XXVIII-41] Window-glass is only used in the better houses of -the principal cities. In the smaller towns windows are dispensed with -as superfluous. Carpets are to be found in a few houses of the wealthy, -or of foreigners. Instead of them, floors are covered with matting. The -rich exhibit paintings or engravings on their walls. The houses of the -poor are comfortless.[XXVIII-42] - -The higher classes enjoy the pleasures of the table. In the populous -cities inns are kept for the better class of travellers, at which -a tolerably good table is provided. The usual food of the peasants -and other poor people consists of tasajo, or jerked beef, black -beans, corn, rice, tortillas, plantains, and other fruits.[XXVIII-43] -Intoxication is prevalent among the lower classes. Guaro, or -aguardiente, and gin are deemed a necessity for the peasant and -laborer. With the action of the heat and the poor food, liquor soon -overpowers him.[XXVIII-44] - -Saturday is the day upon which the cities are supplied with comestibles -and other commodities for the week. Natives of both sexes and all -ages throng the market-places, particularly in San José,[XXVIII-45] -bringing vegetables, fruits, and other food for the table. Others -bring manufactured articles, like earthen-ware, hammocks, charcoal, -hats, rebozos, etc.[XXVIII-46] From sunrise till noon the market-places -are crammed with sellers and buyers. The ladies of all ranks do their -own marketing, and are seen, basket on arm and bareheaded, strolling -about and driving bargains. The market-women move rapidly, carrying -goods on their heads or in strings. The better class of women follow -in their dress the fashions of Europe, except that they wear no hats. -The females of the lower classes have their own mode of dress, which is -generally more studied than in other places of Central America. Some -of them wear ear-rings and expensive collars, a jipijapa hat costing -$16. The gowns are of muslin, printed calico, or some other light -material, and cover half a dozen embroidered petticoats. The hair is -divided into two tresses hanging down behind, and in the braids runs -a bright-colored ribbon. Others wear on the head a rebozo, which like -the hat is significant of the taste or wealth of the wearer.[XXVIII-47] -Only a few among them complete this studied toilet with shoes or -boots. The men bring their mules, or carts, or merely their machetes. -They generally wear a coarse cloth coat and a pair of drill or cotton -trousers. The hat varies; it is either of straw, otter, or felt. -Most of the people of the interior go barefooted, but carry plenty -of pesos in their pockets and make them jingle. After purchasing -in the market-place such articles as they need, which go under the -general term habilitaciones, and selling their products, they seek the -vinaterías or pulperías, and invite one another to drink. - -The great amusement of Costa Rica is gambling. The people have a -command of money, and their only ways of spending it, to afford them -entertainment, are the church, the bottle, and gambling.[XXVIII-48] -On Sundays and feast-days after the church service[XXVIII-49] the men -resort to the cockpit, many staking from $200 to $500 on the result of -a fight between two cocks.[XXVIII-50] - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: NICARAGUAN SOCIETY.] - -The Nicaraguan women of pure Spanish stock are quite fair, and have -the embonpoint characterizing the sex under the tropics. Many of them -are handsome, having an oval face, regular features, large and lustrous -black eyes, small mouth, good teeth, small hands and feet; and withal -a low but clear voice. Some of the descendants of white and Indian -of the higher class are also quite beautiful. The Indian girl with -her full lithe figure, long glossy hair, and erect walk should not -be overlooked.[XXVIII-51] Nicaraguan society has a peculiar charm and -grace, with little conventionality. Both men and women of all classes -are extremely courteous.[XXVIII-52] Strangers are well received, if -decently clad, well-mannered, and of good behavior. They will find -it rather difficult to obtain the privilege of visiting respectable -families. When a young man desires to pay his addresses to a young -lady, he applies for the permission of her parents, guardian, or -relations, as the case may be. Marriages are invariably according to -the rites of the catholic church. Burials of members of rich families -are in churches.[XXVIII-53] - -The Nicaraguans of the higher order—there is no middle one—cannot be -credited with industrious habits. Life is easy with them, and the -climate is enervating. So they spend much of their time lying in a -hammock and smoking cigarettes.[XXVIII-54] The lower order in the towns -follow the example, at least the male portion. The peasantry, however, -is docile and fairly industrious, and may be called an excellent rural -population. The peon system is unknown in Nicaragua. - -The Nicaraguan people have a fine muscular development, and a -mild soft expression. Though not warlike, they are brave, and will -fight desperately when reduced to it by necessity. The masses are -not so demoralized as some travellers would have us believe them. -Crimes are relatively rare, and the public roads are safe from -highwaymen.[XXVIII-55] A servant may steal a small amount, or some -object thrown in his way, and yet will convey a large sum of money to -a long distance without thinking of running away with it. It must be -confessed that there is too much proneness to condone offences against -morality and honor.[XXVIII-56] - -[Sidenote: DRESS AND DWELLINGS.] - -There is no national costume. The wealthy follow to some extent -to European fashions, generally suppressing the silk hat, which -is replaced with any hat that is broad-brimmed and suited to the -climate.[XXVIII-57] Men of the lower class go barefooted, or wear the -caite, which is a species of sandal. The rest of their dress is a pair -of cotton trousers, frequently not reaching lower than the knees, a -shirt, its lower part often outside the trousers, and a palm-leaf hat. - -There are many fine horsemen in Nicaragua, as well as in all Central -America. A caballero is in his element when mounted on a spirited, -champing horse, with a pellon thrown over the saddle, which is the -Mexican saddle modified and with high peaks. He carries also to -complete his equipment a pair of bolsters and pistols.[XXVIII-58] -Women imitate the European summer costumes, but use no hat except when -riding on horseback. They generally appear in a loose and flowing -dress, with neck and arms exposed. A light shawl is thrown over the -shoulders, or worn over the head at church. A red or purple sash may -be wound around the waist, and a narrow golden band, or a string of -pearls extending around the forehead and binding the hair, which often -falls in luxuriant waves over the shoulders. The usual way of dressing -the hair is to have two braids knotted behind the head, and to place -a few natural flowers in it. The feet are incased in satin slippers. -The women of the lower class use a petticoat without waist, covering -the undergarments. A floating short shirt quite open in the upper -part, and almost sleeveless hardly concealing the bust. In the street -they wrap themselves in a rebozo. Stockings and shoes are worn only in -cities.[XXVIII-59] - -The dwellings of the poor in the country are usually of canes thatched -with palms, many of them open at the sides, and with the bare earth for -floors. Some of them have the canes plastered over, and whitewashed, -with tile roofs, or otherwise improved. Those of large proprietors are -strongly built, neat, comfortable, and generally cool. In the towns -there are many dwellings of the same character; but the residences -of the wealthier class are built of adobes, of one story, enclosing -large courts which are entered under archways, these being frequently -constructed with much beauty.[XXVIII-60] The interior is divided into -large rooms around the gallery or corridor. The walls are whitened -on both sides. One of the rooms is used as a parlor, the others for -different purposes.[XXVIII-61] The furniture is generally of home -manufacture and simple enough.[XXVIII-62] The house is lighted with -stearine candles, imported or common tallow dips. Petroleum and lamps -have also been introduced.[XXVIII-63] - -[Sidenote: FOOD AND DRINK.] - -The characteristics of Nicaraguan life are sobriety and uniformity of -food.[XXVIII-64] Families make a practice of not laying in supplies, -but purchase what they need from day to day. Some buy their food -already cooked. - -The custom of extending invitations to dinner with one's family, so -common in other countries, does not obtain in Nicaragua, except among -relatives or very intimate friends. Men are asked to eat only on -special occasions, when banquets are given, at which the English custom -of giving toasts is followed. - -Amusements are few in Nicaragua. However, the upper classes have their -tertulias and balls, often improvised, at which the polka, waltz, -bolero, and other well-known Spanish dances are performed with grace -and spirit. The lower classes frequently have fandangoes and other -characteristic dances. There is no place of general resort for the -better classes, unless it is the billiard-room, which serves alike as a -gambling-den.[XXVIII-65] The cockpit is in full operation every Sunday, -the people being fond of the amusement, and even the most respectable -indulge in it.[XXVIII-66] Gambling at monte and other games of hazard -is common enough, but the vice has not attained the development noticed -in other parts of Spanish America.[XXVIII-67] It is certainly conducted -with less publicity. - -There are neither bull-pits nor professional bull-fighters. Now and -then a performance of the kind takes place in some plaza; the bull is -much worried, but not killed.[XXVIII-68] - - * * * * * - -After describing the manners and customs of the Nicaraguans, there is -but little left to say of their neighbors the Salvadorans, who resemble -them in most characteristics. It must be acknowledged, however, that -the people of Salvador are entitled to the first rank in Central -America for their industry, general intelligence, and love of order. -Individual rights are respected among them, and well-behaved foreigners -are at all times made welcome. The Salvadorans seem to understand what -are the duties of republicans.[XXVIII-69] - -The population of Salvador consists of Indians, ladinos, and zambos. -The ladinos comprise the whites, of which class the proportion is -small, and the several mixtures of white and Indian. The mode of living -of the latter scarcely differs from that of the Nicaraguans or other -Central Americans of the same standing. - -[Sidenote: SALVADORAN SOCIETY.] - -The aboriginal peoples have undergone considerable modification from -the three centuries of contact with the white men, and of subjugation -to the Spanish rulers. But there are towns, even near San Salvador, the -capital, which have retained many of their primitive customs, and where -the aboriginal blood has suffered but little, if any, intermixture. The -native language has fallen into disuse in most places, and only a few -words, also accepted by the whites, are retained.[XXVIII-70] The region -known as costa del bálsamo[XXVIII-71] is entirely occupied by Nahua -nations, whose habits have scarcely changed since the conquest. They -are not absolutely hostile to the Europeans, but certainly dislike any -intrusion on their part. They are an industrious people. - -The aboriginal Salvadoran is, as a rule, slender in form but muscular. -Some of the women have fine figures and graceful carriage; they walk -with a firm step and body erect. They are, both men and women, gentle, -affable, and rather hospitable; their temperament is melancholy and -dreamy. They are well-disposed toward foreigners, and though they will -not tolerate any doubt as to the purity of their blood, yet consider -themselves insulted by being called indios. They also look upon the -whites and ladinos as usurpers in the land. They are much given to -boasting of their courage and generosity, and wish to be taken for -a brave people. The Indian possesses a certain quantum of honesty, -but will fulfil his contracts faithfully when his interests do not -suffer by it; otherwise, he will find a loop-hole of escape. He cannot -understand the value put by others on capital; his present needs being -covered, he cares nothing for the superfluous.[XXVIII-72] - -The men are quite reserved in their manner; the women are different. -Their desire to have children by white men promotes looseness. They do -not see any dishonor in having foreign lovers, and children born out -of wedlock. Nearly all the Indians can read and write, and have some -knowledge of arithmetic. - -The dress of the Salvadoran Indians is extremely simple; probably the -same as that worn by their ancestors. The women use a piece of blue -cotton wrapped round the waist, and reaching only a little below the -knees; the upper part of the body being scantily covered with a sort -of chemise with an aperture at the top for the head, and open at the -sides.[XXVIII-73] The head-dress consists of two long tresses of their -own black hair, interlaced with a red ribbon, and wreathed round the -head like a turban. They wear neither shoes nor stockings. The men -generally have caites to their feet. Their dress is a light suit of -cotton, a straw hat or colored kerchief on the head, and a chamarra of -coarse cloth, which answers all the purposes of cloak, blanket, carpet, -and bed. - -The dwellings are simple and comfortless; indeed, they seem to have -been put up with the expectation of their being tumbled down at any -moment by earthquakes. - -[Sidenote: MUSIC AND SKY-ROCKETS.] - -The men leave to the women all the cares of the house; the latter, -consequently, lead a laborious and hard life. Their food consists -of eggs, venison, tortillas, beans, rice, and fruit. They are fond -of coffee, and the men indulge freely in the use of chicha, rum, and -every other alcoholic drink that comes in their way. The women, on the -contrary, are strictly sober.[XXVIII-74] Like all other christianized -Indians, they devote much of their time and substance to religious -feasts, which are generally followed by carousals and gambling, -cock-fighting being a prevalent amusement. They have a decided liking -for music, accompanying their sad strains with the guitar, accordion, -marimba, or dulcema. The practice of burning fire-crackers and letting -off sky-rockets is quite common upon every occasion, whether of -rejoicing or mourning. At funerals they let off rockets as they march -along to the cemetery.[XXVIII-75] - - - - -CHAPTER XXIX. - -THE PEOPLE OF HONDURAS AND GUATEMALA. - -1800-1887. - - AMALGAMATION IN HONDURAS—POSSIBLE WAR OF - RACES—XICAQUES AND PAYAS—ZAMBOS OR MOSQUITOS—PURE - AND BLACK CARIBS—DISTINGUISHING TRAITS—LADINOS—THEIR - MODE OF LIFE—GUATEMALA AND HER PEOPLE—DIFFERENT - CLASSES—THEIR VOCATIONS—IMPROVED CONDITION OF THE - LOWER CLASSES—MESTIZOS—PURE INDIANS—LACANDONES—WHITE - AND UPPER CLASS—MANNERS AND CUSTOMS—PREVAILING - DISEASES—EPIDEMICS—PROVISION FOR THE INDIGENT. - - -In Honduras, the amalgamation of races has almost obliterated the line -distinguishing whites from blacks. The mixture of white, negro, and -Indian has brought about a population ranging in hue from chocolate -to cream color. Now and then a pure white descendant of the old -aristocratic families may be seen; but such instances are quite rare, -as few families have escaped the amalgamation. - -A war of races is among the possibilities. In former times some -families were wont to enlist blacks and Indians in the deadly feuds -of the country; now they stand in dread of elements which will -overshadow or exterminate them, unless a timely influx of whites from -the United States and Europe shall counter-balance the ever-increasing -preponderance of the black race.[XXIX-1] However, there are a number -of respectable negro families, some of whose members have occupied high -positions in the government. - -[Sidenote: WHITE, RED, AND BLACK.] - -The Indian or aboriginal element predominates here as in all Central -America. In some districts it is difficult to say whose habits of -life prevail, the white or the Indian. In the eastern portion of the -state,[XXIX-2] the population is almost entirely of Xicaques and Payas, -portions of which native tribes have accepted the catholic religion and -live at peace with the white inhabitants; the rest, living among the -mountains, conform more to their original mode of life, but maintain -friendly relations with the white race. - -The coast around Carataska Lagoon, and as far to the westward as Brewer -or Brus Lagoon, was at one time occupied by zambos, or Mosquitos, but -the Caribs spreading rapidly eastward from Trujillo and Black River -have displaced them. The zambos have of late years lost their former -activity, and surrendered to the besetting vice of drunkenness, which, -together with other causes, is hastening their extinction. Most of them -having been driven by the Caribs into territory belonging to Nicaragua, -the proportion of them still remaining in Honduras must be small. - -The Caribs are the descendants of the original inhabitants of the -leeward island of Saint Vincent.[XXIX-3] The presence of negro blood -among the Caribs is explained by the foundering, when they were still -dwelling in Saint Vincent, of an African slave ship, on one of the -small islands of the vicinity.[XXIX-4] The Caribs, both the pure -and the black, are active, industrious, and provident, and far more -civilized than the zambos, living in well-constructed huts, which are -kept clean and comfortable. They still retain their original language, -though most of them can speak Spanish and a little of English. While -professing to be catholics, they retain many of their old rites -and superstitions. Being a good, frugal, intelligent, and useful -laboring population, much aid may be expected from them in the future -development of the country. - -In Comayagua and Choluteca there are several towns wholly occupied by -Indians, who retain their ancient language and many of their primitive -customs. They are industrious, provident, and peaceable; but if left -to their own unaided efforts, will never bring about the development -of the country; but with the introduction of an intelligent and -enterprising people their good qualities could be rendered useful. - -Among the ladino class the men are all polite; the educated are -well-bred; and even in the lowest walks of life courtly language and -manners prevail.[XXIX-5] - -The women of the higher class are rather tall, but straight; their -every movement is elegant and modest. The brunettes with raven hair -prevail as to numbers; yet a fair complexion, with light hair, blue -eyes, and ruddy cheeks is found, particularly in the highlands. Pretty -hands and arms are common. The women of the lower classes are generous -and kind-hearted, hospitable, gentle, frank, and patient. Upon them -falls a large share of the work done.[XXIX-6] This does not, of course, -apply to women of wealthy families, but the fact stands that the women -of the lower orders are mere slaves, albeit they appear cheerful and -happy. The practice of men and women living together without being -married prevails here, as elsewhere in Central America, chiefly among -the lower order.[XXIX-7] - -[Sidenote: DOMESTIC AFFAIRS.] - -Women of the higher class are taught but little beyond reading, -writing, and a few rules of arithmetic, playing on the guitar or -piano, dancing, and presenting a good appearance in society. This -done, they are soon taken to the altar, and their matronly duties -begin. A few young women, however, are sent to the United States for an -education.[XXIX-8] - -Dwellings in Honduras are mostly of one story; the Hondureños, -not having the excuse of earthquakes, say that it was the mode -established by their ancestors. The sala, or parlor, is the room -where the family pass the greater part of the day, doing nothing in -the forenoon.[XXIX-9] The construction of the house is very much like -that described for Nicaragua. The residences of the wealthier classes -are cleanly and cool, and have neat gardens in the rear, adorned with -beautiful flowers and birds in cages. There is no excess of furniture. -A bedstead, one or two chairs, and a clothes-press form the ordinary -furnishing of a bedroom. But in the houses of the wealthier families, -and where several women reside, the rooms are more generously supplied. - -Breakfast and dinner are substantial meals with the wealthy.[XXIX-10] -The manners observed at table are very sedate, and always courteous. -When wine or other beverage is drank, the health of the master and -mistress of the house is pledged with the first glass. The poor, -especially in eastern Honduras, are badly fed, and though generally -fleshy and well formed, are not constitutionally strong. In the cattle -districts of Olancho they fare better, getting all the beef they need. -Yet even the former make patient and enduring soldiers, capable of -travelling twenty leagues a day through the mountains.[XXIX-11] - -The upper classes adopt American and European fashions, and costly -articles of wearing apparel are in demand. Women, as a rule, wear white -dresses the year round, or those of a light pink or blue gauzy stuff. -At parties or balls the dress is usually white and very light. Little -jewelry is worn. In the street a woman always wears a mantilla or a -shawl covering her head. The hair is oftener worn plaited, and put up -behind the head. Ringlets are seldom seen. Women are rarely seen out -except in the morning and toward sunset. - -Men of means travel on fast mules worth at least $150 each; the -trappings being silver mounted, and some of the bridles and head-stalls -adorned with plates of virgin silver. The Hondurans are fine riders. -Many of the females are graceful and fearless horsewomen. The habit of -riding on the right side prevails. Sometimes the bottom of the rider's -dress is loaded with small silver coins fastened through holes in the -skirt.[XXIX-12] - -All classes of the people, from the clergy down—or up—indulge in bull -and cock fights, horse-racing, dancing, and the excitements of the -monte-table, all of which amusements generally follow the services of -the church on great civic or religious festivities.[XXIX-13] Gambling -is quite general, and thousands have been ruined by this vice; however, -there is less of it here than in other parts of Central America. -Begging is a prevalent practice throughout the country, and various -devices are resorted to by the halt, maimed, blind, and others to -obtain alms.[XXIX-14] Good domestic servants are not easily procured -in Honduras; they are generally mulattoes of poor intelligence, and -exceedingly indolent.[XXIX-15] - -[Sidenote: CASTES AND CLASSES.] - -The population of Guatemala is set down at about 750,000 Indians, -430,000 ladinos or mestizos, 10,000 persons white or nearly so, 8,000 -negroes or colored, and 2,000 foreigners.[XXIX-16] The white men are -mostly owners of estates, and several of them belong to the learned -professions; others are engaged in trade, or keep shops.[XXIX-17] -The mestizos are mechanics, retail shop-keepers, or servants. The -Indians are the cultivators of the soil, and generally speaking, the -agricultural laborers. Many mestizos, and not a few pure Indians, -however, belong to the learned professions, and for that reason are -counted among the gentry, though not among the so-called nobles, -supposed to be descendants of the Spaniards who in colonial times held -positions under the government, or were connected with them. - -Until the liberal régime became established in 1871, a régime which -did away with the privileges of class, there were two castes in the -country; namely, the laboring and producing class, and the governing -one which was wholly made up of consumers. Between the two classes -custom and the rulers had built up a Chinese wall, an almost impassable -barrier. That distinction has been rapidly disappearing under the -influence of liberal laws. - -The Guatemalans of the educated class are noted for their kindly -disposition, simplicity of manners, and high sense of justice. Both -sexes are amiable, courteous, and attentive to strangers.[XXIX-18] -Notwithstanding their good intellectual powers, owing to the effects -of climate, habit, educational and religious training, bad government, -and perhaps the combination of those causes, they have been inclined -to indolence, and have lacked in vigor of thought, energy, and -enterprise; punctuality could not be counted among their good traits, -but a most confirmed religious bigotry prevailed for years among all -classes.[XXIX-19] An enlightened public opinion, in both government and -religious matters, has been, however, growing from the time that the -detestable old system was overthrown, it is hoped forever. - -The youth of Guatemala are made conversant with the etiquette of -society. The higher class are quiet, reticent, grave, and seemingly -impassible, but as a rule make good husbands, fathers, and neighbors. -They are studiously polite and punctilious, expecting a full return -from others. The women are more free, impressive, and impressible than -the other sex, gracious in speech, unaffected and winning. They also -rank high for morality.[XXIX-20] Many of them are blondes; many have a -white skin, with dark eyes and hair.[XXIX-21] - -The mestizos, who are the issue of white fathers and Indian mothers, -and of the promiscuous intercourse,[XXIX-22] habitually seek the -towns. They are, as a class, much the superior intellectually of the -pure Indian, better educated, and less superstitious, as well as less -loyal to church and government, and too often wicked, treacherous, and -dissolute. When not injured by early excesses the mestizos are finely -built. The younger and uncorrupted females are distinguished by the -voluptuous swell of their busts, fine lithe forms, erect and graceful -carriage. They walk with an elastic footstep and inimitable grace and -freedom. - -[Sidenote: PHYSIQUE AND DWELLINGS.] - -The Indians mostly dwell by themselves in villages, many on the -estates of planters, and a few in the cities and towns.[XXIX-23] They -are supposed to be intensely catholic, but they mix in with their -christianity many heathen rites; and being partially educated by the -clergy, nearly all understand and can speak the Spanish language. When -not corrupted by military service the aboriginal is industrious, mild, -and temperate. Those who dwell apart in their villages raise most of -the fruits and produce marketed, and make most of the domestic articles -sold in shops. Nearly all, and particularly those of the departments of -Los Altos, have a fine physical development. - -The race has been from the time of the conquest oppressed and kept in a -state of barbarous ignorance and superstition. The régime, established -since 1871, energetically enforced by the late President Barrios, has -done much to bring about a change for the better.[XXIX-24] - -The Lacandones have been specially spoken of by several authors who -have written on Guatemala. The Spaniards, after attempting in the -latter end of the seventeenth century to pacify the warlike Indian -provinces, including the Lacandon region, resolved upon forcibly -removing the Indian towns. The Indians of the town of Dolores were -generally quiet, but as an expensive garrison would be required to make -sure of their continuing at peace, the inhabitants were removed first -to Aquespala, next for some unknown reason to San Ramon, and finally -to Santa Catarina de Retalhuleu.[XXIX-25] These changes caused much -suffering; a large number died, others became scattered, but most of -them returned to their native mountains.[XXIX-26] The government of -Guatemala tried in 1831 and 1837 to bring the Lacandones under its -authority, but all its efforts failed, and they have since retained -their independence, though seemingly they have abandoned their -old predatory habits, contenting themselves with preserving their -isolation.[XXIX-27] - -The above remarks refer to the western Lacandones, who live on or near -the Pasion River, and its tributaries. The eastern Lacandones are a -harmless tribe who hold no relations with and fear the others.[XXIX-28] - -The dwellings of the citizens of Guatemala are generally of only one -story, but the capital and other cities present fine houses of two -stories; as a rule the houses are commodious, and abundantly supplied -with water. Those of the wealthy are elegantly furnished, and the -rest tolerably well provided, the floors being covered with mattings. -The habitations of the poor and Indians are mere thatched huts and -altogether comfortless. - -[Sidenote: DRESS AND FOOD.] - -The upper or educated class follow in their dress the fashions of -Europe and the United States. The women, however, wear a mantilla or -shawl and veil when going to church, and appear without any covering -of the head when walking out or on a visit. They like to adorn their -hair with flowers.[XXIX-29] The men are rather modest in their apparel, -and only when equipped for travelling do they exhibit some ostentation. -At such times, their weapons, the trappings of their horses or mules, -and other ornaments are expensive, provided their means will allow the -indulgence. - -The following was the dress worn in the first quarter of the present -century by the women of the lower order, not included in the wealthy -class. Short red petticoats, with deep plain white flounces round the -bottom, gathered up in very thick plaits over their hips with a white -border; thence upwards, they had only a chemise to cover them.[XXIX-30] -The hair in front was in the madonna form, and the hinder part, being -of great length, was divided into tightly plaited cords, which were -twisted round the head in various devices. A pink satin shoe, without -stockings, completed the costume. Most of the Guatemala damsels -of the lower classes dressed in that style, excepting that more -frequently they went without shoes, this being specially noted in the -servant class.[XXIX-31] Some changes have occurred since then, and -a considerable number of the lower order have adopted the custom of -dressing like the wealthy, but as a rule a marked difference exists -between the two classes. - -Men of the mechanic class generally dress like the upper class; the -laborers rarely have more than a shirt and trousers; and occasionally -a round jacket. Many go barefooted or wear the caite. A common palm -or straw hat covers the head. The village or agricultural Indians -go scantily clad. The best wear of a male consists of a straw hat, a -short-sleeved shirt, short breeches, and caites. The females rarely -sport more than a loose waistcoat, and a short petticoat, or a cloth -wrapped round the waist, reaching a little below the knees. Children of -both sexes run nude. - -The food of the Guatemalans is about the same as that of other Central -Americans of their respective classes. Travellers will find mesones to -provide shelter and refreshments for man and beast at certain distances -on their journey.[XXIX-32] At places where no inns exist, the traveller -will be accommodated by the priest, or by the alcalde in the town hall. - -The Guatemalans, like all Central Americans, are fond of bull and cock -fighting,[XXIX-33] as well as of games of chance, which are indulged -in with great frequency.[XXIX-34] The government endeavors to provide -amusements of a more intellectual and refined character. It built a -fine theatre in the capital, and from time to time subsidizes musical -and dramatic troupes.[XXIX-35] - -Begging is common. The sight of a crowd of beggars in rags, many -of them exhibiting their sores, is very repulsive. Those beggars -are supported by public charity and are rarely sent away without -relief.[XXIX-36] - -[Sidenote: DISEASES AND HOSPITALS.] - -The several states of Central America have often been visited with -calamities in the form of storms and hurricanes, freshets, and fires, -causing heavy losses of property, and at times of life also. Disease -causes its destruction as elsewhere, and often maladies in an epidemic -form have decimated the population. Fevers are rare, except on the -coasts, where they prevail during the hottest months.[XXIX-37] The -small-pox has on several occasions done havoc among the population. -The invasions of the malady in 1851 in Costa Rica, 1862 in Guatemala -and Honduras,[XXIX-38] and in 1883 in Costa Rica, have been specially -recorded in those countries.[XXIX-39] - -Leprosy prevailing in several parts of Central America, special -hospitals have been established in some of the republics for the -reception and care of persons thus afflicted.[XXIX-40] Syphilis exists -in Central America, but is not so prevalent as in Mexico. In some parts -laws have been enacted to regulate the social evil.[XXIX-41] - -That great scourge of the present century in Europe and America, -Asiatic cholera, has repeatedly invaded the Central American states, -carrying vast numbers to destruction. In 1836 it desolated the largest -cities, and everywhere created the utmost consternation.[XXIX-42] It -again made its appearance in the early part of July 1855. A soldier -died in Fort San Juan. A few days later a boat-load of cholera patients -came to Granada, and forthwith the malady spread throughout Nicaragua -and the rest of Central America, its heart-rending effects not ceasing -in Salvador and Guatemala till toward the latter part of 1857.[XXIX-43] -The disease broke out again epidemically in Nicaragua toward the end -of 1866, and continued its ravages there and in Honduras in 1867 and -1868, and it appears that some cases occurred in Honduras even as late -as 1871.[XXIX-44] - -The several republics have provided hospitals for the care of the -indigent poor, as well as other benevolent establishments for the -comfort of orphans and others needing public support. There are also -charitable societies affording great relief to the sick and destitute. - - - - -CHAPTER XXX. - -INTELLECTUAL ADVANCEMENT. - -1800-1887. - - PUBLIC EDUCATION—EARLY EFFORTS AT DEVELOPMENT—COSTA RICA'S - MEASURES—SMALL SUCCESS—EDUCATION IN NICARAGUA—SCHOOLS - AND COLLEGES—NICARAGUAN WRITERS—PROGRESS IN SALVADOR - AND HONDURAS—BRILLIANT RESULTS IN GUATEMALA—POLYTECHNIC - SCHOOL—SCHOOLS OF SCIENCE, ARTS, AND TRADES—INSTITUTE - FOR THE DEAF, DUMB, AND BLIND—UNIVERSITY—PUBLIC - WRITERS—ABSENCE OF PUBLIC LIBRARIES—CHURCH HISTORY IN - CENTRAL AMERICA AND PANAMÁ—CREATION OF DIOCESES OF SALVADOR - AND COSTA RICA—IMMORALITY OF PRIESTS—THEIR STRUGGLES FOR - SUPREMACY—EFFORTS TO BREAK THEIR POWER—BANISHMENTS OF - PRELATES—EXPULSION OF JESUITS—SUPPRESSION OF MONASTIC - ORDERS—SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND STATE—RELIGIOUS FREEDOM. - - -During the last years of colonial rule the government displayed some -interest on behalf of public education in Central America. It was, -however, religious rather than secular, and the consequence was that -liberal ideas were not countenanced. After the establishment of the -republic, and while the liberal system prevailed, this important -branch was not neglected.[XXX-1] Later, after the dissolution of -the confederation, some of the states, having fallen under the rule -of a despotic oligarchy, were lukewarm, to say the best. Costa Rica -cannot be accused of neglect.[XXX-2] In 1856 she had public schools in -all the towns, supported by the government, and in the chief places -others receiving aid from the municipalities.[XXX-3] The university -of Santo Tomás, at San José, has chairs of Spanish and Latin grammar, -philosophy, mathematics, law, medicine, and pharmacy, and confers -diplomas.[XXX-4] - -The efforts of general and local authorities, as well as of private -individuals, for the spread of instruction among the masses were -never discontinued, education being more or less under ecclesiastical -control till August 1881, when it was placed under the supervision -of the national executive. Thus far educational results were far from -satisfactory, the statistics in November 1883 showing, that throughout -the republic only 14.70 per centum of the population could read and -write.[XXX-5] Nevertheless, there are many well-educated men, who -received their instruction in the schools, colleges, and university, -and have attained good standing in the several learned professions, and -in political life. - -The labor to enlighten the masses continues unabated, with hopes of -better success. No works of literary importance have been issued from -the press in Costa Rica, and only a few newspapers, other than the -official journal, are published. - -[Sidenote: EDUCATION IN NICARAGUA.] - -The advantage to Nicaragua of possessing an educated people has not -been unknown, and efforts to that end have been made since early times, -though without the desired results.[XXX-6] The general supervision was -finally given the executive, and local boards in the departments. Since -that time some progress has been made. The number of primary schools -has been increased; and schools of agriculture, arts, and trades, new -colleges, and a national library have been established. Teachers of -both sexes have been brought from the United States and Europe. It is -hoped that these efforts, persistently sustained, will yield the better -fruits. Indeed, President Cárdenas' message of January 15, 1885, gave -a hopeful account, though primary instruction still is quite backward -for want of competent teachers.[XXX-7] - -There are no data as to the number of those who can read and write, -or as to the mental condition of the population. There is no national -literature. Persons assuming to write for the public generally do it -through a newspaper or loose sheet. Among this class are some who wield -powerful pens.[XXX-8] Occasionally there appears a work in book form -from the pen of Tomás Ayon, Gerónimo Perez, and others on history or -politics.[XXX-9] - -The Spanish language was introduced in Nicaragua, as in the rest of -Spanish America, but a great number of Indian words are in daily use -even by the educated classes. - -Salvador, from the earliest days of her autonomical life, has been a -warm advocate and supporter of public instruction.[XXX-10] As early as -1846 it was already progressing considerably under President Aguilar's -administration.[XXX-11] Attendance having been made compulsory, and -schools established to fill the requirements, primary instruction has -been brought within the reach of nearly all Salvadorans.[XXX-12] The -republic has a large number of educational establishments, to wit, -three universities,[XXX-13] a seminary, a botanic garden, schools of -agriculture, design, medicine, and military academy. There is also -a national library at the capital.[XXX-14] A school of mechanics was -ordered founded in 1885. - -Salvador does not lack for men of good attainments in science and -literature, nor for writers possessed of power and elegance, especially -in diplomacy and other political topics.[XXX-15] - -[Sidenote: EDUCATION IN HONDURAS.] - -The spread of education among the masses in Honduras was until late -years sadly neglected.[XXX-16] The state has two universities, one in -Comayagua and another in Tegucigalpa, both having, nominally, chairs -of law, medicine, and theology.[XXX-17] Most of the educated men of -Honduras have received their instruction in foreign countries, or at -the universities of the other states.[XXX-18] - -The Lancasterian system of education was introduced in Honduras, as in -the rest of Central America, early during the confederation system, and -has been continued with some modifications. There may, possibly, be 400 -schools in all the state, each with an average attendance of 25 pupils, -making an average of 10,000 pupils of all classes in a total population -of 350,000 to 400,000 souls. There are no libraries in the country -worthy of mention, and hardly any newspapers other than the official -journal.[XXX-19] - -Greater interest has been manifested in public education in late -years.[XXX-20] Larger appropriations have been made, and competent -teachers procured.[XXX-21] - -The retrogressive government which ruled over Guatemala for more than -thirty years, down to 1871 when it was overthrown, not only failed to -make adequate provision for the education of the masses, but endeavored -to keep them in a state of ignorance and fanaticism. The new régime -hastened to bring on a change, being convinced that without an educated -people, democratic institutions would be impossible. Primary schools -were accordingly established as fast as circumstances and the condition -of the treasury permitted, in every town and village. In 1876 their -number had already reached 600, and progress was uninterrupted after -that.[XXX-22] Secondary and professional education have also been -fostered. There are three national institutes of secondary instruction -for males and two for females, a normal school for training teachers; -also several of special instruction, namely, agriculture, design, arts, -and trades; one for the deaf and dumb and two of law, one of medicine, -and one of engineering. Since 1882 schools of music and elocution and -a mercantile academy[XXX-23] have been added. Special mention should -be made of the Politécnica, or military academy, in which a liberal -education is afforded, comprising English and French, a thorough course -of science, including mathematics and drawing, in addition to the -specialties of the military profession.[XXX-24] - -The national university, which during the old régime had been governed -by the ordinances of Cárlos II., the Bewitched, who ruled in the -latter part of the seventeenth century, was placed under regulations -more in consonance with modern ideas. The establishment has been since -imparting the highest order of instruction. The old Sociedad Económica, -whose mission is to advance agriculture, and the fine and mechanic -arts, likewise has undergone improvements.[XXX-25] The expenditure for -public instruction has increased from year to year, as appears in the -note below.[XXX-26] - -Notwithstanding the retrogressive policy of the oligarchic rule, -Guatemala was not devoid of men of ability and learning. Several works -have issued from Guatemalan pens, the writers deserving special mention -being José Valle, Domingo Juarros, Alejandro Marure, Pedro Molina -and his sons, Francisco Barrundia, Lorenzo Montúfar, José Milla, and -others, including the brothers Dieguez as poets.[XXX-27] - -Newspapers as a rule have had a precarious life, though several of -them often contained productions from able Central American pens. The -government has at times afforded aid with subsidies. - -[Sidenote: RELIGION AND THE CLERGY.] - -It is hardly necessary to mention the fact that the catholic religion -was the only form of worship recognized or tolerated in Central -America during the Spanish domination. Its clergy enjoyed here the same -privileges, and were subject to the same duties and restrictions, as in -Mexico. In the short period that the country was an appendage of the -Mexican empire, no change took place in the relations between church -and state. But soon after the establishment of the Central American -confederation, and while the liberal democratic party was in power, -efforts were made to do away with the privileges of the clergy, and to -bring them under subjection to the civil authority.[XXX-28] Pursuant -to this policy several laws and measures were adopted against the -clergy in general, and Archbishop Casaus in particular,[XXX-29] which -irritated the anti-liberals and roused the ire of the clericals, who -at once gave utterance to the most fanatical language; and there were -even liberal-minded men who took up the cause of the friars and abused -in the press some of the wisest measures.[XXX-30] Serious troubles -ensued; but during several years the legislative action was sustained, -and still more radical resolutions were adopted. In 1829 the archbishop -and a portion of his clergy being detected in plotting against the -government were forthwith sent out of the country. Two months later -the general congress declared religious orders at an end in the -republic.[XXX-31] - -[Sidenote: RELIGIOUS FREEDOM.] - -Finally, in 1832, religious freedom was proclaimed,[XXX-32] and -it was moreover declared that the appointment to church dignities -pertained to the nation, and should be made by the executive.[XXX-33] -The church was thus brought low; but a reaction came erelong, and -with the practical dissolution of the confederation, the serviles, -then in power, undid what their opponents had done, and among other -acts restored the privileges of the clergy, and also the monastic -orders.[XXX-34] For all that, the church had been struck blows from -which it never fully recovered. It is true that the masses still -cherished a portion of their former religious bigotry, but from year to -year it has been giving way to move liberal sentiments, and foreigners -never encountered any difficulty to remain on the score of religion, -so long as they respected the prejudices of the people.[XXX-35] The -shameless immorality of the priests has tended to develop a feeling -of indifference to religion, and to weaken the reverence formerly -felt toward its ministers. Being shielded by the fuero eclesiástico -from trial by the common courts, the clergy were practically exempt -from deserved punishment, provided they were submissive to their -superiors.[XXX-36] Superadded to which was the repeated interference -of the clergy in political affairs, which had been so baneful that -the people came to learn what was the proper orbit of church and state -respectively. - -Archbishop Casaus died November 10, 1845, aged eighty years.[XXX-37] -During his absence, the archdiocese of Guatemala was in charge -of Francisco de Paula Pelaez, archbishop of Bostra in partibus -infidelium and coadjutor with right of succession, who became Casaus' -successor[XXX-38] and held the office till his death, on the 25th -of January, 1867.[XXX-39] The next occupant of the see was Bernardo -Piñol y Aycinena, late bishop of Nicaragua, from September 1868. The -expulsion by the provisional government, in 1871, of the jesuits, -together with the confiscation of their estates, and the apprehension -of further action against the clergy, prompted the archbishop and many -of his subjects to promote a counter-revolution; their plans failed, -and the archbishop, together with Mariano Ortiz y Urruela, bishop of -Teya in partibus infidelium, was expelled from the country; neither of -them ever returned.[XXX-40] The Guatemalans have been since without a -pastor. - -[Sidenote: THE CHURCH STRIPPED.] - -The government soon after concluded to adopt radical measures in order -to crush the power of the clergy,[XXX-41] which being accomplished, the -government has since provided for the support of public worship and of -the benevolent establishments. But freedom of conscience and of worship -is fully recognized and protected by law.[XXX-42] - -Bishop Barranco occupied the see of Honduras from 1811 to 1819.[XXX-43] -It was then vacant until 1841, when Francisco de P. Campoy, a -Spaniard, was made bishop. The tithes were restored for the support -of the church; they amounted to a large sum, especially in Olancho. -Campoy's death occurred on the 24th of September, 1849.[XXX-44] The -next incumbent was Hipólito Casiano Flores, appointed in 1854, and -consecrated in 1855. - -Since the abolition of the monastic orders by President Morazan in 1829 -there have been no convents in Honduras.[XXX-45] The clergy are mostly -negroes, mulattoes or mestizos; their power for evil has been greatly -curtailed.[XXX-46] The authorities and people are neither intolerant -nor bigoted; on the contrary, they are very liberal in regard to -religion. Freedom of worship exists by law, but the catholic is the -religion of the state.[XXX-47] - -The aristocrats, who in the early days of the Central American -confederation, opposed the creation of a bishopric in Salvador, -concluded, in 1842, upon its creation with a bishop who should uphold -their ideas. Jorge Viteri y Ungo went to Rome on this mission, and -its object was granted.[XXX-48] Viteri himself was made the first -bishop[XXX-49] and took possession of his office on the 25th of -September, 1843, after swearing allegiance to the state of Salvador. -His career has been detailed elsewhere, as well as the cause of -his banishment. After his departure the pope, at the request of the -Salvadoran government, made Tomás Miguel Pineda y Zaldaña, bishop of -Antígora, in partibus infidelium, guardian of the diocese, and upon -Viteri's translation to the see of Nicaragua, he became the real -bishop.[XXX-50] Zaldaña had troubles with the government, and left the -diocese, but after the overthrow of President Gerardo Barrios returned, -and ruled till his death on August 7, 1875.[XXX-51] His successor, José -Luis Cárcamo y Rodriguez is represented to be intolerant and hostile to -the supremacy of civil over ecclesiastical authority. However, freedom -of thought and of religion has existed in the country since 1872, and -in 1881 marriage was declared to be a civil contract. - -The diocese of Nicaragua has had, from its creation till the present -time, 41 bishops, though only 37 have ruled over it.[XXX-52] It was -originally a suffragan of the archbishopric of Lima, but in 1743 was -transferred to that of Guatemala. Since the decree of 1829, suppressing -the monastic orders, there have been none in Nicaragua. There never was -any nunnery.[XXX-53] - -The government allows for the support of the church a sum exceeding -$14,000 yearly.[XXX-54] - -[Sidenote: CHURCH AND STATE.] - -According to the national constitution, the Roman catholic is the -state religion, but there is no law against other creeds. Treaties -with foreign nations guarantee to their subjects or citizens the most -perfect religious liberty, and worship in private houses, chapels, etc. -They may also have their own cemeteries.[XXX-55] The relations between -church and state are held under a concordat with the holy see of August -29, 1862. Since then there have been dissensions, but they were settled -at Rome.[XXX-56] After several vain attempts, Costa Rica was finally -made a separate bishopric by a bull of Pius IX., dated March 1, 1850, -and since that time the see has been ruled by only two bishops.[XXX-57] - -Under the concordat with the pope of October 2, 1882, the government -of Costa Rica is bound to make the church an allowance of $9,000 -yearly,[XXX-58] but it has almost invariably paid more than double that -sum.[XXX-59] - -The concordat places the clergy under restrictions. There exists in -Costa Rica but little bigotry, except in the lower people. In fact, -the educated classes merely acquiesce in the pretensions and formulas -of the church.[XXX-60] The most perfect freedom of religion exists, -and those not professing the catholic are protected in the exercise of -their own forms of worship.[XXX-61] - -[Sidenote: INQUISITION ABOLISHED.] - -Harmony had prevailed for years in the relations of the state with the -church, until Bishop Thiel and some of his priests undertook to assume -a superiority over the government. Their attempts failed. President -Fernandez expelled the bishop in August 1884,[XXX-62] and Vicar Antonio -C. Zamora, who took charge of the diocese, restored friendly relations. -After the death of President Fernandez, Bishop Thiel was recalled. - -Before bringing the ecclesiastical subject to an end, I must add some -remarks on church affairs of the Isthmus of Panamá. The diocese of -the Isthmus has had, from its creation in 1514 till 1884, 45 bishops -appointed.[XXX-63] - -The inquisition was abolished in 1821. The bishop and his clergy -were partly supported from the tithes, which at that time yielded -about $25,000 a year. The number of clergy was then 89 secular and -25 regular.[XXX-64] Panamá had been well provided with religious -buildings, most of which have since been completely ruined.[XXX-65] - -There existed from the earliest days of the republic an intimate -alliance between the national government and the ecclesiastical -authorities, and they aided one another.[XXX-66] The clergy were quite -wealthy, possessing many valuable estates, and mortgages on almost all -the landed property in Colombia.[XXX-67] In the course of centuries the -church became, if not the sole owner, the co-owner of all estates. It -also derived a large revenue from first-fruits, tithes, fees, etc. - -The republican government from a very early time understood that the -immense power wielded by the church was incompatible with the spirit -of the age, and began gradually, almost year by year, to curtail -it, and to loosen the ties formerly existing between the civil and -ecclesiastical authorities. In the decade from 1851 to 1860, the church -lost much of its political sway, but still held the powerful lever of -its great wealth. It was afterward deprived of that wealth, and its -much-abused power ceased. This occurred during the war begun in 1860 -by the liberal party under General Mosquera against the conservatives, -in which the clergy took sides with the latter. Mosquera triumphed; -and his first measure was to destroy the power of the church. He -issued decrees confiscating its whole property.[XXX-68] That was, of -course, accompanied with banishments of bishops and priests.[XXX-69] -But afterward, when affairs became more settled, they returned poor -and submissive to live on fees for the ministration of religious -rites.[XXX-70] From all accounts the people had not lost much by the -absence of the priests. The clergy, taken all in all, did not deserve -any consideration, and with a few honorable exceptions, do not deserve -it now, for they have taken no pains to enlighten the masses, and their -discipline and morals have not been and are not exemplary. - -[Sidenote: PANAMÁ CHURCH AFFAIRS.] - -It was made unlawful to settle property on the church. Religious -communities, such as friars, or monks, nuns, etc., were strictly -forbidden.[XXX-71] Church and state have been since that time -independent of one another, but by law no person can become a bishop or -the guardian of a diocese who is not a native citizen of the republic. -All religious sects not indulging in immoral practices are recognized -and protected by the laws.[XXX-72] In Panamá the cemeteries are in -charge of a commission deriving its powers from the civil government. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXI. - -JUDICIAL AND MILITARY. - -1887. - - JUDICIAL SYSTEM OF GUATEMALA—JURY TRIALS IN THE - SEVERAL STATES—COURTS OF HONDURAS—ABSENCE OF CODES - IN THE REPUBLIC—DILATORY JUSTICE—IMPUNITY OF CRIME IN - HONDURAS AND NICARAGUA—SALVADOR'S JUDICIARY—DILATORY - PROCEDURE—CODIFICATION OF LAWS IN NICARAGUA—COSTA - RICAN ADMINISTRATION—IMPROVED CODES—PANAMÁ COURTS—GOOD - CODES—PUNISHMENTS FOR CRIME IN THE SIX STATES—JAILS - AND PENITENTIARIES—MILITARY SERVICE—AVAILABLE FORCE OF - EACH STATE—HOW ORGANIZED—NAVAL—EXPENDITURES—MILITARY - SCHOOLS—IMPROVEMENTS. - - -During the Spanish rule the administration of justice in Central -America was vested in the real audiencia, composed of a regente, -several oidores, a fiscal, and secretary, the governor, captain-general -of the provinces, being ex-officio the president. The courts of first -resort were filled by alcaldes mayores.[XXXI-1] - -One great step taken early in the nineteenth century was the abolition -of torture of prisoners and witnesses.[XXXI-2] The córtes had -previously, in September 1813, decreed the abolishment of flogging for -crime, or in houses of correction, seminaries, schools, etc.[XXXI-3] - -Soon after the establishment of the Central American confederation, -the national constituent assembly organized a supreme court of justice -for the state of Guatemala. Since the dissolution of the confederation, -the judicial system of the several states has undergone many changes, -which it would occupy too much space to detail here.[XXXI-4] I will -therefore confine myself to the present organizations, giving such -other particulars as are of general interest. - -[Sidenote: PRESENT JUDICIAL SYSTEM.] - -In Guatemala the administration of justice is intrusted to a supreme -court, four chambers or sections of second resort in the capital, and -one court of second resort in Quezaltenango.[XXXI-5] There are also -courts of first resort and lower courts for the adjudication of petty -civil cases, or the correction of trivial offences. The jury system was -formally established by the liberal government in 1872.[XXXI-6] - -The legislature, recognizing the necessity of amending the existing -codes, authorized the executive to issue laws conducive thereto, -which was done.[XXXI-7] The government has caused the construction -of two penitentiaries, one in the city of Guatemala, and the other in -Quezaltenango.[XXXI-8] - -Under the late organization justice is administered with fair -regularity and promptness.[XXXI-9] During Barrios' rule an efficient -police was organized in the capital. - -In Honduras the absence of a penal code caused delays in the -prosecution of criminals, and there being no good jails or prisons, -their offences often went unwhipped of justice.[XXXI-10] Hence the -numerous robbers and assassins then infesting the frontiers. However, -we are assured that in the well-settled portions of the country life -and property were secure. Capital punishment being abolished by -the constitution, the severest punishment that could be inflicted -was that of 500 blows with a heavy withe of the consistency of -India-rubber.[XXXI-11] - -The government in 1876 and succeeding years introduced reforms in the -police department. The political disturbances, which had nullified the -action of the courts, being now at an end, the supreme and lower courts -were at once reorganized, and permitted to exercise their functions. -But the non-existence of suitable penal establishments, and the -antiquated legislation, were powerful drawbacks. The minister-general -was directed by the president to procure the best works on legislation, -and the most noted codes on civil and criminal matters, as well as -on mining, commerce, etc., with the view of placing the materials in -the hands of competent persons, who were to form codes suited to the -requirements of the country.[XXXI-12] Such work demands careful study, -and time to accomplish it. I am not aware that it is even commenced. - -[Sidenote: SALVADOR AND NICARAGUA.] - -The laws of Salvador were codified in 1875.[XXXI-13] The judiciary is -vested in a supreme court, tribunals, juries,[XXXI-14] and inferior -judges established by the constitution and the laws.[XXXI-15] -The president in his message of 1878 to congress stated that the -administration of justice was not yet as expeditious as it should -be, owing chiefly to confusion in the laws, to obviate which he had -appointed commissioners to study them, and introduce harmony in the -legislation.[XXXI-16] During the year 1878 the chamber of third resort -issued 188 decisions, comprising final sentences and decrees in civil -and criminal causes.[XXXI-17] - -The administration of justice in Nicaragua is vested in a supreme -court and a variety of lower courts.[XXXI-18] The supreme court is -divided into two sections, one residing at Leon, and the other at -Granada.[XXXI-19] The alcalde of each town has cognizance of civil -cases not exceeding $100 in value, and of simple infractions of police -ordinances. Cases of greater importance must go before the judge of -first resort.[XXXI-20] - -The laws have never been collected and revised to form one body of -legislation. The only ones published, to my knowledge, are the code of -commerce, on March 12, 1869; the civil code, on March 31, 1871; that -of civil procedure, in May 1871; and lastly, the laws on hacienda, in -1872.[XXXI-21] The executive in his message of 1871 complained that -the legislation was defective, and that it was almost impossible to -terminate suits at law.[XXXI-22] In criminal causes the constitution -enjoined the greatest precautions and restrictions for inflicting the -death penalty, which was by shooting the prisoner. But that penalty -was finally abolished on the 31st of March, 1873.[XXXI-23] Trial -by jury for grave offences was established on the 31st of March, -1871. Punishments for other offences are, under the penal code of -1839,[XXXI-24] detention for a long or short term, with or without -pecuniary fines, in chains or without them, and with hard labor, -or none. Women sentenced for serious crime are made to work in the -hospitals. Incorrigible criminals of the male sex may be sentenced to -receive a number of blows on the bare back, even as many as 500, as -elsewhere.[XXXI-25] - -The number of criminal prosecutions initiated from December 1, 1880, -to Nov. 30, 1882, throughout the republic, were 1,976 of men and 161 of -women, a total of 2,137.[XXXI-26] - -[Sidenote: COSTA RICA JUDICIARY.] - -Costa Rica, as soon as she became a member of the Central American -confederation, organized a judiciary of her own, consisting of a -superior court, several tribunals of first resort in the provinces, -and the alcaldes of towns, who were justices of the peace, with -jurisdiction over petty affairs both civil and criminal. The supreme -court has since undergone many changes, which would occupy too much -space to detail. Its members have been sometimes appointed by the -executive, and at others chosen by the people or the legislative -body.[XXXI-27] At present, they are elective, the court being formed -with the following personnel: president of the full court, presidents -of the first and second sections, six justices, secretary, and the -requisite clerks, etc.[XXXI-28] The administration of justice in the -first instance is vested in courts sitting in each province, and -having civil and criminal jurisdiction, except in the province of -San José, which has a civil and a criminal court, distinct from one -another.[XXXI-29] - -Costa Rica adopted in or about 1841 a civil and penal code, and -likewise a code of procedure, with which she rid herself of the old -cumbersome and expensive legislation.[XXXI-30] But nothing was done -toward improving this work. Indeed, the administration of justice -in Costa Rica is not what it should be, not for lack of honesty, -ability, or laboriousness on the part of the courts, but because -of the antiquated and inadequate civil legislation and mode of -procedure.[XXXI-31] - -The government, after obtaining the authorization of the national -congress, appointed a commission to form new codes.[XXXI-32] No -difficulties were apprehended in regard to the civil code; but the -penal code, involving the manner of dealing with criminals, has -required a more careful study, with the view of abandoning the old -vindictive system.[XXXI-33] - -Under the new penal code there were to be three separate presidios -for different grades of criminals; but owing to scarcity of funds -only two were established, one on Coco Island, and the other on San -Lúcas.[XXXI-34] But later, under an executive order of November 6, -1882, the prisoners on Coco were removed to San Lúcas, and thus were -the three presidios which should have been separate merged into one. - -Under the latest constitution of the state of Panamá, the judiciary -was comprised of the following: a superior court in the state -capital;[XXXI-35] one district court for civil and one for criminal -affairs in the same city; in the other departments the district judge -has jurisdiction over civil and criminal causes. In each ward of the -capital there is an alcalde, and in the country a regidor for each -canton.[XXXI-36] - -[Sidenote: PANAMÁ MATTERS.] - -A penal code was adopted by the constituent assembly in July 1863, -under which capital punishment was abolished, and the highest penalty -established was that of ten years in chains with hard labor.[XXXI-37] -A contract was entered into with Justo Arosemena in 1868 to revise -some codes and form others,[XXXI-38] and in general to codify all -existing laws. The contract was fully carried out, and the state became -possessed of a full and well-arranged system of legislation. - -Of the criminal prosecutions initiated in 1876 only thirteen per centum -resulted in convictions, which elicited from the government secretary -some deprecatory remarks.[XXXI-39] The state had in 1880 an organized -body of police of a little over forty men including the officers. The -men are armed with a club, and on extraordinary occasions with carbines -or rifles.[XXXI-40] The prison arrangements have nothing to commend -them.[XXXI-41] - - * * * * * - -In regard to the military department of the Isthmus, hardly anything -can be said with certainty. It might possibly, in an emergency, -keep under arms 3,000 or 4,000 men for a short period. The force -in active service has varied with circumstances from 400 or 500 to -75.[XXXI-42] The number of commissioned officers has ever been large, -and not a few of them received pay without rendering any service worth -mentioning.[XXXI-43] The general government of Colombia usually keeps -a force of its own, varying between 150 and 500 men, with the double -object of guarding the transit from interruption, and of controlling -the political situation. - -The available military force of Costa Rica for active service is close -upon 15,000 men, to which must be added a reserve of nearly 6,000, -the national guard of about 3,500, and the field and company officers -numbering 2,485. The garrisons of San José, Cartago, Heredia, Alajuela, -Liberia, and Puntarenas in 1883 aggregated less than 500, including -officers, and 85 musicians, a reduction of 128 from the preceding -year.[XXXI-44] The garrison formerly kept at the president's house -was suppressed. Schools exist for instructing the militia officers. -A good supply of arms, ammunition, and other war material is kept in -serviceable condition.[XXXI-45] Costa Rica formerly had a navy of three -steam vessels and one schooner. The latter is all she has now, besides -two small steamers used for the protection of the revenue. - -[Sidenote: ARMY AND NAVY.] - -In Nicaragua the army continued in the biennial period of 1881-2, as -formerly organized, in three divisions of 3,200 men each, which might -easily be increased, but that number was deemed sufficient to cover the -garrisons.[XXXI-46] The republic is provided with artillery and other -arms, as well as with the requisite ammunition. Invalided men, and -widows and orphans of the soldiers, receive pensions.[XXXI-47] - -Nicaragua may in the course of time become a maritime nation. At -present there is no Nicaraguan navy. The naval service is reduced to -the mere police of the ports of San Juan del Norte, San Juan del Sur, -and Corinto. - -Honduras has but a small number of men under arms in time of peace, but -all male citizens from 18 to 50 years must do military service in time -of war.[XXXI-48] - -The men do not make a fine display, but will march from 50 to 60 miles -a day with no other food than a plantain and a little cheese, and when -well officered, will fight desperately. - -The government has had it in contemplation to introduce some order in -the service, and to develop a sentiment of respect and appreciation -of the military profession; but I am not aware that any change for -the better has taken place. Honduras has forts at Omoa and Trujillo, -the same which existed in the Spanish domination; they could offer -resistance to scarcely any force bombarding them from the sea. - -The government of Salvador, in May 1879, ordered a complete -reorganization of the army, fixing its force at 20,000 men in four -divisions,[XXXI-49] whose commander-in-chief should be the president of -the republic,[XXXI-50] who allowed himself four aides-de-camp of the -rank of colonel, four of the grade of lieutenant-colonel, and eight -others from captains to sub-lieutenants. The term of military service -was fixed at six years, each man being credited with double time for -active service. The cost of the force doing garrison duty, which in -1876 had been fixed at 1,427 men—exclusive of the general staff, other -officers of all grades, and two music bands—was computed at $31,788 per -month.[XXXI-51] - -An act of congress of January 1877 suppressed pensions of officials on -retiring from service, and extended the rule to military men having -means of their own for support. The retired pension was to be paid -only to destitute ones, and in no case was it to exceed fifty dollars -a month.[XXXI-52] A new military code was promulgated on the 1st of -January, 1880.[XXXI-53] - -In Guatemala military service is required of every male citizen of the -ages of 18 to 50, excepting Indians, priests, 'students,' and those who -pay fifty dollars a year for exemption.[XXXI-54] The strength of the -army is estimated at 16,000, but there is no doubt that a larger force -can be raised when needed. The following are the grades of commissioned -officers in the service: generals of division and of brigade,[XXXI-55] -colonel, lieutenant-colonel, first and second comandantes, captain, -lieutenant, and sub-lieutenant.[XXXI-56] - -[Sidenote: GUATEMALA AFFAIRS.] - -The government of President Barrios labored assiduously in providing -the country with a well-disciplined militia, having competent -officers, as well as with the other necessary elements of a perfectly -organized army. The military school has already furnished useful -officers.[XXXI-57] The ranks are filled without dragging men from -their usual vocations; garrisons are frequently relieved, the active -service being distributed among the several departments. Citizens have -since looked on the profession as one of honor and glory, instead of -shunning it as in former times.[XXXI-58] A well-provided hospital was -established in the capital, which went into operation on March 15, -1881.[XXXI-59] - -The expenditures of the war department for the fiscal year 1883 were -$1,031,501.[XXXI-60] - - - - -CHAPTER XXXII. - -INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS. - -1800-1887. - - EARLY AGRICULTURE—PROTECTION OF THE INDUSTRY—GREAT PROGRESS - ATTAINED—COMMUNAL LANDS—AGRICULTURAL WEALTH—DECAY OF - COCHINEAL—DEVELOPMENT OF OTHER STAPLES—INDIGO, COFFEE, SUGAR, - CACAO, AND TOBACCO—FOOD AND OTHER PRODUCTS—PRECIOUS WOODS - AND MEDICINAL PLANTS—LIVE-STOCK—VALUE OF ANNUAL PRODUCTION - IN EACH STATE—NATURAL PRODUCTS OF PANAMÁ—NEGLECT OF - AGRICULTURE—MINERAL WEALTH—YIELD OF PRECIOUS METALS—MINING IN - HONDURAS, SALVADOR, AND NICARAGUA—DEPOSITS OF GUATEMALA AND - COSTA RICA—MINTS—FORMER YIELD OF PANAMÁ—MINING NEGLECTED ON - THE ISTHMUS—INCIPIENCY OF MANUFACTURES—PRODUCTS FOR DOMESTIC - USE. - - -In the early part of the present century cattle were the mainstay -of the large estates in Central America; but the great staple was -indigo.[XXXII-1] Sugar and raspadura were also important crops, but the -most valuable was that of Indian corn. Some tobacco was also grown. The -cacao plantations had ceased to exist. The cultivation of jiquilite, -cochineal, and vanilla had also declined.[XXXII-2] - -[Sidenote: GUATEMALA PLANTATIONS.] - -Guatemala passed, from time to time, laws for the protection and -development of agriculture,[XXXII-3] and yet it made no notable -progress down to the end of the seventh decade.[XXXII-4] But -with the establishment of a more liberal system, a great change -soon became manifest. The cultivation of cochineal having become -unproductive,[XXXII-5] the government turned its attention to the -development of coffee,[XXXII-6] until it became the first source of -wealth of the country. In Antigua Guatemala coffee, and in Amatitlan -sugar, have taken the place of cochineal.[XXXII-7] Every possible -encouragement has been given to other products, such as sugar, wheat, -tobacco, cinchona, jiquilite, spices, and grapes, with good results in -some of them, and prospects of the same in others.[XXXII-8] I give in -note statistical data on the country's productions.[XXXII-9] - -Honduras produces all the great staples of the tropics. The land on -both coasts is adapted for cotton.[XXXII-10] A soft, slender, and juicy -sugar-cane is indigenous; two and even three crops are taken annually. -This cane requires replanting only once in ten or twelve years. -Excellent coffee may be had in abundance if cultivated. Cochineal and -grapes were obtained in former years.[XXXII-11] The nopal is indigenous -and abundant in Comayagua. The tobacco of Honduras has a well-deserved -reputation. Indigo is produced in quantities for commercial purposes. -Food staples are varied and abundant. The country has also a wealth of -precious woods, and indeed, of every variety common to the tropics. Of -fruit-trees, there are many indigenous. Sarsaparilla, of which there -is none superior, is found in abundance, particularly on the northern -and eastern coasts. Vanilla grows in the same districts.[XXXII-12] -Agriculture is progressing. The cultivation of fruit-trees on the -northern coast has drawn the attention of capitalists. Coffee, indigo, -sugar-cane, and tobacco are the chief staples. Neat cattle were the -most obvious source of wealth, the interior country being favorable for -their increase.[XXXII-13] - -Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica enjoy the same advantages as -the other two states already described, and have within the last -thirty years developed agriculture in a remarkable degree. The great -products of the first named are indigo, coffee, maize, sugar, and -rice. A variety of other articles contribute to increase the country's -wealth.[XXXII-14] The old system of communal lands prevails throughout -Central America. - -The chief staples of Nicaragua are cacao, sugar, indigo, tobacco, -cotton, coffee, wheat, and other cereals, and plantains and fruits in -great profusion.[XXXII-15] The departments of Rivas, Granada, Leon, and -Chinandega supply trade with the most valuable staples. The government -has endeavored to promote agriculture, particularly the cultivation of -coffee and tobacco.[XXXII-16] Among other productions mention must be -made of the inexhaustible quantities of medicinal plants, and valuable -cabinet and dye woods.[XXXII-17] Cattle are another source of wealth, -but cattle-raising has its drawbacks.[XXXII-18] - -[Sidenote: COSTA RICA AND PANAMÁ.] - -Costa Rica produces indigo and sugar of excellent quality, and some -of the best cacao in the Matina Valley.[XXXII-19] Wheat, potatoes, -and other vegetables, apples, and other fruits of the temperate zone -are also found; but the republic's chief staple and source of wealth -is coffee.[XXXII-20] The plantations are small and looked to with the -utmost care. The largest one of Costa Rica would be considered small -in Guatemala; but on the other hand, men and women find occupation, -and there is no actual poverty. The production of coffee has steadily -increased, except when rains have been scanty or excessive, or locusts -have caused devastation in the fields.[XXXII-21] - -Fiscal monopolies have kept back, in a great measure, the development -of the cultivation of sugar and tobacco.[XXXII-22] The country is well -supplied with livestock of all kinds, and is also rich in valuable -cabinet and dye woods as well as in medicinal plants. - -The soil of the Isthmus of Panamá is well adapted for all tropical -productions. The country only needs an industrious population and peace -to develop its immense natural wealth. The chief productions are Indian -corn, sugar-cane, rice, a great variety of fruits, vegetables, and -nutritious roots, such as yam, yucca, etc. Agriculture has been limited -to the supply of edibles, and of late years to the shipment of some -fruit to the United States. The cultivation of sugar and coffee might -be made profitable, though requiring a large outlay, but for being -dependent on an uncertain supply of labor. In 1862 and 1863, cotton -culture was undertaken in the interior with fair success, and in 1864 -had spread all over the country.[XXXII-23] The plant is perennial, and -yet, with this and other advantages, the natives have not become awake -to the importance of it. Cacao is another article that might be grown -to advantage. The government has tried to promote the culture of coffee -and cacao.[XXXII-24] - -Coffee and sugar are cultivated, but not in sufficient quantity to -meet even the home demand. I append in a note an official account -of agricultural production for 1882, though not giving it much -value.[XXXII-25] - -[Sidenote: VERAGUA AND CHIRIQUÍ.] - -Veragua and Chiriquí have good plains for raising neat cattle, goats, -pigs, horses, asses, and mules.[XXXII-26] Poultry, and a great variety -of wild animals exist in abundance. The seas on the two coasts are well -stocked with fish. - -The Isthmus has plenty of timber of the best kinds and of enormous -size, found in South Darien, and in all the mountains on both -coasts, and in the islands; also cabinet and dye woods, and medicinal -plants.[XXXII-27] - - * * * * * - -Of the five states of Central America, Honduras appears to be the -most plentifully supplied with mineral wealth. Mount Merendon was -long celebrated for its silver and gold mines. Until about thirty or -forty years ago, mining was the most prominent interest in the state, -but wars and political disturbances caused the abandonment of the -mines, and the works fell into decay, after which there was neither -enterprise, capital, nor skill to restore them. The owners of the -property afterward became owners of immense grazing estates. Some mines -were continued in operation, however, on a small scale, and in a rude -manner.[XXXII-28] In 1860 and for some preceding years the bullion -export of Honduras amounted to about $400,000 annually, most of it -being gold collected by the Indians from shallow washings. - -[Sidenote: MINERALS AND METALS.] - -The development of the mining wealth of Honduras is engaging the -attention of foreign capitalists.[XXXII-29] Several companies have -been organized in the United States, France, and elsewhere to work the -mines in the departments of Tegucigalpa, Santa Bárbara, Yuscaran, and -Jutigalpa.[XXXII-30] - -Guatemala has not been noted for mines. However, the district in the -Alotepec mountains was rich toward the latter part of the eighteenth -century, yielding large quantities of silver.[XXXII-31] The river sands -of the department of Chiquimula are auriferous, and the Indians wash -them for gold.[XXXII-32] Recently several deposits have been reported -to the government, of lead, silver, gold, cinnabar, coal, kaoline, -marble, etc.[XXXII-33] - -Nicaragua possesses an immense wealth in minerals, which has not been -developed as yet, except on a small scale, and generally, without any -intelligence. Gold and silver and several useful metals are found in -great abundance.[XXXII-34] There are also deposits of gypsum, marble, -alabaster, lime, saltpetre, etc. Sulphur is sometimes found pure. The -mining laws favor the industry by either natives or foreigners. A mint -has existed in the republic for several years.[XXXII-35] - -In Salvador there can be no mines of precious metals out of that -portion of the state which is geologically dependent on the mountain -system of Honduras. The silver mines of Tabanco, Encuentros, Sociedad, -Loma Larga, Divisaderos, Capetilla, Santa Rosalía, etc., in the -department of San Miguel, on the north-eastern part, and bordering on -Honduras, have had a wide celebrity. Some of them were extensively -worked, and with great profit. The group called Minas de Tabanco, -holding the ore in combination with galena and sulphuret of zinc, are -easily worked.[XXXII-36] - -Salvador has rich mines of iron near Santa Ana, and of brown coal -throughout the valley of the Lempa, and in the valleys of some -of its tributaries, over a region of 100 miles long by 20 miles -broad.[XXXII-37] - -Costa Rica has been less favored than the other states in mining -wealth. Rich gold mines are supposed to exist near the border of -Panamá.[XXXII-38] In the Aguiate Mountains and at cuesta del Jocote -gold mines were worked by foreigners with a moderate profit. It -is stated that the country also possesses mines of silver, copper, -nickel, zinc, iron, lead, and coal.[XXXII-39] The republic keeps a -well-organized mint, the improvements having been first introduced -by Chief Mora; since then none of his successors has neglected that -establishment. - -[Sidenote: YIELD OF PRECIOUS METALS.] - -The yield of gold and silver of the five states of Central America -for the years 1804-1868 is estimated at $13,800,000 of the former, and -$7,400,000 of the latter, making a total of $21,200,000.[XXXII-40] The -yearly supply since has been roughly calculated at $300,000 in gold, -and $200,000 in silver.[XXXII-41] - -The Isthmus is reputed to have a great mineral wealth. The mines of -Darien have been renowned from the earliest times after the conquest. -Vasco Nuñez de Balboa speaks enthusiastically of them.[XXXII-42] They -were not worked till the second half of the seventeenth century. -The richest of them were those of Santa Cruz de Cana, where of the -Espíritu Santo was the chief.[XXXII-43] In 1708 the king's fifths -were equivalent to $216,500. The mines had attained a high state of -prosperity, when an end was put thereto by the Indian revolt in 1726 -and 1727.[XXXII-44] Since then, though the mines have been granted -from time to time to several parties, nothing has been done worth -mentioning.[XXXII-45] It is believed that the yield of these mines had -reached 18,000 to 20,000 pounds of gold yearly.[XXXII-46] - -According to a report addressed to the Colombian secretary of the -treasury, and published in the Diario Oficial at Bogotá, the whole -production of gold and silver in New Granada or Colombia, from 1537 -to 1800 was $414,000,000, and from 1801 to 1882, it was $216,000,000; -total, $630,000,000,[XXXII-47] of which amount $74,000,000 is credited -to the Isthmus of Panamá, four millions of them being the yield of the -present century. Cinnabar and manganese are reported to exist on the -Isthmus, and coal in Chiriquí, Bocas del Toro, and the bottom of Colon -harbor.[XXXII-48] - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: MANUFACTURES.] - -Manufacturers are as yet in their infancy in Central America.[XXXII-49] -Since the separation from Spain, every inducement has been offered to -develop them, and more especially after the change of governmental -régime of 1871.[XXXII-50] In later times we find in Quezaltenango -good factories for spinning and weaving textiles. In Chiquimula they -manufacture palm-leaf hats, mats, and maguey-fibre baskets. In Vera -Paz the natives make excellent hammocks, bags, rope, etc. But the fact -stands officially acknowledged that Guatemala has not made a sufficient -advancement to enable her to export any manufactures, or even to -compete in her own markets with the better and cheaper productions of -other countries.[XXXII-51] - -In Honduras manufactures are at a low ebb, owing to the condition -of affairs before and after her independence, not less than to the -composition of her people. - -There are in Salvador several factories at which cotton and silk -rebozos are made, which meet with easy sale in all the Central American -markets.[XXXII-52] Hammocks, earthen-ware, straw hats, cigarettes, -sweetmeats, etc., are manufactured. Rum is made, as in Guatemala, from -sugar-cane. - -In Nicaragua mechanics are scarce. Manufacturing is yet in the -incipient state.[XXXII-53] However, the Indians make excellent pottery -and other articles for home consumption.[XXXII-54] - -In Costa Rica there is hardly any domestic manufacturing.[XXXII-55] -Efforts are made by the government to develop the industry.[XXXII-56] - -As regards Panamá, it may be said that manufactures are almost unknown, -save such as are imported.[XXXII-57] - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIII. - -COMMERCE AND FINANCE. - -1801-1887. - - EARLY STATE OF TRADE—CONTINUED STAGNATION AFTER - INDEPENDENCE—STEAM ON THE COASTS—ITS BENEFICIAL - EFFECTS—VARIETY OF STAPLES—PORTS OF ENTRY AND - TARIFFS—IMPORTS AND EXPORTS—FAIRS—ACCESSORY TRANSIT - COMPANY—INTERNAL NAVIGATION—HIGHWAYS—MONEY—BANKING—POSTAL - SERVICE—PANAMÁ RAILWAY TRAFFIC—LOCAL TRADE OF THE - ISTHMUS—PEARL FISHERY—COLONIAL REVENUE IN FINANCES OF THE - FEDERATION—SOURCES OF REVENUE OF EACH STATE—THEIR RECEIPTS - AND EXPENDITURES—FOREIGN AND INTERNAL DEBTS. - - -During the first years of the present century, toward the end of -the Spanish domination, after many restrictions to trade had been -removed, and Central America had obtained leave to traffic direct with -Mexico and other Spanish American colonies, there were only 30 or 35 -mercantile houses throughout the country. Merchandise to the value of -one million dollars was yearly imported from Spain through the bay of -Honduras. The returns were chiefly in indigo, coin, and bullion. There -was some trade also with Peru and Cuba.[XXXIII-1] Smuggling was carried -on quite freely, even the officers of the revenue cutters taking a hand -in it. The large amount of goods thus imported caused a drainage of -specie.[XXXIII-2] - -[Sidenote: FOREIGN TRADE DATA.] - -[Sidenote: FAIRS AND IMMIGRATION.] - -After the separation from Spain, there was little commerce for many -years,[XXXIII-3] until the construction of the railway across the -Isthmus, and the establishment of a line of steamers making periodical -visits at the several Central American ports on the Pacific coast, -afforded facilities for the development of both agriculture and foreign -trade,[XXXIII-4] which under liberal legislation has since assumed -large proportions, commerce being free with all friendly powers. In a -note[XXXIII-5] are given copious data on the foreign trade of each of -the five republics, showing an invariable balance in their favor, which -steadily increased their wealth. As to internal trade, there is very -little to say. The several republics have regularly established fairs, -which are attended by those wishing to purchase national or foreign -products or manufactures.[XXXIII-6] - -The republics, having special facilities for internal navigation, -endeavored to make them available. Guatemala granted privileges with -the view of having a steam line established between the fluvial port -of Panzós and Livingston, and also on Lake Amatitlan. In Nicaragua, -under a contract entered into on the 22d of September, 1849, and -amended April 11, 1850, between the government and an American company, -transit was formally established between the two oceans, by way of Lake -Nicaragua.[XXXIII-7] The American Accessory Transit Company, as it was -called, went into active operation and carried thousands of passengers -to and from California.[XXXIII-8] The first interoceanic trip was made -in August 1852, and the service continued successfully until February -18, 1856, when it was suddenly closed, and the company's charter -was revoked by the government of Rivas, at the dictation of William -Walker.[XXXIII-9] The transit continued for a time under Walker's -control, mainly to furnish his army with recruits, until the steamers -fell into the hands of his enemies.[XXXIII-10] Navigation on San Juan -River and Granada Lake was regulated in June 1861. In 1868 a convention -was concluded between Nicaragua and Costa Rica for the navigation of -the rivers San Juan and Colorado. In 1870 a contract was made with -Hollenbeck and his associates for steam navigation on Lake Granada, and -it was inaugurated in 1872.[XXXIII-11] - -[Sidenote: ROADS AND CURRENCY.] - -The national highways of Costa Rica are not all in the best condition, -which is due to the destructive force of the winter rains. The -government, however, endeavors to render them serviceable. In -Nicaragua, the public roads, prior to the construction of railways, -were only fit for mule travel, except at short distances from towns, -which wagons could traverse. In the rainy season they were impassable, -owing either to mud or swollen streams. The same is to be said -respecting those of Honduras. Much has been successfully accomplished -in late years in the improvement of roads and construction of bridges. -Salvador appropriated in 1876 funds for macadamizing the public -highways. Guatemala is well provided with roads and bridges, and -derives a considerable revenue from tolls to keep them in repair, and -to construct new ones.[XXXIII-12] Railways and telegraphs are treated -of elsewhere. - -The monetary unit of Costa Rica is the peso of one hundred centavos, -with 25 grammes of silver of the standard of 0.900. The government mint -coins gold, silver, and copper.[XXXIII-13] - -Gold coin became very scarce in Nicaragua. There was no copper, and -the smallest of silver was the half-real. Gold coins of the United -States, Great Britain, and France, and the silver money of those -countries, Switzerland, Belgium, Mexico, Peru, and Spain, were current -for their full value.[XXXIII-14] In Salvador nearly all foreign coins -were received for their face value. In Honduras the currency was -much vitiated by the introduction of the moneda provisional—copper -slightly alloyed with silver—of the denominations of quarter and -half dollars, of which probably $1,500,000, nominal value, went into -circulation since 1839.[XXXIII-15] Besides this coin there has been in -circulation the cut money of the old kingdom, a portion of the Honduras -government's own coinage, and that of the federal republic; all of -which, together with English and American coins, make up the bulk of -money in circulation.[XXXIII-16] In a decree of September 21, 1870, -the government of Guatemala endeavored to introduce in its coinage the -decimal system, recognizing the peso as the unit.[XXXIII-17] Another -law of November 15, 1878, provided for the coinage of gold pieces of -1, 2, 5, 10, and 20 pesos, and silver pieces of 8, 4, and 2 reales, -and half and quarter reales.[XXXIII-18] Foreign coins circulated at the -rates fixed by the government.[XXXIII-19] There have been banks in most -of the states of Central America for a number of years, several being -now in successful operation.[XXXIII-20] - -[Sidenote: BANKS AND MAILS] - -The states of Central America, including the Isthmus of Panamá, -maintain communications by mail, not only with one another, but -likewise with other nations of Europe and America, and through them -with the rest of the world.[XXXIII-21] The several republics use their -best endeavors to perfect the internal mail service.[XXXIII-22] They -pay subsidies to steamship companies for bringing and carrying their -mails, and are members of the Universal Postal Union. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: ISTHMUS TRAFFIC.] - -The discovery of gold in California, as is well known, restored -life to the Isthmus of Panamá. In December 1849, the first emigrants -went across, bound for the new El Dorado. In 1850 there was a large -travel,[XXXIII-23] notwithstanding innumerable difficulties and -discomforts. After the construction of the railway the traffic over it -still increased; most of it was in transitu, but the local trade was -not insignificant.[XXXIII-24] The note at foot contains data mainly -procured from official sources on the amount of transportation from the -earliest days of the opening of the road to a recent date.[XXXIII-25] -It will be noticed that in the latter part of the sixth decade of -this century the transit traffic through the Isthmus became greatly -diminished. This was mainly due to the construction of the overland -railway to the Pacific in the United States, and to the establishment -of a British line of large and fleet steamers running from Europe to -ports in the south Pacific through the straits of Magellan, affording -advantages over the Panamá railroad transportation. - -The transportation of passengers and merchandise to and from the -Isthmus has been mainly effected by steamship lines—American and -British during the first fourteen or fifteen years, to which were -subsequently added those of a French company; and still later those of -a German one.[XXXIII-26] - -[Sidenote: GOLD AND THE ISTHMUS CANAL.] - -The Isthmus traffic, from the earliest days of Spanish occupation -of South America, was carried on by pack-mules at excessive -rates.[XXXIII-27] In the early part of this century, the condition -of trade being unsatisfactory, reforms were loudly called for by -both Spaniards and Americans.[XXXIII-28] A brisk contraband trade -was constantly going on.[XXXIII-29] After the war of independence, -the traffic between Spain and South America ceased. In 1825-30 trade -was at a low ebb.[XXXIII-30] With the view of fostering it, the New -Granadan government, in 1847, decreed the suppression of custom-houses -at Panamá, Portobello, and Chagres.[XXXIII-31] I refer elsewhere to -the great improvement wrought by the influx of travellers consequent -upon the discovery of gold in California. The amount of business done -in providing conveyances, accommodations, and supplies of all kinds for -passengers was very large, and money became quite abundant. The opening -of the railway in 1855 paralyzed the local trade.[XXXIII-32] - -The local trade of the Isthmus in 1865 is set down to have been -$350,000 to $400,000 of imports, and between $500,000 and $600,000 of -exports.[XXXIII-33] With a few exceptions, the chief trade in foreign -goods is carried on by foreigners, most of whom deal in almost every -kind of merchandise; the United States furnishing the greater part of -the provisions, and other commodities. With the works on the canal, -and the large increase of population, the local trade became greatly -augmented. Weights and measures and money were based on the French -decimal system.[XXXIII-34] All kinds of money were current. American -coin generally commanded a high premium. Bank notes or paper currency -of any kind could be easily passed.[XXXIII-35] Small silver coin was -generally scarce, and there was no copper currency. There were no -banks of issue, though some merchants did a banking business. Bills of -exchange on England usually commanded a premium. Those on France were -about par. The canal company sells exchange, receiving the existing -currency in payment. - -The Pearl Islands, comprising sixteen islands and numerous rocks, had -a population of about 2,000 souls, about 700 of whom were engaged six -months of the year in pearl fishing, which yielded about 1,000 tons -of pearl shells valued at $70 per ton, and pearls enough to raise the -value of both to $300,000 yearly. This industry had almost ceased to -exist in 1873, owing to recklessness. Fishing for pearl oysters was -forbidden by law on the 7th of May, 1872, for the term of five years, -in order to allow the mollusk time to renew its vitality, which was -in danger of destruction; but so far the measure has had no visibly -good effects, and the fishery has not been revived. Pearl fishing was -carried on with success by the Indians of Costa Rica on the coast of -Nicoya, the shell being an established article of export.[XXXIII-36] -Pearl oysters are also found near the south of Caroon Island, but yield -so few pearls as to make it unprofitable to search for them.[XXXIII-37] - -[Sidenote: REVENUE AND DEBT.] - -As to finances prior to the separation from the mother country, and the -disruption of the Central American confederacy, it can scarcely be said -that the country had any. - -A sketch of the revenue of the so-called reino de Guatemala, made -in 1818 for the five years 1817-1821,[XXXIII-38] shows the various -sources. The ordinary imposts yielded 462,944 pesos, and the special -256,975 pesos, making an aggregate of 719,919 pesos.[XXXIII-39] The -scale of expenditure to the day of independence had been kept down; -financial wants being few, the needed resources were easily collected, -and did not weigh heavily on the people. The ruin of the treasury began -in 1821, but was not felt till later, during the period Central America -was harnessed to the Mexican empire.[XXXIII-40] - -On the 2d of July, 1822, the congress of the Provincias Unidas de -Centro América decreed the recognition of the public debt. In December -1824, the government, duly authorized by congress, contracted a loan -with Barclay, Herring, Richardson, and Company, of London,[XXXIII-41] -recognizing an indebtedness of $7,142,857, and the receipt of a -net sum of about $5,000,000.[XXXIII-42] The banking house agreed to -advance $200,000 at the end of two months, and $150,000 at the end -of seven and nine respectively. To make the story short, the federal -government received only $328,316, notwithstanding which its debt had -risen in the early part of 1830 to one million dollars.[XXXIII-43] -After the dissolution of the Central American union, the several -states assumed a share of the foreign debt, and adopted measures to -provide their governments with means to cover their expenses. Most of -them depended chiefly on receipts from customs, and the monopoly of -spirituous liquors and tobacco, stamped paper, excise, and a few other -sources.[XXXIII-44] - -The gross receipts for the fiscal year 1883, including a balance of -$104,327 on hand from the preceding year, were $6,728,607.[XXXIII-45] -The expenditures amounted to $6,613,607, of which $3,027,511 was -the actual expenses of administration, and $3,586,096 went toward -extinguishing the internal debt.[XXXIII-46] - -[Sidenote: GUATEMALA INDEBTEDNESS.] - -The indebtedness of Guatemala at the end of 1883 was as follows: -Internal, including interest, $4,257,631. It is understood that on the -30th of September, 1885, it was estimated at $6,138,000.[XXXIII-47] -The foreign debt resulted from the loan made in March 1869, in London, -for the nominal sum of £500,000 at 6 per cent annually, and 3 per cent -for a sinking fund.[XXXIII-48] The government remitted to London from -1870 to 1876, on account of that debt, for interest and sinking fund, -$1,377,000, which was somewhat more than it had received. No further -payments were made after October 1876. Consequently, at the end of 1885 -the nation was owing, on account of that loan, £468,600 of principal, -and £276,474 for interest, aggregating £745,074, which with exchange -at 20 per cent make $4,470,444. Moreover, there is due by Guatemala, -on account of her share of the federal indebtedness—she having assumed -£100,000 of it—a very large sum. The debt had been reduced in 1873 to -£70,600 to which must be added the dividends accrued to the present -time.[XXXIII-49] - -The national assembly voted on the 5th of July, 1886, for the -fiscal year from July 1, 1886, to June 30, 1887, appropriations for -expenditures of administration, aggregating $2,252,471, and afterward -granted the extra sum of $326,800 for contingent expenses.[XXXIII-50] -No provision was made as regards the foreign debt. - -The revenue of Honduras in 1886 has been estimated at about two -and a half million dollars, being considerably in excess of the -expenditures.[XXXIII-51] - -Honduras has a foreign and a home debt. The latter is partly -consolidated and the rest floating. The consolidated, which was -one million dollars, had been in 1883 reduced to $885,000. All -treasury notes had been cancelled. The floating debt, amounting in -1880 to $578,609, had been reduced in 1883 to $244,694.[XXXIII-52] -The indebtedness to British subjects, including the portion of the -old federal debt which Honduras assumed, was finally extinguished -by the payment of $50,000 in 1882, and the country was freed from -the burden long weighing on the custom-house at Trujillo. The rest -of the foreign debt, amounting in 1876 to $29,950,540, is held in -London and Paris, having been issued at high rates of interest and at -a low valuation. Since that time the accumulated interest has never -been paid.[XXXIII-53] It is unknown what portion of the bonds issued -has been negotiated. The actual indebtedness may fall short of the -above amount after a thorough investigation of the financial affairs -connected with the railroad. - -[Sidenote: RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES.] - -The revenue receipts of Salvador from all sources, according to -President Zaldívar's messages of 1883 and 1884, were, for 1882, -$4,549,209, and for 1883, $4,061,020. The expenditures as stated -by the same authority were $4,416,454 in 1882, and $4,001,654 in -1883.[XXXIII-54] In 1866 the budget presented by the executive to -congress estimated the receipts at $2,211,613, and the expenditures at -$2,716,505, leaving a deficit of $501,869. - -Salvador had in 1853 a foreign debt not far from $325,000.[XXXIII-55] -Between 1861 and 1863 the government made an arrangement for the -foreign debt, giving bonds to the amount of $405,260 to cover principal -and interest. They were paid in due time, and since then the republic -has kept itself free from foreign indebtedness. Her internal debt, -consolidated at the end of 1882, was $1,589,861, and became slightly -increased in 1883.[XXXIII-56] In June 1885 it was $7,147,359. - -The financial condition of Nicaragua at the present time is quite -easy. Her revenue has been steadily on the increase for several years -past, except when interrupted by political disturbances, such as that -of 1875, which caused a considerable diminution. The receipts from -all sources in the biennial term of 1883-4 were $3,238,363, an excess -of $359,426 over the two preceding years.[XXXIII-57] The expenditures -in the biennial term of 1881-2 were $3,240,940, as itemized -below.[XXXIII-58] - -[Sidenote: NICARAGUA AND COSTA RICA.] - -At the end of 1880 Nicaragua's share of the old federal indebtedness to -British creditors—£31,510,[XXXIII-59] as per adjustment made in London -on the 27th of March, 1874—had been reduced to £4,170 15_s._ 6_d._, -which remained unpaid because the holders had failed to produce their -claims. Since then the balance was further reduced to £4,011 15_s._ -6_d._, and the funds were on hand to pay it off on demand. This was -the sum total of the republic's foreign liability. At the end of 1882 -the internal debt was $920,258, of which $644,218 were subsequently -paid, leaving a balance due of $328,667; adding thereto balances of -special accounts, the whole debt of the republic at the end of 1884 was -$908,707; but as the amount of consolidated bonds was being met, the -whole indebtedness would really be $802,310.[XXXIII-60] - -Costa Rica's financial condition is anything but an easy one. The -receipts of the treasury for the fiscal year 1883-4 amounted to -$1,586,561.[XXXIII-61] The receipts for the fiscal years 1884-5, -and 1885-6, were estimated at about $2,559,866 and $2,936,756, -respectively.[XXXIII-62] The expenditures for the fiscal years 1882-3, -and 1883-4 were respectively $2,796,468 and $1,985,426; the former -leaving a deficit of $1,246,448, and the latter of $398,865. Congress -voted for expenses of the fiscal year 1885-6, $2,936,756, and for -1886-7, $2,607,613.[XXXIII-63] - -[Sidenote: FOREIGN INDEBTEDNESS.] - -The following statement exhibits the financial condition of the -republic at the end of 1882, as represented by the secretary of -the treasury. It will be well to state here that until 1871 Costa -Rica was free from foreign debt, her proportion of the old federal -indebtedness in London having been paid off at an early day of her -independent life.[XXXIII-64] The government owed, on the 30th of -April, 1871, $92,878; adding thereto the disbursements of eleven -years—1871-82—$30,251,284, and $2,110,905 paid the railway, in bills -of exchange on the national agent in London, and not included in the -aforesaid outlay, we have an aggregate of $32,455,067; and deducting -therefrom the revenue of the same eleven years, a deficit results -of $6,524,516, which is made up of $1,454,086, excess of expenditure -over receipts at the end of 1882, and $5,070,430, the equivalent in -Costa Rican money of £895,221 3_s._ 11_d._, net proceeds of loans -negotiated in London at 6 and 7 per cent.[XXXIII-65] However, the -council of bondholders formed in 1883 the following statement of Costa -Rica's foreign debt, namely: outstanding of six per cent loan of 1871, -£941,200; overdue interest, £564,720, making £1,505,920. Outstanding of -seven per cent loan of 1872, £1,460,200; overdue interest, £1,073,175 -10_s._, making £2,553,273 10_s._ Grand total, £4,039,193 10_s._ The -home debt was set down in 1885 at $519,000.[XXXIII-66] - -In Panamá the receipts of the treasury from all sources in 1812, a few -years previous to the separation from Spain, this nation being then at -war with her American colonies, were $746,241.[XXXIII-67] In 1827, six -years after the independence, the receipts were $241,683,[XXXIII-68] -and the expenditures $238,929. Under the law suppressing custom-houses -in the ports of the Isthmus, the revenue of the province in 1847 -became reduced $77,880. The amount appropriated by the provincial -legislature in October 1849, for expenses of the fiscal year 1840-59, -was $51,220.[XXXIII-69] - -After the organization of the Isthmus as a state of the Colombian -confederation, there being no receipts from customs, the chief portion -of the expenses has been met with a tax assessed on merchants and -shop-keepers, estimated on the amount of business done by each, the -legislative assembly fixing annually the sum required for the next -year's expenditures, and the proportion of it to be covered by the -commercial tax. The state received $50,000 out of the annual subvention -of $250,000 paid by the railway company to the Colombian government. -Other sources of revenue have been the taxes levied on steamship -agencies, consumption, slaughter of cattle, ice, distilleries, and -several others which in the aggregate are not insignificant. - -[Sidenote: DEBT OF PANAMÁ] - -The republic of Colombia being on the point of changing her -organization, Panamá, consequent upon recent political events, was -at the end of 1885 under a military government, the chief of which, -exercising his extraordinary powers, ordered the continuance after -January 1, 1886, of the appropriations that had been decreed for -1885, with a few modifications.[XXXIII-70] The financial condition -of the state on the 30th of June, 1878, was an indebtedness of -$214,317.[XXXIII-71] - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIV. - -INTEROCEANIC COMMUNICATION. - -1801-1887. - - ANCIENT IDEAS ON THE NORTH-WEST PASSAGE—FROM PERU TO - LA PLATA—CAPE HORN DISCOVERED—ARCTIC REGIONS—MCCLURE'S - SUCCESSFUL VOYAGE—CROZIER'S DISCOVERY—FRANKLIN'S - ATTEMPTS—FINDING BY NORDENSKIÖLD OF THE NORTH-EAST - PASSAGE—PROJECTS TO UNITE THE ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC OCEANS - ACROSS THE ISTHMUSES—PLANS ABOUT TEHUANTEPEC—EXPLORATIONS - FOR A SHIP-CANAL ROUTE IN NICARAGUA, PANAMÁ, AND DARIEN—THE - NICARAGUA ACCESSORY TRANSIT COMPANY—CONSTRUCTION OF THE - PANAMÁ RAILWAY, AND ITS GREAT BENEFITS—FURTHER EFFORTS FOR - A CANAL—ORGANIZATION OF A FRENCH COMPANY—A SHIP-CANAL UNDER - CONSTRUCTION ACROSS THE ISTHMUS OF PANAMÁ—DIFFICULTIES - AND EXPECTATIONS—CENTRAL AMERICAN RAILROADS AND - TELEGRAPHS—SUBMARINE CABLES. - - -No sooner had lands been discovered to the westward of Europe than -the minds of cosmographers became fixed in the idea of short routes to -India in that direction;[XXXIV-1] nor would they abandon it until long -after both shores of the western continent had been explored from the -Arctic sea to Cape Horn.[XXXIV-2] - -[Sidenote: EARLY EXPLORATIONS.] - -I have elsewhere presented a full account of explorations by land -and sea to establish communications between the Atlantic and Pacific -oceans prior to the opening of the present century.[XXXIV-3] The -most important of the earlier discoveries, since Magalhaes' time, was -that of the open polar sea south of Cape Horn, which was named by the -Dutch navigators Le Maire and Van Schouten.[XXXIV-4] The north-west -passage, so long the object of search, was at last found in 1851 by an -English expedition. The discovery was effected by Robert Le Mesurier -McClure, who, in command of the _Investigator_, sailed, together with -the _Enterprise_ under Richard Collinson, from England in 1850. Before -the close of the year, McClure passed Point Barrow, pushed along the -continent, doubled the south end of Banks Island, and sailed through -Prince of Wales' Strait, where he wintered near Melville Sound. In -1851, the west side of the peninsular part of Wollaston Island to -Prince Albert's Sound was surveyed. By finding the strait connecting -the continental channel with Melville Sound, McClure became the -discoverer of the north-west passage, and was the first navigator to -pass from Bering Strait to Baffin Bay.[XXXIV-5] Yet he gave to Captain -Crozier, second in command of Franklin's expedition, the credit of -prior discovery. McClure with the _Investigator_ was shut in during the -winters of 1851-2, and 1852-3. In the spring of 1853 he resolved to -abandon the ship and seek Mackenzie River and Lancaster Sound in two -parties, a journey which would have been disastrous. At this moment, -April 6th, Lieutenant Pym of the _Resolute_ appeared.[XXXIV-6] The -McClure party were taken to the _Resolute_, and reached England in -1854. - -[Sidenote: NORTH-EAST PASSAGE.] - -The north-east passage was discovered by Adolf Erick Nordenskiöld in -1879, after 326 years from the first attempt by Hugh Willoughby in -1553.[XXXIV-7] - - * * * * * - - [Illustration: INTEROCEANIC COMMUNICATION.] - -The necessity of shorter communication between the two oceans becoming -more evident from day to day, with the increase of traffic with the -western coast of America, with China, and with the numerous islands -of the Pacific, various projects were entertained to establish such -communication either by canal or railway. At Tehuantepec, Honduras, -Nicaragua, and the isthmus of Panamá were formed the most favorable -conditions for a forced or artificial transit.[XXXIV-8] - -[Sidenote: TEHUANTEPEC ISTHMUS.] - -The breadth of the isthmus of Tehuantepec between the bays of -Campeche and Tehuantepec at the narrowest point is 130 miles. It -is drained by the rivers Coatzacoalcos and Tehuantepec, the former -running northward, discharging its waters into the first-named bay, -and extending over three fourths of the width of this isthmus; the -latter flowing into the bay of Tehuantepec. There are several lakes -and lagoons. At one time it was proposed to cut a canal across this -isthmus, and to improve the navigation of the Coatzacoalcos, to which -end surveys were made.[XXXIV-9] But no action having been taken -toward constructing a canal by the parties to whom franchises had -been given, the scheme of a railroad across this section has been also -contemplated,[XXXIV-10] and finally a grant was made to James B. Eads, -to construct a ship railway between the two gulfs, capable of having -transported over it the largest ships with their cargoes.[XXXIV-11] -The scheme has been declared by Eads, and by other engineers of high -repute in Europe and America, to be practicable. His opponents deride -it. He applied, without success, to the United States government for -assistance.[XXXIV-12] - -[Sidenote: NICARAGUA ISTHMUS.] - -The idea of uniting the two oceans, by means of a canal across the -isthmus of Nicaragua, occupied the attention of the Spanish court from -a very early day after the conquest to the last years of its occupation -of the country.[XXXIV-13] Since the separation of Central America from -the crown, the canal scheme has ever been uppermost in the minds of her -rulers and thinking men, and many scientific engineers and capitalists -of Europe and America have taken a deep interest therein. But for -divers reasons nothing was accomplished toward establishing an adequate -interoceanic communication, in any form, down to 1849.[XXXIV-14] This -year a new arrangement was made with Cornelius Vanderbilt and Joseph -L. White of New York, in which the government of the United States, -through its representative, E. George Squier, became concerned. This -arrangement gave rise to complications with Great Britain, which were -finally settled by the Clayton-Bulwer treaty to perpetually guarantee -the neutrality of the canal to be constructed. The contractors failed -to carry out their agreement as regarded the construction of a canal, -but established the Accessory Transit Company, and by means of steamers -on the two oceans, and on the river San Juan and Lake Nicaragua, -rendered valuable service in the transportation of passengers. The -matter was given in detail, in connection with the relations of that -company with the Nicaraguan government, including its history from the -date of the foundation till 1869, when it ceased to exist. However, -their engineer, O. Childs, made a survey of the route for a canal in -1851, and recommended one from the mouth of Lajas River to Port Brito, -traversing the Rio Grande Valley.[XXXIV-15] Since that time many -schemes have been contemplated, and contracts entered into, but none of -them have given the desired result.[XXXIV-16] - -[Sidenote: ACROSS MOSQUITIA.] - -I have yet to mention Pim's scheme, advanced in 1853, of building -a railway from Punta Mico on the Atlantic to San Miguelito, on the -eastern shore of the lake, traversing Mosquitia. A company was formed, -but the project was soon found to be impracticable.[XXXIV-17] - -No efforts have been spared ever since by Nicaragua and American -citizens to bring about the accomplishment of the long-expected canal, -under the impression that it is the most desirable, feasible, and -least expensive route. The assistance of the United States government -has been solicited, and treaties made to afford facilities, but the -American congress has thus far refused to do anything, except send -commissions to explore the several lines, and their reports seem to -be favorable.[XXXIV-18] The last treaty concluded between the two -governments with reference to a canal was rejected by the United -States senate. The last survey made under the auspices of the American -government was that of Engineer Menocal, of the United States navy, -who, with other officers, visited Nicaragua in January 1885. His report -was presented in November of that year. The plan of this commission had -been at first to convert the river San Juan above its junction with -the Sarapiqui into an extension of the lake by constructing a dam 74 -feet high, but it was found impracticable. The proposed route extends -from San Juan del Norte to Brito. The total length is 169.8 miles, -of which 38.98 miles will be excavated canal, and 130.82 navigation -by Lake Nicaragua, the river San Juan, the basin of the river San -Francisco, and seven locks. Lake Nicaragua will be connected with the -Pacific by a canal, and with the Atlantic by slackwater navigation in -the river San Juan, by a short section of canal from the San Juan to -the basin of the San Francisco, by navigation through this basin, and -by a canal thence to the Caribbean Sea. The route has been divided -into three divisions, the western, eastern, and middle.[XXXIV-19] The -cost was carefully estimated, including a contingent of 25 per cent, at -$64,043,697. De Lesseps is of opinion, however, that a canal with locks -would be inadequate to pass the traffic that will frequent it, and -would suffer from uncertainty of sufficient water to supply the lockage -and evaporation.[XXXIV-20] - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: PANAMÁ ISTHMUS.] - -One of the four routes suggested by Antonio Galvao to the king of -Spain, for cutting a canal to join the two oceans, was the Isthmus of -Panamá.[XXXIV-21] Soon after New Granada threw off the Spanish yoke, -several surveys of Panamá and Darien were made, and canal projects -recommended;[XXXIV-22] two of them, deemed the most important, were -that of Lloyd's to build a railroad from Panamá or La Chorrera to the -Trinidad River, a tributary of the Chagres; and that of a sluiced canal -recommended in 1843 by Garella and Courtines, who studied the Isthmus -under a commission of the French government. And there were other -projects.[XXXIV-23] - -The attention of the United States government was directed to the -subject of interoceanic routes as early as 1825. In 1835 the executive -was requested by the senate to enter into negotiations with the -Central American states and New Granada, conducive to treaties for the -protection of Americans who might attempt opening the communication -between the two oceans. A treaty was made by the United States with -New Granada on the 12th of December, 1846, under which the latter -guaranteed to the former "the right of way or transit across the -Isthmus of Panamá, upon any modes of communication that now exist, or -that may be hereafter constructed." The United States government on -its part guaranteed to New Granada the neutrality of the Isthmus, and -the rights of sovereignty and property over its territory.[XXXIV-24] At -last an American company, being stimulated by the great traffic across -the Isthmus, took up the matter of a railway.[XXXIV-25] - -[Sidenote: PANAMÁ RAILWAY.] - -The termini resolved on were Colon on the Atlantic, and on the Pacific, -a little to the eastward of the city of Panamá, quite clear of the -suburbs. The work was begun in January 1850, and finished on the 28th -of January, 1855. Its total length is 47 miles, 3,020 feet. The line -is a single one, but has four very commodious sidings; namely, Gatun, -7½ miles from Colon; one near Barbacoas, 22 miles; one at Matachin, 30 -miles; and one at the summit, 37 miles. There are stations at every -four miles. The undertaking was a bold one, and was successfully -carried out under the able and energetic superintendence of George M. -Totten.[XXXIV-26] The actual cost, as per construction account, was -eight million dollars. The road has been improved from year to year. -Articles of the coarsest and heaviest description, as well as ordinary -merchandise, have been constantly conveyed over it. The road began to -yield some income since 1852, when it had reached Barbacoas. I give -in a note some statistics on receipts and expenditures.[XXXIV-27] The -company from the beginning of its operations had a line of telegraph -between Panamá and Colon. In 1881 the railway was sold to the company -organized to construct a canal for $17,500,000, being at the rate of -$250 per share. Adding other items, and interest on annual instalments, -the share-holders received about twenty million dollars.[XXXIV-28] - -A survey made by United States officers in 1866, through Chiriquí, -showed that it was practicable to build a railway through the -cordillera. The harbors of Chiriquí and Sheperd on the Atlantic, and -of Golfito in Golfo Dulce, were favorably reported upon by Commodore F. -Engle.[XXXIV-29] - -[Sidenote: VARIOUS SCHEMES.] - -But the idea of an interoceanic canal was ever present.[XXXIV-30] -Nothing was practically done, until the whole subject was discussed -in 1875 at the congress of geographical sciences held in Paris, and a -company was organized under General Türr for effecting the requisite -explorations. Lucien N. Bonaparte Wyse, a lieutenant of the French -navy, assisted by other engineers, was sent out to the Isthmus. The -exploring commission effected their work thoroughly, and the section -from Colon to Panamá was given the preference.[XXXIV-31] The Colombian -government granted on the 18th of May, 1878, to the Civil International -Interoceanic Association, residing in Paris, the exclusive privilege -for ninety-nine years of constructing a canal between the two oceans, -at the same time establishing the neutrality of the ports at the -termini, and of the canal itself.[XXXIV-32] - -De Lesseps, of Suez Canal fame, undertook in 1879 the task of -constructing the canal, and the first meeting of the company, now -called Compagnie Universal du Canal Interocéanique de Panama, took -place in 1881. It was calculated that six hundred million francs, -or be it $120,000,000, would cover the expense of construction and -completion. One of the company's first acts was to establish in -New York a branch board of directors, and another was to purchase -the Panamá railway.[XXXIV-33] The works were commenced in October -1881.[XXXIV-34] The canal in course of construction follows the route -of the railway, though keeping closer to the bed of the Chagres, which -it is to cross again and again; on the Pacific side it will descend -the Rio Grande Valley, and continue seaward to the island of Perico, a -total length of fifty-four miles.[XXXIV-35] - -[Sidenote: DIFFICULTIES TO OVERCOME.] - -The works have been prosecuted with more or less vigor, by the use -of powerful dredges, until the capital became exhausted, and their -operations declined for many months, seeming to confirm predictions of -failure.[XXXIV-36] However that may be, De Lesseps and his friends are -confident that the opening of the canal will become an accomplished -fact within eight years from the time of commencement.[XXXIV-37] -There can be no doubt that a large portion of the original capital -was wasted, and if rumor is not at fault much was misappropriated. -But public confidence in De Lesseps remains unshaken in France, and he -has been able to obtain by subscription abundant funds to continue the -work,[XXXIV-38] and it is now being vigorously pushed. His calculation -is that there will be business for the canal to the extent of 7,250,000 -tons, yielding 6 or 7 per cent on 2,000 million francs, or 108,000,000 -francs, equivalent to $21,600,000. - - * * * * * - -This is not the place in which to speak of the several northern -railways across the continent. The Central American states—exclusive of -Panamá, which has had that benefit since 1855—have made some progress -in late years toward establishing railway communication between the -two seas. Guatemala has one line from Port San José, on the Pacific, -to the capital,[XXXIV-39] and another from Port Champerico, also on the -Pacific, to Retalhuleu.[XXXIV-40] - -[Sidenote: CENTRAL AMERICAN RAILWAYS.] - -Measures had likewise been taken to communicate the capital by -railroads with the northern sea, contemplating at the same time -to build another line from Coban to the Polochic River. However, -these projects, so far as I know, have been, since President -Barrios' death, in abeyance. The Spanish court was repeatedly -urged to open communications between Puerto Caballos and the bay -of Fonseca.[XXXIV-41] Traffic on mule-back was carried on between -both seas in colonial times; but what we know of the isthmus of -Honduras is derived from the surveys made by the British Honduras -Interoceanic Railway Company, and reported by their agent, E. G. -Squier. As a practicable route for a ship canal, Honduras is out of -the question; but the construction of a railroad was begun between -Puerto Caballos or Cortés, on the Caribbean Sea, and Amapala in the bay -of Fonseca,[XXXIV-42] through the valley of the Goascoran and Humuya -rivers—232 miles. The road was graded, and a narrow-gauge track was -built from Port Cortés to San Pedro, of about 37 miles in length. The -work was suspended in 1871, and abandoned in 1873. Civil disturbances -and lack of means have prevented its resumption. Several franchises -have been granted in later years for continuing it; but nothing of a -practical nature has resulted.[XXXIV-43] - -Salvador has no territory on the Atlantic slope. She has a railroad -between San Miguel and Port La Union; another line is being built -from Port Acajutla to the heart of the coffee region of Santa Ana. -It is possible that in the future the republic may be placed in -communication, by railway, with the Atlantic, through the territory of -her neighbors. - -In Nicaragua the line between Corinto and Chinandega, and hence to -Leon, was in operation in 1881-2. The work steadily progressed. The -western section was opened to public service in 1884, connecting it -with the steam-ship line on the lake. Thus was Managua, the capital, -placed in rapid and cheap communication by steam with Corinto, the -chief port of the republic. The whole line from Momotombo to Corinto -was yielding six and four fifths per cent on the capital invested. -In the eastern section the work was going on rapidly at the end of -1884, and 20 miles to Masaya would soon be finished. The government -contemplated to have a direct railway line from Villa de la Paz to -Managua, thus establishing a continuous communication between Managua -and Granada.[XXXIV-44] - -Costa Rica, thus far, has three lines, or rather divisions or sections; -namely, the Central, running between San Jose and the interior -provinces, via Cartago, Heredia, Alajuela, Tres Rios, and San Joaquin; -the Atlantic, from Limon to the interior, which is the route through -which most of the country's foreign trade is carried on; and the -Pacific which runs from Puntarenas to Esparta.[XXXIV-45] - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: TELEGRAPH LINES.] - -The five Central American republics are intersected by telegraph -lines belonging to their respective governments, and communicating -their chief towns with one another within themselves, and with the -sister republics.[XXXIV-46] The isthmus of Panamá has a communication -by submarine cable with Central America and Mexico at the port of La -Libertad and Acapulco. The cities of Panamá and Colon are in direct -communication by wire. The Isthmus is further connected by cable, -on the Pacific, with Peru, via Buenaventura, which also places it in -telegraphic communication with Bogotá and the rest of Colombia. A cable -to Jamaica affords another connection, via Cuba, with the United States -and Europe.[XXXIV-47] - -The question of interoceanic communication by ship-canal across the -isthmuses of Central America occupying, as it does, general attention, -I have concluded to append hereto information on the subject by several -competent authorities; namely, the British explorer, Dr Edward Cullen, -and E. George Squier. - - IGNORANCE RESPECTING DARIEN.—It is a very singular - circumstance that the coast of Darien, the first settled in - America (Santa Maria having been founded in 1509, and Acla - in Caledonia Bay in 1514), within eighteen days' steaming - from England, close also to such frequented ports as Chagres, - Carthagena, and Kingston, Jamaica, should be at the present - day as unknown as the coasts of Patagonia or of New Guinea, - and that the vast advantages of this tract of country, for - a canal, should have escaped the penetration of the great - Humboldt, who, after having examined all the maps in the - Depósito Hidrográfico of Madrid, appears to suggest the - Chuquanaqua. He says: 'On the Pacific coast, also, the deep - Golfo de San Miguel, into which falls the Tuyra with its - tributary, the Chuchunque, runs far into the Isthmus; the - river Chuchunque, too, in the upper part of its course, runs - within sixteen geographical miles of the Antillean shore of - the Isthmus, westward of Cape Tiburon.' _Views of Nature_, - Potsdam, June 1849, p. 432 of Bohn's translation. - - The Atrato route labors under the disadvantage of a bad - harbor, on the Pacific side, Cupica being of very small - extent, and open to the S. W.; and the Atrato has a bar with - only five feet of water on it, while the rise of tide in the - Gulf of Darien is only two feet. - - The Chagres, or Limon Bay and Panama route, surveyed in 1829 - by Col Lloyd and M. Falmarc, under a commission from the - Liberator, Simon Bolívar, and subsequently by M. Garella, has - such bad harbors that the idea of a canal by that line has - been totally abandoned. - - The route from Chepo mouth to Mandinga Bay, proposed by Mr - Evan Hopkins,[XXXIV-48] who attempted to survey it in 1847, - for the New Granada government, although the narrowest line - across the Isthmus, being only twenty-seven miles across from - Chepo to Carti, has the disadvantages of bad coasts, a very - high cordillera, of from 2,000 to 6,000 feet elevation, and - a large population of Indians. - - The bar at the mouth of Chepo River is quite dry at low - water, as is also a sand bank which extends several miles - out into the bay of Panamá; the part of the Atlantic coast on - the other side is beset with reefs, shoals, and kays, and is - dangerous of approach. - - Capt Fitzroy, R. N., in his _Considerations upon the Great - Isthmus of Central America_, suggests a line from the upper - course of the Tuyra to the Atrato, or the coast of Darien - above its mouth, as an improvement of the route proposed by - me; but this would be nearly twice the distance of the Port - Escocés, and gulf of San Miguel route; there would be the - mountain of Chacargun or the Sierra de Maly to cross, and - should the canal open into the Atrato, there would be the - very formidable obstacle of the bar to remove, while of the - coast above the Atrato mouth, the _Columbian Navigator_ says: - 'All this coast from Tarena Kays to Cape Tiburon is high and - precipitous, with deep water off it; and it is very wild in - the season of the breezes. It is very advisable, therefore, - at these seasons, to shun it.' Any route, however, in this - direction, would be included in the privilege granted, on the - 1st of June, 1852, by the New Granada government, to Edward - Cullen, Charles Fox, John Henderson, and Thomas Brassey, for - cutting a canal from Port Escocés to the gulf of San Miguel, - which gives power to select any place from the west mouth of - the Atrato to Punta Mosquitos, for the Atlantic entrance of - the canal. - - [Sidenote: DISCOVERY OF THE SAVANA RIVER.] - - DISCOVERY OF THE SAVANA RIVER AND THE ROUTE FOR THE - SHIP-CANAL. I imagine that the river Savana was not - delineated in the maps which Humboldt saw.[XXXIV-49] Such, - indeed, was the case with the map which I had on my first - journey into Darien in 1849, so that I was totally ignorant - of its existence until I actually saw it, after entering - Boca Chica, when, finding the great depth of water at its - mouth, and that it flowed almost directly from the north, I - became convinced that I had at last found the object of my - search, viz., a feasible route to the Atlantic, and thereupon - immediately ascended it, and crossed from Cañasas to the - sea-shore at Port Escocés and back, and subsequently, in 1850 - and also in 1851, crossed and recrossed, at several times - and by several tracks, the route from the Savana to Port - Escocés and Caledonia Bay, notching the barks of the trees - as I went along, with a _machete_ or cutlass, always alone - and unaided, and always in the season of the heaviest rains. - I had previously examined, on my way from Panamá, the mouths - of Chepo, Chiman, Congo, and several other rivers, but found - them all obstructed by bars and sand banks, and impracticable - for a ship passage, so that upon seeing the Savana, I had not - the least hesitation in deciding that that must be the future - route for interoceanic communication for ships. - - THE DARIEN CANAL ROUTE.—Port Escocés, or Scotch Harbor, and - the bay of Caledonia, on the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus - of Darien, present an extent of six nautical miles, from S. - E. to N. W., of safe anchorage in all winds. These harbors - are situated between Carreto Bay and the channel of Sassardi, - and are 140 miles E. S. E. of Limon Bay, and twenty-one miles - W. N. W. of Cape Tiburon, the N. W. boundary of the Gulf of - Darien. Port Escocés extends to the S. E. to lat. 8° 50´ and - long. 77° 41´; and Golden Island, or Isla de Oro, or Santa - Catalina, which forms the N. W. boundary of Caledonia Bay, is - in lat. 8° 54´ 40´´, and long. 77° 45´ 30´´. - - The channel of Sassardi, also, extending from Caledonia Bay - N. W. five miles to the Fronton, or point of Sassardi, is - sheltered from the winds and seas of both seasons, and has - good depth of water. - - Twenty-two miles S. W. of Port Escocés is the site of the - old Spanish settlement of Fuerte del Príncipe, on the river - Savana, established in 1785, and abandoned in 1790. From - thence the river Savana has nearly a S. by E. course for - fourteen miles to its mouth, which opens into the river - Tuyra, Santa Maria, or Rio Grande del Darien, three miles - above Boca Chica and Boca Grande, the two mouths by which the - latter discharges itself into the Gulf of San Miguel on the - Pacific. - - Thus the distance from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, by - the route from Port Escocés or Caledonia Bay, to the gulf of - San Miguel, by way of the river Savana, would be thirty-nine - miles. In a direct line, from Port Escocés to the gulf, the - distance is thirty-three miles. - - In _Considerations on the Great Isthmus of Central America_, - read before the Royal Geographical Society of London, on the - 11th and 25th Nov., 1850, Captain Fitzroy, R. N., says: 'Any - route that could be made available between San Miguel Gulf - and Caledonia Bay, or the Gulf of Darien or Choco, would have - the advantage of excellent harbors at each end, and a great - rise of tide in one of them (San Miguel). The river Savana is - recommended by Dr Cullen from personal examination, as being - more navigable (for canoes[XXXIV-50]), and approaching nearer - the north coast than the Chuquanaqua does; though this does - not appear in the Spanish maps. From the head of the Savana, - a ravine, about three leagues in length, extends to Caledonia - Bay, and there (Dr Cullen says, having passed through it) - _he_ thinks a canal might be cut with less difficulty than - elsewhere, if it were not for the opposition of the natives. - He also speaks of the Indians transporting their canoes - across at this ravine, and of the comparative healthiness of - this part of the Isthmus.' - - The whole work to be done, in order to make a ship-canal - communication between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by this - route, would be to cut from Príncipe or from Lara mouth to - Port Escocés or Caledonia Bay, a distance of from twenty-two - to twenty-five miles, of which there would be but three or - four miles of deep cutting. - - The canal, to be on a scale of grandeur commensurate with - its important uses, should be cut sufficiently deep to allow - the tide of the Pacific to flow right through it, across - to the Atlantic; so that ships bound from the Pacific to - the Atlantic would pass with the flood, and those from the - Atlantic to the Pacific with the ebb tide of the latter. Such - was the plan recommended in my report to Lord Palmerston. By - such a canal—that is, one entirely without locks—the transit - from sea to sea could be effected in six hours, or one - tide.[XXXIV-51] - - For the engineering details, and estimates of the cost - of the work, I beg to refer to the valuable report of Mr. - Lionel Gisborne, C. E., who, with his assistant, Mr. Forde, - was commissioned, last April, by Messrs Fox, Henderson, - and Brassey, to survey this route, which they found to be - perfectly feasible for a ship-canal communication, and fully - as eligible as I had represented it. - - [Sidenote: PASSAGE FOR THE PACIFIC TIDE.] - - It is needless to say that, under the auspices of Messrs. - Fox, Henderson, and Brassey, who, with that clear discernment - and prompt decision, which have placed them in the elevated - position which they occupy, adopted this route in December - 1851, after a careful examination of my statements, the - great work of an interoceanic canal is sure, erelong, to be - accomplished. - - I trust that an attentive consideration of the advantages - of this route—viz., its shortness, the excellence of its - harbors, the low elevation of the land, the absence of - bars at the Savana and Tuyra mouths, the depth of water - and great rise of tide in the former, its directness of - course and freedom from obstructions, the healthiness of the - adjacent country, the exemption of the coasts from northers - and hurricanes, the feasibility of cutting a canal without - locks, and the absence of engineering difficulties—will - fully justify me in asserting it to be the shortest, the - most direct, safe, and expeditious, and in every way the most - eligible route for intermarine communication for large ships. - - An examination of the physical aspect of the country from - Port Escocés to the Savana—presenting, as it does, but a - single ridge of low elevation, and this broken by gorges, - ravines, and valleys, and grooved by rivers and streams, with - a champaign country extending from its base on each side—will - prove the feasibility of making the canal entirely without - locks, a superiority which this route possesses over others, - which all present insurmountable physical obstacles to the - construction of such a canal. - - In fact, a glance at the map ought to convince the most - sceptical that nature has unmistakably marked out this space - for the junction of the two oceans, and the breaking of the - continuity of North and South America; indeed, so narrow is - the line of division, that it would almost appear as if the - two seas did once meet here. - - DETAILS OF THE ROUTE PROPOSED.—I shall now enter into a more - detailed description of this route, which I discovered in - 1849, and proposed for a ship-canal communication between - the Atlantic and Pacific oceans in the _Panamá Echo_ of - February 8, 1850, in the _Daily News_ and _Mining Journal_ - of May 1850;[XXXIV-52] in a paper presented to the Royal - Geographical Society, and read at the Edinburgh meeting of - the British Association in July 1850; and in a report to Lord - Palmerston, of January 15, 1851. - - PORT ESCOCÉS.—Of Port Escocés, Caledonia Bay, and the channel - of Sassardi, the _Columbian Navigator_, vol. 3, p. 218, says: - - 'Port Escocés, or Caledonia, lat. 8° 51´, long. 77° 44´, is - a noble harbor; very safe, and so extensive that a thousand - sail of vessels may enter it. - - 'Punta Escocés is the S. E. point of Caledonia Bay, the - greater islet of Santa Catalina, or de Oro (gold), being the - N. W. Between point and point the distance is four miles, and - the points lie N. W. and S. E. (N. 40° W., and S. 40° E.), - from each other; and in respect to this line the bay falls - in one mile and two thirds. In the S. E. part of this bay is - Puerto Escocés (or Scottish Harbor), which extends inward two - miles in that direction, and forms good shelter. There are - various shoals in it, which are represented in the particular - plan of the harbor, by which plan any vessel may run in, for - the depths are five, six, seven, and eight fathoms of water - over a bottom of sand. - - 'Between Piedras Islet to the north, the west point of - Aglatomate River to the south, and that of San Fulgencio to - the S. W., is formed the Ensenada, or bay of Caledonia, and - the channel of Sassardi. - - CALEDONIA BAY.—'The Ensenada, or cove of Caledonia, is, - strictly speaking, formed by the points already mentioned, - which lie with each other N. N. W. ¾ W., and S. S. E. ¾ E. - (N. 25° W., and S. 25° E.), one mile distant. This bay is - clean, and has good deep water; the greater part of its coast - is a beach, and near the middle of it disembogues the river - Aglaseniqua. The point of San Fulgencio is salient, scarped, - and clean, and it also forms an indent with little depth of - water, bordered by mangroves and various kays at its western - part. - - THE CHANNEL OF SASSARDI.—'Between San Fulgencio point, the - great Oro Island, Piedras Islet, and the Mangrove Kays, which - are to the west of them, the channel of Sassardi is formed; - the S. E. entrance to this channel is off and on, with four - cables' length in extent, from edge to edge, and with from - nine to twelve fathoms depth on oaze; and farther in, from - eight to ten fathoms; as also between the turn of the bank - off Piedras Islet, and the bay of Caledonia, the depth is - from seven to fifteen fathoms; and the piece of sea which - intervenes between this bay and the Puerto Escocés is of a - good depth of water; but at a short mile S. E. by E. ½ E. (S. - 55° E.), from Piedras Islet the sea breaks when the breeze - blows fresh.' - - From its entrance the channel of Sassardi extends N. W. five - miles. - - The engineer has here, then, a wide scope for selecting a - locality for the Atlantic mouth of the canal, which may thus - open anywhere from the S. E. end of Port Escocés to the N. - W. entrance of the Channel of Sassardi, an extent of eleven - nautic. miles. - - Along a great extent of Port Escocés and Caledonia Bay, - vessels can lie so close in shore that no boats would be - necessary in the taking in or discharging cargo; the same - great advantage also presents itself at several points in the - channel of Sassardi. - - [Sidenote: SOURCES OF FRESH WATER.] - - Good fresh water may be obtained in abundance from any of the - numerous streams which fall into these harbors, particularly - from the Aglaseniqua or Aglatomate. - - Port Escocés is entirely uninhabited, nor is there any - settlement in and of it; at Caledonia, near the mouth of the - Aglaseniqua, there are five huts, inhabited by a few Indians - of the Tule tribe, and about two leagues up the river is - another small settlement; this, however, is at a considerable - distance westward of the projected line of canal. - - From the sea-shore a plain extends for nearly two miles to - the base of a ridge of hills, which runs parallel to the - coast, and whose highest summit is about 350 feet. This - ridge is not quite continuous and unbroken, but is divided - by transverse valleys, through which the Aglaseniqua, - Aglatomate, and other rivers have their course, and whose - highest elevations do not exceed 150 feet. - - The base of this ridge is only two miles in width; and from - its south side a level plain extends for thirteen miles to - a point on the river Savana, called Cañasas, which is about - twenty miles above its mouth. - - The river Savana, at Cañasas, has a depth of six feet - of water, but is obstructed by ledges of a slate, called - _pizarra_, or _killes_, for four miles, down to the mouth - of La Villa, up to which the tide reaches. At Cañasas, - there is a forest of a species of bamboo, so dense as to be - impenetrable; and above it there is a fall of two feet, when - the river is low, but after rains this entirely disappears. - The first fall, in ascending the river, occurs at Caobano, a - little above La Villa. - - From La Villa, where there is a depth of ten or twelve - feet, the river is perfectly free from obstructions down to - Príncipe. - - At Fuerte del Príncipe, two miles below La Villa, there is - a single ledge of slate, visible only in a very low state - of the river, which has here a depth of three fathoms, and a - rise of tide of six feet. The banks of the river are elevated - about ten feet above the level of the water, and are quite - free from swamp. The site of the old Spanish settlement is - here indicated by a patch of very dense scrubby bush, without - high trees, on the west bank of the river; but the only - remains to be met with are some fragments of _botijas_, or - water-jars. Príncipe is in lat. 8° 34', and long. 77° 56', by - my observations; it is only two or three hours' journey from - the mouth of the river. - - The Savana River, called by the Indians Chaparti, is very - direct in its course, from Príncipe to its mouth, and free - from sinuosities, _playas_, deep elbows, shoals, rocks, - snags, or other obstructions. - - Its banks, elevated several feet above the level of the - water, are quite free from swamp and malarious miasmata, - consequently the endemic fevers caused by these in Chagres, - Portobello, Limon, and Panama, would not prevail in any - settlements that may be formed in the neighborhood of the - Savana. Indeed, it cannot be inferred that the Isthmus of - Darien is unhealthy, because the towns on the Isthmus of - Panama have all been settled in swampy localities, and in - the most unfavorable positions in a sanatory point of view. A - convincing proof of the freedom from swamp of the whole tract - of country, from Port Escocés to the gulf of San Miguel, is - the total absence of musquitoes, which invariably infest all - swampy grounds in the tropics. The great longevity of the - people of Darien, and the large proportion of very old men, - also attest the healthiness of the climate. - - From Príncipe to the mouth of Matumaganti, one mile S. S. - W., the river increases greatly in width and depth; there are - some islands in this reach; and on the west bank a very large - cuipo-tree stands conspicuous, towering above the adjacent - forest. - - From Matumaganti to the mouth of Lara, two miles, the river - has a depth of four fathoms, and a rise of tide of ten feet. - - From Lara mouth to the islands in the second reach, four - miles, the river is very direct in its course, with a depth - of five or six fathoms. A ridge of hills runs parallel to - each bank, at about two miles' distance. Just below this - mouth, and above a widening of the river, called Revesa - de Piriaki, is Cerro Piriaki, a hill of about 400 feet - elevation, and above this there is no hill near either - bank of the Savana. Above the islands, Estero Corotu, Rio - Corredor, and other streams fall into this, the Calle Larga, - or Long Reach. - - From the islands to Areti mouth, S. S. E., three miles, the - river has great width and depth; a ridge of hill here runs - along each bank, at about two miles' distance. - - [Sidenote: RELATIVE WATER DEPTHS.] - - JUNCTION OF THE SAVANA AND TUYRA.—From Areti mouth to the - junction of the Savana and Tuyra rivers, S., four miles, the - river has a uniform width of two miles, and a depth of from - eight to nine fathoms. - - On the west bank of this reach is Punta Machete, with a small - shoal above it, called Bajo Grande, and one below it, Bajo - Chico. Both of these are close in shore, and oysters are - found on them. - - THE SAVANA MOUTH.—From the west point of the Savana mouth, - in lat. 8° 21', long. 77° 54', the land rises into a ridge of - hills of about 309 feet elevation, running N. for about four - miles parallel to the river, from which it is separated by a - strip of level land half a mile wide. There is a quebrada, or - rivulet, in the ridge, called Laguadilla, which has plenty of - fresh water in the driest season. - - Behind Nisperal, the east point of the Savana mouth, there is - a low ridge of hills; from the north bank of Iglesias, also, - a narrow ridge follows the course of the Savana for about - three miles. This is the Cerro Titichi, which gave its name - to a mission of Indians at the mouth of the Chuquanaqua, the - last survivor of whom is a man named Marcellino, who resides - at Pinogana, on the Tuyra. On the north bank of Iglesias is - Quebrada de Tigre, and on the Savana, above its mouth, is - Quebradita la Monera, where fresh water may be obtained. - - At the mouth of the Savana there are nine fathoms, at low - water, and the tide rises from twenty-one to twenty-seven - feet. - - Boca Chica and Boca Grande, the mouths of the Tuyra, are - perfectly safe entrances, and have a depth of thirteen to - twenty fathoms of water respectively. - - The gulf of San Miguel has good depth of water, and would - hold the shipping of the world. Its mouth, between Cape San - Lorenzo on the north, and Punta Garachiné on the south, is - ten miles across, and opens into the Pacific, quite outside - the bay of Panama. Its direction inward is N. E. fifteen - miles to Boca Chica. Inside the bay of Garachiné, the shores - of the gulf approach each other, and the width diminishes - to four miles, between Punta Brava and Morro Patiño, with a - depth of from nine to twenty fathoms, but again increases, - and then diminishes to Boca Chica. - - Close to Cape San Lorenzo is a small shoal, called El Buey, - which may be easily avoided. There are several islands in - the gulf, as Iguana, Cedro, Islas de San Diego, etc., etc., - which are all safe of approach. On the north side, the - rivers Congo, Buenavista; and on the south the Moguey, Guaca, - Taimita, and Sambú, open into the gulf; while the Tuyra and - Savana fall into its eastern end, the Ensenada del Darien, - called by the Granadians 'Boca de Provincia,' or Mouth of the - Province. _Cullen's Isth. of Darien._ - - * * * * * - - From what has been said, it sufficiently appears that - Nicaragua is a country of great beauty of scenery and - vast natural resources. She has, however, attracted the - attention of the world less on these accounts than because - she is believed to possess within her borders the best - and most feasible route for a ship-canal between the two - great oceans. The project of opening such a canal began to - be entertained as soon as it was found that there existed - no natural communication between the seas, as early as - 1527. Since that period it has furnished a subject for - much speculation, but beyond a few partial examinations, - until very lately, nothing of a practical or satisfactory - character had been attempted. In 1851 a careful survey was - made of the river San Juan, Lake Nicaragua, and the isthmus - intervening between this lake and the Pacific, by Colonel O. - W. Childs, previously engineer-in-chief of the state of New - York, under the direction of the now extinct Atlantic and - Pacific Ship-canal Company. Until then, it had always been - assumed that the river San Juan, as well as the lake itself, - could easily be made navigable for ships, and that the only - obstacle to be overcome was the narrow strip of land between - the lake and the ocean. Hence, all the so-called surveys were - limited to an examination of that part of the line. One of - them was made under the orders of the Spanish government, by - Don Manuel Galisteo, in 1781; another, and that best known, - by Mr. John Baily, under the direction of the government of - Central America, in 1838. An intermediate examination, quoted - by Thompson,[XXXIV-53] seems to have been made early in the - present century. The following table will show the results of - these surveys as regards this particular section: - - Greatest Greatest - Elevation Elevation - Authorities. Distance from Lake above above - to ocean. Ocean. Lake. - Galisteo, 1781 17 miles, 200 feet. 272 feet. 134 feet. - Quoted by Thompson, 17 miles, 320 feet. 296 feet. 154 feet. - 1829 - Baily, 1838 16 miles, 730 feet. 615 feet. 487 feet. - Childs, 1851 18 miles, 3,120 feet. 159 feet. 47½ feet. - - As the survey of Colonel Childs is the only one which can be - accepted as conforming to modern engineering requirements, - it will be enough to present the detailed results to which - he arrived. The line proposed by him, and on which all his - calculations and estimates were based, commences at the - little port of Brito, on the Pacific, and passes across the - Isthmus, between the ocean and lake, to the mouth of a small - stream called Rio Lajas, flowing into the latter, thence - across Lake Nicaragua to its outlet, and down the valley - of the Rio San Juan to the port of the same name on the - Atlantic. The length of this line was found to be 194⅓ miles, - as follows: - - Miles. - WESTERN DIVISION.—Canal from the port of Brito on the - Pacific, through the valley of a small stream called - Rio Grande, falling into the Pacific, into that of the - stream called Rio Lajas, to Lake Nicaragua 18.588 - - MIDDLE DIVISION.—Though Lake Nicaragua, from mouth of - Rio Lajas to Fort San Carlos, at the head of San Juan - River 56.500 - - EASTERN DIVISION.—_First Section._—Slack-water navigation - on San Juan River from San Carlos to a point on the - river opposite the mouth of the Serapiqui River 90.800 - - _Second Section._—Canal from opposite mouth of Serapiqui - to port of San Juan del Norte 28.505 - ------- - Total, as above 194.393 - - ORIGIN OF THE CANAL GRANT.—The charter of this company - under which Colonel Childs carried on his investigations - is dated September 22, 1849, and was obtained for a term of - eighty-five years from the completion of the proposed canal. - The surveys were to be commenced within one year, and the - whole to be completed in twelve years. The canal, by the - terms of the charter, was to be of dimensions sufficiently - great to admit and pass vessels of all sizes with speed - and safety. The company was to pay to the state, during the - period assigned for the construction of the work, the annual - sum of $10,000; to give to the state $200,000 of stock in - the canal, on the issue of stock; the state to receive, for - the first twenty years, twenty per cent annually out of the - net profits of the canal, after deducting the interest on the - capital actually invested, at the rate of seven per cent; and - for the remaining sixty-five years, twenty-five per cent of - the profits. The company, on the other hand, were to receive - fifteen per cent annually out of the net profits of the canal - for the first ten years after it should revert to the state, - provided it did not cost over $20,000,000; but if it should - cost more than that sum, the company to receive twenty per - cent for twenty years. During the period of constructing the - canal (twelve years), the company had the exclusive right - of navigating the waters of the state by steam, and also the - privilege of opening a transit route through its territories, - upon the principal condition of paying ten per cent of the - net profits to the state. There were some other provisions as - to lands, tolls, etc., of no special importance. - - Under this charter, the company perfected its organization. - It divided its original shares into a considerable number, - called 'canal rights,' which were sold, and their holders - brought into the organization. The first instalment was paid, - and in August 1850, just in time to meet the stipulation - providing that the surveys should be commenced within one - year from the date of the contract, a party of surveyors - was sent out to Nicaragua. They were under the direction (as - already said) of Colonel O. W. Childs as chief engineer. He - arrived in Nicaragua on the 27th of August, 1850, and so far - as his report is concerned, we are left to infer that he at - once commenced the surveys for the canal. His report is dated - March 9, 1852. - - [Sidenote: DIVERSIONS OF THE CANAL.] - - THE LINE OF SURVEY.—In the various projects for uniting the - two seas, the line of the river San Juan has always been - contemplated as that by which the great lake of Nicaragua is - to be reached. From that lake to the Pacific, various routes - have been suggested: - - 1. From Lake Nicaragua via the river Sapoa to the bay of - Bolaños, in the gulf of Salinas, on the Pacific. - - 2. Via the Rio Lajas to the port of San Juan del Sur, or some - point not far from it, on the Pacific. - - 3. Via the Rio Tipitapa into the superior lake of Managua, - and from this lake to the Pacific at the little port of - Tamarindo, the port of Realejo, or into the magnificent gulf - or bay of Fonseca. - - By his instructions, Colonel Childs was limited to a survey - of the direct routes from Lake Nicaragua to the Pacific, - provided either of them should prove practicable. As a - consequence, finding a route which, in his opinion, was - practicable, he made no surveys from the superior lake of - Managua to the Pacific. He, however, made some observations - on the line of the connection between the two lakes by the - river Tipitapa—if a channel dry for most, if not all, of the - year can be called a river. This is a source of great regret, - especially in view of the deficiency, on the surveyed routes, - of a good harbor on the Pacific, while both Realejo and the - gulf of Fonseca are all that can be desired as ports. - - Lake Nicaragua is estimated by Colonel Childs to be one - hundred and ten miles in extreme length by thirty-five in - (average) width. Its nearest approach to the Atlantic is at - its southern extremity, from which, on a right line, it is - about eighty miles distant. The point of its nearest approach - to the Pacific is near the middle of its length, where, by - the shortest line, the distance is about eleven miles. - - The San Juan River was found by Colonel Childs to be, - following its sinuosities, 119 miles in length. It has - a great number of tributaries, generally small, with the - exception of the San Cárlos and Serapiqui, which come in - from the mountains of Costa Rica on the south. The first of - these enters the San Juan at sixty-five miles, and the second - ninety miles below the lake. These streams flow through - valleys transversely to that of the San Juan, which is - further intersected by ranges of hills, coming in both from - the north and the south, at the Rapides del Toro, Castillo, - Machuca, etc. - - The lake of Nicaragua lies longitudinally, nearly parallel to - the Pacific Ocean, and is separated from it, for nearly two - thirds of the length of the lake, by hills of comparatively - moderate acclivity and elevation, in most cases capable of - cultivation to their summits. Within this distance, also, - are several transverse valleys, extending nearly (Colonel - Childs says quite) across, with summits varying in height, - and furnishing generally good opportunities for direct - communications by ordinary roads or by canal. - - ROUTE VIA RIVER SAPOA.—This line lies chiefly in the - department of Guanacaste, now in dispute between Nicaragua - and Costa Rica, and actually occupied by the latter. - - The examination of this line by Colonel Childs only proved - its impracticability for the purpose of a canal. He found - that to pass the summit a cut 119 feet in depth would be - required, and an up-lockage from the lake of 350½ feet, and a - down-lockage to the Pacific of 432 feet. Water to supply the - upper locks, it was ascertained, could only be obtained with - difficulty, and at great cost. Besides, a long rock cut of - three fourths of a mile would be required from low-tide mark - in the bay of Salinas to deep water. In short, the physical - difficulties on this line, if not of a nature to make the - construction of a canal impossible, were nevertheless such as - to make it impracticable. - - ROUTE FROM MOUTH OF THE RIO LAJAS TO BRITO.—The line from - Lake Nicaragua to the Pacific, to which public attention has - been most directed, is one starting from the mouth of the Rio - Lajas, a few miles below the town of Rivas, or Nicaragua, to - the port of San Juan del Sur, or Concordia, on the Pacific. - As already stated, not less than three surveys had been made - over this line; one in 1781 by Galisteo, a Spanish engineer, - and the last by Mr. Baily, an Englishman, under the republic - of Central America, published in Stephens' _Incidents of - Travel in Central America_. The line pursued by both Galisteo - and Baily was governed by the circumstance of a measurably - good port on the Pacific—that of San Juan del Sur, the best - on the whole line of coast from the bay of Salinas northward - to Realejo. Baily's line is sixteen miles and 730 feet in - length, and the greatest elevation above the lake 487 feet. - That of Galisteo is seventeen miles 200 feet in length, and - the greatest elevation above the sea 272, and above the lake - 134 feet. Baily's line, for half of its distance, involved - 209 feet of average vertical cutting; that of Galisteo, - for half of its length, an average vertical cutting of 108 - feet. These facts, and others, among which the absolute - impossibility of supplying the summit levels with water, and - the necessity of tunnels, combined to make the construction - of a canal on this line wholly impossible. - - [Sidenote: EXPLORING FOR A LINE.] - - Colonel Childs seems to have been satisfied of the - impracticability of this line, after a very rapid - examination, and to have devoted himself to the discovery - of one more feasible. In doing this, however, it was - found necessary to abandon San Juan del Sur as the western - terminus. - - Starting at the point on the lake to the eastward of Rivas, - levelling westward, through a transverse, moderately - undulating plain, he ascended, on a distance of six and - a half miles, 326 feet, to the summit of a broad valley, - passing between the hills (which are here of moderate - height), and connecting with another valley on the west side, - which extends to a place on the Pacific called Brito, where - a stream, named Rio Grande, flows into the sea. The quantity - of water available for this summit being entirely inadequate, - and the cut altogether too formidable, on the plan of - carrying through the level, this route was abandoned. Another - line, not far from this, was attempted, with very nearly the - same result. - - Colonel Childs next started from the mouth of the Rio Lajas, - the same point with his predecessors, and carried a line - of levels to the summit of a transverse valley lying about - six and a half miles south of Rivas, and reaching between - the valley of Rio Lajas and that of the Rio Grande, already - mentioned as flowing into the Pacific at Brito. This summit - was found to be only forty-seven and a half feet above the - surface of the lake, as it stood on the 23d day of December, - 1850, at which time it was three and a half feet above its - lowest stages, and one and a half feet below the level at - which it ordinarily stands at the height of the rainy season. - The length of this line from lake to sea is about twenty - miles. This is the route, and the only direct one, between - the lake and sea, regarded by Colonel Childs as feasible, and - upon this all his calculations respecting the proposed canal - are based. In his own language: 'The conclusion was arrived - at that the line leading from the lake, at the mouth of the - river Lajas to the Pacific at Brito, presented more favorable - conditions for the construction of the canal than any other; - it was therefore determined to survey and carefully to locate - a line across upon this route.' - - This line, then, runs through the valley of the river Lajas, - the waters of a principal branch of which interlock with - those of the Rio Grande, and, through the valley of the - latter, reaches the sea. The stream first named has its - origin about ten miles south-westerly from its entrance into - the lake, on the eastern slope of the dividing ridge, and - after running north-westerly two miles, along the base of - the hills, takes a northerly direction through comparatively - level savannas, a distance of six miles or eight miles, when - it bends to the east, and in a mile and three fourths enters - the lake. The Rio Grande rises on the eastern slope of the - same range of hills, and two or three miles north-west from - the sources of the Lajas, and, after flowing some three or - four miles at the foot of their slope, bends to the west, and - by a narrow and somewhat irregular valley passes through the - ridge, and thence, in a more capacious and uniform valley, - into the Pacific. - - WESTERN SECTION OF PROPOSED CANAL BETWEEN LAKE NICARAGUA AND - THE PACIFIC.—The entire line of the canal proposed by Colonel - Childs, and upon which all his calculations and estimates are - based, is therefore through the valley of the river San Juan - into Lake Nicaragua, across Lake Nicaragua to the mouth of - the Rio Lajas, through the valley of that stream, and across - the summit of forty-seven and a half feet which separates it - from that of the Rio Grande, and down the valley of the Rio - Grande to Brito, where that stream enters the Pacific. - - Now, in order to understand Colonel Childs' conclusions, and - appreciate the data which he gives, we must know what kind - of a work he proposes. He contemplates a canal but seventeen - feet deep; and as he intends to supply the western section, - from the lake to the sea, by water from the lake, it would - be necessary to commence construction in the lake at a point - where the water is seventeen feet deep at mean stage. This - point is opposite the mouth of the Lajas, and twenty-five - chains from the line of the shore. From this point, for - a mile and a half, partially along the river Lajas, the - excavation will be principally earth; but beyond this, for - a distance of five and a half miles, which carries the line - beyond the summit, three fourths of the excavation will be - in a trap rock. That is to say, the deepest excavation, or - open cut, will be sixty-five feet, and involve the removal of - 1,879,000 cubic yards of earth, and 3,378,000 cubic yards of - rock. The excavation and construction in this five and a half - miles alone are estimated at upward of $6,000,000. - - The summit passed, and the valley of the Rio Grande reached, - the excavation, as a general rule, will be only the depth of - the canal. Colonel Childs found that the lake, at ordinary - high water, is only 102 feet 10 inches above the Pacific at - high and 111 feet 5 inches above it at low tide, instead - of 128 feet, as calculated by Mr. Baily. This descent he - proposes to accomplish by fourteen locks, of eight feet - lift each, placed at proper points in the valley of the - Rio Grande, thus bringing us to Brito, the terminus on the - Pacific. - - The harbor of Brito, as it is called, or the point where - the Rio Grande enters the sea, is at best only a bad - anchorage. There is here a small angular indentation of - the land, partially protected by a low ledge of rock, but - nothing adequate for the terminus of an important work like - the proposed canal, or capable of answering the commonest - requisites of a port. To remedy this deficiency, Colonel - Childs proposed to construct an artificial harbor, of - thirty-four acres area, by means of moles and jetties in - the sea, and by extensive excavations in the land. If, as - he supposes, the excavations here would be in sand, it is - obviously almost impossible to get proper foundations for - the immense sea-walls and piers that would be necessary for - a work of this kind. On the contrary, if these excavations - should be chiefly in a rock, as seems most likely, the cost - and labor would almost surpass computation. Assuming the - excavations for the purpose to be in earth and sand, Colonel - Childs estimates the cost of making a harbor at a little over - $2,600,000. - - MIDDLE SECTION OF PROPOSED CANAL—LAKE NICARAGUA.—Proceeding - from seventeen feet depth of water in the lake, opposite to - the river Lajas, in the direction of the outlet of the lake - at Fort San Cárlos, there is ample water for vessels of all - sizes for a distance of about fifty-one miles, to a point - half a mile south of the Boacos Islands. Here the depth of - water diminishes rapidly to fourteen feet. For the remaining - five and a half miles to the fort, the water is variable, - averaging only about nine feet at low and about fourteen - at high water. For this distance of five and a half miles, - therefore, an average under-water excavation of eight feet - would be required to make the channel, at low water, of the - depth of the canal, or seventeen feet. But if the lake were - kept at high level, the under-water excavation would be but - an average of three feet. - - Colonel Childs proposed to protect this portion of the - channel by rows of piles driven on each side, along its - whole extent, and thinks, after the excavation were made, a - sufficient current would be established to keep the channel - clear. - - [Sidenote: THE RIVER SAN JUAN.] - - EASTERN SECTION—THE RIVER SAN JUAN.—We come now to the - section between Lake Nicaragua and the Atlantic, through or - along the river San Juan. Excepting a small settlement at - the Castillo Viejo, at the Castillo Rapids, thirty-seven - miles from the lake, the valley of the San Juan is wholly - uninhabited. This section, hitherto supposed the easiest, is, - nevertheless, by far the most difficult part of the proposed - enterprise. - - Colonel Childs carried a line of levels from the lake at San - Cárlos to the port of San Juan, on the northern bank of the - stream. The whole distance from San Carlos to seventeen feet - depth of water in the harbor of San Juan is 119⅓ miles; and - the whole fall, from the surface of high lake to the surface - of highest tide in the harbor, is 107½ feet—to lowest tide, - 108¾ feet. - - Of the above distance, the first ninety-one miles, or from - San Carlos to half a mile below the Serapiqui River, Colonel - Childs proposed to make the river navigable by excavating - its bed, and by constructing dams, to be passed by means of - locks and short canals; the remaining twenty-eight miles of - the canal to be constructed inland, or independently of the - river. Of the whole fall, sixty-two and a half feet occurs - on that portion which it is proposed to improve by dams, - and on which there were to be eight locks, and the remaining - forty-six and a quarter feet occurs on the inland portion of - the canal, on which were to be six locks—fourteen locks in - all. - - Colonel Childs proposed to place the first dam at the head - of the Castillo Rapids, a distance of upward of thirty-seven - miles from the lake, and to pass the rapids by means of a - lateral canal. By means of this dam he proposed to raise the - water, at that point, twenty-one and a half feet, and the - entire level of Lake Nicaragua five feet above its lowest - stages, or in other words, to keep it at high-water mark. The - fall at this dam would be sixteen feet. He proposed also six - other dams, four of eight feet fall, one of fourteen and a - half feet, and one of thirteen and a half feet. Between all - of these there would be more or less excavation in the bed of - the stream, sometimes in earth, and often in rock. - - Colonel Childs proposed further to improve the harbor of San - Juan by moles, etc., and to construct an artificial harbor in - connection with it of the capacity of thirteen acres. - - In respect of the amount of water in the San Juan, we have - some interesting statistics. This amount, of course, varies - greatly with the different seasons. The quantity of water - that passed from the lake at its lowest stage, on the 4th of - June, 1851, was 11,930 cubic feet per second. The greatest - rise of the lake is about five feet. When it stood at 3.43 - feet above its lowest level, the flow of water was 18,059 - cubic feet per second, being an increase of about fifty per - cent. Supposing the same ratio of increase, at high lake the - amount of water in the river would be doubled. - - The river receives large accessions from its tributaries. - Below these, and above the point of divergence of the - Colorado, flowing direct into the sea from the San Juan, - which falls into the harbor of the same name, the flow of - water was 54,380 cubic feet per second, of which 42,056 - passed through the Colorado branch into the ocean, and 12,324 - through the San Juan into the port. - - DIMENSIONS OF THE PROPOSED CANAL.—Where the excavation is - in earth, Colonel Childs proposed (and all his estimates - are founded on these dimensions) that the canal shall have - a depth of 17 feet; that it shall be 50 feet wide at the - bottom, 86 feet wide at 9 feet above the bottom, and 118 feet - wide at the surface of the water. Where the excavation is in - rock, the canal is to be 50 feet wide at bottom, 77 feet at 9 - feet above bottom, and 78⅓ feet at the surface of the water. - - LENGTH OF PROPOSED CANAL.—The total length of the line - proposed by Colonel Childs, from San Juan del Norte on the - Atlantic, to Brito on the Pacific, is 194⅓ miles, as follows: - - Miles. - - Canal from port of San Juan to its point of intersection - with the river, near the mouth of the Serapiqui 28.505 - - Slack-water navigation on the San Juan River, from the - above point to San Cárlos, at the outlet of the lake 90.800 - - From San Cárlos, across Lake Nicaragua, to the mouth - of the Rio Lajas 56.500 - - From mouth of Rio Lajas to Brito 18.588 - ------- - Total, as above 194.393 - - ESTIMATED COST.—The cost of the work is estimated by Colonel - Childs in detail. The recapitulation, by divisions, is as - follows: - - Eastern Division (i. e., from port of San Juan to $12,502,346 - lake) - Middle Division (through lake) 1,025,676 - - Western Division (from lake to Pacific) 13,896,603 - ----------- - $27,424,625 - - Add, for contingencies, 15 per cent 4,113,693 - ----------- - Total estimated cost of canal $31,538,318 - - The canal company published a pamphlet, in which the - estimates for the canal were made at New York prices, and - in which the total was put down at $13,243,099. 'The prices - adopted in the estimate of $31,500,000,' says Colonel Childs, - 'are made up with reference to the completion of the work - within six years from the time of breaking ground, and a - commencement of the settlement of the country in the vicinity - of the line previous to letting the contracts.' - - CAPACITY OF THE PROPOSED CANAL.—The charter of the canal - company provided that the capacity of the work should be - sufficiently great 'to admit vessels of all sizes.' And - it is obvious that a work which will not pass freely the - largest vessels can but imperfectly answer the purposes - of its construction, or meet the requirements of commerce. - But Colonel Childs proposed only one 17 feet deep, 50 feet - wide at bottom, and 118 feet wide at top—a capacity wholly - inadequate to pass the larger classes of vessels, and one - which fails to meet the stipulations of the charter. The - larger merchant-ships, such as are generally employed in - the eastern trade, have a draught of from 20 to 25 feet, - and would require, to say nothing of war vessels and large - steamers, a canal of from 25 to 30 feet in depth, which would - involve more than double the amount of excavation proposed, - and probably treble the amount of cost, and carry it up from - $31,500,000 to $100,000,000. Here is the fatal deficiency in - the whole proposition of Colonel Childs. - - To make the canal capable of passing vessels drawing 20 feet - of water, Colonel Childs says, would increase to a very great - degree the amount of the excavation on the river section, - and still more the expense. 'Any considerable increase - in the depth proposed (17 feet) would require under-water - excavations between the lake and the Toro Rapids, a distance - of 27 miles, to be almost continuous; it would very much - lengthen the cuts on the other portions of the river, and the - liability of these artificial channels to receive deposits - of earth to such an extent as to obstruct navigation would - be very much greater. On the inland portion of the canal,' - continues Colonel Childs, 'a depth of 22 feet of water would, - with fifty feet bottom-width, give a transverse water-section - about 45 per cent greater than a depth of 17 feet, with the - same bottom-width; and the expense of the inland portions - would also, by reason of the greater depth of excavation, be - increased in a still higher ratio.' - - [Sidenote: THE VIEWS OF COLONEL CHILDS.] - - Colonel Childs seems sensible of the inadequacy of a canal - of the proposed dimensions, but thinks that by changes in - model, etc., ships of great size could be built to pass a - 17-foot canal. That is to say, the world may build ships - for the canal, instead of the canal company a canal for the - ships of the world! He states that most steamers draw less - than 17 feet, and quotes from Murray's _Treatise on Marine - Engines_ to show that of 261 steam-vessels, principally - English, 15 draw over 17 feet, 21 have 17 feet draught, - and 225 less than 17 feet. But he neglects to tell us that - experience and economy point to the construction of larger - steamers than those now in use, and that such as would be - used in the eastern trade, in the event of the construction - of the canal, would be still larger than those of the Collins - line, which draw over 22 feet. Besides, a canal of 17 feet is - only adequate to the passage of vessels of 15 feet draught. - No canal ought to be contemplated with a less depth than 25 - feet, and with proportionate top and bottom width. - - The Chesapeake and Delaware Canal has a depth of 10 feet. - - The Welland Canal is 28 miles long, 9 feet deep, 35 feet wide - at bottom, and 71 feet at top. It passes vessels of 350 tons. - - The Caledonian Canal, between the eastern and western shores - of Great Britain, is 59 miles in length, of which 21½ miles - is inland and 37½ through lakes. It is 50 feet wide at - bottom, 110 feet at top, and is 20 feet deep. It is capable - of passing frigates of 32 guns, and merchant-vessels of 1,000 - tons. - - The canal from Amsterdam to New Dieppe, in Holland, is 50 - miles long, 36 feet wide at bottom and 124 at top, and is 20 - feet 9 inches deep. - - In respect of navigating the canal, according to Colonel - Childs' suggestions, steamers will propel themselves, and - sail-vessels will be moved by tugs constructed for the - purpose, except on the portion west of the lake, and between - the river and port of San Juan, where the delay of the - driving steamers in passing the locks would make the use of - animal-power advisable. Calculating 24 minutes as the time - required for a vessel to pass each lock, 60 vessels, it is - calculated, could be passed in a day. The average rate of - speed with which steamers might safely move in the inland - portions of the canal is calculated at 2½ miles per hour, on - the river portions 7 miles an hour, and on the lake, 11 miles - an hour. Sailing vessels propelled by horse-power might move - on the canal at the rate of two miles an hour, and on the - river and lake with an average speed of 4 miles per hour. For - steamers, therefore, the passage from sea to sea is estimated - at 46½ hours, or about two days; for sailing vessels, 77 - hours, or 3¼ days. - - FACILITIES FOR CONSTRUCTING THE CANAL.—There are many - considerations connected with an enterprise of this kind - besides its feasibility in a mere engineering point of view, - such as labor, materials, etc., etc. To all of these Colonel - Childs seems to have devoted some attention. - - _Timber._—As compared with those of the United States, - the original forests of Nicaragua are inferior in size, - and the kind and quantity of timber proper for use less - in proportion. The tree called the 'cedro,' or cedar, is - produced in considerable abundance, and can be usefully - applied. It grows to a great height, and will produce timber - 36 to 40 feet long, and 12 to 18 inches square. The 'roble,' - a species of oak, is also a tall tree, and furnishes timber - equal to the cedar in size. The 'níspero,' 'laurel,' 'madera - negra,' and others, answer a very good purpose. The 'níspero' - is 29 per cent stronger than white oak, and may be procured - in sufficient quantities, in the opinion of Colonel Childs, - to be relied on as a substitute for all the purposes in - which oak is required. He thinks that, in the aggregate, the - forests of Nicaragua, in the sections traversed by the canal, - will probably produce all the lumber required. - - _Stone._—Along the river San Juan, the rock is chiefly trap, - graywacke, and shale; in many localities too friable for - use, but in others, Colonel Childs thinks, it may be found - fit for the purposes required. On the west side of the lake - limestone quarries were found, capable of producing good - lime in abundance. The stone, generally, between the lake - and Pacific, on the proposed canal line, is not good, but it - was thought that in case of need it might be obtained from - Granada, sixty miles to the north-west, and from a lower - point on the Isthmus. Very good and abundant clays were - found, and a stone from which water-lime of a fair quality - may be obtained. - - _Labor._—Colonel Childs concedes that the prosecution of the - works of the canal would be attended with vast difficulties, - resulting from a lack of all the essential requisites in the - shape of mills, roads, carriages, etc., etc. He thinks the - oxen of the country may be obtained in sufficient numbers to - do all the necessary hauling of materials. But there is yet a - consideration of vastly more importance, viz., labor. Colonel - Childs apprehends that it would be necessary to rely chiefly - on foreigners. He says that, although the laboring population - of the country, when under compulsory circumstances, are - capable of great activity and of enduring much fatigue, in - their ordinary avocations they are tardy and irregular in - their labor. An exception is, however, made in favor of a - class of boatmen employed on the river, some 400 in number, - in whom we have an example of physical labor and exposure - to the elements scarcely equalled in any country, endured - by them with no perceptible prejudice, but apparently with - advantage to their health. These men sleep on a narrow plank - across their boats, with no other protection than a single - blanket; yet there is probably in the world no class of men - of more athletic forms, and notwithstanding their indifferent - attention to the conditions of health, more capable of hard - service. So far as can be gathered from Colonel Childs' - observations, it seems that he would rely chiefly on foreign - labor for the construction of the proposed work. - - [Sidenote: CLIMATIC TRIALS.] - - He seems to think it is not unlikely that foreigners, - already accustomed to hard labor, may, when thoroughly - acclimated, and under no unnecessary exposure, be capable - of a fair amount of labor in this country, although not as - great an amount as in higher latitudes. He states that of - the party engaged in the survey west of the lake, nine were - unaccustomed to the climate. After a few months, a slight - fever, followed by ague, prevented some of the number from - continued daily exercise; but being in all cases under the - control of medicine, it was of short duration. During seven - months in this part of the state, illness in the party - at no time interrupted a daily prosecution of the survey. - Upon the San Juan River, the surveying party consisted of - twelve persons, exclusive of native citizens. The survey - occupied six and a half months, from March to September. 'The - party generally enjoyed good health, and no individual was - prevented by indisposition, beyond a day or two, from full - service. Of those engaged as axemen in clearing the line, - two were northern men, whose daily exercise exceeded that - usual to men in canal-work, without detriment to health or - constitution.' - - _Soil._—From San Juan Harbor to where the proposed canal - would strike the river, the soil is vegetable mould, coarse - sand, and sandy loam. Along the river it is of a more mixed - character, clay and loam predominating in the valleys, and a - gravelly clay, with detached stones, on the hills. West of - the lake, the central portion of the summit is principally - clay; the remainder, together with the soil through the - valley to Brito, has a very nearly uniform and equal - intermixture of clay, sand, and gravel. The surface soil is - generally fine, and contains enough of vegetable mould to - render it capable of great production. - - _Food._—Among the staple articles of food that would, - during the construction of the canal, be most required for - consumption, may be named maize, plantains, and beans. Of - the former and latter two crops are annually raised on the - same ground, and the supply of plantains is constant. Besides - these are bananas, oranges, lemons, pineapples, cocoanuts, - squashes, melons, tomatoes, and other garden vegetables. - Colonel Childs, while considering these sources of supply in - food, is nevertheless of opinion that salt meat and flour - would have to be brought in large quantities from abroad. - Fresh beef, pork, and poultry are abundant in the country. - - OPINION OF COLONEL ABERT AND LIEUTENANT-COLONEL - TURNBULL.—Although a different impression has been sought - to be produced in the public mind, yet the government of the - United States had no direct interest in the proposed canal, - nor manifested any other than might naturally attach to - any enterprise of supposed general importance. The surveys - of Colonel Childs seem, nevertheless, to have been sent - to the secretary of war, with a request for the opinion of - the government engineers. Mr Conrad politely referred it to - Colonel Abert and Lieutenant-colonel Turnbull, of the bureau - of topographical engineers, who give their opinion in a brief - letter, dated March 20, 1852. Proceeding upon Colonel Childs' - data, they think his plan practicable, that his estimates - for a canal of seventeen feet are liberal, and that some - reductions might possibly be made. They think that a shorter - line might be traced between the port of San Juan and the - point of intersection with the river, and recommend another - survey of that portion. - - OPINION OF ENGLISH ENGINEERS.—The American minister - in England, at the request of the company, appears to - have transmitted Colonel Childs' surveys to the earl of - Malmesbury, with a wish that he would submit it to competent - English engineers for their opinion. James Walker, Esq., - civil engineer, and Edward Aldrich, captain of the royal - engineers, were named for this service. They seem not only to - have examined Colonel Childs' survey, but to have subjected - that gentleman, who was then in England, to a very close - personal examination. Taking his plans, measurement, and - statements to be correct, their opinion is, on the whole, - favorable. They think that his estimates for work are ample, - but regard the amount set down for 'contingencies' (fifteen - per cent) too small by at least ten per cent, that is to - say, that it should have been twenty-five instead of fifteen - per cent. Of all the works of the proposed navigation, they - regard the Brito or Pacific harbor as least satisfactory. - To use their own language: 'Presuming Colonel Childs' - statements and conclusions to be correct, the Brito harbor - is in shape and size unworthy of this great ship navigation, - even supposing the Pacific, to which it is quite open, to - be a much quieter ocean than any we have seen or have any - information of.' - - They also object to the proposed size, and suggest a canal - twenty feet deep instead of seventeen, sixty feet wide at the - bottom instead of fifty, and the locks 300 feet instead of - 250, as being one 'more efficient for the general purposes of - trade, by steam or sailing vessels.' This would, of course, - be attended with great additional cost; but, as they truly - observe, 'if the junction of the Pacific with the Atlantic be - worth doing at all, it is worth doing well.' They conclude - that, judging from the data, without presuming to vouch for - their accuracy, the work is practicable, 'and would not be - attended with engineering difficulties beyond what might - naturally be expected in a work of this magnitude;' that - the surveys have every appearance of accuracy, and they are - satisfied of the perfect fairness and candor of Colonel - Childs; that the works are generally sufficient for the - purpose they are intended to answer; and 'that the estimates - upon the present value of money are adequate, in a general - way, so far as judgments can be formed from the documents - produced and the explanations of Colonel Childs.' - - OPINION OF BRITISH CAPITALISTS.—We come now to a point not - indicated in the report of Colonel Childs, viz., the refusal - of the leading capitalists of England to engage in the - projected work. - - It is well known that at least two expeditions or missions to - England were undertaken by agents of the canal company. At - their first visit in 1851, they were unable to present any - specific data upon which to solicit the aid of capitalists; - they, however, made out a hypothetical case, which they - submitted, and received for answer, 'Substantiate your - statements by facts, and no difficulty will be experienced in - securing the financial aid which you desire; until then, we - can return you no definite answer.' This reply was not made - public in terms, but the agents, on their return, proclaimed - that the 'great European capitalists had engaged to furnish - half the capital for the enterprise.' A few, and it is - believed only a few, persons, considering the precise source - whence this vaunt came, attached the slightest importance to - it. - - [Sidenote: REASONS FOR DECLINING.] - - The second expedition was made in 1852, and this time - the agents took out with them both Colonel Childs and his - surveys. The opinion of certain British engineers (as we have - seen) was procured, and the whole matter resubmitted to the - great capitalists, who now, for the first time, thought it - sufficiently advanced to merit their serious attention. The - result of their examination was communicated to the company - in a letter from Mr Bates, head of the house of Baring - Brothers, in August 1852, and consisted in a declension to - embark in the enterprise, for a variety of reasons, chiefly, - of course, financial. - - 1. The dimensions of the canal were not such as, in their - opinion, to meet the requirements of commerce, and the work - could not be used except by medium-sized steamers and small - vessels. - - 2. That the proposed dimensions were not in conformity with - those required by the charter of the company, and that - it could not be built of the proposed dimensions without - securing a modification of the charter, which, in the - existing state of feeling in Nicaragua, it was not likely - could be effected. - - 3. That, supposing the work not to exceed the estimated - cost of $31,000,000, the returns, to meet the simple - interest of the investment at six per cent, must be at least - $1,860,000 over and above its current expenses; or, to meet - this interest, and the percentage to be paid to Nicaragua, - it must reach, over and above its expenses, $2,269,200. - Estimating the expenses of repairs, superintendence, cost of - transportation, etc., at $400,000 a year (a sum regarded as - too small), then the gross returns to make the work pay must - be $2,670,000. - - 4. But it is found, by inquiry and calculation, that little, - if any, of the European trade with the Orient would pass - through the canal, inasmuch as the passage by the way of Cape - Good Hope is, on an average, 1,500 miles nearer than by way - of the proposed work. - - 5. That even if the distance were in favor of the proposed - canal, its small size would prevent nearly, if not quite, - two thirds of the vessels engaged in the Indian trade from - passing it; and this objection would equally lie against most - of the vessels employed in the trade with western America, - the only trade in which the canal would prove serviceable to - Europe. - - 6. That the heavy toll of $3 a ton on ships would prevent - such vessels as could pass the canal from doing so, inasmuch - as on a vessel of 1,000 tons the toll would be $3,000, or - more than the average earnings of such vessels on their - voyages. - - 7. That a canal of the proposed size could only be used by - small passenger-steamers, the returns from which would not be - adequate to pay the current expenses of the enterprise. - - While unhesitatingly conceding the immense local advantages - of a canal to the United States, these capitalists confessed - themselves utterly unable to discover how it could prove - of compensating value to the men who should invest their - money in the enterprise. They therefore, for these and other - reasons, declined to meet the views of the projectors and - their agents. - - GUARANTEE OF THE UNITED STATES, ETC.—By the convention of - 1850 between the United States and Great Britain, a qualified - guaranty was extended to this enterprise, in common with - several others. There was also a clause inserted with - direct reference to this company, which provided that it - should 'have a priority of claim over every other company - to the protection of the United States and Great Britain,' - on condition that it should, within 'one year from the - date of the ratification' of the convention, 'conclude its - arrangements and present evidence of sufficient capital - subscribed to accomplish the undertaking.' The treaty was - ratified, and the ratifications exchanged July 5, 1850. No - subscription of stock having taken place, and no evidence - of capital having been presented in the time specified, or - indeed at any other time, the company forfeited this special - protection in July 1851; and as the twelve years within which - the work was to be constructed will expire in 1861, it may be - assumed that its prosecution will depend upon new conditions - and combinations. Indeed, it may be questioned if the opening - of railways between the oceans may not indefinitely postpone - the project of a canal; for, however desirable such a work - may be, its realization will depend upon precisely those - practical considerations which apply to the simplest works - of public utility. It will not do to foot up the commerce - between Europe and Asia, and assume, as has generally been - the case, that the totals will pass through the canal, if - constructed. Now, the simple truth is, that, so far as Europe - is concerned, that part of her trade which goes to ports on - the Pacific coast of America, to the Sandwich Islands, Japan, - the northern ports of China, to New Zealand and Australia, is - all that will be materially benefited by the construction of - a canal. As regards Australia, the principal advantage would - be in having a safer, easier, and consequently quicker and - surer means of communication than is afforded by the Cape of - Good Hope; for the Pacific Ocean is preëminently the sea of - steamers, and where steam navigation, in respect of speed at - least, is destined to achieve its most brilliant success. So - far as the United States is concerned, the advantages of such - a work would naturally be greater than to Europe. - - Assuming a canal to be built across the Isthmus of Nicaragua, - the following table will illustrate the relations of - Liverpool and New York with the principal ports of the east, - in respect of distance: - - Via Cape of Via Proposed Net Net - Good Hope. Canal. Loss. Gain. - From Liverpool— - To Canton 12,900 13,800 900 - Calcutta 11,440 15,480 4,040 - Singapore 11,880 15,120 4,240 - Sydney 14,980 12,550 2,320 - From New York— - To Canton 14,100 11,820 3,280 - Calcutta 12,360 13,680 1,320 - Singapore 12,700 11,420 280 - Sydney 15,720 9,480 5,240 - - [The distances to Sydney are calculated via Torres Straits.] - - [Sidenote: THE COURSE OF TRAFFIC.] - - The following table will illustrate the relations of - Liverpool and New York in respect to the principal western - ports of America: - - Via Via Gain. - Cape Horn. Proposed Canal. - From Liverpool— - To Valparaiso 8,700 7,500 1,200 - Callao 10,020 6,800 3,220 - Sandwich Islands 13,500 8,640 4,860 - - From New York— - To Valparaiso 8,580 4,860 3,720 - Callao 9,900 3,540 5,360 - Sandwich Islands 13,200 6,300 6,900 - - But it is not to be assumed that all the trade, much less - all the travel, treasure, and mails to the points which I - have indicated, will, under any circumstances, pass through - a canal. The passengers between New York and San Francisco, - amounting annually to nearly 100,000, would never consent - to make a voyage of from 1,000 to 2,000 miles out of their - way, to Nicaragua, Panamá, Darien, or Atrato, for the sake - of passing through a canal, however grand, when by a simple - transshipment at Honduras, for instance, and a transit of - 209 miles by railway, they would be able to avoid this long - detour, and effect a saving of from 5 to 8 days of time; - for even if steamers were to run to any canal which might - be opened, and supposing no detention on account of locks - or other causes (calculated by Colonel Childs at 2 days), - even then it would be necessary for them to stop, for coals - and other supplies, more than quadruple the time that would - be occupied by the passengers over the railway in effecting - their reëmbarkation. And what is true of passengers is - equally true of treasure, the mails, and light freight of - small bulk and large value. - - I do not wish to be understood as arguing against a canal; - what I mean to illustrate is this: that, open a canal - wherever we may, it will always stand in the same relation to - a railway as does the baggage-train to the express. A canal - would be chiefly, if not wholly, used by ships and vessels - carrying heavy and bulky freights; but as most articles of - this kind are kept in stock in all the principal ports of - the world, it is not of so much consequence to have rapidity - as constancy of supply, and hence, unless the canal shall be - constructed so economically as to admit of a moderate tonnage - rate, it is not improbable that ships of this kind would find - it more economical to follow the routes now open. _Squier's - States of Cent. America._ - - * * * * * - - In tracing, or attempting to trace, the routes of recent - travellers in Darien, there is extraordinary difficulty, - although the locality in question does not exceed a space - of 40 miles by 30. Strange to say, the routes of the old - buccaneers, of Dampier, Ringrose, Sharp, Wafer, and Davis, - the inland journey of that remarkable man Paterson, and of - the Spanish officer Don Manuel Milla de Santa Ella,[XXXIV-54] - can be followed on the old Spanish maps, but not in our - modern ones, even the best; while there are no data hitherto - published that afford more than a guess at the tracks of - modern explorers after leaving the sea-coast. Mr Gisborne - has compiled, or rather copied, the principal part of the - map, on which he has shown, _in red_, those portions which - he himself saw and was enabled to lay down. No surveyor - who reads his _Journal_ and _Report_ can doubt that he has - given eye-sketches, aided by compass bearings and estimated - distances; but the estimation of a practised eye is not to be - undervalued. Dr Cullen can be traced up the Tuyra to Yavisa, - and up the Paya; also up the Savana, but no farther inland. - - The state of our geographical knowledge of that exceedingly - interesting region is the following: - - All examinations, all surveys, of the Great Isthmus were made - by Spain alone, while she held the country (till the years - 1821-31). Very good maps of much of the Spanish territory - existed at that time; but they have been copied and recopied - by all manner of hands; scales and bearings have been - altered, not intentionally, but by mistake; names omitted - or misspelled; and absolute longitudes applied erroneously. - Thus good original work came to be so deteriorated by its - transmutations as to be almost useless. - - No surveys need be better than some of the Spanish works - undertaken toward the end of the last and during the - beginning of this century. Methods and instruments were - used by Tofiño, Malaspina, Espinosa, Bauza, Córdova, and - others, that were not adopted, if known, by French or - English surveyors until afterward. Triangulation without - the compass, bases obtained by angular measurements of known - objects,[XXXIV-55] and the most perfect style of plan-drawing - on true principles, were practised by Spaniards before this - century commenced. - - The south coast of the Great Isthmus and the interior of - Darien were not explored and mapped sufficiently, because of - the hostile Indians, and political reasons connected with - the gold mines in that district. There was also another - source of error in that particular vicinity which has only - recently been eliminated; namely, the great difference of - longitudes, according to the maps, between places on opposite - sides of the Isthmus which are really in the same meridian. - This amounted to more than 30 miles along all the coast from - Chiriquí to Darien with respect to the corresponding southern - coast-line. - - Thanks to the far-seeing and indefatigable hydrographer to - the admiralty, Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort, the British - surveys have included much of the coasts of Central America, - and they are now placed in relatively correct positions - on our latest maps. Having therefore exact coast-lines, - or boundaries, we can avail ourselves more readily of much - Spanish interior detail; but it is exceedingly difficult to - get at the _original_ works. - - A very neatly engraved and _apparently_ complete map of - the Isthmus has been lately published at New Orleans by - Dr Autenreith, but in reality it is only a copy of Spanish - documents and recent surveys made by England; it is not an - original work. There are in this country at present more - materials for a map of Darien than exist elsewhere. Bauza - brought copies of all the Spanish-American documents to this - country, with many original maps; but there is still a great - extent, nearly all the interior of the Isthmus of Darien, - unexamined by the eye of a surveyor. - - In the last century (1780), a Spanish party of five - engineers and surveyors, under Donoso, escorted by a large - body of troops,[XXXIV-56] was stopped by the Indians in the - Chucunaque River, and obliged to return without executing - their orders to survey the region near Caledonian harbor; - and _this_ was the _last_ attempt by Spain, or by _any one_, - to make a regular survey of the interior of that part of the - Isthmus. - - In the valuable collection of Mr Arrowsmith are many Spanish - documents, among which one plan, dated 1774, shows all the - Spanish establishments, military and religious, as well as - mining, at that date, in Darien. Others show details of a - previous century, and a few give the earliest settlements of - the 16th century. - - [Sidenote: INJURY TO TRUTHFUL GEOGRAPHY.] - - And here allow one word to be said of the injury to - _truthful_ geography, caused by copying all materials without - acknowledgment, or by adding imaginary topography without - explanation. The map by Dr Autenreith has much the appearance - of an exact survey; there is no distinction made between - those parts for which there is authority and those which are - partly the results of imagination (the interior hill-work). - - The public in general being unaware of the _authorities_ for - a map, the mere copyist is often supposed to be the _author_ - of the work. Maps or charts that are not original ought - always to show from what data they have been compiled. - - In order to assist in now forming a correct opinion of - Darien, a retrospective historical glance at a few points is - necessary. - - The first settlement in all America was founded in 1509 at - the mouth of the Atrato. It was called Santa Maria de la - Antigua. The next settlement on the Isthmus was at Acla, or - Agla, in 1514, a few miles inland[XXXIV-57] from that port - or bay now famed in history and romance, called by Paterson - Caledonian Harbor. It was from Agla that Balboa crossed to - the South Sea, and that the earliest expeditions to Peru were - despatched. - - In 1532 these two settlements were abandoned, and their - population transferred to Nombre de Dios and Panamá. This is - said to have been done on account of the unhealthy site of - Santa Maria de la Antigua, surrounded by marshes and mangrove - jungles; but why Agla was abandoned does not appear, except - by Paterson's narrative, whence it may be inferred that the - settlers there were harassed by the Indians, and were too far - from the sea-shore. Besides which, as intercourse increased - with places on the Pacific coasts it became, no doubt, more - convenient to have a principal rendezvous on the southern - shore more accessible from the Pacific. - - In those early days so famed was Darien for gold, that the - province was called 'Golden Castile'[XXXIV-58] (Castilla del - Oro). It was the principal portion of that 'tierra firme,' so - famed afterward as the 'Spanish Main,' the real 'El Dorado' - to which Sir Walter Raleigh went in 1517-18, Sir Francis - Drake in 1557, troops of buccaneers in the 17th century, and - the Scotch colony in 1698. - - Repeated aggressions on this auriferous district, where - abundance of gold was procured by black slave labor, after - the aborigines had been diminished in numbers by oppressive - cruelties, induced Spain to close and abandon the mines for - a time (early in the 18th century)—even those famous ones - in the mountains of Espíritu Santo near Cana, from which - alone more gold went through Panamá in a year than from all - the other mines of America taken together. These Cana mines - were sacked in 1702 and 1712 by English, in 1724 by French, - and by the Indians in 1727. Nevertheless, in 1774 the mining - operations were again going on, having been reëstablished a - few years previously. - - When Cana was taken by the expedition (as narrated by - Davis) sent from Jamaica by Colonel Beckford in 1702, there - were about '900 houses' (probably most of them mere huts); - therefore, the population could hardly have been less than - 3,000 at that time. From 1719 to 1727 there was a great and - general resistance of the Indians, who attacked the Spaniards - in all directions, and drove them out of all the detached - settlements. Some years afterward peace was made (in 1740), - missions of the Jesuits advanced among the natives, and by - their aid not only much topographical knowledge was acquired, - but Spanish settlements in the interior were renewed and - mines worked. But the Indians again rebelled; therefore, - small forts were reëstablished at Yavisa, Molineca, and Santa - Maria Real, with a new post (in 1780) at _El Príncipe_, or - Ocubti, from which a road was cut by Arisa, leading toward - Caledonian Harbor. The fort El Príncipe does not appear in - the Spanish MS. map of 1774; it was built about 1785, when - the Spaniards had again advanced into the interior Indian - territory. - - In 1788 Milla de Santa Ella, an officer of Spain, went from - Caledonian Harbor to El Príncipe direct by the road then - recently opened by the Spaniards; but as he did not think it - advisable to return the same way, he went down the Savana, - and up the Chucunaque to the Tubuganti and Chueti rivers, - whence he crossed to his station at Caledonian Harbor by the - same route, undoubtedly, that Paterson traversed on his visit - to the Indian great chief at Ponca in 1698. - - The examination of no traveller, except Humboldt, previous - to 1850, induced a belief that a canal might be cut directly - through Darien. Dr Cullen's personal inspection of Caledonian - Harbor, and of the Savana River, with their neighborhood, - added to the information he obtained orally and by reading, - led him to the conclusion that the lowest summit level - between those places did not exceed 300 or 400 feet, while it - might be very much less. Feeling so confident that a lower - level existed, he went there again to explore; but while - collecting further information and arranging preliminaries, - at Bogotá, the seat of government in New Granada, Mr Gisborne - (an engineer employed by Messrs Fox and Henderson) made short - excursions from each side of the Isthmus, which satisfied him - that the lowest summit level does not exceed 160 feet above - the sea. - - According to the most authentic map of this district, Mr - Arrowsmith's last printed, not yet published, the distance - across in a direct line—between deep water on each side—is - about 33 miles. The windings of a canal may require nearly - a third more, and if so, the whole distance to be canalized - is about 40 miles—_a shorter distance than can be found - elsewhere_. - - Mr Gisborne's examination of the principal features of this - line across Darien, however incomplete, is a material advance - toward certainty. We have his two bases of operations, - at Caledonian Harbor and San Miguel (entrance), nearly - determined by recent government surveys, and we have his - character as a guaranty for the value of those details which - he has given in his _Report_. There may be a few miles - of distance to settle, and there may be doubts whether - the river near his watershed, or summit level, called by - him _Caledonia_, may not be another river, perhaps the - Chucunaque, or one of its tributaries; and moreover, that the - range of heights supposed by him to separate those rivers is - not truly placed, while his river Caledonia (otherwise the - Golden River, or Aglatomate) winds through a more northerly - area. But these are trifles compared with his barometric - measurement of the summit level, and his own overlapping - eye-views of the country which he did not traverse. - - If indeed the mouth of the Savana be not accurately laid - down, or assumed by him, if it be much farther west than he - supposed, his surveys may not have overlapped; and he may - have looked across two different plains; in which case there - may be yet another ridge or watershed beneath the rivers - which he actually touched. The expedition employed by our - government to survey this coast did not examine the mouths - of rivers running into San Miguel. Only the western part of - that gulf was examined in continuing the coast line. Hence - the position of the Savana may be less accurately known than - is generally supposed. - - [Sidenote: A HASTY SCRAMBLE.] - - It is hardly necessary to remark here that to make - independent observations for latitude, longitude, distance, - and accurate triangulation requires more time and instruments - than can be carried in a hasty scramble through a wild - country. - - Mr Gisborne's examination of the geology and mineralogy is - valuable. Far from discovering any remarkable impediments - to cutting a canal, he states that there are _no_ particular - engineering difficulties with respect to the _ground_; that - there is much stratified shale-rock, easy to quarry, and fit - to line a canal. There is abundance of fine timber. Mangrove - forests, rather than jungles, surround the waters of the - gulf. Densely matted underwood follows on drier ground; - and then, on the elevated country, there are magnificent - timber-trees very little encumbered by underwood. - - Having thus endeavored to take a general view of this - question, we may perhaps ask ourselves what are the greatest - impediments to the excavation of a canal—impediments - exceeding those that would attend any corresponding work in - Europe. - - Supposing that political arrangements are satisfactorily - completed, the claims of other parties compromised or - barred, and adequate funds disposable, the only peculiar - and important impediments will be two—the natives and the - climate. The native or Indian question, as connected with - the independence and rights of the aborigines, should be - considered deliberately. That the Indians may be overawed - and conciliated by proper management, there is no doubt; - but their reasonable claims must be satisfied, irrespective - of all jurisdiction assumed over them by New Granada—a - jurisdiction which the natives of Darien repudiate. Fair - dealing, while an overpowering force is in sight, will - prevent any attempt to have recourse to arms, or to molest - the parties employed about a canal, and would therefore - obviate any irritating and probably prolonged guerrilla - hostilities. - - It is estimated that there are about 5,000 independent - Indians on the Isthmus east of Costa Rica. Of these, it may - be presumed that there are not 2,000 capable of bearing arms; - a small number when dispersed in the highlands between Costa - Rica and Chocó, but quite enough to molest small parties of - workmen very seriously. - - For defensive purposes, as well as for the general order - and discipline of very large bodies of laborers, in a - wild country, some degree of military organization and - an acquiescence in military discipline would seem to be - indispensable. - - Whether convicts might be employed advantageously may be a - subject for grave consideration. In clearing the wood of a - tropical forest, and exposing ground to the sun's rays for - the first time, much pestilential sickness may be caused, - as has been repeatedly proved (at Pulo Penang, Fernando Po, - and many other places). It cannot be doubted that convicts - would be peculiarly liable to the influence of such diseases, - and therefore it might be unwise to make such an experiment. - Natives of tropical climates, or Chinese, would probably be - able to stand the malaria of newly cleared ground far better - than Europeans. - - The most formidable, because permanent and irremediable, - obstacle is unquestionably the climate. There is no doubt - that rain prevails about two thirds of the year, even on the - higher grounds of Darien; while it is no less certain that - in the gulf of San Miguel (where mangrove jungles bound low, - muddy shores, and the great fall of tide exposes extensive - mud-banks) there is a continued succession of rains, more - or less heavy, except during short intervals. Examine any - travellers' accounts, read their narratives—they themselves - bear witness to the undeniable fact, although in _general_ - terms they may say there is not _so much_ rain, and it is not - _so_ unhealthy, as has been supposed. - - Many Europeans state they did not suffer, although much - and continuously exposed to the rains and heat. Active and - temperate men have not found the climate very detrimental. - Persons who have had many years' experience there assert - that care and regularity will ward off such attacks of - fever or dysentery as are common among thoughtless Europeans - unaccustomed to tropical regions. - - It is possible that the great rise of tide on the south side - of the Isthmus may tend to purify the air on its shores, and - this effect, in such a place as San Miguel Gulf, may be very - beneficial. - - On the Atrato, at Chagres, at Portobello, and other - notoriously unhealthy places, there is little or no rise - of tide; and the air among the mangrove jungles becomes at - times pestilential. Seemann, in his _Voyage of the Herald_, - recently published, gives so correct a description of such - places that it deserves attention. He says (vol. i. p. 249): - 'The sea-coast, and those parts influenced by the tides - and the immediate evaporation of the sea, produce a quite - peculiar vegetation, which is generally characterized by a - leathery, glossy foliage, and leaves with entire margins. - In all muddy places, down to the verge of the ocean, are - impenetrable thickets formed of mangroves, which exhale - putrid miasmata, and spread sickness over the adjacent - districts. Occasionally, extensive tracts are covered with - the "Guagara de puerco," its fronds being as much as 10 feet - high. Myriads of mosquitoes and sand-flies fill the air. - Huge alligators sun themselves on the slimy banks, lying - motionless, blinking with their great eyes, and jumping - into the water directly any one approaches. To destroy these - dreaded swamps is almost impossible.' - - Again (pp. 251, 252), he says: 'Forests cover at least two - thirds of the whole territory. The high trees, the dense - foliage, and the numerous climbing plants, almost shut - out the rays of the sun, causing a gloom which is the more - insupportable as all other objects are hidden from view. Rain - is so frequent, and the moisture so great, that the burning - of these forests is impossible.' 'From reading the highly - colored accounts with which many travellers have endeavored - to embellish their narratives, the European has drawn, in - imagination, a picture of equinoctial countries which a - comparison with nature at once demolishes.' - - Speaking of the 'vegetable ivory,' and referring to the - climate, Mr. Seemann says (p. 222): 'It grows in low, damp - localities, and is diffused over the southern parts of Darien - and the vicinity of Portobello, districts which are almost - throughout the year deluged by torrents of rain, or enveloped - in the thick vapor that constantly arises from the humidity - of the soil and the rankness of the vegetation.' - - Describing the appearance of one of these mangrove forests, - as they may be called, the same author observes (p. 73): - 'The trees were actually in the water. The tall mangroves, - with roots exposed for 12 or 14 feet, formed a huge tangled - trellis-work, from which the tall stems rose to a height - of 60 or 70 feet.' _Fitzroy's Further Considerations on the - Great Isthmus of Cent. Am._ March 1853, in _Jour. Roy. Geog. - Soc._, xxiii. 176-87. - - * * * * * - - [Sidenote: THE LONG-SOUGHT WAY.] - - The project of uniting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by a - canal large enough to permit the passage of sea vessels has - attracted the attention and enlisted the earnest sympathies - and efforts of the Old and New World, from the discovery of - the Isthmus of Panamá down to the present time. The great - historian Prescott says: 'The discovery of a strait into - the Indian Ocean was the burden of every order from the - government. The discovery of an Indian passage is the true - key to the maritime movements of the fifteenth and the first - half of the sixteenth centuries.' The desire to discover - this passage, which was confidently believed to exist, and - thus give to Spain the dominion of the seas, and pour into - her treasury all the wealth of that marvellous land of - exaggeration, the Spice Islands, sent Columbus, Pizarro, - Cortés, Balboa, Gil Gonzalez, and the other Spanish mariners - and adventurers, upon their long, arduous, and eventful - voyages, and resulted in the discovery, conquest, and - settlement of the American continent. - - However long the voyage; however great the discovery; however - boundless and rich the new countries that were subjected - to the Spanish crown; however brilliant the prowess of a - chivalrous soldiery—the emperor always asked, 'Have you - discovered the way to the Spice Islands?' If not, he was - unsatisfied, and the discovery and conquest were robbed of - half their value. He was constantly reminding his brave and - adventurous mariners that he desired above all things to - discover the way to the Spice Islands, and promised great - honors and rewards to the fortunate adventurer who should - make the discovery. In 1523 the Emperor Charles the Fifth - wrote to Cortés, earnestly urging him to search for a shorter - way to the 'Indian Land of Spice,' and for a shorter and - more direct passage between the eastern and western coasts - of Central America. In answer to the emperor, Cortés wrote: - 'It would render the king of Spain master of so many kingdoms - that he might consider himself lord of the world.' In 1524, - in obedience to the emperor's wishes, he fitted out an - expedition to discover it. Columbus wrote to the emperor: - 'Your Majesty may be assured that as I know how much you - have at heart the discovery of the great secret of a strait, - I shall postpone all interests and projects of my own for - the fulfilment of this great object.' It was for the purpose - of making this discovery that Gil Gonzalez fitted out the - expedition that resulted in the discovery of Nicaragua. - - The interest in the interoceanic communication was not - confined to the Spanish emperor, or his adventurous mariners. - It extended to the learned men of Spain, and seriously - engaged their attention. Francisco Lopez de Gomara, one - of the earliest writers on America, in his chapter on 'the - possibility of a shorter passage to the Moluccas,' in his - work on the _Two Indies_, published in 1551, says: 'The - passage would have to be opened across the mainland from - one sea to the other, by whichever might prove the most - profitable of these four lines; viz., either by the river - Lagartos (Chagres), which, rising in Chagres, at a distance - of four leagues from Panamá, over which space of territory - they proceed in carts, flows to the sea-coast of Nombre de - Dios; or by the channel through which the lake of Nicaragua - empties into the sea; up and down which (the Rio San Juan) - large vessels sail; and the lake is distant only three or - four leagues from the sea; by either of these two rivers the - passage is already traced and half made. There is likewise - another river which flows from Vera Cruz to Tecoantepec, - along which the inhabitants of New Spain (Mexico) tow and - drag barks from one sea to the other. The distance from - Nombre de Dios to Panamá is seventeen leagues, and from - the gulf of Urabá to the gulf of San Miguel twenty-five, - which are the two most difficult lines.' Cortés was in favor - of the first of these routes, Gil Gonzalez of the second, - and Pizarro of the third. Herrera, royal historiographer - of Spain, writing of the events of 1527, refers to the - routes via Nicaragua and Panamá, and the possibility of - other connections between the two oceans. Martin Behaim, a - geographer of Nuremberg, Germany, was probably the first who - suggested the possibility of a natural communication between - the Atlantic and Pacific. So Magellan stated in his memorial - of November 28, 1520, to the court of Valladolid, asking - permission to search for such a channel. It was granted, an - expedition was fitted out, and he discovered the Straits of - Magellan, bearing his name. - - Soon after the discovery of Nicaragua by Gil Gonzalez, it was - declared and believed by many that there existed a navigable - channel, connecting Lake Nicaragua with the Pacific, and - that vessels would be enabled to pass from one ocean to the - other. But no systematic attempt was made to ascertain the - truth of this conjecture until 1529, when Pedrarias de Ávila, - then governor of Nicaragua, sent an expedition of soldiers - and Indians, under Martin Este, to explore lakes Nicaragua - and Managua; when they had penetrated into a province called - Voto, a little north of Lake Managua, they were attacked - by a large body of Indians, and compelled to return. They - reported that they saw from a mountain top a large body of - water (doubtless the gulf of Fonseca), which they supposed to - be another lake. Don Diego Machuca soon afterward fitted out - another expedition in the same year, which he accompanied and - commanded. It resulted in the discovery of the river San Juan - as the true outlet of the lakes. He sailed down that river to - the Atlantic. Machuca Rapids take their name from him. - - [Sidenote: OVIEDO'S ACCOUNT.] - - Oviedo says that in 1540, at St Domingo, he met Pedro Cora, a - pilot who had been attached to the expedition of Martin Este, - and subsequently to that of Captain Diego Machuca. He gives - a long and interesting account of the second expedition, as - narrated to him by Cora. Cora said that at the port of Nombre - de Dios he met with some old friends who had built a felucca - and brigantine on the shores of Lake Nicaragua at an expense - of several thousand dollars. Among them was Diego Machuca, - who had been commandant of the country of the Tenderí, and - of the district about Lake Masaya. They embarked on these - vessels on Lake Nicaragua for the purpose of exploring it. - Captain Machuca, with two hundred men, advanced along the - shore, keeping in sight of the boats, which were accompanied - by several canoes. After some days they entered the San Juan - River, and passed down to where its waters appeared to flow - into the sea. Being ignorant of their locality, they followed - the sea-coast in an easterly direction, and finally arrived - at Nombre de Dios, where the pilot Cora met them. They were - arrested at this place by Doctor Robles, who desired to - found a colony at the mouth of the San Juan River, and thus - reap the benefit of their labor and discoveries, 'as is the - custom,' says Oviedo, 'with these men of letters; for the use - they do make of their wisdom is rather to rob than to render - justice.' For this outrage he was deprived of his office. - The pilot, though strongly importuned, refused to tell Oviedo - where the river emptied into the ocean. - - Oviedo says: 'I do not regard the lakes as separate, because - they connect, the one with the other. They are separated from - the South Sea by a very narrow strip of land.... This lake - (Nicaragua) is filled with excellent fish. But what proves - that they are both one lake is the fact that they equally - abound in sea fish and turtles. Another proof is, that in - 1529 there was found in the province of Nicaragua, on the - banks of this lake, a fish never seen except in the sea, and - called the sword-fish. I have seen some of these fish of so - great size that two oxen attached to a cart could hardly draw - them.... The one found on the shores of this lake was small, - being only about twelve feet in length.... The water of the - lake is very good and healthful, and a large number of small - rivers and brooks empty into it. In some places the great - lake is fifteen or twenty fathoms deep, and in other places - it is scarce a foot in depth; so that it is not navigable in - all parts, but only in the middle, and with barks specially - constructed for that purpose.... It has a large number of - islands of some extent, covered with flocks and precious - woods. The largest is eight leagues in circumference, and - is inhabited by Indians. It is very fertile, filled with - deer and rabbits, and named Ometepec, which signifies _two - mountains_. It formerly contained a population much more - numerous than now, divided into eight or ten villages. The - mountain in this island toward the east (Madeira) is lowest; - the other (Ometepec) is so high that its summit is seldom - seen. I passed a night at a farm belonging to a gentleman - called Diego Mora, situated on the mainland'—probably near - the site of Virgin Bay. 'The keeper told me that during the - two years he had been in that place he had seen the summit - but once, because it was covered with clouds.'[XXXIV-59] - There are many evidences that the channel of the San - Juan River was once much deeper and freer from rapids - and obstructions than it is at present. At one time, sea - vessels passed regularly up and down the river. It would be - impossible for them to do so now. The river is too shallow, - and the rapids are too many and difficult. In 1648 a Spanish - brig from Carthagena (de la Indias) arrived at Granada, and - discharged her cargo, reloaded, and started on her return. - On her voyage back, the river was found unnavigable at - one point, and the vessel returned to Granada; the cargo - was taken out, and the ship laid up, and finally broken to - pieces. Thomas Gage, an English monk, who visited Nicaragua - in 1665, says that vessels often arrived at Granada, from - South America, Spain, and Cuba, and reloaded and returned - to those countries by way of the San Juan River and Lake - Nicaragua. - - In 1781 Manuel Galisteo, by order of the Spanish government, - examined the country, and carefully surveyed a route for a - canal between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific. He estimated - the level of the lake above the Pacific to be one hundred - and thirty-four feet. The route selected by him was from the - mouth of the Rio Lajas in the lake to San Juan del Sur. Early - in the present century, a survey was made by an engineer name - Thompson, of which we have no details, further than that he - adopted the report made by Galisteo. - - In 1837 Mr Baily was employed by the federal government of - Central America, and made a careful survey of a route for - the canal. He spent much time and a considerable sum of money - in making the surveys, but was never paid for his services. - Dr Andreas Örsted, of Copenhagen, made a survey in 1848, - and published a map of the country. He selected the bay of - Bolaños, thirteen and a half miles from Lake Nicaragua, as - the Pacific terminus of the canal. In 1851 Colonel Childs, an - Englishman, made a thorough survey and estimate of the whole - work. He selected Brito as the Pacific terminus. According - to his estimates, the actual length of water navigation, - including the San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua, would be one - hundred and ninety-four and one half miles. He submitted his - plan and surveys to the British government, by which it was - referred to James Walker and Edward Aldrich, royal engineers, - who reported unfavorably. The plan and reports were then laid - before a committee of English capitalists, with the purpose - of raising the necessary capital for the work. But after a - careful investigation, the committee declined to recommend - the enterprise, believing it would be unprofitable, and more - for the benefit of the United States than of Great Britain. - This survey, and the action of the British government upon - it, furnish strong confirmation of the general opinion, as - to the purpose of that government, in seizing Greytown and - the bay of Fonseca. A survey was made in 1850 by the Central - American Transit Company. - - After the independence of the Central American states had - been established, Manuel Antonio de la Cerda, afterward - governor of Nicaragua, represented to the federal congress, - in July 1823, the urgent necessity for opening the canal - without delay. But no action was then taken in the matter. - During the next year several propositions relative to - the construction of the canal were made to the federal - government by parties in Europe. Barclay & Co., of London, - made a proposition, on the 18th of September, 1824, to open - a canal, between the Atlantic and Pacific, by way of the - San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua, at their own cost, if - the government would assist them in certain particulars. - On the 2d of February, 1825, Charles Bourke and Matthew - Llanos addressed a communication to the government, stating - that in the preceding December they had sent an armed brig - with a party of engineers to Greytown, to survey the route, - and praying that they might be granted: 1. An exclusive - proprietorship and control of the canal; 2. An exclusive - right to navigate the lakes and dependent waters by steam; - 3. Free permission to use all natural products of the country - necessary for the work; 4. Exemption from duty for the goods - and materials introduced by the company during the pendency - of the work. They offered to pay the government twenty per - cent on the tolls received, and to surrender the work at the - end of a certain number of years. - - [Sidenote: MR. CLAY'S ASSURANCE.] - - On the 8th of February, 1825, Don Antonio José Cañas, then - minister from the federal government to the United States, - addressed a communication to Henry Clay, then secretary - of state, upon the subject of the canal, soliciting the - coöperation of our government in the work, upon the ground - that 'its noble example had been a model and protection to - all the Americas,' and entitled it to a preference over any - other nation in the 'merits and advantages of the proposed - undertaking.' He proposed by means of a treaty to effectually - secure its advantages to the two nations. Mr Clay instructed - Colonel John Williams, U. S. chargé d'affaires in Central - America, to assure that government of the great interest - taken by the United States in an undertaking 'so highly - calculated to diffuse a favorable influence on the affairs - of mankind,' and to carefully investigate the facilities - afforded by the route, and transmit the intelligence acquired - to our government. Colonel Williams never made any report of - his action under these instructions. - - During the year 1825, many other propositions for the - construction of the canal were received by the federal - government from Europe. The attention of the government was - thus strongly attracted to the importance and value of the - proposed canal, both as affording a considerable revenue to - the government, and aiding in the settlement of the country, - and development of its resources. In June 1825, the federal - congress passed a decree defining the terms and conditions - upon which the canal might be constructed. Another decree, - published at the same time, fixed the period of six months - for receiving proposals for the work. The time was much - too short, and but few offers were received. Among them was - one from Mr Baily, the surveyor, as agent for the English - house of Barclay, Herring, Richardson, & Co., which was - conditional, and one from Charles Beninske for Aaron H. - Palmer, of New York, which was accepted. The contractors, - under the name of 'The Central American and United States - Atlantic and Pacific Canal Company,' agreed to open a canal - through Nicaragua, which should be navigable for large ships, - and to deposit two hundred thousand dollars in the city of - Granada, within six months, for the preliminary expenses of - the work; to erect fortifications for its protection; and - to commence work within one year. The contractors were to - receive two thirds of the tolls from the canal until they had - been reimbursed for the full cost of the work, with ten per - cent interest; afterwards to have one half of the proceeds - for seven years, with the right to introduce steam-vessels. - The government agreed to place at their disposal all the - documents in its possession relating to the canal; to furnish - laborers at certain wages; and to permit the cutting and use - of the timber in the country. If the canal was not completed, - all the work done was to be forfeited to the government. - This contract was dated June 14, 1826. The contractors had - not sufficient capital for the construction of the canal, - and failing to obtain it in New York, addressed a memorial - to the United States congress, praying the assistance of - the government in their work, which they represented to - be of national importance. The memorial was referred to a - committee, but never reported on. The enterprise excited - considerable attention in New York, and the grant obtained - from the federal government of Central America was believed - to be valuable. Mr Palmer executed a deed of trust to De - Witt Clinton, Stephen Van Renssalaer, C. D. Clinton, Phillip - Hone, and Lynde Catlin, constituting them directors of the - company which was being organized for the construction - of the canal. Mr Palmer went to England in 1827, and - endeavored, but without success, to obtain the coöperation of - English capitalists. All his efforts were ineffectual, the - necessary capital could not be raised, and the enterprise - was abandoned. Mr Clay, then secretary of state, earnestly - advocated the construction of the canal, believing it would - be of great advantage to this country. - - In 1828 an association of capitalists in the Netherlands, - under the patronage of the king of Holland, undertook the - construction of the canal. In 1829 the king sent General - Verveer, as plenipotentiary to Guatemala, with special - instructions relative to the canal. In October of the same - year, commissioners were appointed by the federal government - to confer with General Verveer, and on the 24th of July, - 1830, they agreed upon a plan, which was to be laid before - the federal congress for its approval. The conditions - were much the same as in the contract with Mr Palmer. - The revolution in Belgium, and the separation of Holland, - terminated this enterprise. The federal congress had been - stimulated to greater anxiety for the construction of the - canal by these various proposals and contracts, and believing - that there was more likelihood of its being made by the Dutch - company than any other, in 1832 made ineffectual efforts to - renew negotiations with Holland for reviving that company, - and enabling it to complete its contract. - - In the mean time, the efforts and representations of Mr Clay, - De Witt Clinton, and other distinguished men had awakened - public interest in the people and government of the United - States in the proposed canal, and convinced them that it was - important that our government should, if possible, control - the work, and reap the benefits and advantages which it was - believed would result to our commerce from it. On the 3d of - March, 1835, the United States senate adopted a resolution, - requesting the president to consider the expediency of - opening negotiations with the Central American states and - New Granada for protecting by treaty stipulations companies - undertaking to open a canal across the Isthmus, connecting - the two oceans, and of securing its free and equal navigation - to all nations. By virtue of this resolution, President - Jackson appointed Charles Biddle, and directed him to go - to San Juan del Norte, and thence across the Isthmus to the - Pacific, by the proposed route; to proceed to Guatemala, the - capital, and with the aid of Mr De Witt Clinton, U. S. chargé - d'affaires, obtain all public papers, and copies of the laws - passed, and all papers and information relating to the canal. - He was also to go to Panamá, and ascertain all about that - route. Mr Biddle did not go to Nicaragua, and died soon after - his return to the United States. His mission was a failure. - - [Sidenote: ACTION OF THE GOVERNMENT.] - - The government of Central America now determined to survey - the route for the canal, and thus demonstrate to the world - its practicability. In 1837 President Morazan employed Mr - John Baily to survey the route, which he did, as already - stated. In 1838 a convention between Nicaragua and Honduras - authorized Peter Bouchard to make an agreement in France - for the organization of a company to construct the canal. He - did not succeed in accomplishing anything. Don Jorge Viteri, - bishop of San Salvador, was sent as ambassador to Rome, and - make like efforts, but without success. In the same year, - a company of Americans in New York and New Orleans sent Mr - George Holdship to Central America. He made a contract with - Nicaragua, which had seceded from the federal republic, for - the construction of a canal, the establishment of a bank, and - the introduction of colonists. This scheme was extensive, but - amounted to nothing, as the enterprise was soon abandoned. - - In 1838, Aaron Clark, Herman Leroy, William A. Duer, Matthew - Carey, and William Radcliff, citizens of New York and - Philadelphia, addressed a memorial to congress, representing - the necessity for the opening of the interoceanic canal. It - was referred to a committee, of which Hon. Charles F. Mercer - was chairman, who, upon the 2d of March, 1839, reported upon - it, recommending the following resolution, which was adopted: - - '_Resolved_, That the president of the United States be - requested to consider the expediency of opening or continuing - negotiations with the governments of other nations; and - particularly with those the territorial jurisdiction of - which comprehends the Isthmus of Panamá, and to which the - United States have accredited ministers or agents, for the - purpose of ascertaining or effecting a communication between - the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, by the construction of - a ship-canal; and of securing forever, by suitable treaty - stipulations, the free and equal rights of navigating such - canal to all nations, on the payment of reasonable tolls.' - The president and senate, acting under this resolution, - negotiated and made a treaty between the United States - and New Granada, by which our government guaranteed the - neutrality of the Isthmus, and New Granada conceded a free - transit across it. The Panamá Railroad Company was organized - by virtue of this treaty; and, as we all know, the existing - railroad across the Isthmus was built by them; with what - labor, and cost in money and human life, it is foreign to our - purpose to inquire. - - Between the years 1838 and 1844, Central America was - distracted by civil wars, and all action relative to the - canal was suspended. In 1844, Don Francisco Castellon, - minister from the republic of Nicaragua to France, made a - contract with a Belgian company, acting under the patronage - of the king of Belgium, for the construction of the canal. - But this contract was as unsuccessful as its predecessors. In - 1846, Mr Marcoleta, Nicaraguan chargé d'affaires to Belgium, - made a contract with Louis Napoleon (the present French - emperor), then a prisoner at Ham, for its construction. With - his characteristic vanity, he stipulated that it should be - called 'Canal Napoleon de Nicaragua.' Napoleon wrote and - published a pamphlet in London, upon the subject, and made - a feeble attempt to awaken the attention of capitalists, but - without success. His pamphlet had only a limited circulation, - but was afterward republished by M. Belly. On the 16th of - February, 1849, William Wheelright made a proposition in - behalf of an English company for the construction of the - canal, but it was not acted upon. - - On the 14th of March, 1849, Mr D. T. Brown, in behalf of - certain citizens of New York, and General Muñoz, commissioner - for Nicaragua, entered into a contract for the construction - of a canal, but it was neither ratified by the executive of - that republic nor by the company in New York, within the - stipulated time. The seizure of Greytown by the English, - in 1848, and the pretext of a Mosquito protectorate, were - rightly regarded by the Nicaraguan government and our own, - as directed to obtaining command and permanent control and - dominion over the only possible route for an interoceanic - canal. - - On the 21st of June, 1849, Mr Hise, U. S. chargé d'affaires - to Nicaragua, concluded a convention with commissioners - appointed by that republic, giving the United States a - perpetual right of way through that republic, of erecting - forts, and protecting the transit. This convention was not - approved by our own government, or by that of Nicaragua. - On the 4th of March, 1850, General Taylor was inaugurated - president of the United States, and soon after sent Mr E. G. - Squier to Central America to supersede Mr Hise, as chargé - d'affaires to Guatemala, with special commissions to the - other states of Central America, "with full power to treat - with them separately on all matters affecting their relations - with this republic." Upon his arrival in Nicaragua, Mr - Squier found an agent of Cornelius Vanderbilt, and others of - New York, who was endeavoring to obtain a grant from that - government for the construction of a canal. The government - was at first indisposed to listen to his overtures, until - assured by Mr Squier that the United States government would - guarantee any charter, not inconsistent with our public - policy, that might be granted by Nicaragua. - - On the 27th of August, 1850, a contract was signed between - the government of Nicaragua and the agent of the New York - company, and afterward ratified on the 23d of September - following, containing the following provisions, viz.: - - 1. That the American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company - may construct a ship-canal, at its own expense, from San - Juan to Realejo, or any other point within the territory of - Nicaragua, on the Pacific, and make use of all lands, waters, - or natural materials of the country for the enterprise. - - 2. The canal shall be large enough to admit vessels of all - sizes. - - 3. The grant is for eighty-five years from the completion - of the work; the surveys to be commenced within twelve - months; the work to be completed within twelve years, unless - interrupted by unforeseen events. If not completed within the - stipulated time, the charter will be forfeited, and all work - done shall revert to the state. At the end of eighty-five - years the canal shall revert to the state; the company, - nevertheless, shall receive fifteen per cent annually of the - net profits for ten years thereafter, if the entire cost of - the canal does not exceed twenty million dollars; but if it - does, then it shall receive the same percentage for twenty - years thereafter. - - 4. The company to pay the state ten thousand dollars per - annum, during the progress of the work, and to give it two - hundred thousand dollars of the capital stock, and to pay - twenty per cent of the net profits for twenty years, and - twenty-five per cent thereafter. - - [Sidenote: FURTHER CONTRACT PROVISIONS.] - - 5. The company to have the exclusive right to navigate the - interior waters of Nicaragua by steam, and within twelve - years to open any land or other route, by means of transit - or conveyance across the state, and pay ten per cent of the - net profits of such transit to the state, and transport on - such transit, and the canal, when finished, the officers and - employés of the republic free of charge. - - 6. The canal to be open to the vessels of all nations. - - 7. The contract and the rights and privileges conceded by - it to be held inalienably by the individuals composing the - company. - - 8. All disputes shall be settled by commissioners appointed - in a specified manner. - - 9. All machinery and other articles introduced by the company - into the state, for its own use, to enter free of duty; and - all persons in its employ to enjoy all the privileges of - citizenship, without being subject to taxation or military - service. - - 10. The state concedes to the company, for purposes of - colonization, eight sections of land, on the line of the - canal, in the valley of the river San Juan, each six miles - square, and at least three miles apart, with the right of - alienating the same under certain reservations. All settlers - on these lands to be subject to the laws of the republic, - being, however, for ten years exempt from all taxes and from - all public service so soon as each colony shall contain fifty - settlers. - - On the same day Mr Squier negotiated a treaty with Nicaragua, - which provided that citizens, vessels, and merchandise of - the United States should be exempt from duty in the ports - of Nicaragua; and that citizens of the United States should - have a right of way through the republic. The government of - the United States agreed to protect the company in the full - enjoyment of its rights from the inception to the termination - of its grant. The rights, privileges, and immunities granted - to the government and citizens of the United States shall not - accrue to any other government, unless it first enter into - the same treaty stipulations with Nicaragua as the United - States has done. This treaty was ratified by the Nicaraguan - legislative chambers on the 23d of September following, but - was not acted upon by the United States senate, to which it - was sent by President Taylor. This treaty was opposed by the - British minister at Washington, who energetically exerted - himself to secure its defeat. - - The Clayton-Bulwer treaty between the United States and - England guaranteed the neutrality of the canal, and both - governments agreed to protect any company undertaking the - work. The object of our government in this convention was to - put an end to the Mosquito protectorate. - - In August 1850 the company sent a party of engineers from - New York to Nicaragua to survey a route from Lake Nicaragua - to the Pacific, near the line taken by Galisteo and Baily. - Soon afterwards the steamer _Director_ was sent from New York - to Lake Nicaragua, and smaller boats were sent to the San - Juan River. A new road was opened to the Pacific from Virgin - Bay on the lake to San Juan del Sur. A line of steamers was - established from New York to Greytown, and from San Juan del - Sur to San Francisco. - - The new contract made with United States citizens, and - ratified and enforced by treaty with our own government, was - not consistent with the wishes or policy of Great Britain, - but the generosity of our government in throwing open the - proposed canal to all nations disarmed hostile criticism, and - deprived Europe of any pretext for opposition or protest. - It quickened England into new energy, in the assertion of - her claims under the Mosquito protectorate. On the 15th of - August, 1850, the British consular representative in Central - America addressed a note to the Nicaraguan government, in - which he stated the boundary claimed by his government as - follows: 'The undersigned, her Britannic Majesty's chargé - d'affaires in Central America, with this view, has the - honor to declare to the minister of foreign relations of the - supreme government of Nicaragua, that the general boundary - line of the Mosquito territory begins at the northern - extremity of the boundary line between the district of - Tegucigalpa in Honduras, and the jurisdiction of New Segovia; - and after following the northern frontiers of New Segovia - it runs along the south-eastern limits of the district of - Matagalpa and Chontales, and thence in an easterly course, - until it reaches the Machuca Rapids, to the river San Juan.' - If this boundary line had been allowed, as claimed, it would - have placed the only possible route for the proposed canal - in the occupation and control of Great Britain. _Daniel - Cleveland's Across the Nicaragua Transit_, MS., 118-42. - - - - -INDEX. - - - A - - Aa, P. V., works of, ii. 745-6. - - Abibeiba, Cacique, domain of, invaded, 1512, i. 352. - - Ábrego, F., bishop of Pan., 1569-74, ii. 474-5. - - Acajutla, battle of, 1524, i. 670-3. - - Acala, province, Dominicans in, 1550-5, ii. 360; - invasion of, ii. 365. - - 'Accessory Transit Company,' mention of, iii. 341-2; iii. 667-8. - - Acla, name, i. 418; - founding of, 1515, i. 418; - massacre at, 1516, i. 441; - town of, laid out, i. 441; - abandoned, ii. 396. - - Acosta, J., 'Compendio,' ii. 62. - - Agriculture, in Cent. Amer., iii. 650-5. - - Aguado, J., commissioner of inquiry, 1494, i. 176. - - Aguilar, E., president of Salv., 1846, iii. 291-2. - - Aguilar, Friar G. de, shipwreck, etc., of, 1512, i. 350; - rescue, 1519, i. 350. - - Aguilar, G. de, bravery of, i. 688-9. - - Aguilar, M., revolt of, 1811, iii. 12-13; - mission of, 1828, iii. 180; - jefe of C. R., 1837-8, iii. 183. - - Aguilar, V., revolt of, 1811, iii. 12-13; - vice-president of C. R., 1859, iii. 373. - - Ahuachapan, siege of, 1876, iii. 403-5. - - Ahzumanche, Prince, death of, i. 637. - - Aillon, L. V. de, exped. of, 1520, i. 138; - 1523, i. 142-3. - - Alarcon, H. de, exped. of, 1540, i. 153. - - Albites, D. de, mission to Nicuesa, 1510, i. 331-3; - exped. of, 1515, i. 404-5; - battle with Darien Indians, 1516, i. 425; - further expeditions, i. 429-30, 471; - founds Nombre de Dios, i. 471; - in command at Natá, i. 508; - gov. of Hond., 1532, ii. 155; - death, ii. 155. - - Albuquerque, A. de, voyage of, 1503, i. 121. - - Alcaine, M., intercession of, 1855, iii. 261. - - Alcalde, office of, i. 297-8. - - Alcántara, M. de, death of, ii. 41. - - Alcazaba, S. de, exped. of, 1534, i. 150. - - Alcedo y Herrera, D. de, gov. of Pan., ii. 584. - - Alderete, ——, gov. of Pan., 1725-30, ii. 583. - - Alfaro, F., revolt of, 1842, iii. 219. - - Alfaro, J. M., jefe of C. R., 1842, iii. 224, 226; - 1846, iii. 227-8. - - Almagro, D. de, joins Pedrarias' exped., 1514, i. 391; - character, etc., of, ii. 3-4; - Pizarro's exped. to Peru, ii. 4-8, 19, 35-40; - death, ii. 40. - - Almagro, D. de jun., assassination of Pizarro, ii. 40-1; - execution of, ii. 42. - - Almansa, F., mention of, iii. 38. - - Altamirano, Friar D., advice to Cortés, i. 580-1. - - Altamirano, J. C., bishop of Guat., 1611-15, ii. 664. - - Alvarado, D. de, exped. of, 1530, ii. 121. - - Alvarado, G. de, battle of Tacuxcalco, 1524, i. 673; - capture of Mixco, 1525, i. 687; - conquest of the Mames, 1525, i. 695-702; - revolt caused by, ii. 79-80. - - Alvarado, J. de, gov. of Guat., 1527, ii. 95, 104-5; - executor of P. de Alvarado, ii. 207-8. - - Alvarado, P. de, conquest of Guat., 1522-4, i. 617-62; - of Itzcuintlan, 1524, i. 663-5; - invasion of Salv., i. 669-76; - the Cackchiquel revolts, 1525-6, i. 681-92; ii. 74-85; - conquest of the Mames, i. 695-702; - exped. to Peru, ii. 38-9, 122-30; - return to Mex., ii. 85-6; - trial of, ii. 100-4; - marriage, ii. 102; - return to Guat., 1530, ii. 116-17; - residencia, etc., of, ii. 131-2; - exped. to Hond., 1535-6, ii. 160-5; - 1539, ii. 296-9; - departs for Spain, ii. 165; - crown grant to, 1538, ii. 203; - exped. of, 1539-41, ii. 203-7; - death, ii. 207; - will, ii. 207-9; - character, ii. 209-11; - offspring, ii. 211-12. - - Álvarez, Gen. M., capture, etc., of Walker, 1860, iii. 364. - - Alzayaga, J. de, exped. of, 1696, ii. 685-6. - - Alzuru, Col, revolt, etc., of, 1831, iii. 514. - - Amar y Borbon, A., viceroy of New Gran., 1803, iii. 491. - - Amatique Bay, discovery of, ii. 650. - - Amedzaga, J. H. de, gov. of Pan., 1711-16, ii. 583. - - America, aborigines of, i. 59-68; - sighted by Biarne, 986, i. 76; - discovery of claimed by Arabs, 1147, i. 78; - name of, i. 291-2. - - 'American Coast Pilot', ii. 758. - - Amézqueta, B. de, exped. of, 1696, ii. 686-7. - - Anacaona, Queen, execution of, i. 259-60. - - Añaquito, battle of, 1546, ii. 254. - - Andagoya, P. de, exped. to Birú, 1522, i. 139, 502-3; - joins Pedrarias, i. 391; - works, etc., of, i. 503-4; ii. 247. - - Andrés, Cacique, guide to Sharp's exped., 1680, ii. 520-3. - - Angel, Doña M., imposture, etc., of, 1712, ii. 697-701. - - Angulo, Father, bishop of Vera Paz, 1559, ii. 374. - - Añino, U., gov. of Pan., 1854, iii. 518; - protest of, iii. 518-19. - - Aniñon, F. de, memorial of, ii. 398-9. - - Anson, Capt. G., exped. of, 1739-44, ii. 592-3. - - Antigua, founded by Enciso, 1510, i. 327-8; - Balboa in command at, i. 328-30, 338-57; - Nicuesa at, i. 334-5; - factions in, i. 338-40; - growth of, i. 341; - prosperity of, i. 385; - ranked as a city, 1514, i. 391; - scarcity at, i. 396; - Indian outbreaks near, 1522, i. 476; - abandoned, 1521-4, i. 499. - - Antonelli, Surveyor J. G., rept of, ii. 399. - - Apaneca, battle of, 1876, iii. 403-4. - - Apochpalon, Cacique, meeting with Cortés, etc., 1524, i. 547-50, 557. - - 'Appendix to Sharp's South Sea Waggoner,' MS., ii. 758. - - Aquino, A., revolt of, 1833, iii. 168. - - Arada, battle of, 1850, iii. 279-80. - - Arana, Licentiate T. I. de, rept of, ii. 707. - - Aransivia y Sasi, S. de, gov. of Nic., 1721, ii. 607. - - Arbolancha, P. de, Balboa's envoy to Spain, 1514, i. 384-5; - delay of, i. 392; - reception, i. 393. - - Arce, M. J., imprisonment of, iii. 20; - defeats Padilla, iii. 58; - president of Nic., 1825, iii. 80; - rule, iii. 82-94; - 'Memoria,' iii. 107; - defeat of, 1832, iii. 113; - pacification of Nic., 1825, iii. 172; - invasion of Salv., 1844, iii. 190-1. - - 'Archives of the Indies,' i. 195-6. - - Arellano, J. R. de, bishop of Guat., 1601, ii. 663-4. - - Argüello, F. de, aids Balboa, i. 441, 450; - execution of, 1517, i. 457-9. - - Argüello, J., vice-jefe of Nic., 1825, iii. 173; - contest with Cerda, iii. 174. - - Aguilar, V., execution of Mora, 1860, iii. 376; - death of, iii. 376. - - Arias, C., provis. president of Hond., 1872-4, iii. 457-60. - - Arias, G., exped. of, 1529, ii. 109. - - Aristocrats, attitude, etc., of, in Guat., 1848, iii. 274-6, 281. - - Ariza, Don A. de, 'Comentas,' ii. 481; - gov. of Pan., 1774, ii. 582. - - Ariza y Torres, Capt. R., revolt of, 1823, iii. 72-3. - - Aizpuru, Gen. R., revolt of, 1873, iii. 538; - revolution of, 1875, iii. 541-2; - 1878, iii. 543; - president of Pan., iii. 542; - occupation of Pan., 1885, iii. 554; - arrest, etc., of, iii. 554-5. - - Armies, of Cent. Amer., iii. 645-9. - - Arosemena, M., works, etc., of, iii. 489. - - Arrazola, affair at, 1827, iii. 91. - - Arteaga, B. de, storming of Mixco, 1525, i. 691. - - Arteaga y Avendaño, J. de, bishop of Chiap., etc., 1538, ii. 330; - death, ii. 330. - - Arzú, Brigadier M., exped. of, 1822, iii. 60-1; - operations of, 1828, iii. 94. - - Asamblea Nacional Constituyente, see Congress, Central American. - - Aspinwall, see Colon. - - Astaburuaga, F. S., 'Repúblicas de Centro-América,' iii. 361. - - Atahualpa, Inca, Pizarro's invasion, ii. 19-20; - capture, etc., of, ii. 21-32; - ransom, ii. 32-6; - execution, ii. 36-8. - - Atiquipac, Alvarado at, 1524, i. 666. - - Atitlan, enslavement of natives in, ii. 234-5. - - Atlacatl, King, submission of, 1524, i. 674. - - Audiencias, description of, i. 270-3. - - Audiencia of the Confines, establd. 1543, ii. 241; - jurisd. ii. 241; - personnel, ii. 301; - seat of the, ii. 301, 310, 370, 400; iii. 326; - dispute with Las Casas, etc., ii. 303-7; - dissensions, 1696-1702, ii. 661-3. - - Audiencia of Los Reyes, establd. 1543, ii. 241; - jurisd. ii. 241. - - Audiencia of Panamá, establd. 1533, ii. 57; - jurisd., etc., ii. 57-8, 585; - abolished, 1533, ii. 241; - reëstabld. ii. 464. - - Audiencia of Santo Domingo, establd. 1526, i. 269; - personnel, i. 269-70; - jurisd. i. 270. - - Aury, Commodore, capture of Trujillo, 1820, iii. 24-5. - - Ávalos, J. de, exped. of, 1525, i. 571-2. - - Avendaño, Father A. de, mission to the Itzas, 1695, ii. 689-90. - - Avendaño, D. de, president of Guat., 1642-9, ii. 653. - - Aycinena, M., jefe of Guat., 1827, iii. 150-2. - - Aycinena, P., acting president of Guat., 1865, iii. 413. - - Ayora, J. de., exped. of, 1514, i. 396-402; - outrages of, i. 399-402; - escape, i. 402. - - Ayuntamientos, functions, etc., of, iii. 8-10; - votes of on union with Mex., 1821, iii. 53-4. - - Ayza, J. de, gov. of Nic., ii. 608. - - Azmitia, J. A., cabinet minister, 1845, iii. 268-9, 272. - - - B - - Bacalar, fort built at, ii. 625. - - Bachicao, H., exped. to Pan., ii. 254-5. - - Bachiller, definition, etc., of word, i. 297. - - Badajoz, Capt. G. de, joins Pedrarias' exped. 1514, i. 390; - exped. of, 1515, i. 412-17; - defeat, i. 415-17; - meeting with Espinosa, i. 420-1. - - Badillo, J. de, exped., etc., of, 1537, ii. 54-7. - - Balboa, V. N. de, character, i. 324, 454-5; - early career, i. 324-5; - gov. of Antigua, i. 329-30, 338-56; - diplomacy, etc., of, i. 338-40; - exped. against Careta, i. 354-6; - visit to Comagre, i. 347-9; - Panciaco's story, i. 347-8; - exped. to Dabaiba, 1512, i. 351-2; - defeats confederated tribes, i. 353; - charges against, i. 356-7; - crosses the Isthmus of Darien, i. 358-74; - defeats Porque, i. 363-4; - discovers the South Sea, etc., 1513, i. 129, 364-73; - encounter with Chiapes, i. 369; - canoe voyage of, i. 374-5; - Tumaco's story, etc., i. 375-7; - return to Antigua, i. 378-84; - pacifies Teoca, i. 378; - cruelty to Poncra, i. 379-80; - Pocorosa's statement, i. 381; - captures Tubanamá, i. 381-3; - sickness at Comagre, i. 383; - spoils of exped., i. 384-5; - superseded by Pedrarias, 1514, i. 393-4; - trial of, i. 395; - exped., 1515, i. 406-7; - feud with Dávila, i. 432-3, 437; - capt.-gen. of Coiba and Pan., i. 435; - betrothal, i. 439; - reëstablishes Acla, 1516, i. 441; - ship-building on the Balsas, 1517, i. 441-5; - at the Pearl Islands, i. 445-52; - fate of, forecast, i. 447-8; - arrest of, i. 452-3; - trial, i. 456-7; - execution, 1517, i. 457-9. - - Balsas, Rio de las, ship-building on the, 1517, i. 442-5. - - Barahona, Admiral J. de, naval combat off Pan., 1680, ii. 535-7. - - Barbacoas, Morgan at, 1671, ii. 499. - - Barillas, M. L., president of Guat., 1886, iii. 451-2; - cabinet, iii. 452. - - Barker, A., exped. to Hond., 1576, ii. 637-8. - - Barranco, ——, bishop of Hond., 1811-19, iii. 631. - - Barrientos, Vicar P. de, mention of, 1576, ii. 374. - - Barriere, P., proceedings of, iii. 45. - - Barrionuevo, Capt. F. de, gov. of Castilla del Oro, ii. 46, 51. - - Barrios, Gen. G., defence of Leon, 1844, iii. 199; - at San Miguel, iii. 201; - operations of, 1857, iii. 300; - pronunciamiento, etc., of, iii. 301; - coup d'état, iii. 302; - president of Salv., iii. 302; - operations, 1863, iii. 304-6; - besieged at San Salv., iii. 306; - capture and execution, 1865, iii. 307. - - Barrios, J. R., revolution of, 1871, iii. 419-24; - president of Guat., 1873-85, iii. 429-49; - invasion of Salv., 1876, iii. 402-5; - 1885, iii. 409-10; - efforts for confed. of Cent. Amer., 1883-5, iii. 442-9; - quarrel with Soto, 1883, iii. 467-8; - character, iii. 431-2; - attempted assassination of, iii. 443-4; - death, 1885, iii. 410, 449. - - Barrios y Leal, president of Guat., 1688-95, ii. 659-61; - exped. of, 1695, ii. 682-4; - death, ii. 685. - - Barroeta, R., vice-president of C. R., 1872, iii. 381-2. - - Barrundia, J. F., imprisonment, etc., of, iii. 18-19; - revolutionary measures, iii. 33, 86-7; - jefe of Guat., 1824, iii. 146; - rule, iii. 146-8; - president, 1829, iii. 102; - rule, iii. 102-12; - negotiations with Carrera, iii. 129-30. - - Baskerville, Sir T., defeat of, 1595, ii. 422. - - Bastidas, R. de, exped., etc., of, 1500-2, i. 114, 183-94; - biog., i. 195. - - Battles, Tonalá, 1524, i. 628; - Xelahuh, 1524, i. 639-41; - Acajutla, 1524, i. 670-3; - Tacuxcalco, 1524, i. 673-4; - Iztapa, 1524, ii. 216-17; - Canales, 1526, ii. 83; - Patinamit, 1526, ii. 84; - Panamá, 1671, ii. 504-6; - Villanueva, 1838, iii. 135-6; - Arada, 1850, iii. 279-80; - Santa Ana, 1871, iii. 395-6; - Apaneca, 1876, iii. 403-4; - Pasaquina, 1876, iii. 404; - Naranjo, 1876, iii. 462. - - Bay Islands, colony of, establd. 1850, iii. 319. - - Bayano, ——, campaign of, ii. 387-8. - - Bazan, J. de V., gov. of Pan., ii. 479; - rule, ii. 479-80. - - Beatriz, Doña, grief of, ii. 311-12; - gov. of Guat., 1541, ii. 312-13; - death, ii. 317. - - Becerra, F., exped. of, destroyed, 1515, i. 403. - - Behaim, M., map of globe, 1492, i. 93. - - Belen River, Columbus at, 1503, i. 218-19. - - Belen, village, Nicuesa's exped. at, 1510, i. 305-6. - - Belgium, colonization scheme in Guat., iii. 589-90. - - Belize, origin of name, ii. 624; - woodcutters in, ii. 624-35; - Figueroa's exped. to, ii. 624-8; - map, ii. 627; - English claims, ii. 629-31; - treaties concerning, ii. 632-4; - O'Neill's exped. to, 1798, ii. 635; iii. 314; - rights of settlers in, iii. 313-14; - commerce, etc., of, iii. 317. - - Belly, F., works of, iii. 263. - - Benalcazar, Capt. S. de, joins Pedrarias' exped., 1514, i. 391; - conquest of Peru, ii. 15, 26, 38-9. - - Bienvenida, Friar L. de, mission to C. R., 1540, ii. 185. - - Benzoni, G., exped. to C. R., 1545, ii. 192-9; - works, etc., of, ii. 232-3. - - Berenger, 'Collection,' ii. 751-2. - - Berlanga, Friar T. de, alleged miracle, etc., of, 1537, ii. 59. - - Bermejo, J., the Contreras revolt, 1550, ii. 274-86; - defeat at Pan., ii. 284-6; - death, ii. 286. - - Berrospe, G. S. de, president of Guat., 1696-1701, ii. 661-2. - - Betanzos, D. de, convent founded by, 1529, ii. 135-6. - - Betanzos, Father P. A. de, labors of, 1555-70, ii. 432-3. - - Bethlehemites, in Guat., ii. 666-7. - - Biamonte y Navarra, J. B. de, gov. of Pan., ii. 480. - - Birú, Andagoya's exped. to, 1522, i. 502-3. - - Birues, de, exped. of, 1515, i. 407. - - Blanco, M., pronunciamiento of, 1868, iii. 378. - - Blewfields, population, etc., of, 1847, iii. 249. - - Bobadilla, Commissioner F. de, proceedings of, at Española, - 1500-2, i. 180-1, 248-9; - enslavement of natives, i. 266. - - Bobadilla, Friar F. de, labors of, in Nic., ii. 184-5. - - Bobadilla, J. F., gov. of C. R., 1780, ii. 622. - - Bogran, Gen. L., president of Hond., 1883, iii. 468. - - Bolivar, S., congress at Pan., 1826, iii. 511-12; - at Angostura, iii. 513. - - Bonnycastle, R. H., 'Spanish America,' iii. 248. - - Bordone, B., map of, 1528, i. 144. - - Borland, S., U. S. minister, interference of, iii. 255. - - Bosch, L. van der, writings of, ii. 745. - - Botello, L., execution of, 1517, i. 457-9. - - Boucher, G., 'Bibliothèque Universelle,' ii. 760. - - Bourbourg, B. de, 'Histoire des Nations Civilisées du - Mexique,' i. 201. - - Bradley, Capt., foray on the Hacha, 1670, ii. 491; - captures San Lorenzo, ii. 494-6. - - Brigantine, picture of, i. 189. - - Briones, Capt., exped. to Hond., 1524, i. 525; - treachery of, i. 526; - Olid's assassination, i. 531-3; - execution of, i. 534. - - Briones, J. A. L. de, gov. of Nic., 1744, ii. 607. - - Buccaneering, origin of, ii. 451-3. - - Buccaneers, name, ii. 452; - mode of life, ii. 454-6; - excesses, etc., of, ii. 489-90. - - Buena Esperanza, founding of, 1535, ii. 157; - abandoned, 1536, ii. 161-2. - - Buitrago, P., director of Nic., 1841-3, iii. 238-9. - - Bure, G. F. de, 'Bibliographique Instructive,' ii. 760. - - Burnaby, Sir W., mission to Belize, ii. 630. - - Burney, J., works of, ii. 753. - - Bustamante y Guerra, Gen. J., capt.-gen. of Guat., 1811, iii. 6; - biog., iii. 6-7; - rule, iii. 6-21. - - - C - - Caballon, Licentiate J. de, defeats Gaitan, 1554, ii. 425; - exped. of, 1560-2, ii. 425-6. - - Caballos, Puerto de, name, i. 519; - L'Olonnois' raid on, ii. 458. - - Cabañas, T., siege of Leon, 1844, iii. 199; - at San Miguel, iii. 201; - defeat at Quelepa, iii. 202; - president of Hond., 1852-5, iii. 321-2; - character, etc., iii. 321. - - Cabello, D., gov. of Nic., 1766, ii. 608. - - Cabezas Islands, Drake at, ii. 407-8, 414, 416. - - Cabezas, R., jefe of Guat., 1830, iii. 153; - biog., iii. 153-4. - - Cabot, J., voyage of, i. 98-9. - - Cabot, S., voyages of, i. 98-9, 108-9, 143. - - Cabral, P. A., voyage of, 1500, i. 113-14. - - Cabrera, P., surprised by Verdugo, ii. 263. - - Cáceres, Capt., captures Lempiras's stronghold, 1537, ii. 291-2; - treachery of, ii. 291-2. - - Cackchiquel, map of, i. 629. - - Cakchiquels, power, etc., of the, i. 621; - subjugation, 1524, i. 652-7; - revolt of the, 1524-5, i. 681-92; - 1526, ii. 79-85; - 1534, ii. 130. - - Cacos, party, iii. 26-7; - revolutionary movements, iii. 33; - policy, iii. 42-3. - - Caibil Balam, Cacique, submission of, 1525, i. 702. - - Caicedo, J. de, mention of, i. 333. - - Calancha, J. L., president of Pan., 1864-5, iii. 533. - - Cáldas, S. A. A. R. de, president of Guat., 1667-70, ii. 658-9. - - Cáldas, President, 'Copia de Carta,' ii. 761-2. - - Calderon, A., bishop of Pan., ii. 475. - - Calimaya, Conde S. de, president of Guat., 1654, ii. 657. - - Calvo, B., gov. of Pan., 1856, iii. 527-8. - - Camachire, Cacique, torture, etc., of, ii. 194-5. - - Cámara y Raya, bishop of Pan., 1614, ii. 477-8. - - Camargo, A. de, exped. of, 1539, i. 151. - - Camargo, M. de, gov. of Nic., ii. 607. - - Cambranes, F., bishop of Guat., ii. 378. - - Campbell, Capt., the Scots' colony, ii. 578-9. - - Campo, R., president of Salv., 1856, iii. 300-2. - - Campoy, F. de P., bishop of Hond., 1841, iii. 631. - - Camus, A. G., works of, ii. 760. - - Can, M. F., embassy of, 1695, ii. 689. - - Cana, sack of, ii. 586. - - Canales, battle of, 1526, ii. 83. - - Cañas, A. J., minister to U. S., 1825, iii. 81. - - Cañas, J., ruler of Salv., 1840, iii. 143. - - Cañas, Gen. J. M., mention of, iii. 345-6; - execution of, iii. 376. - - Cancer, Friar L., labors in Vera Paz, etc., ii. 353-5; - exped. to Flor., ii. 355-6; - martyrdom, 1549, ii. 356; - biog., ii. 357. - - Cancuc, revolt at, 1712, ii. 697-704. - - Candia, P. de, conquest of Peru, ii. 11, 13. - - Cano, Friar A., mission of, 1685, ii. 680. - - Capac, M., inca of Peru, ii. 38; - revolt of, ii. 39; - defeat of, ii. 40. - - Carabajal, D. de, naval combat off Pan., 1680, ii. 535-7. - - Caravel, picture of, i. 187. - - Carbajal, Friar A. de, bishop of Pan., 1605-11, i. 476-7. - - Carbajal, R. de, mission to Pan., ii. 256-7; - gov. of Pan., 1779, ii. 584. - - Cárcamo y Rodriguez, bishop of Salv., iii. 632. - - Cárdenas, A., president of Nic., 1883, iii. 485. - - Cárdenas, Father T. de, bishop of Vera Paz, 1565, ii. 374-5. - - Cardona, J. de L., founds Quezaltenango, 1524, i. 638. - - Careta, Cacique, capture, etc., of, 1511, i. 343-6; - friendship for Balboa, i. 359, 399; - cruel treatment of, i. 399-400. - - Caribs, of Hond., iii. 609-10. - - Carrillo, B., revolt at Leon, 1812, iii. 14. - - Carrillo, Capt. L., Pedrarias' exped., 1514, i. 390; - Balboa's exped., 1515, i. 406; - death, i. 407. - - Carranza, B., provis. president of C. R., 1870, iii. 379-80. - - Carrasco, Licentiate, bishop-elect of Nic., ii. 434-5. - - Carrascosa, A., mention of, ii. 15. - - Carreño, J. M., intendente of Panamá, 1822, iii. 508-9. - - Carrera, R., insurrection of, 1837, iii. 124-8; - biog., iii. 125; - negotiations with, iii. 129-30; - captures Guat., iii. 131-2; - defeat at Villanueva, iii. 135-6; - capitulation, iii. 137-8; - pronunciamiento of, 1839, iii. 140; - defeats Morazan, iii. 141-2; - negotiations with Guzman, iii. 203; - manifesto of, iii. 207-8; - despotism of, iii. 264-7; - president of Guat., 1844, iii. 267; - plot against, iii. 268; - attempted assassination of, iii. 269; - revolution against, 1847-8, iii. 271-3; - resignation, 1848, iii. 274; - return to Guat., 1849, iii. 277-8; - commander-in-chief, iii. 278; - proscription, iii. 279; - operations, 1850, iii. 280; - president for life, 1854, iii. 282; - rule, iii. 283; - campaigns of, 1863, iii. 304-7; - death, iii. 283-4. - - Carrillo, B., jefe of Costa Rica, 1835, iii. 181; - 1838, iii. 183; - rule, iii. 182-4, 215-17. - - Carrillo, Capt. L., defence of Granada, 1550, ii. 277. - - Carrion, Oidor J., mention of, iii. 494. - - Cartagena, Ojeda's defeat at, 1509, i. 298-9; - Enciso at, 1510, i. 322-3; - Heredia at, 1532, ii. 47-8; - Drake at, 1572, ii. 407-9; - captured by Drake, 1586, ii. 420; - description of, ii. 579-80; - captured by filibusters, 1697, ii. 580; - bombarded by Vernon, 1740, ii. 591; - revolt at, 1810, iii. 493; - 1812, iii. 494-5. - - Cartago, description of, ii. 445; - Mansvelt's raid on, ii. 461-2; - conspiracy at, 1823, iii. 66; - revolt at, 1835, iii. 182; - 1875, iii. 385. - - Casa de Contratacion de las Indias, origin of, 1493, i. 168; - description of, i. 282-3. - - Casas, F. de las, exped. against Olid, 1524, i. 528-34; - Olid's assassination, i. 531-3; - departure for Mex., i. 533. - - Casas, B. de las, see Las Casas, B. de. - - Casaos, P. de, capt.-gen. of Pan., 1545, ii. 258-9. - - Casaus y Torres, R., archbishop of Guat., iii. 29-30; - biog., iii. 30. - - Cascaras, Brigadier F., campaign of, 1827, iii. 92-3. - - Casillas, Friar T., mention of, ii. 345. - - Casillas, Father P., bishop of Chiap., 1550, ii. 373. - - Casorla, J. R., president of Pan., 1878, iii. 543. - - Castañeda, D. de, exped. of, 1548, ii. 186. - - Castañeda, F. de, gov. of Nic., 1531, ii. 166-7; - misrule, ii. 167-9; - flight, etc., ii. 169. - - Castañeda, Col V., vice-president of Guat., 1886, iii. 451. - - Castañon, C., gov. of Chiap., iii. 38. - - Castellanos, F. de, campaign of, 1530, ii. 111-13. - - Castellanos, J. de, works of, ii. 60-1. - - Castellanos, V., president of Hond., 1862, iii. 324-5. - - Castellon, F., revolt of, 1854-5, iii. 259-61. - - Castile, kingdom of, i. 10. - - Castilla, Dr A. C. de, president of Guat., 1598-1609, ii. 649-51. - - Castilla del Oro, (see also Panamá), name, i. 294-5; - Nicuesa's exped. to, 1509-10, i. 294-308; - maps of, i. 323; ii. 49. - - Castillo, Friar B. del, adventures, etc., of, ii. 172-5. - - Castillo, M. S. del, president of Salv., iii. 302. - - Castillo, N. del, president of Nic., 1856, iii. 351-2. - - Castro, J. A., mediation of, iii. 219-20; - minister-gen. of C. R., 1843, iii. 224. - - Castro, J. M., president of C. R., 1847, iii. 228-30; - 1866, iii. 377; - resignation, iii. 236. - - Castro, V. de, mission to Peru, ii. 250-1. - - Caxamalca, Pizarro at, ii. 21-38. - - Cebaco, Cacique, dealings with Hurtado, 1516, i. 427. - - Célis, D. G. de, mission to Alvarado, 1835-6, ii. 161-2; - complaints against, ii. 163-4. - - Cemaco, Cacique, defeated by Enciso, 1510, i. 326-7; - by Pizarro, 1511, i. 344; - victory of, i. 352-3. - - Central America, enslavement, etc., of natives in, ii. 232-9; - the new laws, 1543, ii. 240-4; - historical review of, ii. 733-5; - revolution in, 1818-21, iii. 23-41; - union with Mex., 1821-2, iii. 42-59; - confederation, iii. 60-78; - seal of, iii. 71; - constitution, iii. 75-7; - treaty with Colombia, 1825, iii. 81; - with U. S., iii. 81; - designs of Fernando VII., iii. 105-6; - Spaniards excluded from, iii. 106; - republic of, dissolved, 1837-40, iii. 127-44; - attempted unification of, 1883-5, iii. 442-9; - physical features, etc., iii. 560-5; - population, 1883-5, iii. 587-8; - colonization in, iii. 588-94; - castes, iii. 594-6; - diseases, etc., in, iii. 619-20; - education in, iii. 621-7; - church and clergy, iii. 627-37; - administr. of justice, iii. 638-45; - military affairs, iii. 645-9; - agric., iii. 650-5; - mining, iii. 655-60; - manufact., iii. 660-2; - commerce, iii. 663-7, 675; - navigation, iii. 667-8; - roads, iii. 669; - currency, iii. 669-70, 675-6; - mails, iii. 671-2; - finances, iii. 677-87; - debt, iii. 677-87; - railroads, iii. 700-2, 706-8; - telegraphs, iii. 708-9. - - Cenú, treasure found at, ii. 48. - - Cerda, C. de la, capitulation, etc., of, iii. 86. - - Cerda, M. A. de la, jefe of Nic., 1825, iii. 173; - contest with Argüello, iii. 174; - execution, iii. 174. - - Cereceda, A. de, gov. of Hond., ii. 146-7, 155-64; - imprisonment, etc., of, 1531, ii. 151-3; - counter-revolution of, ii. 154; - exped. to Naco, ii. 156-7; - dispute with Cueva, ii. 158-9; - appeal to Alvarado, ii. 160-1; - complaints of, ii. 163. - - Cerna, V., president of Guat., 1865-71, iii. 413-23. - - Cerrato, A. L. de, juez de residencia, ii. 183-4, 308-9; - president of the audiencia of the Confines, ii. 308-10; - administr., ii. 326-7. - - Cervera, D., president of Pan., 1880-4, iii. 544-9. - - Cesar, F., mention of, ii. 50-1; - exped., 1536, ii. 52; - 1537-8, ii. 53-5; - death, ii. 56. - - Chacon, J. M., president of Guat. constituent congress, 1824, - iii. 145. - - Chacujal, Cortés at, 1525, i. 569-70. - - Chagre River, Cueto at, 1510, i. 305. - - Chahúl, capture of, 1530, ii. 112. - - Chalchuapa, assault on, 1885, iii. 410. - - Chamorro, F., suprema delegado, 1844, iii. 189, 194, 196. - - Chamorro, F., director of Nic., 1853, iii. 256; - provis. president, 1854, iii. 258; - revolt against, iii. 259; - death, iii. 259-60. - - Chamorro, P. J., president of Nic., 1875-9, iii. 481-2. - - Chamula, capture of, 1524, ii. 221-5. - - Charles V., the rebellion in Peru, ii. 265. - - Chatfield, Consul, F., mediation of, requested, 1839-40, iii. 186-7; - the Mosquito, difficulty, iii. 251; - demands on Salv., iii. 297-8; - negotiations, etc., of, iii. 318-19. - - Chaves, F. de, death of, ii. 41. - - Chaves, H. de, battle of Xelahuh, 1524, i. 139; - exped. to Zacatepec, 1527, ii. 89; - capture of Copan, 1530, ii. 113-15. - - Chaves, Capt. J. de, exped. of, 1836, ii. 164-5. - - Chiapas, ancient inhabitants of, ii. 214; - conquest of, 1524-6, ii. 215-27; - settlement, etc., of, ii. 228-31; - church affairs in, ii. 229-30, 328-39, 373-5, 712-13; - maps of, ii. 331; iii. 39; - the new laws, ii. 332-3, 338; - prosperity of, ii. 669; - character of population, ii. 669-70; - govt, etc., of, ii. 670-1; - the Tzendal revolt, 1712-13, ii. 696-705; - population, 1813, iii. 36; - education, iii. 37; - industries, iii. 38; - revolution in, iii. 38-41. - - Chiapas, city, coat of arms, ii. 330. - - Chiapas de los Indios, founding of, 1526, iii. 227. - - Chiapas, stronghold, capture of, 1524, ii. 217-20; - 1526, ii. 226-7. - - Chiapes, Cacique, encounter with Balboa, 1513, i. 369. - - Chepo, Cacique, execution of, 1515, i. 404. - - Cherino, D. de A., gov. of C. R., etc., 1573, ii. 430; - exped. of, 1575, ii. 430-1. - - Chignautecs, defeat of the, 1525, i. 688-9; - submission, i. 690. - - Chilapan, Cortés at, 1524, i. 542. - - Chilun, captured by Tzendales, 1712, ii. 698. - - Chinameca, treaty of, 1845, iii. 203-4. - - Chinandega, pacto de, iii. 187-90; - convention of, iii. 187-8; - capture, etc., of, 1845, iii. 241-2. - - Chiracona, Cacique, torture, etc., of, 1516, i. 429-30. - - Chiriquí, revolt in, 1526, i. 509; - province of, organized, 1849, iii. 516-17. - - Chiriquita, captured by freebooters, 1686, ii. 556. - - Chirú, Cacique, capture of, i. 423. - - Choles, attempted conversion of, 1675-88, ii. 679-80. - - Choluteca, affair at, 1844, iii. 194. - - Chroniclers, early, credibility of, discussed, i. 317-20. - - Church, tithes, ii. 139-40; - affairs of in Hond., ii. 299-301, 641-2, 712-13; - in Chiap. ii. 328-39, 373, 712-13; - in Guat., ii. 341-8, 663-9, 710-12, 728-33; - in Vera Paz, ii. 353-4, 374-5; - in Soconusco, ii. 372; - in Nic., ii. 612-17; - religious orders suppressed, 1870-4, iii. 425-7; - history of the, iii. 627-37. - - Cihuatlan, Cortés in, 1524, i. 542-3. - - Cimarrones, depredations, etc., of, ii. 366-9; - Drake's exped., ii. 407-17; - Oxenham's exped., ii. 418. - - Ciudad Real, founding, etc., of, 1528, ii. 229-30; - a cathedral city, 1538, ii. 329; - revolt, etc., at, 1712-13, ii. 705; - flood at, 1785, ii. 706; - revolution at, iii. 39-40. - - Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 1850, iii. 252. - - Clergy, expatriation of, 1829, iii. 103-4; - immorality of, iii. 472-3; - privileges, etc., of, iii. 627-9, 636-7. - - Climate of Cent. Amer., iii. 561-2. - - Coatepeque, Carrera's repulse at, 1863, iii. 304. - - Coats of arms, Chiap., ii. 330; - Guat., iii. 147; - C. R., iii. 229. - - Coco, affair at, 1885, iii. 410. - - Cocori, Cacique, seizure, etc., of, ii. 194-5, 197. - - Code, organic, iii. 8-10. - - Codro, M., forecasts Balboa's fate, i. 447-8. - - Coiba, reported wealth of, i. 343-5. - - Cole, B., mention of, iii. 328. - - 'Coleccion de Documentos Inéditos,' i. 200. - - Colindres, M., mention of, iii. 339. - - 'Collection of Voyages and Travels,' ii. 746. - - Colmenares, R. E. de, exped. to Veragua, 1510, i. 331; - relieves Nicuesa, i. 331-2; - exped. to Dabaiba, 1512, i. 351-2; - mission to Spain, 1514, i. 388. - - Colombia, insurrection in, 1820, iii. 24-5; - treaty with, 1825, iii. 81; - C. R. boundary question, iii. 233-5; - Pan. annexed to, 1821, iii. 506-8; - republic of, organized, 1819, iii. 513; - severed, iii. 519. - - Colon, disturbances at, 1885, iii. 551-3; - destruction of, iii. 553. - - Colon, D. de, mention of, i. 174-5; - gov. of Española, 1509, i. 268; - rule, etc., i. 268-9, 273; - death, 1526, i. 274. - - Colon, L., suit, etc., of, 1538-40, ii. 64. - - Columbus, B., adelantado, 1494, i. 173; - character, i. 175-6. - - Columbus, C., voyages of, i. 86-97, 109-11, 119-20; - theory of, i. 92-3; - biog., etc., i. 155-7; - character, i. 156-7, 171-2, 181, 232-8; - agreement with the crown, i. 157-8; - exped. of, 1492-3, i. 158-64; - 1493-5, i. 168-76; - 1498-1500, i. 177-82; - 1502-4, i. 202-31; - charges against, i. 176; - arrest, etc., of, i. 181-2; - enslavement of natives, i. 253-5, 262, 265-6; - death, 1506, i. 231. - - Columbus, F., biog., i. 203-4; - 'La Historia,' i. 204. - - Colunje, J., president of Pan., 1865-6, iii. 533-4. - - Comagre, Cacique, Balboa's visit to, 1512, i. 347-9. - - Comayagua, founding of, 1539, ii. 293-4; - capture of, 1827, iii. 162; - description of, iii. 570-1. - - Commerce, of Guat., ii. 383-4; - of Pan., ii. 390-3, 587, 594; - Asiatic, ii. 391-2; - of Nic., ii. 438; - contraband, ii. 473-4; - of Cent. Amer., iii. 663-7. - - Compañon, F., mention of, ii. 442-5; - at the Pearl Islands, 1517, i. 452, 467; - gov. of Natá, i. 508-9; - dispute with Córdoba, i. 586. - - 'Compendium of Authentic and Entertaining Voyages,' ii. 750. - - Concepcion, founding, etc., of, ii. 67, 70. - - Concepcion, convent, founded at Granada, 1528, ii. 184. - - Concepcion, R. de la, conspiracy of, iii. 18. - - 'Confederacion Centro Americana,' established 1844, iii. 188-9. - - Congress, Central American, installed, 1823, iii. 67-8; - measures, iii. 68-78; - parties, iii. 69-70. - - Congress, federal, measures, iii. 79-85, 118-19; - dissolved, iii. 88; - reassembled, iii. 102; - last session, 1838, iii. 134. - - Contreras, H. de, revolt of, 1550, ii. 274-88; - death of, ii. 287-8. - - Contreras, Brigadier J. T. de, defection of, 1821, iii. 46; - revolution against, iii. 46. - - Contreras, P. de, revolt of, 1550, ii. 274-88. - - Contreras, R. de, gov. of Nic., ii. 169-71; - exped. to El Desaguadero, ii. 170-1, 175-6; - arrest, etc., of, ii. 177; - residencia of, ii. 178-9, 183-4; - charges against, ii. 180-2; - dispute, etc., with Gutierrez, ii. 190. - - Copan, capture of, ii. 113-15. - - Córdoba, F. H. de, voyage of, 1517, i. 132; - exped. to Nic., 1524, i. 512-14. - - Córdoba, G. F. de, bishop of Nic., 1535, ii. 435; - of Guat., 1574, ii. 378-80. - - Córdoba, H. de, defection of, i. 578-80, 584; - Pedrarias' exped. against, i. 587-9; - execution of, 1526, 589. - - Cornejo, J. M., intrigues of, iii. 115-16; - rebellion, 1832, iii. 116; - defeat of, iii. 117-18; - jefe of Salv., 1829-32, iii. 167. - - Coronado, A. de, gov. of Pan., 1604, ii. 464. - - Coronado, F. V. de, exped. of, 1540, i. 152. - - Coronado, J. V., exped. of, ii. 427-30; - gov. of C. R., 1565, ii. 430. - - Corpus, affair at, 1844, iii. 310. - - Corral, D. del, mission to Nicuesa, 1510, i. 331-3; - intrigues, etc., of, i. 341; - gov. of Antigua, 1522, i. 476. - - Corral, Gen., negotiations of, 1855, iii. 260; - capitulation with Walker, 1855, iii. 335; - execution of, iii. 337-8. - - Corregidor, jurisd., etc., of, i. 297. - - Corregimientos, suppression of, 1660-1790, ii. 715-16. - - Correoso, B., president of Pan., 1868-72, iii. 537-8; - 1878, iii. 543; - works of, iii. 559. - - Cortereal, G., voyage of, 1500, i. 114; - 1501, i. 117. - - Córtes, decree of, iii. 5; - memorial to, iii. 7; - proceedings, iii. 30-1. - - Cortés, H., exped. of, 1519, i. 133-4; - popularity, etc., of, i. 522-3; - Olid's exped., i. 524-8; - exped. to Hond., 1524-6, i. 537-81; - rumored death of, i. 544; - machinations against, i. 572-5, 580-1; - return to Mex., i. 582; - Alvarado's exped., 1523-4, i. 627; - Pizarro's, ii. 12, 14, 40. - - Cortés, Archbishop, administr. of, 1778-9, ii. 726. - - Cortés y Larraz, Dr P., archbishop of Guat., 1768, ii. 730-2. - - Corzo, Pilot, explorations of, ii. 246. - - Cosa, J. de la, map of, i. 115-16; - friendship for Ojeda, i. 294; - death of, 1509, i. 299. - - Cosigüina, volcano, eruption of, 1835, iii. 176-7. - - Cosío y Campa, T. J. de, president of Guat., 1712-16, ii. 703-6; - the Tzendal campaign, 1712-13, ii. 704-5. - - Costa Rica, Gutierrez exped. to, 1540-5, ii. 187-99; - maps of, ii. 188; iii. 184, 234; - Franciscans in, 1555-90, ii. 432-3; - secession, 1821, iii. 49; - union with Mex., iii. 66; - assembly, iii. 178-9, 217-18, 224-5, 228, 374, 378-86; - Nicoya incorporated with, 1825, iii. 179; - location of capital, iii. 181; - a state, iii. 183-4; - secession, 1848, iii. 208-9; - Morazan's invasion, 1842, iii. 216-17; - Alfaro's revolt, iii. 219-22; - constitution, iii. 225, 228, 374, 378, 381; - arms of, iii. 229; - a republic, iii. 230; - treaties, iii. 230; - boundary question, iii. 231-6; - Walker's exped., 1855, iii. 342-5; - 1856-7, iii. 354-61; - war with Nic., 1857, iii. 362; - Mora's invasion of, iii. 387; - independence of, threatened, 1885, iii. 389-90; - difficulty with Nic., 1873-5, iii. 478-82; - extent, iii. 565-6; - polit. divisions, etc., iii. 566; - cities, iii. 566-7; - population, iii. 587-8; - colonization schemes, iii. 593; - character of population, iii. 596-7; - dwellings, iii. 597; - food, etc., iii. 597-8; - markets, iii. 598; - dress, iii. 598-9; - amusements, iii. 599; - education, iii. 622; - church affairs, iii. 634-5; - administr. of justice, iii. 643-4; - army, iii. 646; - agric., iii. 653-4; - mining, iii. 658; - revenue, etc., iii. 683-4; - debt, iii. 684-5; - railroads, iii. 708. - - Council of the Indies, description of the, i. 280-2; - decree of the, 1519, ii. 237. - - Coxon, Capt., commander-in-chief of pirates, 1680, ii. 527; - defection of, ii. 537-8. - - Creoles, condition, etc., of the, iii. 595-6. - - Crowe, F., 'The Gospel in Cent. Amer.,' iii. 709. - - Cruces, pillage of, 1550, ii. 281; - captured by Drake, 1572, ii. 413-14; - Morgan at, 1671, ii. 500. - - Cruz, Gen. S., rebellion of, 1867-70, iii. 414-18. - - Cruz, Brigadier V., vice-president of Guat., 1845, iii. 269; - revolt of, 1848, iii. 276-7; - death, 277. - - Cruz, Col V. M., revolt of, 1872, iii. 428-9. - - Cuba, Columbus at, 1492, i. 162-3; - character of inhabitants, i. 165-6. - - Cueva, C. de la, exped. to Hond., 1535, ii. 157-8; - dispute with Cereceda, ii. 158-9. - - Cueva, F. de la, lieut.-gov. of Guat., 1541, ii. 312-13; - gov., 1542, 319. - - 'Curious Collection of Travels,' ii. 750. - - 'Curious and Entertaining Voyages,' ii. 755. - - Cuzcatlan, Alvarado's occupation of, 1524, i. 675-6. - - - D - - Dabaiba, name, i. 351; - fabled temple of, i. 351, 406-7; ii. 51; - Balboa's exped. to, 1512, i. 351-2; - other expeds., 1515, i. 406-7; - cacique, ii. 51; - sierra of, ii. 52. - - Dalrymple, A., works of, ii. 754. - - Dampier, Capt. W., defection of, ii. 541; - march across the Isthmus of Pan., 1681, ii. 544-8; - raid on Realejo, 1684, ii. 548; - off coast of South Amer., 1684-5, ii. 549-50; - 'A New Voyage round the World,' ii. 568-9. - - Dardon, J. P., campaign of, 1529, ii. 107-8. - - Darien, discovered by Bastidas, 1501, i. 190-2; - maps of, i. 362, 400, 405; - mining in, iii. 659-60. - - Darien River, see Atrato River. - - Dávila, G. G., see Gonzalez, G. - - Dávila, P., see Pedrarias. - - Davis, C. H., 'Report,' iii. 709. - - Davis, Capt. J., raid on Realejo, 1684, ii. 548; - off coast of South Amer., 1684-5, ii. 549-50; - out-manœuvred off Pan., ii. 551-3; - capture of Leon, ii. 554. - - De Brosse, 'Histoire des Navigations,' ii. 754. - - De Bry, T., works of, ii. 741-2. - - Debt of Cent. Amer. states, iii. 677-87. - - De Costa, B. F., 'The Pre-Columbian Discovery,' i. 70. - - Delaporte, M. l'Abbé, works of, ii. 754. - - De Lesseps, F. de, the Panamá canal, iii. 704-6. - - Delgado, J. M., revolt of, 1811, iii. 12-13; - party leader, iii. 27; - president of congress, iii. 67. - - 'Derrotero de las islas Antillas,' ii. 759. - - Despard, Col, exped. to Mosquitia, 1782, ii. 605-6. - - Diaz, B., joins Pedrarias' exped., 1514, i. 390; - Cortés' exped. to Hond., 1525-6, i. 540, 549; ii. 78; - Marin's exped. to Chiap., 1524, ii. 215-19, 224. - - Diaz, J. J., president of Pan., 1868, iii. 535-6. - - Diaz, M., imposture, etc., of, 1712, ii. 701. - - Diaz, President P., correspondence with Barrios, 1885, iii. 448-9. - - Diaz, Father P., quarrel with Córdoba, ii. 379-80. - - Diego, Father D., martyrdom of, 1623, ii. 675. - - Diriangen, Cacique, meeting with Gonzalez, 1522, i. 490-1; - battle with, i. 491-2. - - 'Documentos para la Historia de México,' i. 201. - - Domas y Valle, J., president of Guat., 1794-1801, ii. 728. - - Dominguez, V., defeat, etc., of, 1832, iii. 114. - - Dominicans, in Española, i. 275; - in Cuba, i. 276; - in Guat., ii. 135-7, 344-5, 666; - in Nic., ii. 168-71, 436-7, 180-2; - in Chiap., ii. 339; - rivalry with Franciscans, ii. 347-8; - provincia establd. by, etc., 1551, ii. 376-7; - missionary labors, ii. 672, 680. - - Dovalle, G., exped. to Lacandon, 1559, ii. 363. - - Drake, E. C., works of, ii. 751. - - Drake, Admiral Sir F., early career of, ii. 404-5; - attack on Nombre de Dios, 1572, ii. 405-6; - on Cartagena, 407-9; - captures Cruces, ii. 413-14; - captures treasure-train, ii. 415; - return to England, ii. 417-18; - voyage round the world, 1577-80, ii. 418-19; - exped. of, 1585-6, ii. 419-21; - 1595, ii. 422; - death, 1596, 423. - - Dueñas, F., president of Salv., 1852, iii. 299, 308; - 1868-71, iii. 393-6; - biog., iii. 392-3; - surrender of, iii. 396; - exile, iii. 397. - - Dunlop, R. G., 'Travels in Cent. Amer.,' iii. 223. - - Dururua, Cacique, defeats Gutierrez, etc., ii. 68-9. - - - E - - Eads' ship railway, iii. 694. - - Earthquakes in Guat., 1575-87, ii. 384-5; - 1607-89, ii. 656; - 1751, 1757, ii. 719; - 1773, ii. 720-3; - at Santiago, 1830, ii. 707-8; iii. 154; - in Nic., 1835, iii. 175-6; - in Salv., 1854, iii. 300; - 1873, iii. 399-400; - in Cent. Amer. 1575-1885, iii. 563-5. - - Echever y Suvisa, P. A. de, president of Guat., 1724, ii. 709. - - Education, in Pan., iii. 583-4; - in C. R., iii. 622; - in Nic., 622-4; - in Salv., 624; - in Hond., 624-5; - in Guat., 625-7. - - El Desaguadero, exped. to, ii. 170-1, 175-6. - - El Espinal, affair at, iii. 58. - - El Infierno de Masaya, adventure at, 1537, ii. 172-5; - eruption of, 1670, ii. 444. - - El Sauce, affair at, 1855, iii. 330. - - Encinas, D. de, compilations of, i. 286-7. - - Encinasola, P. de, exped. to Veragua, 1535-6, ii. 65-71. - - Enciso, Bachiller M. F. de, Ojeda's exped., i. 297-8; - at Cartagena, i. 322-3; - defeats Cemaco, i. 326-7; - founds Antigua, 1510, i. 327-8; - deposed, i. 329-30, 339; - works of, i. 339-40; - denounces Balboa, i. 357, 386-7; - alguacil mayor of Antigua, 1514, i. 390. - - Encomendero, system, description of, i. 262-6. - - England, the Scots' colony, 1695-1700, ii. 570-9; - trading factories of, ii. 587; - reprisals, ii. 587-8; - war with, 1739-44, ii. 588-93; - treaties with Spain, 1670-1721, ii. 598-600; - 1783, ii. 606; - war with Spain, 1769-80, ii. 608-11; - claims of, in Belize, ii. 629-31; - mediation of, sought, 1839-40, iii. 186-7; - claims on Nic., iii. 239-40; - protectorate over Mosquitia, iii. 244-51; - hostilities with Nic., 1848, iii. 251-2; - Clayton-Bulwer treaty, 1850, iii. 252; - Zeledon-Wyke treaty, 1860, iii. 252-3; - difficulty with Salv., iii. 297-8; - relations with Hond., iii. 317; - claims on Hond., iii. 317-19; - usurpation in Hond., iii. 319-20; - treaty with Hond., 1859, iii. 320; - difficulty with Guat., 1874, iii. 433-4; - MacGregor's exped. to Panamá, 1818-20, iii. 498-501; - difficulty with New Gran., 1836, iii. 518. - - Epidemics in Guat., 1558, ii. 360; - 1565, ii. 369-70; - 1601, 1686, ii. 656. - - Escobar, J. B., president of Guat., 1848, iii. 276-7. - - Espino, Missionary F. de, labors of, 1667-8, ii. 644. - - Española, Columbus at, 1492-3, i. 164-5; - 1493-5, i. 169-77; - 1498, i. 179; - 1502, i. 203-6; - character of inhabitants, i. 165-6; - natives of, destroyed, i. 276. - - Esparza, sack of, 1680, ii. 541. - - Espínola, Capt., capitulation, etc., of, iii. 86. - - Espinosa, Licentiate G. de, alcalde mayor of Antigua, 1514, i. 390; - exped. to the South Sea, 1516-17, i. 418-31; - atrocities of, i. 422-3, 429-30; - spoils, i. 431; - trial of Balboa, 1517, i. 457; - promotion of, i. 461; - jealousy of Pedrarias, i. 464-5; - other expeds., i. 468-9, 472, 504-5; - founds Natá, i. 505-6. - - Espíritu Santo, name, i. 642. - - Esquivel, A., president of C. R., 1875, iii. 384-5. - - Esquivel, J. de, cruelty of, i. 260. - - Estachería, Brigadier J., gov. of Nic., 1783-89, ii. 608. - - Estete, M., expeds. of, i. 667-8, 611; ii. 113. - - Estrada, J. M., provis. president of Nic., 1855, iii. 260; - negotiations, etc., of, iii. 260-1; - appeal to Carrera, iii. 339; - death, 1856, iii. 351. - - Estrada, T. D. de, gov. of Nic., 1728, ii. 607. - - Europe, condition of, 1475-1525, i. 1-5. - - Exquemelin, A. O., works of, ii. 567-8. - - - F - - Fábrega, F., gov. of Pan., 1855, iii. 526-7. - - Fábrega, J. de, comandante of Pan., 1821, iii. 504, 508-9. - - Fería, P. de, bishop of Chiap., 1575, ii. 373. - - Fernandez, J., exped. to Peru, ii. 126-7. - - Fernandez, Gen. P., president of C. R., 1882-5, iii. 388-90; - biog., iii. 388-9; - death, iii. 390. - - Fernando VII., manifestoes, etc., of, iii. 20-22; - designs on Cent. Amer., iii. 105-6. - - Ferrera, F., president of Hond., 1841, iii. 309; - biog., iii. 309. - - Figueredo y Victoria, Dr F. J. de, archbishop of Guat., 1753-65, - ii. 728-30; - death, ii. 730. - - Figueroa, P. P. de, bishop of Guat., 1736, ii. 711-12; - consecration, ii. 711; - biog., ii. 711; - archbishop, 1745, ii. 712; - death, 1751, ii. 712. - - Figueroa y Silva, A. de, exped. to Belize, ii. 624-8. - - Figueroa, Gen. F., acting president of Salv., 1876, iii. 411. - - Filisola, Brigadier V., exped. of, 1822, iii. 56-7; - operations against San Salv., iii. 62-4. - - Findlay, A. G., works of, ii. 759. - - Fine, O., map of, 1531, i. 149. - - Fitoria, B. G., gov. of Nic., 1730, ii. 607. - - Flores, C., vice-jefe of Guat., 1824, iii. 146; - jefe, iii. 148; - administr., iii. 148-9. - - Flores, H. C., bishop of Hond., 1854, iii. 631. - - Flores, J., gov. of C. R., ii. 622. - - Florida, missionary exped. to, 1549, ii. 355-6. - - Fonseca, C., defence of Leon, 1844, iii. 199. - - Fonseca, J. R. de, patriarch of the Indies, i. 168. - - Forster, J. R., works of, ii. 752-3. - - Franciscans, in Española, i. 275; - in Guat., 1535, ii. 345-8; - rivalry with Dominicans, ii. 347-8; - in C. R., 1555-70, ii. 432-3; - in Itza, ii. 673-6. - - Francos y Monroy, C., archbishop of Guat., 1779, ii. 726, 732. - - Frederick, G., biog., etc., iii. 245-7. - - Frederick, R. C., mention of, iii. 248. - - Fröbel, J., 'Aus Amerika,' iii. 709. - - Fuensalida, Friar B., mission to Itza, 1618, ii. 673-5. - - Fuentes y Guzman, F. A. de, works, etc., of, ii. 86, 736-7. - - - G - - Gainza, Brigadier G., command, etc., of, iii. 25-6; - measures, iii. 32-6; - capt.-gen., 1821, iii. 44; - manifesto of, iii. 54-5; - edict, iii. 55. - - Gaitan, J., revolt of, 1554, ii. 424-5; - execution, ii. 425. - - Galarza, D., revolt of, 1812, iii. 14. - - Galdo, A., bishop of Hond., 1613-45, ii. 641-2. - - Galeaza, picture of, i. 188. - - Galindo, V. O., president of Pan., iii. 534-5. - - Gallegos, J. R., jefe of C. R., 1833, iii. 181; - 1845, iii. 227. - - Galleon, picture of, i. 188. - - Galley, picture of, i. 188. - - Galvano, A., works, etc., of, ii. 738-9. - - Galvez, Don M. de, exped. to Mosquitia, 1782, ii. 604-5; - capture of San Fernando de Omoa, 1779, ii. 647; - president of Guat., 1778-83, ii. 725-8. - - Galvez, M., Cornejo's revolt, 1831-2, iii. 116-17; - deposed, 1838, iii. 128-31; - jefe of Guat., 1831, iii. 155-6. - - Gama, A. de la, gov. of Castilla del Oro, ii. 45-6. - - Gamez, P. de, captures Quema, 1516, i. 426. - - Garabito, A., exped. to Cuba, 1516, i. 434, 437; - treachery of, i. 449-50. - - Garabito, Cacique, exped. against, ii. 427-8. - - Garay, F. de, expeds. of, i. 134, 140, 625. - - García, L., campaign of, ii. 580-1. - - García, Father W. P. M., 'Sublevacion de los Zendales,' MS., - ii. 705-6. - - Garro, P. de, exped. of, 1525, i. 578. - - Gasca, P. de la, character, etc., ii. 265-6; - power intrusted to, ii. 266; - reception at the Isthmus, 1546, ii. 266-9; - negotiations with Mejía, ii. 267; - with Hinojosa, ii. 269-70; - despatches, etc., of, ii. 270-2; - exped. to Peru, ii. 272-3; - the Contreras revolt, 1550, ii. 278-83. - - Gazistas, party, iii. 26-7. - - Geography, ancient, i. 70-4. - - Germany, difficulty with Nic., 1876, iii. 256. - - 'Gobierno político de Guatemala,' iii. 28-9. - - Godoy, D. de, exped. to Chiap., 1524, ii. 216, 221. - - Goitia, P., president of Pan., 1863, iii. 532-3. - - Golfo Dulce, name, i. 190; - Bastidas at, 1501, i. 190; - Pedrarias at, 1522, i. 484-5. - - Gomara, F. L. de, biog., i. 314; - works of, 315-16. - - Gomera, Conde de la, president of Guat., 1611-26, ii. 651-2. - - Gomez, C., acting president of Hond., 1876, iii. 463. - - Gomez, E., exped. of, 1525, i. 142. - - Gomez, Licentiate I., mission of, 1848, iii. 296. - - Gonzalez, G., voyage of, 1522, i. 139-40; - contador of Española, 1511, i. 267; - character of, i. 479; - dispute with Pedrarias, i. 481-3; - exped. of, 1522-3, i. 483-94; - escape to Santo Domingo, i. 516; - exped. to Hond., 1524, i. 518; - encounter with Soto, i. 519-20; - meeting with Olid, i. 527-8; - Olid's assassination, i. 531-3. - - Gonzalez, Padre P., mention of, ii. 328. - - Gonzalez, Gen. S., acting president of C. R., 1873, iii. 383; - victory at Santa Ana, 1871, iii. 395-6; - president of Salv., 1872-5, iii. 396-401; - war with Guat., iii. 401-6. - - Goodrich, F. B., 'Man upon the Sea,' ii. 757. - - Gottfriedt, J. L., works of, ii. 742. - - Gracias á Dios, founding of, 1536, ii. 165; - audiencia of the Confines at, 1545, ii. 301. - - Gracias á Dios, cape, rounded by Columbus, 1502, i. 211. - - Granada, founding of, 1524, i. 527; - the Contreras revolt, 1550, ii. 275-8; - description of, ii. 438-41; - captured by pirates, 1665, ii. 441; - 1686, ii. 557-9; - revolt at, 1811, iii. 14; - junta at, iii. 48, 170; - besieged by Jerez, 1854-5, iii. 259; - captured by Walker, 1855, iii. 332; - Zavala's assault, 1856, iii. 353-4; - recapture of, iii. 356-7. - - Granados, M. G., opposition to Guat. ministry, 1869; iii. 416-17; - exile, iii. 419; - revolution of, 1871, iii. 419-24; - president of Guat. 1871-3, iii. 423-30. - - Granda y Balbin, L. A. de, exped. to Talamanca, ii. 618-19. - - Green, I., works of, ii. 747. - - Greenland, sighted by Gunnbjörn, 876, i. 75-6; - named by Eric the Red, i. 76. - - Grijalva, J. de, map of, 1518, i. 132; - death, 1526, i. 591; - character, i. 591-2. - - Grogniet, Capt., joins Davis' freebooters, 1685, ii. 550; - capture of Pueblo Viejo, ii. 556; - of Chiriquita, 1686, ii. 556; - defeat at Pueblo Nuevo, ii. 557; - capture of Granada, ii. 557-9; - journey to the North Sea, ii. 563-6. - - Grynævs, 'Novvs Orbis,' i. 148-9. - - Guadalupe, affair at, 1827, iii. 91. - - Gualcince, Salvadoran's surrender at, 1823, iii. 64. - - Guanacaste, disturbance at, 1875, iii. 383-4. - - Guarda Viejo, convention at, 1838, iii. 128-9. - - Guardia, S. de la, gov. of Pan., 1860, iii. 528-30; - death, iii. 530. - - Guardia, T., president of C. R., 1870-6, iii. 380-4; - 1877-82, iii. 386-8; - death, 1882, iii. 388. - - Guardiola, Gen. S., operations, etc., 1845, iii. 200, 202, 205-6; - victory of, 1844, iii. 310; - honors paid to, iii. 311; - pronunciamiento of, iii. 313; - president of Hond., iii. 322-3; - character, iii. 323; - defeat at El Sauce, 1855, iii. 330; - at La Vírgen, iii. 331. - - Guatemala, Alvarado's conquest of, 1522-4, i. 617-62; - maps of, ii. 91, 320; iii. 191; - slavery in, ii. 234-6; - the new laws, ii. 323-5; - church affairs in, 1541-8, ii. 341-8; - 1601-82, ii. 663-9; - 1753-1886, ii. 728-33; iii. 630-1; - epidemics in, 1558, ii. 360; - 1565, ii. 369-70; - 1601, 1686, ii. 656; - mining, ii. 383; iii. 656-7; - commerce, ii. 383-4; - earthquakes, etc., in, 1575-87, ii. 384-5; - 1607-89, ii. 656; - 1830, iii. 154; - prosperity of, 1650-1700, ii. 653-4; - terr., 1750, ii. 713-14; - provinces subject to, ii. 714; - army, ii. 727-8; iii. 648-9; - society, iii. 1-2; - loyalty of, iii. 2-3; - capitán general, iii. 20-1; - archbishops of, iii. 29-30; - union with Mex., iii. 50-1; - war with Salv., 1827-9, iii. 90-100; - assembly, iii. 101-4, 145-8, 207, 273-6, 281-2, 416-17, 438-41; - rebellion in, 1837, iii. 128-9; - state govt dissolved, 1838, iii. 134; - arms of, iii. 149, 269-70; - medal, iii. 151; - an independent state, 1839, iii. 160-1; - Malespin's invasion of, 1844, iii. 191-3; - secession of, 1847-8, ii. 207-8; - council convoked, iii. 267; - independence recognized, iii. 270; - foreign relations, iii. 270-1; - revolutions in, 1847-8, iii. 271-3; - 1871, iii. 419-24; - war with Salv. and Nic., 1850-3, iii. 279-80; - with Hond., 1850-6, iii. 279-81; - 1871-2, iii. 398-9; - 1872-6, iii. 428, 457-62; - with Salv., 1876, iii. 401-5; - 1885, iii. 409-10; - constitution, iii. 281-2, 438-9; - Walker's exped., 1856-7, iii. 350-61; - revolts in, 1867-70, iii. 414-18; - 1872, iii. 428-9; - suppression of religious orders, 1871-4, 425-7; - difficulty with England, 1874, iii. 433-4; - with Spain, 1875, iii. 434; - attempted unification of Cent. Amer., 1883-5, iii. 442-9; - boundaries, iii. 574; - departments, iii. 574; - govt, iii. 574-5; - population, 1883-5, iii. 588; - 1885, iii. 613; - colonization in, 589-91; - classes, etc., iii. 613-16; - dwellings, iii. 616-17; - dress, iii. 617-18; - amusements, iii. 618; - education, iii. 625-7; - administr. of justice, iii. 638-40; - agric., iii. 650-1; - manufact., iii. 661; - currency, iii. 670; - revenue, etc., iii. 677-80; - debt, iii. 678-80; - railroads, iii. 706-7. - - Guatemala City (see also Santiago City), description of, 1773, - ii. 717-18; - 1886, iii. 575-7; - earthquakes in, 1751, 1757, ii. 719; - 1773, ii. 720-3; - site of, removed, ii. 723-6; - occupation of, by Salvadorans, iii. 74; - captured by Morazan, 1829, iii. 99-100; - by Carrera, 1838, iii. 130-2; - recaptured by Morazan, iii. 141; - outbreak at, 1844, iii. 266; - revolt at, 1845, iii. 268; - plot at, 1877, iii. 437. - - Guatusos, attempted pacification of the, ii. 613-17. - - Guerra, C., voyage of, 1499, i. 186. - - Guerrero, J., director of Nic., 1847, iii. 244. - - Guill, A., gov. of Pan., 1758, ii. 584. - - Gutierrez, D., exped. to C. R., 1540-5, ii. 189-99. - - Gutierrez, F., exped. to Veragua, 1535-6, ii. 65-73. - - Gutierrez, J., capture, etc., of, ii. 50-1. - - Gutierrez, M. P., quells revolt, 1812, iii. 15. - - Gutierrez, P., the Tzendal campaign, 1712, ii. 701-3. - - Guzman, Gen. A., operations, 1849, iii. 277-8. - - Guzman, A. T. de, exped. to Pan., 1515, i. 403-6; - outrages of, i. 404. - - Guzman, F., president of Nic., 1867-71, iii. 369, 470-5. - - Guzman, J. de, proposed exped. of, ii. 256; - joins Hinojosa, 1545, ii. 260-1; - president of Guat., ii. 652. - - Guzman, J. E., vice-president of Salv., 1844, iii. 195; - administr., iii. 201-4; - biog., iii. 202. - - Guzman, J. E. de, capt.-gen. of Chiap., 1529, ii. 230-1. - - Guzman, J. J., president of Salv., iii. 287. - - Guzman, Don J. P. de, gov. of Pan., ii. 493; - forces, etc., of, 503-5; - defeated by Morgan, 1671, ii. 504-6. - - Guzman, N. de, exped. of, 1530-1, i. 145-6. - - Guzman, R., defeat, etc., of, 1832, iii. 113-14. - - - H - - Hacha, Rio, Bradley's foray on the, 1670, ii. 491. - - Hacke, Capt. W., 'A Collection of Original Voyages,' ii. 569. - - Hakluyt, R., works, etc., of, ii. 739-41. - - Haro, F. de, battle of Panamá, 1671, ii. 505. - - Harris, J., works of, ii. 744-5. - - Harris, Capt. P., raids off coast of South Amer., 1684-5, ii. 549-50. - - Hayti, see Española. - - Henderson, G., 'British Honduras,' iii. 247. - - Henningsen's operations under Walker, 1856, iii. 355-7. - - Heredia, A., exped. of, ii. 49-50. - - Heredia, A. F. de, gov. of Nic., ii. 607-8. - - Heredia, P. de, province of, ii. 46-7; - expeds., ii. 47-8, 52-3. - - Hermosillo, J. G. de, rept of, 1856, ii. 397-8. - - Hernandez, Gen., defeats Pineda, 1855, iii. 332. - - Herrera, A. de, biog., i. 316; - works of, 316-17. - - Herrera, D., jefe of Hond., 1824, iii. 161-2; - of Nic., 1830, iii. 174-6. - - Herrera, Oidor, juez de residencia, ii. 179; - opposition to Contreras, ii. 182. - - Herrera, Col T., defeats Alzuru, 1831, iii. 514; - jefe, etc., of Pan., 1840, iii. 515; - gov., iii. 516. - - Herrera, V., president of C. R., 1875-7, iii. 385-6. - - Herrera, V. de, gov, of Hond., ii. 144-5; - stratagem of, ii. 147; - exped., 1531, ii. 149-50; - plot against, ii. 150-1; - assassination of, ii. 151. - - Herrera, V. de, regent of audiencias, 1778, ii. 715. - - Hinojosa, Friar A. de, bishop of Guat., ii. 380. - - Hinojosa, P. de, conquest of Pan., 1545, ii. 255-61; - defeats Verdugo, ii. 263-4; - negotiations with Gasca, ii. 269-70; - defection of, ii. 271-2. - - Hinostrosa, Capt. D. M. de, arrest, etc., of, ii. 144-5. - - 'Historia de la Marina Real Española,' ii. 757. - - 'Historical Account of the Circumnavigation of the Globe,' ii. 752. - - Hodgson, Col R., mission of, ii. 601-2. - - Holguin, G., exped. to Peru, ii. 125-7. - - Hollins, Commander, bombards San Juan del Norte, 1854, iii. 255. - - Honduras, maps of, i. 518; ii. 148; iii. 110, 205; - colonization, etc., in, 1524-5, i. 522-36; - Cortés' exped. to, 1524-6, i. 537-81; - Alvarado's, 1535-6, ii. 160-5; - 1539, ii. 296-9; - slavery in, ii. 233-4, 302; - roads, ii. 293-4; - settlements, 1547, ii. 294, 637-40; - mining, ii. 295; - church affairs, ii. 299-301, 641-2, 712-13; iii. 361; - the new laws, ii. 301-7; - piratical raids, 1576-95, ii. 636-9, 645; - Gage's description of, 1636, ii. 639-40; - annexation to Mex., 1821, iii. 46; - revolutions in, 1829-30, iii. 109-11; - 1844, iii. 310; - assembly, iii. 161-2, 309-10; - disturbances in, iii. 162-3; - independence declared, 1838, iii. 164; - war with Nic., 1844, iii. 194-200; - with Salv., iii. 202-6, 393-9, 455-8; - union with Salv. and Nic., iii. 209-11; - war with Guat., 1850-6, iii. 279-81; - 1872-6, iii. 398-9, 428, 457-62; - relations with Gt Britain, iii. 317; - British claims on, iii. 317-19; - British usurpation in, iii. 319-20; - treaty with Gt Britain, 1859, iii. 320; - Walker's exped., 1856-7, iii. 350-64; - boundaries, iii. 570; - departments, etc., iii. 570; - cities, iii. 570-1; - population, 1883, iii. 588; - immigration, iii. 591; - races, iii. 608-10; - women of, iii. 610-11; - dwellings, iii. 611; - food, etc., iii. 611-12; - dress, iii. 612; - amusements, iii. 612; - education, iii. 624-5; - administr. of justice, iii. 640-1; - army, iii. 647; - agric., iii. 651-2; - mining, iii. 655-6; - manufact., iii. 661; - currency, iii. 670; - revenue, iii. 680; - debt, iii. 680-1; - railroads, iii. 707. - - Hore, A. de, gov. of Pan., 1815, iii. 497; - oppression of, iii. 497-8; - recaptures Portobello, 1819, iii. 500-1; - death, 1820, iii. 502. - - Huascar, defeat of, 1532, ii. 19; - death, ii. 34. - - Huistlan, besieged by Tzendales, 1712, ii. 702. - - Humboldt, A. von, works of, i. 69. - - Hurtado, B., exped. to Dabaiba, 1512, i. 352-3; - arrest, etc., of, i. 354-5; - atrocities of, i. 401, 417; - exploration of, 1516, i. 426-8; - exped. to Olancho, 1526, i. 589-91; - death, i. 591. - - Hylacomylus, 'Cosmographiæ Introdvctio,' i. 123. - - - I - - Ibañez, Col P., gov. of Nic., 1759, ii. 607. - - Icazbalceta, collection of, i. 201. - - Iguala, plan of, accepted in Hond., iii. 46; - in Nic., iii. 47-8. - - Illanes, J. de, proposed exped. of, ii. 256; - joins Hinojosa, 1545, ii. 260-1. - - Illustrations, caravel, i. 187; - galley, i. 188; - galeaza, i. 188; - galleon, i. 188; - navío, i. 189; - brigantine, i. 189. - - Indians, treatment of, i. 253-66; ii. 232-9; - of Hond., iii. 608-10; - of Guat., iii. 615-16. - - Infante, Father H., mission of, 1646-7, ii. 677-8. - - Inquisition, in Spain, i. 32. - - Interoceanic communication, projects, etc., for, 1534, ii. 246-7; - 1539, ii. 293; - 1616, ii. 471-2; - 1801-87, iii. 688-709. - - Interoceanic road, project for, 1514, i. 396-7; - termini, i. 465; - completed, 1519, i. 471-2. - - Irving, W., works of, i. 69, 200, 239-43. - - Isabela, founding of, 1493, i. 169. - - Isla de Pinos, visited by Columbus, 1502, i. 207-10; - Drake at, 1572, ii. 405-7. - - Isla Rica, named by Balboa, 1513, i. 377; - cacique of, 408-10. - - Iturbide, A., designs of, iii. 51; - instructions to Filisola, iii. 62; - downfall of, iii. 65. - - Itzas, attempted conversion of the, ii. 673-6; - attempted subjugation, ii. 682-95. - - Itzcuintlan, Alvarado's conquest of, 1524, i. 663-5. - - Izaguirre, B. de, bishop of Pan., 1655, ii. 479. - - Izalco, Indian outbreak at, 1875, iii. 400. - - Izancanac, Cortés at, 1524, i. 557. - - Irazu, Volcano, eruption of, 1723, ii. 620. - - Iztapa, Guat., ship-building at, 1539, ii. 205. - - Iztapa, Chiap., battle at, 1524, ii. 216. - - Iztapan, Cortés at, 1524, i. 543. - - - J - - Jocote, convention of, 1842, iii. 216-17. - - Jalisco, insurrection in, 1541. ii. 206-7. - - Jamaica, coasted by Columbus, 1494, i. 171. - - Jaraguá, Bastidas shipwrecked at, 1501, i. 192. - - Jerez, M., pronunciamiento of, 1869, iii. 472. - - Jerez, Bishop N. G., revolt at Leon, 1812, iii. 14. - - Jeronimites, mission of the, 1515-18, i. 277-80. - - Jesuits, in Nic., 1616-21, ii. 442-3; - in Talamanca, 1684, ii. 447; - expulsion of the, 1767, ii. 730-1; - 1871, iii. 425-6; - 1881, iii. 476, 484-5; - 1884, iii. 389; - revolts caused by, 1881, iii. 476, 484-5. - - Jews, mediæval brutality toward, i. 27-9. - - Jimenez, J., president of C. R., 1863, iii. 377; - 1868, iii. 378-9; - arrest, etc., of, 379-80. - - Jocoro, convention of, 1845, iii. 203. - - Juan de Dios, order of, in Pan., ii. 477-8. - - Juarros, D., works of, ii. 142, 737. - - Junta, suprema central gubernativa, iii. 4; - suprema de censura, iii. 26; - consultiva, iii. 35-6, 42-5, 50, 52, 57. - - Justice, administr., etc., of, in Cent. Amer., iii. 638-45. - - Jutiapa, Malespin's forces at, 1844, iii. 191-2. - - - K - - Kunstmann, 'Munich Atlas,' i. 69-70. - - Kerr, R., works of, ii. 756. - - Kinney, J. L., exped of, iii. 327-8. - - Kohl, J. G., works of, i. 69. - - - L - - La Antigua, revolt in, 1828, iii. 96; - assembly installed at, 1824, iii. 145; - affair at, iii. 420. - - La Concepcion, convent, establd. in Guat., 1546-8, ii. 343-4. - - La Gloria, S. G. de, imposture, etc., of, 1712, ii. 699-700. - - La Harpe, works of, ii. 748-9. - - La Navidad, fortress of, built, 1492, i. 164; - abandoned, 169. - - La Union, blockade of, 1849, iii. 297-8. - - La Vírgen, affair at, 1855, iii. 331. - - Lacandones, depredations, etc., of, ii. 361-2; - exped. against, 1559, ii. 362-6; - independence, etc., of, iii. 615-16. - - Ladinos, condition, etc., of the, iii. 594. - - Lafond, G., works of, ii. 755. - - Lagares, P. de, labors of, in Tologalpa, ii. 450. - - Lamilla, Father A. de, bishop of Guat., ii. 378. - - Landa, Capt., cruelty of, ii. 282; - execution of, 1550, 287. - - Landecho, J. M. de, gov., etc., of Guat., ii. 366-9. - - Lara, Friar D. de, bishop of Chiap., 1574, ii. 373. - - Lara, J. C. de, gov. of Nic., ii. 607. - - Lara, Father S. de, priest of Cancuc, 1712, ii. 697. - - Lara y Mogrobejo, A. de, president of Guat., 1649-54, ii. 653. - - Lardner, D., 'Cabinet Cyclopædia,' iii. 709. - - Las Casas, B. de, character of, i. 274-5; - labors in Cuba, i. 276; - protector of the Indians, i. 277; - efforts in Spain, i. 279-84; - works of, i. 309-10; - dispute with Quevedo, i. 462-3; - mission to Peru, etc., ii. 136-7; - arrival in Nic., etc., 1532, ii. 169; - opposition to Contreras, ii. 170-1; - the new laws, ii. 239-40; - dispute with the audiencia of the Confines, 1545, ii. 303-7; - bishop of Chiap., 1543, ii. 330-1; - administr., ii. 332-5; - retirement, etc., ii. 335-6; - works of, ii. 336; - pacification of Vera Paz, ii. 348-54; - death, 337; - character, 337-8. - - Las Charcas, federal defeat at, 1829, iii. 97. - - Lawrie, Col, supt. of Mosquitia, ii. 603-4. - - Leiva, P., provis. president of Hond., 1873-6, iii. 460-2. - - Lempira, Cacique, valor of, ii. 290-1; - stronghold of, captured, 1537, ii. 291-2; - death, ii. 291-2. - - Leon, founding of, 1527, i. 513; - butchery of natives at, 1528, i. 610; - convent founded at, 1532, ii. 168-9; - the Contreras revolt, 1550, ii. 275-6; - Gaitan's defeat at, 1554, ii. 425; - new city of, ii. 439-40; - captured by freebooters, 1685, ii. 553-5; - cathedral of, 1743, ii. 613; - revolts, etc., at, 1811-12, iii. 14-16; - junta gubernativa at, 1823, iii. 170-1; - sack of, 1824, iii. 171; - siege of, 1824-5, iii. 171-2; - 1844, iii. 197-200; - revolts at, 1845, iii. 241; - 1853-4, iii. 258-9; - 1869, iii. 471-3; - 1881, iii. 484-5; - seat of govt at, 1847, iii. 244; - description of, iii. 568-9. - - Lepe, D. de, voyage of, 1499, i. 113, 186. - - Lévy, P., 'Notas,' iii. 255. - - Liaño, Pilot, exped. to Veragua, 1535-6, ii. 66. - - Liberals, Guat., party, iii. 69-70; - attitude of, iii. 85-7; - operations of, 1826-7, iii. 148-50; - prosecution of, iii. 151; - division among, iii. 275. - - Lindo, J., jefe of Salv., 1841, iii. 286; - coup d'état, iii. 286; - president of Hond., 1847-51, iii. 311-21. - - Literature, of C. R., iii. 622; - of Nic., iii. 623; - of Salv., iii. 624; - of Guat., iii. 627. - - Llamas y Rivas, Dr F. J. de, gov. of Pan., ii. 583. - - Llano, Capt. A. del, deputy to córtes, iii. 5. - - Llano, Col M. del, deputy to córtes, iii. 5. - - Loarca, A. L. de, storming of Mixco, 1525, i. 690-2. - - L'Olonnois, F., character, etc., of, ii. 456-7; - atrocities, 457-8; - expeds., ii. 458-60; - death, 460. - - Lopez, Father T., explorations, etc., of, 1778, 1782, ii. 614-16. - - Lorca y Villena Vivas, M. V. de, gov. of Nic., 1757, ii. 607. - - Lorenzana, Marqués de, president of Guat., ii. 652-3. - - Los Altos, state organized, 1838, iii. 156-7; - assembly, iii. 157; - maps of, iii. 157, 275; - incorporated with Guat., 1840, iii. 158. - - Los Santos, surprised by freebooters, 1686, ii. 561; - revolution at, iii. 505-7. - - Loyola, P. de, gov. of Nic., ii. 607. - - Luque, Padre, Pizarro's conquest, ii. 3, 8, 12, 14, 36. - - - M - - M'Donald, A., usurpation of, in Yuc., iii. 315. - - Macdonald, regent of Mosquitia, iii. 248; - arrest of Quijano, 1841, iii. 249-51. - - MacGregor, G., exped. of, 1818-19, iii. 498-501. - - McClure, R. Le M., discoveries of, iii. 689-91. - - Madriz, Licentiate, disturbances incited by, 1699-1701, ii. 662. - - Magellan, F. de, voyage of, 1519, i. 134-6. - - Mail service, of Cent. Amer., iii. 671-2. - - Maiollo, map of, i. 136. - - Major, R. H., 'Life of Prince Henry of Portugal,' i. 70. - - Malacatan, capture of, 1525, i. 697-9. - - Maldonado, A., alcalde mayor of Española, i. 250. - - Maldonado, A., compilation of, i. 286. - - Maldonado, A. de, visitador, 1535, ii. 131; - juez de residencia, ii. 132; - president of the audiencia of the Confines, ii. 301; - dispute with Las Casas, 1545, ii. 304-7; - residencia of, ii. 308-9; - provis. gov. of Guat., 1542, ii. 323; - exped. to Talamanca, 1660, ii. 446. - - Malespin, president of Salv., iii. 190; - defence of Salv., 1844, iii. 190-1; - invasion of Guat., iii. 191-3; - of Nic., iii. 194-5; - capture of Leon, iii. 197-200; - dispute with Guzman, iii. 202-3. - - Malespin, Col F., revolution of, 1842, iii. 289; - president of Salv., iii. 290; - defeat of, iii. 293-4; - death of, iii. 294. - - Malinche, see Cortés, H. - - Mames, Alvarado's conquest of the, 1525, i. 695-702. - - Managua, revolt at, 1833-4, iii. 175-6; - 1845, iii. 240-1; - seat of govt at, 1845, iii. 241; - cholera at, 1855, iii. 330; - description of, iii. 568. - - Manches, Christianization, etc., of, ii. 672-3. - - Mañosca y Murillo, J. de, president of Guat., 1670, ii. 659; - bishop of Guat., 1668-75, ii. 668. - - Mansvelt, buccaneer, raids, etc., of, ii. 460-3. - - Manufactures, of Cent. Amer., iii. 660-2. - - Maps, the world, i. 73; - Zeno's chart, 1390, i. 82; - Behaim's globe, 1492, i. 93; - Cosa's map, 1500, i. 115; - Ruysch's, 1508, i. 126; - Peter Martyr's, 1511, i. 127; - Ptolemy's, 1513, i. 130; - in Munich Atlas, 1518, i. 133; - Schöner's globe, 1520, i. 137; - Bordone's, 1528, i. 144; - Ribero's, 1529, i. 146; - the New World, 1530, i. 147; - Ruscelli's, 1544, i. 148; - Fine's, 1531, i. 149; - Castillo's, 1541, i. 153; - manuscript, 1532-40, i. 154; - Castilla del Oro, i. 323; ii. 49; - Darien, i. 362, 400, 405, 416, 427; - Nic., i. 513; ii. 175; iii. 258; - Hond., i. 518; ii. 148; iii. 110, 205, 198; - Quiché and Cackchiquel, i. 629; - Peru, ii. 9; - Alvarado's march, ii. 82; - Guat., ii. 91, 320; iii. 191; - C. R., ii. 188; iii. 184, 234; - Chiap., ii. 331; iii. 39; - Lacandon war, ii. 363; - Mosquitia, ii. 603; iii. 246; - Belize, ii. 627; - defeat of Padilla, iii. 58; - Los Altos, iii. 157, 275; - Salv., iii. 191, 205; - Walker's exped., iii. 343; - interoceanic communication, iii. 692. - - Maracaibo, plundered by Morgan, ii. 490-1. - - Marchena, Treasurer R. de, mention of, ii. 280-1. - - Marin, E., acting jefe of Salv., 1842, iii. 286-7. - - Marin, Gen. E., execution of, 1877, iii. 464. - - Marin, Capt. L., character of, ii. 215; - exped. to Chiap., 1524, 215-25. - - Marquez, D., contador at Antigua, 1514, i. 390. - - Marquez, G., acting jefe of Guat., 1830, iii. 154-5. - - Marroquin, F., biog., etc., ii. 134; - bishop of Guat., 1533, ii. 135; - administr., ii. 135-40; - Alvarado's executor, etc., ii. 207-9; - dispute with Las Casas, ii. 303-6, 343; - gov. of Guat., 1542, ii. 319; - Indian policy, ii. 325-6; - poverty of, ii. 342-3; - convent, etc., founded by, ii. 343-4; - death of, 1563, ii. 375. - - Martin, A., first Spaniard to sail on South Sea, 1513, i. 369-70. - - Martinez, B., bishop of Pan., 1583, ii. 475. - - Martinez, Friar C., bishop of Pan., 1625, i. 478. - - Martinez, J. A., president of Guat., 1848, iii. 274. - - Martinez, Gen. T., operations of, 1855, iii. 261; - 1856-7, iii. 352, 356, 360; - member of junta, 1857, iii. 365; - president of Nic., 1857-67, iii. 365-9; - biog., iii. 366; - death, iii. 370. - - Martyr, P., map of, 1511, i. 127-8; - biog., i. 312; - works of, i. 312-14. - - Marure, M. A., works of, iii. 17-18; - imprisonment of, iii. 19-20. - - Masaya, revolt at, 1812, iii. 15; - Walker's attack on, 1856, iii. 353; - destruction of, 1856, iii. 355-6. - - Mata, Brigadier J. A. de la, gov. of Pan., 1805, iii. 489. - - Matagalpa, insurrection in, 1881, iii. 484. - - Mayorga, M. de, president of Guat., 1773-8, ii. 717-25. - - Mazariegos, D. de, conquest of Chiap., 1526, ii. 226-7; - meeting with Puertocarrero, ii. 227-8; - administr. of, ii. 229-30; - residencia of, ii. 230. - - Mazariegos, M. R., exped. of, 1695, ii. 682-5. - - Mazatecs, submission of the, 1524, i. 557-8. - - Mazatenango, capture of, 1525, i. 696-7. - - Medina, Alcalde, in charge at Trujillo, 1525, i. 535. - - Medina, F. de, mention of, ii. 220-1. - - Medina, J. M., president of Hond., 1836-72, iii. 453-8; - revolt of, iii. 461-3; - execution, 1878, iii. 464; - biog., iii. 464-5. - - Medrano y Solórzano, E., exped. of, 1699, ii. 695. - - Mejía, G., prosecution of Alvarado, ii. 100. - - Mejía, H., surprised by Verdugo, ii. 263; - defection, etc., of, 1546, ii. 267-8, 271. - - Mejicanos, Arce's defeat at, 1823, iii. 64; - surrender of, iii. 95. - - Melendez, Gov. P., defence of Portobello, 1602, ii. 467. - - 'Memorias,' iii. 107. - - Mencos, M., exped. of, 1699, ii. 694-5. - - Mencos, M. C. de, president of Guat., 1657-67, ii. 657-8. - - Mendavia, Dean P. de, disturbance caused by, ii. 177-8. - - Mendez, D., in Verag., 1503, i. 222-4; - plot of, ii. 150-3; - execution of, ii. 154. - - Menendez, Gen. F., revolution of, 1885, iii. 411. - - Mendez, H., procurator to Spain, etc., 1545, ii. 323-4. - - Mendez, M., murder of, 1872, iii. 399. - - Mendinueta y Muzquiz, P. de, viceroy of New Granada, 1801, iii. 489. - - Mendoza, H. de, exped. of, 1532, i. 148. - - Meneses, Capt., joins Pedrarias' exped., 1514, i. 390; - garrison of, besieged, i. 402, 404. - - Mercado, J. N. de, assassination of Olid, i. 531-3. - - Mercado, Friar M. de, bishop of Pan., 1578, ii. 475. - - Merced, order of, establd. in Guat., 1537, ii. 140-1; - convent founded at Ciudad Real, ii. 328-9. - - Merlo, R. de, exped. of, 1525, i. 577. - - Mestizos, characteristics of the, iii. 594-5. - - Mexico, union of Cent. Amer. with, 1821-2, iii. 42-59; - war with Salv., 1822-3, iii. 62-4. - - Mexico City, machinations against Cortés, i. 572-5, 580-1. - - Meyner, C., gov. of Pan., 1812, iii. 495. - - Milla, J. J., vice-jefe of Hond., 1824, iii. 161; - defeats Herrera, iii. 162. - - Millen, F. F., colonization scheme of, 1883, iii. 590-1. - - Mining, in Hond., ii. 295; - in Guat., ii. 383; - in Pan., ii. 395-6, 585-6; - in Cent. Amer., iii. 655-60. - - Miro, G., president of Pan., 1873, iii. 541. - - Mitla, insurrection in, 1837, iii. 124-5. - - Mixco, capture of, 1525, i. 686-92; - federal victory at, 1829, iii. 97. - - Moderados, Guat., party organized, 1848, iii. 275. - - Molina, Col M. A., jefe of Los Altos, 1838, iii. 157-9; - execution of, 1842, iii. 218. - - Molina, P., 'El Editor Constitucional,' iii. 27-8; - biog., iii. 27-8; - revolutionary movements, iii. 33; - envoy to Bogotá, 1825, iii. 81; - jefe of Guat., iii. 104; - downfall of, iii. 105. - - Mollinedo y Saravia, G., capt.-gen., 1801, iii. 3; - rule, iii. 3-6; - death, iii. 6. - - Monasteries, suppression of, 1829, iii. 104. - - Monasterio, Capt. J. de, operations, etc., of, 1603-9, ii. 650-1. - - Montaiglon, M. de, works of, i. 54. - - Montalboddo, 'Paesi Nouamente retrouati,' i. 123. - - Montalvo, F., viceroy of New Granada, 1813, iii. 495. - - Montealegre, J. M., president of Costa Rica, 1859-63, iii. 373-7. - - Montejo, F. de, gov. of Hond., 1537-9, ii. 289-99; - negotiations with Alvarado, 296-9. - - Monterroso, F. de H., acting gov. of Pan., 1708, ii. 583. - - Montes, F., arrest, etc., of, 1810, iii. 493. - - Montes, J. F., president of Hond., 1863, iii. 324-5. - - Montfraisier, Du P. de, 'Histoire Universelle,' ii. 748. - - Montiano, M. de, gov. of Pan., 1749-55, ii. 584. - - Montúfar, Col M., surrender of, iii. 95. - - Mora, F., invasion of C. R., iii. 387. - - Mora, J., jefe of C. R., 1822-33, iii. 179-81; - biog., iii. 180. - - Mora, J. F., president of C. R., 1849-53, iii. 236-7. - - Mora, Gen. J. J., operations of, 1856, iii. 358. - - Mora, J. R., president of C. R., 1859, iii. 372; - revolt against, iii. 372-3; - exile, iii. 373; revolt of, iii. 374-5; - execution, 1860, iii. 375-6. - - Morales, Capt. G. de, joins Pedrarias' exped., 1514, i. 390; - exped. to the Pearl Islands, 1515, i. 408-11; - atrocities of, i. 411. - - Morales, M. R., director of Nic., 1847, iii. 243. - - Morazan, Gen., victory at Gualcho, 1828, iii. 95; - campaign in Guat., 1828-9, iii. 96-100; - harsh measures of, iii. 100-3; - operations in Hond., iii. 111; - president, 1830, iii. 112; - rule, iii. 112-42; - departure, 1840, iii. 142-3; - invasion of C. R., 1842, iii. 216-17; - measures, iii. 217-18; - provis. jefe, iii. 218; - capture of, iii. 219-20; - execution, iii. 221-2. - - Moreno, Fiscal P., exped. to Hond., 1525, i. 535-6. - - Morgan, H., early career of, ii. 482-3; - plunders Puerto Príncipe, ii. 483; - captures Portobello, 1668, ii. 483-9; - atrocities of, ii. 484-7, 510-12; - encounters gov. of Pan., ii. 488-9; - forces, etc., of, ii. 491-2; - captures Santa Catarina, ii. 493; - lands at Chagre, ii. 496-7; - march across the Isthmus, ii. 497-502; - captures Panamá, 1671, ii. 504-7; - plot against, ii. 512; - return to San Lorenzo, ii. 512-13; - division of spoils, ii. 514; - knighted, etc., ii. 515; - imprisonment of, ii. 515. - - Morillo, Mariscal P., exped. of, 1815, iii. 496. - - Moscoso, L., exped. of, 1530, ii. 121. - - Mosquitia, description of, ii. 595-8, 600-1; - buccaneers in, ii. 598; - British rights in, ii. 598-9; - British aggression in, ii. 601-2; - maps of, ii. 603; iii. 246; - Galvez' exped. to, 1782, ii. 604-5; - Despard's exped. to, 1782, ii. 605-6; - British protectorate over, iii. 244-52; - kings of, iii. 245-8; - attempts at colonization, iii. 248-9. - - Motolinia, Fray T. de, labors in Nic., 1528, ii. 184; - in Guat., ii. 345-7. - - Mourgeon, Mariscal J. de la C., capt.-gen. of New Granada, 1821, - iii. 503; - exped. of, iii. 504. - - Moya, R., jefe of C. R., 1844, iii. 227. - - Muñoz, F., execution of, 1517, i. 457-9. - - Muñoz, J. B., 'Historia del Nuevo Mondo,' i. 197-8. - - Muñoz, Gen. J. T., siege of Leon, 1844, iii. 197; - promotion of, iii. 240; - operations, etc., of, 1845, iii. 241-3; - revolt of, 1851, iii. 256; - negotiations, iii. 260; - death, 1855, iii. 330. - - Murillo, Lieut-col A., victory at Tecuaname, 1855, iii. 261. - - - N - - Nacaome, diet of, 1848, iii. 208. - - Naco Valley, exped. to, ii. 145, 147, 156-7. - - Nancintlan, burning of, 1524, i. 668. - - Napoleon I., usurpation of, iii. 2. - - Naranjo, battle of, 1876, iii. 462. - - Narragansett Bay, settlement founded at, 1000, i. 76. - - Narvaez y la Torre, Brigadier A., gov. of Pan., 1801, iii. 489. - - Natá, surprised by Espinosa, 1516, i. 423; - settlement founded at, i. 505-9. - - Natá, Cacique, capture of, 1515, i. 414; - surrender of, 1516, i. 423-4; - exped. against, i. 424-5; - revolt of, 1517, i. 431. - - Nava, J. de, gov. of C. R., 1773, ii. 622. - - Navarrete, M. F. de, works of, i. 69, 198-200; - biog., 198. - - Navas y Quevada, A. de las, bishop of Nic., 1667, ii. 443-4. - - Navigation, internal, iii. 667-8. - - Navío, picture of, i. 189. - - Nebah, capture of, 1530, ii. 111-12. - - Negroes, importation of, ii. 386-7; - regulations concerning, ii. 389-90. - - Neira, G., president of Pan., 1872-3, iii. 538-41. - - Nelson, H., exped. to Nic., 1780, ii. 609-11. - - 'New Collection of Voyages,' ii. 750. - - Newfoundland, Leif lands at, 1000, i. 76. - - New Granada, rebellion in, 1810-13, iii. 493-6; - state of, organized, 1831, iii. 513; - revolution in, 1840, iii. 515-16; - difficulty with England, 1836, iii. 518; - with U. S., 1855, iii. 519; - 1856-7, iii. 520-2; - mining in, iii. 659-60; - treaty with U. S., 1846, iii. 700-1. - - New laws, publication of the, 1543, ii. 240; - provisions, ii. 240-1; - opposition to the, ii. 242-3, 301-2, 323; - repealed, 1545, ii. 325; - opposition to, ii. 334-5, 338. - - New St Andrew, founding of, 1698, ii. 576. - - Newspapers, iii. 27-8, 273, 288, 290, 559, 584, 622, 627. - - 'New Universal Collection,' ii. 750. - - 'New Voyages and Travels,' ii. 751. - - Nicaragua, Dávila's exped. to, 1522-3, i. 483-94; - maps of, i. 513; ii. 175; iii. 258; - church affairs in, ii. 168-9, 443-4, 612-17; iii. 632-3; - revolts in, ii. 274-8; iii. 240-2, 259-61; - settlements, etc., of, ii. 434, 437-8; - Dominicans in, ii. 436-7; - commerce of, ii. 438; - piratical raids in, 1685-6, ii. 553-62; - diputacion provincial in, iii. 47; - annexation to Mex., 1821, iii. 47-8; - internal strife in, 1833-7, iii. 170-7; - juntas gubernativas, iii. 170-2; - assembly, iii. 172-3, 243, 257-60, 367, 475-8; - earthquake, etc., in, 1835, iii. 176-7; - secession, 1838, iii. 178; - British mediation requested, 1839-40, iii. 186-7; - war with Hond., 1844, iii. 194-200; - union with Salv. and Hond., iii. 209-11; - C. R. boundary question, iii. 231-3; - British claims, iii. 239-40; - British aggressions in Mosquitia, iii. 244-51; - hostilities with England, 1848, iii. 251-2; - Zeledon-Wyke treaty, 1860, iii. 252-3; - treaty with Spain, 1850, iii. 253; - concordat, iii. 253; - foreign relations, iii. 254; - difficulty with U. S., 1854, iii. 254-5; - with Germany, 1876, iii. 256; - declared a republic, 1852-4, iii. 257; - war with Guat., 1850-3, iii. 279-80; - Walker's campaign in, 1855-6, iii. 328-46; - cholera in, 1855, iii. 330; - war with C. R., 1857, iii. 362; - junta de gobierno in, 1857, iii. 365; - revenue, iii. 366-7; - constitution, iii. 367; - rebellion in, 1869, iii. 471-4; - difficulty with C. R., 1873-5, iii. 479-82; - jesuitic seditions, iii. 484-5; - opposition to Barrios, 1885, iii. 486; - boundaries, iii. 567; - departments, etc., iii. 567-8; - cities, iii. 568-9; - population, 1883, iii. 588; - colonization in, iii. 591-2; - character of population, iii. 599-601; - dress, etc., iii. 601-2; - dwellings, iii. 602; - mode of life, iii. 603; - amusements, iii. 603-4; - education, iii. 622-4; - administr. of justice, iii. 641-3; - army, iii. 646-7; - agric., iii. 652-3; - mining, iii. 657-8; - manufact., iii. 661; - revenue, etc., iii. 683; - debt, iii. 483, 683; - railroads, iii. 708. - - Nicaragua, Cacique, Dávila's visit to, 1522, i. 486-9; - attacks the Spaniards, iii. 493. - - Nicaragua, isthmus, project for canal, iii. 694-8. - - Nicaragua, Lake, discovery of, 1522, i. 489. - - Nicoya, Cacique, Dávila's meeting with, 1522, i. 485-6. - - Nicoya, province, incorporated with C. R., 1825, iii. 179. - - Nicoya, town, the Contreras revolt, 1550, ii. 277-8. - - Nicuesa, D. de, biog., etc., of, i. 292-4; - gov. of Castilla del Oro, i. 294-6; - quarrel with Ojeda, i. 296-7; - exped. to Veragua, 1509, i. 296-308; - relieved by Colmenares, i. 331-2; - reception at Antigua, i. 334-5; - deposal, i. 335; - fate of, i. 335-6. - - 'Niña,' voyage of the, 1492-3, i. 159-64. - - Nindiri, volcano, eruption of, 1775, ii. 608. - - Niño, Pilot A., exped., etc., of, 1522-3, i. 478-93. - - Niño, P. A., voyage of, 1499, i. 186. - - Nito, Cortés' arrival at, 1525, i. 565-7; - sickness, etc., at, i. 567-8; - site of, abandoned, i. 568, 570. - - Niza, Friar M. de, exped. of, 1539, i. 151-2; - rept of, ii. 205. - - Nombre de Dios, name, i. 307; - Nicuesa at, i. 307-8; - fort of, built, 1510, i. 307-8; - departure of garrison, i. 337-8; - abandoned, i. 331-3; 412-13; - refounded, 1519, i. 471; - trade, etc., of, ii. 248-9; - Nombre de Dios, Verdugo's invasion of, ii. 263-4; - Gasca at, 1546, ii. 267-9; - 1550, ii. 282-3; - the Contreras revolt, 1550, ii. 278, 281-3; - removal of site, etc., ii. 396-9; - Drake's attack on, 1572, ii. 405-6; - destroyed by Drake, 1595, ii. 422. - - Norí, Cacique, execution of, ii. 55-6. - - North-west passage, discov. of, iii. 689-91. - - 'Notes de Voyage en Centre Amérique,' iii. 676-7. - - 'Nouvelle Bibliothèque des Voyages,' ii. 757. - - Nueva Andalucía, name, i. 294; - Ojeda's exped. to, 1509-10, i. 294-301. - - Nueva Jaen, founding of, ii. 186. - - Nueva Segovia, freebooters at, 1687, ii. 563-4. - - Nueva Valladolid, growth, etc., of, 1557-74, ii. 640-1; - earthquake in, 1774, ii. 640. - - 'Nuevo Viajero Universal,' ii. 758. - - Nuñez, A., Nicuesa's exped., 1509-10, i. 307-8. - - Nuñez, J., vice-jefe of Nic., 1835, iii. 177. - - Nuñez, Capt. V., capture, etc., of, ii. 257-8. - - Nutibara, Cacique, defeat of, ii. 54. - - - O - - Oajaca, city, capture, etc., of, iii. 6. - - Obaldía, J. de, gov. of Pan., 1858, iii. 528. - - Obaldía, Col A., revolt of, 1868, iii. 537-8. - - Occhuc, Tzendales repulsed at, 1712, ii. 703-4. - - Ococingo, massacre at, 1712, ii. 699. - - Ojeda, A. de, voyage of, 1499-1500, i. 111, 186; - 1502, i. 118-19; - early career, etc., of, i. 292-4; - gov. of Nueva Andalucía, i. 294-6; - quarrel with Nicuesa, i. 296-7; - exped. of, 1509, i. 296-301; - death, i. 301. - - Olancho, sedition in, 1829, iii. 109-11; - revolt at, 1844, iii. 310. - - Olancho Valley, occupation of, 1526, i. 589-90. - - Olano, L. de, Nicuesa's exped., 1509-10, i. 301-7; - ill treatment of, i. 332-3; - death, i. 441. - - Olarte, V., see Galindo, V. O. - - Olaziregui, V., gov. of Pan., 1769, ii. 584. - - Olid, C. de, exped. to Hond., 1524, i. 524; - character, i. 525; - treachery of, i. 526-7; - meeting with Gonzalez, i. 527-8; - fight with Casas, etc., i. 529-30; - assassination, i. 531-3. - - Olmos, P. de, defeat of, ii. 109-10. - - Omoa, bombardment of, 1873, iii. 320. - - O'Neill, Gen., exped. to Belize, 1798, iii. 314. - - Orbita, Friar J. de, mission to Itza, 1618, ii. 673-5. - - Ordoñez, Col C., commandant at Granada, iii. 59; - revolt of, 1824, iii. 171-2. - - Orduña, F. de, juez de residencia, 1529, ii. 105-6; - exped. of, ii. 110-11; - prosecution, etc., of, 1530, ii. 117-18. - - Oreamuno, F. M., jefe of C. R., 1844, iii. 226-7; - vice-president, 1853, iii. 237. - - Orosco, Presbyter L. de, assassination of, ii. 709. - - Ortega, J., president of Pan., 1878, iii. 543-4. - - Ortiz, A., exped. of, ii. 148. - - Orueta y Irusta, J. B. de, gov. of Pan., 1709, ii. 583. - - Osorio, D. A., bishop of Nic., 1531, ii. 168-9. - - Ostuncalco, Indian outbreak at, iii. 123. - - Osuña, J. V. de, capture of Copan, 1530, ii. 115. - - Ovalle, Missionary P. de, labors of, ii. 644. - - Ovando, N. de, gov. of Española, 1502, i. 249; - instructions to, i. 249-50; - exped. of, i. 250; - administr. i. 250-2, 256, 259-61, 266-8. - - Oviedo, G. F. de, biog., i. 310; - works of, i. 150, 310-12; - veedor at Antigua, 1514, i. 390; - efforts in Spain, 1515, i. 463-4; - 1523, i. 511-12; - regidor perpetuo de Antigua, i. 473; - rule, i. 474-5; - deposed, i. 476; - departure, etc., 1528, i. 477; - capt.-gen. of Cartagena, i. 593. - - Oxenham, J., exped. to Pan., 1575, ii. 418. - - Oxib Quieh, King, accession of, 1524, i. 645; - plot of, i. 646; - capture, etc., of, 648. - - Orozco y Berra, 'Cartografía Mexicana,' i. 70. - - - P - - Pacheco, Gen., defeat of, 1829, iii. 97. - - Pacific Ocean, see South Sea. - - Paiz, Brigadier G., cabinet-minister, 1845, iii. 268-9. - - Palahunoh Pass, Alvarado's victory at, 1524, i. 634-6. - - Palomar, J. M., in command at Trujillo, 1820, iii. 24. - - Palomino, J. A., exped. to Nic., ii. 262. - - Panaguali, Cacique, execution of, ii. 91. - - Panamá (see also Castilla del Oro), audiencias of, ii. 57-8, - 370-1, 585; - slavery, etc., in, ii. 232-3; - commerce, etc., in, ii. 390-3, 587, 594; iii. 672-5; - shipping, ii. 392; - pearl fisheries, ii. 394-5, 585; - mining, ii. 395-6, 585-6; iii. 659-60; - Drake's raids in, 1572, ii. 405-17; - Oxenham's exped., 1575, ii. 418; - officials of, ii. 471; - smuggling in, ii. 473-4; iii. 491-2; - church affairs, i. 500-1, ii. 474-80; iii. 635-7; - Morgan's raids in, 1668-71, ii. 483-515; - Indian raids in, 1745-74, ii. 581-2; - incorporated with New Gran., 1718, ii. 584; - revenue, iii. 490, 686-7; - industrial depression in, iii. 490; - population, etc., iii. 490-2, 580-1; - viceregal seat at, 1812, iii. 494; - Macgregor's invasion of, 1818-19, iii. 498-501; - revolution in, 1821, iii. 602-7; - 1831, iii. 514; - 1840, iii. 514-15; - 1868, iii. 536-7; - annexed to Colombia, 1821, iii. 506-8; - slavery abolished in, iii. 509; - subjugation of, iii. 515-16; - declared a state, 1855, iii. 525, 529; - constitution of, iii. 526, 540, 542, 544; - disturbances in, 1883-4, iii. 546-8; - a national department, iii. 559; - boundaries, etc., iii. 577-8; - departments, iii. 578; - cities, iii. 578-9; - women of, iii. 581-2; - education in, iii. 583-4; - literature, iii. 584; - amusements, iii. 584-5; - epidemics, etc., iii. 585-6; - administration of justice, iii. 644-5; - army, iii. 645-6; - agric., iii. 654-5; - currency, iii. 675-6; - telegraphs, iii. 708-9. - - Panamá, city, name, i. 404; - post established on site of, 1517, i. 429; - founding of, 1519, i. 468; - progress, etc., of, i. 495-500; - arms of, i. 500; - slave market at, i. 608-9; - Pizarro's exped., ii. 1-15; - proposed removal of site, 1531, ii. 247; - prosperity, etc., of, ii. 249-50; - pillage of, ii. 255; - Hinojosa's conquest of, 1545, ii. 255-61; - Gasca at, 1546-7, ii. 269-72; - captured by Contreras, 1550, ii. 279-81; - Bermejo's defeat at, ii. 284-6; - sickness at, ii. 399-400; - official embezzlement at, ii. 401-2; - defences of, ii. 402-3; - decadence of, 1610, ii. 470; - convent establd. at, 1592-8, ii. 475-6; - fires at, 1644, ii. 479; - 1737-71, ii. 582; - prosperity of, 1645-70, ii. 480-1; - descriptions of, ii. 502-3; iii. 578-9; - captured by Morgan, ii. 504-7; - destruction of, 1671, ii. 507-8; - site of, removed, ii. 517-18; - rebuilding of, ii. 517-19; - naval combat off, 1680, ii. 534-7; - freebooters defeated off, 1685, ii. 552-3; - revolution at, 1821, iii. 504-8; - gen. congress at, 1826, iii. 510-12; - disturbances at, 1856, iii. 520-1; - 1859-60, iii. 528-30. - - Panamá Isthmus, infested with criminals, iii. 518-19; - guard of the, 1854, iii. 519; - transit refused, iii. 522-3; - order restored at, iii. 524; - protection of the, iii. 539-40, 551-8; - disturbances at, 1885, iii. 550-7; - canal, iii. 698-700, 703-6; - railroad, iii. 700-2. - - Panciaco, story of the South Sea, i. 348; - kindness to the Spaniards, i. 383. - - Parada, J. G. de, bishop of Guat., 1729-36, ii. 710-11. - - Paredes, A. G. de, exped., etc., of, 1695, ii. 687-90. - - Paredes, M., president of Guat., 1849, iii. 277; - treachery of, iii. 277-8. - - Paris, Cacique, defeats Badajoz, 1515, i. 415-17; - tomb of, plundered, i. 468. - - Parker, Capt. W., exped. of, 1602-3, ii. 465-8. - - Pasamonte, M. de, treasurer-general at Santo Domingo, 1508, i. 266-7. - - Pasaquina, battle of, 1876, iii. 404. - - Pastora, F. F. de la, gov. of C. R., 1746, ii. 622. - - Paterson, W., the Scots' colony, 1695-9, ii. 570-7. - - Patinamit, description of, i. 655-6; - Alvarado's reception at, 1524, i. 656-7; - abandoned by natives, 1524, i. 683-4; - sack, etc., of, 1525, ii. 77; - battle of, 1526, ii. 84. - - Patzicia, pronunciamiento at, 1871, iii. 420-1. - - Paul III., bull of, 1531, ii. 239. - - Pavon, M. F., minister of relations, etc., 1844, iii. 192; - death of, 1855, iii. 283. - - Paz, M. J., jefe of Guat., 1838, iii. 159. - - Paz, R., president of Guat., 1840-4, iii. 266-7. - - Pazaco, Alvarado attacked at, 1524, i. 669. - - Pearl fisheries, of Pan., ii. 394-5, 585; - condition of, iii. 676. - - Pearl Islands, named, 1513, i. 377-8; - Morales' exped. to, 1515, i. 408-11; - Balboa at, 1517, i. 445-52; - yield, etc., of, iii. 676. - - Pedrarias, D., character, etc., i. 387, 615-16; - capt.-gen. of Castilla del Oro, 1514, i. 387; - armament, i. 389; - retinue, etc., i. 389-91; - instructions to, i. 391-2, 397-9; - voyage, i. 392; - landing at Antigua, i. 393-4; - exped. to Cenú, 1515, i. 417; - founds Acla, i. 418; - feud with Balboa, i. 432-3; - fraud of, i. 435-6; - duplicity, i. 452, 455; - Balboa's trial and execution, 1517, i. 456-9; - founds Panamá, 1519, i. 468; - residencia of, i. 474, 594-6; - resignation, i. 474; - dispute with Gonzalez, i. 481-3; - exped. against Urracá, i. 507-8; - exped. to Nic., 1526, i. 587-92; - 1528, i. 605; - Pizarro's exped., i. 612-13; - death, 1530, i. 614. - - Pedraza, Licentiate C. de, arrival in Hond., 1538, ii. 292; - intercession of, ii. 298; - bishop, ii. 299; - administr., ii. 299-308. - - Peinado, J. M., intendente of San Salv., ii., 13-14. - - Pelaez, F. de P. G., 'Memorias,' ii. 732-3, 737; - archbishop of Guat., iii. 630. - - Pelham, C., 'The World,' ii. 751. - - Peñalver y Cardenas, L., archbishop of Guat., iii. 29. - - Peralta, F. de, naval combat off Pan., 1680, ii. 535-7. - - Peraza, Friar V. de, bishop of Pan., i. 501; ii. 59. - - Perez, A., insurrection of, 1512, i. 355-6; - captures Natá, 1515, i. 414. - - Perez, B., viceroy of New Gran., 1812, iii. 494-5. - - Perez, J., works of, iii. 345-6. - - Perez, M., director of Nic., 1843, iii. 239. - - Perie, J., gov. of C. R., 1779, ii. 622. - - Perks, W., command, etc., of, iii. 93-4. - - Peru, Pizarro's conquest of, ii. 1-42; - map, ii. 9; - traditions, ii. 16-17; - annals, ii. 17-18; - Alvarado's exped. to, ii. 38-9, 122-30; - rebellion in, 1544-7, ii. 252-73. - - Peten, capture of, 1697, ii. 692-3. - - Peten, lake, Cortés at, i. 559-61. - - Piedrahita, Bishop L. F., works of, ii. 62. - - Pierzon, Col J., operations of, 1826, iii. 148-9; - execution, iii. 150. - - Pineda, D. de, juez de comision, ii. 178. - - Pineda, Gen. J. L., director of Nic., 1851-3, iii. 256; - revolt against, iii. 256; - defeat of, 1855, iii. 332. - - Piñeda y Zaldaña, T. M., bishop of Salv., iii. 632. - - Pinelo, A. de L., works of, i. 287-8; ii. 762. - - Pinkerton, J., works of, ii. 755-6. - - Piñol y Aycinena, B., archbishop of Guat., 1868, iii. 630. - - 'Pinta,' voyage of the, 1492-3, i. 159-64. - - Pinta, A., capture of San José, 1842, iii. 219-20; - biog., iii. 219; - execution of Morazan, iii. 222; - comand.-gen., iii. 224; - dismissal, iii. 225-6. - - Pinto, J. A., vice-president of C. R., 1872, iii. 381-2. - - Pinzon, M. A., voyage, etc., of, 1492-3, i. 158-63. - - Pinzon, V. Y., voyage of, 1492-3, i. 112, 158-63; - 1499, i. 186; - 1506, i. 122, 289. - - Pisa, A. de, captures Dururua, ii. 68; - exped. to C. R., ii. 192-9. - - Pizarro, F., joins Ojeda's exped., 1509, i. 298; - at San Sebastian, i. 321-3; - defeats Cemaco, i. 344; - Balboa's exped., 1514, i. 376; - Tabira's, i. 407; - exped. to the Pearl Islands, 1515, i. 408-11; - arrests Balboa, 1517, i. 452-3; - exped. against Urracá, i. 504-5; - character, etc., ii. 1-3; - conquest of Peru, ii. 3-38; - commission, ii. 13; - assassination of, ii. 40-2. - - Pizarro, G., conquest of Peru, ii. 13; - gov. of Quito, ii. 251; - revolt of, 1544, ii. 252-4; - conquest of Pan., ii. 254-61; - defeat of, ii. 272; - execution, ii. 273. - - Pizarro, H., conquest of Peru, ii. 22-40; - death, ii. 40. - - Pizarro, J., conquest of Peru, ii. 13. - - Pizarro, Friar J., martyrdom of, 1586, ii. 433. - - Pizarro y Orellana, F., works of, ii. 273. - - Pocoa, Cacique, attack on Natá, etc., 1527, i. 510. - - Pocorosa, Cacique, meeting with Balboa, etc., 1513, i. 381-2; - captures Santa Cruz, 1515, i. 403; - attacks Guzman, i. 405-6. - - Ponca, Cacique, exped. against, 1512, i. 346; - welcomes Balboa, i. 361-3. - - Ponce, Gen. F., president of Pan., 1868, iii. 536. - - Poncra, Cacique, Balboa's cruelty to, i. 379-80. - - Pontaz, Friar, labors of, ii. 133. - - Pontaza, Friar F. M. de, hermitage establ. by, 1524, i. 638. - - Porque, Cacique, defeat of, 1513, i. 363-4. - - Portobello, Columbus at, 1502, i. 216; - Nicuesa at, 1510, i. 307; - fair, etc., at, ii. 48-9; - site of Nombre de Dios removed to, 1597, ii. 399; - captured by Parker, 1602, ii. 466-8; - description of, ii. 468-70; - treasure fleet at, ii. 468-9; - captured by Morgan, 1668, ii. 483-9; - sacked by pirates, 1679, ii. 519; - captured by Vernon, 1739, ii. 588-91; - by MacGregor, 1819, iii. 498-9; - recaptured, iii. 501. - - Poveda, A., gov. of Nic., 1722, ii. 607. - - Prado, M., vice-president, Cent. Amer. republic, 1830, iii. 112-13; - jefe of Salv., 1832-4, iii. 122, 167; - rule, iii. 167-8. - - Prescott, W. H., works of, i. 242-6. - - Press, freedom of, established, iii. 44-5. - - Prestan, P., outrages of, 1885, iii. 551-3. - - Prévost, Abbé A. F., works of, ii. 746-8. - - Prior, P., 'Informe,' ii. 762. - - 'Provincias Unidas del Centro de América,' established, 1823, iii. 68; - debt of, iii. 667-8. - - Ptolemy, maps of, i. 130, 147. - - Pueblo Nuevo, pirates defeated at, 1680, ii. 539; - 1686, ii. 557. - - Pueblo Viejo, captured by freebooters, 1686, ii. 556. - - Puente, A. de la, treasurer at Antigua, 1514, i. 390. - - Puerta, C. M. de la, labors of, in Tegucigalpa, ii. 642; - martyrdom of, ii. 643. - - Puerto de Caballos, Alvarado at, 1539, ii. 204; - raids on, 1595-6, ii. 639; - 1603, ii. 650; - site of, removed, ii. 650. - - Puerto Dulce, founding of, ii. 651. - - Puerto Príncipe, captured by Morgan, ii. 483. - - Puertocarrero, P., battle of Xelahuh, 1524, i. 639; - character, ii. 87-8; - exped. to Zacatepec, ii. 88-91; - capture of Sinacam's stronghold, ii. 93-5; - invasion of Chiap., 1526, ii. 227-8. - - Purchas, S., works of, ii. 742-4. - - - Q - - Qat, King, Alvarado's embassy to, i. 622-3. - - Quadra, V., president of Nic., 1871-5, iii. 475-81. - - Quarequá, Balboa at, 1513, i. 363-4. - - Quauhtemotzin, King, execution of, 1524, i. 551-4. - - Quema, Cacique, capture, etc., of, 1516, i. 426. - - Quesada, Dr A. R. de, president of the audiencia of the Confines, - 1555, ii. 358; - administr., ii. 358-60. - - Quevedo, J. de, bishop of Darien, 1514, i. 390; - mediation, etc., of, i. 436-9; - departure for Spain, i. 461; - dispute with Las Casas, i. 462-3; - memorials of, i. 463; - death, i. 463. - - Quezada, convention of, 1844, iii. 193. - - Quezaltenango, founding of, 1524, i. 638; - riot at, iii. 88-9; - state congress at, 1826, iii. 148; - captured by Pierzon, iii. 149; - revolt at, iii. 283; - affair at, 1871, iii. 422. - - Quiché, power, etc., of, i. 620-2; - map of, i. 629; - conquest of, i. 634-6, 643-51. - - Quijano, Lieut-col, protest, etc., of, iii. 250. - - Quiñones, F., revolt at Leon, 1812, iii. 14. - - Quintana, works, etc., of, ii. 42. - - Quiroga, M. de, gov. of Nic., 1780, ii. 608. - - - R - - Rábago, J. de E., exped. of, ii. 425-6. - - Rada, J. de, assassination of Pizarro, ii. 40-1. - - Railroads in Cent. Amer., iii. 700-2, 706-8. - - Ramirez, D., mission to Chiap., 1543, ii. 338. - - Ramirez, Friar H., bishop of Pan., 1644, ii. 479. - - Ramirez, J., bishop of Guat., 1600, ii. 381. - - Ramirez, M., director of Nic., 1849, iii. 256. - - Ramirez, N., jefe of Salv., 1841, iii. 286. - - Ramirez, P., exped. to Lacandon, 1559, ii. 363-5. - - Raon, J., gov. of Pan., 1762, ii. 584. - - Raoul, N., commander of artillery, etc., 1825, iii. 83; - arrest, iii. 85-6. - - Reactionists, Guat., choice of president, 1848, iii. 274; - efforts of, 1872, iii. 427-9; - 1873, iii. 433. - - Realejo, the Contreras revolt, 1550, ii. 277; - piratical raid on, 1684, ii. 548; - 1685, ii. 555; - 1686, ii. 560; - blockade of, 1846, iii. 240. - - 'Recopilacion de Leyes de las Indias,' i. 257-8. - - 'Recueil de Voiages au Nord,' ii. 749-50. - - Regent of Audiencias, office of, created, 1776, ii. 714-15. - - Remesal, Friar A. de, works of, ii. 339-40, 736-7. - - Repartimiento, system, description of, i. 262-6. - - 'República de Colombia,' name adopted, iii. 558. - - Residencia, explanation of term, i. 250. - - Revenue, of Cent. Amer. states, iii. 677-87. - - Revolutions, Carrera's Guat., 1837-40, iii. 127-44; - Alfaro's C. R., iii. 219-22; - against Carrera, 1847-8, iii. 271-3; - Menendez', 1885, iii. 411; - Granados-Barrios, 1871, iii. 419-24; - in Pan., 1821, iii. 502-7; - 1840, iii. 515-16; - 1868, iii. 536-7; - 1875, iii. 541-2. - - Ribera, Dr, defeats Verdugo, ii. 263-4. - - Ribera, Duque de, bishop of Pan., 1594, ii. 475. - - Ribera, P. E. de, bishop of Guat., 1659-68, ii. 667-8. - - Ribero, D. de, Nicuesa's exped., 1509-10, i. 302-4. - - Richardson, J., 'Polar Regions,' iii. 709. - - Rincon, Gen. B. T. M. del, president of Guat., 1789-94, ii. 728. - - Ringrose, B., adventure of, 1680, ii. 530-2; - naval combat off Pan., ii. 535-7; - works, etc., of, ii. 568. - - Rios, P. de los, gov. of Castilla del Oro, 1526, i. 592-3; - rule, i. 593-4; - exped. to Nic., i. 602-4; - Pizarro's conquest, ii. 6-8, 12; - character, etc., ii. 44-5; - usurpation of, ii. 177-8. - - Riotte, Gen. C. N., intervention of, 1869, iii. 474. - - Rivas, Friar, mission to Lacandon, 1685, ii. 680-1. - - Rivas, F. R. de, president of Guat., 1716-24, ii. 706. - - Rivas, President P., denounces Walker, iii. 349; - govt of recognized, iii. 350; - colonization decree of, 1855, iii. 592. - - Rivas, city, Walker's defeat at, 1856, iii. 344-5; - siege of, 1857, iii. 358-60. - - Roads, in Pan., 1541-56, ii. 247-8; - in Hond., 1539-47, ii. 293-4; - of Cent. Amer., iii. 669. - - Roatan, island, captured by pirates, etc., ii. 647-8; - restored, iii. 113; - British seizure of, iii. 319. - - Roberts, O. W., 'Narrative of Voyages,' iii. 247-8. - - Robertson, W., works of, i. 196-7. - - Robles, Dr, exped. to El Desaguadero, ii. 176; - gov. of Castilla del Oro, ii. 245; - oidor, 1538, ii. 245; - residencia of, ii. 245-6. - - Rodriguez, J. M., revolt of, 1811, iii. 13. - - Rojas, D. de, capture, etc., of, 1530, ii. 113. - - Rojas, G. de, in charge at Acla, 1515, i. 418; - exped. of, 1525, i. 577-8; - 1526, i. 589-92. - - Ruano, Capt. J., mention of, i. 536. - - Rueda, P. M. de, president of Guat., 1589-93, ii. 382. - - Ruiz, Pilot B., exped. to Peru, ii. 5-8. - - Runnels, R., chief of isthmus guard, iii. 519. - - Ruscelli, map of, 1544, i. 148. - - Ruysch, J., map of, 1508, i. 126. - - - S - - Saavedra, H., capt.-gen. of Hond., 1525, i. 574, 582; - Pedrarias' exped. against, 1526, i. 589-92. - - Sacasa, Col C., general order of, iii. 47; - comand.-gen. of Nic., iii. 48; - measures, iii. 48-9. - - Sacasa, J., deputy to córtes, iii. 26. - - Sahquiab, Cacique, defeat of, 1525, i. 699-700. - - Salaya, H. de, death of, i. 501. - - Salaya, Licentiate S. de, alcalde mayor of Antigua, 1522, i. 475. - - Salazar, A. de, the Zacatepec revolt, 1525, i. 694. - - Salazar, Gen. C., revolt at Leon, 1812, iii. 14; - biog. iii. 131-2; - victory at Villanueva, 1838, iii. 135-6. - - Salazar, Factor G. de, proceedings of, 1530, ii. 16; - usurpation, etc., of, ii. 75-6. - - Salazar, L., pronunciamiento of, 1868, iii. 378. - - Salcedo, D. L. de, gov. of Hond., 1525, i. 598; - rule, i. 599-600; - exped. to Nic., i. 600-5; - imprisonment, etc., of, i. 605-7; - return to Trujillo, 1529, ii. 145; - death, ii. 146. - - Salguero, R., the Contreras revolt, 1550, ii. 274-86; - death, ii. 286. - - Salinas, Minister, suggestions to Nic. assembly, 1847, iii. 243-4. - - Salvador, Alvarado's invasion of, i. 669-76; - independence proclaimed in, 1821, iii. 45; - protest of, 1822, iii. 57; - war with Guat., iii. 57-8, 90-100, 278-80, 401-5, 409-10; - with Mex., 1822-3, iii. 62-4; - secession of, iii. 116-17, 168; - departments, iii. 165; - state govt organized, 1824, iii. 165-6; - church affairs in, iii. 166, 632; - maps of, iii. 191, 205; - war with Nic., 1844, iii. 196-200; - with Hond., iii. 202-6, 393-9, 428, 455-62; - union with Nic. and Hond., iii. 209-11; - assembly, iii. 285-7, 397-8, 407; - constitution, iii. 286, 308, 397-8, 407-9; - invasion of, iii. 295; - difficulty with England, 1849, iii. 297-8; - declared a republic, iii. 300-1; - seal of, iii. 301; - Walker's exped., iii. 350-61; - earthquake in, 1873, iii. 399-400; - prosperity of, 1874, iii. 400; - disturbances in, 1875, iii. 400-1; - revolution in, 1885, iii. 411-12; - boundaries, etc., iii. 571-2; - polit. divisions, iii. 572; - govt, iii. 572-3; - cities, iii. 573-4; - population, etc., iii. 588, 604-6; - immigration, iii. 591; - dress, iii. 606; - mode of life, iii. 606-7; - education in, iii. 624; - administr. of justice, iii. 641; - army, iii. 647-8; - agric., iii. 652; - mining, iii. 658; - manufact., iii. 661; - revenue, etc., iii. 681; - debt, iii. 681-2; - railroads, iii. 707-8. - - 'Salvador,' ship, case of the, 1864, iii. 522. - - Sámano, viceroy of New Gran., 1821-2, iii. 503. - - Samayoa, J. M., minister of war, Guat., 1876, iii. 402; - exile of, iii. 419. - - San Bartolomé Island, capture of, 1780, ii. 609-10. - - San Buenaventura, Father J. de, mission of, 1695, ii. 690. - - San Cárlos, fort, capture of, 1665, ii. 441; - 1812, iii. 14; - attack on, 1769, ii. 608-9. - - San Cristóbal, freebooters at, 1625, ii. 453-4. - - San Fernando, seat of Nic. govt at, iii. 240. - - San Fernando de Omoa, fort, building of, ii. 645; - captured by English, 1779, ii. 646; - recaptured, ii. 647. - - San Gil de Buenavista, site of, transferred, i. 565. - - San Jorge de Olancho, founding of, 1530, ii. 121. - - San José, Morazan besieged at, 1842, iii. 219-20; - treaty of, 1858, iii. 232-3; - pronunciamiento at, 1868, iii. 378; - émeute at, 1870, iii. 379. - - San Juan, J. N., deputy to córtes, iii. 26. - - San Juan de Puerto Rico, Drake defeated at, 1595, ii. 422. - - San Juan del Norte, British aggression at, iii. 249-52; - bombardment of, 1854, iii. 254-5. - - San Juan, fort, capture of, 1780, ii. 611. - - San Juan River, exploration of, 1528, i. 607-8. - - San Lorenzo, fortifications of, ii. 494; - captured by Bradley, 1670, ii. 494-6; - castle, etc., of, destroyed, ii. 514; - captured by Vernon, 1740, ii. 59. - - San Lúcas, affair at, 1871, iii. 423. - - San Miguel, federal defeat at, 1828, iii. 95; - sack, etc., of, 1875, iii. 400-1; - occupied by Solares, 1876, iii. 404; - description of, iii. 574. - - San Miguel, gulf of, named by Balboa, 1513, i. 373. - - San Martin, J. M. de, president of Salv., iii. 299. - - San Pedro, L'Olonnois' raid on, ii. 458-9. - - San Salvador, revolt at, 1811, iii. 13-14; - 1814, iii. 20; - 1844-5, iii. 200-1; - junta at, 1821, iii. 45; - Arzú's attack on, 1822, iii. 60-1; - 1828, iii. 94; - Filisola's exped. against, iii. 62-4; - aid sought from U. S., iii. 64; - Arce's repulse at, 1827, iii. 91; - captured by Morazan, 1832, iii. 117-18; - a federal district, 1835, iii. 120; - convention at, 1840, iii. 143-4; - seat of federal govt, iii. 152, 168-9; - earthquake at, 1854, iii. 300; - siege of, 1863, iii. 306; - description of, iii. 573-4. - - San Sebastian, founding of, 1510, i. 299-300; - abandoned, i. 321-5; - rebuilt, ii. 50. - - Sanabria, Alcalde, mention of, ii. 71-2. - - Sanchez, Pilot B., in Verag., 1503, i. 225-6. - - Sandé, Dr F., president of Guat., 1593-6, ii. 382; - gov. of Nueva Galicia, 1596, ii. 382-3. - - Sandoval, J. L., director of Nic., 1845-7, iii. 240-2. - - Santa Ana, captured by Arce, 1826, iii. 92; - affair at, 1827, iii. 93; - battle of, 1871, iii. 395-6; - treaty of, 1876, iii. 406. - - Santa Catarina, buccaneer colony at, i. 461-3; - captured by Morgan, 1670, ii. 493, 496. - - Santa Clara, B. de, treasurer at Santo Domingo, i. 267. - - Santa Coloma, Gen. P., president of Pan., 1863, iii. 533. - - Santa Cruz, settlement of, founded, 1514, i. 400; - destroyed, 1515, i. 403. - - Santa Fé de Bogotá, revolt at, 1810, iii. 493. - - Santa María, piratical raid on, 1680, ii. 520-8. - - 'Santa María,' voyage of the, 1492, i. 159-62. - - Santa Marta, viceregal seat at, 1813, iii. 495. - - Santa Rosa, insurrection in, 1871, iii. 424-5. - - Santa Tecla, insurrection at, 1883, iii. 408. - - Santiago, city (see also Guatemala, city), founding of, 1524, - i. 678-81; - site of, removed, 1527-8, ii. 96-9; - 1542, ii. 321-2; - disorders in, 1530, ii. 118-19; - distress at, ii. 120; - church affairs at, ii. 136; - cathedral of, ii. 137-8, 341-2, 668; - flood, etc., at, 1541, ii. 314-18; - decree of cabildo, 1543, ii. 323; - prosperity of, 1650-1700, ii. 653; - Gage's sketch of, ii. 654-5; - office-holding in, ii. 655-6; - ayuntamiento of, ii. 657; - convents, etc., of, ii. 645; - earthquakes at, 1702-17, ii. 707-8. - - Santiago del Príncipe, founding of, 1570, ii. 388. - - Santillan, Fiscal P. de M., imprisonment, etc., of, 1669, ii. 658. - - Santo Domingo, founding of, i. 179; - gold-hunting near, i. 252; - sovereign tribunal at, 1511, i. 269; - audiencia of, establd., 1526, i. 269-70; - captured by Drake, 1586, ii. 420. - - Santo Tomás, colonization at, iii. 589-90. - - Serna, Capt. H. de la, explorations of, ii. 246. - - Serviles, Guat., party, iii. 69; - attitude of, iii. 85; - downfall of, iii. 100; - plot of, 1831, iii. 113-14; - disturbances created by, iii. 123-4; - league with Carrera, iii. 140-1; - elections, iii. 150-1; - persecution of, iii. 152-3. - - Sharp, Capt. B., raid on Santa María, 1680, ii. 520-8; - further operations, ii. 533, 541-2; - trial of, ii. 542. - - Silva, Doña B. de, mention of, ii. 344. - - Simon, P., works of, ii. 61. - - Sinacam, King, Alvarado's meeting with, 1524, i. 652-3; - capture, etc., of, i. 661-2; ii. 92-5. - - Sinibaldi, A., provis. president of Guat., 1885, iii. 449-50. - - Santo Tomás de Castilla, founding of, ii. 650; - Dutch raid on, 1607, ii. 651; - abandoned, ii. 651. - - Saravia, J. M., minister of state, 1842, iii. 217; - capture of, iii. 219-20; - death, iii. 220-1; - biog., iii. 221. - - Sawkins, Capt., raid on Santa María, 1680, ii. 523-5; - naval combat off Pan., ii. 535-7; - reply to gov., ii. 538-9; - death of, ii. 539. - - Schlessinger, L., envoy to C. R., 1855, iii. 342; - defeat of, 1856, iii. 343-4. - - Schöner, J., map of, 1520, i. 137. - - Scots' Colony, the, 1695-1700, ii. 570-9. - - Seals, Cent. Amer., iii. 71; - Salv., iii. 301. - - Segovia, N. de, campaign of, 1712, ii. 703-4. - - Sensenti, treaty of, 1845, iii. 206. - - Slavery, Indian and African, i. 253-66; - in Pan., ii. 232-3; - in Hond., ii. 233-4, 302; - in Guat., ii. 234-6; - in Vera Paz, ii. 355. - - Soberanis, R. de, gov. of Yuc., etc., 1695, ii. 688, 691. - - Society, mediæval, in Spain, i. 15-57. - - Soconuscans, subjugation of, 1524, i. 628. - - Soconusco, church affairs in, ii. 335, 372. - - Solares, Gen. G., invasion of Salv., 1876, iii. 403-4; - coöperation with Granados, iii. 420-2. - - Solis, J. D. de, voyages of, i. 131, 289. - - Soltero, B. G., bishop of Guat., 1650, ii. 664-5. - - Sosa, J. de, exped. to Veragua, 1535-6, ii. 65-73. - - Sosa, Lope de, capt.-gen. of Castilla del Oro, 1517, i. 460; - arrival at Antigua, i. 472; - death, 1520, i. 472-3. - - Soto, B., president of C. R., 1885, iii. 390-1; - biog., iii. 390. - - Soto, F. de, exped. of, 1538, i. 151. - - Soto, H. de, joins Pedrarias' exped., 1514, i. 391; - exped. against Urracá, i. 504; - encounter with Gonzalez, i. 519-20; - dispute with Córdoba, i. 586; - journey to Natá, i. 586-7; - conquest of Peru, ii. 20-5. - - Soto, M. A., president of Hond., 1876-83, iii. 463-8; - quarrel with Barrios, 1883, iii. 467-8. - - Sotomayor, A. de, gov. of Pan., 1601, ii. 464. - - Soto-Mayor, V., works of, ii. 761. - - South Sea, discov. of, 1513, i. 364-8; - Balboa takes possession of, i. 370-3. - - Spain, origin of inhabitants, i. 5-7; - the Iberian element in, i. 5-6, 15-16; - the Celtic, i. 5-6, 15-17; - the Phœnician, i. 5-6, 16-17; - the Roman, i. 6-7, 15-16; - the Gothic, etc., i. 6-7, 16-18; - the Moorish, i. 7-10, 16-19; - language of, i. 7-9; - greatness of, 1474-1516, i. 11; - decadence, i. 11-12; - climate, i. 14-15; - inquisition in, i. 32; - slavery in, i. 33; - sumptuary laws, i. 55-7; - voyages of Columbus, i. 157-82; - title to new world, i. 166-8; - extension of new world privileges, i. 183-4; - currency of, 1475-1525, i. 192-3; - administr. of the Indies, 1492-1526, i. 247-85; - colonization of Tierra Firme, i. 290-2; - effect of Balboa's discov., i. 386; - colonial policy, i. 514-15, 597-8; ii. 251-2; - commercial policy, ii. 391-3; - war with England, 1739-44, ii. 588-93; - 1769-80, ii. 608-11; - treaties with England, 1670-1721, ii. 598-600; - 1783, ii. 606; - affairs in, iii. 1-4; - measures for protection against, iii. 105-6; - C. R. boundary question, iii. 235-6; - treaty with Nic., iii. 253; - exped. of, 1815, iii. 496-7. - - Spaniards, race elements and evolution, i. 15-19; - character, i. 12-24, 29-32, 57-8; - castes, etc., i. 25-6; - occupations, i. 26-7; - pastimes, i. 34-5, 49-50; - dwellings, i. 35-9; - markets, etc., i. 37; - women, i. 39, 51-4; - dress, i. 39-45; - religion, i. 45; - food, etc., i. 45-8; - hospitality, i. 49; - treatment, etc., of women, i. 51-4. - - Squier, E. G., biog., iii. 261-2; - works of, iii. 262-3. - - Sterling, Vice-admiral C., mention of, iii. 494-5. - - Stevens, H., 'Historical and Geographical Notes,' i. 70. - - Stout, P. F., 'Nicaragua,' iii. 247. - - Strangeways, T., 'Sketch of the Mosquito Shore,' iii. 247. - - Swan, Capt., raids off coast of South Amer., 1684-5, ii. 549-50; - capture of Leon, ii. 554. - - - T - - Tabira, J. de, factor at Antigua, 1514, i. 390; - exped. of, 1515, i. 407. - - Tobaga, island, Pedrarias at, 1519, i. 467; - pirates at, 1680, ii. 538. - - Tacuxcalco, battle of, 1524, i. 673-4. - - Tacuylula, Alvarado at, 1524, i. 667. - - Tafur, Licentiate, mention of, ii. 7. - - Talamanca, revolt in, 1610, ii. 445-6; - Maldonado's exped. to, 1660, ii. 446; - Franciscans in, ii. 447; - attempted subjugation of, ii. 617-20. - - Talavera, B. de, piracy of, i. 300; - execution, 1510, i. 301. - - Tapia, G. de, capture, etc., of, 1550, ii. 282. - - Tarragona, Maestre de Campo, execution of, 1554, ii. 425. - - Tatahuitlapan, Cortés at, 1524, i. 544-5. - - Tataracherubi, Cacique, Badajoz' dealings with, 1515, i. 413-14. - - Tayasal, pueblo, Cortés at, i. 559-61. - - Tecum Umam, King, defeat of, 1524, i. 639-41. - - Tegucigalpa, missionary labors in, ii. 642-3. - - Tegucigalpa, city, capital of Hond., 1880, iii. 465; - description of, iii. 571. - - Tehuantepec, city, Alvarado's reception at, 1524, i. 627. - - Tehuantepec, isthmus, project for canal, iii. 693-4. - - Telegraphs, in Cent. Amer., iii. 708-9. - - Tenango, captured by Tzendales, 1712, ii. 698. - - Tenciz, pueblo, Cortés at, 1525, i. 564. - - Teoca, Cacique, encounter with Balboa, 1513, i. 378. - - Teotilac, Cortés at, 1524, i. 550-7. - - Terci, J., gov. of C. R., 1785, ii. 622. - - Terminos, bay of, buccaneer settlement at, ii. 623. - - Ternaux-Compans, H., works of, i. 200; ii. 759. - - Tetlepanquetzal, execution of, 1524, i. 551-4. - - Thévenot, M., 'Relation de Divers Voyages,' ii. 744. - - Thevet, A., works of, ii. 233. - - Thiel, Bishop, mention of, iii. 389; - expulsion, etc., of, iii. 635. - - Tiac, Cortés at, 1524, i. 558. - - Tierra Firme, name, i. 290-1; - proposed colonization of, i. 290-2; - partition of, i. 294; - subject to viceroy of Peru, 1571, ii. 400-1. - - Tiger Island, British seizure of, 1849, iii. 318. - - Tizapetlan, Cortés at, 1524, i. 549-50. - - Tlascaltecs, enslavement of, ii. 234. - - Toledo, M. de, claim of, ii. 64. - - Tologalpa, missionary labors in, ii. 447-50. - - Tolosa, Father D. de, martyrdom of, 1549, ii. 356. - - Tonalá, battle of, 1524, i. 628. - - Torre, Friar T. de la, mention of, ii. 345; - provincial, ii. 376. - - Torres, Friar J. de, mention of, ii. 133. - - Tortuga, freebooters at, ii. 453-4. - - Totonagua, Cacique, surprised by Badajoz, 1515, i. 413. - - Totonicapan, natives muster at, 1524, i. 633. - - Townley, Capt., joins Davis' freebooters, 1685, ii. 550-1; - capture of Leon, ii. 554; - of Granada, 1686, ii. 557-9; - surprise of Los Santos, ii. 561; - defeat of, ii. 561; - death, ii. 561. - - Treasure fleet, regulations, etc., for, ii. 468-9, 473. - - Treaties, Anglo-Spanish, 1670-1721, ii. 598-600; - 1783, ii. 606; - 1786, ii. 632-4; - of Zatoca, 1844, iii. 196-7; - Chinameca, 1845, iii. 203-4; - Sensenti, 1845, iii. 206; - San Jose, 1858, iii. 232-3; - Clayton-Bulwer, 1850, iii. 252; - Zeledon-Wyke, 1860, iii. 253; - of Santa Ana, 1876, iii. 406. - - Triana, R. de, mention of, i. 160. - - Triunfo de la Cruz, founding of, 1524, i. 520, 527. - - Trota, Cacique, exped. against, 1527, i. 509-10. - - Trujillo, founding of, 1525, i. 535; - Cortés at, 1525-6, i. 571-82; - Mendez' revolt at, 1531, ii. 150-3; - destitution at, ii. 155-6; - partial abandonment of, ii. 156, 289; - demands of colonists, ii. 159-60; - raid on, 1596, ii. 639; - 1643, 1797, ii. 645; - description of, ii. 639; - capture of, 1820, iii. 24-5; - British occupation of, 1849, iii. 317. - - Tubanamá, Cacique, captured by Balboa, 1513, i. 381-2. - - Tuero, J. N., deputy to córtes, iii. 26. - - Tumaco, Cacique, meeting with Balboa, 1513, i. 375-7. - - Tumbez, Pizarro at, 1532, ii. 18. - - Tuxpan, Cortés at, 1522, i. 624. - - Tuzulutlan, see Vera Paz. - - Tzendales, revolt of the, 1712-13, ii. 696-705. - - - U - - Ubilla, Don F. A. de, bishop of Chiap., 1592, ii. 373. - - Ugarte y Saravia, A. de, bishop of Guat., 1630-41, ii. 664. - - Ulloa, A. de, 'Noticias Americanas,' ii. 760-1. - - Ulloa, F. de, exped. of, 1539, i. 152. - - United States, Clayton-Bulwer treaty, 1850, iii. 252; - difficulty with Nic., iii. 254-5; - with New Gran., 1855, iii. 519; - 1856-7, iii. 520-2; - treaty with New Gran., 1846, iii. 700-1. - - United States of Colombia, organized, 1860, iii. 529; - govt of, centralized, 1885, iii. 558. - - Uraga, Gen. L., operations of, 1876, iii. 403. - - Urbina, Col J. de M., gov. of Pan., 1803, iii. 489. - - Urracá, Cacique, exped. against, i. 504-5; - attack on Natá, i. 506; - conflict with Pedrarias, i. 507-8; - capture, etc., of, 509; - death, 510. - - Urrutia, C., capt.-gen., 1818, iii. 23; - rule, iii. 23-32. - - Ursua, M., enterprise of, 1692, ii. 681-2; - Soberanis' opposition to, ii. 688, 691; - campaigns of, 1697-9, ii. 691-5. - - Ursua, P. de, campaign of, ii. 387-8. - - Uspantan, exped. against, 1529, ii. 108-10; - capture of, 1530, ii. 112-30. - - Utatlan, description of, i. 643-5; - burning of, 1524, i. 649-50. - - - V - - Vaena, J., labors of, in Tegucigalpa, ii. 642-3; - martyrdom of, ii. 643. - - Vallarino, J., biog., iii. 513. - - Valderas, Friar, mission to Spain, ii. 346. - - Valderrábano, A. de, execution of, 1517, i. 457-9. - - Valderrama, F. de, gov. of C. R., ii. 621. - - Valdivia, Regidor, mission to Española, 1511, i. 342; - fate of, i. 349-50. - - Valdivieso, A. de, bishop of Nic., 1544, ii. 179-80; - biog., ii. 179; - feud with Contreras, ii. 180-3; - dispute with the audiencia of the Confines, 1545, ii. 303-7; - assassination of, 1550, ii. 276. - - Valencia, Capt.-gen. P. de O., campaign of, ii. 388. - - Valenzuela, joins Espinosa, i. 425; - exped. of, 1516, i. 426. - - Valladolid, junta at, 1541, ii. 239-40. - - Valle, J. del, leader of gazistas, iii. 26; - biog., iii. 26-7; - death of, iii. 121. - - Valtonado, B., bishop of Nic., 1621, ii. 443. - - Valverde, G. de, president of Guat., 1578-89, ii. 380-1. - - Valverde, V. de, conquest of Peru, ii. 27-9, 37-8. - - Vara, R. de la, archbishop of Guat., iii. 29. - - Vargas, Capt. A de, exped. of, 1527, i. 509-10. - - Varnhagen, F. A. de, 'Le Premier Voyage de Amerigo Vespucci,' i. 70. - - Vasco y Orosco, J., gov. of Pan., 1764, ii. 584. - - Vasconcelos, D., defeat of, 1850, iii. 279-80; - president of Salv., iii. 294-9. - - Vazquez, F., works of, ii. 142-3, 736-7. - - Vela, Viceroy V. N., measures of, in Pan., 1544, ii. 242-3; - arrival in Peru, 1544, ii. 252; - revolt against, ii. 252-3; - death of, 1546, ii. 254. - - Velasco, D. F. de, gov. of Castilla del Oro, 1616, ii. 471. - - Velasco, J. D. de, exped. of, 1695, ii. 682-5; - 1696, ii. 686. - - Vera Paz, pacification of, ii. 348-54; - slavery, etc., in, ii. 355; - church affairs in, ii. 374; - colonization in, iii. 122-3, 589. - - Vera y Villaquiran, D. O. de, exped. of, 1646-8, ii. 677-9. - - Veragua, Columbus' explorations, etc., in, 1503, i. 218-31; - quibian of, i. 219-28; - colony founded in, i. 221-2; - abandoned, i. 229-30; - Nicuesa's exped. to, 1509-10, i. 302-8; - description of, ii. 63; - Gutierrez' exped. to, 1535-6, ii. 65-73; - secession of, 1840, iii. 515. - - Verdelete, E., labors in Tologalpa, ii. 448-50; - martyrdom, 1612, ii. 450. - - Verdugo, M., arrest, etc., of, ii. 261-2; - invasion of Pan., 1545, ii. 262-3; - defeat of, ii. 263-4; - rebuked by Gasca, ii. 269. - - Vernon, Capt. E., exped. of, 1739-42, ii. 588-93. - - Verrazano, G., exped. of, 1524, i. 140-1. - - Verveer, Gen., mediation of, iii. 98. - - Vespucci, A., voyages of, i. 99-107, 112-13, 117-18. - - Vetancur, Don R. V., gov. of Yuc., ii. 631; - exped. to Belize, ii. 631-2. - - Vetancur, Father de S. J., founds Bethlehemite order in Guat., - ii. 666. - - Vila, Gen. R. S., president of Pan., 1885, iii. 549-50, 559. - - Villa Hermosa, Marqués de, gov. of Pan., 1730-5, ii. 583-4. - - Villa de Nicaragua, revolt at, 1812, iii. 14. - - Villa Real, see Ciudad Real. - - Villa Rocha, Marqués de, gov. of Pan., 1708, ii. 582. - - Villacorta, J. V., jefe of Salv., 1824, iii. 166-7. - - Villalpando, B. de, bishop of Guat., 1564, ii. 375-8. - - Villanueva, battle of, 1838, iii. 135-6. - - Villar, A. del, prosecution of conspirators, iii. 18-19. - - Villaseñor, Col V., defection of, 1842, iii. 216-17; - execution, iii. 221-2. - - Villasis, Friar S. de, mission of, 1646, ii. 677-8. - - Viteri, Bishop, mention of, iii. 190, 193, 202; - revolution of, 1842, iii. 289; - intrigues of, iii. 291-3. - - Vivero, R. de, gov. of Castilla del Oro, ii. 472. - - Votan, tradition of, ii. 213. - - 'Voyage Pittoresque,' ii. 754-5. - - 'Voyages round the World,' ii. 752. - - 'Voyages and Adventures of Capt. Barth. Sharp,' ii. 568. - - Voyages of discovery, early, i. 68-154. - - - W - - Wafer, 'A New Voyage,' ii. 569. - - Walckenaer, C. A., works of, ii. 749. - - Walker, W., campaign in Nic., 1855-6, iii. 328-46; - biog., iii. 329; - plan of exped., iii. 343; - president of Nic., iii. 350; - surrender, iii. 360-1; - second exped. to Nic., iii. 363; - exped. to Hond., iii. 363; - execution, 1860, iii. 364. - - Wappäus, J. G., 'Geographie und Statestif,' iii. 709. - - Warner, T., exped. of, 1625, ii. 453. - - Weatherhead, W. D., works of, iii. 502. - - Wells, W. V., works of, iii. 323. - - Wheeler, Amer. minister, relations with, discontinued, 1855, iii. 340. - - 'World Displayed,' ii. 250. - - - X - - Xalpatlahua, Peñol, capture, ii. 82-3. - - Xatruch, Gen., invasion of Hond., 1871, iii. 455-6. - - Xelahuh, city, Alvarado's occupation of, 1524, i. 638; - battle of, i. 639-41. - - Xequiqel, river, named, 1524, i. 636. - - Xicaques, missionary labors among the, 1667-98, ii. 643-4. - - Xumay, outbreak at, 1529, ii. 107-8. - - - Y - - Yucatan, Valdivia's shipwreck, etc., off, 1512, i. 350; - buccaneers in, ii. 622-3; - British usurpation in, iii. 315; - population, iii. 316; - products, iii. 316-17. - - - Z - - Zacaha, fortifications of, i. 633. - - Zacatepecs, revolt of the, 152, i. 692-5; - 1527, ii. 88-91. - - Zacatula, ship-building at, 1522, i. 623. - - Zaclunes, revolt of the, 1624, ii. 676. - - Zatoca, treaty of, 1844, iii. 196-7. - - Zakuléu, capture of, 1525, i. 700-2. - - Zaldívar, R., president of Salv., 1876-84, iii. 406-11; - biog., iii. 406-7; - negotiations with Barrios, iii. 446-7. - - Zamora, A. C., bishop of C. R., 1884, iii. 635. - - Zamora, J., revolt of, 1826, iii. 179-80. - - Zamudio, M., gov. of Castilla del Oro, 1511, i. 335; - cruelty to Nicuesa, i. 335-6; - outdone by Balboa, i. 339-40. - - Zapata y Sandoval, J., bishop of Guat., 1621-30, ii. 664. - - Zapotitlan, capture of, 1524, i. 629-31. - - Zavala, Gen. J., president of Nic., 1879-83, iii. 482-5. - - Zavala, Gen. V., operations of, 1856, iii. 353-6; - disturbances caused by, iii. 361-2; - revolt in favor of, 1869, iii. 416-17. - - Zelaya, G., jefe of Hond., 1827, iii. 162. - - Zeledon-Wyke treaty, 1860, iii. 253. - - Zeno, chart of, 1390, i. 82. - - Zepeda, Father, explorations of, 1750-1, ii. 613-14. - - Zepeda, J., jefe of Nic., 1835, iii. 177. - - Zipangu, fabled realm of, i. 160-1. - - Zorita, Oidor, measures of, in Guat., 1555, ii. 359. - - Zuazo, Licentiate, despatch to Cortés, i. 572-3. - - Zubiaur, P. de, exped. of, 1695, ii. 690. - - Zutugils, subjugation, 1524, i. 657-60. - - - - -FOOTNOTES - - - [I-1] See _History of Mexico_, this series. The masses - of the people were kept in utter ignorance, to be used, - if necessary, as the blind tools of the ruling oligarchy. - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 6. - - [I-2] I have told in my _History of Mexico_ how Cárlos IV. - was forced to abdicate, and his son Fernando raised to the - throne. - - [I-3] There were the governor, archbishop, oidores of the - real audiencia, Marqués de Aycinena, high officials of the - treasury, dean and chapter of the archdiocese, alcaldes and - regidores of the 'muy noble ayuntamiento,' officers of the - university, prelates of the religious orders, prior and - consuls of the real consulado, intendente of Comayagua, - temporarily sojourning in the city, secretary of the - audiencia, commandant of the artillery, and colonels of the - militia regiments. _Diario Méx._, ix. 316-18; _Guat. por - Fern. VII._, 2-6, 83-94; _Saravia_, _Manif._ - - [I-4] His last position in Europe had been that of teniente - de rey of Palma, in the island of Majorca. _Juarros_, - _Guat._, i. 273. - - [I-5] _Guat. por Fern. VII._, 50. In 1866 their descendants - were living in Guatemala. - - [I-6] Dec. 13, 1808. - - [I-7] The acts were performed with great solemnity and - magnificence, the people manifesting much joy. This evidence - of loyalty was warmly acknowledged, May 27, 1809, by the - Junta Suprema Gubernativa of Spain, sitting at Seville and - acting for the imprisoned king. Most glowing descriptions of - the ceremonies appear in _Diario Méx._, xi. 279-80; _Guat. - por Fern. VII._, 7-82, 94-101, 158-9. - - [I-8] 'No son propiamente colonias, ó factorías, como los de - otras naciones, sino una parte esencial é integrante de la - Monarquía Española.' _Guat. por Fern. VII._, 163-6; _Dublan_ - and _Lozano_, _Leg. Mex._, i. 326-7. - - [I-9] Ayuntamientos of head towns were to choose three - honorable and competent men, from among whom each - ayuntamiento had to draw by lot one elector, whose - name, country, age, profession, and political and moral - qualifications must be at once made known to the president - of the audiencia. After the names of all the nominees were in - his possession, he, jointly with the electors, had to select - by secret ballot three candidates of the highest recognized - character and ability, out of which three the audiencia, - presided over by the governor-general, was to choose the - deputy, to whom all the ayuntamientos must forthwith send - their powers and instructions. The deputy, duly provided - with means to journey decorously, was required to embark for - Spain, his yearly pay being fixed at $6,000. _Alaman_, _Hist. - Méj._, i. 291-2. A later order of Oct. 6, 1809, required the - deputy to be a native of Spanish America and a resident of - the province choosing him; he was not to be the holder of any - of the chief offices therein, such as governor, intendente, - oidor, etc., nor a debtor to the royal treasury. The right - of election was also given to minor ayuntamientos; and for - the choice by plurality from among the candidates of cities a - board was constituted, with two members of the audiencia, two - canons, and two citizens named by the ayuntamiento. _Guat. - por Fern. VII._, 165-6. - - [I-10] His competitors were José de Aycinena and Lieut-col - Antonio Juarros. - - [I-11] He was not to give assent to the transfer of the - Spanish dominions to any foreign power; the nation's rights - must be upheld at all hazards; and the last drop of blood - shed for the catholic religion, and for king and country. - - [I-12] Feb. 14 and June 26, 1810. _Diario Méx._, xiii. - 549-51. - - [I-13] The American suplentes were lawyers or ecclesiastics - seeking preferment at court, or military officers with a - long residence there. _Alaman_, _Hist. Méj._, iii., ap. 4; - _Bustamante_, _Defensa_, 16; _Dispos. Varias_, ii. fol. 10; - _Zamacois_, _Hist. Méj._, viii. 450-1. The second named proxy - in Nov. 1811 gave up his seat to the regularly chosen deputy. - _Córtes_, _Diario_, 1811, 93. - - [I-14] October 15, 1810. _Alaman_, _Hist. Méj._, iii. 10; - _Zamacois_, _Hist. Méj._, viii. 458-9. - - [I-15] Installed June 9, 1810. Its first members were the - Spaniards José Mendez, an artillery officer, Oidor Joaquin - Bernardo Campuzano, and Auditor de Guerra Joaquin Ibañez. - _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, 5. - - [I-16] Saravia died like a soldier, and his fate was deplored - even by the enemies of his cause. _Hist. Mex._, iv. 486, - this series. The Mexican writer Bustamante, who was not - prone to praise Spanish officers, said of Saravia, 'hombre de - bien, humano, religioso, de un corazon recto, digno de mejor - fortuna.' _Cuadro Hist._, ii. 217; _Alaman_, _Hist. Méj._, - iii. 325. He was accused, however, though it is believed the - charge was slanderous, of having connived at smuggling by the - treasury officials. The charge appears in _Cancelada_, _Tel. - Mex._, 107-9. - - [I-17] One was a cruise round the world under Malaspina, - being the next in rank and commanding the corvette - _Atrevida_. _Juarros_, _Guat._, ii., adv. ix.; _Marure_, - _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 6; _Zamacois_, _Hist. Méj._, - vi. 134; viii. 569; _Los Anales_, Sept. 1872, 30; _Salv._, - _Diario Ofic._, 1874, ap. 1. - - [I-18] These were restrictions enforced by the crown - against agriculture, mining, fisheries, manufactures, and - commerce, despotism of rulers, and disregard of the merits of - Americans, in keeping them out of public offices. See _Hist. - Mex._, iv. 441-67, this series. - - [I-19] In the first half of the 18th century. - - [I-20] In the matter of appointments to office, an early - royal order prescribed that American descendants of - Spaniards should have the preference for the position of - curate; and yet, during the last thirty years, the most - lucrative curacies were given to European Spaniards. Of - the 170 viceroys that ruled in America, four only were of - American birth, and those were reared or educated in Spain. - Out of 602 captain-generals, governors, and presidents, - only 14 were Americans. Of 982 bishops and archbishops, 703 - were Europeans, and 279 Creoles. Most of the latter were - nominated in early times, when Europeans were few, navigation - difficult, and mitres afforded more work than money. - _Guerra_, _Rev. N. Esp._, i. 278-85. - - [I-21] We are assured that Antonio Larrazábal, a clergyman, - Antonio Juarros, and José M. Peinado were the chief authors - of the instructions for Central American deputies in Spain. - The Central American deputies whose names were appended to - the constitution were: Larrazábal for Guatemala; José Ignacio - Ávila for Salvador; José Francisco Morejon for Honduras; - José Antonio Lopez de la Plata for Nicaragua; and Florencio - Castillo for Costa Rica. _Córtes_, _Col. Dec._, ii. 158-62; - iii. 201-2; _Córtes_, _Diario_, 1813, xvii. 240; _Pap. - Var._, ccx. no. 1, 109-17; _Const. Polít. Monarq._, 1-134. - Larrazábal ably defended in the córtes the rights of the - Americans, specially of the aborigines, and above all, the - national sovereignty. For this, after Fernando VII. returned - to Spain in 1814, he was denounced by the absolutists, Conde - de Torre Muzquiz and Marqués de Mata Florida, and confined - in a fort in Spain. Pineda de Mont, in _Guat. Recop. Leyes_, - iii. 348. - - [I-22] _Méx._, _Col. Ley. Fund._, 34-91. - - [I-23] The junta preparatoria, Nov. 12, 1812, designated - only 12 deputies to the Spanish córtes from Central America - (Chiapas included), based on the inaccurate census of 1778, - which gave the whole country—with 101,506 for Chiapas—949,015 - inhabitants in 881 towns. It was fixed that the 12 provinces - of Guatemala, Chimaltenango, Quezaltenango, Ciudad Real de - Chiapas, Vera Paz, San Salvador, San Miguel, Chiquimula, - Sonsonate, Leon, Costa Rica, and Comayagua should each choose - one deputy; and Guatemala, Ciudad Real, Leon, and Comayagua - the four suplentes. Only two diputaciones provinciales were - at first established, one in Guatemala and one in Leon. - _Córtes_, _Act. ord._, i. 1813, Oct. 12, 62; _Mendez_, - _Mem. in Pap. Var._, ccxv. no. 17, 16-17; _Conder's Mex. - and Guat._, ii. 310; _Modern Traveller's Mex. and Guat._, - ii. 309-10. Later, under the constitutional régime, Chiapas - was represented in the Spanish córtes, and had a diputacion - provincial. _Larrainzar_, _Discurso_, 12. In 1812 a census - was formed to ascertain how many deputies Chiapas should have - in the córtes. Pineda, in _Soc. Mex. Geog. Boletin_, iii. - 400. - - [I-24] Quezaltenango had already, by its ayuntamiento of - Aug. 12, 1812, expressed approval of the provisions of the - instrument, promising loyal obedience to it. In Honduras - Gov. Juan Antonio Tornos granted leave for the erection of - a monument in the plaza of Comayagua, which was carried out. - _Córtes_, _Diario_, ii., March 17, 18, 1822. - - [I-25] Some authors give the 19th as the date of this defeat. - _Alaman_, _Hist. Méj._, iii. 343-4; _Bustamante_, _Cuad. - Hist._, ii. 269-73; _Zamacois_, _Hist. Méj._, ix. 9-10, - 110-11. The last-named authority asserts that Dambrini again - invaded and took the town of Tehuantepec, February 1814. - During the revolutionary wars of Mexico, Chiapas, owing to - her isolated position, was not a seat of war; and even when - Morelos' troops from Oajaca visited Tonalá, as above stated, - there was no resistance. This country enjoyed peace during - the struggle in New Spain. _Larrainzar_, _Chiapas_, in _Soc. - Mex. Geog. Boletin_, iii. 100. - - [I-26] Letters were constantly sent to the Spanish - government, and to private persons, which were published in - the newspapers friendly to the Spanish cause, representing - the independents as banditti and murderers, and the Spaniards - as exemplars of moderation. It was the emissaries of - Bonaparte who had induced the Americans to rebel, they said. - Trumped-up miracles and punishments from heaven, anathemas, - and every means suggested by foul fanaticism were used to - make the friends of freedom odious. Archbishop Casaus granted - 80 days' indulgences to Guatemalans not participating in the - revolutionary movements of Mexico. _Puerto_, _Convite_, pt - iii., 2-3. - - [I-27] The invitations sent the people of San Miguel to - coöperate were burned in the plaza by the hands of the public - executioner. Nor were these towns left without the usual - cheap reward of monarchs. San Miguel received the title - of 'muy noble y leal;' San Vicente was made a city, which - title was confirmed Jan. 15, 1812. According to Juarros, - _Guat._ (Lond. ed., 1823), 257, many noble families dwelt in - the place, and among its founders were some descendants of - Gonzalo and Jorge Alvarado, brothers of Pedro, the conqueror. - Santa Ana was raised to the rank of villa. The parish priests - of the several places were promoted to be canons of the - chapter of Guatemala. _Córtes_, _Diario_, 1812, xiv. 38, 167; - _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 8. - - [I-28] The archbishop sent priests to preach against - the insurgents. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 9. - Bustamante, _Cuadro Hist._, ii. 270, says that the whole - country would have been driven into rebellion but for - the advice of the able secretary of government, Alejandro - Ramirez. - - [I-29] Aycinena was, on the 7th of Feb., 1812, made by the - Spanish córtes a councillor of state, and in Aug. 1813, - entered upon his duties at Cádiz. _Córtes_, _Diario_, - 1812, xvi. 16; 1813, xxii. 216. According to Zamacois, - the appointment was made only after the adoption of the - constitution; it is possible that the appointment was then - renewed or confirmed. _Hist. Méj._, viii. 557; _Ayon_, - _Apuntes_, 15-16; _Rev. Cent. Am._, 2-3; _Salv._, _Diario - Ofic._, Feb. 11, 1875; _Valois_, _Mex._, 213-16. - - [I-30] In 1813 he was elected a deputy to the Spanish córtes, - but declined the position on account of ill health. _Córtes_, - _Diario_, 1813, xxii. 216. - - [I-31] A person writing from Guatemala, and referring to a - document issued August 1811, in secret session held in London - by 33 Spanish Americans, after registering his disapproval - of its purpose, positively asserted that the masses were well - disposed, fond of peace, and respectful to authority, if some - agent of Satan did not turn their heads and make them believe - they were superior beings, who needed no ruler over them. - _Cancelada_, _Tel. Mex._, 438. - - [I-32] Before the attack the city was visited by Father - Benito Soto, as pacificator and commissioner from the bishop - governor. He tried to fulfil his mission without degrading - his countrymen; but seeing the object of the war was to crush - liberal Americans, he made common cause with the Granadinos. - _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 11-12. Ayon, _Apuntes_, - 17, gives the attack as occurring in August, which is an - error. - - [I-33] Miguel Lacayo, Telésforo and Juan Argüello, Manuel - Antonio de la Cerda, Joaquin Chamorro, Juan Cerda, Francisco - Cordero, José D. Espinosa, Leon Molina, Cleto Bendaña, - Vicente Castillo, Gregorio Robledo, Gregorio Bracamonte, - Juan D. Robledo, Francisco Gomez, and Manuel Parrilla were - to suffer death. Among those sentenced to hard labor for - life were Juan Espinosa, the adelantado of Costa Rica, - Diego Montiel, and Pio Argüello. _Ayon_, _Apuntes_, 17-18; - _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 12-14; _Rev. Cent. - Am._, 3. - - [I-34] One of them, Manuel Antonio de la Cerda, refused - to accept the pardon unless coupled with leave to prefer - charges against Bustamante. But an influential friend of - the general's prevented its being granted, and Cerda, to - get out of the country, escaped on a vessel bound to Sweden; - thence he went to Cuba, and lived there several years under - an assumed name. _Los Anales_, Sept. 1, 1872, 30. The noted - Nicaraguan statesman, Tomás Ayon, justly bewails the seeming - ingratitude of some of his country's writers in saying that - Nicaragua's independence had cost nothing. The history of - that period, 1811-21, it is true, records no bloody fields, - no brilliant feats of arms; but it presents an array of - victims to the cause, of men who sacrificed their lives, - liberty, and fortunes to secure their country's freedom; and - these sacrifices, Ayon claims, should be remembered, and the - sufferers' memory held in reverence. _Apuntes_, 18. Squier, - in _Travels_, ii. 378, speaks of a suppressed revolution in - Leon in 1815, giving that city the whole credit of the first - impulse to liberal sentiment in Central America. There was no - such movement in that year, and he probably had reference to - that of 1811, though to Salvador certainly belongs the honor - of the first attempt for independence. _Pim's Gate of the - Pac._, 38, prints the same error. - - [I-35] More empty rewards for Leon. In 1812 the córtes - acceded to the bishop's petition for the creation of a - university in this town. It was long delayed, however. The - ayuntamiento had conferred on it the title of 'muy noble - y leal;' and that of Nueva Segovia was similarly honored. - The dean of Nicaragua was much commended in the córtes, - Aug. 1813, for his loyal and judicious conduct. _Córtes_, - _Diario_, 1811-12, xi. 198; 1813, xvii. 247, xxi. 45-6; - _Córtes_, _Col. Dec._, ii. 47-8, iii. 177; _Juarros_, - _Guat._ (Lond. ed., 1823), 335-8; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 227; - _Conder's Mex. and Guat._, ii. 309. Bishop Jerez had written - the captain-general a warm letter on behalf of the Leonese, - for whom he had a special predilection, and said, 'Si me - desterrasen un Leones dejo de ser obispo.' _Perez_, _Biog. - Sacasa_, 7. - - [I-36] This bitterness originated bloody wars, and did much - harm to Nicaragua. _Rev. Cent. Am._, 3; _Ayon_, _Apuntes_, - 15, 18-19; _Registro Ofic._, Nov. 21, 1846, 381. - - [I-37] The $43,538 went on the ship _Venganza_ to Cádiz, and - the arrival was announced, Feb. 15, 1813, to the córtes by - the deputies of Guatemala. _Córtes_, _Diario_, 1813, xvii. - 239-40. - - [I-38] Marure, on the authority of the _Gaceta de Guatemala_, - xiii. no. 112, and xiv. no. 191, assures us that nearly - one and a half million dollars had been remitted by Central - America to Spain, from donations and other sources, to cancel - royal warrants. _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 18. This work, - that I have occasion to quote so often, bears the title - _Bosquejo Histórico de las Revoluciones de Centro América - desde 1811 hasta 1834_. Its author, Alejandro Marure, who - was a professor of history and geography in the university - of Guatemala, and otherwise a prominent citizen, issued in - Guatemala his 1st volume, sm. 4to, 295 pp., with designs on - the frontispiece, in 1837; containing events to 1826 only. - The publication of the other two volumes, it is understood, - he was obliged to withhold by order of his government. - Montúfar, _Reseña, Hist. Cent. Am._, i., preface pp. iii. and - iv., tells us the circulation of the 2d vol. was not allowed; - 'un solemne auto de fé devoró la edicion entera.' One copy - escaped, however, from which another edition was printed in - later years. It scathes the so-called conservative party, - more properly entitled to the appellations of fanatical - and servile, for the infamous acts of its men that for many - years misgoverned the country. Its contents have been fully - used by Montúfar. The 3d volume has not been published, - and the author's heirs long refused to allow any one to - see the manuscript. This work furnishes an interesting - account of political affairs in Guatemala from the first - attempt at separation from the mother country in 1811 to - its accomplishment in 1821, from an American standpoint; the - intrigues by which Central America was yoked to Iturbide's - Mexican empire, and subsequent events culminating in the - second and final enforcement of independence, followed by - the organization of the federal government; rupture between - Guatemala and the general government, and victory of the - latter; church and military affairs; intrigues of parties; - authorities being freely quoted to sustain statements. - The author does not enter into much detail on military - operations, but is quite full in his description of party - workings, which affords a clear understanding of their - antagonistic interests. Under the title of _Efemérides de - los hechos notables ... de Centro América_, the same writer - gave to the press at Guatemala, in 1844, a 12mo of 77 pp., - furnishing a very brief synopsis of the chief events that - occurred from 1821 to 1842, with tabular lists; quite useful - as a chronology. - - [I-39] Among the implicated were a number of military - officers whose role was to win over the troops, and gain - possession of their arms. - - [I-40] The plan was to seize Bustamante, Auditor de Guerra - Ibañez, Archbishop Casaus, and all the high military - officers; after which the Granadan prisoners were to be - liberated, and the country's independence proclaimed. The - royal officials chose to add that the parties had harbored - 'incendiary and horrible schemes of plunder and devastation.' - - [I-41] _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 16; _Romero_, - _Bosq. Hist._, 42; _Mem. Hist. Cent. Am._, 2, 3. - - [I-42] Julian Ibarra, Andrés Dardon, Manuel de San José, - Manuel Yot. The names of the other six do not appear. - _Pineda de Mont_, in _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, iii. 347-8; - _Rodriguez_, _Problema Hist._, in _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, - 1875, Apr. 1 and May 23. The author of _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, - 7, who was evidently blinded by prejudice against Barrundia - and against the cause, says that the latter lost credit for - being mixed up in the Betlen affair with 'hombres sin luces, - sin crédito, y sin costumbres;' and forfeited the character - for firmness he had held in public estimation by needlessly - petitioning for a pardon when he had not been imprisoned, and - could at any time have left the country without risk. Lorenzo - Montúfar, a statesman and writer, tells us, in rebuttal, - that these men were of good intelligence and position; - that Barrundia's peril was imminent all the time of his - concealment, and as only Spanish vessels visited the ports, - it would have been risky to attempt escape upon one of them. - Moreover, it was impossible to foresee when independence - would be attained. Under the circumstances, Barrundia - had to ask for pardon when he could get it. _Costa R._, - _Gaceta_, Sept. 2, 1854. Villar, the prosecuting officer, - became notorious in 1817 for cruelties and wanton murders of - unfortunate inhabitants of Petén-Itzá, when he was commandant - there. _Fajardo_, _Inf. al Min. de Rel._, Campeche, 1828, sm. - 4to, 17 pp. - - [I-43] He was the father of Alejandro Marure, born in - Guatemala, and one who had attained a respectable rank in - letters, at a very early age, in his country. At the time he - began to figure in its political affairs he was a master of - philosophy. _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 14-15. - - [I-44] Arce began to figure in the rebellion of 1811. After - the organization of the federal régime he was the first - constitutional president of the republic. _Rev. Cent. Am._, - 3; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, 1875, Feb. 13. - - [I-45] In disregard of the rank and standing of the - 'excelentísima diputacion,' he would append only his media - firma, or surname, to its decrees and documents, when he - should have used his name and surname—a serious breach of - etiquette in those times. - - [I-46] The chamber now had but a short time to live. Manuel - Micheo had presented his credentials in Jan. 1814, and been - admitted to his seat as deputy from Chimaltenango, Guatemala. - Luis Aguirre's claim to admission was referred back on the - petition of citizens of Chiquimula for his election to be - declared null. _Córtes_, _Act. ord._, 1814, Jan. 21, i. 487, - March 20, ii. 121. - - [I-47] Several accusations had been preferred hitherto - against Bustamante; all remained unheeded, so far as it ever - became known. One more was that of Juan Argüello of Granada, - in Nicaragua, who charged the governor with unjust treatment - of him in 1814, and demanded his trial and punishment. This - case was before the córtes Oct. 20, 1820. But as the second - constitutional epoch was so short-lived, Argüello's demand - for justice had no better result than preceding ones. A - memorial of the ayuntamiento of Guatemala, on the political - condition of the province, expressing fear that the harshness - extended to men for political opinions might lead to evil - consequences, and asking for the pardon of prisoners, was - presented March 24, 1814, to the córtes. It was referred to - a committee, and that was all the action taken, till the king - in 1817 granted an amnesty. _Córtes_, _Act. ord._, March 24, - 1814, ii. 152; _Id._, _Diario_, Oct. 20, 1820, ix. 4. - - [I-48] Concluded Dec. 11, 1813. - - [I-49] Upon the news of the king's acts becoming known in - Guatemala, the archbishop and his clergy, and the other - authorities, offered thanks to God for his release and - restoration to the throne. _Juarros_, _Guat._, ii., adv. xii. - - [I-50] The pope lent his support with an encyclical letter - of Aug. 15, 1814, against freemasonry and other secret - societies, which was published June 2, 1815. All persons - affiliating in such organizations were required to sever - their connection with them. _Fern. VII._, _Decretos_, 27-32. - - [II-1] A native of Habana, Cuba. He had filled several high - offices, the last being that of governor of Santo Domingo. - _Juarros_, _Guat._, ii., adv. ix.-x.; _Salv._, _Diario - Ofic._, Apr. 1, 1875, 4. - - [II-2] Convulsions of nature had been constantly occurring in - Quezaltenango during two months, which greatly alarmed the - population. On the 17th of Jan., 1818, a hill on the south - of the town burst open and threw out enormous quantities of - ashes, covering the whole country, even to the distance of 35 - leagues, and flames were occasionally seen. _Cózar_, _Carta_, - in _Noticioso Gen._, March 16, 1818, 4. - - [II-3] The Spanish official account published by the - government of Guatemala, May 1 and 13, 1820, and copied in - the _Gaceta_ of Mex. of June 17th, same year, has it that the - attempt resulted in the discomfiture of the assailants. - - [II-4] The commander's ship hoisted a flag with two blue bars - and a white one between them showing an escutcheon. - - [II-5] The Spanish official account sets the enemy's - casualties at 40 killed and wounded on shore; those on board - could not be ascertained. The Spanish loss is given at one - killed and two wounded. - - [II-6] _Córtes_, _Diario_, 1820, ii. 19; Apr. 30, 1821, - extra, xvi. 15-16; _Id._, _Act. Púb._, i., June 26, 1820, 6; - Aug. 2, 1820, 2. - - [II-7] A congratulatory address from the newly created - corporation was received with marks of satisfaction. - _Córtes_, _Diario_, June 17, 1821, xxii. 6. - - [II-8] From the ecclesiastic state, Juan José Batres and - José María Álvarez, with Pedro Ruiz de Bustamante for a - substitute. From the secular class, Pedro Molina, José - Barrundia, and Lic. Venancio Lopez. Secular substitutes, - licenciados Francisco Javier Barrutia, Felipe Neri del - Barrio. _Córtes_, _Diario_, 1820, ii. 228-9. - - [II-9] A native of Choluteca, in Honduras. _Rev. Cent. Am._, - 1. He was auditor de guerra. Valle was undoubtedly an able - man; a speech of his on equality before the law is spoken of - with high commendation. _Observ. de la Rep. Mex._, ii., Oct. - 3, 1827, 128-33. Subsequently was a deputy to the imperial - congress of Mexico, and when Iturbide was on the eve of - succumbing under the blows of the republicans, he appointed - Valle his minister of state, which office ceased with the - fall of the empire. Valle returned to Guatemala and figured - prominently in the government. In 1826-29 he was a federal - deputy, and died on the 2d of March, 1834, soon after being - elected president of the republic. The assembly on the 21st - of March of the same year decreed honors to his memory. - _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, iii. 338-9, 348. Salvador did the - same in April. A likeness of Valle is given in _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist. Cent. Am._, ii. 160. Valle had been honored - with the friendship of Bentham and other European savans; and - he was a member of the French Academy of Sciences. _Marure_, - _Efemérides_, 35. - - [II-10] The same man who afterward appointed himself bishop - of Salvador. _Suarez y Navarro_, _Hist. Méj._, 386. - - [II-11] They cajoled the artisans with the promise of - checking the trade with Belize, and of prohibiting the - importation of foreign manufactures. - - [II-12] He was born in Guatemala on the 29th of Apr., 1777; - studied humanities under Father Goicoechea, one of the lights - of his time, and received his diploma of a licentiate of - medicine and surgery at the age of 22; served in Nicaragua - as surgeon of the batallon fijo early in the century, and - returned with it to his native city in 1811. He afterward - filled the position of professor of medicine in the - university. The degree of doctor was given him in 1817, and - the office of protomédico, or head physician of the province - of Guatemala. _Salv._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 12, 1854. - - [II-13] He adjured all to free themselves from party - influences, and to give their suffrages only to men who - had their country's interests at heart. He demanded of - all citizens to love their country, to be true to the - constitution, and to respect the legitimate authorities. - - [II-14] _Urrutia_, _Modelo_, 2-3. Constant complaints had - been made to the national government since 1813 against - the foreign trade. The regulations of 1778 had been made - to appear advantageous to Spain and her American colonies. - Foreign trade was declared a means of corruption which placed - arms in the hands of Spain's foes. In the report now before - me, the mechanics of the country are represented as hostile - to the foreign trade. _Arrillaga_, _Informe_, in _Cedulario_, - 66-7. - - [II-15] The latter had three suffragans—Leon, Comayagua, and - Ciudad Real de Chiapas. It had also 20 vicars, 161 curacies - in 424 towns, 85 valleys, 23 doctrinas under missionaries, of - which 16 were in charge of Dominicans, 4 of Franciscans, and - 3 of the order of Mercy. - - [II-16] Deputy José Mariano Mendez, from Sonsonate, gave - the province of Guatemala 116 leagues from the Pacific to - Santo Tomás, and a width of 100 leagues in some parts, and - less in others, with two cities and about 294 towns. _Mem._, - 12-13, 20; _Memoria del estado político y eclesiástico de la - capitanía general de Guatemala_, Mad., 1821, sm. 4to, 30 pp., - gives data on the economical, political, and ecclesiastical - condition of Central America in general, and of each of the - divisions or provinces, including Chiapas in particular, and - proposing to the Spanish government reforms deemed advisable. - - [II-17] A native of Habana, at which university he received - the degree of doctor. _Juarros_, _Guat._, i. 296-7. - - [II-18] He consecrated in his cathedral, on the 12th of - Sept., 1802, the treasurer of the diocese, the licentiate - of theology, Ambrosio Llano, as bishop of Ciudad Real de - Chiapas. - - [II-19] He had been bishop of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, in - Peru. At the time of his death he was 55 years old. The - remains were interred in the cathedral. _Juarros_, _Guat._, - i. 297; _Diario Méx._, xii., Jan. 26, 1810, 104. - - [II-20] He was a native of Jaca, in Aragon; took the - Dominican habit in Zaragoza, and completed there his - education; joined the province of Santiago in Mexico at the - age of 23; became a lecturer in Porta Cœli college, and a - professor in the university of Mexico, by which he was made - a doctor, and by his order a maestro. On the 9th of Nov., - 1806, as bishop of Rosen in partibus infidelium, he was - made bishop-coadjutor of Oajaca, and consecrated on the 2d - of Aug., 1807. _Juarros_, _Guat._, ii., adv. p. xi.-xii.; - _Córtes_, _Diario_, xviii. 395; _Puerto_, _Convite_, p. iii. - 1. - - [II-21] The payments were to begin no later than one year - after the installation of the autonomic government. The - allowance was to be increased when the condition of the two - countries should become improved. - - [II-22] Positive news of Iturbide's defection had not yet - reached Guatemala. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 2. - - [II-23] He is represented as a fickle man, one easily - influenced, and likely to act under the impressions of the - moment. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 21; _Salv._, - _Diario Ofic._, 1875, Apr. 1, 4. Events showed he was a man - of no settled principles or character, who proved himself, - first a traitor to his king and country, and next, for - self-aggrandizement, betrayed the men that in an evil hour - placed their trust in him. - - [II-24] This plan is described in _Hist. Mex._, iv. 709-10, - this series. - - [II-25] The order was a dead letter, however. Gainza - evidently issued it to cover his responsibility in Madrid; - at any rate, no one was arrested, and the manifesto was soon - after retired, public affairs being allowed to take their - course. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 4; _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. - Cent. Am._, i. 21-2. - - [II-26] Gainza on the 13th had exacted of all the superior - military officers a renewal of their oath of fidelity to the - king. _Id._, i. 23. - - [II-27] The diputacion, on motion of Simeon Cañas, had acted - at the instance of the ayuntamiento, whose síndico, Mariano - de Aycinena, had called for an extra session to petition for - immediate independence. Gainza, with the view of averting - such a declaration, attended personally to preside over - the meeting; but he finally submitted to the inevitable, - and weakly assented to the convocation of the authorities, - without first obtaining Urrutia's approbation. He thus - ignored the real chief authority in the country. _Mem. Rev. - Cent. Am._, 4-5; _Ayon_, _Apuntes_, 21. - - [II-28] Archbishop Casaus, oidores Miguel Moreno and José - Valdez, Luis Escoto, prelate of the Dominicans, Félix - Lagrava, Juan Bautista Jáuregui, José Villafañe, and others - of less note. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 23-7. - - [II-29] The supporters of this resolution were: Canon Doctor - José María Castilla, Dean Doctor Antonio García Redondo; - Regente of the audiencia Francisco Vilches, oidores Miguel - Larreinaga and Tomás O'Horan; deputies from the university, - doctors Mariano Galvez and Serapio Sanchez; deputies from - the college of lawyers, José Francisco Córdoba and Santiago - Milla; Antonio Rivera Cabezas, Mariano Beltranena, J. - Mariano Calderon, Rev. Doctor J. Matías Delgado, M. A. - Molina, members of the diputacion provincial; Mariano and J. - Antonio Larrave, Isidoro Castriciones, Pedro Arroyave, and - Mariano de Aycinena, members of the ayuntamiento; Lorenzo - Romaña, government secretary; Domingo Dieguez, secretary of - the meeting; Friars Mariano Perez and José Antonio Taboada, - prelates respectively of the Recollects and Franciscans. Some - Spaniards also recorded their names in favor of such action. - _Id._ The _Memorias de las Revoluciones de Centro América_ - give among the members of the diputacion José Valdés, and - leave out M. A. Molina, 5. - - [II-30] 297 years, 3 months, and 19 days from June 24, 1524, - when Pedro de Alvarado arrived with his 300 conquistadores. - - [II-31] Article 2d, speaking of the congress, says: It is to - decide upon the point of 'independencia general y absoluta, - y fijar, en caso de acordarla, la forma de gobierno y ley - fundamental que deba regir.' Marure, who gives the text - of the acta, asserts that the declaration actually was for - an 'independencia absoluta de Méjico y de cualquiera otra - nacion;' and that Gainza, who favored annexation to Mexico, - had beforehand prepared an oath to support it. _Bosq. Hist. - Cent. Am._, i. 27, and ap. ii., iii.; _Alaman_, _Hist. Méj._, - v. 346-8; _Ayon_, _Apuntes_, 21; _Squier's Trav._, ii. 378; - _Squier's Cent. Am._, 67; _Cuevas_, _Porvenir de Méx._, 252. - Another vital clause in the instrument was that the Roman - catholic religion which the Central Americans had professed - in past centuries, 'y profesaremos en los siglos venideros,' - must be preserved 'pura é inalterable,' its ministers - respected, and protected in their persons and property. The - prelates of the various religious communities were invited to - coöperate in behalf of peace and harmony, endeavoring to do - away with personal passions. The whole proceeding was novel, - this of Spanish officials, presided over by the chief agent - of the king, meeting with natives of the country to decide - whether Guatemala should cast off the old mother country - or not. Several other things worthy of notice happened - then among them. Canon Castilla, though a friend of the - archbishop, his prelate, who had advocated anti-independence, - favored the separation. Many of the officials declared for - secession, chief among their number the gazista leader José - del Valle, who held the high office of auditor de guerra. - _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 5-6. - - [II-32] The following names appear in the acta: Gavino - Gainza, Mariano de Beltranena, José Mariano Calderon, José - Matías Delgado, Manuel Antonio Molina, Mariano de Larrave, - Antonio de Rivera, José Antonio de Larrave, Isidoro de Valle - y Castriciones, Pedro de Arroyave, Mariano de Aycinena. - Secretaries, Lorenzo de Romaña, Domingo Dieguez. _Pineda - de Mont_, _Recop. Ley. Guat._, i. 1-14. The news of this - declaration reached Spain, and mention was made of it in the - córtes Dec. 15, 1821, by Deputy Navarrete. _Córtes_, _Diario - extraord._, vi., 1821, Dec. 15, 34; _Córtes_, _Diario_, - viii., 1822, Feb. 12, 5; _Romero_, _Bosq. Hist._, 43-4, - 66-130; _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 6-9. - - [II-33] This clause gave rise to much trouble afterward. - - [II-34] The authorities were to be apprised of any plots - against the new régime by persons becoming aware of them, or - the latter would be held as aiders and abettors of treason. - Carrying concealed weapons, ringing of bells other than - for religious service, and injuring or destroying public - or private property, under any pretext, would be severely - punished. _Méx._, _Gac. Imp._, Dec. 1, 1821, 260-3. - - [II-35] The additional members were Miguel de Larreinaga, - José del Valle, J. Antonio Alvarado, Marqués de Aycinena, - José Valdés, José M. Candina, and Antonio Robles. Domingo - Dieguez and Mariano Galvez were made the secretaries. - _Marure_, _Efemérides_, 59. - - [II-36] The acta was signed at Gainza's house on the 16th, - and the extra members were appointed. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, - 6. - - [II-37] Ciudad Real, the capital, had in the city proper - 6,000, chiefly Spaniards; the outside districts and suburbs - swelled the population to 14,000. _Mazariegos_, _Mem. - Hist. Chiapa_, 51. The canon of Chiapas, Mariano Robles - Dominguez de Mazariegos, being the deputy from his province - in the Spanish córtes in 1813, laid before the chamber - an interesting memorial, which was afterward given to the - press at Cádiz, in one volume, 18mo, of 71 pages, under the - title of _Memoria Histórica de la Provincia de Chiapa_. He - suggested means to develop the commerce of the province on - its navigable rivers, and particularly with Guatemala and - Vera Cruz. His recommendations were heeded, and several ports - and rivers were opened to trade. _Id._, 33-4, 54-9; _Córtes_, - _Diario_, 1813, xix. 392; _Noticioso Gen._, Aug. 30, 1816. - Mazariegos' successor was also a clergyman, Fernando Antonio - Dávila, who took his seat in November, 1813. _Córtes_, _Act. - ord._, i. 275. - - [II-38] From the time of the conquest there existed in all - Indian towns ayuntamientos called cabildos, and composed as - follows: a gobernador, who was a cacique or noble Indian, - generally for life, though 'sin jurisdiccion,' appointed - formally in writing by the principal executive of the - province; two alcaldes; four, six, or eight regidores, - according to population; and some officers called in some - places mayores, and in others alguaciles, who aided the - regidores, took care of the cabildos' houses, and furnished - supplies to travellers going through their towns. They were - elected on the first day of January of each year, and were - subject to the alcalde mayor and the teniente of each town, - by whom they were too frequently badly treated. _Mazariegos_, - _Mem. Hist. Chiapa_, 28-29. - - [II-39] In some Indian towns, so-called maestros were - salaried from the community funds of the inhabitants. Such - maestros could scarcely read and write, and most of them - were immoral and given to drunkenness. Of course no good - results could be obtained from such teachers. The Spanish - córtes in 1813 decreed the adoption of measures for promoting - public instruction, and on the 24th of October enacted the - establishment of a university in the province. _Mazariegos_, - _Mem. Hist. Chiapa_, 51-53; _Córtes_, _Diario_, 1813, xix. - 392; _Id._, _Act. ord._, 1813, i. 113, 141. - - [II-40] The cathedral chapter was composed of four - dignitaries, one simple canon, six choir chaplains. - The revenue of the diocese was limited. The number of - its parishes was forty-seven, which included the eleven - of the capital and suburbs. _Mazariegos_, _Mem. Hist. - Chiapa_, 48. From 1819 to 1836, according to Larrainzar, - religious, educational, and general affairs had attained - much improvement. In the diocese there were, besides the - cathedral, three convents of friars and one of nuns; a - hospital, founded by Bishop Juan Álvarez de Toledo; an - ecclesiastic college, founded by Bishop Bravo de la Serna; - primary schools and a university. Since 1819 existed - the Sociedad de Amigos del País, to develop agriculture, - industry, and learning. The inhabitants of the capital were - quite cultured. _Discurso_, 17-18. In 1813 the Spanish - córtes, among other measures for the benefit of Chiapas, - decreed that the friars of Guatemala should undertake the - conversion of the Indians of Palenque. _Córtes_, _Diario_, - 1813, xix. 392. - - [II-41] Soconusco cacao being considered the best of America, - some loads of it were sent every year to Spain for the use of - the royal family. - - [II-42] On the 20th of Dec., 1817, he congratulated the - viceroy of Mexico on the triumphs of the royal arms. The - capture of Mina and other successes were enthusiastically - celebrated in Ciudad Real. _Noticioso Gen._, Feb. 14, 1818, - 4; _Gaz. de Méx._, 1818, ix. 141-2. - - [II-43] The bishop of Chiapas, Salvador San Martin, incurred - the wrath of the córtes, when he was acting as deputy from - Porto Rico, for his support of the royal decree of 1814, that - overthrew the national constitution. San Martin was dead when - Chiapas followed the example of Mexico in 1821. _Alaman_, - _Hist. Méj._, v. 344; _Méx._, _Gaceta Imp._, i. 11, 173. - - [II-44] In Ciudad Real, Iturbide was called 'padre salvador - de la religion y de la patria.' _Id._, 10-12. - - [II-45] The act of independence was signed by Juan N. Batres, - José Ignacio Larrainzar, José Diego Lara, Julio José Flores, - José Nicolás Osuna, Estévan Gordillo, and Lic. José Vives. - - [II-46] Soon after this act that desire began to assume - proportions. _Larrainzar_, _Notic. Hist. Soconusco_, 28. - - [II-47] For particulars on the final separation of Chiapas, - and incorporation as a state of the Mexican confederation, - see _Hist. Mex._, v. 22-4, this series. The clergyman Pedro - Solórzano was the agent appointed under the resolution - referred to in the text, and he accordingly repaired to the - city of Mexico. _Larrainzar_, _Notic. Hist. Soconusco_, 29; - _Méx._, _Gaceta Imp._, i. 169-73, 270-1, 319-23, 337-9. - - [III-1] They were Lorenzo Romaña, who was made colonel of - the battalion of regulars, superseding the Spaniard Félix - Lagrava, and Manuel Arzú, who obtained the command of the - artillery, with the same rank. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. - Am._, i. 28. - - [III-2] A writer of the opposite party asserts that the - practice caused much confusion, arising from ignorance. The - populace abused the privilege, and had finally to be excluded - from the chamber. The same author speaks disparagingly of the - three leaders. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 7. It is said of them - that they often addressed from the gallery petitions to the - junta, demanded removals of officials, and had disputes with - its members or with Gainza. I have already given some account - of Barrundia and Molina. Córdoba had suffered imprisonment - and prosecution for being concerned in the revolutionary - movements of 1811. - - [III-3] 'Acorde al fin en sus sentimientos, se reunió - últimamente en la opinion que debió siempre ser el vínculo - estrecho de su voluntad. Así consta del testimonio que - acompaño á V. E.' The last sentence must refer to a copy - of the acta de independencia. _Mex._, _Gaceta Imp._, i. - 60-2. And yet, another journal of Mexico, alluding to that - letter, after erroneously giving the writer's name as Gabriel - Quinia, actually asserted its contents to be that Guatemala, - like Chiapas, had submitted to Mexico, party spirit having - been powerless to disturb the peace or general will of the - inhabitants! _Méx._, _Noticioso Gen._, Oct. 19, 1821. - - [III-4] Decree of Sept 20, 1821. - - [III-5] Decrees of Sept. 26 and 27, 1821. They were given two - months' extra pay. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 6-7. - - [III-6] This act was effected amidst great enthusiasm, and - rejoicing at its accomplishment without bloodshed. Persons - then residing in the city who had favored the movement had - their names inserted in a book. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. - Am._, i. 27-30. - - [III-7] Another committee was to count the population in - order to apportion the deputies to congress. _Gracias_, - _Cuad. Estad._, 28. - - [III-8] Before the news reached Spain of the change in - Guatemala, Deputy Milla spoke, on the 18th of Nov., in - the córtes of the insufficiency of Spanish bottoms for - the transportation of American produce, and demanded the - privilege of using foreign vessels therefor. He alluded - also to the inability of the royal navy to protect Spanish - merchantmen, in proof of which he stated the fact that five - vessels had been carried off by insurgent privateers from - Nicaraguan ports. _Córtes_, _Diario Extraord._, Nov. 18, - 1821, iv. 12-13. - - [III-9] Men who had relations with Delgado, one of the junta - in Guatemala. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 9-10. - - [III-10] Delgado assumed authority on his arrival at Santa - Ana, and used it effectively, though without violence. - _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 36-7. The extent of - the province of Salvador was 50 leagues long and 30 wide; - it was divided into the partidos of Santa Ana, San Salvador, - San Vicente, and San Miguel, with three cities, five villas, - and 140 pueblos. _Mendez_, _Mem._, 9-10. The following were - the signers of independence: Pedro Barriere, Casimiro García - Valdeavellano, José Ignacio Saldaña, José Rosi, Millan - Bustos, Gerónimo de Ajuria, Francisco del Duque, Santiago - Rosi, Trinidad Estupinian, Juan B. de Otonto, Francisco - Ignacio de Urrutia, Narciso Ortega, and Pedro Miguel Lopez, - secretary. _Ruiz_, _Calend. Salv._, 67-8; _Salv._, _Diario - Ofic._, Jan. 26, 1875, 5; _Bustamante_, _Cuad. Hist._, vi., - no. 187, 1-29; _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 2, 9-10. Alaman has it - that Delgado seized the government by a revolution in 1822. - _Hist. Méj._, v. 474-5. - - [III-11] In the Spanish córtes, March 29, 1813, was read - and passed to a committee a petition of the ayuntamiento of - Comayagua, objecting to the limited scope of the decree of - May 24, 1812, which authorized the establishment of only - two diputaciones in the whole of Guatemala, and asked for - one in Comayagua with Omoa, Trujillo, and the partido of - Tegucigalpa, and that of San Miguel in Salvador, within - its jurisdiction, which would give the new diputacion a - territory of 140 leagues from N. to S., and as many from - E. to W. _Córtes_, _Diario_, 1813, xviii. 61. I have no - evidence as to when Honduras was granted the diputacion, - but the fact appears that it had such a corporation in - September 1821. The province was larger than Nicaragua, - and divided into the partidos of Comayagua and Tegucigalpa, - and the nine sub-delegations of Gracias á Dios, San Pedro - Zula, Tencoa, Yoro, Olanchito, Olancho Viejo, Tegucigalpa, - Choluteca, and Trujillo, having within it the ports of Omoa, - Puerto Caballos, Puerto Sal, Triunfo de la Cruz, Trujillo, - and Cartago. The bishopric of Comayagua embraced the whole - intendencia, with 35 parishes, one mission, and 145 churches. - _Mendez_, _Mem._, 8, 21. In 1821 there lived in Trujillo - about 2,500 Caribs, the original inhabitants of Saint - Vincent, later occupying the island of Roatan, whence they - removed to Trujillo. They were a rather industrious, honest - people. _Coggeshall's Voy._, 2d ser., 161-3. - - [III-12] Omoa by Captain Bernardo Caballero, P. Pedro Brito, - and others, who seized and imprisoned the commandant, Antonio - Prado. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 35. - - [III-13] The junta in Guatemala passed an act on the 11th of - Dec. to reward the villa of Tegucigalpa, raising it to the - rank of a city, and bestowing on its ayuntamiento the title - of 'patriótico.' _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 35. - - [III-14] As a matter of fact, ill feeling had always - existed in the provinces against the capital. This hatred - was intensified by the respective intendentes in forwarding - their ambitious purposes. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 2. Lieut-col - Miguel Gonzalez Saravia, son of the old lieut-gen. shot - in Oajaca, was the gov.-intendente of Nicaragua since - 1818. Naturally he hated the independents for his father's - execution. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 34; _Ayon_, - _Apuntes_, 22; _Juarros_, _Guat._ (Lond. ed. 1823), 337-8. - - [III-15] They would remain independent of the Spanish crown, - they said, until the clouds disappeared. _Mem. Rev. Cent. - Am._, 8; _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 34; _Ayon_, - _Apuntes_, 22; _Suarez y Navarro_, _Hist. Méj._, 387; - _Bustamante_, _Cuad. Hist._, vi., no. 187, 1-29; _Alaman_, - _Hist. Méj._, v. 346-8; _Wells' Hond._, 468. Tomás Ayon, - _Apuntes sobre algunos de los acontecimientos políticos de - Nicaragua_, Leon, 1875, 8vo, 50 pp., gives a few important - memoranda on the political events of Nicaragua in 1811-24, in - a clear, concise, and apparently impartial manner. - - [III-16] Saravia kept up a sort of underhanded war against - Granada, obstructing her relations with Guatemala. _Marure_, - _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 35. The extent of the province - of Nicaragua was 85 leagues long by 75 wide; detaching - Nicoya, there were four partidos, Leon, Realejo, Sutiaba, - and Matagalpa, with 88 towns in all. _Mendez_, _Mem._, - 7. According to Miguel G. Saravia, _Bosquejo político - estadístico de Nicaragua_, its population in 1813 was of - 149,751, a very imperfect census. _Squier's States Cent. - Am._, 50. The bishopric of Leon comprised all the intendencia - of Costa Rica, with 40 parishes, 3 missions, and 88 churches. - _Mendez_, _Mem._, 20. A considerable military force had - been, since 1796, kept at San Juan del Norte; and in 1821 - additional defences were erected, by government order of - May 2d. This force was expelled after the declaration of - independence by the patriots. _Squier's Trav._, i. 83. - - [III-17] On the 11th of Nov. he answered in similar terms the - diputacion at Comayagua. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, - i. 44-6. - - [III-18] Its members were to be chosen by electors appointed - by the ayuntamientos supporting the Granada régime. These - members to choose every month from their own number the - president. _Perez_, _Biog. Sacasa_, 5-6. _Perez, Jerónimo_, - _Biografía del coronel Don Crisanto Sacasa_, 1875, fol., 18 - pp., furnishes important data on the origin and life of a - man who figured prominently and honorably in the affairs of - Nicaragua from 1821 to his death in 1824. In connection with - them appear several official letters on events during the - period between secession from Spain and annexation to Mexico. - - [III-19] The people acted prudently; they could but reap - trouble from the political complications. _Mem. Rev. Cent. - Am._, 2; _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa Rica_, 4-5, 17-18; _Salv._, - _Diario Ofic._, May 23, 1875; _Lond. Geog. Soc._, vi. 135. - - [III-20] It had, from the time of the conquest, a civil and - military government of its own, but under dependence of the - audiencia and captain-generalcy at Guatemala. In matters - ecclesiastic and financial it had been under Leon. _Molina_, - _Bosq. Costa Rica_, 92; _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 2. The Spanish - constitution gave it, together with Nicoya, a diputacion - provincial. _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 54. In 1812 the - province had 22 towns—12 of Indians and 10 of white and black - men—besides farms, large estates, etc. The extent in 1821 was - 160 by 60 leagues. The cities were Cartago and Esparza; the - villas, San José de Ujarráz, Villa Vieja, and Villa Hermosa; - the villages, Espíritu Santo, Pueblo Nuevo, Escasu, Alajuela, - Bagasses, Las Cañas, Barba, San Fernando, and the Indian - towns and settlements; adding Nicoya and Guanacaste, there - would be 27 towns. The population was computed at between - 60,000 and 70,000, besides the three nations of heathen - Indians in the mountains and northern coasts, and known - respectively as indios de la Talamanca, indios del norte, - and indios Mosquitos, all quite numerous. _Córtes_, _Diario_, - 1813, xix. 404-5. In 1813 the deputy from Costa Rica in the - Spanish córtes petitioned for a bishopric; but at the time - of the separation the matter had not been acted on. _Mendez_, - _Mem._, 7. - - [III-21] Juan de Dios Mayorga and the provincial of la - Merced, Fray Luis García, were selected for Comayagua; the - prelate of the Franciscans, Fray José Antonio Taboada, for - Leon; the prebendado José María Castilla, Pedro Molina, and - José Francisco Barrundia, for Mexico. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. - Cent. Am._, i. 37-9. - - [III-22] Some of them asked for titles, decorations, and - other rewards for their services in harnessing their country - to Mexico's imperial car. _El Progreso_, Apr. 11, 1850. The - organ of the empire spoke of the chimerical ideas of the - republicans and federalists, adding that the opposition to - them was large, and to be found in the officials, the higher - classes, and indeed all sensible persons, who well knew how - small was the number of the educated among them. It claimed - that the journals published in Guatemala expressed the - views of only a few deluded men, whose ranks were becoming - thinner every day. That same organ had given to the public - certain letters from the ayuntamiento of Comitan, in Chiapas, - objecting to the 2d art. of the Guatemalan acta of Sept. - 15th, on the ground that the country had no resources to - sustain a separate government, which had been evident since - the yearly allowance of $12,000 ceased; superadded to which, - they said, the safety of Mexico might be imperilled should - Spain at some future time recover possession of Cent. Am., - which the latter, if independent, could not prevent, and - vindicate her authority over the former. _Méx._, _Gaceta - Imp._, i., Nov. 24 and Dec. 8, 1821, 202-7, 281-2. - - [III-23] Dated Oct. 19th, and brought by José de Oñate. - - [III-24] 'Guatemala no debia quedar independiente de Méjico, - sino formar ... un gran imperio bajo el plan de Iguala, - y tratados de Córdoba: que Guatemala se hallaba todavía - impotente para gobernarse por sí misma, y que podría ser - por lo mismo objeto de la ambicion extranjera.' _Marure_, - _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 39-41. The aristocrats, now sure - of Iturbide's aid, grew bolder in their plotting. _Squier's - Trav._, ii. 378; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 35-9. - Iturbide directed the conde de la Cadena, on the 20th of - Nov., to write very courteously to Mariano de Aycinena, who - was well connected and had addressed a communication to the - liberator. _Bustamante_, _Cuad. Hist._, vi., no. 187, 28; - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 20-2, 35-9. - - [III-25] The circular directed the ayuntamientos to read at a - public sitting Iturbide's letter, and express their opinion - upon each point embraced in his proposal. Their answers - as to whether they wanted annexation at once, or to await - the action of congress, were to be in Guatemala city on or - before the 31st of Dec., 1821. _Petén-Itzá_, _Manif. de la - Just._, 2. This circular was drawn up by Valle. The elections - for members of the congress that had been called to meet in - February were to be made as formerly directed. In Guatemala - the votes of heads of families were taken at each house by - municipal agents in the presence of a notary public, and duly - registered. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 10-11; _Alaman_, _Hist. - Méj._, v. 475-6. - - [III-26] The exile of Barrundia, Molina, and others was - demanded by Pedro Arroyave, síndico of the ayuntamiento. - Gainza was suspected of inciting certain imperialists to - prefer charges against these parties. - - [III-27] A number of republicans, when acclaiming their - principles near San José church, were fired upon by an armed - force patrolling the town with the alcalde Mariano Larrave, - and two killed outright, Mariano Bedoya and Remigio Maida. - Several were wounded; some arrests were made. _Salv._, - _Gaceta_, Oct. 12, 1854; _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. - Am._, i. 41-2, 47; _Dicc. Univ. Hist. Geog._, app., i. 342; - _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 157. - - [III-28] _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i., ap. v.; _Mem. - Rev. Cent. Am._, 11; _Alaman_, _Hist. Méj._, v. 474. - - [III-29] His arguments were not founded on fact. Subsequent - events proved it. Men of greater weight than Gainza, such - as Mora, Pecchio, and Zavala, have since contradicted his - assertions. Zavala said that Guatemala gained nothing by - the union, and that it had resources of its own to exist - as an independent nation. He added that the provinces - viewed with dislike the course of the aristocrats at the - capital. It could not be otherwise. Where was the advantage - of a connection with the city of Mexico, which was almost - inaccessible to them? But the rich men of Guatemala would - have it, regardless of consequences. _Ensayo Hist. Revol. - Mex._, i. 186-7. - - [III-30] See _Hist. Mex._, iv. 710, 728-9, this series. - - [III-31] The junta had on the 3d indicated to Iturbide that - its duty was to annex the country to Mexico; 'como ya se le - indicó en oficio de tres del corriente.' Other reasons were - given by it for the action taken, the chief one being the - necessity of preserving the country's entirety and repose, - which had been in danger of a rupture. The names affixed to - the manifesto are: Gavino Gainza, Marqués de Aycinena, Miguel - de Larreinaga, José del Valle, Mariano de Beltranena, Miguel - Antonio Molina, Antonio Rivera, José Mariano Calderon, José - Antonio Alvarado, Angel Mª. Candina, Eusebio Castillo, - José Valdés; José Domingo Dieguez and Mariano Galvez, - secretaries. _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, i. 14-16; _Marure_, - _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i., ap. iv.-vi.; _Montúfar_, _Reseña - Hist._, iv. 18-23, 40-2; _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 8-9, 11; - _Bustamante_, _Cuad. Hist._, vi., no. 187, 1-29; _Alaman_, - _Hist. Méj._, v. 476; _Suarez y Navarro_, _Hist. Méj._, - 386-7; _Lastarría_, in _La América_, 249; _Salv._, _Diario - Ofic._, Feb. 13, 1875, 4, and March 28, 1876, 603; _Rivera_, - _Hist. Jalapa_, ii. 218; _Squier's Trav._, i. 383: _Kewen's - Nic._ and _Walker_, MS., 33-6; _Romero_, _Bosq. Hist._, - 103-6. - - [III-32] 'Las ideas de prosperidad, objeto de la - independencia, van á substituirse á los partidos ominosos - ... neutralizar las tentativas del poder arbitrario y de los - movimientos populares.' _Gainza_, _Manifiesto_, _Gaceta Gob. - Guadal._, 1822, March 2, 302-4; _Méx._, _Gaceta Imp._, ii. - 657-9; _Kewen_, _Nic. and Walker_, MS., 30-6. - - [III-33] He now gives himself a long list of titles, - viz.: knight of justice of the sacred religion of St John - of Jerusalem; lieutenant-general by acclamation of the - independent army of Guatemala; decorated with the banda - nacional; her captain-general; inspector-general of all - her arms; superior political chief, intendent-general, - and president of the junta provisional consultiva. _Méx._, - _Gaceta Imp._, i. 557-9; _Gaceta Gob. Guadal._, March 2, - 1822, 304. - - [III-34] Only two months earlier the diputaciones of - Comayagua and Leon were told that neither the junta - consultiva nor any other body then existing had any such - power. - - [III-35] It was rumored, and doubtless believed by the - people, that a formidable force was on the way—5,000 - men—which Central America in its present divided condition - could not resist; hence the premature submission with an - apparent good grace. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 10-11. - - [III-36] _Gaceta Imp._, i. 162-3. According to Bustamante, - _Cuad. Hist._, vi., no. 187, 1-29, the party in favor of - absolute independence in Guatemala sustained itself till - a Mexican force was sent, and it was by this means the - absorption was effected. The force had not arrived, but was - certainly expected. Luis G. Cuevas, a Mexican senator, tells - us that the people of Cent. Am. were mostly very enthusiastic - for Iturbide, and at the same time anxious to rid themselves - of the liberal party, whose members he calls an unbridled set - of demagogues. Moreover, they wanted to belong to a nation - having so much credit abroad, and such large resources to aid - them. _Porvenir de Méx._, 252. - - [III-37] Conde de la Cadena was first in command, but he - resigned it on account of sickness. _Alaman_, _Hist. Méj._, - v. 474-8; _Suarez y Navarro_, _Hist. Méj._, 387-8; _Filisola - á la Junta Soberana_, note 3. - - [III-38] Squier, _Guat._, 580-1, has it 700. - - [III-39] The 3d. It was installed March 29, 1822. _Marure_, - _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 47; _Id._, _Efemérides_, 5. - - [III-40] Among them were José del Valle, Juan de Dios - Mayorga, and Marcial Zebadúa. _Zavala_, _Ensayo Hist. Rev. - Mex._, i. 187. Suarez y Navarro says that Mayorga had a - secret mission from Salvador near the Mexican government. - _Hist. Méj._, 387. - - [III-41] _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 11-12. The province was ruled - by a junta gubernativa, one of whose members was Antonio José - Cañas, one of the most distinguished among Cent. Americans. - He soon after became the second in command of the 'batallon - fijo,' organized to resist Iturbide's pretensions. _Salv._, - _Diario Ofic._, Feb. 13 and 19, 1875. - - [III-42] Gainza had meantime stationed troops in Sonsonate, - a town which hitherto belonged to the province of Guatemala - proper, and afterward became a part of Salvador. - - [III-43] _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 12-13. - - [III-44] The rest of the province had accepted that - arrangement. Gov. Tinoco had made himself master of Omoa, but - a revolution released it from his grasp. His authority over - Trujillo ceased about the middle of January 1822. _Id._, 7-9. - - [III-45] The inhabitants were influenced to that course - by Canon Nicolás Irias and Juan Lindo. The diputacion sent - Tinoco to Mexico to report the state of affairs in Honduras. - _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, 37. - - [III-46] There was, in consequence, a bitter correspondence - between Saravia and Gainza. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 14. - - [III-47] This man was of the lowest class; had been a common - servant, and afterward an artilleryman. He was once confined - in a dungeon at Trujillo, from which he escaped. When he - began to figure in politics his wit made him popular with the - citizens. It was said that he had some knowledge of medicine, - and had written some creditable poetry. He was, however, - given to cards and free-love, but abstained from the bottle. - He was twice married, but left no children. _Perez_, _Biog. - Sacasa_, 8; _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 14; _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. - Cent. Am._, i. 73-4. - - [III-48] Ordoñez had Sacasa and others confined in irons - in Fort San Cárlos. Public opinion accused him of being the - most active instigator of hatred between the white and other - races. _Id._, 74; _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 14; _Salv._, _Diario - Ofic._, Feb. 19, 1875. - - [IV-1] His orders were to take the city of San Salvador on or - before the 5th of April. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 12. - - [IV-2] They claimed that their declaration of independence - did not imply hostility to Guatemala, and in support of - it expressed a willingness to furnish hostages. Their - representations were of no effect, however; 'habia empeño - en sojuzgar á San Salvador, y á este interés se sacrificaba - todo.' _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, 51. - - [IV-3] Against Filisola's expressed wishes. That general was - then in Chiapas, and had forbidden all military operations - till his arrival. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 13; _Alaman_, _Hist. - Méj._, v. 478; _Filisola á la Junta Soberana_, note 6. - - [IV-4] He went in by the road sloping from the volcano to - the west, from which quarter, owing to the roughness of the - ground, no attack had been expected. - - [IV-5] The casualties were not heavy on either side. _Mem. - Rev. Cent. Am._, 12-13. - - [IV-6] It was chiefly on the superiority exhibited on this - occasion that Salvador subsequently based her claim to a - prominent place in the councils held upon Cent. American - affairs. Many of the internal wars which for a number of - years ravaged the country may be traced to this pretended - superiority. - - [IV-7] To answer charges preferred against him. _Id._, - 15; _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 53, followed by - _Alaman_, _Hist. Méj._, v. 478. Cuevas, _Porvenir de Mex._, - 253-4, makes the doubtful assertion that Gainza went of his - own accord. At any rate, he afterward was made a lieut-gen. - of the imperial army, and an aide-de-camp of Iturbide's. - - [IV-8] His proclamation of July 8, 1822, expressed his desire - to be guided only by the best interests of the country. - _Méx._, _Gaceta Imp._, 1822, 657-9. - - [IV-9] Duly authorized agents of Salvador were to go for that - purpose to Mexico in Nov. 1822; the districts of San Miguel - and Santa Ana being permitted to recognize the government - at Guatemala till an understanding should be arrived at in - Mexico. Other clauses referred to the surrender of arms - seized by Arce in Sonsonate, to the commercial interests - of the two provinces, and to rules to be observed before - renewing hostilities. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, - 56-7. - - [IV-10] Oct. 31, 1822. See _Hist. Mex._, v., this series. - - [IV-11] _Filisola á la Junta Soberana_, notes 9, 10. - - [IV-12] His force consisted of about 2,000 men, chiefly from - Guatemala, Santa Ana, San Miguel, Sonsonate, and Honduras. - - [IV-13] _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, 60-1; _Molina_, - _Costa Rica_, 93; _Squier's Travels_, ii. 383. The decree - never went into effect, however. - - [IV-14] The principal conditions were: establishment in - Mexico of a representative government; Salvador's absolute - independence from Guatemala; participation of her delegates - in framing the national constitution; continuation in office - of the present incumbents; and erection of an episcopal see. - For less important terms demanded on that occasion, see also - _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 16-17; _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. - Am._, 62. - - [IV-15] It seems that he again asked for instructions from - the emperor, who peremptorily directed him not to lose more - time in negotiations. 'V. S. no es mas que un soldado que - debe atacar la ciudad, posesionarse de ella y tratar á los - cabecillas como perturbadores del órden.' _Mem. Rev. Cent. - Am._, 17. Filisola himself confirmed the above in his address - to the junta soberana of Cent. Am. of June 24, 1823, note 10. - - [IV-16] Squier, in his _Travels_, ii. 383-4, rather - emphatically comments on this 'step expressive of sympathies - and sentiments which still exist.' - - [IV-17] 'With a declaration that he was not waging war on the - U. S., he continued his operations.' - - [IV-18] Feb. 7, 1823. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 17-18. - - [IV-19] Filisola issued passports to all who wished to quit - the country, and even furnished them money to leave. To - the poor soldiers he afforded every facility to reach their - homes. - - [IV-20] It must be acknowledged that to the gallantry and - constancy of the sons of this little province, Central - America owed to a great extent its existence as a sovereign - commonwealth. _Zavala_, _Rev. N. Esp._, i. 142. See also - _Alaman_, _Hist. Méj._, v. 476; _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. - Am._, i. 47; _Suarez y Navarro_, _Hist. Méj._, 387; _Mem. - Rev. Cent. Am._, 11-12. - - [IV-21] Col Felipe Codallos was appointed governor of the - province. - - [IV-22] Tinoco had gone to Mexico. - - [IV-23] _Hist. Mex._, v., this series. - - [IV-24] Filisola's course has been open to criticism. Some - attributed it to a conviction that Cent. Am. could not - be held as a province dependent from a republic, which - was practicable as a dependence of an empire. Others have - supposed that he was prompted by personal ambition. Marure, - _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, 73, and _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 19, - claim that it was the unavoidable result of the situation, - which is not exactly true. With the force at his command, - he might have maintained supremacy for a considerable time - at least. Filisola himself said that his object had been - to avert civil war. In his address of July 24, 1823, to the - junta of Guatemala, he assured that body that his recognition - of its sovereignty had been with the sanction of the supreme - executive government of Mexico, communicated to him on the - 18th of June. _Filisola á la Junta Soberana de Guat._, 1-8; - _Id._, _El Ciudadano_, 16-17. - - [IV-25] Among others, that of seizing, without any legal - formality, the Spanish vessel _Sinacam_, whose cargo he sold - to procure provisions and other supplies for his garrison. - _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 75; _Ayon_, _Apuntes_, - 22-3. - - [IV-26] It was installed at Leon on the 17th of April, 1823. - _Marure_, _Efem._, 6. - - [IV-27] On the 15th of April. _Marure_, _Efem._, 6. - - [IV-28] Several of the conspirators were imprisoned at the - capital, though only for a short time. _Molina_, _Costa - Rica_, 94; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 12. - - [IV-29] According to Marure, _Efemérides_, 6, reserving - the liberty of recognizing anew Iturbide as the legitimate - emperor, should he be again restored to the imperial throne. - - [IV-30] Deputies from Cent. Am. to the Mexican congress - complained of outrages committed by Filisola's soldiers, - to which his attention was called to correct them by the - executive of that republic. - - [IV-31] Cuevas, _Porvenir de Méx._, 254-6, laments it, - considering it an act injurious to Cent. America's best - interests. - - [IV-32] The imperialists 'se limitaron á oponerles algunas - maniobras sordas, no teniendo ánimo de disputarlas á cara - descubierta.' _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, 82-3. The - independents 'contrajeron sus planes á ganar las elecciones, - y á hacer odiosas las tropas mejicanas, procurando á toda - costa, y por todos los medios posibles, hacerlas evacuar la - república.' _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 20. - - [IV-33] The 1st of June had been the date originally fixed - upon, but some preliminary work not having been completed - in time, the installation was necessarily delayed. _Marure_, - _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 83. - - [IV-34] Chiapas was not represented, that province having - continued detached from Cent. Am. - - [IV-35] It is said that Filisola installed the congress, the - Mexican troops taking part with the native ones in paying - honors to the national representatives. Till the organization - of an executive, the first decrees were addressed to - Filisola, as superior political chief, for their execution. - _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 20. That body, the first as well as - the most numerous, was at the same time the most enlightened - that the republic ever had. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. - Am._, i. 83; _Id._, _Efem._, 7; _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, i. - 16-24. - - [IV-36] The full text with the names of the delegates - present appears in _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. - xiii.-xviii.; and _Rocha_, _Código Nic._, i. 19-23. Its - principal clauses were: 'That the said provinces ... are - free and independent from old Spain, from Mexico, and every - other power, alike of the old and the new world, y que no son - ni deben ser el patrimonio de persona ni familia alguna.' - Translations into other languages may be seen in _Revue - Américaine_, i. 377-97; _Democratic Rev._, i. 486-7. The act - was drawn up by the deputy José Francisco Córdoba, who was a - member of the committee to whom the matter had been referred. - _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 21. - - [IV-37] _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, i. 24-32. - - [IV-38] Aug. 20, 1824. _Dublan_ and _Lozano_, _Leg. Mex._, i. - 713; _Alaman_, _Mem. á las Cám._, 9. - - [IV-39] Decree of July 15, 1823. _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, i. - 32-3. - - [IV-40] The party was mainly composed of members of the - so-called noble families, Spaniards, civil and military - officers, the clergy, and the most ignorant class of the - population. It was therefore the most numerous. _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, iv. 259. - - [IV-41] As he was then in the United States, the canon - Antonio de Larrazábal was to be his substitute during his - absence. Larrazábal having declined the position, it was - given to Antonio Rivera Cabezas. _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, - i. 164-70; _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 88; _Id._, - _Efem._, 8; _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 22. - - [IV-42] The moderados wanted José Dionisio Herrera of - Honduras, in the triumvirate, to avoid the undue influence - Salvador would exercise, having two of her citizens in the - executive, and because they considered Herrera intellectually - superior to Villacorta. No one thought of José del Valle, - who was then in Mexico. Cuevas, _Porvenir de Mex._, 256-7, - erroneously states that the supreme authority was offered - Filisola and he declined it. He declined the office of jefe - político of Guatemala. - - [IV-43] Just in some instances, no doubt; but it became known - that Guatemalans disguised as Mexicans committed hostile acts - to bring the soldiers into discredit. Filisola certainly - strove to maintain order and discipline. _Marure_, _Bosq. - Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 89-93; _Filisola_, _El Ciudadano_, 22-8. - - [IV-44] José Francisco Barrundia, of whom prominent mention - is made in this history, severely attacked Filisola's - course in a pamphlet, which was replied to in a small book - entitled _El Ciudadano ... Vicente Filisola á José Francisco - Barrundia_, Puebla, 1824, 132 p. The author defends himself, - employing strong invective against his accuser, charging him - with hypocrisy and cowardice. The book gives some historical - data, but owing to its bitterness, must be received with - caution. Filisola after that time figured as a prominent - soldier of the Mexican republic in Texas, and during the war - of the U. S. and Mexico in 1846-8. - - [IV-45] _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, i. 877-8. - - [IV-46] Practically, the word 'don' never fell into disuse. - The manner of ending official letters was changed from the - former 'Dios guarde á ... muchos años,' to 'Dios, Union, - Libertad.' _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 94; _Id._, - _Efem._, 7. - - [IV-47] Decrees of the national assembly of Aug. 21 and Nov. - 5, 1823. _Rocha_, _Código Nic._, i. 162; _Guat._, _Recop. - Leyes_, i. 54-5. - - [IV-48] _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, i. 33-8, 461-3; _Méx._, - _Col. Dec. Sob. Cong._, 219. - - [IV-49] Even the statistics that might have served as a - basis for establishing imposts were not to be found. It was - said that they had all been forwarded to Mexico during the - imperial rule. - - [IV-50] He was offended at not being appointed commanding - officer of the battalion. - - [IV-51] The author of _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 23-7, accused - the government of allowing the conspiracy to assume serious - proportions with the view of obtaining larger powers, - including that of levying forced loans. - - [IV-52] The 14th and 15th had been designated to commemorate - the independence. - - [IV-53] A number of persons were killed and others wounded - in the street fight. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. - 102-3. On the 10th of Jan. following those who perished in - defence of the assembly were declared 'beneméritos de la - patria en grado heróico.' _Id._, _Efem._, 8. - - [IV-54] Marure, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 104, gives the - almost incredible account that the soldiery behaved in an - orderly manner. - - [IV-55] His principal assistant and second in command, Manuel - Estrada, was imprisoned and executed. An erroneous account of - Ariza's revolt is given by Puydt and Binckum, _Colonisation_, - 118-19, who place it in 1825, and assert it was effected by - order of the government in Spain. - - [IV-56] It found support among some of the deputies who - had not been present at the election of the members of the - executive. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 25. - - [IV-57] The last named being a foreigner, congress repealed - the law which admitted only natives to the executive - power, passed July 8th, when Filisola had been proposed as - a candidate. Foreigners who had rendered services to the - republic were made eligible. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. - Am._, 107. - - [IV-58] Villacorta at first declined the position, on the - ground that to exercise, as a mere substitute, the functions - he had just been discharging as proprietary in the office, - affected his honor, 'era un paso que lastimaba su honor.' A - unanimous resolution, however, of the congress, directing him - to fill the office, induced him to accept it. _Id._, 107-8. - It has been said of him for his final acceptance: 'Tuvo la - falta de delicadeza de admitir la suplencia.' _Mem. Rev. - Cent. Am._, 26. - - [IV-59] The Salvadoran commander alleged instructions from - his government not to go back till he became convinced that - the assembly could continue its labors without hindrance - in the future. In Guatemala it was said that he had been - prevailed on by the liberal party, somewhat displeased at - the last elections for executive, not to heed the command - to retire. In consequence of the events of Sept. 14th in - Guatemala, the diputacion provincial at San Salvador on the - 27th of Oct. assumed the powers of a junta gubernativa, and - exercised them till the constituent congress of the state was - installed. _Marure_, _Efem._, 8. - - [IV-60] 'No sin algunos aparatos escandalosos y hostiles de - parte de los salvadoreños.' _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 27. - - [IV-61] They had been reported to the chamber by its - committee on the 25th of Oct. _Marure_, _Efem._, 8. - - [IV-62] The states had already constituted their governments - by Sept. 1824. Chiapas was not included among the new states. - Her admission was left open for such a time as she should - apply for it, the belief in Cent. Am. being that the province - had not voluntarily attached itself to Mexico. _Guat._, - _Recop. Leyes_, i. 40-2, 59-62, 68, 96-7; _Mem. Rev. Cent. - Am._, 27; _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 120-1, 149; - _La Tribuna_, ii., no. 2. - - [IV-63] Marure, _Efem._, 12, gives the date as April 10th. - - [IV-64] _Cent. Am._, _Informe sobre la Constituc._, 1-73, - and 1-30. This constitution has been called 'el bello - ideal de copiantes y teoristas que soñaron un pueblo para - constituirlo, y que no conocian el país en que nacieron.' - _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 36. - - [IV-65] The asamblea, foreseeing this, had designed La - Antigua as the meeting place of the local congress; but the - latter at its first sittings selected for future times the - capital. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, 179. - - [IV-66] Such as to determine the military and financial - budgets, superintend the education of the people, declare war - and conclude peace, and regulate the financial and commercial - interests of the country. Its members were to be elected - at the rate of one for every 30,000 inhabitants. _Id._, - 174-5. There were 17 representatives for Guatemala, nine for - Salvador, five for Honduras, six for Nicaragua, and two for - Costa Rica. _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 13. Dunlop, _Cent. - Am._, 164, says Honduras had six representatives. - - [IV-67] _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 13. Molina, _Costa Rica_, - 19, criticises this organization as follows: 'Se estableció - un senado nulo, un Ejecutivo impotente y un congreso - absoluto.' Necessarily the greater number of representatives - of Guatemala would outweigh those of the other states, and - thus make the constitution only an imperfect copy of that - which had originally served as a model. - - [IV-68] Part of the constitution is given in _Rocha_, _Código - Nic._, i. 37-9; on the following pages will be found such - clauses of the old Spanish constitution as were retained - under the new system. See also _Peralta_, _Costa R._, 5; - _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 13-5. - - [IV-69] 'Se hacen libres los esclavos que de reinos - extranjeros pasen á nuestros Estados, por recobrar su - libertad.' _Rocha_, _Código Nic._, i. 212-13; _Guat._, - _Recop. Leyes_, i. 217-9; _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, - i. 133-5; _Id._, _Efem._, 10. - - [IV-70] Holders of slaves thus emancipated were to be - indemnified. We are assured that no one ever applied for such - indemnification. - - [IV-71] In 1840 Great Britain, would-be champion of the - world's high morality, on one occasion claimed the return - of some fugitive slaves from Belize, and supported the - demand with the presence of a man-of-war. Notwithstanding - her weakness, Central America refused to comply, on the - ground that under her constitution there were no slaves in - the country. _Crowe's Gospel_, 121-2; _Squier's Travels_, - ii. 385-6; _Revue Américaine_, ii. 550; _Dunlop's Cent. - Am._, 163. According to Molina, the number of slaves thus - emancipated was about 1,000. - - [IV-72] 'Una confederacion general que representase unida - á la gran familia americana.' _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. - Am._, 138. - - [IV-73] Barclay, Herring, Richardson, & Co., whose agent was - J. Bailey. _Thompson's Guat._, 266; _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. - Cent. Am._, i. 143. - - [IV-74] One of the conditions was that the republic should - not contract for another loan within two years. It was - estimated that the debt could be paid in 20 years. _Asamblea - Nac._, _Decreto_, Dec. 6, 1824, in _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. - Cent. Am._, i. 144. That expectation was not realized. - Details will appear in connection with the finances of the - republic, elsewhere in this volume. - - [IV-75] The total number of decrees passed was 137, and of - orders 1186. _El Indicador de Guat._, 1825, no. 16. - - [V-1] He is represented as an able man, who had formerly - favored the union with Mexico, but afterward joined - the liberal party, becoming one of its most prominent - members. The author of _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 39-41, 46, - while acknowledging his ability, says that he was 'de - poca delicadeza ... de un carácter falso, y afectando una - franqueza y una moderacion que no le es propia.' - - [V-2] The delegates of the different states were in the - following proportion: Guatemala 17, Salvador 9, Honduras and - Nicaragua 6 each, Costa Rica 2. The total number being 40, - and not 34 as Squier erroneously has it. _Travels_, ii. 388. - - [V-3] Arce had in his favor the prestige of past services, - and his sufferings in the cause of independence. Valle had - the support of those who objected to Salvadoran predominance. - Moreover, he had been educated in Guatemala, and had property - there; from which circumstances it was surmised that he - would be more in sympathy with that state and the so-called - serviles. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 150; _Mem. - Rev. Cent. Am._, 28-9. - - [V-4] The total number of votes for the whole republic was - 82, but three had been rejected by congress for various - reasons. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 210-11; _Mem. - Rev. Cent. Am._, 40-1. - - [V-5] Salvador insisted on having an episcopal see, in order - to be independent of Guatemala in ecclesiastical affairs. - This was the chief question at issue. Arce promised to - leave its decision to the next congress. _Arce_, _Mem._, 3. - Valle really had obtained more votes than Arce, and congress - defrauded him of his election. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. - 268. - - [V-6] Barrundia had been elected upon Valle's refusal to - accept the office, and likewise declined it. Valle protested - against Arce's election as illegal, in several writings, - apparently to little purpose. _El Indicador_, 1825, no. 26 - et seq.; _El Liberal_, 1825, no. 7, 8; _Nulidad de la prim. - elec._, passim; _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 212-13; - _Id._, _Efem._, 13. - - [V-7] Arce, _Mem._, 4, has it April 30th, but in view of the - numerous misprints in his work, the date given in the text is - probably more correct. It is the one supported by _Marure_, - _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 213; _Squier's Travels_, ii. - 388; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 164. Its first president was - Tomás Antonio O'Horan. This court superseded the audiencia - founded in 1544 at Gracias á Dios, and transferred in 1549 to - Guatemala. _Marure_, _Efem._, 14. - - [V-8] It was for a defensive and offensive alliance and - equal privileges of trade. It was ratified by the Cent. - Am. govt Sept. 12, 1825. The full text is given in _Rocha_, - _Código Nic._, i. 95-9; _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, - i. xxxviii.-xlvii. See also _Ayon_, _Consid. Lím._, 28-9; - _Gaceta de Salv._, Oct. 12, 1854. - - [V-9] It was therein stipulated that the citizens of both - republics should enjoy all the rights granted by one or - the other to the most favored nation. The same rights for - political purposes were also agreed upon, that of free - exercise of religion being included. All clauses of a - commercial character were to be in force 12 years; the others - perpetually. Privileges and rights enjoyed by the citizens of - either republic were to be also allowed to those immigrating - from the other. This treaty was ratified by the younger - republic on the 28th of June, 1826. The text in both English - and Spanish may be seen in _U. S. Govt Doc._, U. S. Acts, - Cong. 19, Sess. 2, Sen. Doc. 1, i. 149-70; _Am. St. Pap._, - For. Rel., v. 774-82; _Gordon's Digest of Laws_, 328-35; - _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. xlvii.-lxv. - - [V-10] Arce's Mess., March 1, 1826, in _Repertorio Am._, i. - 274-9; _Santangelo_, _Congreso Panamá_, 73-5. - - [V-11] Their newspapers, _El Liberal_ and _Don Meliton_, - charged him with partiality and incapacity. The latter, for - its satire and ridicule, was the more formidable foe, as Arce - himself acknowledges. _Mem._, 5. - - [V-12] The departmental chief of Guatemala claimed that he - was not under Arce's authority, but under that of the state, - then residing at La Antigua. Congress empowered the executive - to compel the local authorities to attend the celebration, - and it was done. _Arce_, _Mem._, 8. - - [V-13] The total number of decrees enacted was 92, and that - of orders submitted to the executive 308. For more details, - see _El Centro Americano_, 1826, 38. - - [V-14] One half of the representatives of every state had to - retire, according to the constitution. - - [V-15] He had at first declined the connection, but afterward - accepted it 'para dar rienda suelta á sus resentimientos y - pasiones contra el presidente Arce.' _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, - 48. - - [V-16] Text in _Repertorio Am._, i. 273-89. - - [V-17] He brought letters of recommendation from Pedro - Molina, who was representing Cent. Am. at Bogotá, and had - a high opinion of him, as he had served under Napoleon. - _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 230. - - [V-18] After he completed that work he was ordered to remain - on the coast till further orders from the government. The - congress tried in vain to prevent it. - - [V-19] The reasons adduced by him in his _Mem._, 22-4, and - comments on the same in _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. - 236-7. - - [V-20] 'Este asunto se renovaba cada vez que á los diputados - ministeriales convenia paralizar algun golpe contra el - ejecutivo.' _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 51. - - [V-21] The deputies of Salvador defended their course in a - long argument, June 8, 1826, calling it an inevitable result - of the unlawful conduct of the majority of congress. _Doc._, - in _Arce_, _Mem._, 10-17. - - [V-22] Restricting the archbishop's powers, and placing - him to some extent under civil authority; suppressing the - subventions of curates, and abolishing certain privileges - the clergy had till then enjoyed; tithes were reduced, - and persons under 25 years of age were not allowed to take - monastic vows. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 244-5. - - [V-23] The full text of the resignation is given in _Arce_, - _Mem._, 25-7. - - [V-24] 'Pondrá sobre las armas toda la fuerza que crea - necesaria.... En caso de resistencia repelerá la fuerza con - la fuerza.' _Id._, 32. - - [V-25] On the ground that only Guatemala had paid such - contingent, and even more, and the other states had - arbitrarily eluded payments. Arce was accused, not without - foundation, it seems, of allowing such discrimination. - - [V-26] On September 3, 1826; the document merely stipulates - a temporary suspension of hostilities, without further - entering into the question. _Arce_, _Mem._, 39. It has been - asserted that Espínola held a favorable position, and adds: - 'A pesar de esto, capituló vergonzosamente'—a charge without - much foundation, in view of the numerical superiority of the - Guatemalan forces. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 52-3. - - [V-27] Arce, _Mem._, 39-41, gives a lengthy account of his - deliberations, and doubts whether it would or not be just, - and consistent with his duties, to imprison Barrundia, all of - which is at least doubtful. - - [V-28] _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 53. _Crowe's Gospel_, 127, - and _Squier's Travels_, ii. 395, confound the jefe with his - brother José Francisco. The orders were, 'Que en el caso - de resistencia obre fuertemente hasta concluir el arresto y - ocupacion de las armas.' _Arce_, _Mem._, 41-2. - - [V-29] This non-resistance is attributed to treachery on - the part of Vera, a Mexican commanding the state forces, who - subsequently entered the federal service. _Marure_, _Bosq. - Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 254-5. - - [V-30] _Doc._, in _Arce_, _Mem._, 26. - - [V-31] It is a long doc., giving details, and dwelling - specially on the part Raoul had played. _Id._, 27-31. - - [V-32] Comments and details on the subject in _Marure_, - _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 255-8; _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, - 53-4. - - [V-33] 'Este desenlace hizo ridículo todo lo que antes habia - parecido un golpe maestro.' _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 54. - - [V-34] To save appearances, Arce pretended to induce his - supporters to assume their positions in the chamber, but - there is little doubt of its being mere sham. It has been - intimated that even some liberals declined to sit, from - apprehension that an investigation of Arce's conduct might - lead to civil war. - - [V-35] Still declaring its allegiance to the federation. - _Gaz. de Méx._, Jan. 25. 1827; _Arce_, _Mem._, 51. - - [V-36] The impossibility of obtaining a quorum of members - chosen to the 2d congress, and impending civil war, were - among the reasons assigned for his action. The elections - were to be made on the basis of two deputies for every 30,000 - inhabitants, and Cojutepeque in Salvador was appointed as the - place of meeting. This measure was at first well received by - the states, but afterward rejected in consequence of a decree - of the Salvador government on the 6th of Dec., inviting - the federal deputies to meet at the villa of Ahuachapan. - _Marure_, _Efem._, 17; _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 56. - - [V-37] Oct. 11, 1826. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. - 273; _Corres. Fed. Mex._, Nov. 27, 1826. - - [V-38] He sought refuge in the parish church, but was - pursued by the crowd. His only safety lay in the pulpit, - the remonstrances of the religious, and the presence of - the host. The religious succeeded at times in calming the - rabble, promising that Flores should be sent into exile. - But Antonio Corzo, who was in the court-yard with a few - poorly armed militiamen, fired a volley upon the mob, which - became still more excited. The women dragged Flores from the - pulpit, took him out of the temple, 'y le inmolaron en un - claustro bárbara y horrorosamente.' _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, - 57-8. _Squier's Travels_, ii. 396, has it that the Indians - had been infuriated by the harangues of a friar from the - pulpit, and that the rabble slaughtered Flores at the very - foot of the altar, literally rending his body in pieces; - the apparent cause of this vindictiveness of the priests - being that in the general levy of taxes for the state the - property of the convents had not been spared. 'And thus was - the movement started by the aristocrats, seconded by their - allies, the priests.' Ex-president Morazan, referring to that - catastrophe, uses these words: 'Puesto en manos de un feroz - populacho, instigado por las funestas ideas que le inculcaron - sus sacerdotes, pereció al pié de las imágenes de los santos, - á la vista de sus inicuos jueces, y en presencia de la - eucaristía, que estos cubrieran.' _Apuntes_, MS., 4. Flores - had been noted for his charity to the poor, specially to the - Indians, to whom he constantly gave medical aid, medicines, - and other necessaries. The state assembly, after being - restored in 1829, decreed honors to his memory, and ordered - placed in its hall of sessions an inscription in letters of - gold, as follows: 'Al inmortal Vice-jefe Ciudadano Cirilo - Flores, mártir de la Libertad, sacrificado en Quezaltenango, - en las aras de la ley.' In May 1831 the name of Ciudad Flores - was given in his honor to the head town of the district of - Peten. _Marure_, _Efem._, 17, 28. - - [V-39] The liberals looked upon it as the result of an - arrangement of Arce and his partisans; the latter declared - it to have resulted from an accident, or rather from violent - acts on the part of liberals in Quezaltenango, such as - forcibly taking horses in the night from private houses and - the Franciscan convent. Marure states that he thoroughly - examined every document bearing on the subject, and found no - evidence against Arce or his party. _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, - i. 275-85. The author of _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 58, acquits - _Arce_, attributing the act to a sudden popular excitement. - See also _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 15; _Crowe's Gospel_, - 127-8; _Pineda_, in _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, iii. 348; - _Corres. Fed. Mex._, Nov. 9, 1826; _Doc._, in _Arce_, _Mem._, - 32-3. - - [V-40] There was an effort toward reconciliation, the - liberals offering to make concessions, and Arce favoring - their proposals; but the serviles haughtily refused. - - [V-41] Owing, it was said, to the publication of a pontifical - bull, which, under Arce's exequatur, had been restricted to - Guatemala by the archbishop, a step that Delgado supposed - to have been by Arce's instigation, or at least a lack of - interest on his part for San Salvador. _Mem. Rev. Cent. - Am._, 60. Arce himself attributed the estrangement to party - intrigues. _Mem._, 60. Dunlop, _Cent. Am._, 165, assigns - disputes about the erection of the bishopric as the cause of - the rupture. - - [V-42] Arce, _Mem._, 61, finds fault with Prado's act, when - his own had been just as illegal. - - [V-43] Colonel Milla invaded the state with a federal force, - captured Comayagua on the 9th of May, 1827, and arrested - the jefe of the state, Herrera. The whole was a wanton - proceeding. _Morazan_, _Apuntes_, MS., 6-9. - - [V-44] The commander of the Salvadorans was unable to explain - his illegal proceeding. _Doc._, in _Arce_, _Mem._, 45-6. - - [V-45] Detailed accounts, with copies of the official - exaggerated reports, are given in _Gaz. de Méx._, Apr. 26 - till May 1 and May 22, 1827; _Marure_, _Efem._, 19; _Mem. - Rev. Cent. Am._, 62-4. Decree of government of Guatemala on - the subject, March 28, 1827. _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, i. 250. - - [V-46] Beltranena and several of Arce's officers disapproved - the retaliatory plan. Aycinena, on the contrary, favored it, - though willing to abide by Arce's decision. - - [V-47] Both districts had seceded from the state government - of Salvador, attaching themselves to the federal cause. - - [V-48] He committed the error of entertaining peace - proposals, which were made only to gain time. He endeavored - to explain it away on the plea of Cent. Am. brotherhood: - 'Puedo yo dejar de tener un corazon Centro Americano? No - es posible.' _Arce_, _Mem._, 69. On the same and following - pages is a detailed account of the action, carefully worded - and extolling the bravery of his Guatemalan soldiers. - The official reports are in _El Sol_, Mex., July 3, 1827; - _Marure_, _Efem._, 19. - - [V-49] The government of Salvador had in May made peace - proposals, but the federal authorities rejected them. - _Docs._, in _Arce_, _Mem._, 47-57. - - [V-50] It was decided in secret session of the state assembly - on the 16th of Oct. that the state had a right to intervene, - and if it was ignored, and treaties displeasing to the state - were concluded, the latter should detach itself from the - federation, and its troops continue occupying the towns they - then held. Arce's letter of Oct. 17, 1827, to Brig. Cáscaras, - in _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 22. - - [V-51] It may have been of his own seeking, for he must have - seen ere this the great difficulty of conquering San Salvador - with his small force, and that to continue longer in the - field would only bring him into further disrepute. - - [V-52] Ex-marqués de Aycinena, brother of the jefe of - Guatemala, called the decree impolitic, illegal, and - arbitrary. The serviles could see that it would restore - the old congress, so hostile to them; and with a majority - against them in both houses, they might have to resort to - the dangerous expedient of driving away the senators and - deputies at the point of the bayonet. It was ridiculous in - them to rail against arbitrariness, when they had arbitrarily - deposed Barrundia in Guatemala and Herrera in Honduras. It - was arbitrary to keep the nation without a congress, which - was their work. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 9, 23. - - [V-53] Three brothers Merino, and a Frenchman named - Soumaestra. Rafael Merino was made commander-in-chief. _Mem. - Rev. Cent. Am._, 75; _Arce_, _Mem._, 77. - - [V-54] Near the hill of La Trinidad the federal forces which - had control of Honduras were defeated by Nicaraguans and - Salvadorans under Lieut-col Remigio Diaz. _Marure_, _Efem._, - 20. - - [V-55] It is difficult to see how the Guatemalans could place - faith on pledges so often violated; evidently given to gain - time. - - [V-56] This ended the second campaign between Salvadorans and - Guatemalans. - - [V-57] This army was to be used, first in subduing Salvador, - and next Guatemala, where Arce encountered more and more - opposition to his plans. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 81-2. - - [V-58] The commissioners, as agreed upon, were to meet at - Jutiapa. Those of the general government went there and - waited several days; no Salvadorans appeared. - - [V-59] The mutiny took place at Xalpatagua on the 9th of Feb. - _Marure_, _Efem._, 20; _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 83-5. Aycinena - wrote his cousin Antonio, who was in the theatre of war, that - in order to hinder all peace arrangements, measures would be - resorted to that were unknown even to Machiavelli. The mutiny - against Perks was evidently one of these measures. - - [V-60] He alleged as a reason the unwillingness of Salvador - to enter into negotiations as long as he remained at the head - of affairs. _Arce_, _Mem._, 84-7. The real cause, however, - was a resolution of the assembly of Guatemala demanding his - resignation, and he was unable to disregard it. This course - of the assembly was altogether illegal, but the time for the - expiation of Arce's political sins had arrived. According - to his own statement, he retired to his plantations at Santa - Ana. - - [V-61] This was the most bloody fight of the war of 1826-9, - and opened the third campaign between Guatemala and Salvador. - _Marure_, _Efem._, 21. - - [V-62] Their supply of ammunition had been destroyed by fire, - and their commander had received a serious contusion. This - fight has been since known as the 'ataque del viérnes santo,' - having taken place on good-friday, March 12, 1828. _Id._, 21. - - [V-63] April 13th, action of Quelepa, in which the - Salvadorans were defeated. With that victory, and another at - Guascoran on the 25th of the same month, the whole department - of San Miguel was brought under subjection to the federal - government. June 12th, peace stipulations were signed at the - house of Esquibel, Manuel F. Pavon acting for the federal - government and Matías Delgado for Salvador, by which the - former was to be recognized by the latter, a general diet - was to meet at Santa Ana, and a federal force occupy San - Salvador; but the Salvador government refused to sanction the - arrangement, and the war continued with more fury than ever. - Details on those preliminaries are given in _Mem. Rev. Cent. - Am._, 100-1. July 6th, battle of Gualcho, on the banks of - the Lempa, in the department of San Miguel, between Hondurans - and Guatemalans. The latter, under Col. Dominguez, hitherto - victorious, were utterly defeated. _Marure_, _Efem._, 21-2; - _El Espíritu Púb._, Jan. 18, 1829. - - [V-64] Arzú had abandoned them to their fate. _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, i. 47-51. - - [V-65] _Morazan_, _Apuntes_, MS.; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, - i. 53-4. Thus ended disastrously for the federal forces - their third invasion of Salvador territory. The actions of - Gualcho and San Antonio were the first in which the great - Central American soldier and statesman Francisco Morazan - figured as a general. Morazan will stand in history in many - respects as the best, and in all as the ablest, man that - Central America had. He was born in Honduras in 1799, his - father being a French creole from the W. I., and his mother - of Tegucigalpa, in Honduras. His education was such as he - could obtain in the country at that time; but his quickness - of apprehension and thirst for knowledge soon placed him far - above his countrymen. He was of an impetuous temperament, and - possessed at the same time great decision and perseverance. - His bearing was free and manly, and his manner frank and - open. These qualities could not fail to and did secure him - the love and respect of his fellow-citizens, giving him an - immense influence over them. In 1824 he was already occupying - the position of secretary-general of Honduras, and later - was senator, and for a time acting jefe of that state; but - his temperament soon made him turn his attention to martial - affairs. He ever after was noted as a republican of very - liberal views. _Squier's Travels_, ii. 400; _Dunlop's Cent. - Am._, 170-1; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 17. The writer of - _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 92, says that Morazan had been at - one time a clerk in a notary's office at Comayagua, where he - 'habia dado á conocer disposiciones muy felices, pero poco - honrosas, para la imitacion de letras ó firmas.' It has been - said that Morazan joined the party opposed to the existing - federal government at the instigation of Pedro Molina. - _Gaceta de S. Salv._, Oct. 3, 1851. A portrait of Morazan is - given in _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 72. - - [V-66] It has been asserted that he offered his services to - Salvador, and was slighted, _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 97-8, - which finds confirmation in Arce's own statement. _Mem._, - 88-9. Squier has it that Arce went to Mexico, _Travels_, ii. - 402; but this seems to be a mistake, for he was in Guatemala - in 1829. - - [V-67] A few days previously, on the 20th, the assembly of - Guatemala decreed a renewal of all the powers of the state, - with the vain purpose of removing one of the obstacles to the - termination of the war. _Marure_, _Efem._, 22. - - [V-68] Prado and Morazan offered peace to the Guatemalans - on condition that the federal government should be fully - restored. _El Espíritu Púb._, Feb. 14, 1829. - - [V-69] He established his general headquarters in Ahuachapan, - whence raids were constantly made into the enemy's territory. - - [V-70] This took place on the 22d of Jan., 1829. The - sedition, though soon quelled, rather hastened the action of - Morazan with his allied Salvador and Honduras force. - - [V-71] The repulse was so unimportant, however, that Morazan - does not even mention it in his memoirs. _Marure_, _Efem._, - 23; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 61. - - [V-72] _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 123; _Marure_, _Efem._, 23, - gives the 18th as the date. Morazan, _Apuntes_, MS., 14, - says with reference to that defeat, 'Cerda acreditó en esta - derrota su ineptitud y cobardía y el enemigo su crueldad - con el asesinato de los vencidos.' After that the town was - given the title of Villa de la Victoria; but later resumed - its original name. This defeat was exaggerated in San - Salvador, where it was reported that Morazan was besieged in - La Antigua, and preparations to meet another invasion were - hastily made. - - [V-73] Morazan might have been besieged in La Antigua; for - during his stay there he despatched a force to Quezaltenango, - that should have been followed by another from Guatemala, - and destroyed between the latter and the few forces that - Irisarri might have brought against it in the hard roads of - Istaguacan and Laja; instead of which, Irisarri retreated - toward Soconusco, to be afterward undone and taken prisoner. - Morazan's force occupied Los Altos, took many prisoners, - levied contributions which Irisarri had failed to get from - the Quezaltecs, and left the enemy powerless to recuperate. - _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 124; _Morazan's Memoirs_, quoted in - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 63. - - [V-74] March 6, 1829. The disaster occurred at San Miguelito. - _Morazan_, _Apuntes_, MS., 15. The place received, for that - reason, the name of San Miguel Morazan. The Frenchman Raoul, - now a general under Morazan, figures prominently in the - military operations at this time. - - [V-75] On the 15th of March. _Marure_, _Efem._, 23; - _Morazan_, _Apuntes_, MS., 15; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. - 62-3. - - [V-76] The federal force that succumbed in Las Charcas was - commanded by their mayor-general, Agustin Prado, not Col - Pacheco, as supposed by some. The federals had no general - now. Cáscaras had lost his reputation, and was distrusted - by the serviles. Arzú would not take the command, or was not - trusted on account of his ill success in the third invasion - of Salvador. Morazan had defeated Milla, Dominguez, Aycinena, - Pacheco, and Prado. _Id._, 63-4. - - [V-77] The representatives were, Arbeu for Vice-president - Beltranena, Pavon for Guatemala, Espinosa for Salvador, and - Morazan for Honduras and Nicaragua. The last propositions - of Espinosa and Morazan were the following, namely: 1st. - That a provisional government should be formed in Guatemala, - composed of the chief of the state Mariano Aycinena, Mariano - Prado, and Morazan; 2d. That the two armies should be reduced - to 1,000 men, Guatemalans and Salvadorans in equal parts; - 3d. That the provisional government should be installed in - Pinula, and afterward enter Guatemala with that force to - give it strength and preserve order in the state; 4th. A - general forgetfulness of the past. _Morazan_, _Apuntes_, MS., - 5, 16; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 65. It is claimed, - on the other hand, that Morazan really wanted the federal - vice-president and the chief of the state of Guatemala - to throw up their offices, the legislative assembly and - representative council to cease exercising their functions; - and that of 1826, sitting at La Antigua, and which had made - Zenteno chief, was also to dissolve; the supreme court of - justice was to stop acting. Meantime, and until new elections - took place, Morazan was to be clothed with executive, - representative, and judicial powers. Under the pretext - of restoring the sway of law and constitutional order, a - dictatorship, emanating from a war treaty, would have been - created, whose sole object was to reward the victor with - an unlimited authority. The commissioners of the federal - and Guatemalan governments refused to accede, and presented - counter-propositions of a different nature, namely, to the - effect that the existing high functionaries should resign - their powers, and a provisional government be established, - with one representative from each state, to govern till new - elections and the restoration of the constitutional régime. - There were also propositions respecting the government of - the state of Guatemala. Full details in _Mem. Rev. Cent. - Am._, 125-9, 231-6, which are widely different from those in - _Morazan_, _Apuntes_, MS., 16. The government of Mexico, at - the request of that of Guatemala, tendered its mediation on - the 20th of February, but it arrived too late, and there was - nothing left for it to do but to tender the hospitalities - of the Mexican soil to the victims of persecution. The full - correspondence is to be found in _Méx._, _Mem. Rel._, 1830, - 2-3; also in _Suarez y Navarro_, _Hist. Méj._, 407-14; this - authority claims that Mexican mediation might have been - finally successful in restoring peace but for the opposition - of the new chief of Guatemala. - - [V-78] A long account of the alleged outrages of Morazan's - forces appears in _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 132-3. Marure, - _Efem._, 24, in referring to the capture of Guatemala, makes - no mention of any such abuses. - - [V-79] Morazan's answer was addressed to Gen. Aycinena, - not recognizing the latter as chief of Guatemala, Juan - Barrundia's term not having expired when Arce deposed him, - in consequence of which act Aycinena rose to that position. - The dissolved authorities of 1826 were now assembled in La - Antigua, and Morazan held relations with them. Aycinena had - changed his tone; he was no longer the man of the manifestoes - of 1827, of the proscriptive decrees, nor of the stringent - military orders of the first months of 1829. He did not - now call his opponents 'un puñado de enemigos del órden, - descamisados y forajidos.' _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. - 72-5, 79-86. - - [V-80] Astaburuaga, _Cent. Am._, 18, erroneously places the - surrender on the 20th. The terms of the capitulation are - given in _Arce_, _Mem._, 98-4; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, - i. 76-7. Only the life and property of the inhabitants - were guaranteed; the vanquished were in all else subject to - the good-will of the victor. José Milla y Vidaurre, in his - biographical sketch of Manuel Francisco Pavon, who figured - in these events, claims that the capitulation was contrary - to Aycinena's wishes, who was ready to defend the place foot - by foot. Montúfar, quoted above, denies the statement, adding - that it was advanced solely to make the chief of the serviles - and head man of the nobles appear as a hero, and refers to - the correspondence, which will show Aycinena quite anxious to - accept the guarantee of life and property. - - [V-81] According to Miguel García Granados, who in later - years was a liberal leader and acting president of Guatemala, - Arce had remained unmolested at his house in sight of the - besiegers during the three days' attack. _Id._, 103. - - [V-82] This was done pursuant to orders from the governments - of the states. So says Morazan himself, adding that the - measure was in consonance with his own views, to reduce the - number of prisoners to a minimum, 'y tenia tambien por objeto - poner en absoluta incapacidad de obrar á los principales - jefes que habian llevado la guerra á los Estados.' _Apuntes_, - MS., 16-17. - - [V-83] He took charge of the provisional government at the - end of April. Mariano Zenteno, who had held the position - ad int., was given a vote of thanks for his patriotism and - courage. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 127. - - [V-84] The federal authorities alleged that their soldiers - only had 431 muskets, and not 1,500, as demanded from them. - _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 236-9. Morazan says that soldiers were - allowed to leave the city with their arms, infringing the 4th - clause of the capitulation, and he could get only evasive - answers. _Apuntes_, MS., 17; _Arce_, _Mem._, 58-9, 98-103, - from which the conclusion will be drawn that the charges - against the federal party were not unfounded. _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, i. 109-17. On this subject Morazan himself - said: 'No one was put to death, or had money exacted from - him by me. The capitulation was faithfully carried out, - even after being annulled. Duty gave way to magnanimity, and - there was no cause to regret it. Not that there was no blood - to avenge, grievance to punish, and reparation to demand. - Among many other victims sacrificed, there were, calling - for vengeance, generals Pierzon and Merino, the one shot, - without even the form of a trial, the other taken out of a - Chilian vessel on which he intended to return to Guayaquil, - his country, to be murdered in the city of San Miguel. There - were, besides, the burning and plundering of the towns of - Salvador and Honduras, which demanded a just reparation.' - _Apuntes_, MS., 10, 17. - - [V-85] He called them to the palace, and some of them - mistaking the object of the summons made their appearance - in full uniform. When all were assembled they were taken to - prison and kept in confinement till July 9th, when most of - them were sent out of the country. _Marure_, _Efem._, 24. - - [V-86] _Marure_, _Efem._, 24. - - [V-87] Among its acts was one recognizing the services of - Morazan, to whom was due its reinstallation. He was voted - a gold medal, with the word 'benemérito' before his name. - A full-length portrait was ordered placed in the hall - of sessions. The decree, however, was never carried out. - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 129; _Marure_, _Efem._, 25. - - [V-88] 'Son reos de alta traicion, y como tales, acreedores á - la pena capital.' _Arce_, _Mem._, 108; _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, - 151; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 130. - - [V-89] The text is given in full in _Id._, 131-4; _Mem. Rev. - Cent. Am._, 253-7; _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, i. 254-6. - - [V-90] 'Y por lo mismo sujetos á la jurisdiccion militar de - los mismos Estados.' _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 134-5. - - [V-91] Crowe, _Gospel Cent. Am._, 131, erroneously asserts - that all their property was confiscated. - - [V-92] Arce addressed to Morazan a most virulent protest. - He afterward boasted that he had bearded the tyrant. The - very fact that he dared to send such a document, and did - not lose his head, proves that Morazan was not a tyrant. - _Arce_, _Mem._, 113-14. Antonio José Irisarri, Manuel and - Juan Montúfar, protested before the assembly and government - of Salvador, before the assemblies of all the states of - the union, before Gen. Morazan, before all the republics of - America, and before all the free people of the world. The - document was drawn up by Irisarri, who was not a soldier, - though a colonel of militia; the language was pure and - elegant, but it was virulent and full of sophistry. Irisarri - also in several publications boasted of his courage in having - sent such a document. He must have known that it would not - have any effect on Morazan. The latter was a generous man. - The effect would have been different on Rafael Carrera, whom - the serviles at a later period made their master, as well as - of the whole country. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 135-6. - - [V-93] Marure has it in _Efem._, 25; _Montúfar_, _Reseña - Hist._, i. 137-9. - - [V-94] Portrait in _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 138. - - [V-95] The senate, dissolved in 1826, was reinstalled July - 9th. _Marure_, _Efem._, 25. - - [V-96] Arce, _Mem._, 122-3, and _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, - 167-9, assert that they were not even allowed to make - preparations for the journey, and many had furthermore to - start on foot. The decree of expatriation was not, however, - issued till August 22d, and José del Valle is said to have - been its author. The persons thus exiled for life were - Arce and Beltranena, and their ministers, Aycinena and - his secretaries, Cáscaras, Villar, and other high military - officers, Spaniards not naturalized that served the usurping - governments, and many other prominent officers. Others were - expatriated for various terms of years. _Montúfar_, _Reseña - Hist._, i. 144-50; _Marure_, _Efem._, 26. Arce and Aycinena - left Guatemala on the 7th of Sept. They were required to - reside in the U. S. of Am.; embarked at Omoa for Belize, and - thence went to New Orleans. - - [V-97] Dunlop, _Cent. Am._, 177, and Squier, _Travels_, ii. - 408, speak of plots against the republic as the reason, but - it was probably what the liberal party alleged. - - [V-98] This step was subsequently approved by the federal - congress. _Marure_, _Efem._, 25; _Rocha_, _Código Nic._, ii. - 373. The friars sent away were the Dominicans, Franciscans, - and Recollects. Those of the order of Mercy were not - banished; they were but few, and had not been active against - the liberal cause. The Bethlehemite hospitallers, who devoted - their time to teaching and to the care of convalescents, - were also allowed to remain. The author of _Mem. Rev. Cent. - Am._, 170, says that the exiled priests were on the passage - vilely treated, for they were allowed only sailors' rations. - Montúfar confesses that it is not likely that the 289 friars - had the succulent viands that were usually prepared for them - in their convents, nor the dainty dishes they were so often - favored with from the nuns, beatas, and all the daughters - of confession. As for the archbishop, he journeyed with - every comfort. Juan B. Asturias, who made the inventory of - his property, reported on 31st of Dec., 1829, that $218 had - been paid for a saddled mule to take the archbishop to the - coast; he was allowed $2,000 for the expenses of his journey, - and $1,008.50 were given to the pages for conveying him and - his effects. A person having all that cannot be said to be - unprovided with edibles. Saint Peter would not have needed so - much. _Reseña Hist._, i. 156-7. - - [V-99] In June 1830 he was declared a traitor. It has been - said that it was because he accepted a pension of $3,000 - from the Spanish government at Habana. Archbishop Casaus was - later appointed to administer the vacant see of Habana, and - held the office till his death. The above-mentioned law was - revoked by the constituent assembly on the 21st of June, - 1839, and Casaus was restored to all his former rights, - and recognized as legitimate archbishop. He was repeatedly - invited to return, but never would do so. _Guat._, _Recop. - Leyes_, i. 242-3. - - [V-100] This declaration was subsequently confirmed by - all the states. At a later time—Feb. 27, 1834—a further - step was taken to consummate the suppression of monastic - establishments, ordaining that the authorities should not - retain the nuns refusing to reside in the convents where - they professed. These measures continued in force till June - 21, 1839, when the second constituent assembly of Guatemala - repealed them, decreeing, consequently, the reëstablishment - of the suppressed convents. _Marure_, _Efem._, 25. - - [V-101] He had been declared elected on the 22d of Aug., - 1829. Antonio Rivera Cabezas had been chosen vice-jefe. - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 172-4, giving also a portrait - of Molina. - - [V-102] Because the number of Guatemalan representatives in - the federal congress would be greatly decreased. Moreover, - several of the best public buildings in the city would become - national property. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 200. - - [V-103] By his plan a congress representing the entire union - was to wield the executive powers in foreign affairs. The - scheme fell through, owing to the little interest shown - by the states, and to the powerful opposition of persons - holding or aspiring to federal offices, among the most - prominent being Morazan. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 201-3, dwells - extensively and comments on the subject. - - [V-104] Full particulars in _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. - 205-17. - - [V-105] This report came from Gen. Mariano Mantilla, - commanding the Colombian district of the Magdalena, dated - Jan. 8, 1829, and addressed to the jefe of Nicaragua. It was - a long time in getting to Guatemala, and the government and - Gen. Morazan at once made preparations for the defence of the - coast. - - [V-106] See my _Hist. Mex._, v. 72-6. - - [V-107] Under this decree some of the Spanish property was - sold; but after a while, upon the receipt of favorable news - from Mexico, and when there was a quasi certainty that Spain - would not again make such attempts as that against Tampico, - the law was revoked. But property already sold was declared - to be legally disposed of, adding that the former owners - should not be indemnified therefor till Spain had recognized - Central American independence. The texts of both the federal - and Guatemalan decrees may be seen in _Montúfar_, _Reseña - Hist._, i. 182-7. - - _Memorias para la Historia de la Revolucion de Centro - América. Por un Guatemalteco._ Jalapa, 1832. 16mo, 257 pp. - The authorship of these memoirs was attributed by - well-informed men, namely, Morazan, ex-president of Central - America, and the distinguished statesman and diplomate of - that country, Lorenzo Montúfar, to Manuel Montúfar, who had - been chief of staff of the first president of the republic, - Manuel José Arce. The work begins with the geography and - political and ecclesiastical divisions of the country, - accompanied with data on each of the states and - territories; namely, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Poyais, - Honduras, Salvador, Guatemala, and Chiapas, together with - some remarks on mining and other industries, military - defences, and financial condition. The political portion, - as the author himself acknowledges, is loosely put - together, and lacks many necessary details, which he - attributes to absence from home when the first sheets went - to the press. He claims, however, to have impartially and - correctly narrated the events of Cent. Am. history from - 1820 to 1829. This to some extent is true; nevertheless - there crops out in places class-bias, particularly in - describing the events from 1826 to 1829, by the ideas which - prevailed in the moderado, otherwise called servile, party, - in which he was affiliated and serving, and for whose acts - he, like many others, was driven into exile after the - defeat of that party on the field of battle. - - _Manuel José Arce_, _Memoria de la Conducta Pública y - Administrativa de ... durante el período de su - presidencia._ Mex., 1830. 8vo, p. 140 and 63. This work - purports to be a defence of his administration by the first - president of the republic of Central America, against what - he calls the slanders heaped upon his name by those who - rebelled against the government and the nation, with - documents bearing on the revolts, the whole having been - prepared while the author was in exile. The book is a - disconnected, disjointed patchwork, incomplete in its - various records of events, and indicates, as does Arce's - career, a weak character. A number of meaningless and inapt - quotations from the old classics and from law-books help to - confuse the narrative still more. - - - [VI-1] Most of them had been agents of Milla, and contributed - to the overthrow of the state government. A number had moved - to Guatemala, Salvador, and elsewhere. The most prominent - in the list were the ex-provisor, Nicolás Irias, and Pedro - Arriaga. The latter was sent out of the country from the - port of Omoa. He had been Milla's chief agent and adviser, - and brought about the destruction by fire of Comayagua, his - native place. This will account for his hostility in after - years to liberals, and for his active coöperation with the - despots of Guatemala. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 190. - - [VI-2] The pretext for the movement was to resist a moderate - tax established by the legislature; the real object was to - bring on a reaction. - - [VI-3] The friendship existing between Barrundia and Molina, - from the earliest period of their political life, previous to - the independence, became weakened, threatening a disruption - of the liberal party. The disagreement was increased by - Molina's opposition to the federal government remaining in - Guatemala. - - [VI-4] The same who made the revolt of Xalpatagua, murdered - Gen. Merino at San Miguel, and was defeated at Gualcho. - - [VI-5] _Marure_, _Efem._, 26. - - [VI-6] Forty-one of them, including the clergyman Antonio - Rivas, were sentenced to military duty in the castle of San - Felipe for five years. Father Rivas, after serving out his - term, said that he was an innocent victim and a martyr of - religion, and prayed upon the liberals all the maledictions - of the 108th psalm. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 196. - - [VI-7] Composed of the citizens Nicolás Espinosa, José - Antonio Larrave, Manuel José de la Cerda, and Jacobo Rosa. - - [VI-8] Barrundia did not want the position, and did not - work for it. He wished Morazan to be elected. Morazan had - in his favor the prestige of a victorious general. He was - somewhat in the position of Bonaparte when he returned from - Egypt. Valle was recognized to be the best informed man of - Central America; none could compete with him in literary - or scientific attainments. In politics he was always an - opponent of the aristocracy, who execrated his memory, and - even impudently pretended to deny his literary merits. But - we have seen elsewhere that he was not, like Barrundia, - an uncompromising opponent of all governments not based on - democracy and republicanism. He compromised with the Mexican - empire, was a deputy to the imperial congress, where he made - a brilliant record, and became a minister of the emperor, who - sent him to prison when he dissolved the congress. After the - emperor's overthrow, Valle maintained that the provinces of - Central America were free to act their own pleasure. He was a - popular man, but Morazan's victorious sword eclipsed all else - just then. _Id._, 268. - - [VI-9] It was the same question that occurred in 1825 - between Arce and Valle. The congress at that time, in order - to exclude Valle, decided in favor of the former. Valle - published pamphlets in favor of the latter principle, and the - congress of 1830 acted upon his arguments. - - [VI-10] Among the warmest were those of the legislature of - Guatemala. The spokesman for the committee presenting them - was Alejandro Marure. - - [VI-11] This was a common course with our brethren across the - Atlantic. _Marure_, _Efem._, 27; _Squier's Travels_, ii. 414. - - [VI-12] This was on the 21st of Nov., at about 11 p. m. - - [VI-13] _Larrainzar_, _Soconusco_, 80; _Morazan y Carrera_, - MS., no. 3, 9, say troops from Mexico, which is doubtful. - - [VI-14] Details on this campaign are given in _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, i. 348-65. - - [VI-15] The national armed schooner _Deseada_ took the - _Ejecutivo_. The Spanish flags that waved over the fort - and the latter vessel were dragged through the streets of - Guatemala, tied to the tails of horses, on the day of the - national anniversary. Ramon Guzman was executed at Omoa - on the 13th of Sept., by order of Col Agustin Guzman, who - commanded, Terrelonge being bedridden by a serious illness. - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 377-81; _Marure_, _Efem._, 29. - - [VI-16] A man who, though amenable to exile under the law of - expulsion, had been pardoned at his repeated supplications. - - [VI-17] Duplessis died like a hero. His execution was a - murder, similar to that of Gen. Merino. Both instances - served as an example of what the liberals might expect if the - serviles got the upper hand again. - - [VI-18] Among them were a number of rosaries and prayers to - the virgin of Guadalupe, supposed to possess the power of - benumbing the enemy in the fight. - - [VI-19] He is said not to have shown at the hour of his - execution that courage which was manifested by his victims at - the scaffold. - - [VI-20] It was probably unfounded; and yet the fact stands - that though often requested to make Arce reside farther - in the interior, the Mexican authorities never did it. - Arce recruited his men, issued proclamations, and built - forts undisturbed by the Chiapanec officials, who, on the - other hand, exerted themselves to hinder the action of the - government forces. - - [VI-21] This man was a servile at heart, and undoubtedly - had secret relations with the invaders; as was shown in the - proclamation of Dominguez and Father Herrera, in the praises - the serviles awarded him, and in his rebellion. _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, i. 334, 382. - - [VI-22] It is understood they were jealous in Salvador - of Guatemala's influence in the federal policy. Cornejo - claimed that what he wanted was reforms in the national - constitution. Reforms were certainly necessary, and if they - had been adopted in good faith by the states, the union - might have been saved. The executive had no participation - in the framing of laws, either directly or indirectly; he - had not the sanction of them, nor could he veto or suspend. - It was the senate, as the council of the government, that - sanctioned the laws. That body, elected very like the - chamber of deputies, was the judge of ministers and other - functionaries. It nominated the officials, and at the same - time had legislative, administrative, and judicial powers. - The president of the republic had no independent place of - abode, and was ever at the mercy of the state where the - federal government had its seat; at best, he was the object - of that state's benevolent hospitality. On the other hand, he - was the target of all the assaults promoted by the spirit of - localism for or against that state. It was therefore evident - that a federal district was a necessity; one which the states - would look upon as common property, and would foster and - advance. - - [VI-23] Galvez' record is not clean in the eyes of many - liberals. He had belonged to the imperial party, and had been - leagued with the aristocracy. He was a patriot, it is true, - but his patria was Guatemala; his patriotism did not embrace - all Central America. Such is the opinion given of him, with - his portrait, by Montúfar, in _Reseña Hist._, i. 296. - - [VI-24] Besides, Cornejo had officially said that Morazan had - neither supporters nor prestige in Salvador. - - [VI-25] Galvez had wanted arrangements made to repel - invaders, but leaving Cornejo, though he disliked his - indiscreet acts, in his position. Morazan was, on the - contrary, impressed with the idea that Cornejo's deposal was - a necessity. - - [VI-26] The act outlawed all persons who having been expelled - from Nicaraguan territory should uphold the authorities of - Salvador. Correspondence with the enemies of the country, or - any expression, verbal or written, favoring them, were made - punishable by death. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 338. - - [VI-27] Cornejo had consented to negotiate, believing the - force on the frontier to be controlled by Guatemala; but on - ascertaining that it was under Morazan's orders, and that - Galvez had merely intended a mediation without being recreant - to his federal obligations, his commissioners broke off the - conferences under various pretexts. - - [VI-28] It was a great mistake, perhaps, not to have given - the state time to reflect, when it might have gone back - quietly to the union. As it was, liberals were for the first - time arrayed against liberals, and the shedding of blood - begat animosities that never could be healed. The serviles, - of course, gladly fanned the flame. - - [VI-29] In fact, they hardly made any resistance. The - president's casualties were trifling. _Marure_, _Efem._, 30; - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 340. - - [VI-30] The following facts are taken from _Bosq. Hist. - Cent. Am._, lib. iii., chap. 14. Filisola in 1823 needed - 2,000 bayonets to take San Salvador. In 1827-8, Arce, Arzú, - and Montúfar failed to do it with an equal, if not a larger - force. In 1832 Morazan with only 800 men made himself - master of the place in less than two hours. The object of - these remarks was to show that no credit should be given to - Morazan's detractors in their attempts to lessen his military - reputation. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 343. - - [VI-31] There were 38 of them, including Cornejo and Antonio - J. Cañas. - - [VI-32] The new rulers, raised to power under the auspices of - the victor, declared those of 1831 and the beginning of 1832 - to have been illegitimate, and organized courts for the trial - of treason. The decrees of June 7 and 26, and July 28, 1832, - were severe; fortunately, they were not executed with the - same animosity displayed in enacting them. _Marure_, _Efem._, - 30. - - [VI-33] Nicaragua seceded Dec. 3, 1832; Guatemala, Jan. 27, - 1833; Salvador repeated her declaration on Feb. 13, 1833; - Honduras and Costa Rica separated themselves, respectively, - on the 19th of May and 18th of Sept., 1833. _Marure_, - _Efem._, 32; _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, i. 42-3; _Astaburuaga_, - _Cent. Am._, 20; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 184; _Crowe's Gospel_, - 134; _Squier's Travels_, ii. 417. - - [VI-34] 'Todos los habitantes de la república son libres para - adorar á Dios segun su conciencia, y que el gobierno nacional - les proteje en el ejercicio de esta libertad.' _Marure_, - _Efem._, 31. José F. Barrundia is said to have effectively - fathered this resolution. _Salv._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 12, 1854. - - [VI-35] July 8, 1833. Barrundia's speech in closing the - congress is given in _El Centro Americano_, July 11, 1833, - 57-69. - - [VI-36] This jealousy had developed during the states' rights - agitation. - - [VI-37] Guatemala rejected this convocation by an act of - June 2, 1833. _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, i. 240-1. A project - appeared in the _Centro Americano_ of June 11, 1833, 28-30, - to terminate the question of equal numerical representation - in congress for the five states. It was proposed to divide - the territory into three states of about the same population - each, the executive authority to be alternately held by the - presidents of the three states. The plan was impracticable. - - [VI-38] The adoption of such a plan by the federal congress - could not be secured until July 18, 1838. The decree of - convocation issued on that date was generally accepted, - and yet the diet never met till March 17, 1842. _Marure_, - _Efem._, 33. - - [VI-39] The correspondence between the state governments for - the strict vigilance on the coast of that state appears in - _El Centro Americano_, Oct. 18, 1833; _Montúfar_, _Reseña - Hist._, ii. 41-2. - - [VI-40] Pursuant to a resolution of the national congress - of June 25, 1833. As early as 1826 the government of - Salvador had tried to have the federal authorities reside - at least 40 leagues from Guatemala. Similar requests - had been subsequently made by other states; and even in - the legislature of Guatemala reiterated motions had been - presented to the same effect. But the federalist party, - as long as it was in the majority in congress, strenuously - opposed the removal, believing that it would bring about, as - it actually did, the downfall of the federal system, and the - dissolution of the federal authorities. _Marure_, _Efem._, - 34. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 58-9, remarks that - Marure when he wrote the first two volumes of his _Bosquejo - Histórico_ was a liberal; in his _Efemérides_, written - later, he speaks like a conservative. The change of tone is - attributed to the iron influence of the government from whom - he had a salary as a professor. Lastarría, in _La América_, - 250, erroneously attributes the transfer to Morazan's action - to break up the influence of the oligarchical party in - Guatemala. - - [VI-41] The affray lasted five hours; the federal force being - under Gen. Salazar, and that of Salvador under Col. José D. - Castillo. _Marure_, _Efem._, 36. - - [VI-42] Decree of vice-president of Sept. 1, 1834. - - [VI-43] The legislature of the state had made a cession of - the territory for the purpose on the 28th of Jan., 1835. On - the 9th of March, 1836, the district was enlarged by the - addition of Zacatecoluca. The national government had its - capital in San Salvador till the 3d of May, 1839, when the - assembly of San Salvador resumed possession of the whole - territory that had been ceded. _Id._, 37; _Montúfar_, _Reseña - Hist._, ii. 165-7. Dunlop, _Cent. Am._, 187, says that the - district occupied San Salvador and ten leagues of territory - surrounding it. _Squier's Travels_, ii. 419; _Crowe's - Gospel_, 136. - - [VI-44] The opposition came not only from the serviles, - but from not a few liberals. It contained many liberal and - equable modifications. _Marure_, _Efem._, 37, says it did not - contain 'las alteraciones sustanciales que reiteradas veces - se habian propuesto por las legislaturas de los estados,' - for which reason it was not accepted by the states, except - Costa Rica, which expressed assent May 7, 1835. Squier, - _Travels_, ii. 422, also says that only Costa Rica expressed - an acceptance of the proposed constitution, adding that - the opposing states wanted different, and in most cases - irreconcilable, reforms. Montúfar, _Reseña Hist._, ii. - 169-73, giving details, asserts that both Nicaragua and Costa - Rica accepted the reforms. - - [VI-45] The assembly of Guatemala decreed, after hearing - several eulogistic motions, that all the state officials - residing in the capital should wear the badge of mourning - three days; that the bells of the churches should be tolled - morning, noon, and eve of each day; that a portrait of Valle, - contributed by the members of the legislature, should be - placed in its hall of sessions; and that the other states - should be requested to make manifestations of sorrow for the - loss of their distinguished statesman and savant. Salvador, - on the 9th of Apr., 1834, decreed similar honors. Marure, in - his _Efemérides_, 35, bestows the highest praise on Valle. - 'Perdió Centro América, con el fallecimiento del licenciado - José del Valle, uno de sus mas distinguidos hijos.' This - remark is followed by a sketch of Valle's career, which has - been given by me elsewhere. Montúfar, _Reseña Hist._, ii. - 95-9, also eulogizes Valle and gives his portrait. - - [VI-46] It was so formally declared by the federal congress, - Feb. 2, 1835, with the clause that he should be placed in - possession of the office on the 14th. _Id._, 155-7. - - [VI-47] Feb. 15, 1835. _El Correo Atlántico_, May 9, 1835. - - [VI-48] The first colonists, 63 in all, arrived from London - on the schooner _Mary Ann Arabella_, under a Mr Fletcher. - Their settlement took the name of Abbotsville. _Marure_, - _Efem._, 38. - - [VI-49] Many of the immigrants died, while others returned - to England or went to the West Indies, but few remaining. - Dunlop, _Cent. Am._, 191, makes appropriate remarks on - the 'infatuation in Europeans to attempt colonizing on - pestiferous shores, under a burning sun, where no native of a - temperate region, not even those of the interior of the same - country, can enjoy tolerable health.' See also Astaburuaga's - comments on the undertaking. _Cent. Am._, 25. A glowing and - favorable account of the enterprise was issued as late as - 1839. See _Cent. Am., Brief Statement_, 1 _et seq._ - - [VI-50] On the 6th of March, 1837. _Marure_, _Efem._, 39; - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 353. - - [VI-51] B. Lambur, commissioned by Galvez, jefe of Guatemala, - to report on the origin and progress of the disease, wrote - from Aceituno April 3d: 'There can be no doubt that cholera - came by way of Omoa to Gualan, thence went to Zacapa and to - Esquipulas, this last-named town being the focus whence it - has irradiated with such velocity to the towns at present - infested.' Esquipulas is a species of Mecca which people from - all parts of Central America and Mexico visit in January of - each year, to worship an image of Christ, to which countless - miracles have been attributed. In the _Boletin de Noticias - del Cólera_ of Apr. 4, 1837, appear the following words, 'En - San Sur han muerto muchos romeristas de Esquipulas.' _Id._, - 351-3. The fact is, that the disease had been doing havoc in - the towns near the northern coast since Feb., and gradually - spread throughout the rest of the state and republic till - toward the end of the year, when it abated. The first case - in the city of Guatemala occurred on the 19th of April. - The mortality in that city during the invasion was 819, or - a little over the 44th part of the population, which was - much smaller than in other less populated cities. _Marure_, - _Efem._, 40. See also _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 193-4; _Salv. - Diario Ofic._, Feb. 14, 1875; _Rocha_, _Código Nic._, i. - 215-16; ii. 163-4. - - [VI-52] _Squier's Travels_, ii. 427-8. Montúfar, _Reseña - Hist._, ii. 370-2, gives copies of the documents that were - circulated. - - [VI-53] Such as making them swallow the contents of their - medicine-chests, or pouring water down their throats till - they died, a circumstance that was always looked upon as - an evidence of guilt. _Crowe's Gospel_, 141. Montgomery, - _Guat._, speaks of an Englishman who was nearly killed by the - water torture inflicted by an enraged Indian mob. - - [VI-54] On the plains of Ambelis, near Santa Rosa, - accompanied with imprecations against the ley de jurados - and the so-called 'envenenadores.' It was the beginning of a - struggle which, in less than two years, wrought a complete - change in public affairs. _Marure_, _Efem._, 41, copied by - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 353; _Squier's Travels_, ii. - 428. - - [VI-55] Tempsky, _Mitla_, 337, says that Carrera was born - in Santa Rosa, misled probably by the circumstance that the - first Indian outbreak under his lead occurred there. He was - born about 1815 or 1816, and was the illegitimate offspring - of Antonio Aycinena, a member of one of the chief families - of Guatemala, and of Manuela Carrillo, a servant in the - paternal mansion. Through the influence of the Aycinenas he - was immediately after his birth adopted by one Juana Rosa - Turcios, whose husband's name of Carrera the boy subsequently - was given. Such is the version of the author of a manuscript - written in July 1844, and entitled _Orígen de Carrera_, in - _Morazan y Carrera_, no. 4, 1 _et seq._, the authenticity - of which is made doubtful by some inaccuracies in other - statements, the object evidently being to give Carrera's - descent a little respectability. Stephens, _Cent. Am._, i. - 225, says that in 1829 he was a drummer-boy, leaving the - army after the capture of Guatemala by Morazan, and retiring - to Mataquescuintla, where he became a pig-driver, or, as - Montgomery, _Guat._, 143-4, has it, a dealer in hogs, having - risen in the federal army as high as corporal. Dunlop, _Cent. - Am._, 195, followed by _Crowe's Gospel_, 141, and _Squier's - Trav._, ii. 429, essentially confirms Stephens' statements. - Belly, _Nic._, i. 75, adds that Carrera was for a time - employed in the plantation of a Frenchman named Laumonier, - near La Antigua. Montúfar says of him: 'Un joven como de - 25 años, sin ninguna educacion, ni conocimientos de ningun - género, pues no conocia siquiera el abecedario. Los primeros - años de su vida los empleó, ya de sirviente doméstico, ya - de apacentador de cerdos, ya de peon en los trabajos de - campo.' The same authority refers to Milla's eulogies of - Carrera, where the words occur, 'Carrera á pesar de su falta - de educacion, y de los hábitos de la vida del campo,' which - might have secured for Milla lodgings in the dungeons of the - castle of Guatemala. The same writer repeats the assertion - often made against the jesuit Paul, later bishop of Panamá, - and raised to the position of archbishop of Bogotá, that he - said at Carrera's death, in his funeral oration, that the man - whose corpse was descending into the tomb was on the right - side of God the father. All repentant villains are given - some such post-mortem place by sympathizing ministers of the - gospel. - - [VI-56] In the early days they assured the Indians that he - was their protecting angel Rafael, and resorted to tricks to - favor the delusion. _Squier's Travels_, ii. 429-30. - - [VII-1] On the 15th of June. _Marure_, _Efem._, 41. Gen. - Carrascosa's report of his victory, with details, in - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 356-9. - - [VII-2] Among the sufferers was Carrera's wife, which - circumstance, it is said, awakened in him an implacable - hatred. _Stephens' Cent. Am._, i. 226; _Crowe's Gospel_, - 142. Montgomery, _Guat._, 144, states that Carrera was then - commanding a few men of the military cordon established - because of the epidemic, which he induced to rebel. - - [VII-3] The hostilities now carried on partook more of the - character of highway robbery than of orthodox war, both - parties being plundered; but the liberals were the greater - sufferers. - - [VII-4] The provisional government constituted at La - Antigua placed itself under the protection of the federal - authorities. _Marure_, _Efem._, 42. - - [VII-5] The division was created by José Francisco Barrundia. - It is said that he joined the discontented because the jefe - Galvez refused him a high office for one of his relatives. - _Stephens' Cent. Am._, i. 227. But looking over the - correspondence that passed between them in June 1837, the - conclusion is that the cause of the disagreement was not - a personal one. Barrundia opposed the convocation of the - assembly to an extra session, and all the decrees enacted by - it. The correspondence produced much sensation. Galvez ended - accusing Barrundia of having adopted, when he was president - of the republic, some measures similar to those he had now - censured. The most serious charge against Barrundia was his - persecution of Padre Rojas, to which the former answered - that the priest had been at the head of the insurgents who - proclaimed the Spanish domination on the Atlantic coast, - and though outlawed for that offence, was not executed. - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 377-407. - - [VII-6] The battalion La Concordia mutinied on the 26th of - January. - - [VII-7] Stephens, loc. cit., places these events in February, - but he is evidently mistaken. Marure, _Efem._, 43, gives the - 29th of Jan. as the date. - - [VII-8] At 4 P. M. of Jan. 28, 1838. _Id._, ii. 543. - - [VII-9] Galvez well knew of the relations existing between - Carrera and the revolutionists of La Antigua. The convention - of Guarda Viejo would have saved the situation. Had the - forces of the city, consisting of 411 men, been placed under - Morazan, they with those of Sacatepequez would have been too - strong for Carrera, and he would not have entertained the - idea that a powerful party looked to him for aid. - - [VII-10] Full details appear in Gen. Carrascosa's - correspondence given in _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. - 589-97. - - [VII-11] Among them were Miguel García Granados, the brothers - Arrivillaga, and their relations the Zepedas, together with - the Barrundias. - - [VII-12] He was in all this affair guided by the priests. - Barrundia was accused throughout Central America of having - brought about Carrera's invasion of the capital. The - serviles, who were responsible for all Carrera's iniquities, - have endeavored to place some of the odium on that patriot, - who had nothing to do with it. Indeed, had Barrundia gone - to Carrera's headquarters, he would probably have been shot. - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 573; _Squier's Travels_, ii. - 432. - - [VII-13] The chiefs of Sacatepequez had become convinced of - their inability to take the city, or even to properly besiege - it. - - [VII-14] Dunlop, _Cent. Am._, 198, and Crowe, _Gospel_, 143, - erroneously say it was on the 30th of January. - - [VII-15] _Marure_, _Efem._, 43, places this event on the 2d - of Feb., 1838. - - [VII-16] Carrera himself is described as having on a pair of - coarse frieze trousers, and a fine coat with gold embroidery - belonging to Gen. Prem, which had been taken by Monreal. - For a chapeau the new general wore a woman's hat with a - green veil, the property of Prem's wife, who was known as - La Colombiana. In lieu of decorations Carrera had on his - breast a number of 'escapularios del Cármen,' symbolizing the - religion he had come to protect. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, - ii. 574. - - [VII-17] It seems that a large portion of the men and women - had never seen a city before. - - [VII-18] The physician Quirino Flores, who belonged to the - opposition party, and was an intimate friend of Carrascosa - and Carballo, believing that his house would be a place of - safety, induced the vice-president and his family to use - it. It so happened that a small force of Galvez entered the - house, fired upon the invaders from the windows and retired. - The men fired upon were not of the force from La Antigua, - but some of Carrera's savage horde, called from that time - 'cachurecos,' who rushed into the house, fired upon the - family, wounding one of the women and a child, and killing - José Gregorio Salazar, the vice-president. Salazar was born - in San Salvador in 1793, and had two brothers, Cárlos, - the general, and Francisco, who as a captain was killed - in action on the 23d of June, 1834. José Gregorio Salazar - was one of the leaders in whom Morazan reposed the highest - trust. As senator, president of the senate, jefe of Salvador, - vice-president of the republic, and acting executive at such - times as Morazan assumed personal command of the troops, - Salazar unswervingly supported progressive principles. His - portrait shows a fine and intelligent face. The murder of - the vice-president, instead of calling for execration on the - part of the priests, Duran, Lobo, Nicolás Arellano, Antonio - Gonzalez, and others, only brought out their diatribes - against the victim. _Id._, 576-9. - - [VII-19] It was found at first difficult to elicit a - satisfactory answer from him. The pillaging, though not - officially decreed, had been carried on mostly in the houses - of foreigners. Charles Savage, U. S. consul at Guatemala, - has been highly praised for his intrepidity in protecting - from the infuriated Indians the foreign residents and their - property. _Montgomery's Guat._, 146; _Stephens' Cent. Am._, - i. 233-4. - - [VII-20] There being no money in the treasury, it was - borrowed from private persons. _Stephens' Cent. Am._, i. 227 - et seq., copied by Larenaudière, _Mexique et Guat._, 298-9. - The facts appear in the records of the asamblea. - - [VII-21] Had he resisted, the reënforced troops of La Antigua - would in all probability have defeated his undisciplined - rabble. This would not have suited Father Duran and the other - priests, who expected their own triumph through Carrera's - success. Those same priests aided Barrundia and Valenzuela - to rid the city of himself and his men. _Montúfar_, _Reseña - Hist._, ii. 584. - - [VII-22] The priest who seemed to exercise the greatest - influence on Carrera was named Lobo, a man of dissolute - character, who always accompanied him as a sort of - counsellor. - - [VII-23] _Los Altos, Manif. Document._, 1-28. The federal - congress ratified the separation on the 5th of June, - 1838; the departments were, however, reincorporated a year - after. _Marure_, _Efem._, 43; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 198; - _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 28. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, - iii. 9-23, furnishes a detailed account of the events - preceding and following the separation. The provisional - government then established was a triumvirate formed by - Marcelo Molina, José M. Galvez, and José A. Aguilar. - - [VII-24] Stephens, _Cent. Am._, i. 239-42, details some of - the military movements, which are not of sufficient interest - to reproduce here. Marure, _Efem._, 43-4, says that Morazan - attacked the rebels on the hill of Mataquescuintla; 'pero - despues de tres meses de combates, marchas, contramarchas, - y todo género de maniobras, el ejército de operaciones tiene - que replegarse á la capital ... sin haberse adelantado nada - en la pacificacion de aquellos pueblos.' - - [VII-25] On the 18th of June, 1838, the vice-jefe Valenzuela, - and the deputies Pedro Molina, José Gándara, José F. - Barrundia, Bernardo Escobar, Pedro Amaya, Felipe Molina, and - Mariano Padilla, laid a paper before the federal congress - on the war and its consequences. In this document they say, - among other things, that it had been moved in the asamblea - of Guatemala to authorize the restoration of the archbishop - and of the religious orders, to abolish divorce, and to - declare void the decrees of 1829, 'decretos que sostuvieron - entónces la revolucion en favor de las instituciones y de la - libertad.' They accuse the serviles of perversely attempting - to render the representatives of liberalism and progress - hateful in the eyes of the ignorant populace. _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, iii. 47. - - [VII-26] Arguments, cajolery, entertainments, and every - other possible means were employed to induce him to swerve - from the principles he had always upheld. Barrundia looked - aghast on their proceedings, and describing them, says it is - impossible to realize 'el envilecimiento, la miseria ruin de - este partido noble aristocrático.' The haughty patricians, - represented by Pavon, Batres, Aycinena, and their confreres, - fawned at his feet, covered him with flowers, disgusted him - with their flattery, feasted him to satiety, and patiently - bore his contemptuous rebuffs as long as they hoped to win - him over. After their failure, sarcasm, ridicule, and abuse - were heaped upon him and his name. Had Morazan's morals been - equal to those of the serviles, he might have accepted the - dictatorship, assumed the full powers, and then crushed them; - but he was an honest man, who always acted in good faith. - _Id._, 175-9. - - [VII-27] On the 30th of May it passed an act declaring - the states free to constitute themselves as they might - deem best, preserving, however, the popular representative - form of government. This amendment to the 12th art. of - the constitution of 1824 was accepted by all the states, - excluding the restrictions contained in the federal decree - of June 9, 1838, which was rejected by a majority of the - legislatures. _Marure_, _Efem._, 44-5. The federal congress - passed, on the 7th of July, 1838, an act as follows: 'The - federated states of Cent. Am. are, and by right should be, - sovereign, free, and independent political bodies.' _Guat._, - _Recop. Leyes_, i. 69. - - [VII-28] It was the spontaneous act of the citizens of the - capital, who, in view of the progress made by the rebels of - Mita, deemed it necessary to provide for their own safety. - Valenzuela resigned, on the 23d, the executive office into - the hands of the asamblea. _Marure_, _Efem._, 45; _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, iii. 181-5. Crowe, _Gospel_, 144, attributes - to Morazan the authorship of the act adopted by the citizens. - - [VII-29] On the 20th of July, 1838, he was required to give - himself up; failing to do so, a reward was offered for his - apprehension, alive or dead—$1,500 and two caballerías of - land, besides a full pardon for any offences against the laws - his captor or captors might have committed. _Stephens' Cent. - Am._, i. 242. - - [VII-30] Squier, _Travels_, ii. 435, says that Carrera - entered Guatemala; he probably meant Old Guatemala, or - La Antigua. Carrera, at Jalapa, had 2,000 men, while his - opponent, Col Manuel Bonilla, had about 500. The latter were - nearly annihilated. The few officers and soldiers who escaped - with life found refuge in Salvador territory. Carrera's - excesses at this time knew no bounds. He not only ravished - women, but amused himself cutting off their tresses and ears. - Some of these earless women entered the city of Guatemala, - and their stories produced great indignation. _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, iii. 204; _Marure_, _Efem._, 45. - - [VII-31] This action took place early in the morning of - Sept. 11th. Salazar at once despatched a courier to Guatemala - with the news of his success, which caused the utmost joy. - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iii. 206-8; _Marure_, _Efem._, - 46. Dunlop, _Cent. Am._, 201, asserts that no mercy was - shown by the federal troops in this encounter. By a decree - of Sept. 13, 1838, pensions were granted to the wounded, and - to the widows and orphans of the slain federals. Badges of - honor were also conferred on the survivors. _Guat._, _Recop. - Leyes_, ii. 636-7. - - [VII-32] This man's life was then spared, but some time - afterward he was shot, for which the serviles called Morazan - a murderer. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iii. 208. - - [VII-33] His resignation was made before the body of his - officers, which implied a disregard of the authority of the - government. The officers eluded all responsibility, alleging - that they had nothing to do with his resignation. The - government then revoked the extraordinary powers conferred on - him two months previously. _Marure_, _Efem._, 46. - - [VII-34] In the _Observador_ and the _Apéndice_. - - [VII-35] _Exhortacion cristiana que el vicario capitular ... - dirige á los pueblos, etc._, 17 p. - - [VII-36] Text of his funeral oration on the 14th of Sept. in - honor of the slain on the government side at Villanueva, in - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iii. 216-21. - - [VII-37] José Francisco Barrundia, who fought in that action, - said: 'He [Carrera] could have been captured or annihilated - had he been forthwith pursued; but no advantage was derived - from such a glorious victory, and in a few days vandalism - became again menacing.' Salazar was blamed, Montúfar thinks - unjustly. According to him, the victorious troops were - not in condition to pursue. This authority, partly on the - testimony of Gen. Carballo, lays the blame on Rivera Paz, who - had no interest in destroying a faction on which his party - relied in the emergency of Morazan refusing his aid to the - serviles. Morazan, on the 24th of Oct., declared martial law - in portions of Guatemala, peremptorily refused to listen to - the proposals of the recalcitrants, and marched to Guatemala, - leaving the government in charge of the vice-president, - Diego Vijil, whom congress had chosen to succeed the murdered - Salazar. _Id._, 223-6. - - [VII-38] His hordes committed all sorts of outrages in these - departments of Salvador. _Barrundia_, in _El Progreso_ of S. - Salv., 1850, no. 3. - - [VII-39] 'Les causó un descalabro de entidad la division del - coronel Carballo.' _Marure_, _Efem._, 46. - - [VII-40] Once he was almost starved to death on the top of a - mountain, surrounded at its base by a large force; but owing - to some neglect he escaped. - - [VII-41] Stephens, _Cent. Am._, i. 244, erroneously has it - that the delivery was to be of only 1,000 muskets. - - [VII-42] The president of the republic ratified the agreement - on the 25th of Dec. - - [VII-43] The fact was that the arrangement at Rinconcito - was prompted to Gen. Agustin Guzman by Manuel Pavon, whom - he believed to be a friend that would give him nothing but - honorable advice. He had good reason at a later date to think - differently, when he was taken into Guatemala in rags, tied - on a mule, as a trophy of Carrera's success. _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, iii. 228-9. - - [VII-44] After that Diego Vijil represented the unity in - the federal district as vice-president. The conventicle of - the four nobles, Pavon, Batres, and the two Aycinenas, had, - however, during Rivera Paz's rule in Guatemala, arranged - matters to their own satisfaction, in order to break up - the union, having at their disposal the requisite number - of municipal districts. Their emissaries supported the - separation in Honduras and Nicaragua. Costa Rica was governed - by Carrillo, a declared foe to Central American nationality. - They were now working with Rivera Paz's successor, Gen. - Cárlos Salazar, with almost a certainty of carrying their - point. Salazar was a good soldier, but as a politician, - without guile, and easily deceived. _Id._, 241-3. - - [VII-45] And also to protect other states against all - interference on the part of the late federal government. Full - text of the convention in _Cent. Am. Constitutions_, no. - 4, 1-5. By virtue of this arrangement, the combined forces - of the two states invaded Salvador. _Marure_, _Efem._, 47. - This treaty brought about Morazan's ruin, and the disruption - of the federal union. Francisco Ferrera, commander of the - forces of Honduras, himself made it known to Carrera, and it - prompted the latter's rebellion on the 24th of March, 1839, - and his march against Guatemala. It enabled Pavon, Batres, - and the Aycinenas to take Carrera in triumph into that city - on the 13th of Apr., 1839. - - [VII-46] The jefe of Guatemala, on the 17th of April, 1839, - declared the federal compact dissolved, and the resumption - by the state of its absolute sovereignty. This declaration - was ratified by the constituent assembly on the 14th of June - of the same year. Guat. on the 11th of May entered into a - treaty of amity and alliance with Honduras; on the 5th of - June, 24th of July, and 1st of Aug., made similar treaties - with Salv., Nic., and Costa R., respectively. July 1st, Hond. - and Costa R. for the first time made a treaty of friendship - and alliance as sovereign states. Aug. 10th was signed at - Quezaltenango the first treaty of a similar nature between - the new state of Los Altos and Salv. _Marure_, _Efem._, - 48-50. Costa Rica had in Nov. 1838 assumed the plenitude - of her sovereignty. In obedience to a decree of Braulio - Carrillo, the supreme chief of the state, dated Aug. 4, 1838, - her representatives and senators had left their seats in - the federal congress. The state recognized its share of the - federal debt and paid it at once. Carrillo's decree shows - that the Costa Ricans were dissatisfied with the inequality - of their representation in the national lower house, where - Guatemala had 19 more deputies than Nicaragua, 17 more than - Honduras, 15 more than Salvador, and 23 more than Costa Rica, - which had only four representatives in the 'congreso,' as - the lower house was called. The representation in the senate - was equal to that of the other states; but if the latter - chamber refused its sanction to any bill adopted, the former - could, under the 83d art. of the constitution, make it a law - by three fourths of the votes present. Thus was Costa Rica - made a nonentity in the legislative body. There were other - reasons for complaint. By a good management of her finances, - Costa Rica always had available resources, and punctually - paid her contingent to the national treasury in money. She - was therefore taxed while virtually without representation. - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iii. 266-73, 310, 313-41. - - [VII-47] It was a force from Leon, under Col B. Mendez, - who had entered by the frontier of San Miguel. _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, iii. 292-3. - - [VII-48] The allied commander was Francisco Ferrera, an - Hondureño, who had been connected with the incendiaries of - Comayagua. This victory was mainly due to Morazan's daring. - He was seriously wounded in the right arm. Col Benitez, - who was a Colombian, was slain. _Marure_, _Efem._, 48; - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iii. 293-5. - - [VII-49] Brigadier Cabañas occupied the capital Aug. 28th. He - defeated the Hondurans at Cuesta Grande Sept. 6th, and then - entered Tegucigalpa. On the 25th, after quelling a revolt - which took place on the 16th, in San Salvador, Morazan was - again victorious at San Pedro Perulapan with 600 Salvadorans - over a double force of Hondurans and Nicaraguans, who, under - Ferrera, had entered that town on their way to San Salvador, - to destroy the 'simulacro de gobierno federal que existia - aun en aquella capital.' Cabañas triumphed again at Soledad - on Nov. 13th. _Marure_, _Efem._, 48-51; _Montúfar_, _Reseña - Hist._, iii. 354-6, 446. - - [VII-50] Ferrera was without a command for some time, owing - to his continual defeats. Quijano was another 'notabilidad - del partido servil aristocrático.' - - [VII-51] Cabañas' official report of Feb. 3d from San Antonio - del Sauce says that the enemy's force being superior, he had - resolved to retire to San Miguel in Salv. _Montúfar_, _Reseña - Hist._, iii. 451-2. - - [VII-52] Stephens, _Cent. Am._, i. 245, quaintly remarks, 'It - must have been quite new to him, and a satisfaction to find - out what principles he sustained.' - - [VII-53] Among them were Mariscal and Del Rio. War had been - declared between Guatemala and Salvador. The fiction of - Atescatempa, Carrera's proclamations against Morazan the - chief magistrate of Salv., the movement of the 16th of Sept., - 1839, against the lawful authorities of Salvador prompted - and aided by Carrera, the destruction of Los Altos the friend - and ally of Salv., and many other causes, constituted a real - state of war. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iii. 456. - - [VII-54] Their head men sought refuge with the nuns of La - Concepcion. - - [VII-55] Made up exclusively of Indians, as Carrera wanted no - white soldiers or officers. _Stephens' Cent. Am._, ii. 111. - - [VII-56] The worshippers of Carrera have said that he - intentionally allowed Morazan to enter the city, with the - view of besieging him, which is absurd. The city was full of - war material, and was plentifully supplied with meat. - - [VII-57] His officers who distinguished themselves in the - operations were Generals Cabañas and Rivas, colonels Antonio - Rivera Cabezas and Ignacio Malespin, and Lieut-col Bernardo - Rivera Cabezas. - - [VII-58] Carrera's official report is dated at Guatemala on - the 23d of March. He does not speak of the assassination of - Col Sanchez, Morazan's aide-de-camp, by order of his brother, - Sotero Carrera; nor of the wanton massacre of many others; - nor of the maltreatment of women, followers of the Salvadoran - camp, which caused the French consul to raise his voice in - protest. Carrera gave full sway to his ferocious instincts - on that day, taking the greatest delight in butchering the - vanquished. Many of the pursued sought an asylum in the - house of Chatfield, the British consul, and a word from him - on their behalf would have saved their lives; but he did not - utter it, and they were put to death. _Id._, 460-7; _Marure_, - _Efem._, 52. - - [VII-59] Their hatred against Morazan was shown in their - cries, accompanying those of 'Viva la religion! Guanacos, - entreguen á ese canalla, entreguen á ese hereje; nosotros, - defendemos á Dios y á sus santos.' They called their - opponents 'guanacos, pirujos, malvados, ladrones,' and - declared that they were going to bring back the archbishop, - and the friars who were sent away in 1829. - - [VII-60] Stephens, who was then on his way from San Salvador - to Guatemala, met the defeated troops, and in his _Cent. - Am._, ii. 69 et seq., gives a graphic description. - - [VII-61] Miguel Álvarez Castro, José Miguel Saravia, Isidro - Menendez, Cárlos Salazar, Máximo Orellana, Nicolás Angulo, - Trinidad Cabañas, Enrique Rivas, Gerardo Barrios, Pedro - Molina, with his sons Felipe and José, and his son-in-law - Manuel Irungaray, Antonio and Bernardo Rivera Cabezas, José - M. Silva, Máximo, Tomás and Indalecio Cordero, Antonio Lazo, - and others. Pedro Molina refused to go at first, but was - prevailed on by his sons and son-in-law, who saw that his - fate would be sealed if he remained. _Montúfar_, _Reseña - Hist._, iii. 484. - - [VII-62] Pedro Molina and his sons Felipe and José, Manuel - Irungaray, Isidro Menendez, Gen. Enrique Rivas, Doroteo - Vasconcelos, Gerardo Barrios, Indalecio Cordero, José Prado, - Dámaso Lonza, and others. They were made afterward the - objects of abuse on the part of Carrillo and his coarse wife, - Froilana Carranza. _Id._, iii. 600-1. - - [VII-63] July 16, 1841. He details the acts of the serviles, - enemies of their country's independence and freedom. - Carrera's career of crime is also fully discussed. _Morazan_, - _Manif._, in _Id._, 585-96; _Id._, in _Cent. Am. Pap._, no. - 3. - - [VII-64] The serviles had said that they waged war, not - against Salvador, but against Morazan. - - [VII-65] The embassy brought an escort of 200 men, and - Salvador had to pay all the expense. See the note of Minister - Manuel Barberena to the minister-general of Guatemala, dated - May 18, 1840. Carrera was lodged in one of the best houses - of Salvador, and his deportment clearly indicated what his - early training had been. His first diplomatic utterances were - threats, and the general conduct of himself and his soldiers - was so abusive that the people of the liberal district of - Calvario in San Salvador finally resolved to fall upon and - annihilate them. Cañas saw the danger, and called to it the - attention of Duran, who prevailed on his colleague to leave - the state with his troops. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iii. - 487-8, 492. - - [VII-66] The convention was signed by Joaquin Duran, - secretary of the sup. gov., and Lieut-gen. Rafael Carrera, - on the part of Guatemala, and by Manuel Barberena and Juan - Lacayo for Salvador. Under art. 1st Salvador was not to - have in office any man who had coöperated with Morazan. - Art. 2d required of Salvador to surrender to Guatemala a - number of persons, named in a list furnished, to be retained - until Salvador should be fully reorganized. Art. 3d forbids - Salvador to permit the return to its territory of any of - the persons who went away with Morazan. Should any return, - they must be given up to Guatemala, as prescribed in the - 2d article. Art. 4th and 7th refer to the return of certain - armament and of prisoners of war taken in the action of 18th - and 19th of March last. Art. 5th says that the constituent - assembly of Salvador having been called, her government must - see at once to the appointment of deputies to the convention - which was to organize the republic. Under art. 6th Salvador - agreed that Guatemala and the other states should appoint - agents, who, together with her own, were to have in their - charge the archives and other effects of the federation. - _Id._, 489-91. - - [VIII-1] _Guat._ _Recop. Leyes_, i. 42, 62-9, 178. - - [VIII-2] The title given the chief magistrate was that of - jefe. That of president was not decreed till Nov. 29, 1839. - _Marure_, _Efem._, 51. - - [VIII-3] He is represented as a man of excitable temperament - and harsh manners. He was a brother of José Francisco - Barrundia. - - [VIII-4] The prelate of the order was summoned to the palace - of the federal government, and a compromise was agreed to. - Meantime the mob had assembled, shouting, 'Mision queremos! - Viva la religion! Muera la herejía! Mueran los que no quieren - misiones!' _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 182-3. - - [VIII-5] It was solemnly promulgated Dec. 26, 1825. This - constitution was in full force till the meeting of a second - constituent assembly, when it ceased to rule. _Marure_, - _Efem._, 15; _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, i. 201-2. - - [VIII-6] Vera Paz with Peten; Chiquimula, Guatemala, and - Escuintla; Sacatepequez with Chimaltenango; Suchitepequez - with Sololá; Quezaltenango and Soconusco; Totonicapan and - Huehuetenango. _Id._, 463-70. - - [VIII-7] Barrundia induced seven of the deputies to abandon - their seats, and to protest against resolutions enacted by - the legislature after they had quitted it. _Marure_, _Bosq. - Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 242. - - [VIII-8] This step was taken Sept. 6, 1826. _Marure_, _Bosq. - Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 260; _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 53-4. - A demand from the fed. gov. to muster out the troops was - refused in round terms. - - [VIII-9] He had once been a resident there, and knew it to be - the most bigoted place in all Cent. Am. Liberal ideas had not - taken much root there, and fanaticism ruled. - - [VIII-10] He afterward attempted to recover his office, but - the course events had taken impeded it. _Mem. Rev. Cent. - Am._, 57-8. - - [VIII-11] A creole from Sto Domingo, who had been formerly a - federal officer; but having been arbitrarily removed from the - position, he joined the state cause. - - [VIII-12] Near Quezaltenango he endeavored to capture his - former command, now under Manuel Montúfar, but the latter - escaped. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 55-6. He had been forewarned - by some serviles of Quezaltenango of the ambuscade prepared - for him. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 262. - - [VIII-13] Abandoning the plan he had formed of attacking the - federals under Francisco Cáscaras. - - [VIII-14] He allowed four hours for the surrender: 'si en - el término de cuatro horas, no efectúan Vds. lo referido, - la hermosa ciudad de Quezaltenango desaparecerá.' _Marure_, - _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 288; _Id._, _Efem._, 18; _Mem. - Rev. Cent. Am._, 57-8. - - [VIII-15] Among them, one of Oct. 19, 1826, to punish - attempts at propagating sedition among the soldiers; - another, of Oct. 25th, to impose the penalty of death on - all Guatemalans taking up arms against the state government. - _Gaz. de Méx._, Dec. 14, 1826; _El Indicador de Guat._, of - same year, no. 106; _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, i. 248-50. - - [VIII-16] Afraid of falling into the hands of the federal - troops then marching toward Los Altos, he retired to - Retalhuleu, where he lived till 1829. - - [VIII-17] Oct. 28, 1826. Cáscaras' vainglorious report is - in _Guat._, _Gac. Gob._, Nov. 2, 1826, and _Méx. Gac. Gob._, - Dec. 14, 1826; _Marure_, _Efem._, 18; _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, - 59-60. - - [VIII-18] All persons affording them aid were declared, on - the 5th of March, guilty of high treason. _Guat._, _Recop. - Leyes_, i. 250-4. Decree reiterated March 28, 1827; _Marure_, - _Efem._, 19. - - [VIII-19] All authorities agree that the execution was - effected upon the mere order of Aycinena, the then jefe - of Guat., and without legal formalities. _Arce_, _Mem._, - 68; _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 70; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, - 16; _Squier's Travels_, ii. 397. This last-named writer - severely condemns the affected piety of Aycinena, who made - confession before a priest and took the communion before - signing the death-warrant. In 1829 the liberal party awarded - extraordinary honors to Pierzon's memory, ordering that his - name should be placed by the side of Cirilo Flores, with this - inscription, 'Viva el ilustre Coronel Pierzon en el corazon - de los buenos patriotas.' _Marure_, _Efem._, 19. - - [VIII-20] Aycinena retained his position uninterruptedly - till the 12th of Apr., 1829, when he was deposed by Morazan. - A legislative act expatriated him, and he was in exile till - early in 1836, when he returned to the bosom of his family; - but a second legislative order compelled him to leave the - country again. Finally, an amnesty decree of July 25, 1838, - restored him to his country in Sept. _Marure_, _Efem._, 18, - 61. Mariano Córdoba was chosen, in March 1827, vice-jefe, and - when he resigned the office, Manuel Montúfar was called to - succeed him. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 60. - - [VIII-21] It was the first of its class in Cent. Am., but by - no means the last. - - [VIII-22] Lieut Isidro Velazquez was executed March 30, 1827. - - [VIII-23] Leniency toward the proscribed Antonio Rivera - Cabezas, whose death-penalty he had commuted to exile, and - prohibition of certain books, pursuant to decrees of the - ecclesiastical authorities, were among the chief causes which - alienated him many of his former supporters. _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, i. 236; _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 114. On the - 6th of December, 1828, he ordered such books to be burned. - _Marure_, _Efem._, 22. - - [VIII-24] It purposed with this measure, which turned out - to be unavailing, to remove one of the obstacles to the - termination of the war by means of a peaceful arrangement. - - [VIII-25] They were reëlected, though succeeding events - prevented the counting of the votes. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, - 115. - - [VIII-26] A revolt at Quezaltenango, Nov. 5, 1828, had been - summarily suppressed. _Marure_, _Efem._, 22. - - [VIII-27] The districts of Sacatepequez and Escuintla - recognized the authorities that were installed in La Antigua. - - [VIII-28] His brother José Francisco having been made acting - president, he resigned for the second time the office of - jefe, urging obvious reasons, but he was required by the - assembly to continue discharging his duties till the election - should have been effected. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. - 167-9. - - [VIII-29] The dispersed representative council of 1826 had - been reorganized at La Antigua Feb. 11, 1829, and its senior - member, Mariano Zenteno, recognized as acting jefe of the - state. - - [VIII-30] This body voted Morazan a gold medal, and declared - him a benemérito. It also decreed that his portrait should be - placed in the hall of sessions. This, however, was a spark of - enthusiasm which died out. - - [VIII-31] Nicolás Espinosa presided, as he had done at the - last sitting at San Martin Jilotepec, Sept. 26, 1826. - - [VIII-32] Cayetano de la Cerda was the administrador de - recursos, and he acted without restriction. Mariano Galvez, - Barrundia's secretary of state, is credited with the - invention of the financial schemes by the author of _Mem. - Rev. Cent. Am._, 136-7. - - [VIII-33] _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 131-3, 143-51. - - [VIII-34] Antonio Rivera Cabezas was chosen vice-jefe in - March 1830. He was succeeded by Gregorio Marquez in Feb. - 1831; Francisco X. Flores was consejero Aug. 1831. - - [VIII-35] Molina was impeached on trivial and inconsistent - charges by the legislative body. Twice tried and twice - acquitted; but meantime the term for which he was chosen had - expired, and new elections were ordered. Marure, Efem., 61. - Full details of the trials in _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. - 205-17, 229-33. - - [VIII-36] Rivera Cabezas wielded a powerful pen, and in a - playful way ridiculed the servile party. His Don Meliton - dialogues did it more harm than José del Valle with his - grave and erudite speeches in congress. He won himself the - bitter hatred of that party. The political change of 1839 - placed him in the hands of his enemies, and he lost much - of his property. He left the country, but family affairs - necessitated his return some years after. In his last years - his intellectual faculties declined, and the serviles no - longer feared him, but their hatred remained, and their - insults and abuse hastened his death. His portrait is also - given. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 235-7, 246. - - [VIII-37] The most violent felt since 1773. _Marure_, - _Efem._, 26. - - [VIII-38] Several buildings were damaged, among them the - churches of Santa Teresa, San Francisco, and Recoletos. Since - the end of March shocks had been experienced in the vicinity - of the Pacaya volcano, several villages being almost entirely - reduced to ruins. _Id._ - - [VIII-39] The nun Teresa called them the effects of God's - displeasure for the banishment of the archbishop and friars. - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 225-6. - - [VIII-40] The liberals were certain that with Morazan at - the head of the federal government, and Barrundia as chief - of Guatemala, there would be no disagreements. Barrundia - now made a cession for the benefit of public instruction of - nearly $7,000—due him for salaries during the time he acted - as president. This was a generous act on the part of a man - who had no private fortune. He later ceded one half of his - senatorial pay for the same purpose. _Montúfar_, _Reseña - Hist._, i. 273-6. - - [VIII-41] Galvez was reëlected Feb. 9, 1835, and held the - position till Feb. 2, 1838, when he was forced to resign it. - During his first term Simon Vasconcelos was vice-jefe, and - Juan Ant. Martinez consejero; during the second, Pedro J. - Valenzuela, who superseded him; Mariano Sanchez de Leon was - consejero in 1836, and Mariano Rivera Paz in July 1838. The - latter also held the executive office. _Salv._, _Gac._, Oct. - 12, 1854; _Marure_, _Efem._, 43, 45, 61-2. - - [VIII-42] Galvez was not in league with the clergy or - aristocracy, on one side; nor with Barrundia or Morazan, on - the other. He wanted to form a party of which he should be - the sole chief. This prompted him to oppose all parties, and - brought upon him many reproaches. - - [VIII-43] In July 1832 tithes were abolished. On the 16th - of Sept. an academy of sciences, to take the place of the - old university, was established, and to it were attached - the colegio de abogados, and the protomedicato. This academy - was suppressed March 6, 1840, and the university of old was - restored. _Marure_, _Efem._, 32. Among other measures were - the reduction of holidays to seven, aside from Sundays, and - the prohibition of religious processions in the streets on - working days. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 307-19, ii. - 76-84. - - [VIII-44] Even the offspring of priests were to be reputed as - legitimate in cases of inheritance, where the father had died - intestate. _Id._, ii. 346-7. - - [VIII-45] This blow at the church was not favorably received - by the people, and in July 1838 the resolution was suspended. - - [VIII-46] They made the Indians believe that the cholera - was the effect of Galvez and his friends having poisoned the - springs, 'para destruir hombres que detestaba y poblaciones - que aborrecia.' _Id._, ii. 349. - - [VIII-47] It was constantly brought forward that while other - states had seceded from the confederation, Guatemala alone - had contributed to the common budget, and furnished the - national executive arms and money to wage war against the - rebellious states. - - [VIII-48] Martial law was proclaimed Jan. 16, 1838, in the - departments of Sacatepequez and Guatemala. Two days later La - Antigua rebelled, appointing a provisional government, and - subsequently Chiquimula and Salamá followed the movement. - _Marure_, _Efem._, 42-3; _Squier's Travels_, ii. 431; - _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, i. 858-9. - - [VIII-49] The provisional government was placed in charge - of Marcelo Molina, José M. Galvez, and José A. Aguilar. - The assembly of Guatemala simply referred the matter to the - federal congress, which recognized the new state. _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, iii. 9-23; _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, i. 43. - - [VIII-50] _Marure_, _Efem._, 47. - - [VIII-51] The state comprised, on the north, the districts - of Huehuetenango, Sacapulas, Malacatan, Tejutla, Cuilco, - Jacaltenango, and Sololá, together with all the territory - between the river Pasion and Chiapas, to where it touched the - undefined boundaries of Tabasco and Yucatan; on the west, - Ostuncalco and San Márcos; on the south, Cuyotenango and - Mazatenango; on the east, Atitlan, Sololá, Joyabaj, Quiché; - and in the centre, Totonicapan and Quezaltenango. _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, iii. 391-3. - - [VIII-52] Dated July 12, 1839. _Id._, 394-7. - - [VIII-53] Galvez, José F. and Juan Barrundia, Simon - Vasconcelos, and others. - - [VIII-54] On the 28th of Jan. a body of Quezaltec troops, - under Colonel Corzo, was defeated by the Guatemalans, under - Gen. Monterrosa. It had been stationed in the hacienda of - Bejucal, with the double object of guarding on the coast side - the territory of Los Altos, and of forming a combination with - the men of Salvador, who were about to invade Guatemala from - the river Paz frontier. The treatment of the fugitives by the - Indians was shocking. Corzo and Lieut-col Córdoba perished - at their hands. Carrera, after defeating, on the 29th of - Jan., the Quezaltec troops that attempted to check him on the - heights of Sololá, entered Quezaltenango unresisted, and put - an end to that state. Its towns were taken under Guatemalan - protection, on the fiction of their voluntary annexation, - by decree of Feb. 26, 1840. _Marure_, _Efem._, 52; _Guat._, - _Recop. Leyes_, i. 43-50. - - [VIII-55] It was claimed that Carrera could not prevent these - abuses, which were committed by the very people of Los Altos - who rose against the partisans of the government. The fact - is, they were savage Indians under Carrera's protection. This - chief returned in triumph to Guatemala, and was received amid - the plaudits of his clerico-aristocratic supporters and the - rabble. His victorious army brought in the rear the armament - and spoils of Quezaltenango, and upwards of 100 prisoners, - among them Guzman, Mariscal, and Soto. The first named was - wounded, and tied to a mule. The rabble made him the special - object of their scoff. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iii. - 439-41. - - [VIII-56] Deprived of the office Jan. 30, 1839; restored Apr. - 13th of the same year; held it till Dec. 13, 1841. May 14, - 1842, he assumed for the third time the executive office, - with the title of president of the state. _Guat._, _Recop. - Leyes_, i. 175; _Marure_, _Efem._, 61-2. Stephens, who saw - Rivera Paz in 1840, speaks well of him, saying that 'in all - the trying positions in which he was afterward placed, he - exhibited more than ordinary prudence and judgment.' _Cent. - Am._, i. 201. - - [VIII-57] The 3d and last art. contained these words: 'Un - olvido general sobre todos los acontecimientos políticos - desde el quince de Setiembre de mil ochocientos veintiuno - hasta la fecha; y se prohiba rigurosamente removerlos con - ningun motivo.' Further than this, José F. Barrundia had - moved that the initiative should be made urgent, and voted - on without being referred to a committee. Montúfar, who - gives full details on this affair, blames Barrundia for his - excessive generosity and abnegation, which, he declares, - always turned to the prejudice of that statesman and his - party. He wanted his enemies pardoned, and to enjoy all - personal guarantees, but there was no spirit of reciprocity - on their part. When the serviles assumed the reins of power, - they invariably abused and persecuted Barrundia. He was not - only sent into exile, but insulted there in publications they - would forward him. _Reseña Hist._, iii. 188-90. - - [VIII-58] The executive was authorized to support the - petition of the clergy in order that the diocese should - have a bishop, and permitted that he should appropriate - a portion of the public funds to that end. No mention was - made of the person who was to be bishop. The idea was to - flatter the several clergymen who were with Carrera hoping - to earn a mitre. July 25th the people were called to elect - a constituent assembly, of not less than fifty members, - to reform, add to, or retain in whole or in part the - constitution of Guatemala. This decree was supported by the - liberals, who foolishly believed that their party would have - the power to reconstitute the state. The serviles hailed it, - being sure of controlling the situation with Rivera Paz at - the head of the government, and three servile wings as his - counsellors. Reactionary deputies would be plentiful in the - constitutional convention. The capitation tax was reduced - to four reales. The assembly, now converted into a law-maker - by steam, on the 26th of July revoked the laws establishing - civil marriage and divorce, freedom to bequeath property, - reduction of the number of holidays, and the further - admission of religious vows. _Id._, 190-2. - - [VIII-59] He ruled 2½ months, at the end of which he had - to seek safety in flight, on Carrera occupying the capital. - _Marure_, _Efem._, 48, 62. - - [VIII-60] The former political order of affairs now came - to an end, and a new era began under Carrera's auspices. - _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, i. 207. - - [VIII-61] The texts of the several treaties may be seen in - _Convencion_, in _Cent. Am. Constituciones_, 5-25, 28-31; - _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, i. 382-95. - - [VIII-62] Honors were paid to Carrera and Rivera Paz. - Their portraits were to be placed in the hall of sessions. - _Marure_, _Efem._, 53. A few days later the 19th of March was - decreed a civic feast-day. _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, iii. 348. - - [VIII-63] Act of Nov. 9, 1840. _Id._, 286. - - [VIII-64] Not at Aguanqueterique, as the federal congress had - decreed. _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 13; _Marure_, _Efem._, - 10. The last named, in his _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, 148, - gives the name as Leypateric. - - [VIII-65] Comayagua, Tegucigalpa, Gracias, Santa Bárbara, - Olancho, Yoro, and Choluteca. - - [VIII-66] Irias excommunicated Herrera, and the latter had - him arrested. Both had many adherents. - - [VIII-67] Arce claims that Gracias had called for the - protection. _Mem._, 64-5; _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 61. The - truth is, he had no right to exercise jurisdiction there, the - place not being on the frontier nor on the coast. _Morazan_, - _Apuntes_, MS., 6. - - [VIII-68] Herrera had a force to defeat Milla, but refrained - from using it, in order that Honduras should not be accused - of beginning hostilities against the national government. - _Id._, 7. - - [VIII-69] Marure, _Efem._, 19, gives the 10th as the - date. Dunlop, _Cent. Am._, 169, gives March 10th. Morazan - attributes the surrender to the commander's treachery. - _Apuntes_, MS., 8. - - [VIII-70] Cleto Bendaña was made jefe provisional in Sept. - 1827, Francisco Morazan being consejero in Nov. of that year. - _Marure_, _Efem._, 63. - - [VIII-71] See his _Apuntes_, MS., 9-10. - - [VIII-72] There was a sedition of the serviles, headed by - Father Rivas and others, which was concluded by a peaceable - arrangement with Morazan. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. - 191-3, 196. - - [VIII-73] Martinez and Cori, implicated in a plot with - negroes of Belize and Bacalar, and others were executed May - 25, 1833. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 132. - - [VIII-74] They mostly affected the clergy. _Marure_, _Efem._, - 23-7, 35-6. - - [VIII-75] Resulting from various causes. A law providing for - a provisional currency checked foreign trade. In the interior - it was at 50 per ct discount. A decree establishing a single - tax never could be carried out. The abolition of tithes was - a measure which caused trouble. Timid or fanatical rulers - were afraid of 'cuatro canónigos viejos de Comayagua que - amenazaban con el salmo 108 y las penas del infierno,' and - fanaticism soon brought about the restoration of the tithes. - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iii. 277. - - [VIII-76] This was the second constituent assembly, and - its first president was José Santiago Buezo. The town of - Tegucigalpa demanded absolute independence, declaring itself - seceded and under the protection of Nicaragua until it should - be declared. This was the work of the returned reactionists. - _Id._, 279-82. - - [VIII-77] 'Art. Único. El estado de Honduras es libre, - soberano, é independiente.' It was published by the - acting jefe, Leon Alvarado. The declaration being deemed - insufficient by the secessionists, another act was passed - on the 5th of Nov., to say that Honduras was independent of - the late federal government, of the governments of the other - states of Cent. Am., and of any other government or foreign - power. _Id._, 282; _Marure_, _Efem._, 47. - - [VIII-78] Tegucigalpa had been twice taken, and Comayagua - once, by the federal forces. _Id._, 50-1. - - [VIII-79] Gerónimo Zelaya, primer jefe, June 1828. His - authority was never recognized outside of Santa Bárbara. His - election was finally declared null, like all others effected - pursuant to the convention by the president of the republic. - Diego Vijil, vice-jefe, Apr. 1829. Juan Angel Arias, - consejero, Dec. 1829. José Santos del Valle, consejero, - July 1830. José Ant. Marquez, jefe, March 1831. Francisco - Milla, consejero, March 1832. Joaquin Rivera, jefe, Jan. - 1833 to Dec. 31, 1836. During his term, owing to illness, - the executive was temporarily in charge of F. Ferrera, the - vice-jefe, in Sept. 1833, and of J. M. Bustillo, consejero, - in Sept. 1835. The latter was again in power as acting - president in Aug. 1839. Ferrera again held the executive in - Jan. 1841, with the title of president of the state. J. M. - Martinez, consejero, Jan. 1837. Justo José Herrera, jefe, - May 1837. Leon Alvarado, consejero, Oct. 1838. Felipe Medina, - José Alvarado, and Lino Matute are also mentioned as having - had charge of the executive in Nov. 1838; the last named - till Jan. 1839. Juan F. Molina, consejero, Jan. 1839. José M. - Guerrero, consejero, May 1839. Francisco Zelaya, consejero, - Sept. 1839. _Id._, 63; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 133-6, - 325-31; iii. 282-3. - - [IX-1] March 5, 1824, the local constituent assembly met, - and on the 4th of July, the state constitution, decreed on - the 12th of June, was published, and its support sworn to. - _Marure_, _Efem._, 10-11. - - [IX-2] Sonsonate had always belonged to Guatemala, but was - annexed to Salvador on the return of the auxiliary force that - was despatched to the former in 1823 to quell Ariza's revolt, - of which I have given an account. By intrigue and force, the - inhabitants were made to declare in favor of Salvador. The - region was later attached to the latter, though the change - of jurisdiction has never been formally acknowledged by - Guatemala. Some time after there was a plan of creating, with - Sonsonate and Santa Ana, a separate state, but the federal - congress did not sanction it. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist._, i. - 149. - - [IX-3] He assumed his office Dec. 13, 1824. During the period - of organization the executive was in charge of Juan Manuel - Rodriguez, who bore the title of director. _Id._, _Efem._, - 13, 62; _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 32. - - [IX-4] At this time Salvador became the asylum of the liberal - party. - - [IX-5] Arce alleged that Molina and others had induced - Villacorta to believe he was the only man who could right - political wrongs; but he found he could not do this, and so - resigned. _Mem._, 60-1. - - [IX-6] Convents were abolished March 1, 1830. A college was - established in July of the following year; and the state - seemed to have recovered from the losses of the late war. - - [IX-7] Cornejo could not be in accord with the federal - authorities; he was a servile, and in league with their - enemies. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 334. - - [IX-8] The executive authority was held for a while by - Morazan himself. _Marure_, _Efem._, 30, 62. - - [IX-9] To accept the position he resigned the vice-presidency - of the republic. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 6. - - [IX-10] Tithes had been suppressed and trial by jury - introduced. - - [IX-11] The public archives and artillery were to be also - removed. The comandante-general was to remain behind with - four cannons and 200 muskets. - - [IX-12] He had lost his wearing apparel, and in his - smallclothes, and with a travelling cloak on, he took charge - of the government. _Id._, 20. He was chosen by the assembly - first jefe on the 1st of July, 1833. In June 1834 he was - removed from office and expelled. _Marure_, _Efem._, 36, 62; - _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Dec. 22, 1854, 7. - - [IX-13] Aquino was a perfect savage, and invoked religion, as - did Carrera somewhat later. He once entered San Vicente with - the crown of an image of St Joseph on his head. His mode of - sentencing prisoners to death was expeditious. The victim was - placed before a group of his men, who were told he was their - enemy. 'Shoot him,' they would say, and the thing was done. - Aquino was in league with the serviles, but as they could not - manage him, they persecuted their crowned ally. _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, ii. 21. - - [IX-14] Crowe, _Gospel_, 135, and Squier, _Travels_, ii. - 420-1, erroneously place it in 1832. - - [IX-15] The defeat of San Martin by Gen. Espinosa was at - Jiquilisco. _Guat._, _Boletin Ofic._, 507-9. San Martin was - now forsaken by Galvez, the jefe of Guatemala. In his old - age he used to complain of 'las inconsecuencias del Doctor - Galvez.' _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 27. - - [IX-16] The latter ruled only from July to Oct., when he - was temporarily succeeded, first by the consejero, Joaquin - Escolan, and then by the vice-jefe, José M. Silva, the same - month. Nicolás Espinosa became jefe in Apr. 1835, and was - driven away in the following November, being accused of - promoting a war of races, the consejero Francisco Gomez being - his successor on the 13th of Nov. The next rulers were: Diego - Vijil, Apr. 1836; Timoteo Menendez, vice-jefe, Sept. 1836; - Antonio J. Cañas, consejero, May 1839. _Marure_, _Efem._, 62; - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 193. - - [IX-17] Carrera contemplated becoming the ruler of Central - America, but had to abandon his plan on Nicaragua and - Honduras forming a league against him. His Indians were not - so efficient when off from their native ground. _Squier's - Travels_, ii. 441-2. - - [IX-18] Sept. 23, 1840. He had ruled since Apr. 8th of - the same year. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Feb. 14, 1875. The - revolutionary movement of Sept. 20th for his removal was - promoted by Francisco Malespin, Carrera's tool, and a man who - wielded a fatal influence in Salvador till Gen. Joaquin E. - Guzman rid the country of him. Malespin was then acting for - Carrera, who feared that a revolution of the Calvario ward of - San Salvador would upset Cañas, who was without influence, - and could no longer be useful to the aristocrats of Guat. - Such a revolution would create a liberal government, and - might bring back Morazan. Cañas was put out of the way that - his place might be occupied by a servile tool. _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, iii. 499. - - [IX-19] He held the position only to the end of 1840. His - successors with the same title were Juan Lindo, Jan. 1841; - Pedro Arce, Apr. 1841; Senator Escolástico Marin, Feb. 1842. - _Marure_, _Efem._, 62. - - [IX-20] 'En la ulterior contienda de los partidos políticos - de esta Provincia, pues, no se encuentran mas que pasiones; - las calificaciones de realistas, imperialistas, ó serviles - solo servian para autorizar la persecucion.' _Ayon_, _Ap._, - 25. - - [IX-21] April 17, 1823. - - [IX-22] This movement was the precursor of the great - calamities that were to befall Nicaragua. _Marure_, _Efem._, - 9. - - [IX-23] The troops and the mob in Leon, on the 4th of May, - deposed him, and placed his office in charge of the alcalde, - Pablo Melendez, who in his turn was overthrown a few days - later by another sedition headed by Ordoñez. - - [IX-24] The villas of Managua and Nicaragua refused to - recognize the revolutionary government at the capital, and - established a junta gubernativa at the first-named town. - - [IX-25] It was formed with the chief men of the 'partido de - Managua.' - - [IX-26] By order of Gen. Manuel José Arce, who afterward - entered Leon. Details of battles and actions during this - unhappy period of Nicaraguan history may be found in - _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 151-6; _Id._, _Efem._, - 11-12, 75; _Ayon_, _Apuntes_, 28-36; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, - 160-2. - - [IX-27] In the previous year Martin Arzú had been sent as a - commissioner to restore peace in Nicaragua. He was ordered - to use gentle means, but to employ force against parties - opposing him. To support him, 500 Hondurans were stationed - at Choluteca. He arrived after the siege of Leon had begun, - and endeavored on the spot to bring about an arrangement - between the belligerents; but he was treated disrespectfully - by the besiegers, and even arrested and threatened with - death by Salas. He afterward declared the junta at El Viejo - revolutionary, and that its commands should be disregarded. - After that he conducted the defence of Leon. _Marure_, - _Bosq._, i. 157-9. - - [IX-28] In the latter part of 1828 he was shot, under - the sentence of a court-martial convened by order of the - vice-jefe Argüello. _Id._, _Efem._, 63-4. - - [IX-29] Its support was sworn to on the last day of that - month. - - [IX-30] The first representative council, or senate, was - inaugurated at the same place on the 26th of Oct., 1826. - _Id._, 18. - - [IX-31] Cerda would not, however, lay down his power, and - continued exercising it at Managua. _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, - 43. - - [IX-32] The dissolution was 'á consecuencia de una sedicion - promovida por el Vice-jefe del mismo Estado Sr Juan - Argüello.' _Marure_, _Efem._, 18. - - [IX-33] On the 14th of Sept., 1827. This was his third or - fourth effort; all fruitless, however. _Id._, 20. - - [IX-34] He foretold at the time that 'muy luego vería el - congreso arder otra vez la tea de la discordia en aquel - Estado.' _Arce_, _Mem._, 17. - - [IX-35] Their project involved the annexation of Nicaragua to - Colombia. _Los Anales_, 1872, 54. - - [IX-36] He now proposed to surrender the government to - Argüello or some one else. His friends dissuaded him, and he - was finally the victim of treachery. - - [IX-37] His friends had obtained that the trial should be - at Granada, but the mob at Rivas opposed his removal at the - moment of departure. _Id._, 63. - - [IX-38] Nov. 29, 1828. It is said that the vice-jefe, - Argüello, decreed a suspension of the sentence; but purposely - delayed the courier, so that the reprieve arrived too late at - Rivas. A full biography of Cerda, with scattered historical - items, is given in _Id._, 29-72, passim. - - [IX-39] The installation of the assembly was on Nov. 1, 1829. - The elections had been decreed by the vice-jefe, Argüello, - and his act, as well as the elections effected under it, were - on the 23d of May, 1830, declared to be legitimate. _Rocha_, - _Cód. Nic._, i. 80. Herrera had been inducted in office on - the 12th of May. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 199-203. - - [IX-40] The services of the Nicaraguans were recognized by - both the federal president and the state assembly. Honors - were decreed to the survivors, and pensions to the wounded, - and to the widows and orphans of the dead. _Rocha_, _Cód. - Nic._, i. 214-15. - - [IX-41] This last action was attributed by the revolutionists - to Herrera's machinations and Morazan's influence; but the - truth was, that the people recognized Herrera's services - as the pacificator, and his good qualifications as a ruler. - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 31-2. - - [IX-42] A detailed account of this revolt is given in the - _Centro Americano_, 89-97. It is said that a number of medals - were found of tortoise-shell, gold, and other metals, with - the image of Fernando VII., and bearing the inscription 'Viva - Fernando VII. Rey de España y de las Indias, Año de 1828,' - which gave rise to the supposition that the revolt had been - in his interests. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 36-8. - Herrera issued a proclamation calling on the people to stand - by the government. _Marure_, _Efem._, 33-4. - - [IX-43] The assembly, installed on the 21st of Aug., 1833, at - Leon, approved all of Herrera's acts. - - [IX-44] On the southern coast of Nicaragua, 12 leagues - distant from Leon. - - [IX-45] A dense yellow cloud rose suddenly, accompanied by - a strong smell of sulphur and a shower of fine white dust. - The alarmed inhabitants closed their doors and windows, but - the dust could not be kept out. Breathing became difficult. - This lasted nearly three days. On the 23d, at 1 A. M., a - loud detonation, followed by heavy shocks of earthquake, - rain of sand, and total darkness, rendered the terror of the - people complete. Flocks of birds fell dead to the ground, - and wild animals sought refuge in buildings. The frightened - inhabitants ran to their yards, or hurried to the churches - to implore divine mercy. Forty-three hours passed before - the earth became quiet, when a strong wind cleared the - atmosphere, enabling the people to ascertain the damage. The - ashes in the vicinity of the volcano were several feet deep. - The river Chiquito had been wholly dried up, and two new - islands were formed. A large number of animals had perished, - and the living ones were in a state of starvation. Such - had been the force of the convulsion that the detonations - and the rain of ashes had reached a distance of hundreds of - leagues, as far as Oajaca, Jamaica, and Bogotá in Colombia. - Montúfar, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 145-50, in giving an account - of the event, adds that the priests called it a punishment - from heaven because tithes had been abolished, freedom of - conscience proclaimed, and the decrees of 1829 and 1830 - upheld. The parish priests in several towns, during the - prevailing darkness, preached from their pulpits that this - shaking of the earth was a manifestation of God's wrath for - the crimes of the liberals. Squier, _Trav._, ii. 110-11, says - that the superintendent of Belize, on hearing the explosions, - mustered his troops, thinking that a battle was being fought - somewhere near the coast. Stephens, _Cent. Am._, ii. 38, - relates a similar incident of the military commander of - Guatemala. - - [IX-46] Accounts of the catastrophe, differing more or less - in details, according to the various points where it was - observed, are given in _Marure_, _Efem._, 36-7; _Stephens' - Cent. Am._, ii. 35-8; _Squier's Trav._, ii. 110-14, 162-3, - with a view of the volcano; _Byam's Wild Life_, 32-7; - _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 15-17; _Lond. Geog. Soc. Journ._, - v. 387-92; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 23; _Wells' Hond._, - 230-1; _Cor. Atlánt._, May 9, 1835, 10; _Dicc. Univ. Hist. - Geog._, x. 919-20. - - [IX-47] Not in 1836, as Dunlop has it. _Cent. Am._, 191-2. - - [IX-48] His minister-general for a time was J. N. Gonzalez, - and on his resigning, Hermenegildo Zepeda, one of the first - lawyers in the state, succeeded. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, - ii. 302. - - [IX-49] On the 25th of Jan. _Marure_, _Efem._, 39, 64; - Montúfar, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 306-10, gives the official - documents describing the occurrences. - - [IX-50] Father Solis, the president, and others attributed - to Morazan and the constitution of 1824 the evils Nicaragua - had suffered from, forgetting those preceding Morazan and the - constitution. - - [IX-51] Ratified by the executive Nov. 17th. Given in full - in _Nic._, _Constit._, in _Cent. Am. Constitutions_, 1-39. - A brief synopsis in _Squier's Travels_, ii. 211-13. See also - _Niles' Reg._, 1839, lvi. 49. - - [IX-52] During Herrera's term the following held the - executive authority for short periods: Cárlos Ruiz y Bolaños, - Aug. 1831; Benito Morales, Feb. 1834; José Nuñez, March 1834. - I find that the government was also provisionally in charge - of Gregorio Juarez, May 1835; F. X. Rubio, Jan. 1838; José - Nuñez, as jefe, March 12, 1838; Evaristo Rocha, May 1838; - Joaquin Cosio, June 1838; Patricio Rivas, director, June - 1839; Joaquin Cosio, July 1839; Hilario Ulloa, Oct. 1839; - Tomás Valladares, Nov. 1839. In 1840 he became director - del estado; Pablo Buitrago, director, Apr. 1841. _Marure_, - _Efem._, 64. - - [IX-53] Sept. 6, 1824. Molina, _Costa Rica_, 95, followed - by Wagner, _Costa R._, 545, gives it as May 6th, which is - evidently a mistake. _Marure_, _Efem._, 11, has it Sept. - 6th, and that Agustin Gutierrez Lizaurzábal was its first - president. - - [IX-54] _Costa Rica_, _Ley Fundam._ (San Salv., 1825), 24 - mo, 26 pp.; _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 32; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. - Am._, 13; _Molina_, _Costa R._, 18. This last-named author, - on his p. 95, gives the date as Jan. 22d, evidently following - _Marure_, _Efem._, 13. Squier, _Travels_, ii. 388, makes it - Jan. 2d. - - [IX-55] Mariano Montealegre became the vice-jefe. Mora was - reëlected in March 1829, and ruled till toward the end of - 1832. _Marure_, _Efem._, 64; _Id._, _Bosq._, 149; _Mem. Rev. - Cent. Am._, 32. - - [IX-56] Personal enmity between Pedro Muñoz, an influential - man in Guanacaste, and Cerda was the main reason. _Los - Anales_, 1872, 54. - - [IX-57] The approval was merely provisional. The other four - are Cartago, San José, Heredia, and Alajuela. _Molina_, - _Costa R._, 5-6. - - [IX-58] _Nic. y Hond._, _Doc._, 101-12; _Ayon_, _Consid. - Límites_, 20-4; _Frisch_, _Mex._, 73. - - [IX-59] Marure, _Efem._, 16, and _Bosq._, i. 232-3, following - _El Indicador_, 1826, no. 75, and _El Semanario_, 1826, no. - 86, gives the date as Jan. 29th. Molina, _Costa R._, 96, - places it on the 28th. - - [IX-60] He confessed to have acted under a commission from - the court of Spain, and as a lieut-col in its service. - Seventeen of his partisans were sent out of the country. - - [IX-61] A detailed account of that mission may be seen in - _Mem. Rev. Cent. Am._, 112-14; _Molina_, _Costa R._, 96-7. - - [IX-62] 'Ocupa este lugar el ciudadano Ex-gefe Juan Mora, - por sus virtudes, y le ocuparán sucesivamente, los que, en - el mismo destino, se hagan dignos de él.' _Marure_, _Efem._, - 33. Mora was born in San José in 1784, and had filled - several important trusts before his election to the chief - magistracy. After his retirement he again held other offices - till his exile in 1838. Returning to his country in 1842, - he took a prominent part in public affairs. In Nov. 1848 he - was declared a benemérito de la patria, and given a pension - for life. In May 1850 he became president of the supreme - court. Honesty and integrity were the prominent traits of his - character, united with ability and liberal ideas, but free - from exaggerations. _Molina_, _Costa R._, 75-6, 98, 119-21. - - [IX-63] Costa Rica had never been under the sway of bishops, - clergymen, or monks. That fanaticism which has been so - baneful to other states of Spanish America never existed - here. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 305. - - [IX-64] _Guat._, _Boletin Ofic._, 1833, no. 34, 376; _Costa - R._, _Col. Leyes_, iv. 4-5. Gallegos was an honorable man - and father of a family, as well as a wealthy property owner. - But he was not conversant with state affairs, nor with the - intrigues of politicians. His chief aim was economy; he - wished to see the public treasury full of money; he cared - less to apply that money in the development of the country. - - [IX-65] In proof of which were the newspapers _El Noticioso - Universal_, _La Tertulia_, _El Correo de Costa Rica_, and the - number of sheets that were constantly issued. - - [IX-66] By the assembly and council, and published by the - executive, Apr. 3, 1834. _Id._, 198-201; _Costa R._, Col. - _Leyes_, iv. 110-12, 120-1. - - [IX-67] Juan José Lara became jefe provisorio, and in his - turn was succeeded in June of the same year by the vice-jefe - Agustin G. Lizaurzábal, who ruled till March 1835, when, - because of ill health, he delivered the government to Manuel - Fernandez, who had it till the regularly elected jefe assumed - his duties. _Marure_, _Efem._, 64; _Molina_, _Costa R._, 99; - _Costa R._, _Col. Leyes_, iv. 134-5, 159-60. - - [IX-68] He was born in Cartago in 1800, and studied in - the university of Leon, Nicaragua. He had never been out - of Cent. Am., and consequently his mind had never had the - expanding influence of travel. He was accordingly full of - petty prejudices. He could, however, appreciate men of merit, - and avail himself of their abilities; but if he mistrusted a - man, he proved a relentless foe. He rarely placed any trust - in any one. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 208; _Costa R._, - _Col. Leyes_, iv. 206-7; _Molina_, _Costa R._, 68 et seq.; - _Wagner_, _Costa Rica_, 201-3. - - [IX-69] Law of Apr. 11 and Aug. 25, 1835; _Costa R._, _Col. - Leyes_, iv. 196-9, 235-9; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, May 25, - 1875. - - [IX-70] Government issued a proclamation against the rebels - on the 6th of Oct., 1835. _Costa R._, _Col. Leyes_, iv. - 273-80. - - [IX-71] The decisive action occurred on the 28th of Oct. - About 50 persons perished. Details on those troubles appear - in _Molina_, _Costa R._, 99-100; _Marure_, _Efem._, 38. The - authors of the rebellion were mulcted in sums ranging from - $2,000 down to $30. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 208-27, - 237-47. - - [IX-72] Two thousand men came upon the invaders at the - hacienda of Santa Rosa. Quijano escaped to Nicaragua. The - government, by a decree of July 2, 1836, declared him and - others outlawed, and one of them was executed. _Costa R._, - _Col. Leyes_, iv. 325-30, 349-58. Guanacaste, later known as - Liberia, and Nicoya, for their loyalty, were rewarded, the - former being made a city, and the latter a villa. _Molina_, - _Costa R._, 100; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 230-6. - - [IX-73] Carrillo held the executive office till March 1837, - when, his term having expired, he surrendered it to Joaquin - Mora, a brother of the former jefe, Juan Mora, who ruled only - one month, and began his administration by opposing some of - Carrillo's measures. _Id._, 312. - - [IX-74] Aguilar had political enemies who accused him of - friendship for Cartago, Heredia, and Alajuela, thereby - exposing San José to new assaults. With this pretext a plan - was formed to assault the barracks at San José on the night - of Aug. 26th. _Id._, 318-20. - - [IX-75] Carrillo was recognized as jefe by a special decree - of the assembly on the 26th of June, and remained at the - head of affairs till 1842, when he was overthrown in his - turn. _Costa R._, _Col. Leyes_, iv. 241; _Marure_, _Efem._, - 64; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 322-3. Miguel Carranza, - Carrillo's father-in-law, became vice-jefe. _Stephens_, - _Cent. Am._, i. 359. - - [IX-76] He established a reign of despotism, in which - his will was law, restricting the press and punishing his - political opponents with expatriation and otherwise, though - they were pardoned in 1838. _Costa R._, _Col. Leyes_, iv. - 320-1, v. 96-100, 193-4. His course made him many enemies, - whom he treated with the utmost harshness. His change from - a liberal ruler to an arbitrary one was quite marked. He - was known by the sobriquet of Sapo de Loza. A number of - charges against him appear in _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, - iii. 561-79. During his former administration, in 1836, he - restored the tithes and the excessive number of holidays of - the church. - - [IX-77] The assembly had, in April 1838, passed a resolution - inviting the federal congress to call a national convention - for the exclusive purpose of reforming the federal - institutions. _Costa R._, _Col. Leyes_, v. 196-8. - - [IX-78] Carrillo could not rule with the liberal constitution - of 1825. To do away with this obstacle he used as a - pretext the decree of the federal congress of May 30, - 1838, empowering the states to reconstitute themselves. The - assembly of Costa Rica accepted the decree on the 16th of - July, 1838, and Carrillo seized the opportunity to get rid - of a fundamental law that did not suit him. It was at his - suggestion that the assembly, by decree of July 14, 1838, - called the constituent convention. _Costa R._, _Col. Leyes_, - iv. 248-51, 279-84; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iii. 266-7. - - [IX-79] A treaty of friendship and alliance was concluded - July 1, 1839, with Honduras; another of the same character - one month later with Guatemala. Both are given in - _Convencion_, in _Cent. Am. Constitutions_, 13-14, 23-5. - - [IX-80] The coat of arms was a star with rays, placed in the - centre of a sky-blue circle, and had at the circumference - the inscription 'Estado de Costa Rica.' The flag consisted - of three horizontal stripes, the uppermost and lowest white, - and the central one sky-blue, with the coat of arms on the - latter. The flag of the mercantile marine was not to have - the coat of arms, but instead of it, in silver letters on the - centre stripe, the inscription 'Estado de Costa Rica.' _Costa - R._, _Col. Leyes_, vi. 316-20. - - [IX-81] President Morazan's decree of April 20, 1842, - restored the flag, arms, and coins as before the promulgation - of Carrillo's. - - [X-1] Articles 8th and 9th of this treaty stipulated that - the ports of both states were to be closed to British trade - until Great Britain should restore to Central America the - island of Roatan, the seizure of which, together with its - consequences, is treated of in another part of this volume. - Chatfield, who had been favoring the views of Guatemala - against Los Altos, declared to the latter that these articles - were offensive to his government. The government of the new - state, being anxious to avert any interruption of friendly - relations, by its minister, Aguilar, assured the consul, on - the 18th of Jan., 1840, that the objectionable articles would - be rescinded. - - [X-2] The state assembly passed a decree to that end April - 17, 1841, and appointed the deputies to represent it, the - appointees being Francisco Castellon, Gregorio Juarez, Benito - Rosales, Ex-jefe José Nuñez, and Hermenegildo Zepeda. The - last named was represented by Sebastian Salinas. Castellon's - selection by the assembly was a blow at Buitrago, the two - being bitter opponents. - - [X-3] In the protest they set forth the machinations brought - to bear to defeat them. Nicaragua and Salvador had asked - Guatemala and Costa Rica to enter the convention. Ferrera, - the executive of Honduras, played a double game. He had - representatives in the convention, while he was leagued - with the aristocrats of Guatemala, who spurned the idea of - reorganization. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 144. - - [X-4] Meantime the convention named the supreme delegate - and the members of the council. The duties of the executive - officer were multifarious, involving foreign and internal - affairs. Among the foreign affairs was the negotiating of a - concordat with the pope, and of a treaty with Spain for her - recognition of Central American independence. He was also - to procure the reassembling of the American diet. _Squier's - Trav._, ii. 444-5; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 147-8; - _Reichardt_, _Nic._, 73-4; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Feb. 14, - 1875. - - [X-5] Act of the constituent assembly, dated July 20, 1842. - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 304-5. - - [X-6] The act consisted of 77 articles, and was an - amplification of the former act. Art. 4 said that - the confederate states recognized the principle of - non-intervention by one or more states in the internal - affairs of the others. They bound themselves never to - resort to arms for the settlement of disputed points, nor - to permit the annexation of towns of alien jurisdiction - without the express assent of their sovereign. The other - states of the late union were granted the privilege of - joining the confederacy with equal rights and representation. - Art. 14 prescribed that the government was to be exercised - through delegates for the general objects of common benefit - expressly set forth in the instrument. Art. 15. The executive - authority was to be in charge of a supremo delegado, with - a consultive council formed with one member from each - state. Art. 16. The judicial power was intrusted to a court - composed of members chosen by the state legislatures. The - delegates who subscribed the act were: J. Nuñez, G. Juarez, - Francisco Castellon, Pedro Zeledon, and Sebastian Salinas - for Nicaragua; Manuel Barberena, and José M. Cornejo for - Salvador; Manuel E. Vazquez, Mónico Bueso, and Jacobo Rosa - for Honduras. _Cent. Am._, _Pacto de Confed._, 1-12; _Niles' - Reg._, lxiv. 2; _La Union_, June 15, 1850; _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, iv. 266-82; _Pabellon Nac._, Oct. 19, 1844, - 27; _Froebel's Cent. Am._, 143. - - [X-7] An act was passed by the constituent assembly on the - 28th of July, 1841, purporting to have in view a restoration - of the union. _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, i. 454-5. - - [X-8] _Costa R._, _Col. Leyes_, viii. 28-36. This treaty - was called by the nobles 'tratado de union.' Carcache - produced a note of June 17, 1843. from Aycinena reiterating - his government's protest against the expediency and - practicability of establishing in Central America 'una forma - de gobierno unitario,' which in its opinion would entail - upon the country still greater misfortunes. Castellon, for - the Nicaragua executive, replied on the 5th of Aug., denying - that any offence had been committed by entertaining opinions - favorable to the late government. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, - iv. 151-2. - - [X-9] Rivera Paz' decree, in _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, i. - 46-8. - - [X-10] Costa Rica appointed delegates to the diet. _Costa - R._, _Col. Leyes_, viii. 57-9, 92-8, 188-9. The minister - of Guat. had proposed to Costa Rica a convention of - commissioners from all the states, appointed in the manner - he suggested, namely, all the commissioners were to be of - Guatemala, and directed by him to review the compact of - Chinandega. The proposition was rejected. The reports of the - committees in the assemblies of Guatemala and Costa Rica are - given in _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 283-97, 380, 407-9. - - [X-11] This would save them from such blows as the lieut-gen. - inflicted on them at Pinula and Villa de Guadalupe, early in - 1844. - - [X-12] They were to be paid for by the confederate states. - - [X-13] These facts appear in the official report to the state - government on May 6, 1844. - - [X-14] José Antonio Azmitia became minister of the treasury, - and Manuel Ubico under-sec.-gen. - - [X-15] He could not deny Arce's invasion of Salvador, - but pretended that no prominent man of the govt or of the - aristocratic party had any knowledge of his intention to - invade, or of the source from which he obtained his supplies. - Pavon knew well enough, but prevarication was convenient. The - fact is, Juan A. Alvarado, Guatemalan agent in San Salvador, - had given his government timely information of the intended - invasion. Arce's departure was open. In order to put an - innocent appearance on the affair, the govt decreed, May - 12, 1844, that Arce should leave the city within 24 hours, - and the state within 20 days. In an address to the people - on the 2d of June, Rivera Paz says that Salvador emissaries - had been detected trying to rouse the people of Los Altos - to insurrection, and that the plan was intended to avenge - the defeat of 1840. This is hardly true; for Malespin had - been then on Carrera's side against Morazan, and his tool - in Salvador ever since. The aristocrats had, when it suited - their purposes, published letters of liberal leaders falling - in their hands; and yet they never brought out those said to - have been taken from the emissaries at Los Altos. - - [X-16] The two notes are given in _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, - iv. 531-41. - - [X-17] Col. Vicente Cruz, commanding the advance force of - Carrera's army, attributed the defeat to fear, which was not - altogether devoid of truth. - - [X-18] The commissioners were: José D. Dieguez, Luis Batres, - and José M. Urruela for Guat.; Bishop Viteri and Narciso - Monterey for the sup. del. - - [X-19] Art. 2 stipulated that all property removed from Guat. - to Salv. by the latter's forces should be restored, or its - value made good. This article was a hard one for Malespin, - and yet Viteri accepted it. This arrangement was completed in - May 1846. _Id._, v. 18; _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, i. 408-15; - _Crowe's Gospel_, 159; _La Abeja_, Oct. 18, 1844; _Defensor - Integ. Nac._, Nov. 2, 1844; _El Constituc._, Apr. 23, 1844; - _Pabellon Nac._, Oct. 19, 29, 1844. - - [X-20] He insisted on certain amendments, his commissioners - having exceeded their instructions, and humiliated Salvador, - which was irresponsible for the movement on Jutiapa. And yet - Guatemala declared the convention to be obligatory. - - [X-21] The object then in view was to unite Malespin and - Ferrera for a dash upon Nicaragua. With the Guatemalan - commissioners went Viteri, and he had a princely reception. - - [X-22] He added that by sacrificing a great portion of her - rights Salv. had obtained peace. - - [X-23] The commissioners who negotiated it were: Cayetano - Bosque for Salvador; Canon Doroteo Alvarenga and Juan Lindo - for Honduras. The object of the arrangement was evidently a - league against Nicaragua, though it cannot be said to have - been against the party called 'coquimbos,' for generals Saget - and Espinosa were now serving with Malespin. _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, iv. 567-8, 581-2. - - [X-24] The confederate executive had ordered a force of - Nicaragüenses to come into Salvador through the department - of Choluteca, Lieut-col Aguado being charged with their - transportation. - - [X-25] The troops could not come by sea, the port of La Union - being then blockaded by a British frigate. Copy of Aguilar's - note, dated Aug. 11, 1844, in _Id._, 569-71. - - [X-26] Muñoz' report sets the enemy's loss at 156 killed, - besides many prisoners, and over 200 muskets, etc. - - [X-27] The place was defended by upwards of 700 men under - Juan Morales. - - [X-28] Guzman could not grant such authority, as it was - of the exclusive province of the state congress. It was, - besides, unnecessary, as neither Salvador nor Honduras was - invaded. - - [X-29] For his own security, in his absence, he placed his - brother, Calixto Malespin, as comandante general, near - Vice-president Guzman. This man used to open Guzman's - correspondence, and deliver him only such despatches as - he thought expedient. See circular of Jimenez, Guzman's - minister, to governors of departments, of Feb. 12, 1845, in - _Id._, 717-18. - - [X-30] He was the constitutional chief. _Ayon_, _Apuntes_, 4; - _Semanario Nic._, Apr. 24, 1873. - - [X-31] A pompous title, which rendered him ridiculous in - the eyes of many, while it excited jealousy on the part of - others. _Squier's Trav._, ii. 449. Fonseca is represented as - a drunkard, ignorant, and the most brutal tyrant Nicaragua - ever had. Life and property were subject to his nod. - _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 224-5; _Wells' Hond._, 494. - - [X-32] It should be known that Chamorro had not been a - Morazanista, or even a liberal. He was the chief of the - conservative party in Nic. On March 29, 1845, his term having - expired, and there being no legal successor, he decreed - that the office of supremo delegado ceased to exist, and - communicated the fact to the governments of the several - states. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 122. - - [X-33] Oct. 31, 1844. The object of the war, he said, was to - avenge the insult inflicted by Nic. on Hond., and it was to - be waged till a lasting peace could be secured. - - [X-34] Here the invaders were joined by Gen. Manuel Quijano - and 64 dragoons who had deserted from Leon. - - [X-35] The commissioners were Hermenegildo Zepeda and - Gerónimo Carcache. Malespin himself acted for Salv. and Hond. - Art. 1 required Nic. to pay Salv. and Hond. all the expenses - of the present war, and to Salv. those incurred in the war of - April last against Guat., because Nic. had failed to furnish - her contingent of troops. This last payment was waived by - Salv. in art. 6. Art. 2 calls for the surrender by Nic. - of all arms within her territory belonging to the allies. - Art. 3 made it the duty of Nic. to deliver to the allied - forces the 'facciosos' Joaquin Rivera, Máximo Orellana, - Miguel Álvarez, Trinidad Cabañas, Gerardo Barrios, Diego - and Ramon Vijil, if found in the state, and if they were - out of it, not to allow them to reside therein without the - consent of the allied governments. Art. 7 throws upon Nic. - the expense of supporting the allied troops from the date of - the ratification of the treaty till they should have reached - their quarters in their respective states. _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, iv. 592-4. - - [X-36] Guardiola became intoxicated and abused the deserters; - whereupon half of them abandoned the allied camp, and he was - placed under arrest. - - [X-37] Among the slain was Cruz Guardiola, a brother of the - general. - - [X-38] It will be well to record here that Muñoz, to whom - Leon owed her present tribulation, was a Nicaraguan by birth. - - [X-39] The negotiators for Nic. were Canon Desiderio Cortés - and Anselmo Alarcon; for Salv. and Hond., Gen. Nicolás - Espinosa and J. T. Muñoz. Under this capitulation the terms - agreed to in the former one at Zatoca were to be enforced as - regarded payment of war expenses and surrender of arms. Nic. - bound herself to expel from the state Casto Fonseca, Cabañas, - Rivera, Orellana, Barrios, Álvarez, Diego, Ramon and José - Antonio Vijil, Domingo Asturias, José Antonio Milla, and José - Antonio Ruiz; and furthermore, to deliver to Malespin some - Salvadorans who revolted against him at San Miguel on the 5th - of Sept., 1844. - - [X-40] Granada took Malespin's side, and was followed by - Rivas and other places. It seemed as if all the actas had - been written by the same hand. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, - iv. 600, 635-6. - - [X-41] The most humiliating part of this arrangement was - the 3d clause, wherein the eastern and southern departments - recognize Malespin as 'protector de los Nicaragüenses,' - and general-in-chief of the united armies, including one - organized by those departments, till the end of the war. - _Id._, iv. 600-2; _Nic._, _Registro Ofic._, 12, 14, 55-6, 65, - 69, 110-15; _Sandoval_, _Rev. Polít._, 9, 15-18. - - [X-42] Several officers were shot, among them a number - taken by Saget, on the vessel _Carolina_. Malespin issued - stringent orders against rendering aid to the besieged. An - official report from Nagarote of Jan. 23d, to the comandante - at Managua, speaks of a defeat of troops of the govt at Leon, - with the loss of 200 killed, 300 wounded, and many prisoners, - together with 3 pieces of cannon and other arms, etc. _Nic._, - _Registro Ofic._, 4. - - [X-43] It is related that Pedro Zeledon, a Costa Rican - residing in Chichigalpa, Nic., wrote Muñoz, depicting the - horrors of the war and the need of peace. Malespin made Muñoz - invite Zeledon to a conference, and when he had him in his - power, demanded a ransom of $1,000, but did not get anything, - and Zeledon obtained his liberty. - - [X-44] The only house exempted from plunder was Manning's. - Many houses were razed to the ground, or burned purposely. - - [X-45] On the first day the acting director, Emiliano Madrid, - Crescencio Navas, cols Francisco Lacayo and Balmaceda, Capt. - Valle, José M. Oseguera, and Father Crespin were shot. - Crespin's offence was to have begged the infamous Manuel - Quijano, at the door of the hospital for the wounded, to - spare them. Canon Cortés was put to death afterward. Casto - Fonseca, captured on the coast, was tried by court-martial - and shot. An eye-witness declared that 24 persons were - executed by Malespin in Leon. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, - iv., table no. 5, 636; _Sandoval_, _Revista Polít._, 7-15; - _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 227, 230-3; _Nic._, _Registro Ofic._, - 4-6, 14; _Crowe's Gospel_, 159-61; _Niles' Reg._, lxviii. - 193. Bustamante, _Mem. Hist. Mex._, MS., ii. 77, speaks of - Malespin's acts of horrible cruelty, adding that according - to the newspapers of Guat. Malespin had caused to be - assassinated over 1,000 persons. - - [X-46] Eighty-five prisoners were released from the jail, - many of whom had been confined there for alleged political - offenses. - - [X-47] He was a son-in-law of Vice-president Guzman. They - differed in politics, but Barrios fully believed that Guzman - was the person to overthrow Malespin, and must be aided with - some bold stroke. - - [X-48] He called a large number of his friends to his house - and armed them with pistols—he had not a single musket at - his command. He then called the comandante general, and the - mayor de plaza, Antonino Arévalo, and made prisoners of them - without resistance. The two escaped afterward, but Malespin - was recaptured, with a wound. - - [X-49] Acta of the capital on Feb. 2, 1845. _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, iv. 719-24; _Monit. Constit. Indep._, May 2, - 1845; _La Minerva_, May 22, 1845. - - [X-50] Costa R. had heard of it by a vessel from Acajutla, - and sent her recognition before the circular reached her. - The govt of Nic., created by Malespin, recognized Guzman. The - nobles of Guat. had to do the same; and believing themselves - endowed with extraordinary good sense, added their advice - with all the gravity of pedagogues. _Montúfar_, _Reseña - Hist._, iv. 678. - - [X-51] On the ground of unconstitutionality, he being in - command of the state forces at the time the election took - place. Circular Feb. 24, 1845, in _Id._, 725; _El Salvador - Regenerado_, no. 2. - - [X-52] Guzman was a Costa Rican by birth, but had lived many - years in San Miguel, Salv. He entertained liberal ideas from - his earliest political life. His military service, under - Morazan, began soon after the battle of Gualcho, and he was - present as a captain in the actions of San Miguel and Las - Charcas. He accompanied that leader to Guat. In the invasion - of Cent. Am. from Mex. by Arce in 1832, Guzman did gallant - service at Jocoro, and entered San Salvador with Morazan. - Again during San Martin's rebellion he served under his - chief as a lieut-col. The chambers of Salvador, on the 19th - of May, 1845, declared Guzman a 'benemérito de la patria,' - and awarded him a gold medal, at the same time promoting - him to general of division. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. - 693-4; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, May 21, 1875. Dunlop, _Cent. - Am._, 116, says of him: He was 'more remarkable for cunning - than honor or courage. His manners are gentlemanly; he has - no mixture of colored blood, and is rather good-looking, - though he appears to possess but little talent or education.' - I am inclined to think that Dunlop misrepresented Guzman's - character, for Guzman proved himself a good and pure ruler, - and his name is revered in the state and throughout Cent. Am. - by all lovers of freedom and enlightenment. - - [X-53] On the 23d of Feb., 1845, grounded on the execution - of priests at Leon. The decree forbids the faithful of the - diocese to have any intercourse, verbal or written, with - Malespin, or to uphold or defend him in any manner. Full - text in _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 679-81; _Bustamante_, - _Mem. Hist. Mex._, MS., ii. 78. - - [X-54] They were Cayetano A. Molina and Juan Antonio - Alvarado. They asked not merely for Carrera's neutrality, - but for his active aid, and were referred to the ministers, - by whom they were dealt with as children. The ministers - pretended that their request could not be acceded to without - an express sanction of the legislature, which was not then in - session for lack of a quorum. The plea was a ridiculous one, - when we consider that Carrera had never before consulted the - wishes of the assembly to act his own will. - - [X-55] Malespin had been acting there as president, under - Hond. support; but on Guzman's approach his troops disbanded, - and he fled. - - [X-56] In March 1845 the president of Hond. took Malespin - and his companions under the protection of his govt. _Nic._, - _Registro Ofic._, 53-4. - - [X-57] The commissioners of Hond. were Sebastian Salinas - and Leonardo Romero; those of Salv., José Félix Quiroz - and Nicolás Angulo. The treaty was ratified by Salv., but - rejected by the other contracting party. Text of the treaty - and Dueñas' additional clause, in _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, - iv. 726-32. - - [X-58] Concluded by Cayetano A. Molina and Juan A. Alvarado - for Salv., and Alejandro Marure and José M. de Urruela for - Guat., April 4, 1845; approved by the constituent congress of - Guat. on the 23d of the same month, and published by Acting - President Duran the next day. _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, i. - 415-19; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, July 8, 1853; _Monit. Constit. - Ind._, May 21, 1845; _La Minerva_, May 22, 1845. - - [X-59] Dueñas was then considered a liberal, though he was - a Dominican friar when the convents were closed in 1839, for - which reason the government of Guat. would not trust him. It - was deceiving him. He was, however, the one most likely to - succeed in keeping Carrera from aiding Hond. in the present - emergency. Hond. had sent Felipe Jáuregui and Pablo Orellana - to Guat. The former was Ferrera's mentor, and in the councils - of Pavon, Aycinena, and Batres. At first he was alarmed at - the liberalism of the constituent congress, which had voted - assistance to Salv. But he received assurances that no aid - would be sent except to quell revolts in the interior; and, - moreover, that the foes of Hond. would be stricken from the - Salvador administration. Jáuregui now understood the game, - and wrote his government that the vote of aid by congress - practically amounted to nothing. A note containing these - assurances was published in Comayagua. Guat. concluded a - treaty of friendship and alliance with Hond. on the 19th of - July, 1845. _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, i. 419-23. - - [X-60] Dr Aguilar and Father Monterey. _Nic._, _Registro - Ofic._, 61-2, 123-34. Gen. Muñoz, who so efficiently aided - Malespin at Leon, was now the com. gen. and most prominent - man in Nic. - - [X-61] Ferrera claimed another victory on the 7th at Santa - Rosa, but it was unfounded. _Id._, 83, 88; _Monitor Constit. - Ind._, May 21, 1845; _Crowe's Gospel_, 166-7. - - [X-62] He demanded on the 11th of July, as compensation - for alleged damages to Hond. by the invasion of Cabañas and - Cordero, that Salv. should cede to Hond. all the arms and - other war material deposited in the latter state by Malespin, - and pay, besides, $100,000 in specie, to be collected by - Hond. in instalments at the port of La Union, which, until - the payments should be completed, was to be held by Hond.; - or, in lieu of that sum, cede to the latter the department of - San Miguel, or that portion of the department of Cuscatlan - lying outside of the territory enclosed by the Lempa on - the south and south-west. He also required the exile from - Cent. Am. of a number of persons. This note was published - in _Guat._, _Gaceta Ofic._, no. 15, Aug. 28, 1845. In July - a project was entertained of a confederation of Hond. with - Nic., Guat., and Salv. _Nic._, _Registro Ofic._, 93-5, 102-8, - 118-21, 136-8. - - [X-63] One house containing British property was spared. - The houses of two French merchants, whose nation's flag was - flying over them, were plundered. _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 239. - - [X-64] In his report he tried to cover up this serious - disaster. But the fact was, that he escaped with only about - 300 men, leaving on the field upward of 300 muskets, and a - large number of slain, wounded, and prisoners. _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, iv. 700-1. - - [X-65] Hond. troops entered Salv. after that and were - defeated. Guardiola with 350 men attacked Carballo, who had - only 39, and murdered them. It is said that this act was - commended by Ferrera in his report to the chambers of Hond. - - [X-66] Guzman then returned to Hond. a number of prisoners - who had been represented by his enemies as murdered. - - [X-67] So long as they remained in Hond. the latter was - to compel them to live at a great distance from the Salv. - frontier. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 736-8; _Dunlop's - Cent. Am._, 239-43; _Nic._, _Registro Ofic._, 132, 172, - 221-2; _El Tiempo_, March 12, 1846. - - [X-68] Each of the contracting parties was to appoint two - commissioners to meet at Sonsonate on the 30th of Aug., and - was to urge upon the other three states a consideration of - the lamentable state the republic was in, suggesting how best - to do away with such a condition of affairs; and proposing - therefor the convocation and assembling of a constituent - power, or such other measure as it might deem conducive to - the desired end. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 30-1. - - [X-69] Duran well understood the policy of his government. - Padilla did not, and volunteered to represent in San Salvador - the ardent wishes of Guat. for the restoration of the union. - He did so in a patriotic speech that gave him a good name in - Salv. and a bad one in Guat., where the _Gaceta_ rebuked him. - - [X-70] 'Un delirio de imaginaciones enfermas,' it was - pronounced to be. Delegates from Costa R., Salv., and Guat. - were at Sonsonate on the 17th of Feb., 1846, and fixed the - 15th to the 20th of April for conferences, but they did not - take place. On the 15th of June Costa R., Hond., and Salv. - only were represented. Nic. and Costa R. signified their - willingness to meet the other states at any place they might - select, Hond. having suggested Nacaome, as Sonsonate was no - longer deemed safe. The whole plan failed at last because - of the action of Guat. Much interesting information on the - subject and official correspondence appear in _Guat._, _Gac. - Ofic._, no. 26; _Costa R._, _Col. Leyes_, ix. 51-3, 58, - 203-4, 212-14, 345-6; x. 115-17, 123-4; _Nic._, _Reg. Ofic._, - 236-350, passim; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 316-18, - 334-5; _Froebel's Cent. Am._, 143; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, - 253-4; _Niles' Reg._, lxix. 34. - - [X-71] Signed by Rafael Carrera, and countersigned by José - Antonio Azmitia, minister of relations. _Guat._, _Recop. - Leyes_, i. 73-6; _Costa R._, _Informe Relaciones, etc._, - 1848, 4; _El Universal_, June 8, 1849; _Niles' Reg._, lxxii. - 208; _The Californian_, S. F., Nov. 24, 1847, ii. 3. - - [X-72] The document bore Carrera's name, but it was no - production of his own mind. The authorship was attributed - to Alejandro Marure; that is to say, he drew it up from - the materials that had been collecting for years. _La - Revista_, the organ of the Sociedad Económica, declared it - the offspring of long meditation, and indeed it was, for the - aristocrats of Guat. had been planning it since 1828. The - full text is given in _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 196-207. - - [X-73] Manuel Pineda de Mont, compiler of _Guat._, _Recop. - Leyes_, i. 453, claims, however, that Guat. was the last of - the five states to set aside the federal govt, the last to - secede, the last to continue bearing the general burdens of - the system, especially the pecuniary ones to sustain even - the semblance of authority; and that she only adopted the - resolution of March 21, 1847, after exhausting every effort, - and losing all hope of seeing her wishes realized. The reader - will judge between his statements and the facts as they have - been fairly given by me. - - [X-74] Joaquin Bernardo Calvo and Juan Antonio Alvarado. - The ruler of Costa Rica, Dr Castro, was, however, of the - opinion that the five Central American states would be better - off as separate nations. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. - 266-7; _Nacaome_, _Dictamen_, in _Cent. Am. Pamph._, no. 5; - _Froebel's Cent. Am._, 143. - - [X-75] Among them was the deputy Nazario Toledo, an intimate - friend of the president. Felipe Molina was another, and his - opinions are clearly defined in his _Bosq. Costa R._, 108-9. - - [X-76] The decree bears the signatures of Juan Rafael Reyes, - vice-president, and Nazario Toledo and Santiago Fernandez, - deputies and secretaries of congress. _Costa R._, _Col. - Leyes_, x. 336-8; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 526-7. - - [X-77] The arrangement looked to a consolidation for the - purpose of conducting foreign relations, and to an early - union on the plan of a federation. _Cent. Am. Miscel. Doc._, - 46; _Costa R._, _Gac. Gob._, March 2, Apr. 20, 1850; _Hond._, - _Gac. Ofic._, Aug. 31, 1850; _El Siglo_, Apr. 22, 1851; - _Nic._, _Corr. Ist._, Dec. 16, 1849, March 21, Oct. 3, 1850; - _La Union_, Jan. 1, 15, 1850; _Guat._, _Gac._, Nov. 30, 1849; - _Salv._, _Gac._, Dec. 7, 1849. - - [X-78] Consul-gen. Chatfield was officially advised of - the new organization on the 21st Jan., 1851, and ignored - Sec. Buitrago's note. On being reminded of it, May 22d, - he returned an insulting reply July 13th, refusing his - recognition, when the government decreed, on the 24th of - July, to cancel his exequatur as consul-gen. in the states - belonging to the confederation, and to inform his govt of - the cause. _Cent. Am. Docs._, 1-6. The British officials - also resorted to other means to defeat what they called Am. - policy. _Squier's Cent. Am._, ii. 135; _El Universal_, Feb. - 19, March 26, 1850; _Salv._, _Gac._, Dec. 21, 1849; _Dem. - Rev._, Nov. 1850, 452. - - [X-79] Guat. and Costa R. had refused to join. _Salv. Gac._, - March 8, 22, 1850, Oct. 12, 1854; _Nic._, _Corr. Ist._, Jan. - 16, 30, 1851. - - [X-80] The act of installation was accompanied with religious - and civic ceremonies, the govt of Hond., at whose head was - Trinidad Cabañas, heartily joining them. Congratulatory - messages came from all friends of the union. _El Siglo_, S. - Salv., Oct. 29, 30, Nov. 1, 4, 10, 14, 16, 19, 1852; _Hond._, - _Gac. Ofic._, Oct. 30, Nov. 15, 1852; _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. - Revol. Nic._, 17; _El Porvenir_, nos. 6, 7. - - [X-81] The assembly also elected a vice-jefe and four - substitute councillors to fill the executive chair, in the - event of the jefe or members of the executive council dying - or becoming disabled. - - [X-82] It set forth the duties of the jefe supremo and - councillors, the independence between the federal and state - authorities, the rights of citizens, responsibilities of - public officials, and organization of the federal judiciary. - _Hond._, _Gac. Ofic._, Nov. 30, 1852. - - [X-83] Salv. on the 21st of March, and Nic. on the 30th of - April. The congress, acting too precipitately, overstepped - the bounds of its powers. _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Revol. Nic._, - 17-18. - - [X-84] More details on the confederation scheme are contained - in _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 110-16; _El Nacional_, Nov. - 27, Dec. 25, 1858; _Nic._, _Bol. Ofic._, July 30, 1869; - _Id._, _Gac._, March 2, 9, 1872; _Id._, _Seman. Nicar._, Nov. - 21, Dec. 12, 1872, Feb. 6, Oct. 16, 1873; _Los Anales_, Dec. - 1, 1872; _Mex._, _Diario Ofic._, Nov. 2, 1871; _U. S. Gov. - Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., 42d Cong. 2d Sess., i., pt 1, 680-3; - _Costa R._, _Inf. Rel._, 1876, 12-14; _Salv._, _Gac. Ofic._, - June 10, July 6, Aug. 19, Oct. 26, 27, 1876; _Id._, _Diario - Ofic._, March 17, Oct. 5, 13, 1875, Jan. 27, 30, Feb. 2-6, - 1876; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 2, 1876; _Caicedo_, - _Lat. Am._, 60-2; _Cent. Am._, _Contest. al Voto_, 1-23; - _Chamorro_, _Cuestion Nacional_, 1-7; _Harper's Monthly - Mag._, xvii. 691. - - Further authorities for the preceding chapters are: - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, vols i.-iv., passim; _Id._, - _Discurso_, 1-12; _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, i. 1-72, 96-100, - 164-79, 185-6, 197-202, 207, 217-73, 382-95, 453-5, 461-75, - 592-600, 858-9, 877-8; ii. 83-260, 632-7; iii. 286, 338-48; - _Id._, _Bolet. Ofic._, 1831, no. 2; 1832, nos. 17, 20; 1833, - no. 34; 1834, nos. 34, 56, July 15, Oct. 15; 1836, no. 84; - 1837, no. 10; 1838, no. 53; _Fernando VII._, _Documentos_, - 264-76, 281-5, 292-311, 337-49; _Id._, _Decretos_, 4-10, - 15-26, 33-73, 105-10, 120-34, 149-82, 194-201, 220-3, - 243-81; _Ayon_, _Consid. Límites_, 20-4. _Id._, _Apuntes_, - passim; _Astaburuaga_, _C. Amer._, 12-32, 79-80; _Arce_, - _Mem._, passim; _Reichardt_, _Nic._, 76-9; _Id._, _Cent. - Am._, 37-44, 114-17, 133-4, 139-45, 208-11; _Pim's Gate - of the Pac._, 38, 56, 58-61; _Gac. Imp. Mex._, i. 162-3, - 445-8, 477-9, 489-91, 503-5; ii. 554-61, 635, 657-9, 677-9, - 735, 747-52; _Gac. de Méx._, 1823, no. 3, 11-12, 1826, July - 4, Sept. 16, Oct. 31, Dec. 14; 1826, Jan. 25, March 1, 31, - April 26; _Ocios Españ. Emig._, v. 307-11, 405-13, 487-505; - vi. 8-21, 107-17, 302-13, 383-4; vii. 3-7; _Rocha_, _Cód. - Nic._, i. 19-23, 56-64, 72-92, 214-16; ii. 22-56, 163-4; - _Morazan y Carrera_, _Apuntes_, MS., 1-18; _Molina_, _Coup - d'œil Costa R._, 4-5, 9-12; _Id._, _Costa R. y N. Granada_, - 9-10, 16-29; _Id._, _Bosq. Costa R._, passim; _Integ. Cent. - Am._, Dec. 11, 1849; _El Rol_, Oct. 13, 1854; _Zebadúa_, - _Manif._, 1-40; _Juarros_, _Guat._, ii. 103-4; _Id._, _Stat. - and Com. Hist. Guat._, 74; _Squier's Guat._, 581-2; _Id._, - _States C. A._, 360-1, 414-16, 466, 482, 493, 575-88, 627-8, - 641-3, 663; _Id._, _Travels C. Am._, ii., passim; _Id._, - _Comp. Hist. C. A._, 18-191; _Wells' Honduras_, 116, 120, - 230-1, 472-83; _Jordan's Dangers to Foreigners_, 50-2; - _Cuevas_, _Porv. Méx._, 252-7; _Costa R._, _Mem. Relac._, - 1884, 2-34, and docs. 1 and 2; _Annals Brit. Legis._, - i. 60; ii. 192, 365; _Hernandez y Dávalos_, _Col. Doc._, - ii. 81-2, 130-1; _Herrera_, _Discurso_, 1-12; _Suarez y - Navarro_, _Hist. Méj._, 386, 407-14; _Sur America_, _Sobre - las Perturbaciones de Guat._, 1-52; _Lafond_, _Voy. autour - du Monde_, i. 367, 373-8; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guat._, - 58-64, 256-8; _Puydt et Binckum_, _Colonisation_, 116-24; - _Rivera_, _Hist. Jalapa_, ii. 305; _Urrueta_, _Inglaterra_, - 7-12; _Zamacois_, _Hist. Méj._, ix. 9-10; _Aznero Plata_, - _Informe_, 1-19; _Espir. Públ._, Dec. 13, 20, 1828; Jan. - 18, Feb. 14, 1829; _Wappäus_, _Mex. und C. Amer._, 258-64, - 271-4, 360-3; _Trollope's W. Ind._, 335; _Dunn's Guatemala_, - 13-29, 150-1, 167-88, 205; _Atleta_, 149-50, 199-200, 477; - _Guat._, _Mem. contenant au Aperçu_, 4, 126, 146-58; _Id._, - _Memoria_, 1837, 12-22; _Robertson's Hist. Am._, ii. 1138-9; - _El Progreso_, April 11, 18, 25, 1850; _Tribune Almanac_, - 1851, 36; _Holinski_, _La Californie_, 305-31; _Huston's - Journey in Hond._, 11; _Niles' Register_, xxii. 65; xxiii. - 406; xxvii. 355; xxviii. 37, 114-15, 304; xxix. 39, 192, 382; - xxx. 439-40; xxxi. 160, 172-6; xxxii. 80, 201, 232, 282, 375; - xxxiii. 38; xxxiv. 8, 36, 123; xxxv. 41, 155, 349; xxxvi. - 321; xxxviii. 369, 395; xliii. 268; xlv. 210; liv. 289; - lvi. 49, 210, 243, 385; lvii. 34, 280; lix. 191; _Emigrado - Observ._, 1828, 5-24, 122, in _Ocios de España_; _Pineda_, - _Descrip. Geog._, 14-16; _Byam's Wild Life_, 32-7; _Nouv. - Annales Voy._, xcii. 59-60, 75-7; c. 51-60, 64-6; _Young's - Mosq. Shore_, 15-21, 26-33, 42-3, 53-89, 106-14, 122-38, - 156, 166; _Overland Monthly_, xiv. 159-67; _Larrainzar_, - _Soconusco_, 80, 132,168, 178; _Repertorio Americano_, i. - 273-89; _Eastern Coast C. Am._, 8-25; _Strangeways' Mosq._, - 4-5, 59-68, 119-33, 144-8, 237-338; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, - passim; _Henderson's Account of Br. Hond._, 28-105, 165-211; - _D'Orbigny_, _Voy. deux Ameríques_, 398-406; _Pim and - Seemann's Dottings_, 314; _Nuevo Viajero Univ._, iii. 609-10; - _Larenaudière_, Mex. et Guat., 295-308; _Poinsett's Notes - on Mex._, app. 64; _Anderson's Commerce_, iv. 449; _Dunbar's - Mex. Papers_, 234-5; _Regil_, in _Soc. Mex. Geog._, iii. 239, - 315; _Ancona_, _Hist. Yuc._, iv. 221-35; _Boletin Ofic._ - (_Méx._), no. 14, 2; _Diputados, Lista de_; _Doc. Hist. - Cal._, iv. 807-8; _Suarez_, _Informe_, 182; _Dicc. Univ. - Hist. Geog._, x. 919-20, 971; _Findlay's Directory_, i. 223, - 240; _Peralta_, _Repúb. de Costa Rica_, 4-8; _Polynesian_, - iv. 166; _North Am. Rev._, xiv. 420-46; xxvi. 136-8, 143-5; - _Osborne's Guide to W. Ind._, 234, 261-2; _Wagner_, _Costa - Rica_, 201-3, 231, 543-51, 568; _Crowe's Gospel in C. Am._, - 115-51, 200-22; _Los Anales_, Oct. 15, 1872, p. 471; Nov. 1, - 1872, p. 53; Nov. 15, 1872, p. 56; Dec. 1, 1872, pp. 62-3; - Dec. 15, 1872, pp. 71-2; _Paredes_, _Coast of Mosquitos_, - 1-62; _Nic._, _Semanario Nic._, May 30, July 4, 18, Dec. 26, - 1872; Jan. 2, March 6, April 17, 24, 1873; _Hassel_, _Mex. - and Guat._, 316-19; _Boddam's Across Cent. Am._, 66; _Bolet. - Extraord. Guat._, Oct. 16, 1832; July 30, 1833; _Farol_, - 102-5; _Von Tempsky's Mitla_, 337-43; _Fajardo_, _Informe al - Min. Relac._, 2-3, 14-15; _Haefkens_, _Reize naar Guat._, ii. - 76-97; _Id._, _Central Amerika_, 1-468; _Stephens' Travels C. - Am._, i. 11-22, 195-200, 211, 225-50, 304-7, 359; ii. 37-8, - 51-90, 107-17, 205-9; _Thompson's Guat._, 2, 136, 140, 160, - 163, 167, 185-6, 252-8, 415, 422-3, 509-10; _Lastarría_, - _La América_, 250-2; _Ortigosa_, _Sermon_, p. 24; _Diaz_, - _Miscel._, no. 1, p. 1; _Costa Rica_, _Ley Fundamental - Reformada_ (Alajuela, 1835), 1-48; _Id._, _Ley Fundamental - de Costa R._ (San Salvador, 1825), 1-26; _Amer. Review_, - Nov. 1850, 446-55; _Stout's Nic._, 147-9, 168-75, 258-9, - 358-62; _Bolet. Soc. Mex. Geog._, 2da ép., iii. 100-6; iv. - 712-15; _Méx._, _Actas Congr. Const._, iv. 2; _Id._, _Col. - Dec. sob. Congr._, p. 219; _Mesa y Leompart_, _Hist. Amer._, - ii. 360-72; _Martin's Hist. W. Ind._, i. 163-70; _Lond. Geog. - Soc._, _Jour._, v. 387-92; vi. 128, 135; viii. 317-27; xi. - 82-8; _Lynch_, _Relacion Puntual_, 1757, MS., 4-19; _Otras - Reflex. sobre Reforma en Cent. Am._, 1-21; _Pan._, _Docs. - Ofic._, in _Pan._, _Col. Doc._, MSS., no. 31, pp. 62, 66-70; - _Pinart Coll._; _S. Amer. and Guat._, i. 221-3; _Liceaga_, - _Adic. y Rectific._, 613; _Malte-Brun_, _Précis Géog. Univ._, - vi. 468; _Macgregor's Prog. America_, i. 744-7; _Gordon's - Digest Laws U. S._, 328-35; _Lunario de Centro-Amér._; _El - Siglo_, Jan. 10, May 16, 1851; June 5, 1852; _Guat. Com. - and Agric. Co._, 133-7; _Macpherson's Annals of Com._, iii. - 548; iv. 159, 179; _El Observador de la Repúb. Mex._, July - 4, 1827; _Guat._, _Los Nobles_, 1-11; _Blasquez_, _Opinion - sobre los Chamelcos_, in _Doc. Originales Chiapas_, 4-5; - _Diario Méx._, xi. 279-80; xii. 477-80; _Amer. Annual - Reg._, 1825-6, 40-9; _Id._, 1826-7, 171-82; _West Indies_, - _Description_, 49-50; _Torrente_, _Revol. Hisp.-Am._, i. 115; - _Revue Américaine_, i. 398-408; _Oposicion_ (_La._), June - 15, 1835; _Democ. Review_, v. 609-10; xxx. 547; _Pabellon - Nac._, Nov. 21, 1844; _Nic._, _Reg. Ofic._, 9-13, 59-60; - _Los Altos_, _Manif. Documentado_, 1-28; _Amér. Cent._, - _Reclam. de Interv._, 7-10; _Lesur_, _Annuaire Hist. Univ._, - 1827, 577-8; _Cor. Fed. Mex._, Nov. 9, 11, 27, Dec. 14, 18, - 1826; 1827, passim; Feb. 13, March 31, June 14, July 18, - Sept. 1, 9, 14, 18, 21-2, Oct. 28; _Amérique Cent._, _Cie - Belge_, pt ii. 30-2, 115-29, 160-1; _Guat._, _Decretos_, - i. nos. 1, 4, 20, 25, 31, 32, 39, 41, 134; _Morelet_, _Voy. - dans l'Amér. Cent._, ii. 291; _Montgomery's Narrative Jour. - to Guat._, 33-54, 142-9; _Modern Traveller_, _Mex. and - Guat._, ii. 194-5, 317; _Nic. y Hond._, _Docs._, 1-11, 35; - _Sandoval_, _Revista Polít._, 3-7; _San Juan_, _Ocupacion_, - 28-43; _Alaman_, _Hist. Méj._, 50, 291-2; v. 57, 478, 614, - ap. pp. 46-65, 104; _Id._, _Mem. Presentada á las Cámaras_, - 9; _Bidwell's Panamá_, 347; _Hond._, _Gac. Ofic._, Feb. 20, - June 30, 1853; _C. Rica_, _Gac. Gob._, Jan. 26, 1850; _Gac. - Nic._, April 1, June 17, 1865; July 20, 1867; _Santangelo_, - _Congr. Panamá_, 73-5; _Saravia_, _Bosq. Polít. Estad._, - 17-18; _El Semanal Nicaragüense_, i. 44; _Baily's Cent. - Am._, 81-2; _Mex. Finan._, April 18, 1885, pp. 40-2; _Mex. y - Guat._, _Cuest. Límites_, 52-3; _Nic._, _Nueva Discusion_, - 6; _Gac. Salv._, Oct. 12, 1854; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, - Feb.-May 1875, passim; March 2, 28, Sept. 9, 1876; Sept. 20, - 1878; June 20, Sept. 5, 1879; _Méx._, _Mem. Guerra_, 1833, - p. 8; _Id._, _Mem. Relac._, 1823, pp. 11-12; 1827, p. 11; - 1829, p. 2; 1832, pp. 2-3; 1833, pp. 1-2, 1835, pp. 3-4; - 1838, p. 9; 1839, pp. 2-3; 1839, MS., pp. 12-13; 1840, p. 2; - 1841, in _Diario Gob. Mex._, Jan. 24, 1841, p. 1; _Méx._, - _Mem._, ii., docs. 1, 5, 8; _Id._, _Mem. Min. Relac._, i., - docs. 2, 4, 5, 9, 11, 12, 13; _Nic._, _Memoria_, in _Cent. - Am. Pamphl._, iii., no. 1, 4-28; _Payne's Hist. Europ. - Colonies_, 324-32; _Quart. Review_, xxviii. 157-61; _Gac. - de Guat._, Oct. 7, 1853; May 5, Dec. 22, 1854; _Costa Rica_, - _Bolet. Ofic._, Jan. 13, 24, 27, Feb. 3, 7, 14, 17, 28, March - 14, 17, 1855; _Mill's Mex._, 205-19; _Alm._, _Ruiz Calend. - Salv._, 1873, 66-71; _Id._, _Guat. Guia_, 1853, 13-14; - _Id._, _Hond._, 1829, 5, 18-37, 56-64, 90-5, 124-7, 133-48; - _Cabildo_, _Informe que el Cabildo_, 1-75; _Cancelada_, _Tel. - Mex._, 104-11; _Chatfield's Letter to Lord Palmerston_, Dec. - 13, 1847; _Id._, _Letter to Guat. Govt_, Dec. 10, 1847, in - _Mosq._, _Correspond. respecting Mosq. Terr._, 170-2; _La - Nacion_, Sept. 8, 1856; _Mosq.-Küste und Texas_, 29-30; - _Conkling's Guide_, 335-6; _National Calendar_, 18; _Conder's - Mex. and Guat._, 195-7; _Centro-Amér._, _La Situacion_, 1-17; - _Candé_, _Golfe de Hond._, 5-9; _Centro-Amér._, _Informe - sobre la Constit._, p. 73, and p. 30; _Id._, _Convencion_, - 1-32; _Centro-Americano_, passim; _Córtes_, _Actas Públ._, - ii., April 23, 1814, p. 320; _Castellon_, _Docs. Relat._, - 36, 104; _El Nacional_, June 19, 26, July 5, 31, Aug. 14, - Sept. 25, Dec. 11, 1858; Jan. 22, 1859; Sept. 8, 1860; - _Mosqueto Indian_, in _Churchill's Coll._, vi. 300-11; - _Bericht Mosquitolandes_, 5-7, 12, 23, 28, 31-43, 220-7; - _Cor. Atlántico_, May 9, 1835; _Benton's Thirty Years' View_, - 65-9; _Id._, _Debates in Cong._, vii. 383-4; viii. 737, 746; - ix. 769; x. 746; xi. 767; _Mosaico Mex._, ii. 232, 342, 344, - 462; _Nacionalidad Española_; _Mosquito Docs._, nos. 77-229; - _Nic._, _Bolet. Ofic._, Sept. 6, 1862; _Id._, _Constit._, - 1838, 1-39; _Id._, _Docs. Dip. Hist._, 18-22; _Id._, _Cor. - Ist._, July 1, 1849; Oct. 3, 1850; _Id._, _De Órden del - Director_; _Muñoz_, _Defensa Llaves San Pedro_; _Obispo de - Chil._, 153-64, 451-54; _Córtes_, _Diario_, 1811, viii. 33; - 1813, xix. 404; 1821, ext. i., Sept. 22, p. 7; ext. iv., - Nov. 18, pp. 12-13; 1835-6, ii. 227; _La Union_, Dec. 1, - 1849; Jan. 1, 1850; _La Union de Nic._, Jan. 5, 1861; _El - Universal_, April 18, 1850; April 16, 1853; _Voy._, _New - Univ. Col._, ii. 374-8; _Verdaderas Razones_, 1-13; _Viagera - Univ._, xxvii. 174-7, 189-91; _Vera Paz, Colonisation - de_, 4; _El Veracruzano Libre_, June 13, 1828; _Valois_, - _Mexique_, 154-9, 209-27, 316-19; _Cent. Am. Papers_, i.-v., - passim; _Papeles Varios_, xix. pt 18; cxxi. pt i.; cxxiv. - pt 9; cxlix. pt 7; clx. pt 19; clxvii. pt 5; ccxxvi. pt 10; - _United Service Jour._, 1833, pt ii. 456; _U. S. Govt Docs._, - Commercial Rel., 1866, 567-8; 1868, 302, 728-9; _Id._, Cong. - Globe, 1838-9, 91; _Id._, Cong. Debates, 1825-6, i. 1303-5; - 1831-2, i. 767-74; _Id._, Amer. State Pap., For. Rel., v. - 774-82; _Id._, 19th cong., 2d sess., U. S. Acts, pp. 8-31; - Sen. Doc. 1, vol. i., pp. 149-70; _Id._, 26th cong. 1st - sess., H. Ex. Doc., 2, p. 6; _Id._, 30th cong. 2d sess., H. - Com. Rept, 145, pp. 383-5; _Filisola_, _Mem. Guerra Tex._, - ii. 88-9; _Id._, _Á la Junta Soberana de Guat._, 1-8; _Gazeta - de Guat._, vi. 21, 177-84, 443; ix. 757; xi. 4-7, 91-2, - 120-4; xiii. 353, 369-76; xiv. 1-16, 82, 265; _Dublan_ and - _Lozano_, _Leg. Mex._, i. 326-7; _Bustamante_, _Voz de la - Patria_, MS., 4; _Id._, _Hist. Iturbide_, 160-1, 176; _Id._, - _Cuadro Hist._, MS., vii. 108-19; viii. 177-9; _Porvenir de - Nic._, Oct. 22, 29, 1871; July 20, 1873; _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. - Nacional_, 82, 154; _Id._, _Biog. Sacasa_, 3-5; _Frisch_, - _Staaten von Mex._, 55-62, 73-8; _Kewen's Nic. and Walker_, - MS., 27-36, 39-60, 64-85; _Costa Rica_, _Col. Leyes_, iii. - 43-5, 101-18, 129-31, 144-67, 169-88, 280-2, 297-8, 304-6; - iv.-v., passim; vi. 41-3, 276-86, 304-5, 319-20; _Belly_, - _Nic._, i. 71-5, 137, 350-2; _Romero_, _Bosq. Hist._, 42-5, - 66-233, 395-417, 639-795; _Pineda de Mont_, in _Guat._, - _Recop. Leyes_, iii. 347-8; _Cent. Am._, _Mem. Hist. Revol._, - passim; _Mem. Hist. Centro-Am._, 1-72; _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. - Cent. Amér._, passim; _Id._, _Efem. Hechos Notables_, passim. - - [XI-1] Molina, who denies that Carrillo was disposed to be - tyrannical, but on the contrary anxious for the good of - his country, adding that he was 'severo y sencillo en su - conducta, y que paliaba su arbitrariedad con el ejercicio - de las virtudes mas relevantes en un mandatario,' confesses - that on the present occasion this great man committed a grave - error. _Bosq. Costa R._, 103; _Costa R._, _Dec. de garan. - y bases_, 24 mo.; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, viii. 15-36, 41-2; - _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, May 25, 1875. - - [XI-2] The former was constituted with as many members as - there were departments, namely, four. The latter was composed - of a president, two relatores fiscales, and four justices. - - [XI-3] He insulted them, however, by providing that they - should be under the surveillance of the authorities. _Costa - R._, _Col. Ley._, vii. 42. - - [XI-4] He was married to a niece of Carrillo. Bonilla was - faithful to him in life, and to his memory after death. - - [XI-5] According to Col Bernardo Rivera Cabezas. Barrundia - makes the force only 300. He had at first landed at La - Union, in Salvador, with 22 officers of all ranks, and - marched upon San Miguel, where he recruited 200 men, and - then returned to La Union. He next visited Acajutla and - Sonsonate, where he ascertained the state of public affairs - in Salvador and Guatemala, after holding some correspondence - with the chiefs of the former state and Nicaragua. The latter - answered very offensively. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. - 47-55, 145. Entertaining a favorable idea of the invitation - sent him by the Costa Ricans, he sailed for the isle of - Martin Perez, in the gulf of Fonseca, where he finally - organized his expedition and embarked it on the vessels - _Cruzador_, _Asuncion Granadina_, _Josefa_, _Isabel II._, and - _Cosmopolita_. - - [XI-6] _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 55-6; _Salv._, _Diario - Ofic._, Feb. 14, 1875. - - [XI-7] _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, vii. 248-50. - - [XI-8] Among them were Vicente Aguilar, Francisco and Mariano - Montealegre, and Rafael Barroeta. - - [XI-9] It is understood that Rafael Barroeta was the sole - exception. - - [XI-10] Carrillo was to leave the country with a full pledge - of safety to his family and property. The convention was - signed by Morazan, Villaseñor, generals Saget, Saravia, and - Rascon, 5 colonels, and the other assenting officers of all - ranks, including 5 Texiguas. - - [XI-11] Carrillo left the state from Puntarenas. Bonilla - was also guaranteed security. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, - iii. 615-19; _Niles' Reg._, lxii., 275. Both Carrillo and - Aguilar died out of Costa R.; the former was killed, and - his murderer executed. Funeral honors were paid in Costa - R. to Aguilar, Aug. 25, 1846. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, ix. - 289-90. The remains of both ex-chiefs were brought home by - Presid. Castro's decree of Nov. 5, 1848. _Id._, x. 365-8; _El - Salvador Regenerado_, June 4, 1842. - - [XI-12] Dated April 14, 1842. _Id._, vii. 250-1. - - [XI-13] A general order was given to prevent any interference - with the elections on the part of the troops. Copies of - Morazan's decrees to undo the evils of his predecessor, and - to prepare for the reorganization of the state on liberal - principles, are furnished in _Id._, 236-342, passim; - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iii. 621-31. - - [XI-14] Again on the 30th of Aug. it authorized the - continuation of his government till a new constitution should - be framed. The same day it reaffirmed Morazan's extraordinary - powers, and on the 2d of Sept. adjourned to reassemble April - 1, 1843. Among the most noted acts of this convention were - the following: A vote of thanks and other honors to Morazan - and Villaseñor, the latter being awarded a gold medal with - an honorable inscription. Morazan was given the title of - Libertador de Costa Rica; and on his refusing to publish the - decree, the assembly specially requested him to do so. The - army that brought about the change was honored with the name - of Division Libertadora de Costa Rica. The assembly also - made a formal declaration on the 20th of July, in favor of - a federal republic. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, vii. 342-51, - 379-82, 403. - - [XI-15] It was strictly in accordance with the military code. - His brother Felipe, in relating the occurrence, says that a - disappointment in love, and his removal from the comandancia - of the department, preyed upon his mind, 'le sobrevino - una fiebre, perdió la razon, y se hizo criminal.' But he - subsequently declared his loyalty to Morazan, and while lying - on a bed of sickness was arrested. _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa - R._, 104. - - [XI-16] Molina did not hear of his son's fate till after - the 15th of Sept. Greatly agitated, and shedding tears for - Morazan's end, his son-in-law, Irungaray, told him not to - bewail the fate of Morazan, for he had spilled the blood of - Manuel Ángel. These words so shocked the aged patriot that he - fell senseless to the ground. - - [XI-17] He was a Portuguese who came to Costa Rica while - still young. In his early years he had been in the naval - service, and acquired some skill as an artilleryman. He - married into a respectable family of San José, and had - numerous descendants. By the cultivation of coffee he made - himself wealthy, and this together with his connection with - the Carrillo family enabled him to attain the position of - comandante general, and to link his name with some important - events. At his house the worst enemies of Morazan had always - been welcomed. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iii. 647-8. - - [XI-18] There were two barracks in San José; one his guard - occupied; in the other were 150 men from Cartago who had no - ammunition. _El Siglo_, Aug. 16, 1852. - - [XI-19] Morazan tried to save his wife; but in traversing - the street to reach the house of the Escalantes, amidst - the deadly fire, she was taken by the enemy and conveyed to - the house of Father Blanco, a brother of Luz Blanco, one of - Morazan's mortal foes. - - [XI-20] He would have met with no difficulty in obtaining - security for Saravia, who was much esteemed by all. But - the case was different with others, especially Villaseñor, - against whom much animosity was felt. - - [XI-21] Herrera was a student when he gained this unenviable - notoriety. He afterward went to Guatemala to complete his - studies, and was well treated and much aided by Juan José - Aycinena and Manuel F. Pavon; and he became their most - humble henchman. Returning to Costa Rica as a lawyer, he was - appointed after a while a justice of the supreme court. On - many occasions he proved himself unprincipled, treacherous, - and contemptible. - - [XI-22] Over 100 killed and 200 wounded. - - [XI-23] He had wanted to go to Tárcoles, expecting to find - Saget there, but was dissuaded by Villaseñor and others. - - [XI-24] The Spaniard Espinach, a reactionist of some standing - who acted as a commissioner of the revolutionists, fearing - that Morazan's popularity in Cartago might bring on a - counter-movement, and in order to avert it, asked Morazan to - instruct Cabañas to lay down his arms, and to command Saget - to deliver those he had in Puntarenas. He assured Morazan - his life was in no peril. His next step was to meet Cabañas - at Chomogo, telling him Morazan was leaving the state by - the Matina road with sufficient money, and advising him to - disband his men. Cabañas was deceived, and went alone to - Matina, where he was taken prisoner. - - [XI-25] _Marure_, _Efem._, 56. Saravia was a son of Miguel - Gonzalez Saravia, the governor of Nicaragua, who attached - that province to Iturbide's empire, and a grandson of General - Saravia, president and captain-general of Guatemala, who had - been appointed viceroy of Mexico, and was shot by Morelos in - Oajaca. Young Saravia's mother, Concepcion Nájera y Batres, - was of the leaders of Guatemalan society, for which reason - the aristocratic party expected much from him. But after - completing his education, with evidences of extraordinary - talents, he often gave expression to the most liberal ideas. - Before being admitted to the bar in 1834 he had served in - the office of the secretary of the senate, and later as a - chief of bureau in the department of foreign affairs. He - afterward held a judicial appointment, being at all times - noted for ability and eloquence, as well as for his writings - in _El Semanario_, which attracted the attention of Morazan, - who made him auditor de guerra of the federal army. From - that time Saravia followed Morazan's fortunes, taking part - in several actions of war, and thus attaining the rank of - general. He was also this leader's aide-de-camp, private - secretary, and minister-general, both in Salvador and Costa - Rica. A portrait of the young general gives him quite a - distinguished air. - - [XI-26] Among them were Mariano Montealegre, Juan de los - Santos Madriz, and José M. Castro. - - [XI-27] The most virulent were Luz Blanco and Herrera. They - even worked upon the feelings of Pinto's family, and it - is said that his daughter Petronila imagined that she saw - her father sent to the scaffold by Morazan, and fell in a - convulsion. - - [XI-28] Morazan had demanded a trial. He also desired to - address a circular to the governments of the states, but it - was not permitted him. - - [XI-29] He declared that he had expended the whole of his own - and his wife's estate, besides $18,000 due to Gen. Bermudez, - in endowing Costa Rica with a government of laws. This was - his sole offence, for which he had been condemned to lose his - life, which was further aggravated by a broken pledge, for he - had been assured by Espinach that his life would be spared. - The forces he had organized were originally intended to - defend Guanacaste against an expected attack from Nicaragua. - Subsequently a number of volunteers were detached for the - pacification of the republic. He reiterated his love for - Central America, urging upon the youth of the land to imitate - his example, and fight to redeem her. He finally disclaimed - any enmity or rancor toward his murderers, forgiving them and - wishing them every possible happiness. In that instrument, - says Barrundia, 'se ve diáfana el alma, noble, tranquila, y - generosa del héroe que descendia á la tumba.' - - [XI-30] The remains lay in Costa Rica till, under a decree - of Pres. Castro, Nov. 6, 1848, they were exhumed on the - 27th, and after paying honors on the 4th of Dec., were - surrendered, according to Morazan's wishes, to Salvador, by - whose authorities they were received with high military and - civic honors. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, x. 368-9. Carrera - afterward treated them with indignity. _Montúfar_, _Reseña - Hist._, iii. 656; iv. 219-20, 250-3; v. 650-2, 665-6; - _Testam._, in _Cent. Am. Pap._, No. 2. Further particulars - on Morazan's rule in Costa Rica, and on his death and - interment, may be found in _Nic._, _Correo Ist._, May 1, - 1849; _Niles' Reg._, lxiii., 19, 176; _Nic._, _Registro - Ofic._, No. 2, 7; _Squier's Trav._, ii. 444-9; _Wappäus_, - _Mex. und Cent. Am._, 361; _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 142; _El - Progreso_, Oct. 3, 1850; _Crowe's Gospel_, 152-3; _Wagner_, - _Costa R._, 203-5; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 217-22; _Belly_, - _Nic._, i. 73-4; _Wells' Hond._, 484-93; _Salv._, _Diario - Ofic._, Feb. 14, 1875; _Robert Glascow Dunlop_, _Travels - in Central America_, London, 1847, 8°, 358 pp. and map, is - a work purporting to be a journal of nearly three years' - residence in Central America, and giving a sketch of the - history of the republic, together with an account of the - physical peculiarities, agriculture, commerce, and state of - society. Much of the information therein is correct; but on - historical and social topics the author, who was a Scotchman, - displayed narrow-mindedness, and a judgment warped by British - prejudices. - - [XI-31] In the latter—his native state—his last will was - published in the official journal in the column of varieties - with offensive remarks. These notes, and indeed the whole - conduct of the authorities, were disgraceful. _El Redactor_, - _Ofic. de Hond._, Sept. 15, 1843. - - [XI-32] The priest Juan José Aycinena, who was the minister - of state, hated Morazan with a deadly hatred from the - day that his brother was defeated at San Antonio. This - animosity became more intensified, if possible, upon Morazan - contemptuously rejecting the dictatorship that was tendered - him. Morazan said in his last will that his death was an - assassination, as he had not been allowed any form of trial. - But the worthy padre and his accomplice in iniquity, Carrera, - attributed the crime to heaven, and made Rivera Paz, chief - of state, accuse providence of aiding Vicente Herrera and Luz - Blanco in its perpetration. - - [XI-33] Honors were paid to his memory in the city of - Guatemala in 1876; a statue was erected to him by Honduras - in 1883. _La Regeneracion_, July 10, 1876; _Costa R._, _Mem. - Relaciones_, 1884, 2-3, and doc. 1, 2. - - [XI-34] Every abusive epithet was applied to him in the - official press; tyrant, bandit, monster, were among the - mildest. The aim was to make him appear in the eyes of the - ignorant as the only obstacle to peace and reorganization; - and the masses believed that he was the author of all the - evils under the sun. _Gac. de Guat._, Oct. 28, 1842. - - [XI-35] The subscribing commissioners were Manuel F. Pavon, - for Guatemala; Pedro Nolasco Arriaga, for Honduras; and - Joaquin Duran, for the other two states. Inasmuch as Arriaga - and Duran were Aycinena's and Pavon's humble satellites, the - treaties might just as well have been signed Pavon, Pavon, - Pavon. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 129-33; _Guat._, - _Recop. Leg._, i. 395-408. - - [XI-36] It is asserted that the Guatemalan government said - that Costa Rica should appoint as her commissioner a resident - of Guatemala. But José M. Castro, the young Costa Rican - minister, thought differently. - - [XI-37] They had led the revolt on the 11th and the following - days. _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 105. - - [XI-38] So says Marure, now a confirmed 'conservador,' - adding, 'y celebrados con entusiasmo en toda la república.' - _Efem._, 56. - - [XI-39] The expeditionary force of 300 to 500 under Saget, on - hearing of the trouble at San José, went on board their ships - at Puntarenas, thence menacing the government. Subsequently - arrangements were made for the surrender of the arms and - disbandment of the men, but owing to misunderstanding were - not carried out, and the expedition departed for La Libertad - in Salv. on the _Coquimbo_. Costa R. afterward claimed the - armament and ship, but Salv. invariably refused to return - them, on the plea that they belonged to Morazan's family, - 'como ganadas en ley de guerra por aquel caudillo.' Much - indignation was felt in Guatemala and Honduras, and somewhat - less in Nicaragua, against Salvador, because the latter, - notwithstanding the treaties of 1840 and 1842, and the - protest to the contrary, had allowed Saget, Cabañas, Barrios, - and their companions, to reside in the state under the - protection of its laws. The first two named governments saw - that for all they had manœuvred to make of the executive of - Salvador a mere submissive agent of the aristocracy, he had - now emancipated himself from its control. _Montúfar_, _Reseña - Hist._, iv. 4-5, 115-33; _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 105-6. - - [XI-40] _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, vii. 404-16. - - [XI-41] Art. 3 stated that the idea was not yet entertained, - which later was formed, of declaring the state to be a - sovereign and independent republic. Art. 5 resolved the - question of boundaries with Colombia and Nicaragua upon - the principles sustained by Costa Rica. Arts. 4 and 10 - established a fourth power under the name of Conservador, - composed of no less than three councillors chosen by the - people. Art. 9 places the legislative authority in an - assembly of not less than 15 members. It does not establish - two chambers. Art. 11 says that the executive office is to - be exercised by a tribune, out of four to be chosen by the - electors. Art. 13 was condemned by the fanatics, though it - merely allows religious toleration. The _Gaceta de Guat._ - exclaimed, 'Ya volvemos á las andadas.' _Montúfar_, _Reseña - Hist._, iv. 383, 391-3, 417-18; _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, - 106. - - [XI-42] All these acts, dated respectively June 7-8, Sept. - 13, 19, 1843, appear in _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, viii. 45-50, - 63-7. - - [XI-43] By the second jefe, Oreamuno, then in charge of the - executive. - - [XI-44] The govt was supported by the people and troops. - Quiroz was promoted to gen. of brigade. _Molina_, _Bosq. - Costa R._, 106; _El Mentor Costaricense_ gave an extensive - account of the affair. - - [XI-45] Pinto was an uncle-in-law of Castro, - secretary-general, who under the circumstances surrounding - the govt could not restore him to his office. - - [XI-46] To give an idea of the situation: Cartago's deputies - were three clergymen, Peralta, Campo, and Carazo. Heredia - also sent the priest Flores. If the senators must be still - more grave and circumspect, where could they be procured? - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 173. - - [XI-47] His successor was Juan Mora. - - [XI-48] _Costa R._, _Col. L._, viii. 352-3, 384-5. - - [XI-49] He was a native of Cartago; a man of elegant manners, - cultured without affectation, well informed on general - subjects, and a highly respected citizen. Though not a member - of the bar, he knew enough of law to successfully oppose - the lawyers who constantly took advantage of the confusion - existing in the old Spanish laws. - - [XI-50] The chamber of deputies censured him, but his purpose - of getting rid of the executive office was accomplished. - _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, viii. 392-3; ix. 23-4. - - [XI-51] A wealthy man and head of a large family which gave - him much social importance. During his short administration - he improved the public roads. _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, - 107. He also gave impulse to education, though under the old - ecclesiastical system. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 175. - - [XI-52] Correspond. on the subject in _Id._, 184-6. - - [XI-53] Fault was found with the clause requiring the - election by the people of all public functionaries, including - the ministers of state and judges. It was said the people - should not be molested with so many elections. - - [XI-54] The manifesto issued by the leaders comprised the - abolition of the constitution, and the framing of another - better suited to the needs of the country, the immediate - election of a new vice-jefe, who must be a native of Costa - Rica, not under 25 years of age, married, or a widower with - children, and possess property to the value of no less than - $10,000; one who had never been criminally punished, except - by a pecuniary fine, nor attached for debts contracted in the - state; he must have served in other public offices without - taint, and must be in favor of independence and a separate - government for the state. A new legislative chamber was to - be immediately convoked, and the manner of election fixed by - the chief; meantime, the present assembly was to continue - its sittings. The chief was to select a good port on the - north coast, and make a road from it to the capital with - funds of the treasury. _Costa R._, _Pap. Sueltos_, nos. 1, 2; - _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 252-3. - - [XI-55] His removal from the executive seat resulted from - the intrigues of a few who knew that he could not be made a - convenient tool. - - [XI-56] It was divided into 14 sections, placed the executive - in a president, and created a vice-president. The legislative - authority was vested in a congress of a single chamber, - presided over by the vice-president. The Roman catholic - religion was the only one permitted, and it remained as - that of the state and under its protection. _Costa R._, - _Constit._, 1847, 1-24; _Id._, _Constit. Polít._, 1847, - 1-118; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, x. 1-56; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. - Am._, 46-9. - - [XI-57] Nov. 22, 1848, and promulgated by the executive - on the 30th. A law regulating the election of the supreme - authorities was passed Dec. 20th. _Costa R._, _Constit. - Polít._ (ed. of 1850, 8°), 1-38; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, x. - 347-408, 422-52; _El Universal_, June 8, 1849. - - [XI-58] _El Arco Iris_, Oct. 14, 1847. Alfaro was not pleased - at being lowered to the second place, even though he had - ex-officio the presidency of congress. He resigned on the - 1st of Oct. of the same year, and Juan Rafael Mora became - his successor. _Costa R._, _Informe Relaciones_, ap.; _Id._, - _Col. Ley._, x. 86-7, 160-1, 187-8. - - [XI-59] Castro had enemies in San José. He was accused of - bringing about Gallegos' dismissal. This assertion was - repeated from mouth to mouth, and came to be believed - by many. Moreover, some men that he looked on as his - friends suggested to him unwise measures, with the view of - damaging his administration. Unfortunately, congress began - to show aristocratic tendencies, restoring the abolished - compellations without opposition on Castro's part. The title - of Excellency was voted to itself, the president, and the - supreme court. - - [XI-60] Castro and Mora differed on many points. The - president's circle considered Mora a dangerous competitor. - Congress treated Mora with marked indifference, though he - had restored peace in Alajuela with only 200 men. He resigned - the vice-presidency. An election being ordered, at the second - attempt Manuel José Carazo, a friend of Castro, was chosen. - Carazo was an able and well-informed man. He resigned the - office on the 24th of Aug., but was reëlected Sept. 22d. - _Id._, 190, 306-7, 310-12, 327-9. - - [XI-61] _Costa R._, _Inf. Relaciones_, 10-12, 23-5. In Nov. - of the same year all political offenders were pardoned, - and a war tax which had been levied on Alajuela was ordered - refunded. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, x. 269-90, 374-6, 410; - _Id._, _Pap. Sueltos_, nos. 3-5; _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, - 107-8. - - [XI-62] Congress took into consideration a number of - petitions from influential sources highly commendatory of - Castro's acts. Castro on the 16th of Nov. had been made a - general of division. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 525-6, - 530-8, 543-51. - - [XI-63] The flag had five horizontal stripes, of which the - centre one occupied one third the width of the flag, and the - others one sixth each. The centre stripe was red, the one - above and the one underneath it were white, and the other two - blue. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, x. 354-6. - - [XI-64] France sent in April 1847 the corvette _Le Génie_ to - make demands on behalf of her subject Thierriat, which Costa - Rica settled by paying $10,000. - - [XI-65] Full particulars on the foreign relations are given - in _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 9-10, 61-2, 112-19; _Id._, - _Coup d'œil Costa R._, 3; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, x. 339-47; - xii. 5-18, 94, 202-7; xv. 225; xvi. 195-6; xviii. 95-6, - 171-88; xix. 107-9; xx. 24-8; xxiii. 184-200; xxiv. 171-97; - _Id._, de 1869, 216-22; _Id._, de 1879, 61-3; _Id._, _Gac. - de Gob._, Jan. 12, 26, Feb. 23, March 9, 1850; _Id._, _Bol. - Ofic._, Dec. 8, 22, 26-7, 29, 1853; Jan. 5, Apr. 20, 1854; - _Id._, _Informes y Mem., Relaciones_, 1850-80; _Salv._, - _Diario_, Nov. 5, 1875; _Cong. Globe_, 1860-1; _Smithsonian - Rept_, 1863, 54; _Colombia_, _Diario Ofic._, Feb. 14, 1874; - _U. S. Govt Doc._, 36th cong. 2d sess., sen. i., 19 vol. i.; - _Id._, 39th cong. 2d sess., For. Aff. (Mess. and Doc., Dept - of St., pt ii.), 430-45; _Id._, 40th cong. 2d sess., For. - Aff. (Mess. and Doc., Dept of St., pt ii.), 277-80; _Id._, - 42d cong. 2d sess., H. Ex. Doc., 1 For. Rel., p. 7 (249-52); - _Id._, 42d cong. 3d sess., For. Rel., p. xxxv. (158-61); - _Pan. Gac._, Apr. 16, 1876, and numerous other works in - various languages. - - [XI-66] Nic. argued that the constitution of Costa R. of - 1825 declared her boundary to be at El Salto, not at La - Flor; to which Costa R. replied that the instrument alluded - to was anterior to the federal decree, and therefore could - not embrace Nicoya in Costa Rican territory; but after this - decree the fundamental laws of Costa R. did take it in. - - [XI-67] Nic. had demanded the restoration in 1843, which - led to the making of a voluminous protocol, without any - definitive result. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 229-31; - iv. 382-3; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, viii. 3-4. - - [XI-68] The treaty was made at San José, Costa R., on the - 15th of Apr., 1858, and signed by José M. Cañas and Máximo - Jerez, plenipotentiaries respectively of Costa R. and Nic., - and by Pedro Rómulo Negrete, mediator on the part of Salv. - The signatures of the secretaries of the three legations - also appear to the instrument. The ratifications were made - in due form, and exchanged by the two govts on the 26th - of April, the same year. The treaty was approved by the - Nicaraguan constituent congress May 28th, and published by - President Tomás Martinez and his secretary of state, June - 4th. Under its 2d article the dividing line was to be as - follows: Starting from the Atlantic Ocean, the line to begin - at the extreme end of Punta de Castilla, at the mouth of - the River San Juan, and continue on the right bank of that - stream to a point in waters below the Castillo Viejo, at - three English miles from the outer fortifications. Thence a - curve was to commence, whose centre should be those works, - and distant therefrom in all its course three English miles, - and terminating at a point distant two miles from the bank of - the river in waters above the fort. Thence the line should - continue in the direction of Sapoá River, which empties - into Lake Nicaragua, following a course invariably two miles - distant from the right margin of the San Juan River, with its - curves to its source in the lake, and from the right margin - of the same lake to the said Sapoá River, where this line, - parallel to said margins, ends. From the point where it may - coincide with the Sapoá River, which must of course be two - miles from the lake, an astronomical line should be drawn - to the central point of the bay of Salinas on the Pacific - Ocean, where the delimitation of the two contracting powers - will terminate. The 6th art. gives Nic. the exclusive control - over the waters of the San Juan River from its source in Lake - Nicaragua to the point where it empties into the Atlantic - Ocean; Costa R. retaining the right of navigation in said - waters for trading purposes from the mouth of the river to - a distance of three English miles from the Castillo Viejo. - _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 137-41; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, - xv. 75-6, 182-8; _Id._, _Informe Gob._, 1858, 12-13; _Id._, - _Inf. Rel._, 1860, 6; _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, June 7, 1877, - 513-14; _El Nacional_, June 26, 1858, 10; _Peralta_, _Rio S. - Juan_, 24-5; _Belly_, _Le Nic._, i. 359-62. - - [XI-69] The treaty, after being completed and published in - the official journal of Nic., was communicated by both govts - to the foreign diplomatic corps accredited near them, as well - as to their own representatives abroad. All friendly nations - came to look on it as an accomplished fact. - - [XI-70] Ayon did not pretend to deny that the treaty had been - concluded by his govt, and duly ratified by the legislative - authority of the two republics. He alleged that the - fundamental law of Nic. established the limits of the state, - embracing within them the territory of Guanacaste; and that - the treaty in question ignored the Nicaraguan constitution, - which prescribed that an amendment of it by one legislature - must be submitted to the next for ratification; and this - not having been done, there was a radical nullity. Costa R. - replied that the legislative ratification in Nic. had been, - not by an ordinary legislature, but by a constituent assembly - fully empowered to amend the constitution or frame a new - one. It had been called to make a new fundamental law, and - therefore had a right to establish new boundaries. Moreover, - that even if that assembly had not possessed constituent - authority, but had been a merely ordinary congress, the fact - still remained that a number of Nicaraguan legislatures - had held the treaty to be valid and unobjectionable. Some - attempts have been made in administration circles of Costa - R., much against public opinion, to annul the treaty, in - order to have for a boundary line the whole right bank of the - San Juan, from Greytown or San Juan del Norte to San Cárlos, - and Lake Nicaragua to La Flor. Were this supported, and the - treaty set aside, the questions between Costa R. and Nic. - would assume a serious aspect. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, - ii. 231-4; _Ayon_, _Cuestion de Límites_, 1-26; _Id._, - _Consid. sobre Límites_, 1-26. - - [XI-71] Details may be found in _Nic._, _Mem. Relaciones_, - 1871, 10-16, 29-39; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 3, 1868, May 4, - 11, 1872, June 7, 1873; _Id._, _Seman. Nic._, June 6, 1872; - _Id._, _Correspond._, 1872, 1-24; _Id._, _Continuacion de - la Correspond._, 1872, 1-16; _U. S. Govt Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., - 43d cong. 1st sess., pt 2, 732, 735, 739, 743; 44th cong. 1st - sess., pt 1, 157, 168; _Costa R._, _Informe Rel._, 1873, 1-6; - _Id._, _Pap. Sueltos_, Doc. no. 15; _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, - May 22, 1876; _Peralta_, _Rio S. Juan_. - - [XI-72] Antonio Zambrana for Costa R., and Francisco Álvarez - for Nic. _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 5, 1883; _Costa R._, - _Gaceta_, Feb. 3, 1885; _U. S. Govt Doc._, 48th cong. 1st - sess., H. Ex. Doc., pt 1, 59-61. - - [XI-73] An extract of that treaty is given in _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, i. 289-90. - - [XI-74] The royal commission of Diego de Artieda Cherino, - governor, captain-general of Costa R., issued in 1573, fixed - the boundaries of the province from the 'embocadura del - Desaguadero ó rio San Juan de Nicaragua hasta la frontera de - Veraguas en el Mar Atlántico, y desde los linderos de Nicoya - hasta los valles de Chiriquí en el Pacífico.' _Molina_, - _Bosq. Costa R._, 14; _Id._, _Costa R. y Nueva Granada_, - 9-10, 16-35. Felipe Molina being in the service of Costa - R., and intrusted with the defence of her interests, his - assertions might be by some deemed biassed; but the testimony - of Juarros, the historian of Guatemala, who wrote with the - official docs before him, is not open to the same objection. - He says, speaking of Costa R., 'sus términos por el mar del - norte, son desde la boca del rio San Juan hasta el Escudo - de Veraguas; y por el sur, desde el rio de Alvarado, raya - divisoria de la provincia de Nicaragua, hasta el rio de - Boruca, término del reino de Tierra Firme.' _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, ii. 230. - - [XI-75] The territorial division recognized by him was that - made in 1810, at which time no New Granadan authority had - a footing in Cent. Am. territory. A representation of the - ayuntamiento of Cartago to the Sp. córtes in 1813 says: - 'Costa Rica tiene por límites de su territorio el rio de - Chiriquí que la separa de la provincia de Panamá.' _Córtes_, - _Diario_, 1813, xix. 404. - - [XI-76] Contract of Col Galindo, as agent of the govt. - _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 100-1. - - [XI-77] Copy of correspond. between the gov. of Veraguas - and that of Costa R. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 272-3; - _Mosq. Correspond._, 22-5; _Pan._, _Docs. Ofic._, in _Pan. - Col. Docs._, no. 31, pp. 62, 66-70; _Id._, _Star and Herald_, - Oct. 15, 16, 1880. - - [XI-78] During the Walker war, a treaty was made at San José - between P. A. Herran for Colombia, and Joaquin B. Calvo for - Costa Rica, which does not follow the line on Molina's map. - Modifications were made to it at Bogotá, and ratifications - were never exchanged. Later on José M. Castro went to Bogotá - and negotiated another treaty, which did not stipulate - Molina's line. This treaty was not ratified by either govt. - The next attempt was made by B. Correoso, on behalf of - Colombia. His negotiations were mostly verbal, disregarding - arguments for the straight line between Punta de Burica and - the Escudo de Veraguas; and alleging that on the N., N. E., - W., and N. W. of that line were Colombian settlements, which, - under the constitution of his country could not be ceded. - A treaty was entered into, however, which did not obtain - the ratification of either government. In Costa R. it was - considered a ruinous one. Correoso was charged in Colombia - with having made a damaging arrangement. _Pan._, _Gaceta - Istmo_, Oct. 20, 1841; _Id._, _Crón. Ofic._, Feb. 6, 1853; - _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, Dec. 25, 1870; _Pan._, _Gaceta_, June - 15, 1871, June 19, 1872, Aug. 22, 29, Oct. 31, 1874, May 21, - 1876, July 25, Aug. 4, 22, Sept. 26, Oct. 13, Nov. 10, 21, - 1878, July 11, Sept. 12, Oct. 17, 28, 31, 1880; _Pan._, _Mem. - Sec. Gob._, 1879, 13-14, 35-42; _Colombia_, _Diario Ofic._, - Feb. 26, 1876; _Costa R._, _Mem. Rel._, 1851, 5; _Id._, _Col. - Ley._, xiv. 54-5, 160-1; _Id._, _Informe Gobn._, 1880, 2-4; - _U. S. Govt Docs._, H. Ex. Doc. 41, p. 64-5, vi. 35th cong. - 2d sess. - - [XI-79] Ratified by the executive, and sanctioned by the gran - consejo nacional, of Costa R., Dec. 27, 30, 1880. _Pan._, - _Gaceta_, Jan. 16, 1881. - - [XI-80] Carazo, the vice-president, had done the same Oct. - 26th. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xi. 216. - - [XI-81] At the same time he was declared a benemérito, and - the founder of the rep. of Costa R. _Id._, 157-8, 224-5; _El - Costaricense_, Nov. 17, 1849. The opposition, however, made - severe comments on his policy as reviewed by himself. _Anot. - á la renuncia_, in _Cent. Am. Miscel. Doc._, no. 20. - - [XI-82] Mora was a Costa Rican of rare intellectual powers, - quite conversant with her affairs; a wealthy merchant, who - had travelled abroad, and by his frankness and liberality won - a well-deserved popularity. _El Costaricense_, Nov. 18, Dec. - 1, 1849; _Costa R._, _Col Ley._, xi. 225-6, 234-5. Francisco - M. Oreamuno was elected vice-pres. Jan. 30, 1850. _Id._, - 241-2; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 2, 1850. - - [XI-83] _Nic._, _Cor. Ist._, May 2, 1850. In an address - Mora depicts the situation, and the attempts of Quiroz and - others to disturb the peace in San José and Heredia, together - with his measures to balk them. _El presid. de la rep. á la - Nacion_, June 8, 1850. - - [XI-84] The decree was issued at the Hacienda de Frankfort - en las Pavas, and countersigned by Joaquin Bernardo Calvo, - minister of govt. He based his action on the fact that - congress having declined to accept his resignation, he was - made responsible before God and the people of evils that - might result from the existing order of things. _Costa R._, - _Gaceta_, no. 165; _El Siglo_, March 10, 1852; _Costa R._, - _Col. Ley._, xii. 96-7. - - [XI-85] José M. Castro, Bernardo Rivera, and Nazario Toledo. - _El Siglo_ (S. Salv.), March 4, 1852. - - [XI-86] June 6, 1853, the president's salary was raised to - $5,000 a year. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xii. 236-7, 247-8; - _Id._, _Gaceta_, July 23, 1853; _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, June - 20, 1853; _Wagner_, _Costa R._, 171-2, 506-8, 296-7. - - [XI-87] Min. Calvo's rept to cong. May 16, 1854. The chamber - on the 5th of June sanctioned all the acts of the govt, and - passed a vote of thanks and congratulation to the president, - 'por el acierto y prudencia con que la ha regido.' _Costa - R._, _Mem. Rel._, 15. - - [XII-1] The following persons held the office ad int. before - him: namely, Patricio Rivas, June 1839; Joaquin Cosío, July - 1839; Hilario Ulloa, senator in charge, Oct. 1839; Tomás - Valladares, senator, Nov. 1839; Patricio Rivas, Sept. 1840. - _Marure_, _Efem._, 64; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 136; - _Wells' Hond._, 494. - - [XII-2] There was much dissimilarity of views on political - matters between the two men, though Castellon had contributed - to Buitrago's election. Many bitter publications appeared - subsequently from the pens of the two adversaries. _Perez_, - _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 48, 146. - - [XII-3] They were not even allowed to enter the state, - because of the treaty of Oct. 1842, signed by Pavon, Arriaga, - and Duran. - - [XII-4] The Gaceta eulogized him, and Pavon said that he - was 'un hombre de órden que solo aspiraba á la justicia y - al decoro.' Buitrago's position was becoming a difficult - one. Morazan ruled in Costa Rica, had not a few friends in - Nicaragua, and public opinion in the latter state favored - a convention of states. On the other hand, he was anxious - not to forfeit the good opinion of the nobles and nuns. - Upon the news of Morazan's execution reaching Leon, he had - it published with marks of satisfaction. He also objected, - though not strenuously, to the landing of Saget and his - companions, ycleped Coquimbos, in Salvador. - - [XII-5] One of his first acts was to make Francisco Castellon - his ministro general. - - [XII-6] The new official journal, _Eco de la Ley_, in its - first number declared that an Octavian peace reigned. And - indeed, had Nicaragua been away from obnoxious influences, - peace might have been maintained under republican - institutions. But she was, unhappily, surrounded by states - where for a time brutal force held sway. - - [XII-7] The claimants were Bridge, Glenton, and Manning. - Full details on the claims of the last two are in _Nic._, - _Registro Ofic._, 109-10, 121-3, 132-5; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, - 55-6. - - [XII-8] They embarked at San Juan del Norte on the 11th of - March, 1844. Both have since figured prominently in political - circles. - - [XII-9] Selva had held the office by virtue of his position - as senior senator to that date, when his senatorial term - expired. - - [XII-10] 223 votes were cast for him, the next highest - receiving only 190. The other candidates were Juan José - Ruiz, José Guerrero, Pablo Buitrago, Laureano Pineda, José - Rosa Perez, G. Carcache, Patricio Rivas, and Rafael Machado. - _Nic._, _Registro Ofic._, 47-8; _Sandoval_, _Revistas - Polít._, 19; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 250. - - [XII-11] To raise two loans of $10,000 and $30,000, - respectively, and to regulate the financial system. Trial - by jury was suspended. An amnesty was issued with many - exceptions against the defenders of Leon. _Nic._, _Registro - Ofic._, 69-70. Two portfolios were created; namely, that - of war, intrusted to Lino César, and that of treasury, - placed in charge of Jesus de la Rocha. José Montenegro was - ministro general and of foreign relations. The administrative - course of Fruto Chamorro, as supremo delegado of the late - confederacy, was approved the 9th of May, long after Chamorro - had vacated his office. - - [XII-12] Under the decree of June 23d, the prisoners were - confined respectively in Granada, Matagalpa, Acoyapa, San - Fernando, and Nandayme, and subjected to prosecution by the - courts. Many persons, specially the partisans of Cabañas, - were given by Corral the advice—which was tantamount to - an order—to quit Managua and not return. _Nic._, _Registro - Ofic._, 90, 96-8, 101, 104. - - [XII-13] The cause was the indignation at the sympathy of the - government's agents for Malespin and Guardiola. - - [XII-14] The treaty with Salvador bore date of May 6, 1845, - and was ratified by the Salvadoran chambers June 3d. - - [XII-15] The municipal authorities and citizens of the place, - by an acta on the 29th of July, authorized Valle to take such - action as he deemed best to upset the existing government and - restore constitutional order. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. - 139-40; _Nic._, _Registro Ofic._, 138-9. - - [XII-16] Salvador was for a time suspected of connivance with - Valle, but she proved the contrary. - - [XII-17] Director Sandoval called them assassins and robbers. - - [XII-18] The western department and Managua were mulcted in - $12,000 as punishment. - - [XII-19] His official reports of July 8th and 17th are - textually given in _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 162-4; - _Nic._, _Registro Ofic._, 128-9, 133-4. - - [XII-20] It is inexplicable how these two men could serve - in the same cabinet, unless under some one of very superior - mind and character, which Sandoval certainly did not possess. - Jerez was a democrat, a friend of Central American union, - and an admirer of Morazan. Buitrago was the opposite—a - conservative, separatist, and opponent of Morazan. - - [XII-21] Leaders surrendering were to be dealt with by the - civil courts; otherwise, if captured, would be tried under - military laws. - - [XII-22] Every one refusing to return was heavily - fined. Chief-of-bureau E. Castillo's instructions to the - sub-prefect, in _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 293. - - [XII-23] Decree of Oct. 30, 1842. _Nic._, _Registro Ofic._, - 126, 128, 138, 143. - - [XII-24] Official reports of Dec. 6th and 8th to the min. of - war of Nic., _Id._, 157-8; _El Tiempo_, March 12, 1846. - - [XII-25] 'En cuanto al pasaporte, el Gobierno Supremo ama y - desea mucho la felicidad del Estado, y no podría privarlo de - su mas fuerte apoyo.' _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 284-5; - _Nic._, _Registro Ofic._, 290. - - [XII-26] He followed the example of Carrera in Guat. - - [XII-27] Sandoval surrendered his office June 25th to the - legislature in order that it might freely adjudicate upon his - official acts. Once approved, he resumed the executive duties - Sept. 2d. - - [XII-28] Dec. 12th it voted an amnesty law with a number - of limitations; namely, against persons entering the state - with arms to disturb the peace; and against the guilty of - murder or other atrocious crime. The govt issued, Jan. 9, - 1847, a supplementary decree of amnesty. _Sandoval_, _Revista - Polít._, 57-9. _Nic._, _Registro Ofic._, 390, 401, 407-8; - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 298-9. - - [XII-29] Sandoval returned to Granada and was received with - great honor. - - [XII-30] July 16, 1847. This measure awakened much acrimony - outside of the benefited department. - - [XII-31] _El Razonador_, Dec. 29, 1847. - - [XII-32] See _Hist. Cent. Am._, ii. 599-607, this series. In - Nov. 1803, the whole north coast, including the island of San - Andrés, and the Mosquito Coast extending from Cape Gracias - á Dios to the Chagre River, was placed under the viceroy - of Nueva Granada; but five years later the transfer was - annulled, and the coast of Mosquitia restored to Nicaragua, - to which it had been annexed by royal order of March 31, - 1803. - - [XII-33] He based his pretension on the following incident: - The Caribs on the Trujillo line rebelled in 1807 betaking - themselves to Mosq. territory, where they were captured by - Sp. troops and brought back, together with some Mosquitians, - as prisoners. King Stephen, successor to George, the man - crowned by the British, threatened to burn Trujillo and to - wage a border warfare if his subjects were not forthwith - returned. The president of Guatemala, for prudential reasons, - had the prisoners sent back. _Am. Cent._, _Reclam. de - Interven._, 8. - - [XII-34] Altogether about 76,000 square miles. _Strangeways' - Mosq._, 4-5. Lord Palmerston, in his instructions to Brit. - represent. in Nueva Granada and Cent. Am., spoke of a coast - line of about 720 statute miles as belonging to Mosq. Squier, - _Cent. Am._, 629, has it that from 200 to 500 miles in - length, and undefined breadth, have been claimed. - - [XII-35] Capt. Geo. Henderson took some in 1807. The chiefs - expected higher marks of regard, but had to be contented with - what they got. _Henderson's Brit. Hond._, 168, 204. - - [XII-36] That was done, it is presumed, after the death of - Stephen, George's successor, who was ruling in 1807. The - govt, at the time of their going to Belize, was in charge - of a sort of regency formed of the three principal chiefs, - who divided the country into three separate departments. - The first, extending from Roman River, near Cape Honduras, - to Patook, was intrusted to Gen. Robinson. The second, from - Caratasca, or Croata, to Sandy Bay and Duckwarra, including - all the Mosquitians proper, was in charge of a brother of - the late king, who bore the title of admiral. The third, from - Brancmans to Rio Grande, including various tribes, was under - Don Cárlos, called the governor. The three head chiefs had - sub-governors. But the small colonies of Zambos, at Pearl - Cay lagoon and Blewfields, could choose their own governors. - _Roberts' Narr. of Voy._, 146-7; _Stout's Nic._, 168-71. - - [XII-37] A regalia consisting of a silver-gilt crown, a - sword, and sceptre of moderate value had been provided - for the farce. The emblems of royalty were confided to the - custody of Jack, an old negro, 'who, with wise precaution, - kept them carefully concealed.' _Squier's Cent. Am._, 640-1. - - [XII-38] Col Arthur, the superintendent, gave him much good - advice to guide him in his government. _Arthur's Letter_, in - _Mosq. Doc._, 122-3; _Disputes with Am._, in _Brit. Quart. - Rev._, xcix. 242-3. But the good advice was lost upon his - swarthy majesty. It is understood that every new king had - been to Jamaica to receive a commission from the Brit. govt, - his subjects refusing him recognition as their sovereign till - he had done so. _Bonnycastle's Sp. Am._, i. 171-2. - - [XII-39] He became a confirmed drunkard. _Roberts' Narr. of - Voy._, 148-9. - - [XII-40] Some parties accused of the crime are said to have - suffered death. - - [XII-41] _George Henderson's British Honduras_, London, 1811, - 8°, 236 p., is a diary of the author's trip to and from the - Mosquito shore, which also furnishes an interesting account - of Belize and her resources, climate, etc., together with a - map of Honduras, and ends with sketches on the manners and - customs of the Mosquito Indians. _Thomas Strangeways' Sketch - of the Mosquito Shore_, Edinburgh, 1822, 8vo, 355 p. The - author, who calls himself a K. G. C., captain of the first - native Poyer regiment, and aide-de-camp to his Highness, the - cacique of Payais, gives with a portrait of that cacique, - Sir Gregor MacGregor, a historical preface, and a map of - Mosquitia, and the Poyais territory. The book also contains - a descriptive sketch of that country, its productions, mode - of cultivation, and other facts, all compiled for the special - use of settlers. _Peter F. Stout's Nicaragua, Past, Present, - and Future_, Phila., 1859, 12°, 372 p. With the exception - of a cursory glance at affairs in Mosquito, on interoceanic - communication, and ancient history of Mexico, this work is - confined to the resources, history, and general features - of Nicaragua, the chief object being to furnish a general - description of the country rather than its history. The - author was U. S. vice-consul, and his opinion on questions - between his country and Great Britain might be deemed by - a subject of the latter not wholly impartial. _Orlando W. - Roberts' Narrative of Voyages and Excursions on the east - coast, and in the interior of Central America_, Edinburgh, - 1827, 16°, 302 p., preceded by a map of a part of Cent. Am. - showing the route from the Atlantic to the Pacific, via the - river San Juan and lakes Nicaragua and Leon, with an index - and a preface by Edward Irving, is a little book descriptive - of the author's journey up the San Juan River to Leon through - Lake Nicaragua, and of trading voyages in which he was many - years engaged among the Indians of Hond., Nic., and Costa R. - His opportunities for observation seem to have been good, and - his manner of setting forth the information thus obtained is - clear and apparently reliable. On Mosquitia and her govt and - people he gives much that is really interesting and useful. - _R. H. Bonnycastle's Spanish America, or a descriptive, - historical, and geographical account of the dominions of - Spain_, London, 1878, 8o, 2 vol., pp. xxix. 336, v. 359, - map and engraving, is mostly a compilation, poor in style, - divided into two parts. The first treats of the Spanish - dominions in North America; the second of those in South - America. Everything is treated in a cursory manner, and - the part relating to Cent. Am. and the isthmus of Panamá is - meagre and trifling. - - [XII-42] More details in _Squier's Cent. Am._, 641-3; - _Mosquitoland_, 31-3, 38-40, 47-50, 225-9; _Nic. Nueva - Discusion_, 6; _Crowe's Gospel_, 208-10; _S. Juan_, _Ocup._, - 33-5, 45-9; _Niles' Reg._, lxiv. 130; _Frisch_, _Staaten von - Mex._, 94; _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 134, 140-1, 208-11. - - [XII-43] At the court of Gracias á Dios, Apr. 19, 1820. The - grantee called himself 'his Highness the cacique of Poyais,' - and claimed absolute dominion over the Poyer district on the - extreme west of Mosquitia, including the Rio Tinto. - - [XII-44] The plan comprised well-equipped regiments of - infantry and cavalry, a theatre and theatrical company, - a band, and paper currency. _Crowe's Gospel_, 207-8; - _Mosq.-Küste und Texas_, 28; _Mosquitoland_, 34-8; _Quart. - Rev._, xxviii. 160-1; _Eco_, _Hisp.-Am._, July 31, 1860. - - [XII-45] This settlement was called Fort Wellington, and - was brought to ruin by a succession of calamities, including - shipwrecks. _Mosq.-Küste und Texas_, 29-33; _Young's Mosq. - Shore_, 53-9, 65-71. - - [XII-46] It has an abundance of mahogany, rosewood, - caoutchouc, and other valuable trees, and is capable of - producing cotton, sugar, rice, indigo, and most of the - tropical staples. - - [XII-47] Slavery was abolished in 1841. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, - Feb. 10, 1866. - - [XII-48] There was neither church nor pastor in the place. - _S. Juan_, _Ocup._, 13-15; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 661-2. - - [XII-49] Macdonald answered Aug. 13th that the object of - his visit to the coast had been to convey a message of H. - B. M. to her ally the sovereign of the Mosquito nation, and - to ascertain by his own observation the true boundaries - of the Mosquito dominions, upon which point he wished to - be enlightened by Quijano. He made further demands for - a recognition of his demand, but the Nicaraguan official - invariably returned a refusal. _Mosquitoland_, 29, 223-5; - _Niles' Reg._, lxi. 98; lxii. 64, 275; lxiii. 19, 194; _U. - S. Govt Doc._, H. Ex. Doc. 75, vol. x., 31st cong. 1st sess.; - _Young's Mosq. Shore_, 33-4. - - [XII-50] An English writer says: 'This farce hardly seemed - consistent with the dignity of a British officer, gov. - of a settlement.' _Dunlop's Trav._, 215-16. Crowe, also - an Englishman, declares it to have been an infamous act. - _Gospel_, 212. It was not disavowed by the Brit. govt. - _Squier's Travels_, ii. 449; _Nouv. Annales Voy._, xciv. - 251-2. - - [XII-51] He was left on a desert island on the coast. - _Marure_, _Efem._, 54; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iii. 612. - Macdonald himself on the 15th made his acts known to the govt - of Nic., alleging that he had been specially requested by - many persons of San Juan to remove Quijano. The latter was - undoubtedly a bad man, but no foreign authority had any right - to interfere with him. - - [XII-52] Consul Chatfield claimed that Quijano was removed - from Mosq. and not Nic. territory; that he had himself - notified the govt of Cent. Am. of the existence of the - Mosq. nation, and that Great Britain would not look with - indifference upon any usurpation of the territory of a - monarch with whom she had close relations; that Spain had - recognized the Mosq. nation when Prince Stephen visited San - Salvador and Guatemala. His letter was dated Oct. 24, 1842. - Further correspondence followed between Nic. and Chatfield - without the former giving way to his pretensions. The whole - correspond. may be seen in _Mosq. Doc._, 5-23; _Nic._, - _Cor. Ist._, Sept. 26, 1850; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. - 98-111. - - [XII-53] In a treaty with Thomas Lowry Robinson, signed in - Comayagua Dec. 16, 1843. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. - 112-14. The aristocrats of Guat. wanted a protectorate of - Great Britain over Cent. Am., and it was believed in Nic. - for a while that Costa R. had given way to the influence - of Pavon, Chatfield, and J. J. Flores of Ecuador, and had - accepted the scheme. Chatfield having concluded, on the - 26th of Nov., 1849, a treaty with Costa R., attempted on - the strength of it, on the 1st of Dec., to dictate to Nic. - He said that differences between Nic. and Costa R. must be - amicably arranged in the understanding, that other means - would not be looked on with indifference by Great Britain. - - [XII-54] That was pursuant to orders from Lord Palmerston, - in which for the first time a protectorate over the Mosquito - shore was asserted by Great Britain. Chatfield and Walker - had claimed rights over the entire eastern coast, from - Cape Honduras to Chiriquí Lagoon, an extent of 700 miles, - but Palmerston set the limits 'from Cape Honduras down to - the mouth of the river San Juan.' Meantime the Nicaraguan - authorities had obtained, Oct. 28, 1847, from the Princess - Inez, believing her the heir of Robert Charles Frederick, a - full recognition of the authority of Nic. over the shore of - Mosq., and her command to all interloping foreigners to leave - the country. The British officials of course paid no heed - to this arrangement. _Squier's Cent. Am._, 644-6; _Salv._, - _Gaceta_, March 15, 1850. - - [XII-55] _Squier's Travels_, i. 78-80; _Morelet_, _Voy._, ii. - 304; _Edinb. Rev._, no. 211, 144; _Niles' Reg._, lxxiii. 273; - _Tucker's Monroe Doctrine_, 46-7, 52-4. - - [XII-56] But the Nicaraguans never relinquished their claim - of sovereignty over the port, nor even by implication - recognized the king of Mosquito. _Nic._, _Manif. sobre - Trat._, 1-13; _Castellon_, _Doc. Rel._, 27-8; _Nic._, _Doc. - Dipl._, 32-9; _Guerrero_, _Manif._, 1-7; _Stout's Nic._, - 278; _El Siglo_, Nov. 22, 1852; _Nic._, _Gaceta Gob. Supr._, - Oct. 14, Nov. 4, 25, Dec. 2, 1848; _Niles' Reg._, lxxiv. 100; - _Squier's Cent. Am._, 647; _Id._, _Trav._, i. 101-2. - - [XII-57] The other articles refer to the construction of an - interoceanic communication, either in the form of a canal - or of railroads, securing the neutrality of interoceanic - ways. _Annals Brit. Legis._, 97-110, 239-41; _Nic._, _Nueva - Discov._, 1-44; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 87-91; _Costa - R._, _Gaceta_, March 4, 1854; _Abbott's Mex. and U. S._, - 340-2; _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 111; _Polynesian_, vi. - 165-6; vii. 46; _Nic. y Hond._, _Doc._, 122-5; _Am. Quart. - Reg._, iii. 310-13; _Brit. Quart. Rev._, xcix. 237-70; - _El Nacional_, July 31, 1858; _Nic._, _Seman Nic._, Feb. - 14, 1874; _Hunt's Merchants' Mag._, xxiii. 109-11; _Wells' - Walker's Exped._, 125-33; _Caicedo_, _Lat. Am._, 73-5. - - [XII-58] The local chief was prevailed on to accept this - arrangement with a pension of $5,000 a year, during ten - years, that is to say, till 1870, payable by the suzerain, - but the last chief died in 1864 or 1865, and Nic. has never - recognized his successor. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Dec. 23, 1865; - _Encyclop. Brit._, xvii. 493; _Nic._, _La Union_, June - 15, 1861; _Hond. Gaceta_, Feb. 20, 1861; _Rocha_, _Cód. - Nic._, i. 118-27, 132; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 297-301; _Nic._, - _Conv. Mosq._, 1-8; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, 409-12. - Further details on the Mosq. question, giving diplomatic - correspondence and parliamentary discussions, in _Hansard's - Parl. Deb._, cxlv. 1003-7; _Annals Brit. Legis._, x. 129-41; - also in _U. S. Govt Doc._, Ex., Sen. and House, which are too - numerous to quote here; and likewise in _U. S. Cong. Globe_, - 1855-6, 1857-8, 1859-60; _Diario de Avisos_, Apr. 24, 1857; - _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Jan. 23, March 4, 1857. - - [XII-59] _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, ii. 21-2; _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Mar. 26, 1884; _Nic._, _Mem. Rel._, 1867, 3-12. - - [XII-60] Autograph letters were exchanged in 1848, between - Pres. Herrera of Mex. and Director Guerrero. _Nic._, _Gaceta - Gob. Supr._, Sept. 16, 1848. - - [XII-61] Ratified by Nic. March 21, 1851; _Rocha_, _Cód. - Nic._, i. 99, 103; _Nic._, _Trat. de Paz_, etc., 1-13. - - [XII-62] By Cardinal Antonelli, for the pope, and Fernando - de Lorenzana for Nic. The treaty was published in the latter - country as a law Aug. 28, 1862. _Nic._, _Gaceta Gob. Supr._, - Oct. 7, 1848; _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 79, 132-7. - - [XII-63] Full particulars will be found in _Id._, 137-43; - _Nic. Trat. etc. entre Nic. y Hond._, 1-8; _Id._, _Gaceta_, - 1853-74, passim; _Id._, _Col. Doc. y Acuerdos_, 1850-1872, - passim; _Id._, _Trat. con Costa R._, 1-7; _Costa R._, _Inf. - Rel._, 1876, 5-11; 1878, 1; 1880, 3-4; _Salv._, _Gaceta_, - Aug. 12, 1853, Oct. 26, 1876, March 21 to April 20, 1879, - passim; _Nic._, _Mens. del Presid._, 1879, i.-v. 1-25; and - numerous other authorities. - - [XII-64] They first endeavored to regard the alleged - Mosquito authority, but finally treated it as a mere fiction. - _Squier's Cent. Am._, 652. - - [XII-65] Municipal ordinances for the place which had now - taken the name of Greytown. _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 241-6, - 251; _Munic. Ordinances_, in _Cent. Am. Affairs_, no. 4, - 1-10. - - [XII-66] He is said to have been acting under improper - influences. _Squier's Cent. Am._, 653. - - [XII-67] The town authorities had refused to pay an - indemnity. This was the first direct aggression by the U. S. - in Cent. America. _Nic._, _Doc. Diplom._, 7-12; _Costa R._, - _Gaceta_, June 17, 22, 29, 1854; _Salv._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 12, - 1854; _Tribune Alm._, 1857, 31; _U. S. Govt Doc._, 33d cong. - sess. 1, Sen. Doc. 8, vol. iv.; Doc. 85, vol. xii.; 126, xvi. - 31 pp.; _Id._, H. Ex. Doc. 1, vol. i., pt ii., 385-6. - - [XII-68] _Lévy_, _Nic._, 335. _Pablo Lévy_, _Notas - Geográficas y Económicas sobre la República de Nicaragua_, - Paris, 1873, Roy. 8°, 627 pp. and map, is a treatise on - Nicaragua and its inhabitants. Beginning with an historical - résumé of ancient and modern Nicaragua, it gives a review of - the topography, climate, natural productions, government, - people, and their institutions. The writer's information - on the country's physical peculiarities may be set down as - useful, though some deficiency is noted; but that on the - political and administrative branches is unreliable, showing - him to have had but little knowledge of Central American - politics. He evidently had not the documents upon which - to form a correct judgment. The question of a canal across - the isthmus of Nicaragua is also reviewed, and a résumé of - its history given. The last general treaty with the U. S. - was negotiated in 1867. There was also a convention for the - extradition of criminals in 1871. Nic. has made arrangements - to pay Am. claims against her, and on her part asked - compensation for the damages caused by the bombardment of - San Juan, which the Am. govt refused. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. - Nac._, 18-19; _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 93; _Nic._, _Trat. - de Amistad, etc., entre Nic. y los EE. UU._, 1-16; _San Juan - del Norte_, _Las Cenizas_, 1874, 1-12; _Lévy_, _Nic._, 235-9; - _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Nov. 10, Dec. 22, 1878; _Berruel, - Frères et Cie_, _Petition_, 1-20; and a multitude of U. S. - govt docs., and other papers. - - [XII-69] Treaty with Belgium, May 18, 1858; with France, - Apr. 11, 1859; with G. Britain, Feb. 11, 1860; with Italy, - March 6, 1868; and a consular convention made in 1872; with - Perú, 1879. _Trat. de Amistad entre Nic. y la Bélgica_, - 1-15; _Id._, _entre Nic. y la Francia_, 1-26; _Nic._, _Ley. - Emit._, 11-30; _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, 106-18; _Rouhaud_, - _Régions Nouv._, 365-86; _Trat. de Amistad, etc., entre - Nic. y S. M. B._, 1-15; _Annals Brit. Legis._, ix. 378-81; - _Trat. de Amistad, etc., entre Nic. y el reino de Italia_, - 1-17; _Convention Consular entre Nic. y el reino de Italia_, - 1-19; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 7, 14, Oct. 26, Nov. 2, 1872; - _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Oct. 29, 1879. - - [XII-70] Damages for the injured Germans $30,000, and a fine - of $8,000, besides the punishment of the official accused of - insulting German dignity. Thus the superior force dictates - unjust terms to the inferior. - - [XII-71] His term began Apr. 1, 1849. - - [XII-72] He was tried by court-martial, sentenced, and shot - June 17th. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, June 15-28, July 4, 5, - 12, 1849; _Squier's Trav._, i. 121, 166-72, 295-9; _Cent. - Am. Miscel. Doc._, no. 7. Muñoz was rewarded with a gold - medal, and the friends of the soldiers who perished received - pensions. _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 216-17. - - [XII-73] Recognized by the assembly March 14th as duly - elected. _Nic._, _Cor. Ist._, March 20, 1851; _El Siglo_, - March 28, 1851. - - [XII-74] Nov. 10, 1851. Muñoz had been declared a traitor and - deprived of his military rank. He was allowed to leave Nic., - and went to reside in Salv. Chamorro was made commander of - the forces. _Nic._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, 1851-3, 92-6, 116-18; - _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Jan. 15, 1852. - - [XII-75] A new constituent assembly was convoked May 13, - 1853. _Nic._, _Gaceta Ofic._, May 28, 1853. - - [XII-76] 'Se denominará República de Nicaragua.' _Rocha_, - _Cód. Nic._, i. 94-7; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, March 4, Apr. - 1, 1854; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 7, 21, 1854; _El Eco - Hisp.-Am._, May 15, 1854. - - [XII-77] In a circle bordered on the inside with two sprigs - of laurel, was a volcano with its base laved by the two - oceans. In the upper part of the volcano was a civic crown - with the words Libertad, Órden, Trabajo. Around the circle, - República de Nicaragua. The national flag was given three - horizontal stripes, the centre one white, with the coat of - arms in the middle; the upper one yellow, and the lower, - 'nácar,' or light blue. Merchant vessels were to use the same - flag, without the coat of arms, and had on the centre stripe - República de Nicaragua, in golden letters. _Rocha_, _Cód. - Nic._, i. 163. During the Walker régime, 1856-7, his flag - had two blue stripes divided by a white one double the width - of the blue, and in the centre of the white a lone red star. - _Stewart's Filibusters_, 12-13. - - [XII-78] Among the members elected were Castellon, Jerez, - Guerrero, diputados propietarios, and F. Diaz Zapata, - suplente, from the western department. The govt reported - them out of the state, having been expelled for their - revolutionary attempts. The assembly on the 1st of March - declared them disqualified to take their seats. _Nic._, - _Gaceta Ofic._, March 4, 1854; _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. - Nic._, 12. - - [XII-79] It had 104 articles, and somewhat restricted the - right of citizenship, created a single chamber, composed of - an equal number of senators and representatives; priests were - excluded from these positions. The terms of the president, - senators, and representatives were to begin March 1, 1855, - and last four years. After the expulsion of the filibusters, - a junta de gobierno, composed of the leading men of the - two opposing parties, was established, which declared the - constitution of 1838 in force, and a constituent assembly - was convoked, its members being from among the best and most - talented men of the republic. _Id._, 23-4; _Nic._, _Semanal - Nic._, Apr. 17, 1873. The powers granted the executive, which - were included in the fundamental law of 1854, though with the - additional clause that when using them he should report the - fact to the next legislature, greatly alarmed the opposition. - _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 24. - - [XII-80] In Nov. 1853. _Id._, 9-12; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Dec. - 16, 1853; Jan. 6, 1854; _Salv._, _Gaceta_, Dec. 30, 1853; - _Hond._, _Boletin Ofic._, Dec. 5, 1853; _Costa R._, _Boletin - Ofic._, Dec. 15, 1853; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Dec. 12, 19, 24, - 1853; Jan. 15, 30, 1854. - - [XII-81] He thought Chamorro was evading the obligation - of Nicaragua to aid Honduras with troops for the war with - Guatemala. - - [XII-82] His manifesto of June 12th was moderate in tone but - significant in its substance. It promised a liberal policy, - and to reconstruct, if possible, the federal republic. - _Wells' Hond._, 508-9; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 268-70; _El Rol_, - Oct. 6, 1854. - - [XII-83] They tendered their mediation. _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. - Rev. Nic._, 67-75. - - [XII-84] Early in Jan. 1855, J. Trinidad Muñoz was made - general-in-chief, Jerez having been disabled by a severe - wound. _El Rol_, Feb. 9, 28, 1855; _Costa R._, _Boletin - Ofic._, Feb. 28, 1855. The successes of the legitimist - party—so called because of the motto on its colors, - Legitimidad ó muerte—were obtained by Gen. Ponciano Corral - and his subordinates, Chamorro being too ill for service in - the field. _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 30, 42-3, 108-20; - _Eco Hisp.-Am._, Apr. 30, 1855. - - [XII-85] In the hacienda of Quismapa, south of Granada, March - 12, 1855. Chamorro was a wealthy citizen, born in Granada. - A brave, resolute man, firm in sustaining his political - principles, but lacking discrimination, and easily duped. - _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 126; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. - Am._, 67. - - [XII-86] Perez, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 128, considered the - act of the assembly as a serious blunder. - - [XII-87] His propositions were: Corral and himself were to - constitute themselves a junta de gobierno, and direct public - affairs until a constitutional president could be elected. - If Corral objected to this arrangement, he, Muñoz, would - recognize the legitimate government, provided Corral became - the head of it. - - [XII-88] Facundo Goñi from Spain, and John H. Wheeler from - the U. S. Wheeler was cordially received in Granada, but - afterward was abhorred by the Nicaraguans. - - [XII-89] Being too limited in its scope, the measure produced - no good effect. - - [XII-90] He had gone direct to Granada, saying nothing to - Corral from Muñoz, which made the former suspect that Muñoz - was deceiving him. - - [XII-91] Ephraim George Squier, whose works I have often - quoted, was born in Bethlehem, in the state of New York, June - 17, 1821, and devoted most of his life to civil engineering, - journalism, and the pursuit of science, winning for himself a - distinguished name as an archæologist and author. His first - distinction was awarded him for his labors on the archæology - of the Mississippi Valley and the state of New York. Having - been appointed in 1849 chargé d'affaires to the states of - Central America, he employed much of his time in gathering - data upon those countries, which he afterward embodied in - several books. In 1853 he was engaged in the survey of a route - across Honduras, and organized a company for the construction - of an interoceanic railway. In 1863 and the following year he - was employed by the U. S. govt as a commissioner in Peru for - the adjustment of claims against that republic, and then - devoted several months to the exploration of ancient monuments - in that country. In 1868 he was for a time U. S. consul-gen. - to Hond. He visited Europe several times both for pleasure and - business. In addition to the works that will be herein - enumerated, he contributed many papers on antiquities and - other subjects to American and European scientific - periodicals. The following list comprises his principal works, - most of which have been translated into several languages: - _Monuments of the Mississippi Valley_, being vol. i. of the - Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge; _Aboriginal Monuments - of the state of New York_, in vol. ii. of the Smithsonian - Contributions; _Antiquities of the state of New York_, with a - supplement on the antiquities of the west; _The Serpent - Symbol, or Worship of the Reciprocal Principles of Nature in - America_; _Waikna, or Adventures on the Mosquito Shore_, under - the pseudonym of Samuel A. Bard; _Question Anglo-Américaine_; - _Report of the survey of the Honduras interoceanic railway_; - _Monograph on authors who have written on the aboriginal - languages of Central America_; _Tropical fibres and their - economic extraction_; _Is cotton king? Sources of cotton - supply_; _Incidents of Travel and Explorations in the land of - the Incas_. Other works of this author quoted in my volumes on - Central America are: _Notes on the states of Honduras and - Salvador_, with maps and illustrations, which gives valuable - data on those countries. In treating of diplomatic relations - he expatiates on manifest destiny and British intrigues, his - conclusions not being probably palatable to the subjects of - the British crown, and others disposed to oppose the - absorption of more territory, or the exercise of exclusive - influence by the U. S. The maps drawn by Hitchcock under - Squier's directions are the best that to that time had been - published. _Travels in Central America, particularly in - Nicaragua_, N. Y., 1853, 8vo, 2 vol., pp. 424 and 452, maps - and cuts, contains a description of aboriginal movements and - scenery, together with a concise account of the history, - agricultural and other resources, of Nicaragua, the language, - manners, and customs of the people, with illustrations of the - principal buildings, towns, ports, etc. The work also - describes at length the proposed canal route, setting forth - its advantages. The author had every facility as U. S. chargé - d'affaires to obtain the most exact data, and used them - conscientiously and with marked ability. _Nicaragua, its - people, scenery, monuments, and the proposed interoceanic - canal_, Lond., 1852, N. Y., 1856, 2 vol. This work is similar - in all respects to—in fact a reprint of—_Travels in Cent. Am._ - Another edition under the aforesaid title appeared in New - York, 1860, 1 vol. of pp. 691, which with the exception of - about 18 pp. in the append., and a few more illustrations, was - similar to _Trav. in Cent. Am._ _The States of Central - America_, N. Y., 1858, 8vo, p. 782, maps and illust. The - author issued in 1855, with the title of _Notes on Central - America_, an 8vo vol. of 397 pages, with maps and cuts, - intended to serve as a basis for this more extensive one, - which treats of the physical peculiarities, population, - productions, commerce, and other resources, political - organization, aborigines, etc., of the country in general, and - of the states separately, and also of Belize, the Bay islands, - and Mosquito shore. Squier was evidently conversant with his - subject. The style is vivid and interesting, as well as - instructive, and the statements, as a rule, worthy of - acceptance. In his treatment of diplomatic affairs between - Great Britain and Cent. Am., in which his own country was - interested on the side of the latter, he espouses the Central - American side with so much warmth as to awaken a suspicion - that his judgment may have been warped by his patriotism. The - question of an interoceanic railroad having engrossed public - attention since the publication of this work the author felt - justified in reproducing, under the title of _Honduras_, - Lond., 1870, 12º, 278 pp., with a map, in a more compact and - accessible form, a description of this country. With the - exception of a fuller information on the route, and its - alleged advantages over all others, and an appendix relating - to immigration, the contents of the book have been fully - treated in the bibliographical notice on the _States of Cent. - Am._ - - _Report to the Directors of the Honduras Interoceanic - Railway_, Lond., 1858, fol., 102 pp. and map. Fours years - previously a preliminary report was published on this subject, - and in 1857 another containing no additional information, but - in the appendix were given further correspondence and the - charter in full. The present work gives a complete report with - all details, presenting valuable statistics, and evidences of - the feasibility of the proposed railway. _Compendio de la - Historia Política de Centro-América_, Paris, 1856, 12º, pp. - 7-114, as the title implies, is an outline of the political - history of Central America from 1821 to 1851, that is to say, - a sketch of the revolution and struggle between republicans on - one side and monarchists on the other, by which Central - America was annexed to Mexico, and of the subsequent wars - between the federalists and the oligarchs, which culminated in - the destruction of the federation, and the ultimate rise to - unrestricted power of the latter with Carrera as their chief - as well as tool. _Translation with notes of the letter of Don - Diego de Palacio (1576) to the crown of Spain on the provinces - of Guatemala, San Salvador, etc._, N. Y., 1860, sq. 8º, pp. - 132, is a report which in Spanish bears the title of _Carta - dirigida al rey de España_, and was addressed by Palacio, a - member of the royal audiencia of Guatemala, to the king, - giving an account of the ancient provinces of Guazacapan, - Izalco, Cuzcatlan, and Chiquimula, together with their - languages, customs, and religion of their aboriginal - inhabitants, and a description of the ruins of Copan. Palacio - evidently collected this information by order of his - sovereign, and showed himself an intelligent as well as a - kindly, well-meaning man; somewhat superstitious, but less so - than most men of his time. His narrative is both readable and - instructive, and his description of the ruins of Copan - extremely interesting, its correctness being established in - after years by the accounts of Fuentes and Stephens. Squier - added numerous and interesting notes, but his translation is - in places open to criticism, partly for erroneous meanings - given to words, and partly for a not strict adherence to the - spirit of the original. The book, though a beautiful specimen - of typography, is disfigured with many misprints. Besides - these I have in my library numerous valuable documents in - manuscript relating to Central American history, from the - earliest days after the Spanish conquest, which Mr Squier - gathered from various sources and never published. - - _A Travers L'Amérique Centrale. Le Nicaragua et le Canal - Interocéanique_, Paris, 1867, 8º, 2 vol., maps, 427 and 480 - pp., by Félix Belly, who was the director-general of a French - canal company for opening a Nicaragua route. He was also a - chevalier and a well-known writer. To him had been intrusted - the task of obtaining a charter from Nicaragua for this canal, - and with this object he visited Central America in 1858, - obtained the charter, and made the necessary explorations for - routes and resources. The delays and uncertainty of the - undertaking caused Belly to visit the country more than once, - and he thus became well acquainted with its resources, people, - government, and institutions generally. This information he - imparts in connection with the narrative of his journey and in - articles, under the respective states, given in the first - volume. The second volume is wholly devoted to the - interoceanic projects, and particularly to a detailed history - of his own canal scheme. The style is attractive, the - observations clever, and the information excellent. A second - edition, a reprint, appeared in 1870. _Belly_, _Carte - d'études, etc._, Paris, 1858, contains notes on the project of - building a canal through Nicaragua, and the survey made for - that purpose. _Félix Belly_, _Durchbruch der Americanischen - Landenge. Kanal von Nicaragua. Ubersetzt von Karl Schöbel_, - Paris, 1859, 8o, 103 pp., one map, is the same as _Carte - d'études ..._ by Félix Belly, but enlarged with a few sketches - of the country and people of Nicaragua and Costa Rica. - - - [XIII-1] At this time, in 1840, he could neither read nor - write, and used, for appending his signature, a stamp. Later - he learned to sign his name. - - [XIII-2] He sent his resignation to the assembly, implying - that it was condescension on his part to lay it before that - body, as he owed his position directly to the votes of the - people. - - [XIII-3] He was wrathful at the thought that they had - tendered a dictatorship to Morazan, and enlisted the - Quezaltecs against himself. He did not forget Rivera Paz' - proclamations calling him a bandit and an _antropófago_. He - asked for the meaning of this last word, and on being told - it, flew into a rage which threatened a repetition of the - horrid scenes of Quezaltenango. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, - iii. 512. - - [XIII-4] He referred to Pavon, Batres, and Aycinena. It was - evident that he then knew of Juan Fermin Aycinena's bargain - in Madrid which made him marqués de Aycinena. - - [XIII-5] His press was called Imprenta del Ejército. He had - brought it from Quezaltenango. - - [XIII-6] Several deputies, under one pretext or another, - tried to resign, but only the clergyman Lorenzana was - permitted to do so. _Tempsky's Journey_, 341-56. A man named - Andrade slightly wounded Carrera in the evening of Aug. 8, - 1841. He was murdered by the troops, and Carrera, with the - assent of the govt, had the body quartered in the presence of - hundreds of persons, and the pieces placed on exhibition at - the city gates. The order for so doing was signed by Rivera - Paz, and his minister Viteri, afterward bishop of Salvador. - _Id._, 541-8; _Guat._, _Gac. Ofic._, no. 22, 86-7; _Dunlop's - Cent. Am._, 248; _Nouv. Annales Voy._, xcii. 375; _Niles' - Reg._, lxi. 177. - - [XIII-7] He had promised, he said, to remain in private life. - His voice would be unheeded. Without freedom or influence, he - could no longer do the country any good. 'Ningun pensamiento - hay aceptable en la crítica complicacion de sus negocios, y - en el movimiento retrógrado que se le ha dado.' _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, iii. 528-9; _Gac. de Salv._, Oct. 12, 1854. - - [XIII-8] Rivera Paz did not escape insult; but not more than - Carrera deemed needful to keep him humble. - - [XIII-9] The _Gaceta_, no. 173, mentioned that number. Others - made it larger. The Indian chief Ricardo Catzum and others on - their way to the place of execution, in loud tones declared - that they had only obeyed their general's orders. - - [XIII-10] Carrera had threatened Viteri with 'la fuerza,' and - the latter answered that he had on his side 'la fuerza de la - razon.' Carrera understood this to mean cannons and muskets, - and rushing out to the plaza came back soon after with - troops and artillery, surrounded the government house—then - opposite the Santa Rosa church—and furiously entered the - building, demanding of Rivera Paz to show him his forces. - Viteri then explained the meaning of fuerza de la razon. - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iii. 536-7. Squier, _Travels_, - ii. 443, describes something similar as done by Carrera to - the assembly. - - [XIII-11] Lopez was a Nicaraguan educated in Guat., an - honorable man and an accomplished jurist; but owing to bad - health, personal habits, and other causes, was unfit for the - executive office. - - [XIII-12] The assembly considered a bill granting him large - tracts of land. - - [XIII-13] The constitution to be framed was to be ratified - by the first subsequent council of double the no. of - representatives. The doc. had 12 articles. _Guat._, _Inf. - Pavon_, 2-5; _Niles' Reg._, lxvi. 242. - - [XIII-14] On the 14th of March, 1844. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, - i. 114-16. - - [XIII-15] 'Consejo constituyente' it was first called; - afterward it adopted the name of 'congreso constituyente.' - - [XIII-16] Being appointed early in 1849 corregidor of - Jutiapa; while on his way there he was murdered with others. - - [XIII-17] They had counted on Carrera's aid, and he failed - them, for which they again at their secret conferences - reapplied to him the name _antropófago_. - - [XIII-18] A number of persons were blindly persecuted, - particularly Brigadier Monterrosa and his family. - _Barrundia_, _Rev. de los Partidos_, in _Montúfar_, _Reseña - Hist._, iv. 662. - - [XIII-19] Duran's pledges went for nothing. Blood and - extermination ended the drama of Feb. 1845. _Id._, 663-9; - _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 244-7. - - [XIII-20] The most despotic captain-generals of the colonial - period, without excepting the tyrant Bustamante, are not to - be compared with these men. Barrundia, in trying to console - the young men who bewailed the condition of the country, - assured them that it was transitory, 'un régimen salvaje - en pleno siglo XIX. no puede ser perpétuo en la América - independiente. La luz nos viene por el Norte y por el Sur; - solo el centro está en tinieblas, y esa noche lúgubre no - puede ser eterna.' _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 9. - - [XIII-21] Azmitia was an enlightened man, and thirsted for - no one's blood; but his influence, outside of the foreign - department, was small, and men, unheard and untried, were - shot before his eyes, without his being able to prevent it. - His friends claimed, however, that through him Guat. was - spared many more acts of barbarity. - - [XIII-22] It consisted of 222 articles, and was drawn up - at Quezaltenango; it came to nothing. _Pineda de Mont_, in - _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 86. - - [XIII-23] Cruz had risen with Carrera, but had a mild - disposition, and was liberal-minded. He learned erelong that - the people had nothing to expect from the aristocrats. - - [XIII-24] Barrundia left an account of all the proceedings. - One man only, José Gándara, had the courage to back his - convictions and vote for the constitution. - - [XIII-25] The plan had been to shoot him as he came out of - the cathedral. _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 248; _Iris' Españ._, - Dec. 12, 1846. - - [XIII-26] The arms to be those Cent. Am. used on the obverse - side of her coin, but so arranged that the sun and volcanoes - should be in the centre of a shield, with the inscription, - Guatemala en Centro América, 15 de Setiembre de 1821, having - in the quiver an olive crown. - - [XIII-27] A shield divided transversely into two quarters; - the upper one on an open field azure with vertical bars - argent; and the lower with three volcanoes on a light - sky-blue field. Over the shield was a sun, and on each side - of it two flags with the national colors displayed, and the - extremities gathered downward, and knotted on the poles. - On the right side of the shield is an oak bough, and on - the left, one of laurel. On a white waving ribbon is the - legend in golden letters, Guatimalæ Respublica sub D. O. M. - protectione. - - [XIII-28] The man-of-war flag has the coat of arms on the - yellow stripe. The mercantile flag does not show the coat of - arms. The flag consists of seven stripes; the uppermost and - lowermost, or be it the 1st and 7th, blue; the 2d and 6th - white; the 3d and 5th red; and the 4th, which is the centre - one, yellow. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 55-8; _Dublan_ and - _Lozano_, _Leg. Mex._, vi. 119-20; _Mex._, _Col. Ley. Ord._, - 1850-1; i. 388-9; _Mex._, _Leg._, 1851, 307-9. New national - flag decreed Aug. 17, 1871. _Guat._, _Recop. Leges. Gob. - Democ._, i. 9. - - [XIII-29] With France, March 8, 1848, and one for the - settlement of French claims, Aug. 18, 1854; Costa R., March - 10, 1848; G. Britain, Feb. 20, 1849; U. S., March 20, 1849; - Belgium, Apr. 1849; Mex., Nov. 1850; the pope, Oct. 7, 1852; - Peru, 1857; and others in later times. - - [XIII-30] _Crosby's Events in Cal._, MS., 103. It tried to - avoid entanglements in the questions then pending between - Spain and Peru. The time came, however, in 1875, when the - govt was not afraid to make recognition of Cuba, then in the - throes of revolution for independence from Spain as a nation. - - [XIII-31] Full particulars on the foreign relations may be - found in _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 303-81, 423-30; _Id._, - _Gob. Dem._, i. 209-19; _Squier's Trav._, ii. 451-2; _Annals - Brit. Legis._, 1866, 333; _Guat._, _Gac._, Feb. 21, March 7, - May 3, 1850; July 29, 1853; Jan. 27, Apr. 7, 1854; _Comm. - Rel. Flagg's Rept._, i. 792; _Derecho Intern. Mex._, 2d - pt, 325-8; _Mex._, _Mem. Rel._, 1851, 10-11; _Dublan_ and - _Lozano_, _Leg. Mex._, v. 755-7; _Nic. Corr. Ist._, May 1, - June 1, Aug. 1, 1849; _Id._, _Gac. Ofic._, Feb. 25, 1854; - Aug. 4, 1866; _Costa R._, _Gac._, Feb. 13, March 13, June - 10, 1854; _Salv._, _Gac._, Jan. 13, 1854; _Crosby's Events - in Cal._, MS., 90-5, 102-4; _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 141-5; - _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Apr. 20, Sept. 9, 1875; _Guat._, - _Mem. Rel._, 1882, 26-7, and annex 8; _La Estrella de - Occid._, Dec. 2, 1864. - - [XIII-32] Molina accepted this trust believing Minister - Azmitia, with whom the committee would have to treat - directly, was a liberal; but Azmitia was not such, nor would - the aristocrats have permitted him to control the situation. - - [XIII-33] Molina accepted, under the pressure of - circumstances, a number of clauses opposed to his own - opinions, thinking that a conservative constitution would be - better than an unbridled dictatorship. - - [XIII-34] Some of the measures being imprudently executed - only increased the trouble. To make matters worse, the - monopoly of aguardiente in the departments of Guat., - Sacatepequez, Escuintla, and Amatitlan, was given to a single - company, in consideration of money advances to the treasury. - Carrera was supposed to share in the profits. - - [XIII-35] The Indians rose against the ladinos, who deprived - them of their lands, and forced them to work at raising - grain. - - [XIII-36] 'La tranquilidad continúa inalterable.' _Guat._, - _Gac. Ofic._, Aug. 14, 1847. The archbishop was asked to - instruct his priests to preach obedience to the authorities - and laws; and with the view of winning the good-will of - the Dominicans the govt restored them the large hacienda - of Palencia, which had been theirs prior to 1829. The - property had fallen into Carrera's hands by donation from the - government, and now, in order to restore it to the friars, it - was bought from him at his own price. - - [XIII-37] Carrera's decrees of Jan. 12 and 22, 1848. - - [XIII-38] Foreign relations, José Mariano Rodriguez; - government, Luis Batres; treasury and war, José Nájera. - - [XIII-39] His last words on that occasion were: 'Queda al - público el sempiterno duo de la Revista y Gaceta, que daran - solos la ley y seran la esclusiva ilustracion de Guatemala.' - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 444; _Salv._, _Gac._, Oct. - 12, 1854. It must be borne in mind that those two organs - were edited by Pavon and Milla for the express purpose of - upholding the ideas of the middle ages. - - [XIII-40] This affair was later settled, the assembly passing - resolutions highly complimentary to France and her people, - embodying also a desire to see the French flag again waving - over the French consulate. A copy of the resolutions was - transmitted to the consul. The flag waved again and was - saluted with 21 guns. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 577; - _Niles' Reg._, lxxiv. 142-3, 415-16; _Nic._, _Gac. Gob. - Suprem._, Dec. 9, 1848; _El Heraldo_, Jan. 15, 1849. - - [XIII-41] The members were to be at the capital on the 1st of - the month. Decree of May 24, 1848. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. - 121-36. - - [XIII-42] This was done by the advice of Batres, who told - him the liberal party would soon commit suicide, and he might - then return in triumph. - - [XIII-43] A merchant or agent; he was sickly, and totally - unfit for the position. - - [XIII-44] The other two were his message on gen. affairs, - and his greeting to the chamber on its installation. _Nic._, - _Gac. Gob. Suprem._, Sept. 16, 1848; _Salv._, _Gac. Ofic._, - Sept. 9, 1876; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 470, 494-508. - - [XIII-45] His proscription was decreed on the 13th of Oct., - 1848. _Reg. Cent. Am._, Jan. 29, 1850. He went to Chiapa, - and the Mexican govt was requested not to let him cross the - frontier. _El Siglo_, Jan. 10, 1851. - - [XIII-46] This was an unmerited slight to Vice-president - Cruz, which he resented afterward. - - [XIII-47] His ministers were Manuel J. Dardon of the govt; - José M. Vidaurre of treasury and war, and Luis Molina of - foreign relations. - - [XIII-48] Francisco Carrillo, Serapio Cruz, Roberto Reyes, J. - D. Nufio, and A. Perez. - - [XIII-49] The chief being the convocation of a new - constituent assembly; the recognition of Los Altos as - independent, efforts to restore the Central Am. republic, - and meantime Guat., Salv., and Los Altos, to be under one - govt; the revolutionary army to hold the capital and other - important points; Rafael and Sotero Carrera and their agents - to make good with their property all damages caused by them - to private persons; objectionable persons to be banished, and - the Brit. govt to be asked to recall Consul Chatfield. - - [XIII-50] Their only division was in open and covert - serviles. - - [XIII-51] A provisional govt was established at Quezaltenango - on the 5th of Sept., 1848, consisting of a triumvirate; - namely, Presbyter Fernando Antonio Dávila, Rafael de - la Torre, and José Velasco, with Manuel J. Fuentes as - secretary-gen. _Id._, 588-9; _Guat._, _Gac._, Sept. 22, 1848. - - [XIII-52] The nobles, aided by the clergy, surrounded the - brothers Cruz, and Luis Molina undertook to dissuade Nufio, - who was a very ignorant man. - - [XIII-53] The necessity of procuring money for the war, which - could not be had except from partisans of the oligarchs, - prompted it, as they made that act of ratification a sine quâ - non before loosening their purse-strings. - - [XIII-54] _Guat._, _Col. Ley._, i. 77-9; _Montúfar_, _Reseña - Hist._, v. 584-5. Gándara and Pineda de Mont, the other - liberals trying to persuade themselves that the separation - would be only temporary. - - [XIII-55] By Col. M. Paredes. _Guat._, _Gac._, Sept. 22, - 1848; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, 50-3; _Nic._, _Gac. Gob. Suprem._, - Nov. 18, 25, Dec. 9, 1848; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. - 606-8, 634-9. - - [XIII-56] The attempt to gain over Nufio to the side of the - govt proving successful, he had been appointed comandante - general. On the other hand, Vice-president Vicente Cruz, - smarting under the slight put upon him by the selection of - Martinez for pres., joined his brother Serapio in his armed - contest against the govt. _Id._, v. 555, 570-1, 588, 591. - - [XIII-57] Escobar was an orator, a true republican, and well - disposed to deal fairly by all men, regardless of political - affiliations. - - [XIII-58] His ministers were Revd Narciso Monterey, of govt; - Basilio Porras, of relations; Mariano Galvez Irungaray, - of treasury; and Manuel Jonama, an old retired officer of - Morazan, of war. - - [XIII-59] The two opposing parties had not yet fixed upon his - successor. - - [XIII-60] The Molinas and Arrivillagas, Vidaurre, Dardon, - Barrundia, and Martinez, who were held responsible for the - blood already spilled. - - [XIII-61] A large number of official docs. connected with - the last two administrations are given in _Montúfar_, _Reseña - Hist._, v. 593-601, 611, 622-44, 695-715. - - [XIII-62] In forming his cabinet he slighted Luis Molina - and his party. His ministers were José Mariano Rodriguez, - Raymundo Arroyo, José M. Urruela, and Manuel Tejada. Arroyo - was succeeded in Aug. by Pedro N. Arriaga, and Cerezo became - min. of war. - - [XIII-63] The principal clauses were: the revolutionary - forces to be incorporated with the army of the republic; - Vicente Cerna to become general-in-chief of the army; - elections of deputies to be made in unrepresented districts; - damages caused private parties by the army to be paid by the - government. - - [XIII-64] The aristocrats made a great display of regret at - his death, but it was well known that they did not love him. - In eliminating him from the revolution, they had in view to - weaken the latter, but still wanted it to continue as a means - for Carrera's return. - - [XIII-65] Paredes made him believe the govt really intended - to oppose Carrera. He also pledged the govt to protect Los - Altos, and provide for the advancement of education and - commerce in that region. Under such pledges Guzman placed - himself and his Quezaltecs at the service of the govt and - proceeded to the capital. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. - 769-71. - - [XIII-66] Jan. 24th he wrote the govt from Ayuto that he - was on his march to the capital, not to avenge, he said, the - insults heaped upon him by Martinez' administration, or rake - up by-gones, but to restore peace and justice. The assembly, - before which his letter was laid, adopted no resolution. - - [XIII-67] To raise a foreign loan of one million dollars; to - procure troops from other friendly states; and if necessary - to remove the capital. After granting such power the assembly - adjourned, leaving in the city a 'comision permanente.' - - [XIII-68] His govt said that aid afforded to Carrera - was treason under the decree of Oct. 13, 1848. Ministers - Arroyo and Tejada in a manifesto assured the people of the - government's best efforts to defeat his projects. _Nic._, - _Gac._, March 17, 1849. It is astonishing that an ignorant - man like Paredes could so easily hoodwink Luis Molina and the - rest. They soon opened their eyes to see the falseness of the - man they had elevated from the command of a battalion to the - chief magistracy, and who was on the point of consummating - his treachery. Guzman saw through his plan, and escaped - out of the city with a number of his Quezaltec officers and - men, and succeeded in reaching Salvador. He first joined the - mountaineers, and aided them to take Jutiapa, but on seeing - the outrages of Leon Raymundo, he left them in disgust. - - [XIII-69] Zavala was connected by blood and marriage with - supporters of Carrera in the aristocratic clique. - - [XIII-70] The first two decrees were of June 4th and 5th. - His appointment to the chief command was on the 3d of Aug. - _Nic._, _Corr. Ist._, July 1, Sept. 1, 1849; _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, v. 779-80, 784-5. - - [XIII-71] He had come disposed to do his duty, he said. The - ayuntamiento of Guat. on the 10th of Aug. gave a banquet - in honor of Carrera. The corregidor presided, having on his - right Paredes, and on the left Carrera. _Guat._, _Gac._, Aug. - 23, 1849. - - [XIII-72] The comision permanente had represented the - danger to the govt before Carrera entered the city, and its - representations remaining unheeded; it again on the 27th - of July called the attention of the minister of government - demanding requisite protection for the representatives. See - Andrés Dardon's letter in _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. - 811-12. - - [XIII-73] Barrundia had gone to Salv. Luis Molina was - now defeated, and had to go away. He wished to visit San - Salvador, but could not face Vasconcelos, and went to - Ahuachapan. Ex-president Escobar, who, as president of the - assembly, signed the proscription act of Oct. 13, 1848, died - in exile, poor and miserable; the two subscribing secretaries - were Manuel Irungaray, whom Carrera caused to be shot - some time afterward, and Lorenzo Montúfar, the author and - statesman. - - [XIII-74] Vasconcelos, president of Salv., Dec. 4, 1850, - announced to his people that forces of Guatemala were about - to invade the department of Sonsonate, with the view of - inciting the inhabitants to rebel against their government. - Again, Jan. 10, 1851, he sets forth the motives actuating the - oligarchs, who had Carrera for their tool, and British Consul - Chatfield for their ally, which were to destroy Central - American liberties, and to domineer over the other sections. - _Cent. Am. Pamph._, vi. nos. 2 and 3. - - [XIII-75] The objective point was the city of Guat., which - the allies felt sure of capturing, to judge from the context - of a letter from Dueñas to Vasconcelos of Jan. 20, 1851. - _Cent. Am. Pamph._, iv. no. 17. - - [XIII-76] Carrera's report from the field contained the - following incredible result: a loss on the part of the - confederates of 528 killed, 200 prisoners, 1,000 muskets, - and 9,000 rounds of ammunition; while his casualties were - only 20 killed and 42 wounded. That was probably one of his - characteristic falsehoods. The Salvadoran minister called - it 'desgracia sensible aunque pequeña.' But Carrera was - promoted to be captain-general, and a memorial medal was - struck in honor of his victory. _Frisch_, _Die Staaten_, 98; - _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 80-1; _Salv._, _Mem. Sec. Gen._, - 1821-5. - - [XIII-77] Feb. 6th, martial law was proclaimed; 13th, all - men capable of bearing arms were called into service; those - failing to obey, or aiding the invaders, were declared - traitors; 22d, the assembly decreed a forced loan of $20,000 - monthly during the continuance of the war. _Nic._, _Cor. - Ist._, March 13, 1851; _Salv. Decreto_, in _Cent. Am. - Pamph._, iv. no. 16. - - [XIII-78] He would return, however, if peaceful overtures - were not made at once. _Guat._, _Boletin de Noticias_, March - 1, 1851. - - [XIII-79] The commissioners were Manuel F. Pavon for - Guatemala, and Francisco Zaldívar for Salvador. It was a - treaty of amity and commerce, calling also for extradition - of army deserters and common criminals upon formal demand - for them. Political refugees were to be made to live at a - considerable distance from the frontier. Neither contracting - party had to pay any pecuniary indemnity. _Guat._, _Recop. - Ley._, i. 431-3; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 10, 1853; Jan. - 30, 1854; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 5, 1853. - - [XIII-80] Efforts were made by the sister states to avert - a war, and even after it broke out Salvador continued - her efforts. Preliminaries of peace had been agreed upon, - and negotiations entered into at Cojutepeque by the two - belligerents, Salvador acting as mediator at the conferences; - but this effort also failed because the commissioner at the - last moment presented an ultimatum which neither Salvador - nor Honduras deemed just. _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct. 30, - Nov. 15, 30, Dec. 15, 1852; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, Oct. 13, - Nov. 11, Dec. 5, 1853; _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 18; - _Guat._, _Gaceta_, July 8 to Nov. 11, 1853, passim; Jan. 27, - Feb. 24, Sept. 22, 1854; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 20, 1853; - Feb. 28, 1854; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Dec. 12, 1853; Jan. 7, - 18, Feb. 24, March 4, 1854; _El Rol_, Oct. 13, 1854; Feb. 21, - March 7, 1855; _Prelimin. de Paz_, in _Cent. Am. Pamph._, i. - no. 20; iv. no. 41. It seems from Guatemalan sources that the - Hondurans invaded Guat., and were defeated at Atulapa July - 12, 1853. _Guat._, _Boletin de Noticias_, Aug. 5, 1853. - - [XIII-81] The commissioners being Pedro de Aycinena, min. - of foreign affairs of Guat., and Florencio Castillo for - Hond. This treaty bound the contracting parties to surrender - deserters from either army, and common criminals, when - claimed. Political refugees were to be kept away from the - frontier. No pecuniary indemnity was stipulated. _Guat._, - _Recop. Ley._, i. 433-6; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 16, 1856. - - [XIII-82] Under this law the president was to be chosen for - four years by a general assembly composed of the house of - representatives, the archbishop, justices of the supreme - court, and the members of the council of state. He might be - reëlected. Before being placed in possession of the executive - office, he was to be sworn by the archbishop who presided, - for the occasion, over the house of representatives. The - executive was clothed with almost absolute powers, being - authorized, among other things, to issue, in accord with the - council of state, decrees having the force of law, to raise - loans, declare war, make peace, ratify treaties, etc. In the - event of his death or permanent disability, the executive - duties devolved temporarily on the ministers in their order - of seniority; and in default of them, on the members of the - council; until the house of representatives, to be forthwith - summoned, could meet and make a choice in general assembly. - During temporary absences of the president, the government - devolved on the council of ministers. The council of state - was formed of the cabinet ministers, eight members chosen by - the congress, and such others as the executive might appoint. - They held office for four years and might be reëlected. The - following functionaries might also be called by the executive - to take part in the deliberations and vote, namely: the - archbishops, bishops sojourning in the capital, regente of - the supreme court, president of the ecclesiastical chapter, - rector of the university, prior of the consulado, president - of the sociedad económica, and comandante general. The house - of representatives consisted of 55 deputies elected for four - years. The cabinet ministers had seats in the house, which - was to open its session Nov. 25th, and close it Jan. 31st. - The administration of justice was intrusted to a supreme - and lower courts. The former consisted of a regente, six - justices, and one fiscal or attorney-general, all chosen by - the congress for four years, one half being renewed every two - years, but all might be reëlected. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, - i. 79-87; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 181-2; _El Siglo_, June - 18, 1852; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 483. - - [XIII-83] Those of the judiciary, consulado, university, and - sociedad económica. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 140-50. - - [XIII-84] _Salv._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 31, 1851. - - [XIII-85] This was the result of public meetings held in - the departments by the garrisons, officials, and parish - priests, at which it was made to appear that it was the will - of the people that Carrera should be president for life, - with the privilege of selecting his successor, and that - other amendments should be made to the acta constitutiva, - as permitted by its 15th art. It is understood that at - the meeting of officials in the capital there was but one - dissentient vote to the proposition. He had in a manifesto of - June 22d expressed a weak objection to the proposed change, - but it was evidently a preconcerted plan of the aristocrats - and the military element. _Guat._, _Gaceta_, May 12 to Sept. - 15, 1854, passim; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 87-90; _Costa - R._, _Gaceta_, July 1-29, 1854; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, July - 27, 1854; March 17, 1855; _Carrera_, _Manifiesto_, in _Cent. - Am. Pamph._, v. no. 21; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 514. Carrera - before this received honors from foreign governments; he was - a knight grand cross of the papal order of St Gregory the - Great; the same of the Mexican order of Guadalupe; and knight - commander of the Belgian order of Leopold. _Guat._, _Recop. - Ley._, i. 90. - - [XIII-86] This amendment conferred still larger powers on the - president, and made the term of the representatives, and of - the councillors chosen by them, seven years instead of four. - - [XIII-87] As he had no knowledge of the science of - government, the direct management of public affairs was left - to those supposed to possess it. Carrera did not govern; - he merely represented the unity of government. 'Sin embargo - que su voluntad prevalecia en todo.' _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. - Am._, 82. The reform in regard to the presidential tenure was - personal, and exclusively in favor of Carrera. Thus at his - death the constitutional provision was restored, the minister - of relations, Pedro de Aycinena, assuming the reins, and at - once summoning the legislative body, which was de facto and - de jure a return to constitutional order. _Pineda de Mont_, - _Nota_, in _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 87. - - [XIII-88] The govt decreed that their portraits should be - placed in the hall of the council of state. Pavon's widow, - Victoria Zebadúa, got a pension of $900 a year. _Guat._, - _Recop. Ley._, ii. 638-9; iii. 351. - - [XIII-89] The government, whose temporary chief was Pedro - de Aycinena, as senior cabinet minister, decreed April 4th - that the funeral should take place on the 17th at 9 A. M., - the remains to be interred in the cathedral church. _Guat._, - _Recop. Ley._, iii. 351-2; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 29, May - 6-20, 1865. - - [XIII-90] It has been asserted that even his ministers - trembled for their lives when Carrera was in his cups. Though - they knew he would commit outrages, they often induced him - to visit the departments, in order to have a little peace - themselves. - - [XIV-1] They conclude offering to the assembly the 'swords - which aided to triumph in Guat. and Los Altos over the tyrant - Morazan.' - - [XIV-2] Cañas, considering himself the only lawful executive, - though set aside by the military on Sept. 20th, also made his - resignation. - - [XIV-3] The decree greatly displeased the people, and had no - effect. But it revealed the plot of the aristocrats of Guat. - They appointed commissioners to the diet of Cent. Am., who - were to pretend that they favored a reformed union; but their - real aim was an absolute separation. _Marure_, _Efem._, 54. - - [XIV-4] Its support was sworn to on the 11th of April. - - [XIV-5] In a proclamation he stated that the expelled - senators and deputies were working to restore the order of - affairs existing at the time of Morazan's departure. His - suspicions were partially confirmed on Morazan appearing at - La Union about the middle of Feb. 1842. _Montúfar_, _Reseña - Hist._, iv. 63-4; _Marure_, _Efem._, 54-5; _Astaburuaga_, - _Cent. Am._, 74-5. - - [XIV-6] They promised to confine their action to only such - objects as were of absolute necessity, namely, to rid the - government of surrounding obstacles, make amendments or - additions to the constitution, and pass such laws as would - conduce to its development. After doing this they purposed - to close their ordinary session, and await the election of - the constitutional chief of the state. It would then be the - proper time to deliberate upon calling a constituent assembly - to review the constitution. - - [XIV-7] Cañas had been chosen on the 1st of Feb., but - afterward resigned it. His health was poor, and he died at - the hacienda del Jocó on the 24th of Feb., 1844. The assembly - honored his memory in a special decree. _Salv._, _Diario - Ofic._, Feb. 14, 1875; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 509. - - [XIV-8] It was this govt that rejected Morazan's proposals - when he appeared at La Union. While appreciating his - patriotic purposes, it could not disregard its obligations - toward the other states. Hence, together with Malespin, it - set the other govts in motion against Morazan, whom Malespin - called 'el enemigo comun.' - - [XIV-9] Even private correspondence was forbidden. - Postmasters had orders to deliver to governors of departments - all letters received at their offices from Costa Rica. - - [XIV-10] His ideas were commended as 'justas, sanas, - salvadoras.' _Guat._, _Gac._, Oct. 18, 1842. - - [XIV-11] Even Malespin had favored the act of the govt; - for though uncultured, he was a Salvadoran; and now that - Morazan was dead, he began to listen to the advice of his - more enlightened fellow-citizens, and to understand the - Machiavelism of Aycinena, Pavon, and their ally Chatfield. - - [XIV-12] J. J. Aycinena repeatedly said that the revolt - could not be quelled, and it were better to accede to the - wishes of the volcaneños. This will explain the object of - a doc. dated Oct. 18, 1843, and published at Comayagua at - the govt printing-office under the signature of Manuel José - Arce. The ex-president had taken advantage of an amnesty - decree to return to Central America. He was now very old, - but still ambitious of power. In that manifesto, addressed - to the states of Cent. Am., he endeavors to demonstrate the - necessity of their again uniting under one govt. He spoke - of Guzman and Malespin trying to hold power for life; of - intrigues to make the latter president, even if some of his - opponents had to be shot; of abuses he had been subjected - to; the war those men were planning, with the aid of Nic., - against Guat. and Hond., on the false charge that Carrera - intended to annex Salv. to Guat. He accused Malespin of - atrocities, and yet praises Carrera, who placed Malespin in - Salv. The full text of the manif. is in _Montúfar_, _Reseña - Hist._, iv. 222-5. - - [XIV-13] The min. of state, Agustin Morales, reminded him - that freedom of the press was a palladium of liberty in - England, adding his surprise that her consul should want - such a precious boon to disappear from Salvador. Chatfield - threatened to refer the subject to his govt, and was told to - do so, not failing to accompany the answers he had received. - - [XIV-14] The circulation of _El Amigo del Pueblo_ in Guat. - was forbidden; but many numbers got out, and were read by - artisans, students, officials. Chatfield often found it on - his desk without knowing how it came there. - - [XIV-15] Several Salvadorans were murdered, and it was proved - that the murderers had come from Jutiapa. The govt of Guat. - pretended to have had no agency in these acts. - - [XIV-16] In later years he was bishop of Panamá, but much - toned down. - - [XIV-17] _El Amigo del Pueblo_ invited him to discuss public - questions, but not from the pulpit, where he could not be - answered. Vazquez did not heed it, and went on with his - wrathful sermons. - - [XIV-18] In his letter of Dec. 5th, he uses these words: - 'Jorge de Viteri no será obispo de farsa, ni permanecerá - jamás en un suelo, en que la potestad humana coarte las - amplias facultades que le conceden, y de que le hacen - responsable los sagrados cánones.' The correspondence, and - his secretary's address to the people, are given in _Id._, - 351-4, 373. - - [XIV-19] The president blamed him for leaving the capital - at a time of disturbance. He, on his part, demanded the - government's return to S. Salv. to attend to the bishop's - complaints. He accused the president, in a manifesto, of - attempting to disturb the public peace. - - [XIV-20] The ecclesiastical fueros were restored; the govt - was authorized to allow monasteries established, and the - bishop to demand the aid of the secular arm to enforce his - orders in ecclesiastical affairs. This last act was, however, - issued, as it appears, with much reluctance, judging from the - number of restrictive clauses in it. - - [XIV-21] Guzman had waged war against Malespin, not for his - own aggrandizement, but to do away with arbitrary rule, and - to restore the authority of the constitution. This being - accomplished, he resolved to return to private life. - - [XIV-22] A physician by profession, and a modest, honorable - citizen, actuated by the purest motives; an excellent family - man and friend; but unfortunately, as events showed, he was - weak when firmness and resolution were demanded to uphold his - position. Aguilar, in his later years, after losing his wife, - was ordained as a priest. - - [XIV-23] Eustaquio Cuéllar, J. M. San Martin, J. M. Zelaya, - the clergyman, Isidro Menendez, and Indalecio Cordero. - - [XIV-24] He hinted that he had power to annex the state - to the archdiocese of Guat. The text of his letter is in - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 54-5. - - [XIV-25] The officer Anjelino, sent to reënforce the guard - of the jail, was waylaid, and nearly murdered, and in that - condition taken to the bishop's house, where the bishop - abused him by word of mouth, and turned him over to the - rabble, by whom he was stabbed, beaten, and kicked. He was, - however, rescued by the priest M. Serrano, and taken back - into the bishop's house. These facts were testified to by - Anjelino, in the criminal prosecution of Viteri. - - [XIV-26] _Nic._, _Registro Ofic._, 330; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, - 249-50; _Iris_, _Esp._, Oct. 3, 1846. - - [XIV-27] It is given in full in _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, - v. 70-4. - - [XIV-28] The decree was dated July 27, 1846, and referred to - articles 210-13, 304-9. - - [XIV-29] The Salvadoran govt published a decree against - seditious persons from Hond. _Nic._, _Registro Ofic._, 272-3. - The authorities of Hond. solemnly promised that Viteri should - not be allowed to reside near the Salv. frontier; but the - promise went for nothing; Viteri and Malespin being aided - from that state. They found material assistance in Nacaome, - Tegucigalpa, Sensenti, and Guarita. Guardiola's note of Aug. - 31, 1846, to the min.-gen. of Salv., in _Id._, v. 87, 254-7. - - [XIV-30] His decree of Feb. 23, and pastoral of June 10, - 1845. - - [XIV-31] His execution left a bad impression in the public - mind. Ignacio Malespin had been a friend of Morazan, served - with him in 1840, and was one of the heroes of the capture - of Guatemala as well as of the subsequent escape. He was - gentle, kind, and sociable, and but for Viteri's influence - never would have joined the revolution. He ought to have - been spared. The women of San Salvador, both old and young, - pleaded for a commutation of his sentence, but the govt was - relentless. - - [XIV-32] The head was for some time exposed in an iron cage, - to the disgust of the community. It was finally delivered to - the family for interment. - - [XIV-33] He obtained 13,222 votes out of a total of 19,215. - Being governor of San Vicente, where he was exceedingly - popular, he could not, under the constitution, be a candidate - in that department. - - [XIV-34] Vasconcelos had been a friend of Morazan, and - prominent in Guat. at the time the liberal party was divided - into ministerialists and oppositionists. - - [XIV-35] Chatfield's pressure against Hond. and Nic. inspired - them with hopes. Vasconcelos was a partisan of Central - American unification for various reasons, not the least of - which was that of checking the preposterous claims of the - Brit. agent. This explains the origin of future questions - between Chatfield and Pavon on one side, and Vasconcelos on - the other. In 1849, the latter was made to appear before the - other states as an innate foe of Guat., whose debasement - and destruction he strove for. The govt of Salv. gave - explanations on its course denying the charges. _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, v. 801-8. - - [XIV-36] Even Lindo of Hond., a militant in the reactionary - ranks of Guat., though acknowledging the republic, did - so with the proviso that Hond. left intact and in force - Guatemala's engagements and duties toward other states as - regarded the reëstablishment of a gen. govt. Guardiola's note - of Aug. 10, 1847, to min. of relations of Guat., in _Id._, - 260. - - [XIV-37] He favored the restoration of the state of Los - Altos, in order to divide the power of Guat., and counted - on the coöperation of Guatemalan liberals; but the spirit - of provincialism was strong with them, and a large portion - opposed him. - - [XIV-38] It was bitterly censured by the leading liberals of - Salv., Nic., and Hond., and not a few of those of Guat., such - as Pineda de Mont and Rivera Caberas. - - [XIV-39] Gomez was a Salvadoran, educated abroad, and well - versed in political economy and literature. - - [XIV-40] He committed an error in supposing that Zaldaña - would care more for him and his party than for Archbishop - García Pelaez, who was influenced by Canon Larrazábal, the - mouthpiece of Guatemalan aristocracy. - - [XIV-41] The following is a brief synopsis of the - constitution: No ecclesiastic or military man in active - service could hold any civil office. Congress consisted - of the house of representatives, chosen annually, and the - senate, elected one half every second year; it met on the - 1st of Jan. of each year, and its sessions were limited to - 40 days. The president must not be under 32 years of age nor - over 60; must have been a resident of the state for the five - years preceding the election, and own property within the - state worth at least $8,000. He had to receive an absolute - majority of votes; otherwise congress should choose one of - the two candidates having the largest number of votes. Term - of office two years, without the privilege of two terms in - succession. - - [XIV-42] Félix Quiróz was chosen his substitute. _Nic._, - _Cor. Ist._, Feb. 16, March 7, 1850; _Costa R._, _Gaceta - Gob._, March 2, 1850. Art. 44 of the constitution, - prohibiting reëlections, was revived by an act of Feb. 25, - 1851. _Cent. Am. Pamph._, iv. no. 20. - - [XIV-43] The minister of foreign affairs, in his annual - report to the Salvador assembly, Jan. 29, 1850, speaking - of Chatfield's course, says: 'Desatenciones, violencias, - bloqueos; he aquí las relaciones y conducta que ha observado - el Sr. cónsul inglés.' _Salv._, _Mem. Rev._, 1850, 5. - - [XIV-44] The British had also seized, with Tiger Island - belonging to Hond., several isles of Salvador in the gulf - of Fonseca. _Salv._, _Gaceta_, May 17, 1850; _Nic._, _Cor. - Ist._, Dec. 1, 1849; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 30, 1849; _U. S. - Govt Doc._, 31st cong. 2d sess., Sen. Doc., 26-99. - - [XIV-45] Immediate fulfilment of the convention of Nov. 12, - 1849; and a formal contradiction in a note to him of all - accusations in official organs of the Salvador government - against Great Britain and her officials. - - [XIV-46] It offered to submit the questions at issue to - the arbitration of the U. S. or any of their agents, or to - accept some other device that might promise an impartial - decision. The note making the offer, dated Aug. 17th, was - sent to Chatfield by special courier, but he refused to - receive it because it had not been transmitted through the - hands of Idígoras, the Brit. consular agent at San Salvador. - _Nic._, _Cor. Ist._, Sept. 5, 26, Nov. 7, 21, 1850; _Salv._, - _Gaceta_, Aug. 23, Sept. 6, 1850; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 16, - 1850; _Cent. Am. Pamph._, vi. no. 7; _El Progreso_, Sept. 5, - 1850. - - [XIV-47] _Salv._, _Mem. Relaciones_, 1851. The blockade - was removed at the friendly mediation of the American and - Prussian consuls and others. _Nic._; _Cor. Ist._, March 20, - 1851. - - [XIV-48] Besides arrangements with sister states, the - republic maintained treaties of friendship, commerce, and - navigation with Belgium, the U. S., France, Great Britain, - Spain, Germany, and nearly all the nations of America. - A concordat on ecclesiastical affairs was concluded with - the pope in 1862. _Squier's Cent. Am._, 313; _Cent. Am._, - _Miscel. Doc._, 48; _Costa R._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 7, - 1855; _El Rol_, Oct. 27, 1854; Feb. 9, 1855; _Nic._, _Cor. - Ist._, March 21, 1850; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 17, 1836; - _Salv._, _Gaceta_, March 8, Apr. 12, 1850; Aug. 5, 12, - Nov. 25, 1853; _Id._, _Diario Ofic._, Feb. 24, 1875; _Id._, - _Concordato_, 1-20; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guat._, 319-37; - _Annals Brit. Legis._, 1866, 334; _Mex._, _Mem. Rel._, 1878, - 7, 11, 45-54, 119; _U. S. Govt Doc._, 43d cong. 1st sess., H. - Ex. Doc. 1, pt 1, 112, pt 2, 796, 821; _Id._, 48th cong. 1st - sess., H. Ex. Doc. 1, pt 1, 236-7. - - [XIV-49] Congress was installed Feb. 18th, and one of the - first acts of the house of deputies was to pass an act of - impeachment against Vasconcelos, and the senate constituted - itself as a court to try him upon the charge of violation - of the constitution. On the 22d of February, pleading not - guilty, he demanded a trial. The result was against him. - _Salv._, _Sen. y Cám. de Dip ... á sus comit._, in _Cent. Am. - Pamph._, vi. no. 9; _Vasconcelos al Sen._, in _Id._, no. 13. - - [XIV-50] During Vasconcelos' absence the office had been in - charge of Senator Francisco Dueñas. - - [XIV-51] Thus we see that Dueñas, whose wont it was while - he was working for popularity to use energetic language on - behalf of liberalism, now that he has reached the goal of his - ambition, changes his tune and calls for the assistance of - Carrera against Honduras. _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, June 10, - 1853. - - [XIV-52] Public education was duly attended to, new codes - and ordinances implanted to render more regular the national - administration. - - [XIV-53] This was the seventh time the capital was destroyed; - the previous ones being in 1575, 1593, 1625, 1656, 1798, and - 1839; none of these, however, were to be compared in violence - with the one of 1854. It had been supposed at first that at - least one fourth of the population had been buried under the - ruins, but it was subsequently ascertained that the number - of killed did not exceed one hundred, and of wounded fifty; - among the latter were the bishop, Dueñas, and a daughter - of Pres. San Martin. The wells and fountains were filled up - or made dry. The cathedral and other churches were greatly - damaged; the college of the Asuncion and the university - building were ruined. Only a few dwelling-houses remained - standing, and all were rendered uninhabitable. Money was - raised by subscription for the benefit of the destitute, the - government of Guat. sending a donation of $5,000. _Pineda de - Mont_, _Nota_, in _Guat. Recop. Ley._, iii. 349-50; _Squier's - Cent. Am._, 304-7, 350; _Salv._, _Gaceta_, May 26, 1854; - _Id._, _Diario Ofic._, Jan. 26, 1875; _El Rol_, Dec. 1, - 1854; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 28, May 19, 1854; _Costa R._, - _Gaceta_, June 10, July 29, 1854; _Packet Intelligencer_, - June 17, 1854. The city and about 20 surrounding towns - were destroyed March 19, 1873; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. - 8, 1873; _El Porvenir_, Apr. 6, May 11, 25, 1873; _Nic._, - _Gaceta_, Apr. 5, 1873. - - [XIV-54] Campo on the 10th of May, 1857, warmly congratulated - his fellow-citizens on the end of the campaign in Nic. when - the news came of Walker's surrender. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, - May 28, 1857. - - [XIV-55] _Am. Cyclop._, xiv. 611; _La Nacion_, Apr. 14, - 1857. The Salvador flag is required to be 4 varas in length, - with horizontal stripes, five blue and four white, the - uppermost and lowermost being blue; and a red union with 14 - white stars, covering a space up and down equivalent to that - occupied by the four upper stripes, and to the extent of 1⅝ - varas. The flag-staff is 20 varas high, exhibiting the same - arrangement of colors as the flag. - - [XIV-56] On the 10th Barrios and a committee of officers - had demanded of Campo that the troops should be ordered to - Cojutepeque to receive thanks for their services, adding that - a dissolution of the force implied distrust of the general. - Campo disregarded this, and also a number of propositions - from Barrios, reiterating his order for the disbandment. - - [XIV-57] Astaburuaga, _Cent. Am._, 75-6, assures us it was - so, highly commending Dueñas. The president was supported by - public opinion, and many of the officers that had taken part - in the pronunciamiento afterward tendered him their services. - _Guat._, _Boletin de Noticias_, June 18, 1857. - - [XIV-58] 'No hizo otra cosa que rendir la espada ante la - autoridad de Campo.' _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 2d pt, - 214. - - [XIV-59] One half of the deputies were to be renewed every - two years. The assembly was to meet biennially. _Salv._, - _Diario Ofic._, Feb. 21, 1875. - - [XIV-60] Convention concluded Aug. 9, 1859, between Guat. and - Hond. to recognize the constitutional authority established - in Salvador, and to repress any attempt to disturb it. Hond. - declared herself disposed to keep the peace with Salv., and - Guat. guaranteed reciprocity on the part of the latter. This - convention was ratified by Carrera, Sept. 20, 1859, and by - Barrios and his minister M. Irungaray, Sept. 30th, the same - year. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 439-43. - - [XIV-61] In his inaugural address, Feb. 1, 1860, he promised - a conservative policy: 'Órden, progreso, libertad bien - entendida.... La paz y el órden en el interior, la amistad - con los estados vecinos.' _Barrios_, _Discurso_, 6-7. But, - as it will be shown, his policy both in the interior and in - regard to the other states of Cent. Am. met with disastrous - results from the animosity it engendered. He had had himself - made a captain-general, and was accused by his enemies of - inordinate vanity, insincerity, fondness for unrestricted - power, and lukewarm patriotism; and finally came to be looked - upon as a disturber of the peace for his own aggrandizement. - He accepted, without leave of the assembly, a decoration - tendered him by the king of Sardinia. _Nic._, _Cap. Gen. - Barrios_, 3-14; _Arriola_, _Rep. del Salv._, 2. - - [XIV-62] May 13, 1862. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, July 19, - 1862. - - [XIV-63] Barrios was said to entertain the plan of - partitioning Hond., which was not effected because of - Carrera's disapproval; but the murder of Guardiola had - afforded him an opportunity to harness Hond. to his car. - He was likewise accused of scheming with the aid of Máximo - Jerez to control Nic. _Barrios_, El por qué de la caida, - 3-4; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, March 23, May 23, June 6, 1863. - Barrios claimed that he was striving to secure the rights of - Salvador, supporting at the same time the patriotic aims of - the Nicaraguan liberals to establish a government in their - country. - - [XIV-64] The Capuchin friars had also been expelled. - - [XIV-65] The course of the Salvadoran govt was not to the - pope's liking. _Arriola_, _Rep. del Salv._, 2. However, - the bishop, at papal suggestion, offered to return to his - diocese, and was told there had never been any objection to - his exercise of episcopal functions. _Barrios_, _Procl. á los - Pueblos_, 1-8. - - [XIV-66] A treaty of alliance was concluded with him by - Samayoa and Dueñas, both Salvador refugees, acting for Guat. - - [XIV-67] Notes of E. O. Crosby, U. S. minister, Feb. 2, 1863, - and Geo. B. Mathew, Brit, minister, Feb. 8, 1863, to Pedro - de Aycinena, minister of foreign affairs of Guat. _Barrios' - Manifesto_, 44-52. - - [XIV-68] 'Il ne vit dans cette dernière lutte qu'un duel - d'homme à homme.' _Belly_, _Le Nicaragua_, i. 118-19. - - [XIV-69] This was on the 24th of Feb., 1863. _Salv._, _Diario - Ofic._, Apr. 8, 1876; _Belly_, _A Trav. l'Am. Cent._, 119-20. - _Barrios_, in his _Manifiesto_, 32, asserts that his own - force was 4,000 men, and Carrera's 6,500. - - [XIV-70] The army was in three divisions, two of which were - under generals Zavala and Cruz. - - [XIV-71] _Nic._, _Discurso ... prim. aniv._, 3. The - Salvadoran contingent in the action was 1,117 men under - General Eusebio Bracamonte; but Jerez had the chief command - of the allied force. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 18, May 9, 16, - 20, 23, June 6, Sept. 12, 1863; _Nic._, _Boletin del Pueb._, - July 11, 1863. - - [XIV-72] June 16, 1863. _Nic._, _Boletin del Pueb._, July 4, - 1863. - - [XIV-73] Sonsonate declared against Barrios June 29th, - Cojutepeque July 27th, Zacatecoluca Aug. 14th.; _Nic._, - _Gaceta_, Aug. 22, Sept. 19, 1863; _Id._, _Boletin del - Pueb._, July 23, 1863. For map of Hond. and Salv., see - _Squier's Cent. Am._ - - [XIV-74] It has been said that Tallien de Cabarrus, the - French chargé, endeavored, after Carrera's defeat at - Coatepeque, to persuade a number of French officers who were - with Barrios to leave him, which they refused to do. - - [XIV-75] Carrera's official report of July 4, 1863, in - _Nic._, _Boletin del Pueb._, July 17, 23, 1863; _Id._, - _Gaceta_, Aug. 22, 1863. - - [XIV-76] He established his headquarters in Coatepeque. - Zavala marched on and occupied Santa Tecla, about 12 miles - from San Salvador; Col Iraeta was stationed at Chalatenango; - and Col Parker in Ilobasco. _Salv._, _Pronunc._, 1; _Nic._, - _Gaceta_, Oct. 8, 1863. Dueñas in a proclamation at Santa - Ana, July 18th, promised that Carrera and his army, after - fulfilling their mission, would return to Guat. leaving the - Salvadorans to reorganize a friendly government, in lieu of - the turbulent one of Barrios, with the assistance of Bishop - Zaldaña. Barrios accused Dueñas, at Panamá Dec. 8, 1863, of - having offered Carrera $100,000 for his assistance to get - him into the presidential chair; to pay which a forced loan - was decreed. He added that at one time Carrera had made war - against the govt of Hond. for $30,000 that Guardiola offered - him. _Barrios_, _El Presid. legít._, 3-4. - - [XIV-77] Sept. 18, 1863, Zavala, commander of the besieging - army, and Dueñas demanded a surrender, and submission to the - provincial govt. Dueñas claimed to be recognized as president - by Guat., Nic., and Hond. _Nic._, _Boletin del Pueb._, Oct. - 3, 1863; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 17, 1863. - - [XIV-78] Carrera not long after had M. Irungaray, minister - of state, Yarzun, treasurer, Gen. Perez and his brother, and - colonels Abelar and Luna shot, for the sole offence of having - served in Barrios' administration. - - [XIV-79] Carrera, Oct. 30th, called it a 'vergonzosa fuga.' - _Carrera_, _Procl._, 1. Barrios was subsequently in 1865 - allowed by Costa R. to reside in her territory against the - remonstrances of the other Cent. Am. states. These suspended - relations with her. Previous to this time he had resided in - N. York, where he made many friends. Nic. reopened, through - the mediation of the U. S. of Colombia, on the 31st of May, - 1865, relations with Costa R., Barrios having departed. - _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 458-9; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, June 17, - 1865; _Id._, _Col. Dec._, 1865, 8-9, 52-3. - - [XIV-80] _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 6, 14, 1863. The outrages - committed by Carrera and his men are said to have been almost - beyond description. One of his acts was to cause Morazan's - grave to be broke open, and his ashes to be scattered to - the winds. He insulted, plundered, and persecuted citizens, - and carried off the Salvadoran artillery and trophies. He - took with him to Guat. the prisoners of rank, and confined - them many months in the castle of San Felipe situated on the - deadly northern coast. - - [XIV-81] Cabañas had gone off to Pan. in the steamer - _Guatemala_. Particulars of the rebellion, and measures - against its authors, in _Nic._, _Gaceta_, May 6, June 10, - July 1, 1865. - - [XIV-82] The vessel was sailing without the papers required - by law, as was certified by the U. S. consul in Corinto. - _Nic._, _Col. Acuerd. y Dec._, 61-2; _Id._, _Boletin del - Pueb._, July 4, 1863. - - [XIV-83] The Salv. minister solemnly accepted this condition, - and the Nicaraguan govt then delivered Barrios on board the - brig _Experimento_. _Nic._, _Convenio 14 de Julio_, 1-18; - _Nic._, _Docs. Rel. á la recl._, 1-19; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, July - 29, 1865. - - [XV-1] He had been the sole candidate, obtaining 3,400 votes, - which did not constitute a majority. Ferrera was of obscure - parentage, and of inferior ability. He was educated by a - reactionary priest named Garin, who, wishing him to become - a musician of the parish church at Cantarranas, sent him to - Tegucigalpa to take lessons on the violin; but the boy made - no progress in that direction, and finally was made sacristan - of Cantarranas, which position he held a long time, till the - revolutionary movements drew him into military life, and he - began upholding liberal principles. He figured afterward as - vice-jefe, hating his chief, Joaquin Rivera, because he was - a democrat. Now we see the sacristan of Cantarranas made - president of the state. Francisco Güell, Francisco Zelaya, - and Santiago Bueso were recognized as his substitutes in the - order named. It was also decreed by the chamber that in the - event of a vacancy, absolute or temporary, if the substitutes - should be unable to assume the executive duties, the latter - should devolve on the ministers of state. _Montúfar_, _Reseña - Hist._, iv. 191-203. _Wells' Hond._, 494; _Squier's Trav._, - ii. 449. - - [XV-2] We are assured there were 44 te deum masses on that - day. - - [XV-3] He was credited with having, by his energy, wisdom, - and disinterested patriotism, saved the state from civil war - and anarchy. - - [XV-4] The govt justly attributed the movement to Ex-jefe - Rivera, Orellana, Álvarez, Castro, and others, believing the - centre of it to be in Leon. It demanded satisfaction from - Nic., but obtained none. - - [XV-5] The whole was published in _El Descubridor_, official - journal of Hond. Every one of Rivera's letters counselled - discipline, moderation, and honorable dealing, so as to save - the cause from obloquy. - - [XV-6] Decree of Dec. 13, 1844. - - [XV-7] I mentioned elsewhere the defeat this year at Nacaome - of a Nicaraguan force by the garrison under Commandant - Morales. The credit of this victory was given to Ferrera, who - happened to be in the place at the time, by the ministers in - charge of the executive office awarding him a gold medal with - the inscription, 'A la heroicidad del General Ferrera en la - batalla de Nacaome.' The supreme court had compared him with - Alexander, Octavius, Augustus, and Napoleon. The soldiers - of Hond. made him a Miltiades, Temistocles, and Demosthenes. - And finally, the official journal pronounced him superior to - Julius Cæsar. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 576-9. - - [XV-8] Guardiola was a rough and cruel soldier. - - [XV-9] His substitutes were Francisco Güell, Leonardo Romero, - and Manuel Emigdio Vazquez. - - [XV-10] Rivera, Landa, and Martinez were shot together. - - [XV-11] Decrees of Feb. 4 and March 19, 1846. - - [XV-12] This proceeding was communicated to the governor - of Chiapa for the information of his government. The - proclamations were published in Mexico, and probably - elsewhere; but I am not aware that the American government - took any action upon them. _Id._, 236-7; _Sun of Anáhuac_, - Sept. 14, 1847; _El Arco Iris_, Sept. 22, Oct. 4, 17, 1847; - _El Razonador_, Oct. 30, 1847; _El Sonorense_, Nov. 12, 1847. - - [XV-13] It provided for only one chamber, and he wanted - another for the aristocracy. It recognized freedom of - conscience and religion, which to his mind was heresy. - - [XV-14] It contained 114 articles; recognized the people - as the source of power and sovereignty. All persons born - in the states of Cent. Am. and residing in Hond. were given - the privileges of full citizenship. Foreigners might become - naturalized. The right of suffrage was given to citizens - over 21 years of age who could read and write. The state - recognized no other religion than the Roman catholic, - excluding the public exercise of all others. The government, - declared to be popular and representative, was vested in - three powers, namely, legislative, executive, and judicial. - The executive was placed in charge of a president for - four years, and not eligible for two consecutive terms. He - appointed his ministers, who had a seat in the legislature. - There was a council of state provided, its members being - one senator chosen by the gen. assembly, one justice of the - supreme court, the minister of the interior, the treasurer, - and two citizens elected by the gen. assembly. The assembly - was formed of one chamber with 14 deputies, being two for - each department, and the senate with 7 members. The judiciary - consisted of the supreme and lower courts. The supreme - court was divided into two sections, of three justices - each, one to sit in Comayagua, and the other in Tegucigalpa. - Each department had a jefe político at its head. _Hond._, - _Constit. de 1848_, 1-21; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 258-65. - - [XV-15] The next term would begin on the 1st of Feb., 1852. - - [XV-16] _Nic._, _Cor. Ist._, Aug. 1, 1849; _La Union_ (S. - Salv.), June 15, 1849. - - [XV-17] The following were the terms agreed upon: a general - amnesty; the confederate diet was to meet at Nacaome, - protected by 200 Salvadorans and as many Nicaraguans at the - expense of Hond.; and the state assembly also to redress - certain alleged grievances; and Jáuregui's conduct in Costa - R. to be investigated. All of which was done. _Cent. Am._, - _Miscel. Doc._, nos. 29-33, 36-43, 50-5; _Salv._, _Gaceta_, - March 15, Apr. 4, 18, May 10, 1850; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, - March 2, 1850; _Nic._, _Cor. Ist._, Apr. 4, May 2, 16, - 1850; _Guardiola_, _Carta Ofic._, March 30, 1850; _Squier's - Travels_, ii. 182. The chambers on the 29th of June declared - Lindo a benemérito de la patria, conferring on him the rank - of general of division for life, from the expiration of his - presidential term. _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Aug. 31, 1850. - - [XV-18] The Spaniards knew but little of this region, - believing it unhealthy, and had hardly made any attempts - themselves to cut wood there. Cancelada, _Tel. Mexicano_, - 104-11, computed at nearly twenty-two million dollars the - loss sustained by Spain to 1812, including in that sum the - original cost, and the resulting profits which had accrued, - mostly to the English. - - [XV-19] They were likewise forbidden to cultivate sugar, - coffee, or cacao, or to engage in manufactures; and they were - not to supply arms or ammunition to the Indians dwelling on - the frontiers of the Spanish possessions. _España e Ingl. - Covenio_, July 14, 1786, in _Cent. Am. Pamph._, no. 4, 1-7. - - [XV-20] Certain acts of that body in 1817 and 1819, in - consequence of measures adopted to punish crimes committed - in Belize, declared that the crimes could not be punished - under British laws, because that territory was not a portion - of the United Kingdom. _Peniche_, _Hist. Rel. Esp. y Mex. con - Ingl._, in _Ancona_, _Hist. Yuc._, iv. 223. - - [XV-21] The treaty of 1826, with the annexed treaties and - conventions of Spain with England and other nations having - any bearing on the subject may be found in _Mex._, _Derecho - Intern._, i. 437-524. - - [XV-22] Villiers, Brit. min. in Madrid, asked the Sp. govt - in 1835, and again in 1836, to cede to England any right of - sovereignty she might have over Brit. Honduras. The request - was not granted, but it implied that England in 1836 did - not consider herself to possess the full sovereignty over - Belize. Villarta, Mexican min. of foreign affairs, refers - to Villiers' efforts in a note of March 23, 1878, to the - Brit. govt. The latter, however, in 1836, claimed a larger - extent of territory, including the whole coast as far south - as the River Sarstoon, and as far inland as the meridian of - Garbutt's Falls on the Belize River. - - [XV-23] Details in _Bustamante_, _Hist. Iturbide_, 161; - _Squier's Travels_, ii. 412-14; _Id._, _Cent. Am._, 582-4, - 627-8; _Arrangoiz_, _Méj._, ii. 306; _Méx. Soc. Geog._, - _Boletin_, 2d ep., iv. 698-710; _Annals Brit. Legis._, ii. - 84; _Suarez_, _Informe_, 32-6; _U. S. Govt Doc._, For. Aff. - (Mess, and Doc., pt 1, 65-6, pt iii. 360-1), Cong. 39, Sess. - 1.; _Id._, _Foreign Rel._, i. 656-61, Cong. 43, Sess. 1.; - _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Nov. 21, 1878; _La Voz de Méj._, - Jan. 31, 1865; Sept. 19, Nov. 1, 1882. - - [XV-24] The settlement, as it was called, for it had not even - the name of a colony, was ruled by a code of laws established - in 1779 by Sir W. Burnaby. Justice was administered by - a board of seven magistrates chosen annually. The chief - authority was the superintendent, a position always held by - a military officer, combining the duties both of first civil - magistrate and commander of the forces. _Henderson's Brit. - Hond._, 75-9. - - [XV-25] He entitled himself then her Majesty's superintendent - and commander-in-chief in and over her possessions in Hond. - - [XV-26] M'Donald then appointed an executive council. He also - assumed control of the finances. Not satisfied with the right - of veto, he legislated in his own person by proclamation, - assuming the right of punishing any one acting against - his authority or obstructing his mandates. The inhabitants - protested against his usurpation of powers, and appealed - to the British government and parliament, obtaining some - trifling relaxation. They also petitioned that the government - should openly assume the sovereignty, so that they might - possess their lands without reservation in respect to Spain - or Mexico. Their petitions did not receive any direct reply. - However, the govt in 1845, sent out a chief justice, a - queen's advocate, and other judicial appendages. _Crowe's - Gospel_, 205-6. - - [XV-27] The coat of arms of Belize is read as follows: Chief - dexter-argent—the union jack, proper. Chief sinister, on - the proper—the chief divided from the body of the shield by - a chevron-shaped partition from the fess of the dexter and - sinister base. Points—the intermediate space azure—a ship - with set sails on the sea, passant proper. Crest, mahogany - tree. Motto, 'Sub umbra floreo.' Supporters, negroes; that to - the left, with a paddle; the other to the right, with an axe - over his shoulder. _Stout's Nic._, 258. - - [XV-28] One of the superintendents—supposed to be Col - Fancourt—had relations with the ferocious Cecilio Chí, which - was officially communicated by Mexico to the Brit. chargé, - Doyle, March 12, 1849. _Ancona_, _Hist. Yuc._, iv. 234; - _Yuc._, _Expos. Gob. Créditos_, 98-102. - - [XV-29] The population about 1804 was set down at not more - than 200 white persons, 500 free colored, and 3,000 negro - slaves. The white pop. gradually decreased. In 1827-8, the - pop. was between 5,000 and 6,000; in 1838, 8,000; in 1850, - 15,000; in 1863, 25,000. _Squier's Cent. Am._, 587-8; _Dunn's - Guat._, 13-14; _Osborne's Guide_, 234; _Valois_, _Mexique_, - 150; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, 20. The town of Belize, - at the mouth of the river of the same name, generally has - 6,000 inhabitants. The dwellings of the wealthy class are - large and comfortable. Besides the govt houses, court-house, - barracks, and jail, there are several churches, episcopal, - methodist, baptist, and presbyterian, and some large and - costly fire-proof warehouses. The town has experienced two - destructive conflagrations, one in 1854 and another in 1863. - _Packet Intelligencer_, June 17, 1854; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, - Sept. 7, 22, 1854; _La Voz de Méj._, May 9, 1863. - - [XV-30] It was effected without disturbance, and attended - with the happiest results. _Crowe's Gospel_, 205. - - [XV-31] Much smuggling was carried on to and from it. - - [XV-32] _Annals Brit. Legis._, iii. 368; v. 263; vii. 228; - x. 386-7; 391-2; xii. 139-40; xiv. 304; _U. S. Comm. Rel._, - 1863-77, passim. _The Encyclop. Brittan._, xii. 136-7. - - [XV-33] He concluded to proceed to Jamaica for further - instructions. _El Revisor_, Jan. 5, Feb. 16, 1850; _Hond._, - _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct. 19, 1849. - - [XV-34] Chatfield, the Brit. chargé, was present at the - act. _Id._, Nov. 30, 1849; _Stout's Nic._, 278; _Salv._, - _Gaceta_, Feb. 15, 1850. The object of the seizure was to - secure Honduras' proportion of the indebtedness of Cent. Am. - to Brit. creditors. - - [XV-35] Under a convention in three articles concluded at - Leon Sept. 28, 1849. The cession was for 18 months, and had - been made known the same date to all diplomatic agents in - Cent. Am. _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct. 19, 1849; _Nic._, - _Cor. Ist._, Nov. 16, 1849. The corresp. of the govt of Hond. - with the Brit. chargé appears in _Cent. Am. Correspond., Isla - de Tigre_, 1-8; _Cent. Am._, _Miscel. Doc._, nos. 21, 25, - 28; _U. S. Govt Doc._, Cong. 31, Sess. 2, Sen. Doc. 43, 1-26; - _Id._, Cong. 31, Sess. 1, H. Jour., 1739, 1801. - - [XV-36] _Nic._, _Cor. Ist._, Jan. 16 and suppl., Feb. 16, - 1850. - - [XV-37] 1st. Great Brit. recognized the independ. of Hond. - as a sovereign republic, pledging her good offices to avert - any attempts against that independ. Hond. at this time was a - member of a confederacy with Salvador and Nicaragua, and was - made to bind herself not to dispose of any portion of her - territory before she had definitely settled Brit. claims. - 2d. Hond. was to accredit within six months a commissioner - in Guat. to conclude a treaty of friendship, commerce, - and navigation with G. Brit. 3d. Hond. recognized the - indebtedness of $111,061. 4th. She bound herself to pay that - sum in yearly instalments of $15,000 at Belize. The other - articles were of less importance. _Salv._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 5, - 1850; _Hond._, _Ligeras Observ._, 1-10. - - [XV-38] Jáuregui, March 24, 1850, in a pamphlet issued - at Leon, defended his conduct, alleging that he had ample - powers. _Justific._, in _Cent. Am. Pamph._, i. no. 7. - - [XV-39] Independent of £1,425 paid for her proportion of - Cent. Am. indebtedness to Finlay, Hodgson, & Co. of London. - _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Jan. 30, 1853. - - [XV-40] The British seized Roatan June 3, 1830, driving - away the small Central American garrison. Similar attempts - have been made since 1743 by British subjects, though - unsuccessfully. The seizure of 1830 lasted only a short time, - having been disallowed by the British government. _Crowe's - Gospel_, 212; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iii. 424-7; iv. - 71-5. - - [XV-41] 'Whose territorial right is indisputable,' he - alleged. He based his action on the treaty of April 19, - 1850, between the U. S. and Great Britain, under which - neither power was to have colonies or settlements in Central - America. The U. S. took part in defence of Honduras' rights - and overthrew the British pretensions. _Squier's Cent. Am._, - 621-6, 740-8; _Democratic Rev._, xxx. 544-52. - - [XV-42] Under a decree of the superintendent of Belize. The - comandante of Trujillo, by order of his government, protested - against the occupation Sept. 13, 1852. _Hond._, _Gaceta - Ofic._, Dec. 15, 1852; _El Siglo_, Jan. 1, 1853. - - [XV-43] Art. 1. Great Britain recognized the islands to - belong to Hond. The latter pledged herself not to cede them - to any other nation. Art. 2. The former power recognized as - part of Hond. the country till then occupied or possessed by - the Mosquito Indians within the frontier of the republic, - whatever that frontier might be. _La Union de Nic._, March - 9, 1861; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, 412-15. Further details in - connection with the Bay Islands question may be seen in _Bay - Islands, Queen's Warrant, etc._; _La Nacion_, Nov. 9, Dec. - 26, 1856; _Brit. Quart. Rev._, xcix. 270-80; _Caicedo_, _Lat. - Am._, 76-80. - - [XV-44] The grounds alleged for this violent action were: - 1st, That the Brit. vice-consul's residence had been broken - into by Hond. troops, and robbed; 2d, That Omoa was sacked - by these troops, and goods to the value of $100,000 had been - stolen from British subjects; 3d, That some British subjects - had been drafted into the army, and an Englishwoman unjustly - imprisoned. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 25, 1873; _El Porvenir de - Nic._, Sept. 21, 1873; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, July 27, 1874. - - [XV-45] Streber, who commanded the troops accused of these - abuses, defends the rights of Honduras in the controversy, in - _Exposic. Doc. Suc. Omoa_, 30-44, 66-103. - - [XV-46] She had to settle, in 1850, claims of French - citizens, and in 1851 of Prussian subjects. _Hond._, _Gaceta - Ofic._, Aug. 31, 1850; Jan. 15, 1852; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, - Nov. 16, 1850. - - [XV-47] Nic. had claimed on the N. E. the river Patuca to its - mouth, Hond. claimed the Coco to its mouth. The commissioners - agreed upon a compromise line between those rivers, namely, - the summit of the Dilpito cordillera, from the point where it - becomes detached from the main body, which divides the waters - running to both oceans; and from the point where it and the - line continues eastwardly to the waters of the Atlantic in - lat. 15° 10' N., and long. 83° 15' W. of Greenwich. _Nic._, - _Mem. Rel._, 1871, 5-7. - - [XV-48] About this time he was on the Nic. frontier mediating - for peace between the belligerents of that state. His - efforts proving successful, he was warmly congratulated by - his friends on his return. _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Nov. 26, - 1851; _El Siglo_, Dec. 13, 1851; _Cent. Am. Pamph._, vii. no. - 2. - - [XV-49] _Cabañas_, _El Presid ... á sus Conciud._, 1-6. The - office had been provisionally in charge of Senator Francisco - Gomez. _El Siglo_, Feb. 21, March 19, 1852. - - [XV-50] Cabañas was of diminutive stature, but of erect - mien. He was aged about 50 at this time. His face was pale - and mild; his gestures were in keeping with the intelligent - play of his features; his manners gentle, almost womanly, - but beneath this placid exterior was a stern, indomitable - spirit. After many years of prominence as a leader, during - an anarchical period, even his enemies never accused him of - selfishness or rancor. _Squier's Trav._, ii. 177; _Wells' - Hond._, 184. Cabañas was a brave soldier, but could not be - called a successful general. Perez, a political opponent, - speaking of him as the chief of the coquimbo party, says: - 'Mal general, excelente soldado, nunca vencedor, siempre - con prestigio, y uno de los mas fogosos promotores de la - nacionalidad centro Americana.' _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 16. - The assembly, May 21, 1851, had conferred on him the title of - 'soldado ilustre de la patria.' His death occurred Jan. 8, - 1871. _El Siglo_, June 12, 1851; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 19, - 1851; Jan. 29, 1871. - - [XV-51] Astaburuaga attributes this war to Cabañas' attempts - to promote an insurrection in Guat. against his old enemy - Carrera. _Cent. Am._, 70-1. - - [XV-52] The Guatemalans took the fort and city of Omoa, - and carried away all the useful artillery, against the - stipulations agreed upon at the surrender. _Wells' Hond._, - 507-8; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 16, 23, 1853. - - [XV-53] This Lopez commanded at Omoa when the place was given - up in 1853 to the Guat. Col Zavala, since which he had been - suspected of treachery. _Wells' Hond._, 515; _Costa R._, - _Gaceta_, Jan. 15, 1854; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, Dec. 30, - 1854; _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, May 10, 1854, to Feb. 10, - 1855, passim; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 3, Dec. 22, 1854. - - [XV-54] He had received no aid from Salv., owing to Carrera - having falsely reported his intention to sell territory to a - foreign power. - - [XV-55] The executive office went, Oct. 14, 1855, into the - hands of Vice-president S. Bueso, who pleading ill health - left it in charge of Senator Francisco Aguilar. _Guat._, - _Gaceta_, Nov. 9, 1855, Feb. 16, 1856. - - [XV-56] _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Campaña Nac._, 13. - - [XV-57] Guardiola was a dark-colored, stout-built, and - rather corpulent zambo, a man of fiendish instincts, but - popular with his soldiers, whom he indulged in every way. - He possessed all the vices and was guilty of about all the - crimes known to man. When in his cups he would order men to - be shot by way of pastime. At the mention of his approach to - a town, the inhabitants would flee to the woods. He was the - tiger of Cent. Am. _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 237; _Wells' Hond._, - 517; _Wappäus_, _Mex. und Cent. Am._, 306-7. William V. - Wells, _Explorations and Adventures in Honduras_, New York, - 8vo, 588 pp., with maps and illustrations, went to Honduras - with the object of obtaining from her government leave to - work gold placers, and of opening commercial relations. He - visited several places, both in Nicaragua and Honduras, - which he describes quite accurately, together with the - manners and customs of their inhabitants. His information - on mines and mining is valuable. There are in the work three - chapters devoted to history from 1821 to 1857, the groundwork - of which is mostly from other authors, and one chapter is - filled with data on commerce, revenue, debt, etc., and still - another treats of coins and currency, weights and measures, - and productions, with illustrations. The style is good, the - work readable and instructive. Portions are evidently taken - from Squier, and the illustrations are mostly identical - with those of Squier's _States of Central America_. The same - author gave to the press in New York, a 12mo, with 316 pp., - map and portrait, under the title of _Walker's Expedition - to Nicaragua_. This work, as the title implies, is almost - entirely devoted to Walker's career in this country, which is - justified as well as praised. Here and there he mentions some - historical facts on British pretensions in Mosquito, a short - résumé on Nicaragua, the Nicaragua transit route, and a short - review on colonization, commerce, and mining, compiled from - several sources. There is no system or arrangement, having - been, as the author alleges, 'written, published, and put in - circulation in twenty days,' a feat few authors would go out - of their way to boast of. But taken all in all, the book is - well worth perusing. - - [XV-58] Decree of Jan. 5, 1861. _La Union de Nic._, Feb. 2, - March 9, May 25, 1861. - - [XV-59] Chiefly in Nacaome and Choluteca. - - [XV-60] _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Jan. 25, March 22, 1862. - This deed was said by the enemies of Pres. Barrios of Salv. - to have been instigated by him. _Id._, _Boletin Pueb._, - July 11, 1863. There was no ground for the charge. The - government of Guat. proposed to other states to recognize - no administration of Honduras until the criminals, who had - been arrested, should suffer punishment. _Costa R._, _Informe - Rel._, 1862, 24. - - [XV-61] Nic. despatched P. Zeledon as mediator, but the - motives of his gov. were bitterly denounced by the press of - Comayagua. - - [XV-62] Feb. 4, 1862. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 22, - 1862. - - [XV-63] Castellanos declined going to the capital, and Medina - went to his residence and formally surrendered the executive - authority to him. - - [XV-64] This was the result of the defeat of the troops of - Salv. and Hond. by the forces of Guat. and Nic. on the plain - of Santa Rosa. - - [XV-65] This decree is signed by Medina as 'presidente de la - república de Honduras,' July 20, and rescinded Sept. 8, 1863. - _Nic._, _Boletin Pueb._, Aug. 9, Oct. 9, 1863. - - [XV-66] His senatorial term having expired. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, - Feb. 13, 1864. - - [XV-67] The election of Xatruch was afterward declared - unconstitutional, Feb. 26, 1865. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, April 1, - 1865. - - [XV-68] Its sittings lasted from Sept. 7th to Oct. 29th. The - sovereignty of the people was recognized. The catholic, any - other kind of public worship being forbidden, was declared - the state religion. The executive authority was vested in a - president for four years, with a council of state consisting - of his two ministers, one senator chosen by both houses of - the assembly, and the chief justice. The legislative power - rested in a senate and house of deputies. The existing - political division of the republic was left unchanged. - _Id._, Nov. 11, 1865; _Camp's Year-Book_, 1869, 527; _The Am. - Cyclop._, viii. 790. - - [XV-69] He had temporarily, pleading ill health, left the - executive in the hands of Crescencio Gomez. The assembly - appointed, as substitutes of Medina, Saturnino Bogran, C. - Gomez, and Francisco Medina. - - [XVI-1] Also with the view of extending the area of African - slavery, as had been successfully carried out in Texas. - - [XVI-2] The expedition was antagonized by the Transit - company, and arrested by the authorities of the U. S. as a - violation of their neutrality laws. Kinney reached San Juan - del Norte, after some mishaps, with only a few followers, - and was unable to do any serious injury to Cent. Am. _Costa - R._, _Inf. Rel._, 1858, 4-6; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, March - 16, 1854; _Nic._, _Doc. Dipl. Hist._, 15-58. His arrival was - after the destruction of the town by the U. S. sloop of war - _Cyane_, and infused new energy into the inhabitants. At a - public meeting held on the 6th of Sept., 1855, the necessity - of establishing a provisional government for the maintenance - of peace and order was recognized, and Kinney was chosen - civil and military governor to rule by and with the advice - of a council composed of five persons. Among the resolutions - was one adopting as a basis to regulate the action of the - govt, the former constitution of San Juan del Norte, or - Greytown, which was modelled after that of the U. S. with a - few exceptions. Kinney did not hold the position long. He was - disappointed in his expectations, and resigned; he afterward - visited Granada, and at William Walker's instance an order of - expulsion was issued against him. _Stout's Nic._, 177-82; _S. - F. Alta_, Oct. 3, 1855; _S. F. Golden Era_, March 9, 1856. - - [XVI-3] Jerez had made a similar arrangement at Jalteva with - one Fisher, to bring 500 men; and Gov. Espinosa of Rivas - stipulated with Hornsby and De Brissot for the capture of - Fort San Juan from the legitimists. These parties tendered - their contracts to William Walker, the so-called ex-president - of Sonora, who would not accept them. - - [XVI-4] Under the contract the so-called colonists were - to arrive at Realejo in Feb. or March 1855, and the time - having elapsed, Castellon wrote Walker Apr. 9th authorizing - him to land at that port 'la gente y municiones, ó tren de - guerra que V. traiga á disposicion del gobierno provisorio.' - _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 136-7; _Sac. Union_, Feb. - 15, 1855. - - [XVI-5] _El Nicaragüense_, Aug. 3, 1856; _S. F. Alta_, May 5, - 1855. - - [XVI-6] William Walker was born in Nashville, Tenn., in - 1824, being of Scotch descent. After receiving a classical - education, he studied law, and later followed the medical - profession for a time in Philadelphia. He then travelled - in Europe one year, and on his return was connected with - some of the important newspapers of the country, north, - south, and west. Tiring of that, he successfully practised - law in Marysville, Cal. In 1852 he visited Guaymas, and - from the operations of Count Raousset, conceived the plan - of creating with adventurers from California independent - republics in some of the sparsely populated territories of - Mexico. Hence his expeditions to Sonora and Lower Cal., of - which I give full accounts in my vol. on the north-western - states of Mex. Few persons, unacquainted with Walker, would - suspect the presence of so much ability and energy beneath - his plain exterior. He was but little more than 5 ft. 4 in. - in height, with a rather dull and slow appearance; a man - of few words, though an attentive listener, his aspect was - that of a serious, thoughtful person. A remarkable feature - of his face was a deep, intensely brilliant blue-gray eye, - large and intelligent. Sincere and devoted to his friends, - says a devoted adherent, his enmity, though not violent, - was not easily appeased. He was indifferent to personal - ease and comfort, and to the acquisition of wealth. _Wells' - Walker's Exped._, 21-3, 199-201. He was not incapable of - lofty conceptions, and possessed courage and abnegation; - but there was little of what might be called genius about - him, though his mind was sufficiently unbalanced in certain - directions to give him a title to that distinction. He wished - to be a great man like Cæsar or Napoleon, but the elements of - that quality of greatness were absent. He might have carved - for himself a career of honor and usefulness, but for the - restless ambition that possessed him to attain a place among - the notabilities of the world, even by a disregard of law - and justice. The idea of manifest destiny, so prevalent among - his countrymen, which implied the conquest of the Latin race - in America by the Anglo-Saxon, afforded him, as he imagined, - the opportunity for attaining the coveted renown, and at the - same time securing, through his instrumentality, the future - happiness of Spanish America. But unfortunately for him, - he committed, at the inception of his career in Nic., acts - which alienated him the men who had invited him to coöperate - in the consolidation of democratic principles; and some of - his later measures, whatever may be thought of his earlier - ones, savored of recklessness, and of disregard for the good - opinion of mankind. - - [XVI-7] Muñoz had openly opposed all interference of - foreigners in the affairs of Nic. - - [XVI-8] They afterward returned to Leon, via Realejo, to - continue serving. The legitimists had many killed and - wounded, among the first being Col E. Argüello and F. - Elizondo. Of Walker's foreign force, Col Achilles Kewen, - Maj. Crockett, and eight others were killed, and 12 - wounded. _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 52; _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. - Rev. Nic._, 138; _S. F. Alta_, July 16, Aug. 14, 1855; - _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 88; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 271; - _Ferrer de Conto_, _Cuest. de Méj._, 155. - - [XVI-9] In his official report of the affair Walker laid - the blame for his ill success on Muñoz, who had apprised - Corral of the intended operations, and had induced Ramirez to - forsake him during the action. He demanded an investigation - into Muñoz' conduct, and if it were not granted he would - quit the service. Castellon informed him in reply that in - the present critical condition of the democratic cause it was - unadvisable to displease Muñoz. After much correspondence and - negotiation, Walker agreed to continue his services. - - [XVI-10] Cholera spread rapidly throughout the country, - causing great havoc everywhere. - - [XVI-11] Muñoz' death never was attributed to the enemy's - bullets. It was a regular case of assassination resulting - from intrigues in his own party to rid themselves of him. - The assassin was a young Honduran named José María Herrera, - who later deserted from Walker's ranks, and being arrested - and sentenced to death, confessed that he had killed Muñoz. - A Nicaraguan named Santa María, who was shot at San Jorge in - 1857, seems to have been an accomplice. _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. - Rev. Nic._, 141-3. - - [XVI-12] He was suspected of treachery. He had displeased the - officers by his coarseness, and had spread terror among the - troops with his exaggerated reports of Yankee valor and skill - with fire-arms. _Id._, 145; _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 55-8; - _S. F. Herald_, Oct. 10, 1855; _Id._, _Alta_, Oct. 10, 1855; - _Sac. Union_, Oct. 19, 1855. - - [XVI-13] He was joined by such men as T., C., and Daniel - Canton, Máx. Espinosa, and Ramon Umaña. The last named - brought troops and supplies from Leon. - - [XVI-14] In the early part of Sept., Gen. José M. Ballestero, - Muñoz' successor, had sent two companies in the direction of - Managua, who were undone by Col Tomás Martinez with 200 men; - on the 12th Gen. Pineda marched afterward with a double force - against the legitimists, but failed to meet them. - - [XVI-15] Corral was in Rivas with his numerous army. - Fulgencio Vega, the comandante of Granada, who was hated by - the democrats as the author of persecutions, hid himself and - was not discovered. - - [XVI-16] The legitimists who were pent up in the city - tendered their allegiance, among them the minister Mayorga. - There were others who volunteered their coöperation; among - them the naturalized citizens Charles and Emile Thomas, - Fermin Ferrer, a wealthy citizen, and the beloved and - respected clergyman, Agustin Vigil, noted for his virtues, - learning, and eloquence, who from the pulpit called Walker - the 'angel tutelar de Nicaragua,' or the north star that was - to guide Nic. to her advancement. _Wells' Walker's Exped._, - 61-5; _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 150-1; _Belly_, - _Nic._, i. 271-2; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 89. - - [XVI-17] The commissioners were Sebastian Escobar, José - Argüello Arce, Hilario Salva, and R. Vives. _Perez_, _Mem. - Hist. Rev. Nic._, 152. - - [XVI-18] The commissioners, Rosalío Cortés and Ramon Marenco, - were imprisoned in irons at Leon. - - [XVI-19] This person took asylum in the house of U. S. - Minister Wheeler, who assured him that he was under the - protection of the U. S. flag. But as Wheeler was mixed up in - filibustering schemes, he broke his pledge and surrendered - Mayorga. _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 157. - - [XVI-20] An American, who had been the recipient in Granada - of many marks of consideration. - - [XVI-21] Walker's organ gave a list of killed and wounded. - _El Nicaragüense_, Nov. 17, 1855; _S. F. Herald_, Nov. 4, - 1855; _S. F. Bulletin_, Nov. 5, 1855. - - [XVI-22] It is claimed that he had been tried for treason by - a court-martial of native officers. _Wells' Walker's Exped._, - 77. - - [XVI-23] They reported, as coming from Walker, that he was - resolved to shoot all the prisoners if he did not receive - at 9 P. M. a satisfactory answer respecting arrangements. - _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 159; _Belly_, _Le - Nicaragua_, 273. - - [XVI-24] Walker claimed to have powers, and Corral was - 'facultado omnímodamente.' The following is a synopsis - of the convention: 1st. Peace and friendship between the - contending parties; 2d. Patricio Rivas to be president for - 14 months, unless he should resolve, with the advice of his - ministers, to order elections before the expiration of that - term; 3d. The president is to have four ministers, namely, - for war, relations, treasury, and pub. credit; 4th. Govt - to respect and cause to be respected chapters 2d, 3d, and - 4th, and clauses 2d and 3d of the general regulations of - the constitution of 1838; 5th. General forgetfulness of and - amnesty for past political offences; 6th. Debts incurred - by both belligerents to be recognized by the govt; 7th. - Military grades of both belligerents to be recognized; 8th. - All persons desirous of leaving the republic may freely - do so, with full guaranty of persons and estates; 9th. The - French legion may continue in service by becoming Nicaraguan; - 10th. Walker to order the force in front of Managua to - retire at once to Leon, reducing it to 150 men; after which - Corral should reduce the force in Managua to 100, under Gen. - Martinez, and that in Masaya to 50, under Col Lino César, - or some other honorable officer; 11th. The Rivas force - will remain under Gen. Florencio Xatruch; 12th. The govts - existing in Nic. to cease acting upon being notified of this - arrangement by the respective generals; any one refusing - to comply was to be treated as a disturber of the peace. - Additional articles: 1st. Twenty-four hours after Rivas' - arrival in Granada, Corral's army from Masaya was to enter - Granada, and together with Walker's, escort the president - and the two generals to church to return thanks to God for - the restoration of peace. Walker to be the general-in-chief - of the army, appointed by a special decree. Corral should - surrender the command, arms, etc., unless otherwise ordered - by the new govt; 2d. The govt must reside in Granada; 3d. - The army was to use no other badge than a blue ribbon, with - the inscription Nicaragua Independiente. _Id._, 161-4; _El - Nicaragüense_, Oct. 27, 1855; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Apr. - 9, 1856; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 16, 1855; _Stout's Nic._, - 182; _S. F. Alta_, Nov. 17, 1855; _Wells' Walker's Exped._, - 77-80; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 16, 1855. - - [XVI-25] A plan had been formed to proclaim Martinez their - general, and to march against Granada, but the principal - chiefs discountenanced it. Corral assured the troops - that their former enemies were now friends and brothers, - recommending strict discipline 'so pena de ser pasado por - las armas el que de cualquiera manera violase la amistad y - alianza prometidas.' _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 166-7. - - [XVI-26] 'Cedí únicamente al imperio de las circunstancias, - Sin tener libre voluntad para ello.' _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, - May 29, 1856. - - [XVI-27] Sacaza, Dueñas, Pedro J. Chamorro, and two others. - - [XVI-28] Norberto Ramirez, who favored its ratification as - the least of two evils, said in the council: 'I know that - we have before us two abysms; one close by, and the other - a little farther off: that the disapproval of the treaty - carries us to the nearest one, and its approval to the other - somewhat more distant.' His advice was followed. _Perez_, - _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 168. - - [XVI-29] Máximo Jerez, B. Selva, A. Orozco, Rafael Jerez, - Justo Lugo, P. Fonseca, and José Salinas. - - [XVI-30] Rivas was reputed an honorable, firm, and - enlightened man. He had repeatedly been a candidate of the - conservatives for the executive office. - - [XVI-31] To Xatruch he said, 'Nosotros estamos muy mal, muy - mal, muy mal. Acuérdese de sus amigos. Ellos me han dejado - esta pesada carga y espero su socorro.' To Guardiola, Nov. - 1st: 'It is necessary that you write our friends of the peril - we are in, and that they must go actively to work. If there - is a delay of two months, it will then be too late. Think of - us and of your offers.... Nicaragua, Honduras, San Salvador, - and Guatemala will be lost if they allow this to assume - proportions; let them come quickly if they expect to find - auxiliaries.' - - [XVI-32] Benito Lagos, the man to whom they were intrusted - for delivery, took them to Granada and gave them to Valle, - who surrendered them to Walker. - - [XVI-33] Walker had, after adopting precautions against - resistance, made them stack their arms in the plaza, and - disperse. - - [XVI-34] It was a violation of the constitution of 1838, - and of the laws. Corral, as a minister, could not be tried - without a prior impeachment, and only by the senate; and as - a private citizen, by the common courts. - - [XVI-35] Hornsby was president of the court; Fry, auditor or - judge-advocate; French, counsel for the prisoner; and Charles - Thomas, interpreter. - - [XVI-36] He died bravely, Father Vigil attending him to - the scaffold. He was shot by a squad of American riflemen, - commanded by Lieut-col C. H. Gilman. _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. - Am._, 91; _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 171-3; _Stout's - Nic._, 197-8; _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 92-4. - - [XVI-37] As opportunity occurred, they all ran away, some to - the mountains, and others to the neighboring states to work - in saving their country from the ruthless foreign sway. - - [XVI-38] Yankees, so called, were all foreigners, of whatever - nationality, serving with Walker. - - [XVI-39] José Hilario Herdocia, vicario capitular, having - addressed him a congratulatory letter, he answered that 'el - temor de Dios es el fundamento de toda organizacion política - y social.' - - [XVI-40] His contract with Castellon authorized him only to - bring 300 immigrants; but he soon obtained leave to augment - his forces, and to enlist men as best he could. A decree - published Nov. 23, 1855, offered 250 acres of land to each - immigrant, and 100 more to each family. The title deed was to - be issued six months after arrival. Fabens was named director - of colonization. - - [XVI-41] Art. 1st required the return of those sojourning - in the republic within 15 days, and of those who were abroad - within one month. Art. 2d imposed fines ranging from $50 to - $10,000 on such as failed to obey. _El Nicaragüense_, Nov. - 17, 1855. - - [XVI-42] Among them Pres. Estrada, Gen. Martinez, and Col - Fulgencio Vega. - - [XVI-43] Hornsby went to Managua in the early part of - December, and brought him to Granada, where he was treated as - the guest of the nation. - - [XVI-44] Diplomatic correspondence of the Salv. and Hond. - govts Nov. 22 and 28, 1855, in _El Nicaragüense_, Jan. 5, - 1856. - - [XVI-45] 'Aunque sea en un rincon de Honduras.' Estrada well - knew this was illegal; but following the advice, he applied - to Guardiola for permission, and it was refused him. - - [XVI-46] Though the Costa Ricans had a cordon sanitaire to - prevent intercourse with cholera-stricken Nic., Gen. Cañas - received orders to furnish resources to Gen. Florencio - Xatruch, and other officials of the dept of Rivas, who fled - to Costa Rica on hearing of Corral's execution. - - [XVI-47] Bishop Llorente also warned them that their religion - was in peril. - - [XVI-48] Sec. of state Marcy wrote Dec. 21st, in answer to - his communication of the 12th, that the president saw as yet - no reason to hold diplomatic intercourse with the persons - 'who now claim to exercise the political power in the state - of Nicaragua.' He said that the persons chiefly instrumental - in overthrowing the former govt were not citizens of Nic., - 'nor have those citizens, or any considerable part of them, - so far as is now known here, freely expressed their approval - of, or acquiescence in, the present condition of political - affairs in Nicaragua.' - - [XVI-49] Wheeler was told, however, by the foreign minister - of Nic. that though official relations were suspended, the - utmost good feeling existed toward him. _El Nicaragüense_, - Feb. 2, 1856. - - [XVI-50] The assistance would have been given him but for - Walker, 'no mandaban los democráticos, sino Walker.' It was - not for Walker's interest just then to engage in hostilities - against any neighboring power. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d - pt, 21. - - [XVI-51] He exerted himself there in promoting action for the - expulsion of Walker from Cent. Am. - - [XVI-52] His most influential opponent was a small club of - conservatives, the leaders of which were Fernando Guzman, - Agustin Avilés, and Ramon Alegría. Gerónimo Perez was also a - member. _Id._, 23-6. - - [XVI-53] Hermenegildo Zepeda, G. Juarez, and N. Ramirez came - from Leon to Granada to arrange it with Walker, who at once - caused the decree to be issued. This journey brought Ramirez - to his death, resulting from a fall, which broke a leg. He - was an able, enlightened man, and had been chief of Salvador, - and also of Nicaragua in 1849. - - [XVI-54] The govt of Nic. was entitled to a share of the - company's receipts, which it had never succeeded in getting. - Chamorro had taken measures to force the company to pay - their indebtedness, but was precluded by the revolution of - 1854. The company was accused of aiding the revolutionists, - and of having afterward encouraged the importation of the - filibusters who overthrew the legitimist govt. - - [XVI-55] Randolph, W. R. Garrison, and Macdonald had arrived - at Granada from California, Dec. 17, 1855, bringing upwards - of 100 recruits for Walker, contracted for with Crittenden, - his friend and agent. - - [XVI-56] This was done by Rivas, though firmly convinced that - it was tantamount to a sale of Nicaragua. - - [XVI-57] The decrees, orders, and editorial comments thereon, - in the government's organ. _El Nicaragüense_, Feb. 23, 1856; - _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 97-8; _Belly_, _Le Nicaragua_, - 279-80; _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 208-15; _S. F. Bulletin_, - March 22, April 10, 1856; _S. F. Alta_, March 23, 1856; _Sac. - Union_, March 24, April 25, 1856. - - [XVI-58] 'Para que recabe de aquel gabinete una franca - explicacion sobre la política que ha estado observando con - respecto al actual Gobierno de Nicaragua.' _El Nicaragüense_, - Feb. 16, 1856. - - [XVI-59] Joaquin B. Calvo, min. of relations of Costa R., - in his report to congress, Aug. 11, 1856, speaks of that - mission with contempt, 'porque desconocida aquí la mision del - filibustero, se le hizo regresar de la frontera.' _Costa R._, - _Mem. Rel._, 1856, 4. - - [XVI-60] Laws of Feb. 27 and 28, 1856; _Costa R._, _Col. - Ley._, xiv. 7-14, 16; _U. S. Govt Doc._, Cong. 34, Sess. 1, - Sen. Doc., 68, 121, 133-49, vol. xiii. - - [XVI-61] Nominally; the real commander was a German officer - named Baron Bulow. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 34; - _Costa R._, _Pap. Sueltos_, no. 8; _Wells' Walker's Exped._, - 169. - - [XVI-62] Perez, quoted above, 42, gives the 21st. - - [XVI-63] According to Costa Rican reports, only 480 of their - men took part in the action, the enemy's defeat being the - effect of a surprise and a bayonet charge. Their casualties - were set down at 4 officers and 15 soldiers killed. The - filibusters had upwards of 20 slain. Id., 42-5; _Salv._, - _Gaceta_, Apr. 3-24, 1856; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Apr. - 9, 16, 1856. In California the report received was of 90 - killed in the fight and 19 executed. _S. F. Alta_, May 2, - 1856; _Belly_, _Le Nicaragua_, 283; _Wells' Walker's Exped._, - 153-68. - - [XVI-64] As armed invaders not serving under the flag of - any recognized nation. _Costa R._, _Mem. Rel._, 1856, 4; - _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 94. However correct the logic, - it was an imprudent act, as Walker might retaliate on Costa - Rican and other Cent. Am. prisoners. Wheeler, without - instructions from the U. S. govt, took upon himself to - officially say to Mora that the execution of these men was - a cold-blooded murder, assuming at the same time that the - men serving under Walker were citizens of his own country. - _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 170-5. The fact is that only two or - three were natives of the U. S. - - [XVI-65] He was accused of cowardice and even of treachery, - and arrested for trial, but escaping afterward from prison, - was sentenced to death as a deserter. He turned up in - Teustepe, where he was allowed to serve in the legitimist - force. _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 257-8. - - [XVI-66] Commanded respectively by majors Alfaro Ruiz and - Escalante, and Col Salvador Mora. - - [XVI-67] 'Triunfó completamente sobre ellos, - escarmentándolos, y poniéndolos de nuevo en vergonzosa - fuga.' _Costa R._, _Mem. Rel._, 1856, 5. According to - Astaburuaga, _Cent. Am._, 96, the Costa Ricans had 120 - killed, and Walker upwards of 200. Perez, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, - 2d pt, 48, gives the Costa Rican casualties to have been - 150 killed and 300 wounded; and Walker's 60 killed and 70 - wounded. Wells, claiming a glorious victory for his hero - Walker, says that the Costa Rican loss could not have been - less than 600 killed; and that of the wounded and deserters - no precise estimate could be formed. Walker's loss he sets - down at 30 killed and as many wounded. There is no honor or - profit in such mendacity. _Walker's Exped._, 175-88, 245-7; - _S. F. Bulletin_, June 2, 3, 1856; _S. F. Alta_, June 2, - 1856; _Sac. Union_, June 4, 1856. Belly, _Le Nicaragua_, - 283-4, states that though the battle cost the Costa - Ricans 700 men, 'mais qui fit éprouver de telles pertes à - l'envahisseur, qu'à dater de ce moment, il perdit confiance - dans sa destinée.' His letter of April 15th to Senator Weller - of Cal. proved this. - - [XVI-68] Minister Salinas' circular Apr. 15, 1856. _Nic._, - _Boletin Ofic._, Apr. 16, 1856. - - [XVI-69] Perez says: 'Trató con humanidad á los soldados - que le fueron encomendados.' _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, - 49-52. _Jerónimo Perez_, _Memorias para la Historia de la - Revolucion de Nicaragua, y de la guerra nacional contra - los filibusteros, 1854-1857._ Managua, 1865, 8vo, pp. 173, - 21. This first part of this author's work is a historical - account of the civil war in Nicaragua, in the years 1854-5, - during which latter year the filibuster chief, William - Walker, appeared on the scene, taking part with one of the - two parties to the strife, and temporarily destroying the - power of the other. The political and military events of this - period are concisely though vividly depicted, so that the - reader may become fully informed on the mode of carrying on - the war, and on the miserable condition of the country, as - well as bitter animosity exhibited by the opposing parties. - _Memorias para la Historia de la Campaña Nacional contra - el filibusterismo, 1856-1857._ Masaya, 1873, 8vo, i.-iv., - and 216 p., is a sequel or second part to the preceding by - the same author, in which he furnishes a detailed history - of Walker's filibustering schemes and career in Nicaragua - during 1856-7, till his final surrender and removal from the - country; ending with a short account of Walker's two other - attempts to invade Central America. Perez took a part in - the operations against Walker, and later has occupied high - positions in his country. - - [XVII-1] Francisco Ugarte, a legitimist who came with the - Costa Ricans, and remained in concealment. - - [XVII-2] Goicouría was sent to put down a rebellion in - Chontales, and had a number of men executed. _Perez_, _Mem. - Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 55. - - [XVII-3] 1st. To recognize no other govt than Estrada's, - declaring the convention of Oct. 23, 1855, void, and Rivas' - govt null; 2d. To support that govt; 3d. Vest the executive - office in Fernando Guzman till Estrada's return to Nic.; 4th. - Fernando Chamorro recognized as provisional commander of the - forces. - - [XVII-4] Walker discovered in Rivas a letter from the - president to Mora treating of peace negotiations, of which - nothing had been hinted to him. - - [XVII-5] He issued June 4th a proclamation full of affected - love for the Nicaraguans, and especially for the Leonese, - whom he called illustrious sons of liberty and lovers - of progress. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, June 5, 1856; _El - Nicaragüense_, June 14, 1856. - - [XVII-6] It was followed by a change of public opinion in the - U. S. favorable to him, and stopped the official opposition - to the rush of emigrants to Nic. The benefit was, however, - retarded by the combined efforts of the old Transit company's - agents in San Juan del Norte, and of the opposition from - various sources to Walker's plans. - - [XVII-7] During Walker's stay in the city he made several - demands, to which the president refused his assent, which - greatly angered him. It was soon discovered that he had - it planned to dispossess Rivas of the executive office. - Naztmer's act was in obedience to his orders. The native - soldiers were sent away, and the capital was left with a - garrison of 200 foreigners. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Aug. 8, - Oct. 24, 1856. - - [XVII-8] Had it not been for an American resident, Dawson, - they would have been brought back by Dolan, commandant - at Chinandega, who had been ordered with his men to Leon. - _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 71. Gen. Mariano Salazar - and others spread the report that the filibusters intended - to murder the authorities. Salazar fell into Walker's hands - later, taken by De Brissot in the gulf of Fonseca July 28th, - and was shot at Granada Aug. 3d. _El Nicaragüense_, Aug. 9, - 1856; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Aug. 27, 1856; _Sac. Union_, - Sept. 6, 1856. - - [XVII-9] Decree of June 25th. Officers and men of the - foreign phalanx were required to forsake Walker and submit - to the government, when their rank would be recognized, - their arrears of pay made good, and Nicaraguan citizenship - conferred on them. Such as should disobey, whether native - or foreign, were to be dealt with as traitors. Members of - the foreign phalanx wishing to leave the country were to - be, under another decree of the 28th, permitted to do so. - Those who presented themselves with arms and ammunition, - and prevailed on others to do the same, would be rewarded. - Previously, on the 20th, the colonization decree of Nov. 23, - 1855, was suspended. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Aug. 8, 16, - 1856. - - [XVII-10] Walker assumed to act under the clauses of the - convention of Oct. 23, 1855. His decree bears date of June - 20th, and further declares Rivas' acts from the 12th null. - _El Nicaragüense_, June 21, 1856; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, - Aug. 8, 1856. - - [XVII-11] The official organ published the returns showing - this result. _El Nicaragüense_, July 12, 1856. Rivas' - minister in a circular exposed the whole as a 'tejido de - imposturas y supercherías.' _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Aug. 27, - 1856. - - [XVII-12] _S. F. Herald_, Aug. 15, 1856; _S. F. Alta_, Aug. - 15, 1856. - - [XVII-13] Minister Salinas' note of Aug. 12th to the - secretary of state at Washington. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, - Sept. 4, 1856. - - [XVII-14] The other ministers were generals Mateo Pineda and - Manuel Carrascosa. _El Nicaragüense_, July 19, 1856. - - [XVII-15] This action was said to have been suggested to win - the sympathies of the slave-owners in the southern states of - the U. S. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 79. - - [XVII-16] The convention was signed at Guat. July 18, - 1856. The following is a synopsis of the chief clauses: - 1st. Previous treaties of alliance for defence of their - independence and sovereignty were confirmed; 2d. Stipulated - the union of their forces to expel the adventurers; 3d. - Recognized P. Rivas as the head of a de facto govt in Nic., - promising aid and coöperation; 7th. Invited Costa R. to join - the others in the enterprise. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Aug. - 21, Sept. 10, 1856; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 436-9. - - [XVII-17] Shortly afterward they were joined by Gen. Fernando - Chamorro, some barefooted officers and soldiers, and 12 or - 14 Frenchmen. A little later came the Hungarian, Gros, with - 300 Indians. The only arms on hand were 300 muskets with 10 - mule-loads of ammunition. - - [XVII-18] Such was the end of this honorable, enlightened, - and patriotic citizen, who had risen by his virtues, talents, - and learning, from a lowly position to the chief magistracy - of his country. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt., 98-100. - - [XVII-19] The convention was signed Sept. 12, 1856. It - contained among its clauses that the first legislature - installed should convoke the constituent assembly of 1854, or - issue the bases for the election of another; a gen. amnesty - for past political offences; debts contracted or damages - caused by both parties to be held as indebtedness of the - republic. _Id._, 114-17; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Sept. 20, - 1856. - - [XVII-20] Pedro Cardenal, Sebastian Salinas, Nicasio del - Castillo, and Francisco Baca were made ministers of foreign - relations, government, war, and treasury respectively. Jerez - left the cabinet, preferring to serve in the field. - - [XVII-21] His troops retreated after setting fire to the - casa de alto, former residence of the chief magistrates - of Nic. The allied army celebrated in Managua the victory - of San Jacinto, a hacienda, north of the plain of Oscotal, - distant one day's march from Granada. It was only a small - affair in reality—120 riflemen under Byron Cole on one side, - and 160 natives under Col D. Estrada on the other—but it - was important in its effects. Cole was captured and killed, - this being the end of the founder of filibusterism in Nic. - Twenty-seven riflemen were slaughtered; and the Nicaraguans - had 55 killed and wounded. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Sept. 26, - 1856. - - [XVII-22] Troubles between Salvadorans and Nicaraguans were - common. The former fraternized with the democratic Leonese. - The legitimists did the same with the Guatemalans, whose - 2d chief, Zavala, by his language and actions, kept up a - bad feeling, not only with the Salvadorans, but with the - Nicaraguans. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, pref. ii. and - 108. - - [XVII-23] Meantime several fights had taken place between the - allied forces and Walker's. - - [XVII-24] He had also a small and inefficient Cuban company, - and very few, if any, Cent. Americans, aside from his - ministers Pineda and Carrascosa. - - [XVII-25] It has been calculated that from first to last he - lost from 5,000 to 6,000 men by sickness. Several of his - chief officers having died at about the same time, it was - imputed to the natives selling poisoned edibles. A letter - of Feb. 16, 1857, has it that Walker received 4,600 recruits - since June 1855. The author sets down his deserters at 500, - and his dead at no less than 3,600, there being from 1,500 - to 2,000 buried in Granada. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Feb. - 17, 1857; _Hayes' Scraps_, _Angeles_, ii. 255. However, an - official report of P. R. Thompson, Walker's adj.-gen., dated - Feb. 24, 1857, has the following figures, which do not seem - to express the whole truth, as it might have been injudicious - to have the real facts made known. Original number of men - enlisted 2,288, of whom 61 were officers. Totals of death, - 685, of whom 109 were officers; 37 resigned; 206 discharged; - 9 dropped; 293 deserted, including 9 officers; leaving a - total of 733 officers and men, with 141 unaccounted for. - _Stout's Nic._, 209. - - [XVII-26] Four young Nicaraguans, accused in Masaya of - enticing men to desert, were arrested July 30th, and shot in - a few hours as traitors to the republic! _El Nicaragüense_, - Aug. 3, 1856. Turley and 25 others escaped from Granada, and - attempted to reach Blewfields by way of Chontales, where the - natives, not believing them deserters from Walker, killed all - but one or two who escaped. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d - pt, 129; _S. F. Alta_, Oct. 20, 1856. - - [XVII-27] Jerez distinguished himself in the defence, and the - gen.-in-chief of the allies, Ramon Belloso, claimed a victory - in his official report of Oct. 13th, adding that Walker 'huyó - despavoridamente á la oscuridad de la noche,' leaving about - 50 killed, and carrying off 200 wounded. _Nic._, _Boletin - Ofic._, Oct. 17, Nov. 7, 1856. On the other side, the victory - was claimed for Walker. _S. F. Alta_, Oct. 31, 1856; _S. F. - Herald_, Oct. 31. 1856. - - [XVII-28] To look after the arms which had become wet. So - says Perez, adding that Zavala, 'á mas de carecer de juicio, - no conocia el terreno,' and Estrada went entirely by his - directions. _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 131. - - [XVII-29] They became intoxicated, and scattered in the - streets after plunder. They discovered an American merchant, - friendly to the filibusters, and killed him forthwith. - - [XVII-30] On Zavala and Estrada arriving at Diriomo, a young - Cuban named F. A. Lainé, who had been sent by Goicouría to - complete with Walker an arrangement to liberate Cuba, was - brought to them as a prisoner. He was ordered shot. - - [XVII-31] _S. F. Alta_, Nov. 21, 1856; _Hayes' Scraps_, - _Angeles_, ii. 206-7, 222, 232. - - [XVII-32] Salvadorans, 1,300; Guatemalans, 1,500 or more; - Nicaraguans under Martinez, no less than 800. _Perez_, _Mem. - Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 134. - - [XVII-33] The allies discovered his flight early on the - 19th. Several of his men were found asleep, and butchered. - The allied commanders showed lack of generalship. _Perez_, - _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 135-9. About this time the Cent. - Americans experienced a serious blow in the loss of the Costa - Rican schooner _Once de Abril_., which had on board 110 men, - money, and a large supply of arms, ammunition, etc. After a - heavy gale, she encountered the _San José_, alias _Granada_, - and after two hours' fighting, caught fire and was destroyed. - Most of the wrecked men were picked up by the _San José_. _S. - F. Alta_, Dec. 20, 1856; _S. F. Herald_, Dec. 20, 1856; _Sac. - Union_, Dec. 23, 1856. - - [XVII-34] Henningsen had been, it was said, an officer of - the Brit. army, an aide of the Carlist chief Zumalacarregui, - in Spain, and a good democratic writer. His report was as - follows: He had assumed command in the afternoon of Nov. 22, - 1856, and had carried out Walker's orders to destroy Granada, - and leave the place, taking away the stores, artillery, sick, - and the American and native families. Some of the church - jewelry was saved by a priest. Gen. D. Sousa saw a filibuster - urinate into a chalice, and then throw the contents at some - women who were also witnesses of the act. _Perez_, _Mem. - Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, p. ii. 150-1, 161-3; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, - May 2, 1868; _Id._, _Telég. Seten._, March 7, 28, 1857; - _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, Apr. 15, 22, 1857; _S. F. Alta_, Dec. - 20, 1856; _Belly_, _Le Nic._, i. 285-6; _Squier's Cent. Am._, - 372. - - [XVII-35] At 6:30 they had upwards of 40 wounded, and no - surgeons to attend to them. During the night it rained - heavily. - - [XVII-36] During the operations, the Guatemalan generals - Paredes, ex-president, and Joaquin Solares died, the latter - of fever on the 28th of November, and the former of cholera - on the 2d of December. - - [XVII-37] Several deserters from his camp in the plantain - grove of Doña Sabina had made their appearance among the - allies, so completely famished that they could hardly speak. - - [XVII-38] In the southern part of Lake Nicaragua, eight or - nine miles from the coast of Rivas. A large and productive - island having two towns distant 12 miles from one another. - - [XVII-39] Oct. 13, 1855, Walker arrived on the coast of - Granada. Dec. 13, 1856, he left these shores never to see - them again. In the small fort, known as El Fuertecito, his - men left a pole with an inscription as a record that Granada - had existed there. - - [XVII-40] Xatruch was not credited with much ability; but he - was patriotic and brave, and to his exertions was measurably - due the coöperation of Hond. for the campaign. - - [XVII-41] This expedition was promoted by Cornelius - Vanderbilt, president of the Accessory Transit Co., through - his agent Webster, as appeared in a letter from the commander - of the Brit. naval force to the American consul. It was - carried out, with the assistance of Spencer, an Am. engineer, - who had been in the service of the company and was a pilot - on the San Juan. The steamers thus taken were the _Wheeler_, - _Morgan_, _Machuca_, and _Bulwer_. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. - Nac._, 2d pt, 176-9; _Nic._, _Telég. Seten._, Feb. 28, 1857; - _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 100-1; _S. F. Herald_, Jan. - 31, 1857; _S. F. Alta_, Jan. 31, 1857. Official reports and - Mora's proclamation in _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Jan. 9, 13, - 1857. - - [XVII-42] This is recognized with shame in the _Telég. - Seten._, June 6, 1857. Meantime Mora had, on the 10th of - Dec., tendered Walker's officers and soldiers a free passage - to San Juan del Norte and New York; and the govt at Leon had, - on the 22d, annulled the acts of the administration from Nov. - 4, 1855, to June 12, 1856, with a few exceptions. A decree - to close the transit between the two oceans was also issued. - _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Dec. 29, 1856; Jan. 9, 23, 1857. - - [XVII-43] Two assaults in force, one by Henningsen with 600 - men, and another by Walker himself with 450, failed. Another - was made on the Castillo Viejo, defended by Cauty, met with - the same result, though the assailants took the steamboat - _Scott_, and Cauty had to destroy the _Machuca_. Mora's rept, - Feb. 24, 1857, in _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 184-94. - - [XVII-44] This selection was unfavorably received by the - government, and was accorded but a temporary recognition - till the allied governments should press their wishes. _Id._, - 182-4; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Feb. 18, 1857. - - [XVII-45] The following appointments were also made: Cañas, - 2d in command; Zavala, adj.-gen.; Xatruch, inspector-gen.; - Chamorro, quartermaster-gen. - - [XVII-46] The casualties were 60 killed and 100 wounded. - The survivors returned to Punta de Castilla, refusing to go - on. Lockridge accused them of cowardice, and took away their - arms. But the men claimed the protection of the British naval - commander. Cauty went down in a steamer to the bay April - 12th, and after conferring with the Brit. officer, occupied - Punta de Castilla, securing the war material. He then - tendered the men a passage to the U. S. at the expense of - Costa R. This was the end of the famous Lockridge expedition. - _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt; _Nic._, _Telég. Seten._, - April 11, 1857; _S. F. Herald_, April 21, May 16, 1857; _S. - F. Bulletin_, April 21, 1857; _S. F. Alta_, May 16, 1857; - _Pan. El Centinela_, April 22, 1857; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, - April 29, 1857. - - [XVII-47] Upwards of 300 killed, wounded, and missing. - - [XVII-48] He did so, even though he agreed with Xatruch, - Martinez, and Chamorro that the capitulation should not - be accepted unless Walker pledged himself not to commit - hostilities in future against any of the allied states. He - also wished to be away before the arrival, then expected, of - Gen. Barrios with large reënforcements of Guatemalans and - Salvadorans, who would doubtless claim the glory of ending - the war. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 209. - - [XVII-49] The terms agreed upon between Walker and Davis - were: 1st. Walker and the 16 officers of his staff were - to leave Rivas with side-arms, pistols, horses, and other - personal effects, under Davis' guaranty that they should not - be molested by the enemy, but allowed to embark on the _Saint - Mary's_ at San Juan del Sur, whence she should convey them to - Panamá; 2d. The other officers of Walker's army would leave - Rivas, with their arms, under the same guaranty, and be sent - by Davis to Panamá in charge of an officer of the U. S.; 3d. - The rank and file, citizens and officials, both the wounded - and well, were to surrender their arms to Davis on a vessel - apart from the deserters, so that there should be no contact - between the former and the latter; 4th. Davis pledged himself - to obtain for Central Americans then in Rivas permission to - remain in their country with protection of life, liberty, and - property; 5th. The officers should be allowed to remain at - San Juan del Sur, under the protection of the U. S. consul, - until an opportunity offered to leave for Panamá or San - Francisco. The instrument bears also the signatures of C. - F. Henningsen, P. Waters, J. W. Taylor, and P. R. Thompson. - _Id._, 210-12; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, May 6, 17, 28, 1857; - _Id._, _Telég. Seten._, May 9, 16, 23, 1857; _Sac. Union_, - June 16-18, 1857; _S. F. Alta_, June 17, 18, July 1, 2, 1857; - _S. F. Herald_, June 16, 1857; _Belly_, _Le Nic._, i. 287; - _Pineda de Mont_, _Notas_, in _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, ii. - 350, 745-6; _Democ. Rev._, July 1857, 117-23; _Astaburuaga_, - _Cent. Am._, 102-3. _Francisco S. Astaburuaga_, _Repúblicas - de Centro-América, ó Idea de su Historia y de su Estado - actual._ Santiago (Chile), 1857, 8vo, map, dedic., and 116 - pp. The author of this work held a diplomatic mission from - Chile to Costa Rica, and being desirous of furnishing his - countrymen some information on Central America, prepared his - material, originally for the _Revista de Ciencias y Letras_ - of Santiago; succinctly giving the physical peculiarities, - agriculture, commerce, and other resources of the country, - together with a sufficiently instructive sketch of the - history of Central America in general, as well as of each - state comprised in that term, in readable form. At the - end is added his official correspondence with the several - governments of Central America on the projected union of the - Spanish American republics. - - [XVII-50] The official correspondence between Mora and the - govt of Nic. shows the high appreciation given by the latter - to the service rendered by Davis. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, - May 6, 1857. - - [XVII-51] A full account of the affair was published in the - government's organ. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, May 28, 1857. - - [XVII-52] He had furnished war material to both parties, - and tendered Costa Rica's aid to Martinez. His own words at - embarking expressed the Machiavellian plot: 'Esta república - estará pronto en guerra; dejo las navajas amarradas á los - gallos.' Cañas disapproved in toto of those plans. _Perez_, - _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 212-13. - - [XVII-53] Pres. Martinez of Nic. pronounced it a 'guerra - injusta y traidora.' _Nic._, _Discurso ... Inaug._, 1. - - [XVII-54] Full particulars on this war and the terms of - peace, in _Costa R._, _Informe Rel._, 1858, 2-3; _Id._, - _Expos. Mot. del Cambio_, 36-7; _Nic._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, - 1857-8, 10-12, 30-1, 135-6; _Nic._, _Manif. Disc. Inaug._, - no. 5, 3; _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 92; _Ayon_, _Consid. - Límites_, 30-2. Perez, while reverting to Costa Rica's - plan to rob Nic. of the River San Juan, and a portion of - the lake, mentions what Nic. had to suffer from the allied - forces during the war. 'Cuantas exigencias, cuantos insultos, - cuantas cosas teniamos que sufrir.' The allies appropriated - as booty Nicaraguan movable property that was taken from the - filibusters. _Mem. Camp. Nac._, _2d pt Carta_ (Pref.), p. ii. - - [XVII-55] The official documents connected with the affair - clearly prove that the U. S. govt was desirous of maintaining - an honorable position before the world. _U. S. Govt Doc._, - Cong. 35, Sess. 1, vol. vii., H. Ex. Doc., no. 24, 1-82, - no. 26, 1; _Id._, Id., H. Jour., 165-73, 1302, 1368; _Id._, - Cong. 35, Sess. 1, vol. i., Sen. Ex. Doc., no. 13; _Id._, - Id., vol. xiii., Sen. Doc., no. 63; _Id._, Cong. 35, Sess. - 2, vol. vii., no. 10; _Cong. Globe_, 1857-8, 1858-9, Index - 'Cent. Am.,' 'Paulding,' 'Walker,' 'Neutrality Laws,' - 'Clayton-Bulwer Treaty,' etc.; _Stout's Nic._, 211-21; - _Belly_, _Le Nic._, i. 294-7; _S. F. Bulletin_, Dec. 29, - 1857; _S. F. Alta_, Jan. 14, 1858; _Sac. Union_, Feb. 3, - 1858. - - [XVII-56] To Paulding were voted thanks, a sword of honor, - and 20 caballerías of land. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Aug. 2, - 1862; _Id._, _Leyes Emit._, 1830, 3-5; _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, - i. 217-20; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xv. 3; _Id._, _Informe - Rel._, 1858, 1-2. - - [XVII-57] His ultimate destination was Nicaragua, whose - government hastened preparations for the defence of her - territory, as well as to aid Hond. in the event of her - needing assistance. _Nic._, _Mem. Gobern._, 1861, 9; _Id._, - _Mensaje del Presid._, Jan. 16, 1861. - - [XVII-58] He received the consolation of religion from a - catholic priest, having joined that faith to become president - of Nic. His remains were buried in Trujillo. Among his - effects was found the seal of Nicaragua, which with his sword - the government of Hond. transmitted to that of the former. - _La Union de Nic._, Jan. 12, Sept. 28, 1861; _Nic._, _Informe - Gobern._, no. ii. 7-9; _El Nacional_, Sept. 8-0ct. 27, 1860; - _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 215-16; _Belly_, _Le - Nic._, i. 382; _Eco_, _Hisp.-Am._, Sept. 15-Nov. 15, 1860; - _Diario de Avisos_, Oct. 4, 1860; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, - 49-50; _Harper's Mag._, xxi. 693, 836; _S. F. Bulletin_, - Sept. 3, 8, 17, 19, Oct. 3, 29, Nov. 12, 1860. - - [XVII-59] The members were: Vicario capitular, J. H. - Herdocia, J. de la Rocha, H. Zepeda, Gregorio Juarez, and - G. Lacayo; substitutes, J. Baca, F. Diaz Zapata, and Joaquin - Perez. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Jan. 23, 1857. - - [XVII-60] The legitimists claimed it to be for the public - weal, whereas the democrats thought it would damage them. - _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 170-6. - - [XVII-61] But for arbitrary measures, on the 12th of June, - the state would have divided into two parts, each following - its own bent, even to incorporation with other states, which - would have been the death of the republic. _Nic._, _Mensaje - del Poder Ejec._, 1857, 2-3. - - [XVII-62] _Nic._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, 1857, 135-8. - - [XVII-63] In the decree of convocation the members of the - executive and the ministers were made ineligible for seats in - that body. - - [XVII-64] Only two electoral votes were not cast for him. - The constituent assembly, which had been installed Nov. - 8th, declared him to have been the people's choice. _Nic._, - _Gaceta_, Apr. 18, 1863. - - [XVII-65] _Discurso Inaug._, 3. Tomás Martinez was a native - of Leon, and had been engaged in trade and mining without - taking part in the political agitations of his native - place until the revolution of 1854, which did not meet his - approval. It is believed that his reserve had made him an - object of suspicion on the part of the democrats, which - circumstance forced him to seek a refuge in the ranks of the - conservatives, and to embrace, much against his liking, the - military profession. Martinez was a lineal descendant of an - heroic woman, Rafael Mora, who in 1780 distinguished herself - in the defence of San Juan del Norte against Nelson's attack. - He was in 1857 about 45 years old, tall of stature, and of - reserved deportment. Self-instructed, plain, and unambitious - of popularity, he cared not for honors or display, and - abhorred sycophancy. He never used more words than were - necessary to express his thoughts, and his whole aim, after - he entered public life, was to serve his country. Moreover, - he possessed a kindly disposition, and in his family - relations was affectionate. - - [XVII-66] During the war with Costa Rica he commanded the - forces in the field; meantime the executive office was - in charge of Deputy Agustin Avilés. He resumed the latter - Jan. 25, 1858. In the course of his term he several times - provisionally surrendered the office into the charge of - others, on account of illness. _Nic._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, - 1858, 3-7, 32; 1859, ii. 136, 137; 1860, iii. 71, 83-4, 177. - - [XVII-67] The several portfolios were also for more or less - time in charge of Pedro Zeledon, J. de la Rocha, Eduardo - Castillo, Gerónimo Perez, Miguel Cárdenas, Nicasio del - Castillo, and H. Zepeda. - - [XVII-68] A number of decrees acknowledging the indebtedness - appear in _Nic._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, 1859, ii. 132-54. - - [XVII-69] The catholic religion was placed under state - protection. The government was constituted in three branches; - namely, executive, legislative, and judicial. The executive - authority was vested in a president for four years, without - reëlection for the next term. In his absence or inability, - the office was to go into the hands of the senator called by - congress to fill it. The president was to be a native and - resident of Nic., 30 years of age or upwards, not having - lost the rights of citizenship within five years of the - election, and possessing real estate valued at no less than - $4,000. The legislative power was to consist of a senate - and house of deputies. The senators' term was to be of six - years; they were to be at least 30 years old, and to possess - no less than $2,000 in real estate, one third of their - number to be renewed every two years. The deputies were to - be upwards of 25 years old, and hold for four years, one - half their number being renewed every two years. The natives - of the other Central American states were eligible to the - senate or house, after a residence in Nic. of ten or five - years respectively. No churchman could be chosen president, - senator, or deputy. The justices of the supreme court had to - be lawyers of recognized ability and integrity. They were - to hold office four years, the members being renewed every - two years. The court was divided into two sections with - at least four justices each. The constitution recognized - liberty of thought, speech, writing, and the press; also the - rights of property and emigration. Torture in any form, cruel - punishments, confiscation of property, invasion of private - domicile, and establishment of special courts were strictly - forbidden. It was promulgated Sept. 15, 1858. _Rocha_, _Cód. - Legis. Nic._, i. 25-42; _Lévy_, _Nic._, 309-27; _El Porvenir - de Nic._, Feb. 11, 1872; _Nic._, _Mem. Gobern. y Guerra_, - 1859, 3. The bishop and his chapter took the oath to obey it - on the 15th of Apr., 1861. _La Union de Nic._, May 11, 1861. - - [XVII-70] Because its acts tended to the organization of - the country. But on the 25th of June, 1858, the government - of José M. Estrada was also exempted from that annulment. - _Rocha_, _Cód. Legis. Nic._, i. 82, 89-90. - - [XVII-71] He was appointed minister plenipotentiary, first - in Costa Rica, next in Washington, and was empowered to - negotiate a treaty with the Spanish minister at the latter - place. _Nic._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, 1857-8, 117, 243, ii. 21. - - [XVII-72] Presid. Barrios of Salv. complained of the plots - carried on against him in Nic. by refugees, and made demands, - such as their being denied the use of the press, to which - the Nic. govt could not accede. _Nic._, _Mens. del Presid._, - in _La Union de Nic._, Jan. 19, 1861; _Id._, _Mem. Rel._, in - _Id._, March 2, 1861. - - [XVII-73] 'Ningun Nicaragüense preso, ni confinado, - ni expulso por causas políticas; todos son libres, sin - restriccion alguna.' _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 24, 1863. - - [XVII-74] Official corresp. in _Id._, Feb. 7, 1863. - - [XVII-75] Treaty of amity, defensive alliance, commerce, - etc., duly ratified. _Id._, April 18, 1863. - - [XVII-76] Jerez, Fernando Chamorro, and J. D. Estrada, for - taking part against their government, were degraded to the - ranks. _Id._, May 23, 30, 1863. - - [XVII-77] Congress, Feb. 14, 1863, approved all his - administrative acts to date. It had been represented to the - people that Martinez, notwithstanding the clause in the - constitution forbidding reëlection, could be reëlected, - because the powers he had exercised in the past years - had come to him, not under the constitution which was of - subsequent date, but from the convocation decree of Aug. - 26, 1857, and his choice was approved by the constituent - assembly. - - [XVII-78] _Nic._, _Decretos_, 1867-8, pt ii. 10-11; _Rocha_, - _Cód. Leg. Nic._, i. 220. The cong. of Salv. voted him - a sword of honor for aiding to defeat Barrios and the - federalists. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, June 17, 24, 1865. - - [XVII-79] During his second term the following persons - acted as his ministers: E. Castillo, B. Selva, B. Salinas, - B. Portocarrero, R. Alegría, R. Cortés, P. Zeledon, J. F. - Aguilar, J. J. Lescano, and Antonio Silva. _Nic._, _Semanal - Nic._, April 24, 1873. - - [XVII-80] 'Quedan fuera de la amnistía todos aquellos que - como autores principales.' _Nic._, _Gaceta_, April 29, May - 28, 1864. - - [XVII-81] Congress had not only approved his acts, but gave - him two votes of thanks, March 11, 1865, and Jan. 19, 1867. - _Nic._, _Gaceta_, March 18, 1865; _Id._, _Dec. Legisl._, - 1865-6, 21-2; 1867-8, 5. - - [XVII-82] By 433 electoral votes against 139 cast for Juan - B. Sacasa; necessary for a choice, 285. _Id._, Oct. 27, - 1866; _Id._, _Decretos_, 1867-8, pt ii. 4-5; _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Feb. 19, 1867. - - [XVII-83] Decrees of Jan. 22 and Feb. 28, 1867. _Nic._, _Dec. - Legisl._, 1867, 10-11, 25-6. - - [XVII-84] 'Por estar en oposicion con las atribuciones del - Poder Ejecutivo.' Decree of Jan. 20, 1868. _Id._, 1868, 3. - - [XVII-85] _Nic._, _Gaceta_, March 15, 1873; _Id._, _Semanal - Nic._, March 27, 1873. - - [XVIII-1] Oct. 22d. _Album Semanal_, Sept. 26, 1856; _Costa - R._, _Col. Ley._, xiv. 41-2, 51-2. - - [XVIII-2] The other ministers were Joaquin B. Calvo, of - government and eccles. affairs; and Rafael G. Escalante, of - treasury and war. - - [XVIII-3] Dec. 11, 1856. _Costa R._, _Mem. Gobern._, 1857, - 2-3. - - [XVIII-4] In 1854 the pope bestowed on him the honor of - Knight grand cross of the order of Gregory the Great, and the - Costa Rican congress authorized him to accept it. _Costa R._, - _Col. Ley._, xiii. 28; xiv. 147-9. - - [XVIII-5] Dec. 29, 1857, a medal was voted. Again, Feb. - 26, 1858, a cross of honor was decreed to the generals and - field-officers. _Id._, 207; xv. 3. - - [XVIII-6] Escalante had been vice-president since Oct. 1857, - and at the present time was temporarily in charge of the - executive office. _Id._, xvi. 30-1. - - [XVIII-7] Political grievances and private animosities were - brought into action for his overthrow. He was accused of - intending to keep himself in power for life, like Carrera - in Guatemala, as was evidenced by his second reëlection, - which violated both the spirit and letter of the national - institutions; of his having imposed the weight of his own - will on the financial department, the judiciary, and even - the legislature, with the view of setting up the rule of one - family over the ruins of republican liberty; of his having - usurped the property and labor of others for his own benefit. - Even the organization of an army, and his campaign against - Walker, were made to appear as intended to improve his own - pecuniary interests, which were said to be in a very bad - state. The charge of assumption of dictatorial powers does - not seem to be sustained by facts. The opposition journal, - the _Album Semanal_, freely published strong articles against - his administration. Pamphlets filled with vituperation, - and traducing his character, circulated without hindrance; - one of the publications called him the tzar of Costa Rica. - This opposition was fanned by the hatred of persons who had - private grudges against Mora. Among them Vicente Aguilar, - his former partner, who had been made to disgorge $100,000 or - more, of which he had wrongfully deprived Mora. Capitalists - were hostile because the president had chartered a bank. The - sale of a tract of public land near San José, upon which many - persons had settled, was made the subject for much trouble. - The exile of the bishop did not fail to have a powerful - influence. Bishop Llorente had refused to pay, or to allow - his clergy to pay, an equitable tax decreed by congress Sept. - 29, 1858, for the support of hospitals. He not only refused - compliance, but incited the populace to revolt. For this - he was expelled. He was, however, after Mora's overthrow, - recalled by the provisional government, and ruled the diocese - till his death, which took place Sept. 23, 1871. _Costa - R._, _Mem. Interior_, 1859, 9; 1860, 4; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, - xvi. 87-8; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 7, 1871; _El National_, - Jan. 15, 1859; _Belly_, _Le Nicaragua_, i. 379-81. One of - the publications which came out after Mora's downfall, not - only charged him with abuse of power, peculation, and almost - every conceivable offence, but of his having brought himself - into political prominence by intrigue, and by treachery - to Morazan, and to his relations and friends, who, it was - asserted, had been ruined by him. This publication is dated - San José, April 2, 1860, but is anonymous. _Costa R._, - _Expos. ... Motivos ... Cambio Polít._, 37 pp. and 1 I. - - [XVIII-8] The provisional administration claimed that the - revolution had not merely changed the personnel, but also - the principles on which the government was based, the people - demanding greater freedom with clearly defined rights and - duties, and a more extended suffrage. _Costa R._, _Mem. - Interior_, 1860, 4; 1863, 2. - - [XVIII-9] The govt was divided into three - branches—legislative, executive, and judicial—each - independent of the others. The legislative was vested - in a congress of two chambers, the senate and house of - representatives, and was to meet once a year in ordinary - session, and also to hold extraordinary sessions when - called for specified purposes. The senate was composed of - two senators for each province; the house was composed of - deputies chosen by the provinces in the ratio of population. - The term of the members of both houses was fixed at four - years. The executive authority was vested in a president for - three years, without reëlection for the immediate following - term. He had a council of state to deliberate upon such - affairs as the executive referred to it for advice. The - judiciary consisted of a supreme court, and such other lower - courts as might be established by law. None but a native - citizen, in full possession of his civil and political - rights, could be president, or member of the supreme court. - Churchmen were ineligible. _Costa R._, _Constituc. Polít._, - 1-35; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, xvi. 110-45. - - [XVIII-10] First designado, Francisco Montealegre; second, - Vicente Aguilar. _Id._, xvi. 169-71. - - [XVIII-11] In January, Prudencio Blanco and others attempted - a revolution in Guanacaste, now called Moracia, and failed. - A decree of outlawry was issued against them Jan. 20, 1860, - and their property was made amenable for the government's - expenses. Another insurrection took place in Esparza with - the same result, the govt issuing a decree of similar - nature Sept. 16th, and on the 18th another, suspending the - constitution. This last decree was revoked March 18, 1861. - _Id._, xvi. 153-4, 188, 218-21; xvii. 9. - - [XVIII-12] This place had been heavily intrenched, and a - battery mounted in it, which was protected on both flanks by - armed boats in the estuary, etc. - - [XVIII-13] _Belly_, _Le Nic._, i. 382; _El Nacional_, Oct. - 13, 27, Nov. 10, 1860; _Eco Hisp.-Am._, Oct. 31, 1860; _S. - F. Bulletin_, Oct. 24, 25, 29, Nov. 14, 27, 1860; _S. F. - Herald_, Oct. 29, 1860; _Harper's Monthly Mag._, xxii. 113; - _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatémala_, 59-60. - - [XVIII-14] The _Gaceta Oficial_, evidently inspired - by President Martinez, forgot past grievances, only to - bear in mind affectionately the promoter of the holy war - for independence. In fact, Mora was in the eyes of both - foreigners and natives the personification of Central - American patriotism. - - [XVIII-15] It will be remembered that Cañas served with - distinction in the war against Walker. - - [XVIII-16] Apr. 29, 1860. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xvi. - 172-3; xvii. 87. A more gen. one was decreed May 1, 1862. - - [XVIII-17] During this administration national industries - were developed, and the country became more prosperous than - ever. _Belly_, _Le Nic._, i. 383-6. - - [XVIII-18] May 1, 1863. Men of all parties voted for him. - _Costa R._, _Mem. Min. Interior_, 1863, 1; _Id._, _Col. - Ley._, xviii. 15-16. - - [XVIII-19] Congress afterward decreed that Montealegre's - portrait should be placed in the office of the president. - _Belly_, _Le Nic._, i. 386-7; _Costa R._, _Informe Min. - Interior_, 1864, 4; _Id._, _Discurso, Dr J. M. Montealegre_, - 1863, 1. - - [XVIII-20] _Costa R._, _Programa Admin._, 1863, 1. Jimenez - adopted the high-handed measure of dissolving congress. In - a proclamation to the people he stated that a majority of - the members had established a systematic opposition to his - government, and usurped all power in direct violation of the - constitution. _Id._, _Prod. del Presid._, Aug. 1, 1863. - - [XVIII-21] Ending May 8, 1869. _Id._, _Col. Ley._, 1876, - 111-12; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 17, Apr. 21, May 26, 1866. - Castro in his inaugural address used these words: 'Quiero - que mi patria, ya que no pueda ser temida por su fuerza, sea - considerada por su justificacion y cordura.... No tenemos - escuadras; tengamos la simpatía de las naciones.' _Costa R._, - _Discurso Inaug., Presid. J. M. Castro_, 1-3. - - [XVIII-22] May 15, 1866. They were 2 for each department, - making together 16, besides the ministers. _Costa R._, _Col. - Rey._, 1866, 114-16. - - [XVIII-23] _Nic._, _Gaceta_, May 25, 1867. - - [XVIII-24] Castro's enemies averred that his course was - very mysterious, and some even suspected an intention on - his part to retain power in his hands, though he supported - the candidacy of his minister, Julian Volio. They said that - the barracks assumed a menacing attitude, and Castro was - on the point of decreeing several military promotions of - members of his own family, and concentrating all the forces - of the republic in and about his own residence. It came to - be believed that he intended to nullify Salazar first, and - Blanco next. But the former had in his favor most of the - wealthy families, as well as a large support in Alajuela, - Heredia, and Cartago. To make the story short, Salazar and - Blanco concluded to act together. _El Quincenal Josefino_, - no. 32, in _Star and Herald_, Dec. 24, 26, 1868. The editor - of this publication was Lorenzo Montúfar. Whatever may be - asserted against Castro, he had proved himself a liberal, - enlightened, and upright ruler. His administration had - given conclusive proof that the president valued liberty - of the press and speech as necessary to the existence of a - republican government. The country had been enjoying those - privileges, and prospering as it had never done before. _U. - S. Minister J. B. Blair, to Sec. Fish_, June 23, 1873. - - [XVIII-25] The troops and people seemed to acquiesce in - the new order of things. There was no bloodshed. Castro was - left perfectly free in his own house. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Nov. - 28, Dec. 5, 1868; Jan. 23, March 20, 1869; _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Nov. 17, 1868; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xvii. 202-9; - _U. S. Mess. and Doc._ (Dept of State, pt ii.), p. xii.; - _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 60-2. - - [XVIII-26] Art. 5th, after declaring the Roman catholic - religion to be that of the state, recognizes toleration of - other forms of worship; 6th, makes primary education of both - sexes obligatory, free, and to be provided by the nation, - placing it under the direction of the municipal authorities; - 17th, declares the military subordinate to the civil - authority, strictly passive, and forbidden to deliberate on - political affairs; 72d, grants eligibility for the position - of deputy to naturalized citizens after four years' residence - from the date of the certificate of naturalization. _Costa - R._, _Col. Ley._, 1869, 24-59. Art 31st recognized freedom - of the press, and yet it was considerably modified by a press - law issued by the provisional govt. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, May 8, - 1839. - - [XVIII-27] _Costa R._, _Informe Gobern._, etc., 1869, 12-15, - 26-7; _Id._, _Informe Hac., Rel._ etc., 1869, 1-2. J. M. - Montealegre had been the other candidate. _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Dec. 19, 1868. - - [XVIII-28] May 29, 1869. The action of the courts was - restored May 31st. But the president had now unrestricted - powers. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, 1869, 94-5, 100-1, 103. - _Nic._, _Gaceta_, June 19, 1869. - - [XVIII-29] Those men drove to the barracks in an ox cart, - covered by grass, and dashed in. It looks as if there must - have been connivance on the part of the guard. Biscoubi had - been, it is understood, invited to join the movement, but - refused to lend himself. - - [XVIII-30] Among the charges contemplated were that they - had appropriated large sums out of the public treasury for - personal purposes, and that upwards of $20,000 had been given - Eusebio Figueroa to go on a trip of pleasure to Europe. - - [XVIII-31] The ministers were then placed under bonds. _Id._, - June 18, July 9, 1870. - - [XVIII-32] April 29, 1870, Tomás Guardia was promoted to gen. - of division, and Victor Guardia to gen. of brigade. The two - Quirozes and Próspero Fernandez were made colonels. Other - officers also rose in rank. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xix. - 41-4, 50-1. - - [XVIII-33] This person was a captain early in 1856, and went - as Gen. Cañas' aide-de-camp to the Nic. campaign against - Walker. On his return he was made a maj. As comandante of - Alajuela he revolted against Presid. Castro Nov. 1, 1868. We - have seen how he came to be made a general of division. - - [XVIII-34] Guat. had several times attempted interference in - Costa Rican affairs, insisting on the suppression of liberty - of the press, and on other violations of law, all of which - had been refused. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 27, 1870. - - [XVIII-35] Report, Aug. 22, 1870, by Minister Lorenzo - Montúfar to the national constituent assembly. _Costa R._, - _Mem. Rel._, 1870, 1. - - [XVIII-36] His ministers who countersigned that decree were - B. Carazo, Pedro García, Lorenzo Montúfar, and in the absence - of J. Lizano, sec. of the treasury, Salvador Gonzalez as - under-secretary. García and Carazo were made brigadiers. - García resigned Oct. 28th, and was succeeded by José Antonio - Pinto. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xix. 124-6, 150. - - [XVIII-37] Vicente Herrera, Aniceto Esquivel, Jesus Salazar, - Cárlos Sancho, and Rafael Barroeta. _Id._, 127-31. - - [XVIII-38] For supposed revolutionary schemes. It was even - alleged that there was a plot to murder Guardia. _Costa R._, - _Gac. Ofic._, May 12, 1871; _Nic._, _Gac._, May 27, June 3, - 1871. - - [XVIII-39] Excluding the president, his ministers, and the - bishop from being electors. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xx. - 118-22. - - [XVIII-40] The legislative consisted of a chamber of - deputies chosen for four years. During recess it was to - be represented near the executive by a comision permanente - of five deputies. All citizens able to read and write, and - possessing property to the value of $500, or an occupation - yielding $200 a year, could be chosen deputies, excepting - the president, his ministers, members of the supreme court, - and governors. Deputies could accept no offices except - ministerial or diplomatic, and then they must resign the - elections. The executive was vested in a president for four - years, who must be a native, thirty years and upwards, and - could not be reëlected for the next immediate term. He was - allowed a council of state, composed of his ministers, the - members of the comision permanente, and others that he might - invite to join the deliberations. The judicial authority was - vested in a supreme court, whose members must be natives of - the country, and such other courts as might be established - by law. _Id._, xx. 171-206; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Jan. 14, - 1872; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 13, 1872. - - [XVIII-41] Guardia went to Europe, where he was treated with - marked consideration. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xxi. 48-51; - xxii. 6. During his absence there was no harmony between the - acting president and the chief of the forces, Victor Guardia, - nor between the latter and the commandant of artillery. - _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Oct. 17, 1872. - - [XVIII-42] Guardia was accused of affording aid to the - supporters of retrogression against the liberal governments - existing in those states; and of openly permitting an - expedition to sail on the _Sherman_ to commit hostilities - against the other Cent. Am. states. _El Porvenir de Nic._, - Aug. 10, 1873; _Aguirre_, _Recortes de un Periód._, 5-6. - Circular of Nic. Foreign Min., Sept. 5, 1876, in _Salv._, - _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct. 26, 1876. - - [XVIII-43] As an open infringement of previous conventions, - international law, and Costa Rica's rights. _U. S. Gov. - Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 43, Sess. 2, i. 113, 116. - - [XVIII-44] A. H. Rivas, foreign minister of Nic., Nov. 11th, - in doing so, added that they were guarding their interests - against Costa Rica's insidious projects, in gathering large - quantities of war material to favor disgruntled Nicaraguans, - which his govt well knew, though not officially. _Nic._, - _Gaceta_, Nov. 15, 1873; _Id._, _Informe Min. Delgadillo_, - 1-14; _Nic._, _Mem. Gobern._, 1875, 6-7. - - [XVIII-45] _Nic._, _Gaceta_, App., Dec. 3, 1873; _Nic._, - _Semanal Nic._, Nov. 29, 1873. - - [XVIII-46] It passed a decree on the 29th of November to - check all violations of neutrality, and in a note to the - other governments expressed itself in terms of conciliation, - tantamount to a withdrawal of the circular of Oct. 24th. - _Id._, suppl., Dec. 2, 13, 1873; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Dec. - 11 1873; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Dec. 11, 1873. - - [XVIII-47] As stated in his organ, _El Costaricense_, no. 17, - suppl. - - [XVIII-48] A number of persons who had promoted the new - policy, particularly some members of the cabinet, for their - credulity and good intentions became the victims of Guardia's - wrath, and were banished from their homes. Gonzalez had been - let down easy, as having declined to continue in charge of - the executive. _Costa R._, _Pap. Sueltos_, nos. 11, 12; - _Id._, _Col. Ley._, xxii. 194, 197, 200; 1874, 34-5, 53; - _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Dec. 20, 1873; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Dec. - 11, 20, 1873. - - [XVIII-49] He resumed control of the govt Nov. 4-5, 1875. - _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xxiii. 75-6, 275. - - [XVIII-50] _Costa R._, _Pap. Sueltos_, nos. 13, 14; _Id._, - _Informe Gobern._, 1875, app. 16-21; _Nic._, _Correspond. - sobre Recl._, 3-17; _Nic._, _Mens. Presid._, 1875, 5-6. - - [XVIII-51] _El Costaricense_, March 24th, said that the - mission of Jerez was from Barrios, president of Guat., to - Guardia. The _Quincenal Josefino_, March 26th, gave it as - a certainty that Nic. would propose the withdrawal of both - forces from the frontier as a conciliatory measure. The - whole trouble arose from the boundary dispute. _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Apr. 4, 1876. - - [XVIII-52] _Costa R._, _Mensaje_, 1876, 2; _Id._, _Col. - Ley._, xxiv. 24-5. - - [XVIII-53] He assumed the office on the 8th, and formed his - cabinet with Juan R. Mata, S. Lizano, M. Carazo Peralta, and - B. Morales. _Id._, 36-8; _Id._, _Discurso ... Presid._, 1876, - 1-4; _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, May 22, 1876. - - [XVIII-54] He had been declared a benemérito, and given - a vote of thanks. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xxiv. 62. - Guardia's administration during the past six years was - highly extolled in the _Gaceta Oficial_ of San José. It - said that his surrender of power proved the falsity of the - charge that he had intended holding it for life. We shall - see how much this statement was worth. It claimed for him - that he had at all times blended leniency with firmness, - which facts fail to establish. He was equally credited with - increasing the revenues by his successful measures to repress - smuggling; with protecting industry and labor; endeavoring - to provide the country with a railroad between the two - oceans; improving the morale of the country; spreading public - education; promoting political and commercial relations - with other countries; forwarding public works; and lastly, - vigorously defending Costa Rica's rights against Nicaragua's - pretensions. _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, May 22, 1876. On the - other hand, we are told that Costa Rica's revenues were - squandered in keeping 2,000 men on the frontier as a menace - to Nicaragua. _Pan. Star and Herald_, June 1, 1876. Guardia - has been justly called a tyrant, because of his arbitrary - acts and violations of the constitution. Electoral and - parliamentary freedom, under his rule, was a farce; results - at elections being what his will dictated, and congress - being mostly made up of his immediate friends and a number of - puppets. There were some honorable exceptions, like that of - Zacarías García, who, for acting as a real representative of - the people, was imprisoned without protest on the part of his - colleagues. The independence of the three powers, personal - rights, freedom of the press, and other constitutional - guaranties, were repeatedly trampled upon by Guardia, by his - favorite, Pedro Quiroz, and by other satellites. Justices - of the supreme court and numerous other prominent citizens - were either imprisoned, banished, or mulcted in heavy sums - of money, without any form of trial having preceded. José - M. Castro, chief justice, and Salvador Jimenez, justice of - the supreme court, were by Guardia's autocratic command - made to live for a time on the Pacific coast. Even his - brother, Victor Guardia, was harshly treated for showing an - independent spirit; and his brother-in-law, Leon Fernandez, - was several months kept in irons for some mysterious offence - that was never brought to trial, and afterward transferred - to a horrible dungeon in Limon, where he was cruelly - treated until he succeeded in effecting his escape. Other - infringements of the laws are also mentioned, and not a few - cases of brutality, even the use of the lash on respectable - citizens, which Guardia and his myrmidons were challenged - to contradict to the face of Costa Ricans. _Aguirre, J. M._, - _Recortes ... Corresp. Hist. Polít._, 1-21. This is a letter - dated and published at Panamá May 1, 1876, and addressed to - Francisco Chavez C., editor of _El Costaricense_, Guardia's - press organ, whom he handles without gloves for his defence - of Guardia's acts and abuse of Guardia's opponents. The - writer had been one of the victims of both, and was evidently - well posted on the history of Guardia's rule. Making - allowance for exaggeration in some instances, the conclusion - to be arrived at is that Guardia acted like an autocrat who - would brook no opposition. It does not appear, however, that - he was sanguinary. - - [XVIII-55] The people took no part. It was a result of - the abuse by the salaried press of the government, of the - violation of pledges, and the tacit authorization of crimes - against good and loyal servants of the country. _Salv._, - _Gac. Ofic._, Aug. 20, 1876. Nepotism was also probably a - cause. Esquivel's min. of pub. works, and the superintendent - of the railroad were brothers-in-law of his. Incompetency, - mismanagement, and waste were said to prevail. _Pan. Star - and Herald_, June 1, Aug. 18, 1876. The government of Nic. - attributed Esquivel's downfall mainly to his friendly policy - toward her, which did not suit Guardia. Circular of Nic. - Foreign Min., Sept. 5, 1875, in _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct - 26, 1876. - - [XVIII-56] He represented himself as free from political - animosities, and promised to maintain order, and to push the - work of the railroad. He created a council of state of five - members, one of whom was Víctor Guardia. _El Costaricense_, - Aug. 4, 10, 1876; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xxiv. 145. - - [XVIII-57] Because her govt had refused him recognition. - _Costa R._, _Informe Rel._, 1877, 1-3. Guardia had been - appointed plenipotentiary to Guat. and Salv. He visited Guat. - first, and arrived at San Salvador Aug. 3d. In presenting - his credentials he said that he had been instructed to pave - the way for the fusion of the positive interests of Cent. Am. - The real object of his mission seems, however, to have been - to enlist the two governments in his projects of war against - Nic. Both failed him. _Salv._, _Gac. Ofic._, Aug. 5, 15, - Dec. 7, 1876; Feb. 25, 1877; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. 17, - 1877; _Nic._, _Mem. Rel._, 1879, p. iii.-iv. 23-5. Relations - with Nic. were not restored till June 30, 1878. _Costa R._, - _Col. Ley._, xxiv. 168-9; xxv. 97-8. - - [XVIII-58] Almost his first act was to dismiss from the - educational establishments the able teachers who had been - brought out at great expense, replacing them with jesuits. - For this act he was rewarded with an autograph letter from - the pope. He removed the competent foreigners from the - management of the railroad on the plea of economy, employing - in their places inefficient, because inexperienced, natives; - the result being deterioration of rolling stock, and general - mismanagement. He forbade cutting rubber on the waste lands, - and imposed a duty of 3 cents per ℔. He tried to force Great - Britain to recall one of her consular agents. _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Jan. 20, 1877. - - [XVIII-59] He pretended to temporarily do so on the plea of - ill health. - - [XVIII-60] He chose Pedro Quiróz and Rafael Barroeta his - substitutes. _Costa R._, _Informe Gobern._, 1878, 2. - - [XVIII-61] Appointing members of the supreme court, enacting - laws, and discharging the functions of a consultive council. - _Id._, 1878, 1-2; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Sept. 25, Oct. 11, - 1878. - - [XVIII-62] Promulgated the 18th by Guardia. _Costa R._, _Col. - Ley._, xxv. 186-7, 210-11, 217-19, 228-30; _Id._, _Col. Disp. - Legis._, 1878, 16-17. - - [XVIII-63] Decree of Dec. 19, 1877. _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. - Doc., 45th Cong., 3d Sess., i. 76-9. Relations with Hond. - were also interrupted in 1878. _Costa R._, _Informe Min. - Rel._, 1879, 2; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, xxv. 237. - - [XVIII-64] _Costa R._, _Col. Disp. Legis._, 1878, 19-20, - 25-6; _Id._, _Procl._, Jan. 24, 1878; _Id._, _Informe - Gobern._, 1878, 2-3; _Id._, _Inf. Guerra y Marina_, 1878, 2. - - [XVIII-65] Finally Mora was forbidden by the Nicaraguan - government to reside within the eastern and southern - departments. _Nic._, _Mem. Rel._, 1879, p. iv. - - [XVIII-66] Sept. 12, 1878. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Oct. 11, - 1878. - - [XVIII-67] _Costa R._, _Instal. Asamblea Legis._, 1880, 7 f. - - [XVIII-68] Abolition of capital punishment adopted; also - the following clauses: laws to have no retroactive effect; - all persons, not convicted of crime, were free, and to have - the privilege of entering and leaving the republic; right - of congregating unarmed to discuss public affairs, and - the conduct of officials, of petitioning individually or - collectively, and of expressing political opinions, together - with freedom of the press fully recognized. _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Oct. 16, 1880. - - [XVIII-69] Free expressions of opinion were an open road to - persecution. _Id._, Nov. 6, 1880. - - [XVIII-70] _Costa R._, _Honores Fún._, 1882, 1-59; _Pan. Star - and Herald_, July 20, 1882. - - [XVIII-71] Fernandez was born in San José July 18, 1834. - He received a portion of his education in Guat., and at 18 - years of age entered the Costa Rican army. In 1854 he was a - sub-lieutenant, and in 1856 served in Nic. against Walker. In - 1860 he fought against the invaders under Ex-presid. Mora at - Angostura. In 1870 he was one of the few men that captured - the artillery barracks, thereby causing the overthrow of - Presid. Jimenez. During Guardia's rule he held several - positions of trust and rose to gen. of division. His wife was - named Cristina Guardia. _Costa R._, _Boletin Ofic._, March - 14, 1885; _Id._, _Gaceta_, April 30, 1885. - - [XVIII-72] Aug. 11, 1882, a gen. amnesty for political - offences to date was decreed. - - [XVIII-73] A sort of compromise was agreed to; a few - officials were removed, and the _Quincenal Josefino_, - Montúfar's journal, ceased publication. _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Feb. 24, 1883. - - [XVIII-74] They were embarked the 19th at Limon; and the - fact was telegraphed the same day to the other Cent. Am. - governments by Sec. of State Castro. _El Guatemalteco_, July - 30, 1884; _Costa R._, _Informe Rel._, 1885, 17, 89-91; _Pan. - Star and Herald_, Sept. 18, 1885. - - [XVIII-75] July 19th, cemeteries were secularized. July 22d, - religious orders were suppressed. All these executive decrees - were countersigned by Minister Bernardo Soto, who later - became president. _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, June 9, 1885. - - [XVIII-76] The federation plan had been opposed in 1883 - by Costa Rica refusing to accredit delegates. _Costa R._, - _Gaceta_, Feb. 3, 1885; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. - 48, Sess. 1, pt 1, 54. - - [XVIII-77] _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, March 9-12, 1885. - - [XVIII-78] Further honors to his memory at a later date. Aug. - 3, 1885, it was ordered that his bust should be placed in the - public square of San José. _Id._, March 13, 14, Aug. 5, 1885; - _La Estrella de Pan._, March 28, 1885; _El Universal_ (Pan.), - March 17, 1885; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 23, Sept. 9, - 1885. - - [XVIII-79] Soto is a native of Alajuela, Feb. 12, 1854; his - parents being Gen. Apolinar de J. Soto, and Joaquin Alfaro. - He was educated in Costa Rica, and in 1877 was admitted - to the bar, and practised the legal profession till 1880, - when he travelled in the U. S. On his return he was made - governor of the province of Alajuela, in which position he - exerted himself for the advancement of the province. He did - not complete his term, having to make a visit to Europe. On - his return in April 1882, he was again appointed governor - of Alajuela, and in August of the same year the executive - called him to fill a position in his cabinet as minister - of government, police, and public works. Apr. 19, 1885, he - married Pacífica, a daughter of Ex-president Fernandez; and - May 15th, congress declared him a benemérito, and gen. of - division. _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, May 16, June 9, 1885. - - [XVIII-80] The first named was given the portfolio of foreign - affairs. _Id._, March 13, 14, 1885. - - [XVIII-81] Circular of March 17, 1885. It also explained - the motives prompting Costa R., Salv., and Nic. to resist - Barrios' projects. _Id._, _Manif. del Gob._, 1885-6. Costa - R. sent a contingent of troops to Nic., Hond., and Salv. Her - troops, however, had no opportunity to fight. Presid. Soto - tendered his resignation on the 5th of June, but it was not - accepted, and extraordinary powers were conferred on him for - sixty days. _Id._, _Gaceta_, May 22, 23, June 6, 1885. - - [XVIII-82] He was also deprived of his political rights, 'por - el delito de conspiracion para rebelion, cometido en servicio - activo de las armas.' _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 27, 1885. - - [XIX-1] In 1829, when convents were closed in Guat., he - had to leave the cloister, and afterward obtained a papal - dispensation from his vows. He then studied law, and received - the degree of licentiate in 1836. - - [XIX-2] Slowness and procrastination ruled supreme. A citizen - of Salvador said of Dueñas to describe his policy: 'El mejor - caballo para Dueñas es el que no anda.' - - [XIX-3] In Jan. 1866 he married a wealthy widow, who had been - educated in the U. S. That same year the university conferred - on him the degree of doctor of laws. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Feb. - 3, March 3, 1866. - - [XIX-4] The Hondurans claimed on the strength of art. 8th - of the treaty concluded at Santa Rosa on the 25th of March, - 1862, the concentration in the interior of Salvador of Gen. - Florencio Xatruch, the priest Miguel Bustillo, and José - Manuel Selva, Hondurans; and also of certain Nicaraguans, - who after their rebellion against the government of Fernando - Guzman in their own country, had found a refuge in Salvador, - and made common cause with the enemies of President Medina, - because he had supported Guzman with the moral and diplomatic - influence of his government. The Salvadoran negotiator denied - that Xatruch was a political refugee. He was sent by Nic. - in 1863 to Salv. at the head of an auxiliary force. Later - with Nicaragua's permission he was employed by Salv., he - being since 1858 a general of division of her army, a rank - conferred on him for his services against Walker and his - filibusters; and was therefore entitled to all the rights of - a Salvadoran citizen. Salv. pledged, however, that he would - do no hostile act against Hond. As to adopting any action - against the Nicaraguans, the demand could not be acceded - to, because they did not come under the provisions of the - treaty with Honduras, nor were they political refugees at - all. The commissioner of Salv. made counter-charges: 1st. - Hond. had violated art. 9 of the treaty of Santa Rosa, in - that her legislature had empowered the executive to declare - war against Salv. without first complying with the terms - of that clause. 2d. She had allowed asylum to Salvadoran - refugees, giving them employment on the frontier of Salv., - where they had been constantly plotting and uttering menaces - against their govt, using arms obtained from Honduran govt - warehouses. All remonstrances against such proceedings - had been disregarded. 3d. Hond., heeding false reports, - had raised 1,500 men, keeping a portion on the Salv. - frontier, and maintaining a warlike attitude. The Honduran - commissioners denied the correctness of the charges, and - quoted instances in which their government had given proofs - of deference and friendship toward its neighbor. _Salv._, - _Protocolo de las Conf._, 1-16. - - [XIX-5] Nic. had mediated on behalf of peace, accrediting H. - Zepeda and M. Montealegre as commissioners at Amapala. But - an affair of arms at Pasaquina frustrated the efforts of the - legation. Circular of Nic. Foreign Min., Sept. 5, 1876, in - _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct. 26, 1876. - - [XIX-6] The oligarchs pretended contempt for Medina's action; - some said, 'Medina es un loco, y Honduras un esqueleto;' - others, 'La quijotesca actitud de Honduras afianzará mas - nuestro poder.' _Uriarte_, _Observ. ... Union Rep. Cent. - Am._, 3. - - [XIX-7] It was said that Medina was enticed into assisting - the liberals, under the delusion that they would call him to - rule over the united states of Guat., Salv. and Hond. - - [XIX-8] San Salvador, the capital, had been several days - fortified awaiting an assault, but the invaders, not knowing - how much force there might be at hand for its defence, - preferred to march on to Santa Ana. - - [XIX-9] _Hond._, _Boletin Ofic._, no. 2, contains the - official report of the action, copied in _Nic._, _Gaceta_, - March 13, 1871. - - [XIX-10] A guard was kept around the minister's house as long - as Dueñas was his guest. - - [XIX-11] He was kept there, treated with respect and - consideration till after his trial. The particulars of his - surrender appear in the official correspondence of Min. - Torbert with both his own and the Salvadoran governments. _U. - S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 42, Sess. 2, i. 693-5. - - [XIX-12] There was no reason to keep him a prisoner. He could - no longer injure Medina, and moreover, the government took - into account his valuable services to Cent. Am. in 1856-7 - against Walker. _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatémala_, 197-8. - - [XIX-13] The process was accordingly passed to the cámara de - 2d instancia. _El Porvenir de Nic._, June 2, 1872. - - [XIX-14] The revolution was declared one for the restoration - of the people's rights, Gonzalez being recognized as - provisional president. His recall of the supreme court was - approved of. - - [XIX-15] Freedom to meet peaceably for the discussion of - public affairs and the conduct of the rulers; freedom - of speech and of the press were fully recognized and - established, as also the inviolability of life, personal - liberty, property, and honor, which no man could be - deprived of except for cause after undergoing a fair - trial. A citizen's domicile and private papers were also - declared inviolable. Primary instruction was to be uniform, - gratuitous, and obligatory. Secondary and superior education - were to be free, though subject to the supervision of the - civil authorities. Passports were abolished. The Roman - catholic was declared to be the state religion, but other - christian sects not repugnant to morality and good order - were tolerated. Foreigners could become naturalized after - two years' residence, and Spanish Americans after one year. - All Salvadorans of 21 years or upwards, and of good moral - character, were citizens, provided they had either one of the - following qualifications: being father of a family, or head - of a household; knowing how to read and write; possessing an - independent livelihood. Those of only 18 years of age having - a literary degree were also voters. The military in active - service could neither vote nor be voted for. The government - was vested in three distinct powers: legislative, composed - of a senate, renewable yearly by thirds, each senator owning - at least $2,000 in real estate, and a house of deputies, the - whole renewed yearly; the executive, vested in a president - owning at least $10,000 in real estate, his term being - for only two years; and the judiciary, consisting of the - supreme and lower courts. No ecclesiastic was eligible. - The president, vice-president, and members of both houses - of congress were to be chosen by electoral colleges. - _Laferrière_, _De Paris á Guatémala_, 199-202; _El Porvenir - de Nic._, Nov. 26, 1871; Jan. 7, 1872; _Ruiz_, _Calend. - Salv._, 70. - - [XIX-16] Full Sp. text in _Laferrière_, _De Paris á - Guatémala_, 343-82; _U. S. Govt Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. - 43, Sess. 1, For. Rel., ii. 788-94, 811-20; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, - Nov. 30, 1872; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Nov. 28, 1872. - - [XIX-17] Salvador's acceptance of the war declared by - Hond. March 25th was signed by President Gonzalez, and - countersigned by his cabinet; namely, Gregorio Arbizú, min. - of foreign rel.; Manuel Mendez, min. of pub. instruction; - Borja Bustamante, min. of the treasury and war; and Antonio - G. Valdés, acting min. of govt. _El Porvenir de Nic._, May - 12, 1872. - - [XIX-18] A plot was to break out simultaneously in San - Salvador, San Vicente, Sensuntepeque and Cojutepeque, with - ramifications in Guatemala. The Indians of Cojutepeque rose - against the garrison and were beaten off. - - [XIX-19] The report was dated Oct. 4th, and signed by the - ministers, G. Arbizú, J. J. Samayoa, and Fabio Castillo. The - legislative sanction was given Oct. 14th. Report of Thomas - Biddle, Am. minister, in _U. S. Govt Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., For. - Rel., Cong. 43, Sess. 1, ii. 784-7. - - [XIX-20] Mendez held also the position of minister of public - instruction, justice, and ecclesiastical affairs. He was - an honorable, energetic, and talented man, and his loss - was much deplored by the country, and particularly by Pres. - Gonzalez. _U. S. Govt Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 42, Sess. 3, - i. 547-8. The republic also lost this year, Dec. 10th, one - of her most gifted and valuable sons, Gregorio Arbizú, who - had likewise been vice-president, and for many years minister - of foreign relations. His funeral was conducted and the - expenses defrayed by the government, as a mark of respect and - appreciation of his services. _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Dec. - 26, 1872. - - [XIX-21] He was captured in Jan. 1875, and shot on the 29th - of Apr. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Jan. 20, May 1, 1875. - - [XIX-22] Such was the flattering account given by the - government to the national congress, on the opening of its - labors Jan. 18th. _Salv._, _Mensaje del Presid._, Jan. 20. - 1875; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Rel. Exter._, 1875, 1-12; _Id._, - _Diario Ofic._, Jan. 20, 1875. - - [XIX-23] Under a decree of amnesty of Nov. 2, 1875. _Salv._, - _Diario Ofic._, Nov. 4, 1875. - - [XIX-24] The governments of Guat., Nic., and Hond. tendered - aid. The rebels were eventually pardoned after some months' - imprisonment. _Pan. Star and Herald_, July 6, 28, 1875; - _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, June 23 to July 21, 1875. - - [XIX-25] This intervention was apparently on the ground - of humanity, to stop the civil war raging there. But the - main reason recognized was that the situation in Hond. was - a menace to Salv., and might lead to an interruption of - friendly relations between the latter and Guat. Salv., on - being accused of violating the compact, alleged that by - strict rights it had become obsolete after the action of - Naranjo, when Leiva's administration demolished its foes and - recovered its full authority. However, Salv. was disposed - to fulfil her agreement. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, March 23, - 1876. - - [XIX-26] These decrees were countersigned by the other - ministers, J. Barberena, F. Lainfiesta, and Joaquin Macal. - _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, 202-6; _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Apr. 17, 1876. - - [XIX-27] It denies all the charges of Barrios and his govt as - unfounded in fact and slanderous, and imputes to Barrios the - intent to conquer Cent. Am., beginning with Salv. and Hond. - This decree is countersigned by the ministers Manuel Cáceres, - Dositeo Fiallos, Julian Escoto, and Cárlos Bonilla. _Salv._, - _Diario Ofic._, March 29, 1876; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. - 8, 1876. - - [XIX-28] Uraga acted under orders, and wonders why the - Salvadorans did not fall upon Chingo and capture all the - supplies there. _Réplica_, 12-16. - - [XIX-29] The victors did not occupy Apaneca because the - enemy, though defeated, was still much superior in numbers. - The Salvadoran general-in-chief claimed a victory over 2,500 - well-disciplined Guatemalans. The _Diario Ofic._ of San - Salv., Apr. 18, 1876, had it that 4,000 Guatemalans were - put hors de combat in the two fights of Apaneca—evidently an - exaggeration. - - [XIX-30] The Salvadoran army of the east was annihilated. - Gen. Delgado, and colonels Henriquez and Jerez were killed, - Gen. Figueroa and Col Benj. Molina wounded. A large number - of prisoners, about 1,500 Remington rifles, and much other - war material fell into the victors' hands. _El Guatemalteco_, - Apr. 25, 1876; _Pan. Star and Herald_, May 1, 2, 1876. - According to a Salvadoran account, the eastern expeditionary - force consisted of 1,500, while that of Solares was of - 2,500. The former claimed a victory on the 17th, confessing, - however, that they had finally to retreat. _Salv._, _Diario - Ofic._, Apr. 19, 23, 25, 1876. - - [XIX-31] He had thrown into it 900 bombs without other result - than destroying a few buildings. _Un Guatemalteco_, _Cartas_, - 26; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Apr. 21, 1876. Gen. Gonzalez - told a different story. - - [XIX-32] Gonzalez said that during the negotiations there - were 2,300 men in Ahuachapan and 2,000 in Santa Ana; of - the latter only one half were well armed. The Guatemalans - had every advantage—numbers, arms, discipline, and abundant - resources of every kind. They had but few desertions, whereas - from the Salv. ranks there had been many. Barrios' army on - entering Santa Ana exceeded 9,000 men. Salv. still had a - chance of obtaining honorable terms. If these were refused, - she could, after providing for the defense of the capital, - concentrate the remainder of her forces in Santa Ana, and - trust to the chances of a battle. _Gonzalez_, _Rel. de los - Hechos Ocurr._, 1-18, in _Pap. Var._, ccxxvii. no. 14. - - [XIX-33] The commissioners were José Valle, Jacinto - Castellanos, and E. Mejía for Salv., and Gen. Lopez Uraga for - Guat. The terms are here epitomized: 1st. Presid. Valle was - to resign the executive office to the person hereafter named. - 2d. Gen. Gonzalez to give up the command of the forces to - Valle. Both were to have full guaranties for their persons - and property. 3d. The Salv. forces now at Santa Ana were - to retire to San Salv.; Santa Ana to be evacuated by 12 M. - of the 27th inst. War material that could not be removed in - time was to be delivered to Uraga under inventory. 4th. Santa - Ana, and territory within two leagues of the town, were to - be occupied by the Guatemalans, the civil authorities being - allowed to exercise their functions therein, but expected to - furnish supplies; Barrios guaranteeing security of persons - and property to the inhabitants. The Guat. forces in the east - were to occupy San Miguel, and territory within one league, - under the same guaranties allowed the civil authorities and - people of Santa Ana. 5th. Presid. Valle was to convoke a - junta of notables, within four days from the ratification of - this convention, to meet at Santa Ana, and choose in accord - with Barrios the person in whose hands Valle must resign his - offices. 6th. The acting executive must, within ten days, - convoke the people of Salv. to freely choose, a month later, - the president of the republic. 7th. The person designated by - the notables shall have organized his government and issued - the convocation, the forces of Guat. will leave the Salv. - territory. 8th. Barrios and the provisional executive of - Salv. will make a treaty of peace between the two republics. - 9th. This convention must be ratified by Barrios at once, - and by telegram within twenty-four hours by Valle, the - ratifications to be exchanged within six hours after. An - additional article made free the transit between the two - countries. The convention was duly ratified. Upwards of 200 - persons at Santa Ana sent Barrios, after the occupation of - the town by his troops, April 30th, an address of thanks for - his magnanimity and generosity, adding that no Salvadoran - could justly complain of the behavior of the Guat. army. - _Guat._, _Boletin de Noticias_, no. 8; _Barrios_, _Mensaje_, - Sept. 11, 1876, 7-11; _Salv._, _Diario, Ofic._, May 4, 7, - 1876; _Id._, _Gaceta Ofic._, May 26, 30, 1876; _Costa R._, - _Informe Sec. Rel._, 1876, 11-12; _Pan. Star and Herald_, May - 16, 1876. - - [XIX-34] Cruz Ulloa, min. of foreign relations, justice, - eccles. affairs, and pub. instruction; José Lopez, of - govern.; Estanislao Perez, of war; and Fabio Moran, of - treasury. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, May 6, 1876. - - [XIX-35] By Cruz Ulloa and Marco Aurelio Soto. The treaty - provided also for the surrender of common criminals, the - concentration away from the frontier of political refugees; - fostering legitimate and checking illicit trade; excluding - Jesuits. In the event of misunderstandings, the parties must - resort to arbitration. The treaty of Jan. 24, 1872, and the - Rivas-Carazo with Nic., were repealed. Honduras and Costa - Rica were to be invited to join it. _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, - May 11, 1876; _La Regeneracion_, May 16, 1876; _Salv._, - _Diario Ofic._, April 1, 1879; _Pan. Star and Herald_, June - 1, 1876. - - [XIX-36] _Costa R._, _Pap. Sueltos_, no. 17. Gen. Indalecio - Miranda, who had been proclaimed president in some parts, - recognized Zaldívar. - - [XIX-37] A native of Salv., he studied medicine in Cent. - Am. and completed his professional studies in Paris. On his - return home he soon had a remunerative practice, and came - to be considered one of the best physicians in Cent. Am. - His professional duties did not, however, keep him out of - politics. - - [XIX-38] He effected his escape from the capital disguised as - an Indian with a load of grass on his head. - - [XIX-39] In Feb. 1879 congress thanked the emperor of Germany - for the honor of knighthood conferred on Zaldívar. In France - he was given the title of officer of pub. instruction. The - same month and year congress gave him a vote of thanks for - his services. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, March 6, 8, 1879. - - [XIX-40] He therefore saw good reason to tender - congratulations to the representatives of the people on - the promising condition of Salvador and the other Cent. Am. - republics. _Zaldívar_, _Mensaje_, Jan. 5, 1883; _Pan. Star - and Herald_, Jan. 17, 1883; _Pan. El Cronista_, Jan. 20, - 1883. - - [XIX-41] Among the persons taken as leaders of the movement - were Gen. Francisco Menendez, Dr Manuel Gallardo, Marcial - Estevez, and Manuel A. Loucel. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Apr. - 16, 17, 1883; _Pan. Star and Herald_, May 5, 7, 1883. - - [XIX-42] June 1st. This decree caused much satisfaction among - all classes. - - [XIX-43] The grounds for the convocation as stated were - that the people had almost unanimously declared that some of - the clauses of the constitution of 1880 were not suited to - the national requirements. The _Diario Oficial_ expressed - the hope that the revision would give a more judicious - application of the principles of a republican government, - thus strengthening the public liberties without weakening the - principle of authority. - - [XIX-44] The govt was vested in three distinct powers: - legislative in two chambers; executive in a president for - four years; and judicial in a supreme court. - - [XIX-45] He constituted his cabinet with the following - ministers: Salvador Gallegos, of foreign affairs; Domingo - Lopez, interior; Pedro Melendez, treasury and navy; Asun. - Mora, war and public works; Luciano Hernandez, education; and - Antonio J. Castro, justice. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Rel. Exter._, - 1884, p. 6; _Costa R._, _Mem. Sec. Rel. Exter._, 1884, 5-6; - _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. 16, Feb. 23, 26, 1884. - - [XIX-46] He visited the U. S. and France, being received with - the honors due his rank as chief magistrate of a friendly - nation. _La Estrella de Pan._, Aug. 14, Sept. 11, 1884; _El - Guatemalteco_, Apr. 29, 1884. - - [XIX-47] Proclamations and manifestoes of Pres. Zaldívar and - the assembly of Salv., March 14, 15, 17, 1885. _Costa R._, - _Boletin Ofic._, March 21, April 1, 1885; _La Estrella de - Pan._, March 28, 1885. - - [XIX-48] The Salv. official reports claimed victories at Coco - and San Lorenzo. The attack against the latter was made at 10 - P. M. of the 31st, and repulsed. Repeated the next day from - 5 A. M. to 3 P. M.; the assailants were driven back by Gen. - Monterosa. _Costa R._, _Boletin Ofic._, April 2, 1885. - - [XIX-49] According to a Guat. account, an error was committed - in not bombarding the Salv. stronghold, Casa Blanca. Barrios - at 8 A. M. of the 2d led the assault on the N. E. side of - the fortification with the Jiron brigade of Jalapas, which - on that day behaved cowardly. Shortly after the assault, a - little past 9, Barrios was mortally wounded, and forthwith - removed. The Jalapas gave way, divulging to other troops - the death of the president. Thus it came to pass that the - first who saw Barrios fall were the first to take to flight, - followed by men of several other brigades. To avert a - disaster, the troops operating on the N. side were recalled. - The firing ceased on both sides at 4:30, and the retreat to - the Magdalena began at 6:30, the Salvadorans not pursuing. - The same authority claimed that if the firing had been kept - up an hour longer, the Guatemalans would have won the day, - several bodies of troops having abandoned the town, and the - supply of ammunition in the place being already scanty. He - asserts that the Guat. loss in all the fights was in killed, - besides the president, and his son Gen. Venancio Barrios, - colonels A. Jiron, V. Bonilla Cruz, Urbano Sanchez, Major - Gonzalez, a few other officers, and 200 rank and file. - _Campaña de la Union Cent. Am._, in _La Estrella de Pan._, - May 30, 1885. - - [XIX-50] Further details may be seen in _Zaldívar_, - _Mensaje_, May 4, 1885; _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Rel. - Exter._, 1885, 1-4; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, Apr. 5, 1885; - _La Estrella de Pan._, Apr. 4, May 2, 9, 1885; _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Apr. 10, 24, 27, 1885; _S. F. Cronista_, Apr. 4, 11, - 15, 25, May 2, 1885; _Mex._, _Diario Ofic._, Apr. 4, 1885; - _Id._, _Monitor Rel._, June 20, 1885; _Id._, _La Prensa_, - supl. no. 162. - - [XIX-51] The gov. of Salv. proclaimed peace on the 15th of - April, and granted a full amnesty to all who took part in - the war against Salv., and generally to all in exile for - political offences. - - [XIX-52] Though the gov. had made common cause with Barrios, - it manifested a disposition to cut loose from the alliance - after the late events. - - [XIX-53] _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, May 19, June 24, 1885. - Zaldívar well knew that there was a powerful opposition to - him. - - [XIX-54] Menendez was a man of energy and courage. He - possessed good common sense and natural shrewdness. His - habits were simple. Polite and unassuming, he always made a - favorable impression. - - [XIX-55] _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, July 1, 1885; _Pan. Star and - Herald_, July 18, 1885; _La Estrella de Pan._, July 25, 1885. - - [XIX-56] Nov. 26 and 27, 1885. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Sept. - 9, Dec. 7, 1885. This state of things still existed in March - 1886. Correspondence of March 1st, to _S. F. Post_, April 2, - 1886. - - [XIX-57] The supreme court would not recognize the right of - the Salv. courts to demand it. _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 1, - 1885; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Sept. 18, 1885. - - [XX-1] A general officer then filling the position of civil - and military chief of the department of Chiquimula. It has - been said that Carrera, shortly before his death, suggested - him for the succession. The conservative element claimed - that for his abilities and meritorious services Cerna had - won himself popular regard. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, May 20, 1865. - Events will show that his mental calibre was very ordinary, - being a religious fanatic, and retrogressionist of the old - oligarchic school of the Aycinenas, Pavons, and Batres. He - was a warm friend and constant associate of the jesuits, to - whom he went to confession, if reports did not belie him, - about once a week; so he must have had a tender conscience, - or else was a confirmed sinner. - - [XX-2] 'Su probidad, rectas intenciones, inteligencia, - y larga práctica de los negocios merecen la estimacion - y confianza de todos los buenos guatemaltecos.' _Guat._, - _Boletin de Noticias_, no. 3. - - [XX-3] It is understood that his father, a peaceable citizen - of Los Altos, for some unguarded words against the govt, was - taken as a prisoner to the capital, and cruelly treated. - The son then had gone off to Chiapas, whence he had made - occasional raids. - - [XX-4] The govt deprived Cruz of his rank as a mariscal de - campo, suspended constitutional guaranties, such as they - were, and declared traitors all persons implicated in the - rebellion, or holding relations with the insurgents. On - the 5th of Feb. troops were despatched to the disturbed - districts. _Pan. Mercantile Chronicle_, March 3, 1867. - - [XX-5] One of his plans was to destroy the rum-stills - belonging to a monopoly, from which the treasury derived a - large revenue. The cry of Down with the aguardiente company! - raised by any popular man would bring him stanch followers. - Carrera himself had used it in his early days. - - [XX-6] He had signed a pledge not to return to Guat. without - leave of the govt, and neither directly nor indirectly to - disturb the public peace. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 27, May 25, - 1867; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 20, 1867; _Pan. Mercantile - Chronicle_, May 22, 1867. - - [XX-7] Cruz and some of his officers were executed; others - were sentenced to ten years' confinement in San Felipe - castle. J. Rufino Barrios escaped, and his hacienda, El - Malacate, being partly in Guat. and partly in Soconusco, - an active pursuit of him was not easy. _Guat._, _Boletin de - Noticias_, Aug. 16, 1867; _Pan. Merc. Chronicle_, Sept. 4, - 18, Oct. 4, 1867. Barrios made another raid from his hacienda - in Apr. 1838, which also failed in effecting his purpose. - _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 29, 1868; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, May 23, - 1868. - - [XX-8] May 8th, suspended certain clauses of the - constitution. The decree alleged that Cruz had been - inveigling the Indians of Los Altos 'con promesas peligrosas - de distribucion de tierras.' Cruz was declared amenable - to the laws for his seditious acts of 1867 as well as for - the present ones. All others concerned with him were made - indictable for treason, if after the public. of the decree - they did not surrender. Passports had to be obtained to - travel. _Guat._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Apr. 9, 1869; _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Apr. 17, 1869; _Salv._, _Constitutional_, May 20, - 1869. - - [XX-9] The distillery was destroyed as a matter of course. - - [XX-10] The official report added that the insurgents left 24 - dead and 16 prisoners; and that it was rumored Cruz had been - shot in the heart. - - [XX-11] _Nic._, _Gaceta_, June 12, 19, Aug. 7, Sept. 18, Dec. - 18, 1869; _Pan. Star and Herald_, June 17, Sept. 17, 1869; - _Guat._, _Boletin de Noticias_, Nov. 24, 1869. - - [XX-12] Zavala was accused by the conservatives of political - inconsistency, in that he had all along claimed to be a - supporter of Cerna. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Feb. 2, 1869. - - [XX-13] The vote stood 31 for Cerna, 21 for Zavala, 5 - scattered. Not a bad showing for the liberals, if we consider - that the electors had been chosen under the influence of the - oligarchic government. _Id._, Feb. 23, June 17, 1869. - - [XX-14] In his message to congress Nov. 25th, Cerna - acknowledged that the country was in a sad plight. He called - his account 'un cuadro desconsolador,' and requested a - postponement of the session. - - [XX-15] The govt had raised a loan in London, and for a - few months was able to tide over many of its difficulties, - internal debts, and arrears due the army and officials being - settled, and the treasury still having a surplus. - - [XX-16] The government had supposed him in a distant - department fleeing from its troops, when he quietly slipped - into Palencia, a town distant 8 or 9 miles from Guatemala, - in the night of Saturday. Feeling certain that the govt - was ignorant of his whereabouts, and confident that the - people of Palencia were friendly, he failed to adopt proper - precautions, and even had high mass chanted for his troops - in the small hours of the morning. But it so happened that - the authorities of Guatemala received late in the night - information of his arrival, and of the number of his men. - An overwhelming force of Santa Rosa Indians, devoted to - Cerna and hostile to Cruz' Indians, was despatched under - command of Brig. Solares, who surrounded Cruz and attacked - him before he had begun to prepare for his own attack of the - capital. He made a desperate fight of two hours, however, - behind the adobe walls of a corral, but it availed naught. - His only chance of escape was in flight. A rush carried - him and his remaining men to the edge of a ravine, and he - had gone down half of the steep descent when a ball struck - him in the thigh and broke it. No quarter was asked or - given. He was slain while fiercely fighting to the last. - His fleeing men were relentlessly pursued for several days, - and such as were not killed in the ravines were captured - and executed. _Peatfield's Glimpse at a Cent. Am. Rep._, in - _Overland Monthly_, xiv. 163-5; see also _Guat._, _Boletin - de Noticias_, Jan. 15, 1870; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 28, 1870; - _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 5, 19, 1870; _Nueva Era_, Paso del - Norte, Apr. 3, 1885. The victorious Solares was promoted - to mariscal de campo; his officers also received promotion, - and the rank and file one month's extra pay; but he lived to - enjoy his new honors less than a year, his death occurring in - Nov. 1870. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Dec. 3, 1870. - - [XX-17] It was exposed to the public gaze at the door of the - hospital, where a photograph of it was taken, copies of which - were sold at half a dollar each. - - [XX-18] On parole not to return without permission of the - govt. He and some members of his family had to sign a $10,000 - bond. - - [XX-19] Silas A. Hudson, the Am. minister, claimed that much - had been due to his advice, and the favorable opinion had - of his friendly course. _U. S. Govt Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., For. - Rel., Cong. 41, Sess. 3, 444. - - [XX-20] Cerna was blind himself, or tried to throw dust into - the eyes of the representatives of the people when in his - message of Nov. 25, 1870, he assured them that peace had been - fully restored. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Dec. 17, 1870. - - [XX-21] The particulars of this revolution appear in another - chapter. - - [XX-22] The _Boletin de Noticias_ said, respecting his - movement, 'cometió el acto de demencia.' - - [XX-23] So said the _Boletin de Noticias_ of Guat., copied by - _Nic._, _Gaceta_, June 3, 1871. - - [XX-24] The preamble said that Cerna's govt had become - intolerable by its arbitrary and cruel acts in violation of - the constitution and other laws; that it had usurped powers, - and had assailed the representatives of the people; it had - ruined the public treasury, and compromised the independence - of the country by contracting without authority of law - a ruinous loan in Europe. Consequently, the people would - no longer forbear with its tyrannical domination, and had - resolved to set it aside. The following are the resolutions - epitomized: 1st. To depose the tyrant and usurper Cerna; - 2d. To appoint Miguel García Granados provisional president - with full authority to reorganize a government on the bases - proclaimed by him May 8, 1871; 3d. He was also instructed - when expedient to convoke a constituent assembly for framing - a new fundamental law; 4th. The officers solemnly bound - themselves not to lay down their arms until these purposes - were effected. Signed by Gen. of Brigade J. Rufino Barrios, - Colonel Francisco del Riego, lieut-colonels Juan Viteri, - Julio García Granados, etc. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley., Gob. - Democ._, i. 1-3 et seq. - - [XX-25] He had been, he said, for 20 years energetically - opposing the government's illegal proceedings in the chamber - of deputies; and it had never dared to touch him until - after its triumph over Cruz in Jan. 1870. _García Granados_, - _Procl._, June 2, 1871. - - [XX-26] A contemporary gives the following lists of bequests - left by the conservative rule of thirty years. A large number - of jesuits, well fed on the sweat of the people, and their - acolytes and choristers; another large quantity of Capuchin - friars who preyed on the inhabitants of Antigua, Guat.; about - 200 friars and lay brothers in the capital, most of them - lazy and stupid; nearly 200 useless nuns, of whom some 40 - were in a state of insanity or idiocy, and in condition to - be canonized; one archbishop, 2 bishops, 12 or 15 vicars and - canons, and a high steward of church property, etc; a foreign - debt of five million dollars; a nearly complete absence - of public education, necessitating the establishment of at - least 500 schools and colleges adequately supplied; few, if - any, roads or bridges; no steam vessels; no adequate postal - service; no telegraphs; no public lands, for immense tracts - of unproductive lands were held by the church and by a few - aristocrats. _Juan Álvarez_, _Dos Palabras_, 12-13. Prior to - the revolution of 1871, which regenerated the country, the - capital wore a monkish and funereal look. After the triumph - of this movement, abuses were eradicated, anachronisms - disappeared, and modern ideas began to prevail. _Batres_, _A - Sketch of Guat._, 16-17. - - [XX-27] The men had been pressed into the service, and - moreover, dreading the superior arms of their opponents, - in several instances fled at the first onset, throwing down - their arms. - - [XX-28] It has been averred that he partook of some coffee - which had been drugged. - - [XX-29] Cerna must either pursue, giving him a - vantage-ground, or rush to the defence of the capital, making - the success of the revolution equally certain, for the whole - country would then rise against his detested rule. - - [XX-30] An unfortunate circumstance occurred. A portion - of the troops with which Julio G. Granados had forced the - passage of the ravine, going toward the farm of Dieguez, - encountered two companies of Solares' men, and the two forces - mistaking one another for the enemy, fought some minutes; - some men were wounded, and a field-officer named Juan - Solórzano was slain. _Guat._, _Boletin de Noticias_, Aug. 4, - 1871; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 16, 1871. - - [XX-31] They all behaved well; but special credit must be - given, not only to the chief and Barrios, but to Solares and - Viteri, who struck decisive blows. - - [XX-32] Cerna fled to Chiquimula with a few followers. The - Indians were still faithful to him, and begged he should - lead them to the field in defence of his cause; but he knew - any such effort must end in disaster, and refused. He then - continued his flight to Honduras. Most of his ministers also - escaped. Indeed, no effort was made to detain them, or other - men of the fallen administration, it being considered a - better policy not to be hampered with the responsibility of - disposing of them. The old minister of war remained behind - and was not molested. Full particulars on the campaign are - given in _Salv._, _El Republicano_, July 3, 1871; _Id._, - _Diario Ofic._, July 11, 12, 1879; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, July - 21, 1871; _Costa R._, _Informe Min. Rel._, 1872, 14; _Id._, - _Boletin Ofic._, March 22, 1885; _J. J. Peatfield's Glimpse - at a Cent. Am. Rep._, in _Overland Monthly_, xiv. 166-7; _Un - Guatemalteco_, _Cartas_, 6-9; _Uriarte_, _Observ._, 4-6. - - [XX-33] There were not wanting men who reproached García - Granados for his generosity to the vanquished. - - [XX-34] Congress had ceased to exist; the heads of important - offices had fled; the treasury was empty. There was danger to - be apprehended from the radical element among the liberals, - composed of a large portion of the mechanics and artisans, - who claimed that the change had mainly resulted from their - influence, and they now wished to dictate measures which the - new government could not decree. Their violent feeling was - manifested specially toward the jesuits and other religious - orders. Their discussions in the club de los artesanos, and - elsewhere, often disclosed a marked suspicion of and conveyed - warnings to the authorities. There were also misgivings about - Barrios' intentions. Indeed, many believed that though not - actually at the head of affairs, he had the control; even - after leaving the city, he was supposed to aspire to the - presidency, to which he would have himself elected as soon as - the constituent assembly should meet. Meantime, it was said, - he would allow García Granados to put the disrupted state in - order, and enact the needed measures. - - [XX-35] _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 3-4. - It recognized freedom of speech and of the press, though - requiring publications to bear the signatures of their - authors. Champerico was made a port of entry for both - export and import, which the people of Los Altos had - loudly demanded. The cultivation and sale of tobacco were - declared free to all; and the importation of Chiapas rum was - permitted. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 5, 1871. - - [XX-36] He denied that his government had ever contemplated - wounding the religious feelings of the nation. - - [XX-37] The power of the church had been almost as great as - that of the government. Under the constitution the church - nominated a number of deputies to the assembly, and was - the only one recognized or tolerated. Its influence in - the assembly had been large, and its interests were well - represented. _Crosby's Statement_, MS., 91, 110-11. This - influence had always been exercised to uphold the despotic - sway of the oligarchs. - - [XX-38] The rebels were routed Sept. 24th at Santa Rosa - by the forces under Barrios, and again the 28th at Jalapa. - They lost their artillery, other arms, and much ammunition. - _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 13-15; _Nic._, - _Gaceta_, Nov. 4, 1871; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Oct. 1, 1871. - - [XX-39] _Id._, Nov. 26, 1871; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. - Democ._, i. 24-5. - - [XX-40] Decree no. 59, in _Boletin Ofic._, no. 52. The - order had been removed from Guat. by command of King Cárlos - III., in 1767, its members leaving the capital on the 1st - of July for the coast, and being embarked for Spain. _Hist. - of Mex._, iii. 432-3, this series. But a law of June 7, - 1851, sanctioned by the assembly Nov. 5th, authorized their - permanent reëstablishment, revoking all other laws or decrees - to the contrary, notably one of 1845, notwithstanding the - many protests made against the measure. The most plausible - pretext for the restoration of the jesuits had been the - alleged scarcity of competent priests for the work of - spreading the gospel; which was equivalent to saying that the - 300 priests living in the republic were both insufficient and - incapable. The real object of the hasty reintroduction of the - order was said to be the aggrandizement of the house of Canon - Juan José Aycinena, closely connected by family ties with - Manuel F. Pavon and Luis Batres. Aycinena had pledged himself - to bring the order in, and in exchange for this service it - was to influence his appointment as archbishop of Guatemala. - It was a well-understood bargain. _Guat._, _Carta al Ilmo. - Sr. Arzob. por un Catól. Apostól. romano_, Guat., Aug. 20, - 1851, in _Cent. Am. Pamph._, v. no. 12. - - [XX-41] Report of the comandante of San José, in _Boletin - Ofic._, Sept. 25, 1871; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, iii. 290; - _Id._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 89-90; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Oct. - 22, 1871; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, June 9, 1885; _Mex._, _Diario - Ofic._, Oct. 15, 1871. - - [XX-42] The jesuits fared no better in Salvador, where the - constituent assembly, being consulted as to whether they - should be allowed to enter, resolved that their presence in - the country would not be beneficial. Only four votes were - cast in their favor. _El Porvenir de Nic._, Oct. 1, 1871. - A few who lived in Salv. were made to depart in 1872, and - forbidden to reënter. A treaty was made with Guat., under - which neither government was ever after to allow jesuits to - reside within their respective territories. _Id._, March 24, - 1872; _Ore. Uana_, _Refutacion_, 1-11. - - [XX-43] The decree was issued with the clause that any - deficit experienced by the archdiocese in consequence should - be covered out of the pub. treasury. Decree of Dec. 22, 1871, - in _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, iii. 290; _Id._, _Gob. Democ._, i. - 23-6, 70-1. - - [XX-44] The decree contained nine articles, and regulated - the manner of disposing of the property which had belonged - to these associations. The religious orders thus suppressed - were those of the Franciscans, and recollects, dominicans, - mercedari, clergymen of the oratory of Saint Philip de - Neri, jesuits, paulists, and lastly the capuchins, otherwise - called bethlehemites. These capuchins were natives of Spain, - most of whom had been partisans of the pretender called - Cárlos V. They occupied a convent which had belonged to the - bethlehemites, when they were taken by a military guard to - the coast and shipped away, with orders never to return. - They had made themselves particularly obnoxious, and not - being citizens of the country, the gov. was free to make them - leave. Friars who were natives of Cent. Am. were permitted - to remain, and given a monthly allowance for their support; - but forbidden to show themselves in public with their habits - on. _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, July 4, 1872; _Id._, _Gaceta_, - Aug. 3, 1872; _El Porvenir de Nic._, July 14, 1872; _Guat._, - _Recop. Ley._, iii. 290-1; _Id._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 91, - 101-2; _Peatfield's Glimpse_, in _S. F. Overland Monthly_, - xiv. 159; _S. F. Post_, July 2, 1872. - - [XX-45] With toleration of all religious sects throughout the - republic. This subject was being discussed in the constituent - assembly, with much opposition to the clause being inserted - in the fundamental law. The govt then cut the gordian knot. - Later other decrees were passed, further curtailing eccles. - jurisdiction, including the secularization of cemeteries. - _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Gob._, _Justicia, etc._, 1880, 2-5; - _Id._, 1882, 11-12; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, i. - 159-61; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Apr. 27, 1873. - - [XX-46] Placing a notice on the convent door that any one - entering it without permission of the ecclesiastic authority - would be excommunicated. The nuns had been kept away from - intercourse with their relatives, and the civil authorities - had been debarred access to them. The official journal said, - March 6th, that history and indisputable facts proved they - had not always been the abode either of justice, morality, - or true religion. The removal of the teresas, capuchinas, - and claras to the Santa Catarina was made under the personal - inspection of the jefe político of the department. Their - number was about 126, and most of them were natives of the - other Cent. Am. republics. _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 24, - 1873. - - [XX-47] The property of all religious houses having been - confiscated, each one of these ex-nuns was allowed a life - pension of $12 per month. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. - Democ._, ii. 13-14, 58, 64-5, 205. - - [XX-48] The work was against Guat. and Salv. Costa R. was - expected to side with the latter. Nicaragua's administration - was not well disposed toward them. _Guat._, _El Centro - Americano_, Feb. 19, 1872; _El Porvenir de Nic._, May 5, - 1872. - - [XX-49] Martial law was established, together with stringent - rules for dealing with rebels. Freedom of the press was - temporarily suspended. This last measure was repealed in May. - _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 73-5, 80-1, 95-100; - _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 24, 1872. - - [XX-50] García Granados' decree of May 8, 1872. _Guat._, - _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 87-8; _U. S. Govt Doc._, H. - Ex. Doc., Cong. 42, Sess. 3, i. 518; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, - May 30, 1872. - - [XX-51] _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, March 19, 1876; _Nic._, - _Semanal Nic._, May 30, June 6, July 4, 1872; _Guat._, - _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 88, 102. - - [XX-52] F. Alburez, in treasury; José M. Samayoa, in fomento; - Víctor Zavala, in war; Ramirez ad int., in foreign relations; - M. A. Soto ad int., in government, justice, and eccles. - affairs. - - [XX-53] Notwithstanding that his conduct had been seditious - in 1871, he had been given the rank of col, and the offices - of jefe político and comandante de armas of Amatitlan. - _Barrios_, _Procl._, at Quezaltenango, Jan. 23, 1873. - - [XX-54] Cerna had declined to take any part in the movement. - The defeat of the rebels by Solares at Las Arrayanas and - Cumbres de los Ajos on March 10th, with the loss of several - prominent men, reduced them to straits. _Id._, i. 155-6, - 177-80; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Feb. 20, March 6, May 8, July - 24, Aug. 21, 1873; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Feb. 23, March 28, - Apr. 6, 27, 1873; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 11, 22, May - 13, June 12, 1873; _El Monitor Repub._, Apr. 18, 1873. - - [XX-55] The office had been in charge of Barrios since Feb. - 11th. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 155. During - this tenure Barrios called for a forced loan. On the 15th - he summoned to his presence at the comandancia general a - number of citizens, one of whom imprudently said that he - would go armed to punish any insult. Barrios accused them - of hostility to the government, and of rendering pecuniary - assistance to the insurgents. He warned them of their danger, - and suggested the expediency of their aiding the govt to - bring the insurrection to an end. It is said that the armed - one, Rafael Batres, a son of the late minister of state, two - or three times laughed in a contemptuous manner, enraging - Barrios, who walked up to him, tore open his coat, and pulled - out of it a revolver, upbraiding him as a coward and would-be - murderer; then ordered that 100 blows should be inflicted - on his back with a supple stick or rod, such as was used to - punish private soldiers. Batres received his punishment, and - was afterward sent to jail. The other men were also confined - in the common jail, and the next morning were brought with - shackles on through the streets to the comandancia, and told - that they would not be released till they signed bonds to pay - their respective shares of the forced loan; after doing which - they were set at liberty. Julian Volio, ex-minister of Costa - R. and Guat., did not receive any ill treatment, but was made - to leave the country. Batres was also banished. Referring - to this incident in a message to congress, he said that the - rebellion had been instigated with the pretext that religion - was menaced. His measures he confessed had been severe, but - necessary. The result realized his expectations, for as soon - as these men ceased furnishing resources to the rebellion it - collapsed. _Barrios_, _Mensaje_, Sept. 11, 1876, 5-6. - - [XX-56] It was called Dec. 11, 1871. _Id._, i. 53-69, - 83-4; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Feb. 11, May 5, 1872; _Salv._, - _Gaceta_, Sept. 9, 1876. - - [XX-57] All proposed amendments to the old constitution had - been rejected as not adequate to the present requirements of - the country. _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Oct. 10, 1872. - - [XX-58] García Granados, who on the 2d of June had been - declared a benemérito de la patria, after surrendering the - presidency, made a visit to Europe, returning in March 1874, - when he was cordially welcomed by all classes. His death - occurred Sept. 8, 1878, and was much deplored. _Guat._, - _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 182-3; _Salv._, _Diario - Ofic._, Sept. 12, 1878; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Oct. 6, 1880. - - [XXI-1] _Costa R._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 22, 1885. - - [XXI-2] He rose to prominence by military prowess, and yet - knew but little of the military art. His enemies would not - even concede him courage, or that he had risen by any effort - of his own, but merely by circumstances. _Un Guatemalteco_, - _Cartas_, 6-8. - - [XXI-3] I will quote in corroboration what foreign - correspondents said. Barrios' administration in 1875 was - enjoying the confidence of the people, and had the support of - public opinion. He had in his favor not only the testimony - of the liberal portion of the Cent. Am. press, but of - intelligent travellers just from the theatre of his so-called - atrocities against the liberty of his people. He had more: - the direct as well as tacit testimony of the property - holders, both native and foreign. The guiding principle of - Barrios' govt was to check evil practices, and to encourage - good deeds. Again in 1880 Barrios continued as indefatigable - as ever, travelling over the country, devising measures - for the benefit of his fellow-citizens. The country was at - peace. Foreigners, in comparing Dec. 1870 with Dec. 1880, can - scarcely realize that they are living in the same country, - and that only one decade has elapsed since the terrors of - 1870. Since then Guat. has seen progress in every respect, - and all due to the energy of this man, who has not wavered - in his efforts to educate his fellow-citizens to the standard - of the times. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. 12, 14, 1875; Jan. - 12, 1881. - - [XXI-4] In 1876 there were primary schools in all the towns - for the compulsory and gratuitous education of children of - the poor. _Boddam Whetham's Across Cent. Am._, 39. Later - there were established three high schools: the Politécnica, - for the education of officers at the expense of the state; - alumni were also admitted at their own charge, who were not - bound to accept commissions in the army; the Normal, for the - training of teachers; and the Belen, for the instruction of - females. All those schools were in charge of teachers from - the U. S. and Europe; the Belen being conducted on the plan - pursued in the U. S. - - [XXI-5] He was a man of the people, flattered the lower - classes and the soldiers, especially those of Los Altos, and - won their good-will. - - [XXI-6] Espionage existed. Domestic servants even were - used as spies. The postal service was like an office of the - old inquisition. These charges are probably true, and the - system, one of long standing, may have been demanded by the - political situation. It has been said that he had a young - Spanish priest named Félix Pagés murdered in cold blood. The - other side of the story is that Pagés shot at him Sept. 14, - 1877, in San Pedro Jocopilas, missed him, a scuffle ensued - for the possession of the weapon, when other persons entered - the room, one of whom was Barrios' body-servant, Inés Cruz, - who seeing Pagés again trying to discharge the revolver at - his master, drew out his own weapon, and shot the priest - dead. This version is the official one, and was communicated - by U. S. Minister Williamson to his government. _U. S. Gov. - Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., 45th Cong., 3d Sess., i. pt 1, 73-4; - _Star and Herald_, Oct. 20, 1877. It is that some women were - gagged, confined in the common jail, and afterward banished - to distant towns. _Un Guatemalteco_, _Cartas_, 24. I have - no space for the innumerable accusations of anonymous and - irresponsible persons. The following are given because made - by a prominent Mexican general who served some time under - Barrios: Innocent men of respectable position were whipped by - his order, and women confined in the common jail. A judge was - set to sowing grass. A distinguished lawyer was made to march - in a religious procession through the streets dressed as a - private soldier. An ecclesiastic, for failing to salute him, - was kept for hours opposite his balcony with head uncovered - and erect, and treated with contumely. He had the head of - a city councilman shaved like a priest's, and then shut - him up in a convent. It was Barrios' practice to have men - beaten till they told what he wanted of them, and he invented - a cruel torture called el apreton, which was compressing - the person's temples. His assassinations were wanton and - cold-blooded. This general, however, was a considerable - time in Barrios' service, and had a falling out with him. - His statements may be the result of spite. As a ruler who - had in his hands during nearly 12 years the destinies of - his country, he undoubtedly committed many errors, and as a - man he had defects; but how deny, speaking with truth, the - benefits his abilities, patriotism, constancy, and energy - bestowed? _Uraga, J. L._, _Réplica á J. R. Barrios_, 6-7, - 33-4. Another Mexican who says horrible things of Barrios, - whom he called La Pantera de Guat., signed himself I. - Martinez, in _S. F. El Cornista_, March 4, 1885; _La Estrella - de Pan._, May 2, 1885. - - [XXI-7] Decree of Nov. 4, 1873, requiring them to surrender - with their arms. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, - i. 203; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Oct. 23, Nov. 22, 1873; - _Barrios_, _Mensaje_, Sept. 11, 1876, 5. For his complicity - in the insurrection, the guardian of the archdiocese had to - leave the country, and remained absent till he was permitted - to return. _El Porvenir de Nic._, Aug. 17, 1873. - - [XXI-8] Gonzalez was expelled in disgrace from the army, and - sentenced, moreover, to confinement for ten years in the - fortress of San Felipe. He was also deprived of all right - to hold office. Bulnes was also deprived of this right, - and condemned to three years imprisonment. And yet he had - instigated Gonzalez to commit the outrage, and was morally - the guiltier of the two. _U. S. Govt Docs._, H. Ex. Doc., - For. Rel., Cong. 43, Sess. 2, Doc. 1, pt 1, 177-83. - - [XXI-9] There were present on shore, upon that occasion, - the commanding gen. of the Guat. forces, the British - rear-admiral, Cochrane, and officers of four of his ships - lying at San José, the British chargé, the Am. minister, - and others, besides 200 Guat. troops, and a like number - of marines and sailors from the British ships. _U. S. Govt - Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 44, Sess. 1, Doc. 1, pt 1, 128-9. - - [XXI-10] The victim of Gonzalez' brutality declined to - receive any portion of the money. Scolfield, the British - representative at Guatemala, for the manner in which he - conducted the affair, was knighted. - - [XXI-11] Butler had several conferences with the min. of - foreign affairs, insisting on the revocation of that decree, - which the min. invariably refused. El Progreso, Aug. 29, - 1875. However, it seems that Guat. gave way, and declared - her recognition of Cuban independ. to be null. _The Mexican - Financier_, Apr. 18, 1885. - - [XXI-12] In 1876 the Sp. gov. recognized that the - captain-gen. had exceeded his powers, and must be censured. - But in March 1880 it asked Guat. as a favor to forego that - clause, which the latter acceded to on being reassured - that in future the usages of international etiquette should - be observed in the relations between the two governments. - _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, ii. 129; _Id._, _Mem. - Min. Rel. Est._, 1881, 13-14. - - [XXI-13] Circular of Nic. foreign min., Sept. 5, 1876, in - _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct. 26, 1876. - - [XXI-14] Both places within Guat. territory, but near the - boundaries of the other two states. - - [XXI-15] Barrios reviewed in Guat. 11,000 men, and ostensibly - disbanded them. He really had about 18,000 under arms, and - it would have been easy for him to make the number 20,000 in - eight or ten days. Salv. went slow in the work of disarming. - She had 2,300 men in Santa Ana, 3,000 in San Salvador, and - 2,000 in other places; and the government had decreed a - forced loan of half a million dollars, of which one half - had been collected. Having taken the laboring men from - their peaceful vocations, the govt feared a revolution if it - desisted from war with Guat. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Feb. 14, - 16, 1876. - - [XXI-16] Neither cajolery, argument, nor movement of troops - produced the desired effect, for the delegates could only - see in his propositions the destruction of their several - nationalities. - - [XXI-17] The war cost Guat. about 2,000 lives, and one and - a half million dollars, however. The events connected with - Salvador and Honduras appear in the history of those states - for this period. - - [XXI-18] Nicaragua in 1877 joined the three in treaties to - act in concert, and harmonize 'las tendencias de la familia - Centro-Americana.' _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct. 3, 1877. - - [XXI-19] Gregorio Solares, to whom the successes were chiefly - due, entered the city quietly, receiving no share of the - popular plaudits, which were all bestowed on Barrios as the - victor. - - [XXI-20] Sept. 9, 1876. It was revoked March 22, 1885, when - Barrios undertook to establish the Cent. Am. republic by - force. _Costa R._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 23, 1885. - - [XXI-21] The sword was delivered him Sept. 15, 1877. _Salv._, - _Gaceta Ofic._, Sept. 26, 1876; Feb. 25, March 21, Sept. 28, - 1877; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Nov. 1, 1877. - - [XXI-22] He would not go to the palace, but made the - ministers come to his residence, and adopted measures without - consultation with them. He was in fear of being poisoned. - _Uraga, J. L._, _Réplica_, 18-20. - - [XXI-23] It had been originally convoked Oct. 21, 1875, the - date of meeting being left for future consideration. Its - first meeting was Aug. 31st, when its officers were chosen. - This was the seventh constituent assembly in 55 years of - national existence. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, - ii. 159-68; _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Sept. 9, 24, 1876. - - [XXI-24] In the temporary absence of the president, the - council of ministers was to take charge of the executive - office. In case of his death or other inability, the council - of state was to convoke an assembly. The president was called - upon to appoint a council of state composed of competent and - upright men, which he did. _Id._, Nov. 3, 9, Dec. 8, 1876. - - [XXI-25] Samayoa gave way to J. M. Barrundia, and went to - Europe; Alburez, min. of the treasury, was succeeded by J. A. - Salazar; Lainfiesta in fomento by M. M. Herrera; Barberena - was min. of the interior, and Macal of foreign affairs, who - later was replaced by Lorenzo Montúfar. - - [XXI-26] With the evidence obtained during the day and - night of the 1st, several persons said to be implicated were - arrested, and the judicial investigation was initiated. The - plan of the sedition was ascertained from the acknowledgments - and confessions of its promoters and others. The priest, - Gabriel Aguilar, José Lara Pavon, Enrique Guzman, and others, - as appeared in the testimony, had organized themselves as - a society, recognizing one another by means of signs, to - promote a revolt. The execution of their plan was left to - A. Kopeski, commander of the artillery, and his second, - Capt. Leon de Rodas, at whose quarters assembled in the - night of the 1st a number of men who were then armed, - to be ready for relieving the guards at the palace and - comandancia general, after they had been narcotized with - wine and morphine furnished by Aguilar. This part of the - plot once accomplished, the commanders of other bodies of - troops were to receive forged orders to bring their men, - without arms, into the city, when others in the conspiracy - stationed outside would seize the arms. One of these orders, - ostensibly signed by Barrios, was sent Oct. 31st to the - comandante at Palencia, who, not doubting its genuineness, - was on the point of obeying it; but despatched an officer - to inquire where he was to station his men, and the object - of the call. The president at once telegraphed to other - commanders, and was advised that they had similar orders. - One man was arrested, and then another, until the plot was - unravelled. A large portion of the criminal element, as well - as of the lower classes, were mixed up in the affair. The - president, his family, ministers, and friends were to be - assassinated. Rich men would have to ransom their lives with - sums ranging from $50,000 down to $10,000. Daggers, gags, and - morphine were discovered. Barrios decreed, Nov. 5th, that the - parties should be tried by court-martial. This decree was - countersigned by all his ministers; namely, J. Barberena, - José Ant. Salazar, Lorenzo Montúfar, and under sec. of - war A. Ubico, then in charge of the portfolio. Foreigners - as well as natives realized their narrow escape from a - fearful catastrophe, and commended Barrios and his ministers - for their action. The justice of the sentences was fully - acknowledged. Barrios, in his message to the constituent - assembly, in March 1879, alluding to the affair, said: 'La - sociedad guatemalteca se vió por un momento al borde de un - abismo de sangre y devastacion.' The reactionists, he added, - unable to demand the abolition of the reforms which had so - greatly improved the condition of the people, 'pedian al - puñal y al veneno, á ese recurso traidor y alevoso, una - hecatombe suprema, una montaña de cadáveres.' _Barrios_, - _Mensaje_, March 15, 1879; _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Nov. 13, - 18, 1877; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Dec. 1, 1877; _La Voz de - Méx._, S. F., Feb. 23, 1878. - - [XXI-27] In the preamble he alludes to the declaration of - the last assembly on Oct. 23, 1876, adding that he accepted - the dictatorship as a necessity, because of the unsettled - condition of the country, though well aware that unrestricted - powers are incompatible with republican principles. The - election of deputies was to begin Jan. 10th, and all citizens - were made eligible, excepting only such as held certain - offices, as jefes políticos, revenue officials, judges, and - military commandants, who could not be candidates in their - official departments or districts. _U. S. Gov. Doc._, Cong. - 46, Sess. 2, i. pt 1, 140; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Nov. 22, - 1878; Jan. 22, 1879; _La Voz de Méx._, May 6, 1879. - - [XXI-28] He had endeavored, he said, to maintain friendly - relations with the other Cent. Am. governments, and as for - those with Salv., Hond., and Nic., 'jamás se han cultivado - con el verdadero espíritu de fraternidad con que hoy se - mantienen y fomentan.' - - [XXI-29] The same course was pursued by Guat. toward Mexican - citizens residing in her territory, who were causing in - 1879 and 1880 disturbances in Soconusco and Chiapas. The - correspondence and proceedings of the governments in both - affairs appear in _Mex._, _Correspond. Dipl._, ii. 221-91; - _El Guatemalteco_, Sept. 7, 1879; _Mex._, _Diario Ofic._, - Nov. 8, Dec. 2, 1879. - - [XXI-30] Every principle won with the loss of so much blood - was secured. The legislative authority was vested in a - chamber of representatives, and the executive in a president, - whose term of office was six years. _Guat._, _Mem., - Sec. Gobern._, 1880, 7. Objections were made by foreign - representatives, including the minister of Mexico, to art. - 5th of the constitution respecting Guatemalan nationality. - On this point a constituent assembly in 1885 authorized the - government to settle it by treaties, which was equivalent - to nullifying the clause. There were exceptions also to - the 14th, intended to set down as a principle that neither - citizens nor foreigners were entitled to indemnity for - damages accruing to them during civil wars from the acts of - revolutionary factions. The right of Guat. to insert in her - fundamental law every principle or rule she might deem proper - for her internal administration was fully recognized; but as - regarded those dependent for their sanction on the consent - of nations, in their intercourse with one another, the - representatives reserved their respective country's rights. - _Mex._, _Correspond. Dipl._, ii. 293-8; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. - Rel. Est._, 1880, 6. - - [XXI-31] The new constitution was to have effect from - March 1, 1880. Thus Barrios had the glory of endowing his - country with a political constitution of its own, and with - a republican and democratic form of government. It will - be borne in mind that after the disruption of the Cent. - Am. confederation, since 1840, Guat. had been under a - dictatorship, or under institutions which greatly curtailed - the political rights of the ruled. - - [XXI-32] A treaty of peace, amity, commerce, and extradition - was concluded July 17, 1880, between Guat. and Hond., giving - to Guatemalans in Hond., and Hondurans in Guat., the same - civil and political rights enjoyed by the natives of the - respective country, though exempting them from military - service and forced loans. Refugees could be allowed asylum, - but were not to use the privilege to promote hostile acts - against their own or other governments. Merchandise, - excepting such articles as were subject to estanco, or - monopoly, were to be allowed free entry. _Guat._, _Mem. Min. - Rel. Exter._, 1881, 28-34. - - [XXI-33] _Star and Herald_, Jan. 23, 1883; _Guat._, _Mem. - Min. Rel. Exter._, 1881-5; _Id._, _Gobern. y Just._, 1881-5; - _Id._, _Hac. y Créd. Púb._, 1881-5; _Id._, _Guerra_, 1881-5; - _Id._, _Formento_, 1881-5; _Id._, _Instruc. Púb._, 1881-5. - The following persons acted as ministers of state during - some portion of Barrios' present term: Lorenzo Montúfar, - Fernando Cruz, Cayetano Diaz Mérida, Delfino Sanchez, J. M. - Orantes, J. Martin Barrundia, M. M. Herrera, Ángel Peña, R. - A. Salazar, Ramon Murga, and F. Lainfiesta. - - [XXI-34] The Guat. govt manifested its high appreciation of - those courtesies on the part of the authorities and people of - the U. S., in a note to the Am. minister, H. C. Hall. _U. S. - Govt Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 47, Sess. 2, i. no. 1, pt 1, - 46-7. - - [XXI-35] This question is fully treated of in _Hist. Mex._, - vi. chap. xix., this series; _U. S. Govt Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., - Cong. 47, Sess. 2, i., For Rel. no. 1, pt 1, 326-33. - - [XXI-36] He did not resume his office till the 6th of - January, Gen. Orantes continuing at the head of the - government. - - [XXI-37] He added that he wished to stand aloof, and observe - the working of the free institutions he had contributed to - establish on a firm basis as he hoped; without neglecting, - however, the duty he owed at all times to his country, and - to those who, like himself, shed their blood in their efforts - to the same end. He would be ever found ready to support the - liberal government, and hoped that no credence would be given - to the slander that he desired to leave the country, and - thus shirk responsibility. This charge was made when he left - for the U. S. to settle the boundary question with Mexico. - _Barrios_, _Mensaje_, Dec. 29, 1882. Even more had been said, - to wit, that he had the plan of annexing Guat. to the U. S., - which was an absurd charge. - - [XXI-38] It was beyond question that he had a strong hold on - the affections of those who did not belong to the reactionary - party, and 'even among the latter he would be preferred - to any one who would be likely to succeed him.' U. S. Min. - Hall's desp. to sec. of state, Jan. 8, 1883, in _U. S. Gov. - Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 48, Sess. 1, no. 1, pt 1, 32-3. - - [XXI-39] A measure might be adopted in the next ordinary - session, when, perhaps, 'events may have occurred in regard - to the Cent. Am. union.' - - [XXI-40] He urged them to labor for the development of the - country, whose progress and prosperity were certain, if all - would coöperate to that end. - - [XXI-41] Barrios addressed, Feb. 24, 1883, an extensive - circular to the liberal party of Cent. Am., to assure - them that his motives in working for the consolidation - had been to promote the general weal, and not his personal - aggrandizement. He repeated that he did not wish, nor would - he accept, the presidency of Cent. Am., disclaiming that he - had ever tried to impose his will on the other states, and - pledging his word never to attempt it in the future. _Pan._, - _El Cronista_, March 10, et seq., 1884; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, - Cong. 48, Sess. 1, no. 1, pt 1, 49-53. - - [XXI-42] As appears in a telegram of March 28th from Nic. - govt to Guat. foreign min., who replied next day, that if - Costa R. refused to join the diet, the meeting of delegates - from only four states could have no practical effect. - _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Rel. Exter._, 1844, 3-5, annexes A to D; - _Costa R._, _Mem. Min. Rel._, 1883, 3, ann. 1 and 13; _Id._, - _Gaceta_, Feb. 3, 1885; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 5, 20, - 23, 1883; _Pan. Canal_, Feb. 16, March 21, 22, 1883. - - [XXI-43] 'Tantas ambiciones pequeñas, tantos menguados - intereses de localidad, y tantas miras estrechas.' _Barrios_, - _Mensaje_, March 1, 1884; _El Guatemalteco_, March 4, 1884. - - [XXI-44] It was to be perpetual as to peace and friendship; - and as regarded the other clauses, its duration was to be of - ten years. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Rel. Exter._, 1884, annex 3. - - [XXI-45] Barrios published an address to the inhabitants - expressing gratitude for their sympathy. He made special - mention of the cordial manifestation of the diplomatic - corps, and the foreign residents. _El Guatemalteco_, Apr. 18, - 22, 1884; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Apr. 17, 1884; _Hond._, - _Gaceta_, Apr. 21, 1884; _Méx._, _Clamor Púb._, June 2, 1884. - - [XXI-46] Four to death, two to the chain-gang with hard labor - for life, one to simple imprisonment for 10 years, and two - others were acquitted. One of the chief implicated made a - full confession, the plot being to cause a change in the - govt by killing Barrios. _El Guatemalteco_, May 16, July 5, - 12, 1884. The chief person implicated has, since the death - of Barrios, made a representation to the assembly declaring - the accusation false, and that the real authors of the bomb - plot were in the process made to appear as the victims. - _Rodriguez, G._, _Expos. y Docs._, pp. i.-iii., 1-120, 3-17. - - [XXI-47] The president of Costa R. also received an - invitation, but being unable to leave the state, expressed - through his min. of foreign affairs warm congratulations. - _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Rel. Exter._, 1885, 19-20. - - [XXI-48] It was countersigned by all his ministers, to - wit: J. Martin Barrundia, of war; Fernando Cruz, of foreign - affairs; Francisco Lainfiesta, of fomento; Delfino Sanchez, - of treasury and pub. credit; Cayetano Diaz Mérida, of govt - and justice; and Ramon Murga, of pub. instruction. The - following is a synopsis of the decree. Art. 1. The ruler - of the rep. of Guat. proclaims the union of Cent. Am.; to - which end he assumes the rôle of supreme military chief with - absolute control. Art. 2. He will accept the coöperation of - such govts, communities, and rulers, as, within the terms - laid down, should acquiesce and make common cause with - them. Art. 3. A gen. assembly of 15 members from each state, - freely chosen by popular suffrage, should meet at Guatemala - May 1st to enact the political constitution of Cent. Am., - and establish the manner, time, and form of choosing the - president, his official term, date upon which he was to - receive the executive authority from the assembly, and the - place where the supreme federal authorities were to reside. - Art. 4. Any person attempting by word or deed to oppose - this decree would be dealt with as a traitor to the cause - of Cent. Am. Art. 5. The people of Cent. Am. are urged to - aid the accomplishment of this project. Art. 6. Suitable - rewards offered to officers of army and militia efficaciously - aiding. Art. 7. Rewards also offered to the rank and file. - Art. 8. Establishes the flag of the rep.: three vertical - stripes, the middle one white, the other two blue; the white - stripe exhibiting the coat of arms, a quetzal perched upon a - column, with the following inscription: 'Libertad y Union—15 - de Setiembre de 1821-28 de Febrero de 1885.' Art. 9. No - negotiations relating to territory, international treaties, - foreign or national loans, or other stipulations of analogous - nature or importance, entered into by the other states of - Cent. Am. after the date of this decree, would be recognized. - Art. 10. The minister of foreign affairs was directed to lay - this decree before the assembly of Guat., the other govern. - of Cent. Am., and all powers of Am. and Europe with which - Guat. had relations of friendship and trade. _La Estrella - de Pan._, March 28, 1885; _El Cronista_ (S. F.), March 14, - 21, 1885; _S. F. Chronicle_, March 10, 13, 1885; _S. F. - Call_, March 13, 1885. It will be well to mention here the - reasons which prompted the legislative assembly to proclaim - the unity of Cent. Am. in the manner adopted by Barrios: - 'El inmenso prestigio de que gozaba aquel memorable jefe, el - civismo de que siempre habia dado inequívocas muestras, y los - muchos elementos de que disponia para hacer práctico aquel - pensamiento, acariciado por todos los buenos hijos de la - América Central. This was said after Barrios was dead. _Costa - R._, _Informe Sec. Rel. Exter._, 1885, 21-5, 35. - - [XXI-49] 'Bastante he saboreado, por triste experiencia, - todas las amarguras del poder.' - - [XXI-50] Art. 1. The people of Hond. proclaim the union - of Cent. Am. Art. 2. Gives the executive full power to - render Barrios every possible aid. Art. 3. Congress and the - executive were to frankly explain the true motives of the - revolution. - - [XXI-51] Zaldívar then, as well as afterward, denied having - betrayed Barrios. The circular of Feb. 24, 1883, to the - liberal party, was issued by the latter after a conference - with the former at Asuncion Mita. In that famous manifesto, - Barrios pledged his honor not to attempt effecting the - unification, except by peaceful means, and with the - concurrence of the five republics. His message to the Guat. - assembly in 1884 indicated that violent means were out of - the question. A correspondent of a Panamá paper, who seemed - to have personal knowledge of the negotiations, both public - and confidential, assures us that at every interview between - the two rulers the Salvadoran had opposed without ambiguity - all propositions, open or implied, to employ force; and that - Barrios had every time admitted the weight of the reasons - adduced by him. Indeed, only 20 days before his attempted - assumption of supreme command over Cent. Am. Barrios assured - of Salvadoran minister of foreign affairs, Gallegos, who - had gone to Guat. upon a confidential mission from Zaldívar, - of his conviction that never had the plan of reconstructing - Cent. Am. by compulsion been so unpropitious and dangerous - as at the present time; adding these words: 'Poner hoy la - mano en este asunto equivaldría á meterla en un avispero.' - _La Estella de Pan._, May 9, 1885; _S. F. Chronicle_, June 5, - 1885. - - [XXI-52] 'El gobierno de Vd. no responde, y no necesito - decir por qué no lo hace.' These words would seem to imply - that there had been an understanding between the two, and - treachery was suspected. - - [XXI-53] Menendez, calling himself a soldier of the union, - had urged all Central Americans to aid Barrios. Zaldívar on - March 15th promulgated an act of the Salv. congress declaring - Menendez a traitor to his country. This decree was in force - only a short time. - - [XXI-54] Melchor Ordoñez, Spanish minister accredited to both - republics, had in a telegram assured him that Zaldívar was - his sincere friend, but was in a difficult position, having - to act in accord with public opinion. He should bear in mind - the Salvadorans had been led to believe that he, Barrios, - intended to deprive them of their nationality to gratify his - own ambition. - - [XXI-55] 'Las medidas á que toda nacion prudente apela - durante el estado de guerra en que se colocan sus vecinos.' - - [XXI-56] The govt issued a stirring manifesto to friendly - powers on the 17th of March, 1885, against Barrios' coup - d'etat, signed by J. M. Castro, sec. of foreign relations. - _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Rel. Exter._, 1885, 27-9; _Id._, - _Manif. del Gob. Rep._, 1-6. - - [XXI-57] The telegraphic despatches and diplomatic notes - which passed between the two governments appear in _Mex._, - _Diario Ofic._, March 12, Apr. 1, 29, May 5, 1885; _Id._, - _Siglo XIX._, March 13, 25, 30, 1885; _Costa R._, _Boletin - Ofic._, March 14, 1885. - - [XXI-58] The treaty was signed in the city of Santa Ana, - Salv., by the plenipotentiaries José Duran for Costa R., - Buenav. Selva for Nic., and Salv. Gallegos for Salv. It - was to be in force until Barrios should be overthrown, and - another govt established entirely disconnected with him and - offering guaranties of peace for Cent. Am., after which the - issue of Cent. Am. union might be considered by the parties - in a proper spirit, and at an opportune occasion. Costa R. - pledged herself to furnish 3,000 men at her own cost, but - if only 1,000 were called for, she would contribute also - $100,000, and 1,000 Remington rifles with 500 cartridges for - each. Nic. agreed to furnish 4,000 troops also at her own - cost. Salv. would contribute her whole available military - force. The command-in-chief was vested first in the president - of Salv., next in that of Nic., and third in that of Costa - R., or of such persons as one or the other might designate. - Costa R., however, supplied 2,000 men, and offered to loan - money to Salv. _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Rel. Exter._, 1885, - 31-3. Mex. placed a force near the Guat. frontier as soon as - hostilities began in Cent. Am. - - [XXI-59] In an unsuccessful assault against the - fortifications of Chalchuapa. He was slain between 9 and - 10 o'clock in the morning. One of his sons also perished - fighting at his side. _La Estrella de Pan._, May 9, 1885; - _Méx._, _La Prensa_, suppl. ap. 4, 1885; _S. F. Chronicle_, - Apr. 3, 5, 10, 1885; _S. F. Alta_, Apr. 23, 1885; _S. F. - Chronicle_, Apr. 23, 1885. - - [XXI-60] Barrios' last will executed at Guatemala on the 23d - of March, 1885, which was filed Dec. 7th of said year in the - office of the surrogate in New York, declared his wife to be - the sole heir of all his property and interests. He had full - confidence that she would deal fairly by each of their seven - children. He desired her to pay $25,000 to his nephew Luciano - Barrios as a memento of his good services. She was also to - continue providing for Antonio Barrios, then in the U. S. - _Pan. Star and Herald_, Dec. 21, 1885. - - [XXI-61] Sinibaldi, chosen by the assembly Apr. 30, 1884, 1st - designado, vice J. M. Orantes resigned, had been in charge - of the executive office since Barrios prepared to go to the - front. - - [XXI-62] On the following grounds: 1st. The decree of - Feb. 28th having been revoked, and Barrios being dead, - the causes which placed Guat. at war with Salv., Nic., and - Costa R. had ceased to exist; 2d. It was a patriotic duty - to promote feelings of fraternity and concord; 3. That the - governments of the republics of Cent. Am. were prompted by - the same sentiments, and those of Salv., Nic., and Costa R. - had already made peace with Hond., which had seconded the - movement of the late president of Guat.; 4. That through the - friendly mediation of the foreign corps an understanding with - Salv. had been easily arrived at, and honorable terms agreed - upon for a firm and stable peace between the two republics - and Salvador's allies. - - [XXI-63] Salv., Nic., and Costa R., also made similar - declarations in regard to Guat. - - [XXI-64] The same decree included a national vote of thanks - to the diplomatic body accredited to the governments of Cent. - Am. for their friendly intervention to bring the war to an - end, and appointed Sunday the 19th to solemnize the peace - thus restored. Countersigned by the four ministers, to wit: - Ángel M. Arroyo, of foreign relations and pub. instruction; - Antonio Aguirre, of treasury and pub. credit; Manuel J. - Dardon, of governm. and justice; and E. Martinez Sobral, of - fomento. _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Rel. Exter._, 1885, 35-8; - _La Estrella de Pan._, May 23, 1885; _Pan. Star and Herald_, - May 23, 1885. - - [XXI-65] Pres. Diaz also in a telegram to Zaldívar manifested - a desire to see cordial relations restored between Salv. and - Guat. _Mex._, _Diario Ofic._, Apr. 11 1885; _La Nueva Era_ - (Paso del Norte), Apr. 17, 1885. - - [XXI-66] _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Rel. Exter._, 1885, 55-7; - _La Estrella de Pan._, May 23, 1885. - - [XXI-67] Decrees of June 23d and 27th. All subsidies were - suspended for one year. The purpose of calling a convention - was to effect some amendments to the constitution, and to - enact some needed laws. - - [XXI-68] Notwithstanding the great necessity of allaying - the excitement still existing, there were riotous scenes on - several occasions in the chamber. _Pan. Star and Herald_, - Sept. 9-30, 1885, passim. - - [XXI-69] The president's inauguration was on the 15th of - March, 1886. - - [XXII-1] Feb. 9th. He was to draw from the pub. treasury as - pay $200 monthly when in actual service. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, - April 14, 1866. Later he was made a captain-general. - - [XXII-2] The escutcheon was to be the same as formerly, with - the sole exception of exhibiting a rising sun in lieu of - the Phrygian cap. The flag was to be as follows: Two blue - stripes with a white one between them, all three running - horizontally, three to four varas in length, and nine inches - in width; with the national coat of arms in the centre of the - white stripe, and a group of five blue stars in a semicircle - under it. Merchant vessels were to use the same dimensions - and colors without the coat of arms. - - [XXII-3] Under the constitution of 1865 the congress - consisted of a senate with seven members, and a legislative - assembly of eleven. The council of state was constituted with - the ministers and seven other members. - - [XXII-4] For the bestowal of decorations of the order was - created a senate of six members to reside in the capital. - This body was also empowered to dismiss any member of the - order for good cause. The president was authorized to frame - the statutes and appoint the senators, conferring grades - of the order before its installation. The senate, once - installed, was to grant decorations. The same right was - reserved for congress, and the president of the republic, who - was made ex-officio president of the senate of the order. A - copy of the decree in Spanish is given in _Nic._, _Gaceta_, - May 23, 1868; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatémala_, 427-8. - - [XXII-5] In connection with the subject is mentioned the name - of Bustelli Foscolo, an agent of the Hond. govt, sentenced to - imprisonment in Paris for fraudulent transactions. - - [XXII-6] This body was called by the regular congress at - the solicitation, as it was made to appear, of the several - municipalities, and was installed Aug. 8, 1869. On the 13th - it declared that in view of the popular actas in the several - towns proclaiming Medina president for the next term, he - was actually elected. The same day the 33d article of the - fundamental law was amended to read thus: 'The presidential - term shall be of four years, commencing on the 1st of Feb. in - the year of renewal.' On the 19th the convention adjourned - sine die; Medina having warmly thanked it for the trust - reposed in him, and accepted it, with the pledge of not - holding the office a day after the expiration of his term. - _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 11, 18, 1869; Feb. 5, 1870; _Pan. - Star and Herald_, Sept. 18, 1869. - - [XXII-7] I will, however, repeat here in a few words the - causes alleged by Hond. Salvador had violated the treaty - of Santa Rosa of March 25, 1862, in refusing to surrender - the perpetrators of two atrocious murders. She had abetted - the refugees who, in the last six years, had been fanning - the flame of discord in Hond.; had refused to heed the - remonstrances of the latter; and on the contrary, had placed - a force on the frontier, and generally assumed a hostile - attitude. - - [XXII-8] The guaranty was given as a consideration for - certain advantages, which could not accrue till after the - road was finished. The Am. gov. could not therefore be - required to repel an invasion of the route from abroad. The - correspondence between ministers Baxter and Torbert with the - govts of Hond. and Salv., and with their own, appears in _U. - S. Govt Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 42, Sess. 2, i. no. 1, pt - 1, 575-8, 685-93. - - [XXII-9] _Hond._, _Clarin Ofic._, March 26, 1871; _Nic._, - _Gaceta_, Apr. 22, 29, May 13, 1871. - - [XXII-10] Particulars in Salv. historical chapter. - - [XXII-11] This course was doubtless adopted because of the - dissatisfaction appearing, and of a revolution which was - attempted during the last war. _El Porvenir de Nic._, Oct. 1, - 1871. - - [XXII-12] A full amnesty was granted to all the insurgents. - _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 42, Sess. 3, i. 300-2; - _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 2 to Nov. 4, 1871; Feb. 3, 1872; _El - Porvenir de Nic._, Oct. 1 to Nov. 12, 1871; Jan. 7, 1872. - - [XXII-13] Convention signed at Leon Dec. 18, 1871, by Manuel - Colindres, on behalf of Medina, Ex-pres. Martinez of Nic., - Miguel Velez, Nicasio del Castillo, Rosalío Cortés, R. - Alegría, Buenav. Selva, Seferino Gonzalez, and three others. - This doc. at first was considered apocryphal, but proved to - be genuine. _El Porvenir de Nic._, June 23, 1872. - - [XXII-14] With the avowed object of bringing Hond. under - republican institutions. _El Porvenir de Nic._, Apr. 28 to - Aug. 14, 1872, passim; _Nic._, _El Semanal Nic._, May 30, - 1872. - - [XXII-15] After this victory the presidents of Guat. and - Salv. had an interview with Arias, and returned with their - troops to their respective countries, leaving 800 men to aid - Arias in reorganizing the country. The campaign had lasted 24 - days from the date on which Langue on the Hond. side of the - frontier was occupied. - - [XXII-16] _Id._, Aug. 1, 1872; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. - Democ._, i. 116-17. - - [XXII-17] Juan A. Medina, Gen. Miranda, and a few friends - succeeded in escaping. _Nic._, _El Semanal Nic._, Aug. 8, 29, - 1872. - - [XXII-18] Further details may be found in _Costa R._, - _Informe Sec. Rel._, 1873, 7-8; _El Porvenir de Nic._, May - 26, June 2, 1872; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 42, - Sess. 3, i. 303-6; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, June 15 to Nov. 30, - 1872; _Id._, _Col. Dec. y Acuerdos_, 1872, 50-1; _Mex._, - _Diario Ofic._, Aug. 9, 1872. Circular of Nic. Min. of For. - Rel., Sept. 5, 1876, referring to his government's fruitless - efforts at mediation between the belligerents, adds that it - finally accepted accomplished facts, and opened relations - with Arias' govt. _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct. 26, 1876. - - [XXII-19] Crescencio Gomez, Máx. Aranjo, Casto Alvarado, - Jesús Inestrosa, and a few others were also pardoned, but - required to stay away from Hond. until after the promulgation - of a new constitution. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 30, 1872; - _Id._, _Semanal Nic._, Nov. 26, 1872. - - [XXII-20] Life, liberty, equality, security, property, - inviolability of domicile, and correspondence, and writings, - freedom of transit, of peaceable assembling, and of the - press, rights of petition, and of preferring against public - officials. - - [XXII-21] Juan N. Venero, of treas. and for. affairs; Miguel - del Cid, of justice, govt, and pub. worship; Andrés Van - Severen, of war. - - [XXII-22] Any Honduran in full possession of his civil - rights, having besides property worth $1,000, or upwards, - or being a licentiate, could be chosen. The only exceptions - were the president of the repub., and the military in active - service. - - [XXII-23] That expedition sailed from Colon, and was led - by Enrique Palacios, Casto Alvarado, Miranda Baraona, and - others. It landed at Utila, one of the Bay Islands, and - organized a govt for Hond., Colindres and Padilla, ministers - of Medina, assuming the executive under art. 30 of the - constitution of 1865, in view of the events of July 1872 - at Omoa. From Utila the exped. proceeded to Trujillo, which - was surrendered June 9th. That part of the plan failed, and - the expedition then went to Puerto Cortés. The invaders had - an understanding with Betancourt, the officer in command at - Omoa, who toward the end of June rebelled with the garrison - of 150 men; but he was attacked and defeated by Streber, of - Arias' govt. It was during this trouble that Streber's troops - pillaged, in July, the mercantile houses of Omoa, foreign as - well as native, which culminated in the bombardment afterward - of the port by a British man-of-war, of which I gave the - details elsewhere. The house of the Am. consul having been - likewise invaded, the government had to give satisfaction, - saluting the U. S. flag March 22, 1874, in the plaza of - Comayagua, in the presence of their representative, troops, - the ministers of state, and others. - - [XXII-24] _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, June 28, July 17, 1872. - - [XXII-25] The remnants of the insurgents fled by the - railroad. _Id._, Aug. 7, 21, 28, Sept. 18, 1873. - - [XXII-26] The constituent congress, called by Arias, - assembled Dec. 14th, and refused to accept his resignation. - It also adopted other measures, which it is unnecessary to - recite here, as they never took effect. - - [XXII-27] A circular of the Nic. minister of foreign - affairs of Sept. 5, 1876, alludes to these events. Further - particulars appear in _Arias_, _Mensaje_, Dec. 14, 1873; - _U. S. Govt Docs._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 43, Sess. 2, i. 141; - _Barrios_, _Mensaje_, Sept. 11, 1876; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, - Jan. 18, 24, Feb, 19, 1874; _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct. 26, - 1876. - - [XXII-28] Leiva seemed to be a non-partisan, a man of - intelligent and liberal views, and a popular favorite. - - [XXII-29] Guat. objected to the treatment awarded Arias, and - sent Ramon Rosa as confidential agent to Leiva to represent - that Arias had been solemnly pledged security for his life - and liberty, and respect for his high character and personal - merits; against which pledge Arias had been kept in prison - and subjected to prosecution. The gov. of Guat. believed that - the men composing that assembly were not competent to try - Arias, for they were reactionists, and he one of the truest - liberals in Cent. Am. Leiva answered, July 8th, that he had - exerted himself in Arias' favor, and that the exile he was - sentenced to he would have undergone of his own accord; for - he could not live in the country for some time. It was for - his own benefit that the terms of the surrender had been - modified. _U. S. Gov. Docs._, H. Ex. Doc., For. Rel., Cong. - 43, Sess. 2, Doc. 1, pt i. 179-80. - - [XXII-30] _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Feb. 5, 12, March 3, 11, - Apr. 4, 1875; _Mex. Mem. Min. Rel._, 1875, annex 3, Doc. 7, - p. 36; _Nic._, _Mem. Sec. Rel. Est._, 1875, vi.-xi., app. - 7-10. - - [XXII-31] The grounds alleged for the revolt were: 1st, - that the liberties of Hond. were under thraldom to Salv., - which had failed to carry out the objects of the revolution - of 1871; 2d, the deplorable state of the finances, because - Amapala had been made a free port; 3d, that the die of Hond. - had been given to Salvador. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Jan. 4, - 5, 21, 30, March 26, 1876; _La Regeneracion_, Oct. 9, 1876. - - [XXII-32] Further particulars in _Pan. Star and Herald_, - March 2 to June 1, 1876, passim; _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, - June 8, Oct. 26, 1876. - - [XXII-33] At this time war broke out between Guat. and - Salvador, and the former sent an army under Solares through - Honduras to operate against Salvador's eastern departments. - Details on these events are given in other chapters on - treating of the relations between the two belligerents. At - the conclusion of peace, Hond. joined them in a treaty of - alliance. - - [XXII-34] He resigned his portfolio Feb. 26th, with the - understanding that he was to be president of Honduras. - - [XXII-35] Negotiated by Cruz Lozano, on behalf of both - Salvador and Medina, and M. Vigil and Luis Bogran for Leiva, - both contestants giving up their claims, and agreeing to - recognize Marcelino Mejía as the provisional president, which - was done. _Id._, June 24, 1876. - - [XXII-36] It was said that Soto had been proclaimed in - several places, and that he enjoyed the confidence of the - governments of Guat., Salv., and Costa R. - - [XXII-37] Another version is that Roderico Toledo arrived at - Comayagua, as commissioner from Guat. and Salv., and demanded - of Gomez the surrender of the executive to Soto, which is - quite possible, Gomez affecting the surrender through his - former chief, Medina. - - [XXII-38] The garrison had declared in his favor on the 21st, - the comandante Col Salvador Ferrandis losing his life. - - [XXII-39] _El Porvenir de Nic._, March 18, 1876; _Pan. Star - and Herald_, Apr. 4, 1876; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., - 44th Cong., 2d Sess., i. 36-9; _Costa R._, _Informe Min. - Rel._, 1876, 11-14. - - [XXII-40] _Soto_, _Mensaje_, May 27, 1877; _Salv._, _Gaceta - Ofic._, June 22, 1877. - - [XXII-41] The order for their trial was issued by the - comandante general of the republic Dec. 12th, the executive - having first, on the 10th, asked the advice of the supreme - court of justice, which was given on the next day. The crimes - preferred against the prisoners were conspiracy, instigation - to rebellion, high treason, and concealment of government - arms. The officers forming the court-martial were Gen. Emilio - Delgado, president, generals Eusebio Toro and Luis Bogran, - colonels Inocente Solís, Belisario Villela, Manuel Bonilla, - Antonio Cerro; auditor de guerra, Justo Cáliz; prosecuting - officer, Gen. Agustin Aguilar. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, - suppl., Feb. 28, 1878; _Voz de Méx._, July 17, 1878. - - [XXII-42] U. S. Minister Geo. Williamson, in reporting these - executions to his gov., Feb. 16, 1878, uses these words: - 'Medina's lack of wisdom in yielding to the selection (as - president) of a man who from the dictates of a cowardly or - cruel policy thought it necessary to select so illustrious a - victim as himself, has led to this deplorable event.... It - is said neither the victims nor any one else believed the - sentence of the council of war would be either approved or - executed.' _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 45, Sess. 3, - i. 79-80. It has been said that the execution of Medina, now - aged and infirm, was in obedience to orders from Barrios. _Un - Guatemalteco_, _Cartas_, 25. - - [XXII-43] Had generals Juan Lopez and J. A. Medina carried - out the order to the letter, every inhabitant of Olancho - would have been annihilated. As it was, 200 men were shot and - 500 hanged, all without trial. _El Porvenir de Nic._, Nov. - 26, 1871. - - [XXII-44] _Diario Cent. Am._, Dec. 27, 1880. - - [XXII-45] The exhibit of the state of affairs, both present - and prospective, was encouraging, and appeared to be well - founded. A synopsis of the address is given in _Pan. Daily - Canal_, March 20, 1883; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 23, - 1883. - - [XXII-46] He was permitted to visit the U. S. and Europe, - where, as the majority of the committee to whom the subject - had been referred said, free from official cares he might - place himself under medical treatment, if necessary. Some - members of the committee favored the acceptance, claiming - it as a matter of justice, but the majority thought it - would cause inconveniences in the orderly march of affairs. - A journal, _La Paz_ of Tegucigalpa, remarked: 'Friends - and enemies of Dr Soto, men and parties the most opposite - in ideas, join in considering that the withdrawal of Dr - Soto would be the precursor of political misfortunes and - catastrophes.' _Id._, Apr. 18, 1883. - - [XXII-47] To adjust Honduras' share of the old federal - debt, which was still unpaid; and to make some settlement - respecting the loans contracted in London and Paris for - constructing the interoceanic railway. - - [XXII-48] A little later Barrios of Guat. claimed that it - was due to his own constant support rather than to Soto's - administration, which he declared to have been bad and - ruinous to Hond. - - [XXII-49] In his journey he was accompanied by his kinsman - and former minister of relations, Ramon Rosa. - - [XXII-50] 'Hasta el punto de valerse de mi, como del pretexto - mejor para justificar el paso de fuga y desercion que ha dado - y se propone consumar; no piense que ese plan tan ruin se - oculta á ninguno.' Both letters are given in full in _Pan._, - _El Cronista_, Aug. 25, 29, 1883; _La República_ (S. F.), - Sept. 1, 8, 1883. - - [XXII-51] _Pan. Star and Herald_, Nov. 17, 1883; _La - República_ (S. F.), Sept. 15, 24, 1883; _Diaz_, _Miscel._, - no. 12, 3. - - [XXII-52] Bogran was quite young, energetic, and frank in his - manners, open-hearted and unpretentious. His character was in - keeping with his appearance. He was master of the political - situation. - - [XXII-53] Rafael Alvarado, of war, education, and justice; - Jerónimo Zelaya, of foreign affairs; Crescencio Gomez, of - govt; Abelardo Zelaya, of treasury and public credit; and - Francisco Planas, of public works. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Rel. - Ext._, 1884, 8; _Costa R._, _Mem. Min. Rel._, 1884, 3; _El - Guatemalteco_, Jan. 19, 1884; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. - 18, 1884. - - [XXII-54] So said _La República_, of Tegucigalpa, official - organ. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Sept. 10, 1885. - - [XXIII-1] All appropriations had been covered, and a portion - of the foreign debt paid. _Presid. Martinez' Mess._, in - _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 19, 1867. - - [XXIII-2] 'Donde la libertad, la seguridad, y el órden no - sean una quimera.' _Nic._, _Manif._, 1867, 1-7. - - [XXIII-3] _Nic._, _Decretos_, 1869-70, 3, 26. It will be - well to mention here that on the 4th of Jan. an attempt had - been made to poison the president with arsenic placed in - pine-apple preserve, of which he, together with his son and - two or three others, partook. - - [XXIII-4] It was remarkable that Martinez, an old - conservative, should be acting in conjunction with and under - Jerez, the confirmed radical democrat. - - [XXIII-5] The grounds alleged by the insurgents were: - 1st. Violation by Guzman of the pledges given at his - inauguration. It was said that as he had detached himself - from the party which raised him to the presidential chair, - and on the other hand, had not shown any predilection for - the old conservatives, who had tried to surround him, the - true liberals had reposed faith in him, but he had not - realized their expectations. Jerez and his associates, on - their return from Costa Rica, had awaited an invitation to - effect a fusion of parties, in order that the people should - see the govt pursuing a liberal and generous policy. Jerez' - advances had been coldly, and even disdainfully, met. Hence - his letter to Guzman of June 26th, telling him that while he - had pretended sympathy for the liberal cause, its friends - had never seen any tangible proof of it. 'Muchas veces V. - ha manifestado simpatías por las causas liberales; pero no - las hemos visto eficaces.' Other charges were: usurpation of - powers, inefficiency, illegal expenditures of public moneys, - nepotism, encouragement to smugglers, etc. At a subsequent - date, after his arms had proved victorious, Guzman denied - that he had done any of the things imputed to him, proudly - asserting that no government had in these latter days - respected the rights of all citizens as his administration - had done, and he challenged one and all to bring forward - proofs that he had before the revolution broke out deprived - any citizen of his life, liberty, or property. Faults may - have been committed by the govt, but it was folly to deny - that republicanism had not become a reality under it. The - knowledge of this by the people confined the revolution - within narrow bounds, and gave victory to Guzman; and it was - by his generosity that the promoters of the rebellion escaped - the consequences of their ill-advised step. - - [XXIII-6] 1. Special attention to primary instruction - supported by the gov.; 2. Freedom to teach; 3. Suppression - of monopolies, and establishment of a single tax; 4. - Protection to industry and trade; 5. Americanism, or unity - on the American continent, for the support and progress of - republican liberty; 6. Restoration of the Cent. Am. union, by - force of arms if necessary; 7. Encouragement of immigration - by liberal measures; 8. Liberal principles in religious - matters, as far as willingly accepted by the gen. convictions - of the people; 9. Abolition of the death penalty; 10. Trial - by jury; 11. Direct elections. This plan was signed by - M. Jerez, T. Martinez, Buenav. Selva, and Francisco Baca. - _Nic._, _Boletin Gob._ (Leon), July 1, 1869. - - [XXIII-7] Holding it till Aug. 11th, when for ill health, - as was made to appear, he turned it over to Martinez. _Id._, - July 30, Aug. 4, 1869. The latter in joining the revolution - said that he had left his retirement 'para ponerme á cubierto - de las demasías y violencias de la administracion.' It - appears, however, that the govt of Guzman had tendered him - the position of minister plenipotentiary in London. _Nic._, - _Gaceta_, June 8, 1867. - - [XXIII-8] Martial law established throughout the republic; - passports were required to leave the same, and to go from one - department to another; a forced loan of $100,000; and a board - created to procure resources for the army. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, - July 3, 1869. A number of citizens known or suspected to - favor the rebellion were arrested and their property seized. - Their friends accused the government of having confined - the prisoners 'en calabozos inmundos, oscuros, y malsanos,' - which is not unlikely. Others fled, among them being Gerónimo - Perez. - - [XXIII-9] 'Proclamar con los revolucionarios la libertad de - cultos, la separacion de la Iglesia y el Estado, la enseñanza - libre.' _Nic._, _Inf. Min. Neg. Ecles._, 1870, 8. - - [XXIII-10] Text of Min. Delgadillo's note in _Nic._, - _Gaceta_, Aug. 14, 1869. - - [XXIII-11] At any rate, no step was taken to check them, - nor effort made on behalf of peace. When the govern. won a - signal victory, and was on the point of attacking Leon, the - bishop went off to Rome, leaving his flock in tribulation. - At the end of the war the vicar acknowledged the guilt of the - parish priests, and by his edict of Nov. 6th suspended them. - But after a while he allowed them one third of the parochial - fees, and the privilege of exercising priestly functions. The - consequence was that they kept up their disorderly behavior, - as well as their hostility to the govt. - - [XXIII-12] Once because the terms proposed by the insurgents - were declared by the government inadmissible; again a - convention was signed Sept. 25th at Masaya, which had - no effect because the authorities at Leon insisted on - amendments. _Nic._, _Boletin Gob._ (Leon), Aug. 4, 19, 28, - Sept. 4, 1869; _Id._, _Informe Min. Gobern._, Doc. no. iv. - 5-6; _Id._, _Doc. Mediacion_, 1-32; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Aug. - 28-Oct. 23, passim; Nov. 6, 1869. - - [XXIII-13] They claimed a signal victory, for which their - commander, Seferino Gonzalez, wounded in the fight, was - promoted to gen. of division. _Nic._, _Boletin Gob._ (Leon), - July 30, Aug. 4, 1869; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 28, 1869. - - [XXIII-14] According to Gen. Jerez' report of Aug. 31st, - the fight lasted from 3 o'clock till dark; Medina's defeat - was complete, losing 360 rifles and 4 pieces of artillery. - The victors also had several prominent officers killed and - wounded. _Nic._, _Boletin Gob._ (Leon), Aug. 31, 1869. - - [XXIII-15] Sept. 12th. The former gen.-in-chief, J. D. - Estrada, an officer who distinguished himself in the campaign - against Walker, had died Aug. 12th. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Sept. - 18, 1869. - - [XXIII-16] _Nic._, _Informe Min. Gobern._, 1870, Doc. iv. 6, - 14-15. - - [XXIII-17] He also asked them to forsake the cause of those - men. The govt had on the 21st, decreed a full pardon to all - who should voluntarily surrender. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 23, - 1869. - - [XXIII-18] Convention of Oct. 24th, between Guzman and - Riotte, associated with Francisco Zamora, the representative - of the insurgent chiefs. 1. Full amnesty. 2. Gen. Sebastian - Gutierrez, one of the two officers asked for by the - revolutionists, was to be made military governor of the dept - of Leon. 3. A constituent congress to be convoked within six - months, or earlier, if possible. 4. The constituent congress - to resolve upon the recognition and payment of the debt - contracted by the revolution, the govt being willing to place - it on the same footing with that incurred by it since June - 25th. 5. The insurgents were to surrender all public arms and - war material of every kind to the person appointed by Guzman - to receive them. Riotte was authorized to do so. 6. Perfect - freedom in the elections about to be made. 7. The government - to place at the head of the departments only peaceably - disposed men, to promote and maintain conciliation between - political parties. 8. The convention to be definitive from - the moment of its being signed, Riotte promising that the - delivery of arms by the insurgents should begin on the 26th. - This convention was ratified at Managua Oct. 25th by Acting - Pres. Chamorro, countersigned by Antonio Falla, sec. of govt - and war. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 8, March 19, 1870; _Nic._, - _Semanal Nic._, Jan. 2, 1873; _Nic._, _Informe Min. Gobern._, - 1870, Doc. iv. In 1870 congress rejected the 3d clause and - approved the 4th. During these troubles the rights of foreign - residents were protected by Min. Riotte. _Id._, _Informe Min. - Rel._, 1870, 1-24. Credit is also due to the efforts of the - commissioners from the other Cent. Am. states to bring about - peace. The revolutionists began the surrender of arms on the - 27th, placing at Riotte's command 20 pieces of artillery, - 2,292 other fire-arms, etc. - - [XXIII-19] _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 30, Nov. 20, Dec. 4, 1869. - - [XXIII-20] 'Por el tino, firmeza, y energía que supo - desplegar en la emergencia por que acaba de pasar Nicaragua.' - _Id._, Jan. 29, 1870; _Nic._, _Decretos Legisl._, 1869-70, - 94. - - [XXIII-21] In his inaugural speech, he promised to follow in - the footsteps of his predecessor, whose policy he extolled, - expressing his acknowledgments. His words were: 'Dejando - en práctica principios políticos, y mejoras materiales, - que antes de él apénas se habian ensayado.' _Id._, March - 4, 11, 1871; _Id._, _Manif. Disc. Inaug._, no. ix.; _Id._, - _Mensaje_, March 1, 1871, 1-10. - - [XXIII-22] Message and reply in _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 8, - 1871. - - [XXIII-23] The gov. encountered much difficulty to effect a - loan, except on ruinous terms. Meantime, the utmost economy - was observed; nearly all public works were at a stand-still. - - [XXIII-24] Their supporters believed that their example would - be beneficial to the morals of the native clergy, which made - a writer remark: 'Debe hacerle mucha cosquilla á nuestros - clérigos, que casi todos son doblemente padres.' _El Porvenir - de Nic._, Dec. 3, 1871. - - [XXIII-25] Its opponents abused Quadra for doing what the - condition of the country required. Easing the treasury, - reforming the administrative system, and restoring public - credit. For this they called him a retrogressionist, a - despot, and a fool; for being a respecter of the laws they - claimed he should be censured. - - [XXIII-26] It was insinuated that the Pan. R. R. Co. might - be underhandedly promoting discord, to throw obstacles in - the way of an interoceanic canal being made in Nic. The - company had been also suspected of doing so in the late war - between Salv. and Hond., to prevent, or at least retard, the - construction of an interoceanic railway in the latter state. - Such reports probably had no foundation in fact. - - [XXIII-27] In Subtiava, dept of Leon, there was a sedition - of Indians, accompanied with murders, and finally the - authorities had to resort to force. _Salgado_, _Mem._, 1-18; - _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 12, 19, 1872. There were scandalous - proceedings in Rivas, Chinandega, Chichigalpa, island of - Ometepe, Matagalpa, and elsewhere. In some places the priests - headed the drunken rabble, armed with clubs and crying Viva - la religion! Mueran los herejes! To the native priests and - jesuits were imputed all the troubles. _El Porvenir de Nic._, - Oct. 20, 1872. - - [XXIII-28] He spoke of certain exiles, 'individuos de órdenes - monásticas, cuyo establecimiento definitivo en el país no - permiten las leyes, pero que permanecen aún asilados.' _Id._, - Jan. 12, 1873; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 11, 1873; _Id._, - _Semanal Nic._, Jan. 2, 1873. - - [XXIII-29] Several members visited him to congratulate him - on the second anniversary of his accession to the executive - office. _Nic._, _Renuncia_, 1-3; _Id._, _Gaceta_, March 8, - 1873. - - [XXIII-30] By a vote of 10 against 5 in the chamber of - deputies. _El Porvenir de Nic._, Feb. 16, 1873; _Nic._, - _Gaceta_, Apr. 12, 1873. - - [XXIII-31] Congress acknowledged that Nic. could not remain - a passive spectator of those events. _Nic._, _Mensaje_, 1-8; - _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Aug. 28, 1873; _El Porvenir de Nic._, - Sept. 7, 1873; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 27, Oct. 4, 18, 1873. - - [XXIII-32] The Costa Rican officer Ramon Tinoco was - implicated. The money—some $22,000—was brought by P. - Salamanca, apparently for the purchase of cattle, but really - for revolutionary purposes. Both Salamanca and Tinoco, when - their plan became known, escaped. _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, - Aug. 28, 1873. - - [XXIII-33] The memorandum of B. Carazo, minister of Guatemala - and Salvador, had for its main objects the overthrow of the - existing govt of Costa R., and the expulsion of the jesuits - from Nicaraguan territory. After a discussion on the latter - point, Carazo no longer insisted on that action. _Nic._, - _Informe Min. Rel._, in _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 18, 1873. In - the last preceding chapter this subject was also mentioned. - - [XXIII-34] _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 198-200; - _U. S. Govt Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 43, Sess. 2, 112, 117, - 123. - - [XXIII-35] Máximo Jerez, though a champion of unity, opposed - the treaty on the ground that it violated that of friendship - with Costa Rica, wherein it was stipulated that neither party - should wage war against the other, nor enter into offensive - alliances without first having asked for explanations; which - formality he claimed had not yet been complied with. _Nic._, - _Gaceta_, Oct. 18, Nov. 8, 1873. The treaty was approved - in the senate by nine votes against two, the two nays being - those of Jerez and Seferino Gonzalez. _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, - Oct. 9, 1873; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Oct. 12, 1873. - - [XXIII-36] The loyal people of Nic. at once manifested their - resolve to sustain the govt. _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Nov. 20, - 29, Dec. 4, 6, 11, 20, 1873; Jan. 3, 10, 1874. - - [XXIII-37] Dec. 6th, to Gen. F. Espinosa, the Salvadoran - commander. _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Gobern_, 1875, 3-5; _Id._, - _Semanal Nic._, Nov. 6-20, 1873; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 15, - Dec. 20, 1873; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Dec. 16, 1873. - - [XXIII-38] The troops were congratulated on their good - fortune in not being used as 'instrumentos inocentes de - venganzas y pasiones ajenas,' as so many before them had - been. _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Jan. 31, 1874. The proprietor - and editor of this journal was A. H. Rivas, the min. of - foreign affairs. - - [XXIII-39] There were a few local riots, and the government - was made the subject of violent abuse in flying sheets. - _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Gobern._, 1875, 7-12; _Id._, _Gaceta_, - Oct. 10, Nov. 21, 1874. - - [XXIII-40] _Nic._, _Mensaje del Presid._, 1-11; _Id._, - _Contestacion_, 1-2; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Feb. 3, 1875. - - [XXIII-41] No policy was laid down by him to be pursued - without deviation, except that in general terms he assured - congress and the people of his disposition to respect the - laws, maintain peace, and do his best for the happiness and - prosperity of his country. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Apr. 10, - 11, 1875. - - [XXIII-42] She placed a large force in Guanacaste, and Nic. - had to station another on the frontier under Gen. Joaquin - Zavala. A plot was discovered in March 1876, and about 20 - prominent persons concerned in it were expelled, some going - to Costa R., and others to Hond. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, - March 22, 26, 1876. - - [XXIII-43] The govt had endeavored to maintain and - develop the harmony which Quadra had established with the - ecclesiastical authorities. The bishop and his clergy - efficaciously impressed on the masses respect for pub. - authority, love for their institutions, and a spirit of - independence. _Nic._, _Mensaje del Presid._, Jan. 24, 1877. - - [XXIII-44] Nov. 15, 1876. Later on the govts of Guat. and - Salv. united their efforts to restore a friendly feeling - betw. Nic. and Costa R., and finally succeeded in their - purpose. _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, June 7, 12, 1877. Relations - were reopened in June 1878. - - [XXIII-45] A visitation of locusts did great havoc in the - corps; and a succession of gales from the 3d to the 5th of - October caused heavy damages in the city and department of - Managua, in Granada, Rivas, and other parts, including a - large portion of Mosquitia, ruining many valuable estates. - - [XXIII-46] _Chamorro_, _Discurso en el acto de entrega_, - March 1, 1879. - - [XXIII-47] He based his conclusion on this ground: 'La - trasmision legal y tranquila del Mando Supremo, que viene - repitiéndose desde tantos años en Nicaragua.' _Nic._, - _Discurso Inaug. del Presid. Zavala_, March 1, 1879; _Salv._, - _Diario Ofic._, Sept. 28, Nov. 12, Dec. 12, 22, 1878; Jan. - 22, March 13, 1879; _Voz de Méj._, May 6, 1879. - - [XXIII-48] The following measures were passed: law of - civil registration; penal code; mode of procedure in - criminal cases; creation of justices of the peace, and - military courts of first resort, to take the place of the - governors of departments, where for greater economy it has - been deemed expedient to suppress these officers, as well - as the respective military garrisons; restoration of the - universities; and the appropriations for the current fiscal - biennial term. It also sanctioned the treaty concluded with - Guat. and Salv. in 1877, and the treaties and conventions - lately entered into with Hond.; namely, amity, commerce, - extradition, exportation of cattle, postal, and telegraphic. - - [XXIII-49] Those on the railway decreed by the assembly - of 1876, and begun by the former administration, were - progressing. Two important contracts were made, one for - navigation on the lake by fair-sized steam vessels, and - another for the construction of a railroad from Chinandega - to Moábita or Leon Viejo, and thence to Granada. The section - between Corinto and Chinandega went into operation Jan. 1st. - Telegraphic lines were in working order. A contract had also - been concluded to lay a submarine cable to connect with the - Mexican telegraphs. - - [XXIII-50] Excise tax on real estates, export duties, and - certain monopolies were abolished. - - [XXIII-51] _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 5, 1881. - - [XXIII-52] Among them were one for amending the constitution, - and for abolishing judicial fees, in order to have gratuitous - administration of justice. An act to seize private lands, - by paying for it, for facilitating the construction of - railroads, was passed. _Id._, Apr. 1, 1881. - - [XXIII-53] It was proved beyond a doubt. _El Porvenir de - Nic._, May 28, 1881. - - [XXIII-54] In exhorting the young to avail themselves of - the advantages the institute would afford them, he said that - christianity was the true basis of education, and added that - liberty of conscience and of speech was necessary for the - perfect education of free men. - - [XXIII-55] Several prominent citizens, among whom were - Ex-president Chamorro, and Ex-minister Rivas, urged the govt - to let the jesuits remain; but their arguments could not - stand against Zavala's determination to rid his country of a - dangerous religious and political body. _Nic._, _Mem. Min. - Gobern._, 1883, 5-6, annexes A and B; _Costa R._, June 9, - 1885; _Pan. Star and Herald_, May 21, June 16-18, 1883; _S. - F. Bulletin_, July 6, 16, 1881. - - [XXIII-56] He was a man about 55 years of age, of small - stature, gray-haired, and wearing spectacles. His sharp, - intelligent eyes showed the man of culture and shrewdness. - - [XXIII-57] He organized his cabinet with the following - ministers: Teodoro Delgadillo, of justice and religion; - Francisco Castellon, of foreign affairs and pub. instruction; - Jose Chamorro, of pub. works; Joaquin Elizondo, of war and - marine. _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Rel._, 1884, 8; _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Oct. 20, Dec. 1, 1882; March 20, Apr. 17, 1883. - - [XXIII-58] Vicente Navas, Enrique Guzman, Gilberto Larios, - and Ladislao Argüello were appointed to represent Nic. at the - conference of delegates of the five republics. - - [XXIII-59] Small-pox and dysentery broke out in several - districts, destroying many lives. The town of San Cárlos - was burned down; and the eruption of Ometepe volcano drove - the inhabitants of that island from their homes. The govt - afforded relief to the sufferers. Other places have been - lately injured by earthquakes. _Nic._, _Mensaje Pres. - Cárdenas_, Jan. 15, 1885; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 3, 4, - 1885. - - [XXIII-60] On the 13th and 14th of March they issued - manifestos to Central Americans in general, as well as - to their own people, inviting them to resist Barrios, - who, as they said, claiming to seek the reconstruction - of the old union, really was bent on conquest for his own - aggrandizement. _Costa R._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 13, 23, - 29, Apr. 2, 1885; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, Sen Jour., 1884-5, - 568-71; _S. F. Call_, March 13, 1885; _S. F. Chronicle_, - March 13, 1885. - - [XXIII-61] _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, June 2, 1885. - - [XXIII-62] They fled in disorder on the approach of govt - troops. Costa R. and Hond. had placed forces on the frontiers - to secure their neutrality. _Id._, Nov. 4, 8, 10, Dec. 4, - 1885; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Dec. 29, 1885. - - [XXIV-1] Urbina was made a brigadier a few months after he - became governor, and died Feb. 22, 1805, on which day the - teniente rey Mata took the govt. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Oct. - 3, 1868. - - [XXIV-2] Each province was ruled by a governor and comandante - de armas, and the partidos by alcaldes mayores, all being, - however, under the governor at the capital, in whose hands - were the superior civil government, the real patronato, - and the superintendency of the treasury. _Pan. Docs._, in - _Pan._, _Col. Docs._, MS., no. 36, 6; _Arosemena_, _Apunt. - Hist._, 3-4; _Id._, in _Pan. Bol. Ofic._, Feb. 25, 1868; - _Arosemena, Mariano_, _Apuntamientos Históricos con relacion - al Istmo de Panamá_, Pan., 1868, 8vo, 48 pp. The author, one - of the prominent citizens who took an active part in the - affairs related by him, and was one of the signers of the - independence, kept a diary of events occurring on the Isthmus - during many years, and in 1868, as he tells us, purposed - the publication of his memoranda from 1801 to 1840. I have - succeeded in obtaining a portion of his writings, and find - them important for the period embraced. Mariano Arosemena - died at Panamá on the 31st of May, 1868. He had several sons - and daughters, one of the former being the distinguished - Colombian statesman, Justo Arosemena, who has held high - diplomatic positions in Europe, the United States, and - South American republics, besides some of the most important - offices in his own country. - - [XXIV-3] _Arosemena_, _Apunt._, 5; _Bol. Of._ (1868), 32. For - the district of Panamá proper, there was, moreover, a high - justice, 'justicia mayor de cruces,' who on entering the city - had power to take cognizance of all affairs laid before the - alcaldes. - - [XXIV-4] In addition to the regular troops of one company - of artillery and one battalion of infantry, distributed in - various places, there were militia forces comprising one - battalion of white and one of colored soldiers at Panamá, an - equal force at Natá, one battalion of whites in Veragua, and - seven companies infantry and artillery scattered in different - places. _Bol. Of._ (1868), 32. - - [XXIV-5] Arosemena, _Apunt._, 10-11, gives several titles - of such books, of which as specimens may be mentioned _Las - Fábulas de Samaniego_, _El Año Cristiano_, _El Semanario - Santo_. - - [XXIV-6] There was a college de propaganda fide of - Franciscans; convents of barefooted Augustinians, Dominicans, - and the order of Mercy; nunneries of la Concepcion and - San Juan de Dios; moreover a hospital, and a charitable - institution, dedicated to Santo Tomás de Villanueva, for poor - women. Hospitals belonging to the order of San Juan de Dios - existed likewise at Natá and Portobello. _Bol. Of._ (1868), - 32. - - [XXIV-7] The transportation into town was effected at night, - and generally in packages, similar in size and shape to those - used for carrying country products to market. _Arosemena_, - _Apunt._, 8. - - [XXIV-8] Prompted by the Franciscans, public processions were - held, at which some persons wore crowns of thorns, others - carried heavy crosses on their shoulders, or ropes round - their necks, etc. - - [XXIV-9] Full particulars on this point have been given in - connection with the histories of Mexico and Guatemala for - that period. - - [XXIV-10] Distinctions of classes, resulting from differences - of color, were natural enough; but the rivalry was now - intense between natives of Spain, and Americans of pure - Spanish descent. - - [XXIV-11] The permission was granted by the governor of - Panamá, and never revoked even though its political influence - became apparent, because of the increase of revenue resulting - from that trade. _Bol. Of._ (1868), 72. - - [XXIV-12] A detailed account of the occurrences at Cartagena - is given in _Restrepo_, _Hist. Col._, ii. 165-8. - - [XXIV-13] The governor of Panamá had hastened to send an - auxiliary force of several hundred men, but it arrived too - late. _Arosemena_, _Apunt._, 19. - - [XXIV-14] 'Una expresion indiscreta que el español Don - José Llorente dijo á Don Francisco Morales ... por la que - despreciaba á los americanos.' _Restrepo_, _Hist. Col._, ii. - 174. - - [XXIV-15] In August the same junta obliged the viceroy to go - to Cartagena, and thence to Spain. _Id._, 191. - - [XXIV-16] Indeed, the authority of the Spanish córtes was - formally recognized by the several provinces as late as - 1811, and it was only afterward that thoughts of absolute - independence were expressed. - - [XXIV-17] The Spanish party ridiculed the aspirations of the - patriots, because of certain dissensions already cropping out - among them. _Bol. Ofic._, 1868, 75. - - [XXIV-18] 'Deben ser el primer objeto de la defensa y de la - tierna solicitud del congreso ... redimiendo las segundas de - las cadenas que hoy las oprimen.' _Arosemena_, _Apunt._, 22; - _Bol. Ofic._, 1868, 75. - - [XXIV-19] He assumed the government at Portobello, Feb. 19th, - and somewhat later transferred himself to Panamá. _Restrepo_, - _Hist. Col._, viii. 28, followed by Perez, _Jeog._, 109. - - [XXIV-20] A letter from the vice-president of the junta - gubernativa at Cartagena to Commandant Ríbon at Mompós let - out the object of the mission. _Arosemena_, _Apunt._, 24. - - [XXIV-21] Gov. Mata had died in 1812, soon after his - promotion to mariscal de campo. He was succeeded by Brigadier - Victor Salcedo, who ruled only a few days. - - [XXIV-22] The cause was dissatisfaction of the regency at - Cádiz because he had remained in Panamá instead of selecting - some other place from which he might have reached Bogotá. - - [XXIV-23] 'Arrancó el ayuntamiento de Panamá con insidiosos - manejos del gobierno de Cádiz el decreto de que fuese el R. - Obispo removido de su silla.' _Torrente_, _Hist. Rev._, ii. - 69. The name of the bishop was Joaquin Gonzalez, who died - in July 1813. His successor was José Higinio Duran y Martel, - mentioned as bishop for the first time in 1814, who was one - of the signers of the independence—_Bol. Of._ (1868), 88—and - still in office in 1821. See also _Pan. Col. Doc._, no. 125, - MS. - - [XXIV-24] Other distinctions, among which an addition to - the coat of arms, were also resolved in the same session. - _Córtes_, _Actas Ord._ (1814), ii. 206. - - [XXIV-25] His decree of May 4, 1814, was carried out on the - Isthmus in August of the same year. _Pan._, _Doc. Hist._, in - _Pan._, _Col. Doc._, no. 36, MS., 8-19. - - [XXIV-26] Bustamante, _Cuad. Hist._, iv. 161-3, gives the - number as 10,473, which agrees with the figures given by - Restrepo, _Hist. Col._, vi. 49; but this authority refers - only to the troops. - - [XXIV-27] This was the principal object; 'asegurar este istmo - en sujecion perpetua á la España, fuera cual fuese el éxito - final de la guerra de la independencia de las colonias de S. - M. C. en el Nuevo Mundo;' which is confirmed by the words of - the royal order of May 9, 1815, speaking of the expedition as - made in view of 'la importancia de poner en el respetable pié - de defensa que conviene, al Istmo de Panamá, llave de ambas - Américas.' _Arosemena_, _Apunt._, 29-30. - - [XXIV-28] The vessel carrying Hore and part of his force - was captured near Cartagena by two small ships belonging - to the revolutionists. _Restrepo_, _Hist. Col._, vi. 95-6; - _Torrente_, _Hist. Rev._, ii. 178-9. - - [XXIV-29] It had been held ad interim by Juan Domingo - Iturralde, _Arosemena_, _Apunt._, 30-1, who was the governor - of Veragua and adjoining districts. _Pan._, _Doc. Hist._, in - _Pan._, _Col. Doc._, no. 36, MS., 8. - - [XXIV-30] Arosemena, _Apunt._, 31, speaks of his 'detestacion - de los principios de gobierno representativo,' and says on - page 42 that he was the man employed by Fernando VII. to - dissolve in 1814 the Spanish córtes. - - [XXIV-31] The king had decreed the reëstablishment of the - order in Spanish America, but it was not carried out on the - Isthmus, there being no members of the society here, nor any - one willing to join it. 'Andábamos ya algo despreocupados,' - says an authority. The society was already looked on as an - agent of despotism and perpetual state of vassalage. _Bol. - Ofic._, 1868, 112. - - [XXIV-32] 'Prometiéndoles ganancias enormes, pero propias de - las circunstancias.' _Restrepo_, _Hist. Col._, vii. 168. - - [XXIV-33] While the assailants had all their attention - centred on Portobello, a Spanish vessel, with $70,000 on - board, passed the port unperceived. _Weatherhead's Darien_, - 29. - - [XXIV-34] MacGregor had probably never read the adventures of - Vasco Nuñez de Balboa. - - [XXIV-35] Weatherhead, _Darien_, 43, says that Spanish - officers in disguise fearlessly walked the streets, and - entered the fort to drink with the men. They had passports - issued by the former alcalde, who had returned after the - occupation of the city, and in whom MacGregor foolishly - placed confidence. - - [XXIV-36] Such is Weatherhead's version. _Darien_, 57-62. - Hore denied having agreed to the capitulation, adding that - he regarded the men as bandits; and had demanded their - surrender at discretion. Restrepo, giving no credence to - Hore's assertion, declares his proceeding 'accion vil, digna - de los jefes españoles de América.' Arosemena says: 'Bajo - capitulacion, ó sin ella, pues esto no es del todo conocido, - se sindieron.' _Apunt._, 38-9. Santa Cruz, who was made - governor of Portobello, shortly after Hore went to Panamá - captured two vessels which had on board about 100 men brought - from England to reinforce MacGregor; but it is unknown what - became of the prisoners. _Restrepo_, _Hist. Col._, vii. - 173-4, 176. - - [XXIV-37] 'Terminó por la ineptitud del gefe esta espedicion - que hizo mucho ruido,' observes Restrepo, _Hist. Col._, - vii. 175. Weatherhead, _Darien_, 63-7, though admitting the - general's incompetency, tries to apologize for his behavior. - - [XXIV-38] This was pursuant to general orders from the king. - The same treatment was to be awarded to persons captured - under similar circumstances, 'sin dar cuenta, ni consultar - á esta superioridad hasta despues de haberlo verificado.' - _Doc._, in _Restrepo_, _Hist. Col._, x. 190. - - [XXIV-39] Weatherhead, _Darien_, 96, speaks of 14, while - Restrepo, _Hist. Col._, vii. 177-8, mentions only 10. - - [XXIV-40] Restrepo says that only 40 had survived, while - Weatherhead gives the figures as in the text. I have in - most cases preferred to follow the latter authority in his - _An Account of the Late Expedition against the Isthmus of - Darien_, London, 1821, pp. 134, map, by W. D. Weatherhead, - as the work was written under the fresh impression of the - events described, and by one whose position and participation - in the expedition as a surgeon enabled him to obtain the - most reliable information. This is furnished, together with - such other historical data as the author, by means of slight - investigation, could procure in addition to the narrative of - the expedition and descriptions of different places on the - Isthmus. Appended is professional information on diseases, - climates, and state of medical science in the province of - Tierra Firme. - - [XXIV-41] The constitution of the Spanish monarchy was - published on the Isthmus about May 1821. Its publication in - Alange took place in that month. _Pan._, _Doc. Hist._, in - _Pan._, _Col. Doc._, MS., no. 36, fol. 26. - - [XXIV-42] Alcaldes—Luis Laso de la Vega, and Mariano - Arosemena. Regidores—Manuel de Arce Delgado, Juan Manuel - Berguido, Pedro Jimenez, Cárlos Icaza, Juan José Calvo, - Remigio Laso, José Pablo Jimenez, and Tadeo Perez. - Secretary—Manuel Maria Ayala. _Arosemena_, _Apunt._, 41-2. - - [XXIV-43] He died July 8, 1820. Arosemena, _Apunt._, 42, - places the death in Aug. Another trouble was his inability to - pay the soldiers, who clamored for their dues. _Weatherhead's - Darien_, 116-17. - - [XXIV-44] The application of municipal revenue to local - purposes; and that the police be composed of citizens under - the control of the cabildo; the military patrols should be - discontinued. - - [XXIV-45] Many families abandoned the city to escape his - persecutions. - - [XXIV-46] His influence was to be seen, nevertheless, in the - low tone of the press, and in the discontinuance of political - meetings. - - [XXIV-47] Their names are given in _Bol. Of._ (1869), 31. - - [XXIV-48] _Restrepo_, _Hist. Col._, viii. 28; _Arosemena_, - _Apunt._, 47. - - [XXIV-49] Perez, _Jeog._, 110, calls him Murjea. - - [XXIV-50] His arrival at Chagres is set down by Arosemena, - _Apunt._, 47-8, on the 2d of Aug., 1821; others place him - in Panamá on the 17th. _Restrepo_, _Hist. Col._, viii. 29; - _Perez_, _Jeog._, 110. - - [XXIV-51] Porras had been transferred to Yucatan, and his - successor, Brigadier Tomás Cires, had been detained at Puerto - Cabello. _Arosemena_, _Apunt._, 48. Fábrega was the governor - of Veragua and adjoining districts. _Pan._, _Doc. Hist._, in - _Pan._, _Col. Doc._, MS., no. 36, 25. - - [XXIV-52] The church lent him some money, and he obtained - $20,000 more from the sale of armament to Peru. _Bol. Ofic._, - 1869, 31. - - [XXIV-53] Mourgeon had the idea of taking with him some - persons whom he suspected of disloyalty, but desisted. - _Arosemena_, _Apunt._, 48. - - [XXIV-54] 'No declararon el gobierno que se daban, ni cosa - alguna sobre los negocios de la transformacion política: - novicios, se contentaron con llamarse independientes.' _Bol._ - _Ofic._, 1869, 31. - - [XXIV-55] The commissioners were José María Chiari and Juan - de la Cruz Perez. - - [XXIV-56] Mollien, _Colombie_, ii. 140-1, asserts that the - officers were induced to desert, partly by threats, and - partly by paying them two months' arrears due them by the - government. - - [XXIV-57] Blas, Mariano, and Gaspar Arosemena, and José María - Barrientos. - - [XXIV-58] The deserters became so many recruits for an - independent army. - - [XXIV-59] 'Panamá, espontáneamente, y conforme al voto - general de los pueblos de su comprension, se declara libre - é independiente del Gobierno español.' Bol. _Ofic._, 1869, - 32. The anniversary of the independence has been ever since - celebrated with due honors on the 28th of November. - - [XXIV-60] Some had favored absolute independence, and others - union with Peru. - - [XXIV-61] The military were left free to stay or leave the - Isthmus. In the latter event they would be furnished means to - go to Cuba, provided they pledged themselves not to use arms - against the independent states of America. Similar provisions - were made for soldiers and officers detained by sickness. - Another document speaks only of defraying the expenses to - Chagres or Portobello, the transfer to be made as soon as the - forts there surrendered. _Pan. Doc._ - - [XXIV-62] In the _Bol. Of._ (1869), 32, the names of 25 - are given, whereas a printed copy of the act in _Pan. Doc._ - gives four more. Other copies of the text will be found in - the _Gac._, _Imp. Mex._ (1821), ii. 110-12; _Gac._, _Guad._ - (1822), 315-16; _Am. St. Pap._, iv. 832-5; _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Nov. 28, 1883. - - [XXIV-63] Niles, _S. Am. and Mex._, ii. 118, gives the day - as Dec. 15th, a date also vaguely indicated by Scheffer in - _Revue Amér._, i. 183. - - [XXIV-64] The motion had been made by the inhabitants of - Natá, and was adopted by the citizens assembled at Santiago - under the presidency of Casimiro del Bal, the political - chief ad interim. The oath of independence included also - the condition to uphold the Roman catholic religion, and to - defend the purity of the virgin Mary. The full text is given - in _Veraguas_, _Acta de Independencia_, in _Pan. Col. Doc._, - no. 54, a certified manuscript copy of the original record in - the archives of Santiago. - - [XXIV-65] 'Otros pensaron que viniera otra espedicion - española sin que tuviéramos previo conocimiento de ella.' - _Bol. Ofic._, 1869, 32. - - [XXIV-66] 'Con esta clase de pasaporte zarparon del puerto, - diciendo, sin embargo, que no podian llevar á efecto el - convenio.... Pero mas tarde se entregaron, al fin, al - Gobierno republicano del Perú.' _Bol. Ofic._, 1869, 32. - From that time, it is believed no Spanish war vessel visited - the Isthmus till August 1863, when, though Spain had not as - yet recognized Colombia's independence, a squadron of that - nation entered Panamá Bay. The visit was altogether friendly. - _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 71. - - [XXIV-67] Copies of the various constitutions framed from - 1811 to 1821 will be found in _Restrepo_, _Hist. Col._, i. - 135-42; viii. 5-19, 221-44; ix. 5-31; x. 37-54. A French - translation of the last of Aug. 30, 1821, appears in - _Colombia Const._, in _Ancillon_, _Mélanges Pol._, 9-120, and - commented on in _Revue Amér._, i. 186-215. - - [XXIV-68] _Veraguas_, _Decretos del Libertador Bolívar, - Presidente de Colombia_, 1827-8, in _Pan. Col. Docs._, MS., - no. 64. - - [XXIV-69] _Pan. Comand. gen. del istmo_, in _Pan. Col. Doc._, - MS., no. 30, p. 3-8, 11. The Spanish córtes, not knowing - what had occurred on the Isthmus, authorized the government, - Apr. 30, 1822, to create an intendencia in Panamá. _Córtes_, - _Diario, _, 1822, v. Apr. 30, 2. - - [XXIV-70] _Alaman_, _Hist. Méj._, v. 581-2; _Méx._, _Col. - Órd. y Dec._, ii. 38-9. - - [XXIV-71] _Seemann's Voy._, i. 301. In Veragua orders were - issued, July 23, 1822, to register in future as free all - colored children born of slave mothers. In 1847 there were - only about 380 slaves in the province of Panamá. The national - government in April of that year prohibited the importation - and exportation of slaves. In the latter part of 1849 there - were left in the province of Chiriquí only 32 slaves, and - measures were proposed for their manumission. _Gov. Herrera's - mess._, Sept. 15, 1847, in _Bogotá_, _Gaceta Ofic._, Feb. 6, - 1848; _Pan. Col. Doc._, MS., nos. 81, 82; _Chiriquí_, _Mem. - de su prim. gobr_, in _Id._, no. 85, p. 10-11. - - [XXIV-72] Soon after there were no slaves in the country. - _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 32-3; _Pan._, _Crón. Ofic._, Jan. - 22, March 29, Aug. 29, 1852; _S. F. Daily Herald_, Feb. - 9, 1852. It was currently reported, and indeed with good - foundation, that a plot was carried out by certain parties - from Cartagena, in or about 1862, who ran off a number of - colored men and women of Panamá to Cuba, where they were sold - into slavery. _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, Nov. 27, 1862. - - [XXV-1] It was supposed that France, now under an absolute - king, by the prompting of the alliance, had conceived a vast - plan for the conquest of the Spanish American countries, - which till within a few years had been under the catholic - king's domination. Many eminent men in Europe and the U. S. - approved the idea of the American congress, and bestowed - high encomiums on its author. Abbé de Pradt championed it - in his work, _Congrés de Panamá_, saying: 'The congress of - Panamá will be one of the greatest events of our times, and - its effects will be felt to the remotest posterity.' _Pradt_, - _Cong. de Pan._ (Sp. Transl.), 171. - - [XXV-2] The plenipotentiaries of the U. S. were R. G. - Anderson, then minister to Bogotá, and J. Sergeant. Anderson - died at Cartagena while on his journey to the Isthmus. - Sergeant arrived too late, but afterward proceeded to Mexico - for the purpose of carrying out his instructions. Full - particulars on the course of the U. S. government will be - found in _Niles' Reg._, xxviii. 131-2; xxix. index 'Panamá' - and 'Congress,' subhead 'Pan.;' xxx. index, p. iv., p. vii., - 54-172, passim, 248; xxxi. index 'Pan.,' 263, 318, 400, 16, - 38, 44-7, 65, 129, 312-16; xxxii. 214, 282, 308; xxxvi. index - 'Pan.', p. iii., 23-80, passim; _Benton's Thirty Years_, i. - 65-9; _Am. St. Pap._, For. Rel., v. 834-40, 899-905, 916-20; - vi. (new set) 356-65, 383-4, 555; _U. S. Cong. Debates_, - 1825-6, i. index, p. ii. iii. viii. x.; ii., app. p. 43-105; - _Id._, 1828-9, Index, p. i.; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, Cong. 19, - Sess. 1, H. Doc., 740; _Id._, H. Ex. Doc. 144, viii.; _Id._, - Cong. 19, Sess. 2, H. Ex. Doc. 23, ii. St. Pap.; _Id._, - Cong. 19, Sess. 2, Sen. Doc., i. p. 9, vol. i.; _Id._, Cong. - 19, Sess. 1, Sen. Jour., 411-70; _Id._, Cong. 19, Sess. 1, - Rept Commit., ii. Doc. 137, app. nos. 36-41; _Pan. Miss. - Speeches_; _Johnson's Speech on Pan. Miss._; _Hayne's Speech - on Pan. Miss._, _Mayer's Mex. as it was, etc._, 368; _Rev. - Amér._, 111-25, 542-8; _Dem. Rev._, i. 489; _Young's Am. - Statesman_, 352-61; _Lafond_, _Voy._, i. bk. i. 289-90; _N. - Am. Rev._, xxi. 162-76; _Am. Annual Reg._, 1825-6, 79-126; - _Pub. Doc._ 49, 103. - - [XXV-3] Dawkins, the British commissioner, according to - Restrepo, _Hist. Revol. Colombia_, acted with commendable - frankness. He limited himself to imparting good advice, - assuring the Sp. Am. plenipotentiaries that his government - would assuredly mediate with Spain; meantime they should - avoid all cause of offence to European powers. Col Van Veer, - the gentleman from Holland, held no public capacity; his - mission was a private one, confined to the expression of his - sovereign's warm wishes for the happiness of the American - republics. _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 186-90. - - [XXV-4] Their representatives were: for Colombia, Pedro - Gual and Pedro Briceño Mendez; for Central America, Pedro - Molina and Antonio Larrazábal; for Peru, Manuel de Vidaurre - and Manuel Perez de Tudela; and for Mexico, José Mariano - Michelena and José Dominguez. _Santangelo_, _Cong. Pan._, - 1-166. - - [XXV-5] In proof of the assertion, Colombia was to furnish - 15,250 men of the three arms, one line-of-battle ship of 70 - to 80 guns, one frigate of 64, and two of 44. These vessels - would cost her nearly two and a quarter million dollars, - besides the expense to maintain them armed, manned, and - otherwise thoroughly equipped. Where was Colombia, already - burdened with a considerable annual deficit, to get the means - for supporting such an army and navy? - - [XXV-6] On the 8th of Aug., 1826, he wrote to Gen. Paez from - Lima: 'The congress of Panamá, an admirable institution were - it more efficacious, resembles the Greek lunatic that wanted - to direct from a rock the sailing of ships. Its power will - be but a shadow, and its decrees mere counsels.' _Caicedo_, - _Union Lat. Am._, 33-10, 97-110. - - [XXV-7] There were doubtless other reasons, such as the - agitations menacing Colombia, fear of an invasion by France - in the name of the holy alliance; or the bad climate and lack - of facilities in Panamá. _Méx._, _El Sol_, no. 1203; _Guat._, - _Redaitor Gen._, suppl. to no. 27; _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. - Cent. Am._, i. 138-9. - - [XXV-8] The enemies of Bolívar accused him of aiming, through - an American league, at the control of all Spanish America - to make himself its ruler. The following authorities have - also treated more or less fully of the Panamá congress: - _Mora_, _Revol. Mej._, i. 354-8; _La Palanca_, Sept. 14, - Oct. 26, 1826; _Zavala_, _Revol. Mex._, i. 389-90; _Cuevas_, - _Porvenir_, 387-497; _Mex._, _Mem. Rel._, 1827, Doc. 2, - 11-13; _Bustamante_, _Voz de la Patria_, ii. no. 15, 2-3; - _Amigo del Pueblo_, ii. no. 5, 132-3; iii. 395-419; iv. - 223-4; _Cor. Fed. Mex._, Nov. 28, 1826; _Rivera_, _Hist. - Jalapa_, ii. 395-6; _Tornel_, _Breve Reseña_, 48-50; _Gaz. - Mex. Extraord._, 1826, i. no. 5; _Mex._, _Gac. de Gob._, July - 4-Sept. 21, 1826, passim; _Tucker's Monroe Doctrine_, 23-36. - - [XXV-9] The capital of Spanish Guiana, near the Orinoco and - Old Guiana. - - [XXV-10] Among the governors of Veragua were, in Jan. 1823, - José M. Chiari; in June 1823, Miguel A. Figueredo; in 1824-5, - Pedro Guillen; and in 1828, F. Fábrega. Gov. of Panamá, - 1826, J. J. Argote. Intendente and comandante general of - the departm. of the Isthmus in 1827, Col Man. Muñoz; in June - 1828, J. Sardá. _Veraguas_, _Gob._, in _Pinart_, _Pan. Col. - Doc._, MS., no. 29, 34; _Pinart_, _Pan. Col. Doc._, MS., no. - 2, 80, et seq. - - [XXV-11] José Vallarino of Panamá was one of its members, - and soon after was made vice-president, and a little later - councillor of state. A popular man in his section, he was - at one time thought of for a senatorship, and at another for - the presidency of the republic. In 1816 he had been the royal - treasurer, an office conferred on him as a reward of his own - past services, as well as of those of his father, Bernardo, - and his uncle, Bruno, who had been a member of the council - of the Indies. At the separation from the mother country he - joined the independent movement, afterward holding several - honorable positions. His descendants live on the Isthmus. - _Id._, no. 1, 1-8. - - [XXV-12] Since 1829 Nueva Granada had been divided into - departments with a prefect at the head of each. The prefect - of Panamá was J. Sardá. His rule was despotic, involving the - abuse of prominent citizens, and levying a forced loan for - pretended defence of the Isthmus. _Sardá, J._, _Decreto_, May - 25, 1829. He was executed at Bogotá in 1833 under sentence of - the law for a plot to murder the president. _Necrología_, in - _El Constitucional del Istmo_. - - [XXV-13] Their functions were those of the former prefect. - _Pinart_, _Pan. Coll. Doc._, MS., no. 62. - - [XXV-14] The constitution of 1830, of the old republic, - had been in force till now. _Obando, J. M._, _Decreto_, - in _Pinart_, _Pan. Coll. Miscell. Pap._, no. 14; _El - Constitutional del Istmo_, Jan. 14, 28; Apr. 21, May 7, 14, - 28, 1832; _Veraguas_, _Recop. Ordenanzas_, 20. - - [XXV-15] The following authorities appear in official - documents: Province of Panamá, 1832-3, Gov. Juan José Argote; - in 1834, acting gov., M. A. Hurtado; in 1836-8, Gov. Pedro - Obarrio. Prov. of Veragua, in 1874, Gov. M. J. Guisado; - in 1835-7, Gov. Manuel de Ayala. In 1836 Veragua had a - provincial legislature. _Pinart_, _Pan. Col. Doc._, MS., no. - 25, no. 31, p. 4, 12, 18, 38, 40, 75, 91; nos. 59, 65, 78, - 104; _El Constitutional del Istmo_, May 7, 14, 1832; Oct. - 30, 1824; Aug. 30, 1836; _Registro Ofic._, _N. Gran._, 8; - _Veraguas_, _Esposic._, in _Pinart_, _Pan. Col. Doc._, MS., - no. 76. - - [XXV-16] For which he was awarded thanks. _El Constitutional - del Istmo_, Dec. 28, 1831. - - [XXV-17] Dec. 3, 1831. _Id._, Dec. 21, 1831. - - [XXV-18] Lieut Melchor Duran, and Brevet Sub-lieutenant F. - Casana of the battalion No. 9. _Id._, March 14, 1832. - - [XXV-19] During the past nine years the Isthmus seems to - have enjoyed comparative quiet. In Sept. 1833, the provincial - legislature chose Agustin Tallaferro deputy to the national - congress, and Juan de la Cruz Perez his suplente. _Id._, - Sept. 15, 1833. - - [XXV-20] He accompanied resolutions of the officials, heads - of families, and other citizens of Santiago to remain under - the national authority, and lend no aid to any attempt to - sever the connection or promote public disturbance. _El - Constitucional de Cundinamarca_, March 27, 1842. - - [XXV-21] He said: 'Marcharé hasta donde sea necesario para - arreglanos con Veraguas definitivamente.' Though hoping that - for the common interest, the voice of peace will be heeded, - 'la fuerza alcanzará lo que se le ha negado á la fraternidad - y á los principios.' _Gaceta del Istmo_, Sept. 15, 1840, in - _Pinart_, _Pan. Coll. Doc._, no. 3; _Herrera_, _Decreto_, in - _Pinart_, _Miscell. Pap._, no. 13. - - [XXV-22] Costa Rica recognized the independence of the - Isthmus, and entered with Obarrio into a convention of amity - and trade. The boundary question was left open for future - settlement. _Gaceta del Istmo_, Oct. 20, 1841; _Costa R._, - _Col. Ley._, vii. 234-6. - - [XXV-23] This was acknowledged on the 16th of October, - 1841, by F. W. Byrne, acting Brit. consul, in a note to Sec. - Arosemena. - - [XXV-24] Meantime José Agustin Arango, sec. of war, had been - engaged in regulating the national guard. _Id._, Sept. 20, - 1841. - - [XXV-25] It is understood that the commissioners were not - even clothed with sufficient powers; but the chief men - surrendered the Isthmus to them. The men of the revolution, - José Obaldía, Pedro de Obarrio, Mariano Arosemena, Cárlos de - Icaza, José Agustin Arango, and others, now left Herrera to - the consequences. - - [XXV-26] Gen. Herrera fell in battle, not in the state of - Panamá, on the 4th of Dec., 1854, in defence of liberal - institutions. The legislature of Pan., Sept. 22, 1855, - decreed that several of his portraits should be placed in - official halls. In Oct. 1857 it appropriated $3,000 to bring - his remains to Panamá; in May 1868 a monument was decreed. - A statue of the general was placed in the cathedral plaza - of the city of Panamá. _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, Sept. 29, - 1855; _Id._, Oct. 15, 1857; _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, Jan. 8, - May 12, 1868. - - [XXV-27] Gen. Tomás C. Mosquera, commander-in-chief of the - forces on the coast, Aug. 1, 1842, at Panamá, granted in - the name of his government an amnesty to the revolutionists. - Again, March 15, 1845, congress passed a general amnesty law, - including all persons who participated in the rebellion from - 1839 to 1842. _Pinart_, _Pan. Col. Doc._, MS., no. 31, 183-5; - _N. Gran._, _Ley. y Dec._, 1-2; _Seemann's Hist. Isth. Pan._, - in _Pan. Star and Herald_, May 14, 1868. The rulers of the - provinces of Panamá and Veragua in the following years are - given in continuation: Gov. of Panamá in 1843, Miguel Chiari; - in 1844-5, Col Anselmo Pineda; in 1845, Joaquin M. Barriga, - with José Agustin Arango as government secretary. Intendente - gen. de hacienda in 1848, Mariano Arosemena. Gov. of Veragua - in 1840-2, Cárlos Fábrega; acting-gov. in 1843, José Fábrega - Barrera; in 1843-5, Antonio del Rio; in 1845-9, Escolástico - Romero; in June 1849, Diego García; in Aug. 1849, Ricardo de - la Parra; in 1850-2, J. Fábrega Barrera; in 1852, Francisco - de Fábrega; in Oct. 1853, Eustasio Fábrega; in 1855, Agustin - Lopez; May 15, 1855, Francisco Fábrega. Appointed gov. Aug. - 1855, Agustin Lopez. _Pinart_, _Pan. Col. Docs._, MS., nos. - 17, 21, 31, 53, 57-8, 68-75, 79, 105; _El Movimiento_, Dec. - 29, 1844; _Veraguas_, _Recop. Ordenanzas_, 2-66; _Pan._, - _Gaceta del Est._, Aug. 28, 1855; _N. Gran._, _Ley. y Dec._, - 1-3. - - [XXV-28] Aug. 1, 1849, the electoral junta chose one - proprietary senator, Antonio Villeros, and his suplente, - Nicolás Lopez; one deputy, Domingo Arosemena, and his - substitute, Gabriel Diez, to the national congress; seven - deputies and an equal number of suplentes, to constitute the - provincial legislature. The first local legislature met Sept. - 15th, and closed the session on the 24th of Oct. From this - time the new province had the following governors, namely: - July 24 to Dec. 20, 1849, Pablo Arosemena; Dec. 20, 1849, - acting gov. Juan Man. Gallegos; June 1850, P. Arosemena - again in office till Aug. 1851, when Rafael Nuñez succeeded - ad int.; Sept. 1851 to 1852, Francisco Esquivel; Sept. - 1852, Escolástico Romero; 1854, Santiago Agnew; Aug. 1855, - Domingo Obaldía, against whom complaints were made of abuses - of power. _Pinart_, _Pan. Coll. Doc._, MS., 2-11, 31, 46-8, - 83-93; _U. S. Govt Doc._, Cong. 36, Sess. 2, House Ex. Doc., - vi. 41, p. 59; _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, Dec. 1, 1855. - - [XXV-29] The first official doc. I have found with the - name of Fábrega in a decree of the gov. of July 25, 1850. - _Pinart_, _Pan. Coll. Doc._, MS., no. 89, p. 59-60. - - [XXV-30] Chiriquí's capital, David; Veragua's, Santiago; - Azuero's, Villa de los Santos. The first gov. of Azuero, - receiving like the rest his appointment from the gen. - government, was Juan Arosemena, in 1851. Antonio Baraya - became gov. in April 1852. _Gobn. Prov. Azuero_, in _Pinart_, - _Pan. Coll. Doc._, MS., no. 43. - - [XXV-31] Annexed to Veragua. _Sac. Daily Union_, May 18, - 1855; _Veraguas_, _Ord. y Resol._, in _Pinart_, _Pan. Coll. - Doc._, no. 6; _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, Sept. 15, 1855. - - [XXV-32] Dated June 22, 1850. _Chiriquí_, _Ofic. de la - Gobn._, in _Pinart_, _Pan. Coll. Doc._, MS., no. 84; - _Chiriquí_, _Decretos_, in _Id._, MS., no. 89; _Chiriquí_, - _Inf. Gen. del Canton_, in _Id._, MS., no. 41. - - [XXV-33] The local authorities were paid out of the national - treasury. Chiriquí could not tax the inhabitants. - - [XXV-34] The vice-consul's release; restoration with all - respect and publicity to the consulate of its archives and - other effects, together with satisfaction to the British - government, and a compensation of £1,000 to Russell. _Peña y - Peña_, _Práctica Forense_, iii. 375-94; _Scarlett's S. Am._, - ii. 257-9; _Mensaje_, _Presid. N. Gran._, 1837. - - [XXV-35] British war vessels made a demonstration at Panamá - the following year. _S. F. Alta Cal._, Dec. 1, 1856; _S. F. - Even. Bulletin_, Jan. 2, May 16, 1857. - - [XXV-36] They said it was notorious that no passenger arrived - at either end of the route without being abused, robbed, - or otherwise maltreated; many had been wounded, and not a - few murdered; hardly a party passed without their baggage - being plundered; women were insulted, and even outraged. No - effort had been made by the authorities to ferret out the - perpetrators of such crimes. _Pan._, _La Crónica Ofic._, - March 1, 1854. - - [XXV-37] The governor did not fail to mention that in several - instances his troops had done valuable service in protecting - treasure and recovering stolen property, without claiming or - receiving pay. - - [XXV-38] Runnels acted with characteristic energy. Without - scandal or noise, he captured one by one the banditti that - infested the roads, and out of sight and without witnesses, - other than his own men, had the criminals hanged and buried. - Those of this class that did not fall into the hands of - the Isthmus guard made haste to leave the country, which - soon was cleared of foreign evil-doers. This object being - accomplished, the guard was dissolved, its valuable services - being fully appreciated. The governor had no authority for - his action, but no fault was found with him. The measure had - been one of absolute necessity; 'fué redentora.' _Maldonado_, - _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, 9. Runnels in after years lived in - Nicaragua, and died of consumption in Rivas, July 7, 1882, - aged 52. _Pan. Star and Herald_, July 22, 1882. - - [XXV-39] Jefe Superior Justo Arosemena wrote Consul Ward a - courteous letter of explanation on the 29th of Sept. _Pan._, - _Gaceta del Est._, Oct. 3, 1855. - - [XXV-40] Ships and passengers had been paying a moderate - sum, and when the official's greed was aroused to levy a - burdensome tax, formal objection to it was made. - - [XXV-41] It added that the policy of demanding such a tax - would be detrimental to the interests of the Isthmus. The - whole correspondence appears in _Pan. Crón. Ofic._, March 10, - Apr. 10, May 23, 1854; _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, Nov. 3, 10, - 18, 1855; _Id._, Dec. 11, 1856; _S. F. Alta_, Sept. 20, 1856; - _Sac. Union._, Sept. 22, 1856; _S. F. Bulletin_, Sept. 30, - 1856; Minister Herran to Sec. Marcy, Dec. 8, 1856, in _Pan._, - _Gaceta del Est._, March 28, 1857. - - [XXV-42] It must be confessed that the impression caused - by the influx of foreigners, parading the streets, many of - them armed with bowie-knives and revolvers, often incited by - intoxication and gambling to acts of lawlessness, was not a - favorable one. They often appeared to the natives as lawless - invaders. The laws were not framed for the emergency, and the - authorities were powerless to stop the scandals occurring - every day in the streets. Robberies and other crimes among - the foreigners themselves were common. Gambling-houses, in - violation of law, were publicly kept, exhibiting strange - signs, such as Card Room, Owls' Club, etc. Once a crowd of - Americans fell upon the small guard of the jail, disarmed it, - and set free some of their countrymen. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos - Polít. Pan._, MS., 2, 5-6. A writer relates that he saw - ruffians in 1850 throw filth on religious processions. Once - an American rode a mule into the cathedral, and tried to make - it drink from the baptismal font. Fortunately Theller, an - American resident, interfered. 'Often the dirty red-shirted - fellows would stride into the chapels and light their cigars - at the altar.' _Cal. Chronicle_, May 20, 1856. - - [XXV-43] The trouble originated in the act of a drunken man - named Jack Oliver, who seized a slice of watermelon from a - fruit stall, and refused to pay for it. Simultaneously and - without preconcertion, fights occurred between parties of - passengers and the colored population in various parts of - the town. The city was soon in commotion. Residents retired - to their homes and barred themselves in. The fights lasted - about three hours, when the foreigners were driven into - the depot. The negroes, who had formerly been humble and - submissive to the whites, remembered on that day the abusive - treatment often received by them at the hands of transient - foreigners; but did not confine their expressions of - hatred to foreigners only, for they transversed the streets - crying, Mueran los blancos! They were now ungovernable. They - rushed to the Panamá depot—at a moment when from 250 to 300 - passengers of both sexes and all ages, landed at Colon from - the steamship _Illinois_, were procuring their tickets for - San Francisco—and began firing at the building, hitting one - man. The doors were then closed, and some of the passengers - armed themselves. It has been stated by eye-witnesses that - some of the armed passengers went out and discharged their - arms at the black mob before any shot had been fired at - the building; but the weight of testimony is against this - assertion. U. S. Consul Ward came on horseback, saying that - the government at his request would soon send a force to - quell the disturbance. The force did come, but instead of - affording protection to the passengers huddled in the depot, - fired a volley of musketry in their midst, and followed it - by others, besides stray shots. The only reasons assigned - for this conduct of the force were that it sympathized with - the mob, or was awed by it. The latter was the real cause. - The active firing from the outside continued about one and - a half hours even after it had ceased from the inside. The - mob for a time did not succeed in entering the building, but - finally broke into the baggage-room, killing and wounding - several persons. Fortunately, the rabble was bent more on - plunder than slaughter. It is said that even the wounded had - their boots pulled from their feet and carried away. Many - robberies had also been committed by the negroes in the city, - principally in shops and barrooms. _S. F. Bulletin_, May 1-3, - 17, Aug. 30, Oct. 14, Dec. 17, 1856; _Cal. Chronicle_, May - 20, 1856; _Sac. Union_, May 5, 13, 1856; _S. F. Alta_, May 2, - 3, 18, 1856. - - [XXV-44] Totten, chief engineer of the railroad, and Ward, - in their protests held Fábrega's government responsible, - and claimed damages. They also demanded protection for the - passengers and treasure then expected from California on - the _Golden Gate_. Fábrega, upon the latter point, gave - the required assurances, recommending that the railroad - officials should also adopt precautionary measures. In his - report to the supreme government on the 22d of April, 1856, - he denied the charges preferred against him by Totten and - Ward, declaring that the whole affair had been sudden and - unpremeditated; and he, as well as the gens d'armes had the - best intentions to protect the passengers, and the firing - upon them had been unauthorized, though resulting from the - fact that the passengers had continued shooting. He kept to - himself, however, that fear for the lives of himself and the - few other white people of the city, which were in great peril - from the infuriated blacks, had deterred him from attacking - the mob. The latter was calmed and dispersed only through the - good offices, called for by Fábrega, of the influential men - among the negro population. _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, Apr. - 26, May 3, 10, 27, 1856. - - [XXV-45] On their landing at Colon, the other steamship was - ready at Panamá to receive them and put off as soon as they - were on board. They traversed the Isthmus without scarcely - setting foot on the soil. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, - MS., 11-12. - - [XXV-46] _Corwine's Rep. and Coll. of Evidence_, 1-69; _U. - S. Govt Doc._, Cong. 34, Sess. 1, vol. xi., H. Ex. Doc., no. - 103, 154-76. - - [XXV-47] It stipulated a board of arbitration composed - of commissioners of both governments to award upon claims - presented prior to Sept. 1, 1859. The total amount of awards - N. Granada would pay in equal semiannual instalments, the - first, six months after the termination of the commission; - and the whole payment to be completed within eight years; - each of the sums bearing interest at 6 per cent per annum. - To secure said payments, N. G. govt appropriated one half - of the compensation accruing to her from the Panamá railroad - company; if such fund should prove insufficient, it was then - to provide for the deficit from its other sources of revenue. - _U. S. Govt Doc._, Cong. 36, Sess. 2, Sen. Miscell., no. 13, - 1-7. After the riot the federal government endeavored to have - a force on the Isthmus to protect foreign interests, which it - should have done before. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, - MS., 10-11. - - [XXV-48] _U. S. Govt Doc._, Cong. 35, Sess. 2, H. Ex. Dec., - no. 2, 21, 22, vol. ii. pt i.; _Id._, Id., Sen. Doc., no. 33, - x. 1-3. - - [XXV-49] Thomas Savage, U. S. acting consul-general at - Habana, had sent timely notice of their plans. They were - taken with arms, munitions of war, and written proof of their - intent. - - [XXV-50] Calancha, president of Panamá, pleaded that he had - no authority to allow it; the national constitution reserving - to the general government of Colombia the control of the - foreign relations. _Bidwell's Pan. Isth._, 207-11. - - [XXV-51] They were sentenced by court-martial, their chief - to death, and the others to imprisonment at hard labor; the - sentence of the first was commuted, and all were released - at or before the termination of the war. _Hogg et al._ v. - _U. S._, 1-22; _S. F. Call_, Nov. 26, 1864; May 25-31, June - 6-8, July 6, 16, 1865; _S. F. Bulletin_, Nov. 28, 29, Dec. 7, - 1864; May 22, 1865. - - [XXV-52] This affair took place about one month prior to that - of the prisoners arrested on the _Salvador_. _Bidwell's Pan. - Isth._, 206. - - [XXV-53] Questions of neutrality with Spain during the Cuban - revolution in 1871-2; and in 1880, at the time of the war of - Chile against Peru and Bolivia, on the subject of contraband - of war passing through for the uses of either belligerent. - _Gaceta de Pan._, Sept. 21, 1871; Apr. 12, 1872; July 4, 15, - Sept. 2, 16, Nov. 7, 1880. - - [XXV-54] _Pan. Star_, March 29, 1850; _Polynesian_, vii. 42, - 50; _Holinski_, _La Californie_, 83; _S. F. Alta_, Mar. 22, - Apr. 3, 1851; _S. F. News_, Apr. 3, 1851. The most serious - one was on the 22d and 23d of Oct., 1851, at Chagres, among - boatmen and passengers, in which several lives were lost, - and the town was much damaged. _Pan. Star_, Oct. 28, 1851; - _S. F. Alta_, Nov. 18, 20, 1851; _S. F. Daily Herald_, - Nov. 18, 1851. The official report of the jefe político - on the 3d of Nov. said there were two or three killed and - a number wounded. _Bogotá_, _Gaceta Ofic._, Dec. 3, 1851. - The vigilants of the Isthmus had a thief well flogged at - Chagres in 1851. _S. F. Courier_, Jan. 21, 1851. Another - case of lynch law occurred on the island of Tabogá in 1855. - The carpenter of the American steamship company was one - morning dragged out of bed and murdered. As there was no - police on the island, the employés of the company captured - the murderers, one of whom made full confession, and their - captors without more ado hanged them. The state authorities - took no notice of the matter, other than issuing, some time - after, a full pardon to the executioners. _Bidwell's Isth. of - Pan._, 216; _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, Sept. 29, 1855. - - [XXV-55] This occurred on the Cruces route. The escort - was fired upon, two arrieros were mortally wounded. The - banditti endeavored to run off one of the laden mules, but - were prevented by the escort and passengers. _Holinski_, _La - Californie_, 83-4; _S. F. Alta_, Oct. 18, 1851; _S. F. Daily - Herald_, Oct. 18, 1851. - - [XXV-56] A mere alcalde met with no difficulty whatever to - have his orders carried out. - - [XXV-57] Judges and alcaldes were not only civil officials, - but also agents of the ecclesiastical authorities. Their - double rôle insured them great influence with a people - 'barbarizado por la ignorancia y el fanatismo.' _Maldonado_, - _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 3. - - [XXV-58] Public documents speak in general terms of outrages - committed by the revolutionists. They marched from Veragua - against Los Santos in Azuero, and were defeated. _Pan. - Gobern._, in _Pinart_, _Pan. Coll. Doc._, MS., no. 43, 5-9. - An amnesty was decreed in favor of the revolutionists Sept. - 29, 1856, excepting a few leaders, who were finally pardoned - in a later one of Sept. 12, 1857. _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, - Sept. 16, 23, 1857. The following authorities appear in pub. - docs. July 23, 1852, Gen. Manuel M. Franco, appointed from - Bogotá, comandante general, in place of Gen. Antonio Morales, - deceased. Aug. 6, 1852, Gov. Manuel M. Diaz summoned the - provincial legislature to hold its yearly session. Sept. 1, - 1853, Bernardo Arce Mata took possession of the office of - gov. Jan. 1, 1854, José María Urrutia Añino, who had been - chosen gov. of the prov., assumed his duties. _Pan._, _Crón. - Ofic._, Aug. 22, 29, 1852; Sept. 4, 1853; Jan. 4, 1854; - _Pan._ _Gobern._, in _Pinart_, _Coll. Doc._, MS., no. 43, - 11. This governor seems to have been elected wholly by votes - of the interior departments, which greatly displeased the - citizens of the capital, who had hitherto controlled affairs. - Añino was an honorable and just man, and fairly intelligent; - but was made the object of ungenerous hostility and ridicule, - and on one occasion, at least, his life was in danger. In - 1855, under the pretext of an official visit in the interior, - he went to his home and never returned. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos - Polít. Pan._, MS., 10. The vice-gov., Manuel M. Diaz, took - the executive chair on the 19th of May, and occupied it till - the 18th of July. _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, July 28, 1855. - - [XXV-59] This arrangement seems to have been against the - wishes of the three last named. The national congress having - asked the provinces for their opinion, the legislature of - Chiriquí, on the 19th of Oct., 1852, approved a report - of Nicolás Lopez to the effect that Veragua, Chiriquí, - and Azuero should not be harnessed to the car of Panamá. - _Chiriquí_, _Ordenanzas_, in _Pinart_, _Pan. Coll. Doc._, - MS., no. 96, p. 64. - - [XXV-60] The gen. govt ceded to Panamá the buildings that - had been used as custom-houses till 1849 in Portobello and - Panamá; also two others in the plazuela de armas and calle - de Jirardot in Pan.; and likewise the fortresses of Panamá, - Chagres, and Portobello, excepting the esplanades and - artillery. _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, July 20, 1855. - - [XXV-61] The governor's salary was fixed at $400 per month. - The new order of things was formally communicated to the - foreign consuls, all of whom offered their congratulations, - etc. Id., July 28, Aug. 4, 1855; _Veraguas_, _Ordenanzas y - Resol._, in _Pinart_, _Pan. Coll. Docs._, MS., no. 68, p. - 68; _Correoso, B._, _Statemt_, MS., 3; _Heraldo de Lima_, - Oct. 10, 1855. A decree of the assembly of Sept. 12, 1855, - divided the state into seven departments: Colon, Panamá, - Coclé, Herrera, Los Santos, Fábrega, and Chiriquí. Their - respective chief towns were to be Colon, Panamá, Natá, Pesé, - Los Santos, Santiago, and David. Governors were appointed by - the executive, to enter upon their duties on the 1st of Aug. - _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, Sept. 15, 1855. - - [XXV-62] This assembly was the most able and responsible body - of men that ever came together in Panamá, excepting only that - which proclaimed the independence from Spain. _Maldonado_, - _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 12-13. The officers on the - day the constitution was signed were: Mariano Arosemena, - president; Dionisio Facio, vice-president; Santiago de - la Guardia, designado; Manuel Morro, deputy for Panamá, - secretary. Among the other signers were Bernardo Arce Mata, - José Arosemena, Bartolomé Calvo, Jil Colunje, Fermin Jované, - José de Obaldía, Ramon Vallarino, four Fábregas, nearly - all of whom have since held high office in the republic and - the state. A general amnesty was also decreed on the 6th of - Oct., for all political offences to Sept. 30th, whether the - persons were sentenced or not. This included some who had in - July last disturbed the peace in Azuero. _Pan._, _Gaceta del - Estado_, Sept. 20, Oct. 13, 1855. - - [XXV-63] It is understood that Fábrega accepted the jefatura - superior only on condition that Bartolomé Calvo should assume - the government secretaryship, which had been thrown up by - Icaza Arosemena. Calvo became the secretary. _Id._, Oct. 3, - 10, 27, 1855; _Correoso_, _Statemt_, MS., 3. - - [XXV-64] Previous to it the executive had to go with troops - to quell a disobedience to the authorities in Los Santos. - No opposition being encountered, some prisoners were made, - who afterward received a pardon on the 6th of March. _Pan._, - _Gaceta del Est._, Feb. 2, 25, March 24, 1856. - - [XXV-65] Some deputies of the opposition were arrested in the - legislative chamber, and despotically exiled. - - [XXV-66] This vessel hauled into shore and landed her marines - to protect the whites. _S. F. Alta_, Oct. 2, 14, 1856. - - [XXV-67] _Pan. Star_, Sept. 16, Oct. 1, 1856; _Pan._, _Gaceta - del Est._, Nov. 20, 1856; _Correoso_, _Statemt_, MS., 3-4. - - [XXV-68] 'Dejó el puesto sin haber merecido imputacion de - que hubiese tomado del tesoro público otra cosa mas que sus - sueldos.' _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 14. - - [XXV-69] He had been meantime elected attorney-general of - the republic, and his residence had to be in Bogotá. _Pan._, - _Gaceta del Est._, May 20, 1858. - - [XXV-70] He showed weakness during his short occupancy of - the presidential seat at Bogotá, and afterward as governor of - Panamá. He was also lazy and negligent. - - [XXV-71] Capt Navarro and one soldier were killed, and two - others wounded. The governor himself was struck on the head - with a stone. An Am. force of marines landed from their ship, - but had no occasion to use their arms. No damage was done to - property. _Id._, Apr. 24, 1859; _S. F. Alta_, May 8, 1859. - - [XXV-72] On the 29th it being feared that there would be - another disturbance, the more timid of the citizens sought - refuge in the foreign consulates. The intendente general, J. - M. Hurtado, then asked the commanders of the _Clio_, and U. - S. sloop of war _St Louis_, to land 100 men. It was done, and - the trouble was warded off for the time. _S. F. Bulletin_, - Oct. 29, Nov. 14, 1860; _U. S. Govt Doc._, Cong. 36, Sess. 2, - Sen. Doc., 1, p. 15, vol. iii., pt. 1; _Pan Scraps_, 31. - - [XXV-73] Member of a respectable family in the interior; he - was an honorable man, and much respected by the whites. He - was conservative, and became the victim of politics when - exerting himself to develop every branch of his country's - resources. _Bidwell's Isth. of Pan._, 200-2; _Maldonado_, - _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 15-16. - - [XXV-74] The gov. was authorized by the legislature on the - 15th of Oct., 1861, to join the state to the new confederacy. - The state was therefore thus annexed, and the foreign - consuls were formally apprised of it. Justo Arosemena was - appointed on the 8th of Jan., 1862, its plenipotentiary to - the convention. _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, Sept. 27, 1861; - Feb. 26, March 8, 1862. - - [XXV-75] The Am. government, though willing to interpose - its aid for the benefit of all nations in the execution of - the neutrality treaty of 1846, feared to become involved in - the revolutionary strife going on in Nueva Granada, besides - incurring danger of misrepresentation by other powers if - it should act without consulting them. The 35th art. of - the treaty of December 12, 1846, says: 'And in order to - secure to themselves the tranquil and constant enjoyment of - these advantages, and as an especial compensation for said - advantages, and for the favors they have acquired by the - 4th, 5th, and 6th art. of this treaty, the U. S. guarantee - positively and efficaciously to N. Granada, by the present - stipulation, the perfect neutrality of the before-mentioned - Isthmus, with the view that the free transit from the one to - the other sea may not be interrupted or embarrassed in any - future time while this treaty exists; and in consequence, - the U. S. also guarantee in the same manner the rights of - sovereignty and property which N. Granada has and possesses - over the said territory.' Sec. Seward laid the request of - Gen. Herran before the British and French governments to - ascertain their views. Earl Russell thought there was no - occasion as yet for armed intervention. Should it occur, his - government would coöperate with the U. S. Thouvenel, French - minister of foreign affairs, said if the railway should be in - danger of interruption, he would not deem it improper for the - U. S. to interfere. _U. S. Govt Doc._, Foreign Affairs, 1862, - pp. 132, 164, 380-1. - - [XXV-76] This occurred on the 25th of July, 1862. _Pan._, - _Boletin Ofic._, July 27, 1862; _La Voz de Méj._, Aug. 26, - 1862. - - [XXV-77] At Paso de las capellanías del Rio Chico, or - Matapalo. Towns were shamefully sacked by the victorious - liberals, and several families, especially those of Guardia - and Fábrega, were ruined. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, - MS., 16; _Gaceta de Pan._, Aug. 11, 1870. Santiago de Veragua - was plundered Aug. 22. _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, Sept. 6, - 1862. The constituent assembly of the state, sitting Aug. 9, - 1865, passed an act recognizing that Guardia had lost his - life in defence of right, and honoring his memory. _Id._, - Sept. 11, 1865. Correoso, who served among his opponents, - speaks of Guardia in the highest terms of commendation, and - bewails the loss Panamá suffered with his death. _Sucesos de - Pan._, 3. - - [XXV-78] A decree was issued in Sept. for election of - deputies; another calling to arms, for the defence of the - state, all citizens between the ages of 18 and 60. Panamá was - on the 2d of that month declared the provisional capital of - the state. On the 20th of Oct. was convoked a constitutional - assembly which met on the 28th of Nov., on which date the - governor, in a message, made a statement of events. On Oct. - 28th was issued an amnesty excepting only such persons as - still refused to recognize the provisional government. _Id._, - Sept. 6, 19, Oct. 1, 22, Nov. 3, 10, Dec. 11, 1862; _S. F. - Bulletin_, Sept. 17, Nov. 26, 1862. - - [XXV-79] May 8, 1863. Ratified the same day, by the - representatives of Panamá, who were Justo Arosemena, - Guillermo Figueroa, G. Neira, J. E. Brandao, Guillermo Lynch, - and Buenaventura Correoso. _Colombia_, _Const. Polít._, 1-42; - _Correoso's Statemt_, MS., 2-3; _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, June - 25, 1863. - - [XXVI-1] Its officers were: Pablo E. Icaza, president; Juan - Mendoza, vice-president; J. J. Maitin, designado; Quintin - Miranda, sec. by appoint. _Id._, May 11, 1863. - - [XXVI-2] Dated July 4, 1863, and published the 6th of the - same month. It contained 21 titles covering 112 articles, - and was a most liberal fundamental law, intending to give, - if honestly administered, every possible guaranty of life, - liberty, property, and political rights. The death penalty, - torture, and other cruel punishments were done away with. - Corporal punishment in no case was to exceed ten years. - Nearly all the public functionaries, representative, - executive, and judicial, were made elective by popular vote. - _Id._, July 11, 1863; _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 364-88. - - [XXVI-3] Goitia took the presidency on the 5th of July, and - soon after received the congratulations of several foreign - consuls. _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, July 17, 1863. - - [XXVI-4] Correspond. with foreign consuls and others. _Id._, - Aug. 30, 1863. - - [XXVI-5] _Correoso's Statemt_, MS., 4. - - [XXVI-6] By the battalion Tiradores, of national troops. - Calancha had no popularity in the country. He has been - accused of scandalous corruption and connivance at robbery. - However, he seems to have confined his peculation to the - public revenue, a practice which was not new since Guardia's - fall. Some time after, Calancha together with Gabriel Neira - invaded the state with a force from Cauca; but while crossing - the river Santa María in the hacienda Las Cruces, they were - met by the government troops under Col Vicente Olarte, and - routed with the loss of many killed, wounded, and prisoners, - Neira being one of the latter. Calancha was again defeated - at San Francisco near Natá, and delivered by his men to the - victors. His brother Francisco was also taken. It is recorded - that Mrs Jane White Ball, an American, together with other - women, provided a hospital and nursed the wounded of both - bands. _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, Apr. 22, June 7, Sept. 18, - Oct. 10, 1865; _Correoso's Statem._, MS., 4; _Bidwell's Isth. - Pan._, 211. - - [XXVI-7] A colored man of good political ability, as he - proved in the high official positions filled under the - national government. He has been accused, however, of immoral - practices. His administration was peaceable, but left evils - that were never eradicated. He inaugurated the corrupt - system of extorting contributions from political opponents, - whereby, as the latter averred, he materially improved his - own financial condition, though he had decreed himself only - the modest salary of $200 per month. _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, - Apr. 1, 1865. Every citizen who had a competency was made - to contribute. One day he had all the respectable citizens - arrested to extort money, for which he never accounted. The - majority of the public employés had to sell their salary - warrants for one half or one fourth of their value. The - country derived no other fruit from his administration than - poverty. - - [XXVI-8] The assembly met, and its first act was to confirm - all that Colunje had done. A pardon was decreed to political - offenders on the 28th of Nov. _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, Apr. - 20, 22, July 20, 25, Dec. 6, 1865; _Pan._, _Informe Sec. - Est._, 1866, 1-4. - - [XXVI-9] An attempted outbreak in March at Panamá, and one - in August at David, were quelled. _Pan._, _Mensaje Presid. - Est._, 1866, 1-3; _Gaceta Nic._, Apr. 7, 1866; _Pim and - Seemann's Dottings_, 1-11. - - [XXVI-10] He belonged to the liberal party; a well-disposed - man, and a friend of peace, which he endeavored to foster, - by trying to heal dissensions. He made himself popular among - the better class of the community by his just proceedings, - and efforts to better the condition of the country, though - not a native of the Isthmus. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. - Pan._, MS., 20. It has been, however, said of him that he - appropriated considerable amounts from the public treasury, - and placed them in London through the agency of a Jamaican - who lived in Colon. - - [XXVI-11] 'Ante la imponente autoridad de su sable á la - cabeza del batallon Tiradores.' _Id._ - - [XXVI-12] They plotted an assault on the battalion in its - barracks, but were detected by Olarte. The assault was made - at midnight, and a fight ensued, in which the negroes lost - heavily, including almost all their leaders, and among them - Gregorio Sigurvia. _Id._, 20-1. - - [XXVI-13] It must be borne in mind that whatever the words - liberal and conservador may mean in other Spanish American - countries, in Panamá the former has been appropriated by the - colored portion of the inhabitants, who have been joined by - a few whites for their own political and pecuniary aims. - The conservador party was made up mostly of white men and - property holders, and they have often been victimized by the - gamonales, or leaders of the other party, whenever the latter - has been in power. - - [XXVI-14] The circumstances connected with the sickness and - death of Gen. Olarte and Manuel M. Morro afford presumptive - evidence of foul play. After a banquet in San Miguel, on - the last day Olarte was to be there, wine prepared with fish - poison was served him and his secretary, José M. Bermudez. - The latter, by accident, escaped the fate prepared for him, - and Morro, being invited by Olarte to join him, partook of - the wine. Olarte, having his stomach full of food and wine, - immediately threw up all. Morro, on feeling the effects, - took two doses of ipecacuanha, and succeeded in vomiting. - But neither victim saved himself. Both were taken to Panamá, - where Olarte died in five days, and Morro in about eleven. - The facts have been strenuously denied. Correoso, _Statem._, - MS., 5, asserts that Olarte contracted a fever in his visit - to Darien. The first diagnosis of the physicians, it is - understood, was that the patients were suffering from yellow - fever, or some other malignant disease. Morro was a talented - young man belonging to one of the prominent families of the - city, and much liked by all. - - [XXVI-15] Details on his funeral in _Pan._, _Mercantile - Chronicle_, March 4, 1868; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 5, - 7, 12, 1868; _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 7, 1868. - - [XXVI-16] Amador finally declined the office. _Id._, March 7, - 1868. - - [XXVI-17] He was afterward exiled, and went to California. - _S. F. Times_, Aug. 3, 1868; _S. F. Bulletin_, Aug. 1, 1868. - The negroes declared Diaz a traitor, but the public never saw - any evidence of it. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., - 23. - - [XXVI-18] The acta appears in full in _Boletin Ofic._, July - 8, 1868; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, July 25, 1868; _S. F. Times_, - July 25, 28, 31, 1868; _S. F. Call_, July 25, 1868; _S. F. - Bulletin_, July 25, 27, 1868. - - [XXVI-19] Ponce's first act was to declare martial law - by a decree of July 6th, countersigned by Dídimo Parra, - as secretary of state. The superior court, in view of - the situation, on the same date adjourned, to escape - participation in the infringement of the constitution, which - had been just perpetrated. - - [XXVI-20] Even Chiriquí, which had held back, finally - recognized the new government. _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, July - 30, 1868; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 22, 1868. - - [XXVI-21] The Panamá assailed the barracks of the other - troops, and captured it, Captain U. Meza being killed, and - Alejandro Arce and Rafael Aizpuru slightly wounded. Ponce was - seized and carried to the barracks, where much enthusiasm for - him, it is said, was manifested; but he was not satisfied - with the condition of affairs, resigned, and left the - state. _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, Sept. 5, 1868; _Correoso's - Statement_, MS., 5; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 19, 1868; _Pan. - Star and Herald_, Sept. 1, 10, 1868; _Maldonado_, _Asuntos - Polít. Pan._, MS., 24. - - [XXVI-22] His public life began when he was 18 years old, and - he has, in the civil service of the state, held every office - from alderman to president or governor, both inclusive. In - the judiciary, he has served as district judge and member - of the superior court. In the military service he began as - a lieut in 1854, and rose to be gen. of division. He was - a deputy of the state legislature, and a senator in the - national congress, and also for a while vice-president of the - republic, besides being a member of several conventions. He - represented his country as minister plenipotentiary near the - five republics of Central America, and always belonged to the - liberal party, and fought for it. _Correoso's Statem._, MS., - 1-2. - - [XXVI-23] In assuming the executive office, Correoso - found no money in the treasury. He at once resorted to the - device employed by his predecessor Colunje of arresting - the prominent citizens of the capital, whom he kept in - confinement till they paid the amounts severally demanded. - The same outrage was afterward practised in the interior. The - result was an increase of poverty from day to day. - - [XXVI-24] The government was left for the transaction of - local affairs in charge of Juan Mendoza, governor of the - capital. _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, Oct. 9, 1868. During this - revolution, the U. S. consul was directed by his government - to warn Am. citizens from taking part in the broils of the - country. He was also to see that unoffending Americans were - not compelled to do military service, or to contribute in - the form of forced loans or otherwise. _S. F. Call_, Dec. - 4, 1868; _S. F. Times_, Dec. 4, 1868. Nevertheless, the - government doubled the commercial tax against the solemn - protests of foreign consuls, and much foreign property - was seized. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Oct. 24, 1868; _Pan._, - _Boletin Ofic._, Nov. 14, 1868. - - [XXVI-25] The fighting took place between 9 and 12 o'clock of - the 12th of Nov. Both sides behaved well, but Correoso's men, - having better arms, were victorious. According to Correoso's - account there were in all about 200 killed and wounded, Gen. - P. Goitia being among the latter. _Correoso's Statemt_, MS., - 6. The negroes with relentless ferocity gave no quarters to - the greater part of the prisoners, who were shot. They also - plundered to their heart's content. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos - Polít. Pan._, MS., 25. Arístides Obaldía was slain and his - untimely end was much regretted. He was severely wounded - early in the action, and his friends took him out of harm's - way; but during the route some of Correoso's men discovered - and put him to death. His remains were interred with military - honors by Correoso's orders. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Nov. 19, - 1868; _Pan._, _Mercantile Chronicle_, Nov. 17, 1868; _S. F. - Times_, Dec. 4, 11, 1868; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 28, 1868. - - [XXVI-26] Cervera appointed J. M. Lleras his secretary of - state, and on the same day called several officers of the - militia to active service, the chief, Col. Rafael Aizpuru, - being made comandante gen. of the forces of the state. - _Gaceta de Pan._, Apr. 19, 1873. - - [XXVI-27] The farce was performed to have Neira chosen - president, and Correoso 1st designado; and then it was - expected that the former would after a while resign, and - enable the latter to again assume the presidency without - violating the constitution. The elections took place as - desired. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 8, 1873. - - [XXVI-28] One hundred men occupied the railway station, and - 100 were stationed in the town hall. Capt. Kennedy, of the - Brit. war ship _Reindeer_, offered his coöperation if needed. - - [XXVI-29] This arrangement was arrived at through - commissioners; namely, Gregorio Miró and Francisco Ardila - for the Pichincha no. 8; José Agustin Arango and Florentino - Dutari, for Cervera. _Pan. Star and Herald_, May 10, 13, - 1873. Correoso claims that upon hearing in Costa Rica, - where he was then accredited as Colombian minister, of the - revolution against Neira, he returned in haste to Panamá, and - by his influence induced the revolutionists to replace Neira. - _Statement_, MS., 6; _S. F. Bulletin_, May 19, 26, June 6, - 1873; _S. F. Alta_, May 20, 1873; _S. F. Chronicle_, May 20, - 26, June 7, 18, 1873. - - [XXVI-30] The latter resigned the command June 23d, _Gaceta - de Pan._, June 7, July 5, 1873. Aizpuru, who had been kept a - prisoner was afterward released. - - [XXVI-31] Senators: Pablo Arosemena, B. Correoso, and - Agustin Arias. Representatives: Fernando Casanova, Man. de - J. Bermudez, Juan C. Carranza, Marcelino Villalaz, and José - de la Rosa Jurado. A corresponding number of suplentes or - substitutes was also chosen. _Gaceta de Pan._, July 19, 1873. - - [XXVI-32] During its occupation over 500 women and children - sought its protection. The whole force retired about the 7th - or 8th of October. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Sept. 25-30, 1873. - - [XXVI-33] The minister reminded the executive of Colombia - that though the American government guaranteed by the - treaty of 1846 the neutrality of the Isthmus, it did not - imply protection to the road against such factions. _Pan._, - _Informe Sec. Est._, 1874, 9-10, annex A. - - [XXVI-34] 1st, Gregorio Miró; 2d, J. M. Bermudez; 3d, Mateo - Iturralde; 4th, Tomás Herrera; 5th, Joaquin Arosemena. All - Neira's acts were approved; and thanks were voted to both - the national and state troops for their services. _Gaceta de - Pan._, Oct. 2, 1873. - - [XXVI-35] The assembly granted the president additional - powers to restore peace, among which was that of obtaining - $60,000 by means of voluntary or forced loans. Those powers - were rescinded on the 14th of Nov. _Id._, Oct. 11, 18, Nov. - 1, Dec. 5, 1873; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 43, - Sess. 1, 351. - - [XXVI-36] Under this constitution the legislative assembly - appoints the five substitutes of the president of the state, - and also the three justices of the superior court. A council - of state is created, to be composed of the president of the - state, the last president of the legislative assembly, the - president of the superior court, and the attorney-general - of the state. For all important affairs, the executive is to - consult the council. _Id._, Nov. 15, 1873. - - [XXVI-37] He made the pledge required by law before the - assembly, the foreign consuls, public functionaries residing - in the city, and a large number of citizens. _Id._, Dec. 5, - 1873; Jan. 17, 1874; _Mex._, _Mem. Min. Rel._, 1875, 10. - - [XXVI-38] _Id._, Aug. 7, 15, 1874; _Pan._, _Informe Sec. - Est._, 1874, 30. - - [XXVI-39] The persons appointed to fill them were José - M. Bermudez, who had been acting as secretary-general for - sec. of state, and Dionisio Facio for sec. of the treasury. - _Gaceta de Pan._, Apr. 17, 1875. - - [XXVI-40] The president on the 25th of Aug., 1875, delegated - his powers to J. M. Bermudez to preserve order in the - interior or restore it as the case might be. _Id._, Sept. 4, - 1875; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Aug. 24, 1875. - - [XXVI-41] He had been on the 2d of July declared elected - president of the state. At the same time the following - persons were declared to have been chosen to represent Panamá - in the national congress: Senators, Justo Arosemena, José - M. Bermudez, and Marcelino Villalaz; representatives, Juan - J. Diaz, Juan J. Miró, Joaquin Arosemena, B. Asprilla, and - M. R. de la Torre. These were subsequently annulled by the - constituent assembly, Dec. 11th. _Gaceta de Pan._, July 24, - Dec. 16, 1875. - - [XXVI-42] Particulars of the insurrection and arrest of - Arosemena appear in Camargos' despatch, in _Colombia_, - _Diario Ofic._, Nov. 13, 15, 1875; _Gaceta de Pan._, Oct. 5, - 7, 16, 23, Nov. 13, 17, 23, 1875; _S. F. Call_, Nov. 5, 1875; - _Correoso's Statem._, MS., 7. - - [XXVI-43] Oct. 18th, he empowered B. Correoso, comandante - gen., to use his best endeavors to restore order in the - departments of Coclé, Los Santos, Veragua, and Chiriquí. His - government was recognized at once by the foreign consuls. - _Gaceta de Pan._, Oct. 16, 23, 1875. - - [XXVI-44] The executive is vested in a president, to be - elected by popular vote for two years. The legislative - assembly elects the justices of the superior court and - their suplentes, the five substitutes of the president, - the attorney-general, and his suplente; also the - administrator-gen. of the treasury, and the contador by - absolute majority. No change was made in the council of - state. _Gaceta de Pan._, Jan. 1, 1876; _Pan._, _Constit. - Polít. del Est. Sobo._, 1-20. - - [XXVI-45] His government was soon after recognized by - the national executive. On the 13th of Dec., 1876, the - legislative assembly chose Dámaso Cervera, Francisco Ardila, - José R. Casorla, Quintin Miranda, and M. Losada Plisé, - designados for the presidency, in the order named. _Gaceta de - Pan._, Jan. 8, Feb. 20, Dec. 17, 1876. - - [XXVI-46] _Pan. Leyes_, 1876-7, 11. - - [XXVI-47] _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. Est._, 1876, 1-6. On Sept. 25, - 1876, the president assumed personal command of the state - troops. _Gaceta de Pan._, Oct. 15, 1876. - - [XXVI-48] The president attempted both recourses; till on the - 10th of March the citizens tendered a loan of $30,000. _Id._, - March 1, 8, 22, 1877; _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Feb. 18, 1877. - - [XXVI-49] Dec. 30, 1878. _Correoso's Statem._, MS., 9; - _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. Hacienda_, 1878, i.-xl.; _Gaceta de Pan._, - March 10, May 30, July 21, 28, Sept. 26, Oct. 13, Nov. 17, - Dec. 8, 19, 1878; _Pinart_, _Pan. Col. Docs._, MS., no. 101; - _Colombia, Diario Ofic._, Jan. 31, 1879; _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. - Gob._, 1878. - - [XXVI-50] The object was to upset the state government; but - it was defeated by the state troops, after a fight that - lasted till the 18th, and caused great havoc. Among the - killed were the commander of the battalion, Col Carvajal, - and his son, Lieut Carvajal, who were trying to check the - infuriated soldiery. _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. Gob._, 1879, 5-6. - - [XXVI-51] The government sent troops against the - revolutionists, and some fighting ensued without decisive - results. At last the contending parties came to an - arrangement by which Aizpuru agreed to surrender the - person of Casorla, and to recognize the 2d designado as the - provisional president. He also agreed to lay down his arms. - The government consented to pay Aizpuru's war expenses, and - to issue a general amnesty. _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. Gob._, 1879, - 7-12; _S. F. Chronicle_, June 19, 25, 1879. - - [XXVI-52] Mateo Iturralde was made secretary of government, - and Juan José Miró of the treasury. Several changes - took place afterward, and the final secretaries were: of - government, Benjamin Ruiz, and of the treasury, Juan B. - Amador. José Vives Leon was government secretary in Sept. - 1881. - - [XXVI-53] The assembly to be formed of one deputy for every - 6,000 inhabitants, and every fraction of 3,500 and upwards. - _Gaceta de Pan._, June 17, 1881. - - [XXVI-54] His candidature had been opposed by Correoso, Icaza - Arosemena, Ardila, Ortega, and others, for the sake of union - in the liberal party. _Pan. Canal_, June 25, 1881. - - [XXVI-55] His election as first designado by the legislature - was on the 28th of June, 1881. The other substitutes chosen - were the following, in the order named: Miguel Borbúa, - Benjamin Ruiz, José M. Vives Leon, and Antonio Casanova. - _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1882, 1; _Correoso_, _Sucesos de - Pan._, 5, 6. - - [XXVI-56] _Pan. Canal_, Nov. 20, Dec. 6, 1882; _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Nov. 20, 1882; Jan. 29, 1883. - - [XXVI-57] _Pan. Cronista_, Jan. 3, 1883. Dec. 3, 1882, a - deputation composed of Correoso, Iturralde, and Diaz had - waited on him to request that he should resign his position - of 1st designado and acting president, which he declined. - _Pan. Canal_, Dec. 5, 1882. - - [XXVI-58] Nuñez had been chosen for a term ending Oct. 31, - 1884. On the other hand, the constitution said that the - president elect should assume office on the 1st day of Nov. - following his election. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. 29, - 1883. - - [XXVI-59] His sec.-gen., Victor Dubarry, countersigned the - decree. This measure was intended to rid the government of - an incubus, and to effect a yearly saving of about $16,000. - _Pan. Canal_, March 19, 1883. - - [XXVI-60] At Popayan, Aug. 27, 1883. Joaquin M. Perez was - Panamá's commissioner. The convention was ratified Sept. - 10th, by Cervera, countersigned by J. M. Casís, sec.-gen. - _Pan._, _El País_, Sept. 21, 1883. - - [XXVI-61] He adopted for all his confidence precautionary - measures to preserve public order. _Pan. Cronista_, Oct. 24, - 1883. - - [XXVI-62] In the first part of 1884 there were about 14,000 - men on the canal-works. Still another source of danger was - the mongrel population of Santa Ana and Calidonia districts, - in the city of Panamá, ever disposed to seize opportunities - for plunder, as was made evident in the last fire. J. M. - Rodriguez, of Panamá, moved in the national senate that the - federal force should be increased to 800 or 1,000 men. _Cent. - Am. Miscel._, no. 1. - - [XXVI-63] The representatives were, S. Jurado, J. del C. - Pino, Leonidas Flores, Waldino Izasa, and Cárlos Otálora. - _Pan. Cronista_, Oct. 20, 1883. - - [XXVI-64] By Juan P. Jaen, president of the superior court. - _Id._ Jan. 2, 1884. - - [XXVI-65] Cervera had likewise claimed immunity from - prosecution, as a senator elect. - - [XXVI-66] Correoso stated in the _Pan. Star and Herald_ - of July 12th that Ruiz' government had been upset 'á - punta de sable' by Porto, whose authority sprang from - the condescension of Ibañez in recognizing as authentic - a telegram received that morning by Porto. He repeats - the charge in his _Sucesos de Pan._, 7. The fact was that - Ibañez' brigade was by the telegram incorporated with the 3d - division, and thus came to be under the control of Porto, who - was chief of staff of that division. _Pan._, _Cronista_, July - 9 to Aug. 2, Aug. 13, 1884. - - [XXVI-67] In Coclé, Chiriquí, and Panamá. _Gaceta de Pan._, - Oct. 15, 1884; _Cent. Am. Miscel._, no. 2. - - [XXVI-68] The _Morro_ was a British boat, which the rebels - seized in the night from the 14th to the 15th, and then - went on her alongside the _Alajuela_, which was a Costa Rica - vessel, seized her, and proceeded to sea, leaving the _Morro_ - behind. _S. F. Cronista_, Oct. 18, 1884; _La Estrella de - Pan._, Oct. 23, 1884; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Oct. 17, 23, - Nov. 26, Dec. 30, 1884; _Cent. Am. Miscel._, nos. 3, 9, 10. - - [XXVI-69] A Colombian armed steamer was ordered to Panamá; - and Gen. Santodomingo Vita was despatched to coöperate with - the commander of the federal forces. The decree was issued - Oct. 22, 1884. Gen. Benjamin Ruiz was on the 28th dismissed - from the Colombian army. _Bogotá_, _Diario Ofic._, Oct. 30, - 1884. - - [XXVI-70] The assembly, being notified that the legally - constituted authorities were now recognized, passed a vote of - thanks to Cervera, his secretaries, Victor Dubarry and J. F. - Ucrós, and Gen. C. A. Gónima, for their successful efforts - for peace. _La Estrella de Pan._, Nov. 6, 13, 1884; _Pan. - Star and Herald_, Nov. 6, 1884; _Pan. Cronista_, Nov. 8, - 1884. - - [XXVI-71] 27,505 votes against 1,550 for Justo Arosemena, and - 95 in Colon for B. Ruiz. An attempt had been made by what was - called the Alianza Liberal to have Justo Arosemena as its - candidate, but he virtually declined it, and his name was - retired from the field early in July. _Id._, July 30, Oct. - 18, 1884; _La Estrella de Pan._, Sept. 4, 1884. - - [XXVI-72] Gónima telegraphed Nuñez at Bogotá, on the 30th of - Sept., the day before the assembly met, that it would call a - convention, and adds that, thanks to the patriotic efforts - of Cervera, 'Lambert no será presidente. Sus indicaciones - oidas.' _Bogotá_, _Diario Ofic._, Oct. 8, 1884; _Bogotá_, - _La Luz_, Oct. 8, 1884. Lambert, on the 12th of November, - in an address to the Colombian people, protested against - the unjustifiable interference of the federal govt in the - internal affairs of Panamá, by which he had been prevented - from assuming the chief magistracy he had been chosen to - by the suffrages of his fellow-citizens. At the same time - he made known his intention to cause no disturbance, but to - remain peaceably in private life. _La Estrella de Pan._, Oct. - 30, Nov. 20, 1884. - - [XXVI-73] Details may be found in _Pan. Star and Herald_, - Oct. 23, 1884; _Pan. Cronista_, Oct. 22, 1884. - - [XXVI-74] The assembly adjourned sine die on the 13th of Nov. - - [XXVI-75] The convocation was not made according to the - requirements of the constitution; and moreover, martial law - existing in many parts of the state, no free elections could - be effected in such localities. - - [XXVI-76] Gen. Lorenzo Segundo was made comandante gen., and - Col F. Figueroa his second in command. _La Estrella de Pan._, - Jan. 8, 1885. - - [XXVI-77] _Pan. Cronista_, Nov. 29, 1884; _La Estrella de - Pan._, Dec. 4, 1884. - - [XXVI-78] He took possession the next day. _Pan. Cronista_, - Jan, 7, 10, 1885; _Gaceta de Pan._, Jan. 9, 1885; _Pan._, - _Actualidad_, Jan. 8, 1885; _La Estrella de Pan._, Jan. 15, - 1885; _Cent. Am. Miscel._, no. 20; _Correoso_, _Sucesos de - Pan._, 7-8. - - [XXVI-79] _Pan. Cronista_, Jan. 7, 1885. - - [XXVI-80] Isidoro Burges, sec. of gov.; L. C. Herrera, of - treasury; José M. Aleman, of fomento. _Gaceta de Pan._, Jan. - 9, 1855; _Cent. Am. Miscel._, no. 22. - - [XXVI-81] The government had now only a small force in Colon - or Panamá, having on the 9th sent away the federal troops to - uphold the general government at Barranquilla, against rebels - in arms. _Pan. Cronista_, Jan. 21, 24, 1885. - - [XXVI-82] It seems that some of its members were implicated - in this plot, and orders for their arrest were issued. - That body alleged that legislation had been hampered by the - government. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Feb. 11, 1885; _Pan._, - _El Cronista_, Feb. 14, 1885; _Correoso_, _Sucesos de Pan._, - 11. - - [XXVI-83] _Id._, Feb. 18, 1885; _Cent. Am. Miscel._, no. 28; - _Gaceta de Pan._, Feb. 18, 1885. - - [XXVI-84] During that morning the revolutionists compelled - merchants having arms in their warehouses to deliver them. - They thus provided themselves with upwards of 600 rifles. - - [XXVI-85] There had been many killed and wounded on both - sides. An outsider, a French citizen, who imprudently put - out his head, also lost his life. Much property was stolen, - destroyed, or injured. At midday on the 16th the prisoners - in the jail effected their escape, and made themselves - conspicuous with their cries of Viva la libertad! The - government force made several prisoners, and seized a number - of arms in the arrabal. A number of young Panameños formed - themselves into a guard to protect the city during the night - of the 17th. _Pan. Cronista_, March 18, 21, 25, 1885. - - [XXVI-86] A mulatto from Cartagena. In 1881, when a member - of the legislative assembly from Colon, he was concerned in - a personal rencontre with and killed M. Céspedes, and an - Englishman. He was tried and acquitted, and his immediate - release from prison was demanded by the assembly. _Pan. - Canal_, June 7, 1881. - - [XXVI-87] Correoso blames Gónima for leaving Colon utterly - defenceless. _Sucesos de Pan._, 12. - - [XXVI-88] Those who refused to furnish the supplies were - imprisoned, and their goods confiscated. _La Estrella de - Pan._, March 19, 1885; _El Universal de Pan._, March 20, - 1885; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 31, 1885. - - [XXVI-89] The object of the notifications was to allow - time for non-combatants to get out of harm's way. Families - accordingly abandoned the city, and business houses were - closed. About 8 o'clock Gen. Ibañez visited Aizpuru's camp, - and brought back assurance that no assault would be made that - night. - - [XXVI-90] Gónima despatched Correoso and Jerardo Ortega as - commissioners, the former to Aizpuru, and the latter to - Prestan. Both missions resulted in nothing satisfactory. - Aizpuru proposed the following terms: 1st. Recognition of - Gónima as civil chief of the state; 2d. Aizpuru to have the - command of the troops, which were to be increased to 1,000 - men. Prestan to be the prefect at Colon. After reflecting - a moment, Gónima, rejected the proposals. Correoso then - resigned the office of secretary-general. _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Apr. 9, 1885; _La Estrella de Pan._, March 28, Apr. - 4, 1885; _Pan. Cronista_, March 28, 1885; _S. F. Cronista_, - Apr. 4, 1885; _Correoso_, _Sucesos de Pan._, 13-16. - - [XXVI-91] Prestan demanded the arms on the _Colon_, and being - refused, first arrested Connor, then after grossly insulting - Mr Burt, the superintendent of the Panamá R. R. Co., took - possession of the wharf, placed a guard on the _Colon_, and - made a search for the arms, but could not get at them. _Pan. - Star and Herald_, March 31, 1885; _La Estrella de Pan._, Apr. - 4, 1885; _Pan. Cronista_, Apr. 4, 1885. - - [XXVI-92] They had been taken to Monkey Hill at 3 A. M. on - the 31st, and placed in a dangerous position under guard, but - in the mêlée that followed they escaped. - - [XXVI-93] At 1:30 A. M. of the 30th 160 men, under cols Ulloa - and Brun, were despatched from Panamá to attack Prestan at - Colon. - - [XXVI-94] Prestan succeeded in joining the rebels against - the national government, who were beleaguering Cartagena, - and was received into their service, even though their - chiefs had been made aware of his conduct at Colon. He was - afterward captured, brought to Colon, tried by court-martial, - and hanged on the 18th of August. Two of his principal - men, captured by the _Galena's_ force, had been also tried - by a Colombian court-martial, convicted of incendiarism, - and publicly hanged on the 6th of May. They were named - Geo. Davis, a West Indian negro, and Antoine Portuzelle or - Pautrizelle, a native of Hayti, who left a letter charging - Prestan with the infamous act of destroying Colon. Three - other accomplices, Grant and Guerrero, and a Cuban named F. - G. de Peralta, were subsequently sentenced to imprisonment - for a number of years. _La Estrella de Pan._, May 9, 16, Aug. - 15, 1885; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Aug. 19, 22, Dec. 11, 25, - 1885. - - [XXVI-95] The only buildings that remained standing were - those of the railway, Pacific mail, and canal company. Ten - thousand persons were left without shelter. - - [XXVI-96] _Pan. Star and Herald_, April 10, 1885. Burt and - the canal company's officers caused supplies to be brought - to Colon. Their houses and offices offered shelter to the - destitute inhabitants. Kane and his officers and men labored - day and night to relieve suffering, and won themselves the - gratitude of the distressed community. _La Estrella de Pan._, - Apr. 4, 1885. According to later accounts, the losses by the - burning of Colon were 18 lives, and about $6,000,000. _Pan. - Ev'g Telegram_, Apr. 3, 1886. - - [XXVI-97] The number killed probably did not exceed 25. The - prisoners were treated with every consideration, and soon - after released. Much property was damaged. _Pan. Cronista_, - Apr. 11, 1885; _Nueva Era_, of Paso del Norte, Apr. 1, 1885; - _La Estrella de Pan._, Apr. 4, 1885. - - [XXVI-98] Sec. of gov., C. A. Mendoza; of war and fomento, - Jerónimo Ossa; of treasury, Cárlos Icaza Arosemena. The last - two declined the appointments. Commander of the state forces, - B. Correoso. _Gaceta de Pan._, Apr. 7, 1885; _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Apr. 9, 1885; _Cent. Am. Miscel._, no. 29, 41-3. - - [XXVI-99] Toward the latter part of April, there were about - 400 in Panamá city. Total number of marines on the Isthmus - 600, their commanding officer being Brevet Lieut-col. Charles - Heywood, who commanded at Panamá. McCalla held command in - Colon. In case of need, the Am. squadron could place on - shore 1,800 men, and 30 pieces of artillery. _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Apr. 23, 1855; _La Estrella de Pan._, May 2, 1885. - - [XXVI-100] Aizpuru expected soon to be attacked by a superior - force from Cauca. He despatched B. Correoso and A. Clément as - peace commissioners to Buenaventura, but they were arrested - there. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 25, 27, May 4, 1885. - - [XXVI-101] After which it was to proceed to Cartagena. _La - Estrella de Pan._, May 4, 1885. - - [XXVI-102] Aizpuru's terms were as follows: 1st. To resign - his powers into the hands of Vives Leon, Pablo Arosemena, - or any other constitutionally entitled to receive them. 2d. - General pardon for all offences of a strictly political - character, but the punishment of the guilty of crimes in - Panamá, Colon, or elsewhere on the Isthmus. _Id._, Apr. 29, - 1885. - - [XXVI-103] On the 4th he claimed to have delivered a larger - number of arms than his commissioners had bound him to - surrender. _La Estrella de Pan._, May 3, 9, 1885. - - [XXVI-104] _La Estrella de Occid._, May 16, 1885. Both - Aizpuru and Correoso were subsequently deprived of their - military rank. The former, being tried by court-martial in - Bogotá, was sentenced, Nov. 3, 1885, to 10 years' exile, - with loss of offices, income, and political rights during - that time, and payment of costs and of damages caused by his - rebellion. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Oct. 1, Dec. 10, 24, 1885. - - [XXVI-105] Upon which they were publicly complimented by - Rear-admiral Jouett in general orders. - - [XXVI-106] 'No siembran mas que lo que justamente consumen - por temor de ser robados en la forma de contribuciones.' - _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polit. Pan._, MS., 25. - - [XXVI-107] Witness the proceedings of the troops brought - by Santa Coloma, and later, at different times, by the - battalions Tiradores, Pichincha, 3d de línea, and others. - Upon the subject of undue federal interference with the - domestic affairs of the Isthmus, the following charges - preferred by M. J. Perez from Panamá in a letter of Oct. 22, - 1884, to Aníbal Galindo, are worthy of notice: 1st. Public - intervention of the general government in internal affairs - of the state; 2d. Barefaced protection by the gen. govt - to rebels in arms against the constitutional govt of the - state; 3d. Intimate alliance of the federal force with the - opposing conservatives and with the radicals to disarm the - government, and exercise pressure on the assembly, forcibly - hindering its performance of constitutional functions; 4th. - Consequences of the foregoing course; acts of piracy on - the part of the rebels, violence, bloodshed, international - claims, humiliation. _Pan. Cronista_, Oct. 25, 1884. Correoso - corroborates all this in his remarks on the conduct of the - Guardia Colombiana on the Isthmus, in 1860, 1865, 1868, - 1873-5, 1878, and subsequently. _Sucesos de Pan._, 3-8. - - [XXVI-108] 'No solo es víctima de sus propios males, sino - tambien de los que le vienen de fuera.' _Maldonado_, _Asuntos - Polít. Pan._, MS., 26. - - [XXVI-109] Discussions in the national Consejo de - Delegatarios, in Nov. and Dec. 1885, and law of Dec. 11, - 1885, to regulate the gov. of Panamá. _Pan. Star and Herald_, - Jan. 6-15, 1886. - - [XXVI-110] _Id._, March 20, 29, supplem., 1886. The - publication of the journal was restored after the term of - suspension expired. Vila's course was disapproved by the - general government, and he was peremptorily recalled for - disobedience of orders. The proprietors of the journal have - made a claim for heavy damages. _Buenaventura Correoso_, - _Sucesos de Panamá Informe á la Nacion_, Buga, 1886, 4to, 24 - pp. The writer, one of the prominent political men of Panamá, - in this pamphlet purposes, as he assures us, to point out - the source of the almost continuous disturbances that have - occurred on the Isthmus since 1860, laying particular stress - on the events from 1880 to 1885. It might be expecting too - much that he should express an impartial and wholly unwarped - judgment on those events, and on his political opponents. It - must be acknowledged, however, that his statements appear to - be fair enough, and that his assumption of responsibility - for some of the acts which he censures is frank. _Simon - Maldonado_, _Asuntos Políticos de Panamá_, MS., 42 pp. The - author of this review is a native of Panamá, and has filled - responsible positions in his country, more especially in - the judiciary. His views of affairs there are impartial, and - entitled to consideration for their soundness. - - [XXVII-1] An official doc. of the U. S. govt gives 174,800; - _Am. Cyclop._, of 1873-6, 178,277; Crowe, _Gospel in Cent. - Am._, roughly computes it at 200,000. Other authorities - widely differ. I refer the reader to the following maps, - namely: John Baily's, 1850; Max. Von Sonnenstern's offic. - maps of Salv., 1858, and Guat., 1859; Herman Au's, of Guat., - 1875; Paul Levy's, of Nic., 1873; Molina's map of Costa R. in - his Bosquejo. - - [XXVII-2] 'Never so great as during the summer months in - England.' _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 258; _Crosby's Statem._, MS., - 114-17: _Guat._, _Mem. Min. Hac._, 1883, 15-16. - - [XXVII-3] The same may be said, though in a less degree, of - the northern and eastern coast of Hond. from Omoa to Gracias - á Dios. - - [XXVII-4] La Union, San Miguel, Acajutla, Sonsonate, etc., - owing to local causes. - - [XXVII-5] The average temperature at Tegucigalpa, Comayagua, - Juticalpa, and Gracias is about 74°. _Squier's Notes on Cent. - Am._, 25-7; _Belly_, _A travers l'Amér. Cent._, i. 53-4. - - [XXVII-6] Cold and salubrious on the table-lands in the - interior, the thermom. ranging from 65° to 75° Fahr. - _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 28. The climate of Costa R. - varies from 50° to 60° Fahr., according to elevation. - _Galindo_, in _Journ. Royal Geog. Soc. of London_, vi. 134; - _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 47-8. - - [XXVII-7] This is by far the pleasanter season, the forenoons - being usually cloudless, with a clear, elastic, and balmy - atmosphere. Owing to local influences in some portions of the - eastern coasts it rains more or less the whole year. _Crowe's - Gospel_, 1-12. - - [XXVII-8] Consisting of three groups; viz, the Costa Rican - traversing that republic and Panama, the Honduran and - Nicaraguan, and the Guatemalan. - - [XXVII-9] Some of the summits are 17,000 ft high. Several - spurs from the Sierra Madre—the main ridge—cut the plains at - right angles, and sometimes reach the sea-shore. - - [XXVII-10] All the volcanoes of Cent. Am. are on the Pacific - coast, almost in a line, and running due north-west and - south-east, beginning with the Cartago or Irazú, in Costa - Rica, which is 11,480 ft high, and has left traces of violent - eruptions before the historic period; the only proof of its - present activity being a small rill of smoke visible from the - foot of the mountain. There are hundreds of other volcanic - peaks and extinct craters on the line, the most notable - being the Turrialba, which was in active eruption in 1866, - the ashy matter from it having been beneficial to the coffee - plantations; Chirripó, Blanco, Závalo, Barba, Los Votos 9,840 - ft high, also in Costa R. Abogado, Cerro Pelado, Tenorio, - Cucuilapa, Miravalles, Rincon de la Vieja, La Hedionda, - Orosi, Madera, Ometepec, Zapatera, Guanapepe, Guanacaure, - Solentinami, Mombacho, Chiltepe, Masaya or Nindirí; this - last said to have been in a state of eruption upwards of - 250 years ago, and still continues active; it had a small - eruption Nov. 10, 1858; Managua; Momotombo, 6,500 ft high, - near the Managua or Leon Lake, about which the Indians had - a tradition of a tremendous eruption some 100 years before - the coming of the Spaniards, the lava running into the lake - and destroying all the fish; the latter part of the story - seems to be incorrect, there being evidence that the lava - did not reach the lake shore; it partially revived in 1852; - Las Pilas, Asososca, Orota, Telica, Santa Clara, El Viejo - 6,000 ft high; El Chonco; Cosigüina, whose first eruption - was Jan. 20, 1835, believed to have been the most violent - ever recorded in history; and Joltepec—all in Nic. El Tigre, - Nacaome, and Amapala, or Conchagua, in Hond. In the republic - of Salv. are several; namely, the San Salvador, which had not - broken out in upwards of three centuries; but in old times - it ejected immense masses of lava and scoriæ to a distance - of more than 18 miles. It is of great depth, computed by - Weems, an American who descended it, at about 5,000 varas; - the bottom is occupied by a lake; San Miguel, about 15,000 - ft high. In old times it ejected large quantities of cinders - and half-melted stones of immense size. The country for 30 - miles or more, including the site of San Miguel, one of the - oldest towns in Am., being covered with lava and scoriæ; - San Vicente; Izalco, which broke out about 100 years ago, - is in constant activity, but has not caused any serious - damage; Paneon, and Santa Ana. In Guat. are the Pacaya; - the Volcan de Agua; the Volcan de Fuego constantly smoking - with occasional explosion and shocks, its last eruption - being in 1880; Encuentro, Acatenango; Atitlan so remarkable - at one time for frequent and violent eruptions, the last - ones being in 1828 and 1833, which caused much destruction - on the coast of Suchitepequez; Tesamielco, Zapotitlan, - Amilpas, Quezaltenango, and Cerro Quemado whose last eruption - was in 1785. There are many other nameless ones. Near a - number of the active and extinct volcanoes are small and - almost circular openings in the ground, through which is - ejected smoke or steam. The natives call them ausoles or - infiernillos, little hells. _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 3, 13-17, - 52-5, 91-2, 118-20, 284-90; _Squier's Trav._, ii. 101-19; - _Squier's Cent. Am._, 359-61, 492-8. Other authorities - speaking of the volcanoes of Cent. Am. are: _Stout's Nic._, - 143; _Silliman's Journal_, xxviii. 332; _Levy_, _Nic._, - 75-85, 147-53; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 10, 1854; _Diario de - Avisos_, Nov. 22, 1856; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, June 5, Aug. 7, - 1869; March 18, 1871; _Salv._, _Diario Oficial_, Oct. 11, - Nov. 15, 1878; _Overland Monthly_, xiii. 324; _La Voz de - Méj._, March 17, 1866; _Pim and Seemann's Dottings_, 39-40; - _Baily's Cent. Am._, 75-8; _Wells' Hond._, 231-2; _Harper's - Mag._, xix. 739; and the _Encyclopædias_; _Guat._, _Revista - Observatorio Meteor._, i. 21-3. - - [XXVII-11] About 300 have been recorded in 3½ centuries, - which are probably the hundredth part of the actual number. - - [XXVII-12] _Hist. Cent. Am._, ii. 719-21, this series. - - [XXVII-13] June 20th, at 3 A. M., was felt a heavy shock in - Guat.; no great damage was done. In Comayagua and Tegucigalpa - the shocks continued from the 20th to the 25th; the people - abandoning their dwellings. Many buildings, both public and - private, were much injured. The shocks were also felt in - Trujillo. - - [XXVII-14] Apr. 23, 1830, Guat. experienced one said to - have been the most severe since that of 1773. Feb. and - Sept. 1831, a great part of San Salvador was ruined. The - authorities and most of the people fled to Cojutepeque. This - was the sixth time the city had been more or less damaged - by earthquakes. Sept. 2, 1841, Cartago, in Costa R., was - nearly levelled to the ground; of 3,000 houses previously - existing, not 100 remained entire; of the 8 churches, the - smallest and ugliest was the only one escaping uninjured. - May 1844, the city of Granada was nearly ruined; the town of - Nicaragua was greatly damaged, the lake of this name rising - and falling several times, as if having a tide. Amatitlan, - Petapa, Palin, and other places near the volcano of Pacaya, - hardly had a house left standing in the end of March and in - beginning of April 1845. In the repub. of Guat. shocks have - been repeatedly experienced, those of 1884 and 1885 causing - devastation in Amatitlan. San Salvador experienced heavy - ones in 1575, 1593, 1625, 1656, and 1798, and was completely - ruined in 1839, 1854, and 1873, and several other towns in - the republic fared almost as badly in the latter year. Oct. - 2, 1878, there was loss of life. Dec. 27-29, 1879, Ilopango, - Candelaria, and other places were demolished. In Costa R. the - destruction of Puntarenita occurred Aug. 4, 1854; and in 1882 - the towns of Alajuela, San Ramon, Grecia, and Heredia were - damaged, with heavy loss of life. In Dec. 1867, a tidal wave - swallowed the island of Zapotilla, in Golfo Dulce, drowning - all the inhabitants. The earthquake shocks seem to be of two - kinds, namely, the perpendicular, which are felt only in the - vicinity of volcanoes, and the horizontal, reaching great - distances from the places where they originate, being very - unequal in their progress, in some parts rocking the ground - violently, and in others, in their direct line, nearer their - source, being but slightly felt. _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 290-3; - _Squier's Cent. Am._, 298, 304-7, 465; _Squier's Travels_, - ii. 85, 120-6; _Ponton's Earthquakes_, 69, 76-7; _Reichardt_, - _Cent. Am._, 83-4; _Nouv. Annales Voy._, clxv. 360-1; lxxxv. - 264; lciii. 121; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iii. 608-9; - _Wagner_, _Costa R._, Pref. viii.; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, - vii. 101-3; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 10, 1853; July 15, Aug. - 5, 26, Sept. 2, 1854; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, Aug. 31, Dec. - 23, 1854; _Niles' Reg._, lxi. 257; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, - 26; _Mission Scient. au Mex. Geol._, 13-16, 511-12; _Wells' - Hond._, 233; _Salv._, _El Siglo_, May 28, June 3, 1851, Sept. - 3, 1852; _Id._, _Diario Ofic._, Oct. 5-27, 1878; Jan. 13, 14, - 1880; _Id._, _Gaceta_, May 20, 1854; _Id._, _El Rol_, Oct. - 13, 20, Nov. 10, 17, Dec. 1, 1854; Feb. 9, 1855; _Guat._, - _Gaceta_, Oct. 21, 1853; May 5, 1854; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, March - 26, 1864; Feb. 10, 1866; Jan. 18, May 9, Oct. 31, 1868; Jan. - 8, June 18, Aug. 20, 1870; _La Union de Nic._, Jan. 12, 1861; - _El Porvenir de Nic._, Oct. 15, 1871; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. - Ex. Doc., Cong. 43, Sess. 1, i. pt 1, 796, 808, 814; _Id._, - Cong. 44, Sess. 1, i. pt 1, 129; _Uriarte_, _Terremotos de - Cent. Am._, in _Mex. Soc. Geog._, _Boletin_, ii. 189-95; - _Mex._, _Eco Mercantil_, Apr. 24, 1882; _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Jan. 5, 7, 11, 1886. Very full information from 1469 - to 1882 in _Guat._, _Revista Observatorio Meteor._, i. 24-39. - - [XXVII-15] Worthy of mention were the shocks of July 11, - 1854, felt throughout the Isthmus, Sept. 11th, the same year, - felt in Chiriquí; 1857, 1858, 1868, and Sept. 7, 1882; this - last was a heavy one, damaging public and private buildings; - also delaying the transmission of passengers and merchandise - over the railway. _Salv._, _El Rol_, Dec. 1, 1854; _Costa - R._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 21, 1854; _S. F. Alta_, Oct. 2, 1857; - _Sac. Union_, Aug. 2, 1858; _S. F. Call_, June 23, 1868; - Sept. 8, 9, 25, 1882; _S. F. Chronicle_, Sept. 9, 1882; _La - Estrella de Pan._, Sept. 14, 1882; _Pan. Star and Herald_, - Sept. 14, 1882. - - [XXVII-16] The most important ones are the Usumasinta, known - also under the names of Lacandon, Pasion, etc., in Guat., - of about the size of the Garonne or Elbe in Europe, or the - Hudson in the U. S., which drains nearly half of the state, - and pours its waters through several mouths into the bay of - Campeche and the laguna de Términos. The Dulce unites the - bay of Hond. with the Dulce Gulf. The Hondo; the Belize, - or Old River, famous for the fine mahogany its banks have - yielded; the Motagua and the Polochic; the Black or Tinto - in the Poyais country; the San Juan del Norte, Coco, also - named Telpaneca and Wanks, Grande or Chocoyos, and the Mico - or Blewfields; the Tipitapa, uniting lakes Nicaragua and - Managua; the Paz, separating Guat. and Salv.; and the deep - and rapid Lempa, the largest on the western shore, at its - lowest ebb exceeds 140 yards in breadth. - - [XXVII-17] The following are the notable ones: Atitlan, in - Guat., covering upwards of 250 square miles; declared to be - unfathomable, a line of 300 fathoms not reaching the bottom. - Though receiving the waters of many rivers, no outlet has - been found for its dark and benumbing waters; still, it - is probable that a subterraneous outlet exists, as in the - lakes of Guijar and Metapa in Salv., which are united by a - subterraneous communication. Golfo Dulce, or Izabal Lake, of - about 50 miles in circuit, subject to violent agitations, - and forming the port of Izabal on the Atlantic coast of - Guat. The small Amatitlan, about 20 miles from the city of - Guat., which, notwithstanding its hot springs and brackish - waters, abounds in a delicate fish called mojarra, in other - small fish, and in wild fowl. In Hond. is the Yojos. In Nic., - the lake of the same name, whose surplus waters run to the - Atlantic by the San Juan del Norte River; an inland sea, 96 - miles long, and 40 miles in its greatest breadth, forming an - ellipse with its main axis due N. W. to S. E. Its depth in - some parts is of 45 fathoms, and its area must be at least - 2,000 square miles. It contains a small archipelago. Lake - Managua is 38 or 35 miles in length, and 16 in its greatest - breadth. It has little depth, and several sand banks render - navigation difficult. The laguna de Masaya, 340 ft lower - than the city of the same name, which is 750 ft above the sea - level. Its area is of about 10 square miles. _Lévy_, _Nic._, - 86, 95-8. - - [XXVII-18] From 8° to 11° 16´ N. lat., and 81° 40´ to 85° - 40´ long. W. of Greenwich. _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, - 25. Between 8° and 17° 30´ N. lat., and 11° 50´ to 22° 32´ - W. of Santiago de Chile, which is situate in meridian 70° - 38´ 6´´ west of Greenwich. _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 2. - _Am. Cyclopædia_, v. 393, gives it betw. 8° 11´ and 11° - 8´ N. lat., and long. 82° 28´ to 85° 45´ W. of Greenwich. - Between about 8° and 11° N. lat., and 82° to 86° W. long. - _Encyclopædia Britannica_, vi. 397. - - [XXVII-19] By the law of March 27, 1835, the country was - divided into three departments; namely, Cartago, Alajuela, - and Guanacaste, with a jefe político at the head of each. - Repealed by executive decree of April 28, 1843, after having - had several amendments. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, iv. 180-3. - - [XXVII-20] San José has 9 regidores, Cartago and Heredia - 7. Each municipality chooses a president and vice-president - from among its own members, and a secretary. At each cantonal - head town there are alcaldes, and in each barrio a juez de - paz. _Costa R._, _Id._, iii. 226-40; x. 465-92; xi. 89-138; - xvii. 161-98; xix. 168-74; _Costa R._, _Mem. Instruc. Púb._, - 1884, annexes 12-17; _Id._, _Mem. Gobern._, 1852-84; _El - Costaricense_, Nov. 24, 1849; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 9, - 16, March 2, 1850. - - [XXVII-21] San José, the national capital, was founded a - little more than 100 years ago, owing its existence to the - earthquakes which nearly destroyed Cartago, the old capital. - San José is situated on an elevation of about 4,500 ft., - upon the table-land formed between the mountains of Dota or - Herradura on the south, and those of Barba on the north. On - one side flows the river Torres, and on the other the María - Aguilar. Its streets are paved, straight, and forming right - angles. The dwellings are mostly of a single story, with - spacious courts; there are, however, a good many buildings of - two stories. The majority are made of adobe, plastered over; - but the national palace is of stone, and a fine building. An - aqueduct supplies the city with water from the Torres, though - a large portion of the fluid consumed is drawn from the - wells existing in almost every house. Besides, the government - palace, the university, Mora theatre, some of the churches, - and a few other buildings, do honor to the city. The electric - light was introduced in 1884. Cartago, the oldest town in - the state, though it has lost its political importance, - and has been shattered by earthquakes, retains some traces - of its former magnificence. It is gradually improving. - _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 51; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, - 50; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 463-4; _Boyle's Ride Across a - Continent_, ii. 217; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 47; - _Wappäus_, _Mex. und Cent. Am._, 364-5; _Costa R._, _Informe - Gobern._, 1874, 2-3; _El Cronista_, S. F., Oct. 18, 1884. - - [XXVII-22] It is situated between lat. 10° 45´ and 14° 55´, - and between long. 83° 15´ and 87° 38´. _Am. Cyc._, xii. 420. - Between 10° 30´ and 15° lat., and from 83° 11´ to 87° long. - _Encyclop. Brit._, xvii. 490. Between 9° 45´ and 15° lat. - N., and between 83° 20´ and 87° 30´ long. W. _Squier's Cent. - Am._, 348. Between 10° 50´ and 15° N. lat., and between 83° - 13´ and 87° 37´ long. W. of Greenwich. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Jan. - 18, 1868. - - [XXVII-23] That is the civilized region. There is, besides, - a wild portion comprising about 24,000 geographical miles. - _Lévy_, _Nic._, 372. - - [XXVII-24] In the absence of the prefecto the first alcalde - of the head town acts in his place ad int., with the full - pay of the office. _Nic._, _Acuerdos y Dec._, 1857-8, 70-8, - 203-5; _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 58-77, 145-8, 195-6; ii. - 5-20; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Apr. 16, 1856; Feb. 8 to Nov. - 15, passim, 1862; _Id._, _Gaceta_, March 5, 1864; _Id._, - _Informe Gobern._, 1863-83. - - [XXVII-25] The corporations are formed, according to the - importance of the locality, with one or two alcaldes, and - their respective suplentes, regidores, one secretary, one - síndico, and the agricultural judge, all serving without - pay. The prefecto controls the municipal affairs of his - whole department, and especially those of the chief town. - He presides ex-officio over all the municipalities, and in - case of a tie has a casting vote. He cannot be accused except - before the senate, and is consequently a petty president in - his department. _Lévy_, _Nic._, 331-5. - - [XXVII-26] It was made a city in 1846, and special ordinances - were provided for it from time to time. _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, - i. 148; _Sandoval_, _Rev. Polít._, 58; _Nic._, _Registro - Ofic._, 342; _Id._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, 1863, 2, 46, 118-19; - _Id._, _Dec. y Acuerdos de la Junta_, 12-13, 145-8. - - [XXVII-27] It has been greatly damaged by military - operations, but never burned down, like Granada. - - [XXVII-28] Leon was connected in 1881 with Corinto by rail; - and the line has been afterward extended to Leon Viejo, - on Lake Managua, and thence to Granada. Notable places in - the department of Leon are Telica, birthplace of Miguel - Larreyuaga, an oidor of the last Spanish audiencia, or - superior court of judicature, who drew up the declaration - of independence; El Sáuce, Santa Rosa, El Jicaral or San - Buenaventura, and San Nicolas. - - [XXVII-29] Granada has a good commercial position on the N. - W. end of Lake Nicaragua, and at the foot of the Mombacho - volcano. It was burned by pirates in 1665, nearly ruined - by the freebooters in 1670, the raiders having come on - both occasions by the San Juan River and the lake; and a - third time destroyed by fire in 1685, the work of pirates - who landed at Escalante on the Pacific. In 1844 it was - greatly damaged by earthquakes. In 1856 it was burned by - William Walker, the filibuster. But it has risen from its - ashes, and become prosperous. The city is irregular in its - construction, the streets not being straight or rectangular. - They are mostly unpaved, and generally in a bad condition. - The city obtains water for consumption from the lake, distant - about a mile, brought by men on their shoulders; and its - food supplies, not from the surrounding fields, but from - numerous Indian pueblos on the S. E. Masaya was an Indian - town, but raised to the rank of a city in 1839. _Rocha_, - _Cód. Nic._, i. 148. It is supplied with water from the deep - lagoon south of and near the city. There were women who for - 80 cents monthly supplied two large jars of water every - day. A steam-pump was put up in 1872 to raise the water - of the lake to the plaza. There is no building worthy of - mention in the place. Other notable towns in the department - of Granada are Nandaimé, Jinotepe, San Rafael de la Costa, - Diriomo, Tipitapa, Nindirí, and Zapatera Island. The towns - of San Cárlos and El Castillo, on the San Juan, belong to - the same department, though governed in a special manner. - San Juan del Norte, alias Greytown, has little importance - now; its houses are of wood and palm-thatched. Rivas bore - the name of Nicaragua till the early part of the present - century. The city has suffered greatly from earthquakes, - particularly in 1844. It was partially destroyed during the - Walker war. A real curiosity in the department of Rivas is - the island of Ometepe in the lake, having two towns, the - Pueblo Grande, or villa de Altagracia, and the Moyogalpa, - united by a good wagon road. Chinandega is one of the most - beautiful spots in Nic. It is a perfect garden. In the wild - or uncivilized portion of the territory lies the Mosquito - region, whose chief town is Blewfields, having two wooden - buildings; the rest being mere huts. _Lévy_, _Nic._, 373-90; - _Laferrière_, _De Paris á Guatém._, 73-6; _Saravia_, _Bosq. - Polít. Estadist._, 10-11; _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, - 153-4; _Froebel's Cent. Am._, 19, 29-47, 62-75, 92-104; - _Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, i. 250-80, 311-17, 350-4; _Squier's - Trav._, i. 138-40, 146-50, 211-15, 258-67, 339, 353-6, 365; - _Squier's Cent. Am._, 346-7, 356-9, 366-76; _Squier's Nic._, - 646; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 196-9, 212, 225-9, 249; _Stillman's - Golden Fleece_, 206-8; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 6-8; _Stout's - Nic._, 27-9, 41-5, 98-100, 156-64; _Baily's Cent. Am._, - 117-18; _Bates' Cent. Am._, 131-2; _Marr_, _Cent. Am._, i. - 158-9, 165-71, 228-30; _Boyle's Ride_, i. 13, 83-91; ii. 8; - _Reichardt_, _Nic._, 6-18, 20-7, 59, 62-3, 71-2, 81-9, 105-6, - 129-31, 134, 155-9, 165-9, 231; _Wells' Hond._, 39, 42, 72-4. - - [XXVII-30] Hond. is therefore betw. 13° 10' and 16° lat. - N., and within 83° 20' and 89° 30' long. W. _Squier's Cent. - Am._, 68; _Encyclop. Brit._, xii. 133. Between 13° 10' and - 16° 5' N. lat., and within 83° 12' and 89° 47' W. long. _Am. - Cyclop._, viii. 787. - - [XXVII-31] The towns have their municipal corporations, whose - members are required by law to be able to read and write. - - [XXVII-32] Before 1827 it was a prosperous city; but the - serviles burnt it that year. Since then it has suffered - several times, especially in 1872 and 1873. - - [XXVII-33] _Squier's Cent. Am._, 129-30; this authority also - gives a cut of the cathedral on p. 261; _Wappäus_, _Mex. und - Cent. Am._, 310-11; _Huston's Journey_, 24-7. - - [XXVII-34] The town stands on the right bank of the Choluteca - River in an amphitheatre among the hills. It has a fine stone - bridge of ten arches spanning the river. _Wells' Hond._, - 186-8; _Laferrière_, _De Paris á Guatém._, 95-6; _Squier's - Cent. Am._, 155. - - [XXVII-35] Omoa is situated about a quarter of a mile from - the beach on level ground, but the back country rises rapidly - into a chain of high mountains, beginning abruptly at Puerto - Caballos, now called Puerto Cortés. Owing to its position, - Omoa is generally cool and healthy, has seldom been visited - by epidemics. The place is defended by the San Fernando - castle. Trujillo lies close by the sea at the foot of a lofty - mountain covered with vegetation, and reaching to the very - edge of the water. The town was at one time of considerable - importance, both in a commercial and military point of - view; but now it has an antique, dilapidated, and abandoned - appearance. Amapala, on the island of Tigre, was in old times - a favorite resort of pirates; it was here that Drake had his - depot during his operations in the Pacific. Owing to the - visits of those marauders, the Indian population of Tigre - and Zacate Grande retired to the mainland, and the islands - remained almost entirely deserted till 1838, when Amapala - was made a free port, since which time it has become a very - important place. It has a salubrious climate. Further details - on the towns of Honduras may be found in _Montgomery's Narr. - of a Journey to Guat., etc., in 1838_, 31; _Squier's Cent. - Am._, 98-129, 142-161; _Squier's Hond. R. R._, 74-84, 99-102; - _Squier's Trav._, ii. 164-8; _Young's Resid. Mosq. Shore_, - 138-40; _Wells' Hond._, 324-5, 574-9; _Reichardt_, _Cent. - Am._, 89-90, 93-5; _Wappäus_, _Mex. und Cent. Am._, 311-19; - _Froebel's Cent. Am._, 177-83; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, - 28-9. - - [XXVII-36] It is comprised within lat. 13° and 14° 30' N., - and long. 87° 30' and 90° 20' W. _Am. Cyclop._, xiv. 610. - Between 13° and 14° 10' N. lat., and between 87° and 90° W. - long. _Squier's Cent. Am._, 279; _Laferrière_, _De Paris á - Guatém._, 111. - - [XXVII-37] By decree of President Gonzalez, July 14, 1875, - the department of San Miguel was cut up, and that of Gotera - created with the districts of Gotera and Osicala. San Miguel - was compensated with Chinameca, detached from Usulutan. - _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, July 20, 1875. - - [XXVII-38] It is made a part of the governor's duty to keep - the gen. govt apprised of every important occurrence within - his department or its vicinity; in addition to which he - must furnish annually a gen. report on every branch of the - public service, with suggestions for the further improvement - and progress of the communities under his charge. His - subordinates in districts and towns report to him. A number - of governors' reports may be seen in _Salv._, _Gaceta_, Sept. - 3 to Dec. 24, 1876; Jan. 2 to Dec. 18, 1877; _Id._, _Diario - Ofic._, May 17 to Dec. 3, 1879; Jan. 15, 1880, etc. - - [XXVII-39] Towns of from 200 to 2,000 inhabitants two - regidores, of upwards of 2,000 to 10,000 four, and those - exceeding the latter number six. Each corporation elects a - competent clerk to authenticate its acts and those of the - alcalde. - - [XXVII-40] _Id._, May 1-16, 1875; March 5-22, 1879. - - [XXVII-41] Like other Spanish towns, it covers a large area - in proportion to the population. The houses are built low, - of a single story, and adapted to resist the constant shakes - of the earth. Each house has an inner court, frequently - containing a fountain and garden. The dwellers run out to the - court on feeling a temblor of some force. When the shocks are - heavy and continuous, they seek safety in the plazas and open - fields, where they erect tents. - - [XXVII-42] It is situated between N. lat. 13° 50' and 18° - 15', and within W. long. 88° 14' and 93° 12'. _Am. Cyclop._, - viii. 288. Between 13° 42' and 18° lat. N., and between 88° - and 93° 5' W. long. _Encyclop. Brit._, xi. 211. - - [XXVII-43] The chief towns have the same names as the - departments to which they belong, excepting those of - Sacatepéquez, Quiché, Peten, Baja Verapaz, Alta Verapaz, - and Santa Rosa, whose respective names are Antigua, Santa - Cruz del Quiché, Flores, Salamá, Coban, and Cuajiniquilapa. - _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, June 6, 1877; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. - Gobern. y Just._, 1884, 4-5, annex 4; _El Guatemalteco_, May - 10, 1884. - - [XXVII-44] Under the old system the department was under a - corregidor who was not only civil governor, but also military - chief, judge, revenue collector, and postmaster. _Berendt_, - in _Smithsonian Rept_, 1867, 424. - - [XXVII-45] Under art. 34 of this organic law the jefes were - required to send the supreme gov. for approbation police - regulations, under the instructions furnished them for the - sake of uniformity. They did not fail to comply. _Guat._, - _Mem. Sec. Gobern. y Just._, 1880, 1-2. - - [XXVII-46] The law determined with precision the manner - of organizing the municipalities, and the functions of - the councilmen, increasing at the same time the number of - committees; at that time they had committees of finance, - supplies, water, police, health, ornamentation, schools, - vaccination, roads, and statistics. Further information - on internal administration, police, and gen. condition of - the departments may be found in _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. - 492-512, 527-75; _Barrios_, _Mensaje_, 1876; _Salv. Diario - Ofic._, May 13 to 16, 1875; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Gobern._, - 1880, 1881, 1882, 1884; _Batres' Sketch Guat._, 23; - _Conkling's Guide_, 341. - - [XXVII-47] With only three exceptions every department had a - surplus. The three excepted had deficits amounting together - to $3,578. - - [XXVII-48] I will name a few of the authorities: _Dillon_, - _Beautés de l'hist._, 218-38; _Thompson's Guat._, 465-9; - _Stephens' Trav. Cent. Am._, i. 192-4; _Nuevo Viajero Univ._, - iii. 602-7; _Baily's Cent. Am._, 49-54; _Valois_, _Mexique_, - 291-6; _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 54; _Crosby's Statem._, MS., - 86-90; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 114-16; _Laferrière_, _De Paris - à Guatém._, 259-60; _Dicc. Univ. Hist. Geog._, iii. 724-7; - _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 76-86; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 497-50; - _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc. Cong. 43, Sess. 1, i. 444-5; - _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 78-9; _Am. Cyclop._, viii. 290-2; - _Encyclop. Brit._, xi. 214. - - [XXVII-49] There are two fortresses, the Matamoros and San - José. Among the open places are the plaza mayor, and the - recently laid out plaza de la Concordia, now the favorite - resort of the inhabitants. There is another plaza containing - a fine theatre. - - [XXVII-50] San Francisco, La Recoleccion, La Merced, and - Santo Domingo are among the notable ones. - - [XXVII-51] The govt in late years has provided for an - increase of the water supply to meet the future requirements - of a town whose population is rapidly growing. _Guat._, _Mem. - Sec. Fomento_, 1884, 43-4; 1885, 49-51, 56-8. - - [XXVII-52] With government aid, a jockey club was also - established in 1882. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 47-50, 75. - - [XXVII-53] Antigua, or Old Guat., presents its majestic - ruins, much the same as they were left by the earthquakes of - 1773. Many of the buildings appear like fortresses. Among - the best preserved are the old government palace and the - university. The place was much damaged by an earthquake in - 1874. Thompson in his _Cent. Am._ has a description of the - ruins as they were in 1825, 245-9; others have described them - at later dates. _Stephens' Trav._, i. 266-71, 278-80; ii. - 204; _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 53-5; _Macgregor's Prog. of - Am._, i. 791-2; _Valois_, _Mexique_, 376-8, 390; _Squier's - Cent. Am._, 456, 504-10; _Batres' Sketch_, 27-9, 40. - Quezaltenango is 8,130 feet above the sea. It is every day - growing in importance and wealth. Living is cheap there; the - climate is cool and healthy. Most of the streets are narrow, - but they are well paved and have flagstone sidewalks. The - houses are of good appearance, some of them of two stories. - Among the public buildings are the penitentiary, on the plan - of that in Philadelphia, the Indian cabildo of two stories, - the hospital, national institute, and other educational - establishments, some fine churches, etc. _Boddam Whetham's - Across Cent. Am._, 66-7; _Conkling's Guide_, 334, 337, 343. - The city of Flores, head town of the department of Peten, is - worthy of mention for its picturesque position on one of the - islands of Lake Itzal, and its charming view from a distance. - The place is hot, however, and uncleanly. - - [XXVII-54] Occupying the Isthmus which connects North and - South America, between lat. N. 6° 45´ and 9° 40´, and within - long. W. 77° and 83°. The area is of about 31,921 square - miles. In its general form it is an arc curving from east to - west, with the convex side toward the north. In the widest - part from sea, to sea it is about 120 miles, in the narrowest - from the gulf of San Blas to the mouth of the Bayano River - about 30, and along the line of the railway 47½ miles. _Am. - Cyclop._, xiii. 31. - - [XXVII-55] In addition to these are Taboguilla, Urabá, Naos, - Perico, Culebra, San José, Tórtola, Tortolita, Iguana, - Washington, Napoleon, Stanley, and many smaller ones. - _Tavares_, _Gulf and Isthmus of Darien_, March 31, 1761, - MS., 52-65; _Imray's Sail. Directions_, 6-12; _Humboldt_, - _Tableau_, 710. - - [XXVII-56] The largest being the Tuira, 160 miles long, - navigable about 102 for barges, empties into the gulf of San - Miguel; the Chagres, navigable for bungos about 30 miles, - runs into the Caribbean Sea; the Chepo flows into the bay of - Panamá. - - [XXVII-57] The principal town of Coclé is Penonomé; of - Chiriquí, David; and of Veragua, Santiago. The rest bear the - same names as their respective departments. - - [XXVII-58] The governor and prefectos report yearly to - the chief of the Isthmus the state of their respective - departments. _Pan._, _Mem. Soc. Jeneral_, 1877, etc. - - [XXVII-59] Just prior to the influx of the foreign element, - upon the discovery of the gold placers in California, the - town had a gloomy and ruinous aspect. There was nothing to - be seen all around but ruin and poverty; whole blocks and - streets of old, dilapidated buildings, propped-up houses - with people living in them, and luxuriant vegetation in - the plazas, walls, etc. With the coming of foreigners a - great change took place within the short space of three or - four years. Nearly all the old dwellings underwent repairs, - and new ones were built. In lieu of the old sad appearance - and silence, all was now bustle and movement. _Maldonado_, - _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 7. - - [XXVII-60] The cathedral has nothing to recommend it except - its two fine towers. It is in a ruinous condition, and - though repaired a few years ago and reduced to a single nave, - further repairs are loudly called for. This building as well - as the cabildo face the main plaza. - - [XXVII-61] Efforts have been made in late years by the state - government for the construction of an aqueduct; but without - success. _Pan._, _Gaceta_, May 16, 1874; Apr. 9, 30, 1876; - _Pan. Star and Herald_, May 19, 1874; Feb. 14, Apr. 13, 1876. - - [XXVII-62] The following are among the authorities giving - more or less detailed descriptions of the city of Panamá: - _Cash's Sketch_, 54-61, 29-71; _Bidwell's Pan._, 1-9, 75-7, - 119-35, 341-8; _Beechy's Voy._, i. 11-17, 23-4; _Scarlett's - South Am._, ii. 189-211, 221-9, 254-69; _Seemann's Narr._, - 84-8, 275-95, 289-94; _Wilson's Trav. in Cal._, 9-10, 17-19; - _Wortley's Trav._, 320-2; _Scherzer_, _Narr._, ii. 424-5; - _Pim's Gate_, 209-20. - - [XXVII-63] _Gisborne's Darien_, 160-70, 205-9; _Otis' Isth. - Pan._, 70-127; _Harper's Mag._, xvii. 19-28, 32-9; _Tomes' - Pan._, 40-66. The following contain descriptions of other - places as well as of the transit between the two seas: - _London Geog. Soc. Jour._, i. 69-101; xxiii., 184; _Niles' - Reg._, xxxviii. 141; _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 201-2; - _Willey's Person. Mem._, 37-8; _Masset's Exper. of a '49er_, - MS., 1; _Lachapelle's Raousset-Boulbon_, 43-7; _Champagnac_, - _Voyageur_, 175-6; _Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, 211-31; - _Nic._, _Cor. Ist._, May 30, 1850; _Marryatt's Mountains_, - 1-17; _Holinski_, _La Californie_, 45-61; _Rouhaud_, _Reg. - Nouvelles_, 167; _Nouv. Annales des Voy._, cxxiii. 220-2, - 226-7; cxlv. 17-22; cxlvii. 15-17; _Polynesian_, v. 29; - vi. 121; _Thornton's Or. and Cal._, ii. 348-54; _Oswald - Cal. und Seine_, 87-92; _Kelley's Canal Mantimera_, 27-8; - _Auger_, _Voy. en Cal._, 35-92; _Saint-Amant_, 25-62, - 80-97; _Griswold's Pan._, 41-7; _Rossi_, _Souvenirs_, 47-50; - _Esguerra_, _Dicc. Geog. Colombia_, 2-275; _Pan._, _Gaceta_, - Jan. 23, 1881. - - [XXVII-64] Department of Pan., including 18,378 in the - city, 43,462; Coclé, 33,134; Colon, including 4,000 in that - port, 1,057 in Chagres, and 1,319 in Portobello, 8,276; - Los Santos, 37,670; Veragua, 36,210; Bocas del Toro, 5,250; - Darien, 1,036. _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1882, 43-6. The - population at the time the Isthmus seceded from Spain was - variously estimated at from 80,000 to 111,550; 1843, 129,697; - the census of 1863 yielded 180,000; but it is believed the - population was made to appear larger than it really was, so - as to gain one more representative in the national congress. - The best informed citizens computed it at only 150,000. In - 1868, 220,542, authorities keeping the same figures till - 1879, excepting one estimate for 1874 reducing it to 174,000. - _Humboldt_, _Pers. Narr._, vi., pt i. 142; _Seemann's Voy._, - i. 296; _Imray's Sail. Dir._, 14; _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, - 178-80; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Feb. 18, 1868; _Mex. Soc. - Geog. Boletin_, 3d ép. i. 728; _Colombia_, _Diario Ofic._, - Sept. 6, 1872; Aug. 4, 1874; March 1, 1876; _Esguerra_, - _Dicc. Geog. Colomb._, 171. - - [XXVII-65] _Veraguas_, _Decr. de la Cám._; _Id._, _Notas - Ofic._; _Id._, _Ordenanzas_, 1853; _Chiriquí_, _Corresp. - Gob. Nac._, 1851; _Id._, _Ofic. del Gob._; _Id._, _Comp. de - Fomento_, 1855; all in _Pinart_, _Pan. Coll. Doc._, MSS., - nos. 63, 65, 69, p. 25-7, no. 39, 4-9, no. 88, p. 22, no. 40, - 1-4; besides other doc. in the same Coll., no. 31, p. 40-1, - nos. 49, 50, 52, 103; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc. 41, - Cong. 36, Sess. 2, vi. 55; _El Noticioso del Istmo Am._, in - the _Californian_, S. F., ii., June 12, 1847. - - [XXVII-66] For their dwelling-places I refer to _Native Races - of the Pac. States_, i. 795-7, this series. - - [XXVII-67] In 1835. _Veraguas_, _Dec. de la Cám._, in _Pin._, - _Pan. Col. Doc._, MS., no. 57, 17-22; _Id._, _Informe_, in - _Id._, MS., no. 78. - - [XXVII-68] Their chief at times visited the British consul at - Panamá, but never agreed to his returning the visit at their - homes. _Seemann's Voy._, i. 321. Neither would they accept - presents from any white person. One of their chiefs who - accepted a present was degraded by his tribe, and the present - was sent back. _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 36. - - [XXVII-69] Many persons were killed by the Bayanos in Oct. - 1870; and their hostilities were repeated in 1874. _Pan._, - _Gaceta_, Nov. 10, 1870; Dec. 23, 1873; Apr. 14, 1874; _Id._, - _Star and Herald_, Feb. 17, March 12, 1874; _Id._, _Informe - Sec. Est._, 1874, 18-19. - - [XXVII-70] The lower classes are improvident and fond of - dress and finery. - - [XXVII-71] Low dresses without sleeves, and with lace - trimmings on the bust. - - [XXVII-72] There are many of them given to gossiping and - propagating scandalous reports even about their friends. - Politics and the bottle have in late years debauched many - a fine young man, the vice of drunkenness of late gaining - ground. - - [XXVII-73] There are associations of various kinds, including - secret ones, like the masonic, of which there are several - lodges, with many native Panamanians among their members. The - natives still observe the custom of long mournings as of old. - In a community where families are more or less connected by - ties of blood or marriage, the result is that mourning often - seems to be the common dress. - - [XXVII-74] Details in _Constitucional del Istmo_, Nov. 21, - 1832; _Colegio de Pan._, _Decreto_, 1-2; _El Movimiento_, - Dec. 1, 1844; _N. Granada_, _Gaceta_, Feb. 22, 1846; - _Bogotá_, _Gac. Ofic._, Feb. 6, 1848; _Chiriquí_, _Decretos_, - MS., 1849; _Pan._, _Crón. Ofic._, Nov. 9, 1849, to March - 1, 1854, passim; _Chiriquí_, _Inf. del Gob._, MSS., 1851-2; - _Pan._, _Gaceta Extraord._, Dec. 23, 1857; March 30, 1858. - - [XXVII-75] In 1869 there were no public primary schools in - the state. Parents with means had teachers at home, or sent - their children to the few private schools then existing, to - Bogotá, the national capital, or abroad. Children of poor - parents had to grow in utter ignorance. - - [XXVII-76] In 1874 there were in the state 17 primary - schools with 1,065 pupils. The numbers steadily increased - till 1882, when the schools were 59 and the pupils 2,167. - There were appropriated for supporting the schools in 1873 - $14,191, and every year after there was an increase; the - amount allowed in 1882 being $33,310, and in 1883 $63,962, - the govt now becoming alive to the fact that the funds - formerly supplied were insufficient, as appeared in the - report of the educational bureau on Nov. 15, 1881. _Pan._, - _El Elector_, May 1, 1883; _Pan._, _Inf. Sec. Est._, 1866; - _Id._, _Mensaje_, 1872; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Est._, 1876; - _Id._, _Informe Direct. Gen. Instruc. Púb._, 1877-80; _Id._, - _Leyes_, 1876-7, 26-32; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Gob._, 1877; _Id._, - _Min. Sec. Gob._, 1879; _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, May 28, - 1863, to Sept. 8, 1869, passim; _Id._, _Gaceta_, July 28, - 1870, to Feb. 20, 1881, passim; _Colombia_, _Diario Ofic._, - Feb. 18, Aug. 14, 1874; Jan. 27, March 2, 1876. - - [XXVII-77] It began its existence as the _Panamá Star_, a - very small sheet, in 1849; now it has eight large pages. - _S. F. Times_, March 13, 1869; _S. F. Alta_, March 13, 1869; - _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. 11, 1886. - - [XXVII-78] I have had occasion to quote both publications - repeatedly on narrating events on the Isthmus and in Central - America. - - [XXVII-79] The bull is led by a rope into the most public - streets. A number of men challenge the brute, which - occasionally rushes at its tormentors; but as the rope holds - it, only by a rare chance is any one hurt. The bull is thus - worried by the men-brutes till it is ready to drop. - - [XXVII-80] Games of chance and night orgies having become - prevalent, in 1878 a heavy tax was levied on gambling-houses, - and a severe decree issued to check orgies and brawls. - _Pan._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 31, Aug. 15, 1878. - - [XXVII-81] The following authorities have spoken of the - manners and customs of the Isthmus, and character of - its people at different periods from 1845 to late years: - _Macgregor's Progress of Am._, i. 820-34; _Seemann's Narr._, - i. 140-1, 299-310, passim; _Oliveira_, in _Nouv. Ann. Voy._, - cxxiii., 216-27; _McCollum's Cal._, 16-26; _Worthy's Trav._, - 335-6; _Johnson's Sights_, 11-87; _Foote's Recoll._, 135-47; - _Merrill's Statem._, MS., i.; _Fremont's Am. Trav._, 57-65, - 166-7; _Griswold's Isth._, 130-68, 179-80; _Gisborne's - Darien_, 170-216, pass.; _Delano's Chips_, 80-92; _Helper's - Land of Gold_, 209-23; _Mollhausen's Diary_, ii. 374-9; - _Harper's Mag._, xix. 433, 437-54; _Trollope's W. Ind._, 240, - 248-50; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, 210-14; _Gazlay's Pac. - Monthly_, i. 17-30; _Baxley's What I Saw_, 30-45; _China - Route_, _Sketch of New_, 54-74; _Gordon's Guide_, 14-15; - _Eardley-Wilmot's Our Jour._, 66-71; _Pan. Star and Herald_, - Feb. 7, 1875. - - [XXVII-82] In 1840 small-pox prevailed in Chagres among - the natives; foreigners, being mostly vaccinated, escaped - unscathed. It visited the Isthmus again as an epidemic in - 1863, 1880, and 1881, with great ravages each time, owing - to neglect of the common rules of hygiene, or aversion of - the lower classes to vaccination. _Niles' Reg._, lix. 17; - _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 222-3; _Cash's Sketch_, 62-3; _Pan._, - _Gaceta_, March 14, Aug. 1, Oct. 17, 1880; Sept. 22, 1881; - _El Coclesano_, Aug. 5, 20, 1881; _S. F. Bulletin_, July 16, - 1881. - - [XXVII-83] The Isthmus seems to have been spared on its first - visit to Am. in 1832-4. _Pan._, _Doc. Ofic._, in _Pinart_, - _Col. Doc._, MS., no. 31, 41-4. - - [XXVII-84] The havoc, however, was greater among transient - foreigners and the native colored population. _Maldonado_, - _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 7-8. It was most virulent from - Jan. to July 1849. There were cases nearly to the end of - 1850. _Williams' Statem._, MS., 2; _Willey's Pers. Mem._, - MS., 48-53; _Roach's Statem._, MS., 1; _Cannon's Statem._, - MS., 1; _S. F. News_, Nov. 8, 1850. Chiriquí escaped - the infliction by the timely establishment of a rigorous - quarantine against Pan. _Chiriquí_, _Dec. Gobern._, in - _Pinart_, _Pan. Col. Doc._, MS., 89, 2-5, 25; _Veraguas_, - Dec., in _Id._, MS., nos. 70-2. - - [XXVII-85] If we except Colon, Chagres, and Portobello, - the climate is healthy. Men abstaining from the abuse of - alcoholic drinks, and observing the common rules of hygiene, - need not be apprehensive of the climate. - - [XXVII-86] The symptoms were cramps, severe pain in - the spine, vomiting, and fever, followed by loss of - consciousness. The attack generally lasted several days. - - [XXVII-87] _Pan._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 11, 1877; Apr. 29, 1880. - - [XXVII-88] There was, however, a private hospital, mainly - supported by the French and Italians, where sick foreigners - found good attendance. Many a life has been saved in it. - - [XXVII-89] Four disastrous conflagrations visited the present - city of Panamá prior to 1825; namely, in 1737, 1756, 1781, - and 1821, the first being the work of incendiaries from Guat. - _Seemann's Voy._, 288. Chagres was nearly all burned down - Dec. 9, 1847. _Polynesian_, in _S. F. Californian_, iii. - no. 4, Aug. 14, 1848. Gorgona was ruined in 1851. Panamá had - property destroyed in 1856 valued at half a million dollars. - Colon was afflicted in 1863 and 1868, and finally ruined by - the incendiaries Prestan and others in 1885. Panamá had three - great conflagrations; viz., June 5, 1870, Feb. 19, 1874, and - March 6, 1878. The loss of property in the three probably - exceeded four million dollars. _Pan._, _Merc. Chronicle_, - March 29, 1868; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 7, 1863; Apr. 25, - 1868; June, 1870; _Id._, _Boletin_ _Ofic._, June 18, Dec. 25, - 1870; _Jülfs_, _Die Seehäfen_, 3; _S. F. Chronicle_, June 21, - 30, 1870; March 10, 1878; _S. F. Alta_, July 1, 1870; Feb. - 28, March 9, 1874; _S. F. Call_, June 9, 1870; March 9, 1874; - Apr. 2, 1878; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Feb. 21, 24, 1874; - _Pan._, _Gaceta_, July 10, 1874; March 17 to July 1, Dec. 15, - 1878; _Colombia_, _Diario Ofic._, May 30, 1874, p. 1749; _S. - F. Post_, Feb. 28, 1874; March 8, 1878. - - [XXVIII-1] Being an estimated increase since 1877 of 245,847. - _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Dec. 4, 1877. The population was - computed in 1810 at different figures, none reliable. The one - deemed most accurate was as follows: 646,666 Indians, 313,334 - mulattoes and some negroes, 40,000 whites, making a total of - 1,000,000, probably including 100,000 for Chiapas. _Guat._, - _Apuntam._, 105, 110; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, July 2, 1879; - _Lastarría_, in _La América_, 445; _Baily's Cent. Am._, 28, - 32; _Nouv. Annales des Voy._, iv. 1820, 36; _Ocios de Esp. - Emig._, v. 2. In 1823 the whole was set down at 1,600,000. - _Humboldt's Pers. Narr._, vi. pt 1, 127, 131. Marure computed - it in 1824, giving Costa R. 70,000, Nic. 207,269, Salv. - 212,573, Hond. 137,069, and Guat. 660,580; total, 1,287,491. - _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, 148, and app. no. 6. G. A. Thompson, - Brit. commissioner to Cent. Am., in 1823 estimated 2,000,000 - in the following proportions: one fifth of whites, two fifths - of mixed classes, and two fifths of Indians. _Narr. Official - Visit_, 451. Galindo, an intelligent officer of the Cent. Am. - govt, about 1837 set the population at 685,000 Ind., 740,000 - ladinos or mestizos, and 475,000 whites; total, 1,900,000. - He evidently overestimated the number of whites. Crowe, - _Gospel_, 40, referring specifically to Guat., estimated the - number of pure whites at not over 5,000, which seems to be - short of the truth. The proportions he gave were: Indians, - three fifths; ladinos or mestizos, one fourth; whites, one - fortieth; mulattoes, one eighty-third; negroes, one fiftieth; - zambos, one hundredth. It is unnecessary to burden this note - with figures for each year after 1837. I will merely append - those for 1866, given by a writer who must have got his data - from reliable sources: Costa R., 150,000, mostly white, and - including from 5,000 to 10,000 Talamanca Indians. According - to a Costa Rica census, there were in the republic in 1864 - 112 persons of 90 years and upwards; of whom 14 were of - 100, 4 of 102, one of 103, one of 104, one of 111, one of - 117, one of 118, and one of 122. The majority of cases of - great longevity were of women. _Costa R._, _Censo_, 100-3. - Nic., 380,000, of whom 80,000 pure Indians, 30,000 whites, - 30,000 negroes, and the rest of mixed breeds, the mestizos - of white and Indian predominating on the Pac. coast, and the - zambos, or mixture of negro and Indian, on the Atlantic; - there were probably 30,000 in Mosquitia; Salv., 750,000; - Hond., 300,000; Guat., 1,219,500. _Laferrière_, _De Paris á - Guatém._, 47, 71, 93, 189, 251; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, - 37, 75. Other publications treating of the subject from - time to time: _Costa R._, _Boletin Ofic._, Feb. 9, March - 30, 1854; _Id._, _Gaceta_, July 15, 1854; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. - Interior_, 1860 and 1861; _Id._, _Informe Gobern._, 1868 and - 1874; _Id._, _Censo_, 1864; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, xxxii. 250-2; - _Squier's Cent. Am._, 21, 45-57, 279, 348, 449, 465, 648-9; - _Id._, _Travels_, i. 32-3; _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 28-9; - _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 138-42, 249-54; _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. - 185-6; _Nic._, _Registro Ofic._, 270, 312, 316, 382; _Id._, - _Boletin Ofic._, March to Aug. 1862, pass.; _Id._, _Gaceta_, - Jan. 1863 to Apr. 11, 1874, pass.; _Lévy_, _Nic._, 234 et - seq.; _Salv._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 26 to Nov. 18, 1850; Feb. 3, - March 3, 1854; Apr. 1, 1876; May 28 to Nov. 28, 1878; May - 18 to Nov. 29, 1879; _Crosby's Statem._, MS., 93; _Wells' - Hond._, 554-7; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 473; _Guat._, _Mem. - Sec. Fomento_, 1880-5, with tables; and numerous others. - - [XXVIII-2] The departments of Guat. having the largest - numbers were Totomicapam, 144,312; Guat., 130,581; - Huehuetenango, 121,123; Alta Verapaz, 93,407. The rest range - from 76,103 in Lalolá and 75,553 in Quiché, to 31,637 in - Jalapa. Peten is put down with 8,297, Izabal with 3,761, and - Livingston with 1,471. _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, July 11, Aug. - 13, 1885; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1884, 40, annex 6; - 1885, 43-4, annex 12; _El Guatemalteco_, Jan. 1 to Dec. 5, - 1884, pass.; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Feb. 9, 1884; Sept. 30, - 1885. - - [XXVIII-3] The proportions in 1880 were, white and mixed, - men, 183,536, females, 196,292; pure Indians, men, 421,518, - females, 423,256. Grand total, 1,224,602. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. - Fomento_, 1885, annex 12, table 16. - - [XXVIII-4] The first law to promote colonization was issued - Jan. 22, 1824, by the national constituent assembly of - Cent. Am. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, 133, app. - xviii.-xxvii.; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 815-20; _Id._, - _Boletin Ofic._, June 22, 1835; _Nic._, _Corr. Ist._, Aug. 8, - 1850; _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, March 20, 1854; _Rocha_, _Cód. - Nic._, i. 42-3, 53; _Baily's Cent. Am._, 43-5. - - [XXVIII-5] Containing upwards of 14,000,000 acres of virgin - soil, and affording every climate. _Brief Statem. of the - Important Grants Conceded to ... by the State of Guat._, - Lond., 1839; _Guat. Charte de Concession du territ. de Vera - Paz_, Bruxelles, 1840, 8vo, 1-34; _Guat._, _Mem. Concession_, - 17-130; _Marure_, _Efem._, 38; _Squier's Travels_, i. 422-4; - _Id._, _Compend. Hist. Cent. Am._, 77-9. - - [XXVIII-6] It was first formed out of, or at least originated - from, the débris of the Poyais bubble, of which I spoke - elsewhere in connection with Mosquitia. - - [XXVIII-7] They talked of their ability to spread Brit. - influence in the country. They even threatened to sell their - charter to some other government. - - [XXVIII-8] Details on the subject will be found in _Dunlop's - Cent. Am._, 160, 190-1; _Niles' Reg._, li. 36; _Reichardt_, - _Cent. Am._, 39, 238; _Guat._, _Memoria_, 1837, 17-19; _Id._, - _Comm. and Agric. Co._, 1-132; _Anderson's Cent. Am._, 5-93, - 97-138. - - [XXVIII-9] It stipulated a conditional sale of the lands - lying between the left bank of the river Motagua and the - right bank of the river Cahabon to where it runs into the - Polochic, including all the coast and neighboring islands - within these limits; and inland as far as Gualan, and the - interior limits of the province of Santo Tomás. The company - was to pay for the computed 8,000 caballerías at the rate - of $20 for each caballería, in ten yearly instalments of - $16,000. It was also to present the Guat. govt 2,000 muskets, - similar to those used by the Belgian army, and four large - guns; likewise pay one fifth the expense of erecting a city - at Santo Tomás, make a cart road to the river Motagua, and - introduce steamers for navigating the river. _Guat._, _Recop. - Ley._, i. 824-38; _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 239-43; _Belly_, - _Nic._, ii. 36-7; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 303-6; _Crowe's - Gospel_, 169-70; _Amerique Cent. Cie. Belge_, pt i. 5-64, pt - ii. 110-13; _Valois_, _Mexique_, 438-42; _Claquet_, _Rapport - S. Tomás_, 7-9; _Cuelebrouk, Blondeel van_, _Colonie de Santo - Tomas_, 1-240 pp., with maps and plans; _Laferrière_, _De - Paris á Guatém._, 250-1; _Brouez_, _Colonie Belge_, 103-29. - - [XXVIII-10] With a few exceptions, however, they were to be - governed by their own laws, and were, besides, to enjoy a - number of exemptions. The custom-house of Izabal was to be - removed to Santo Tomás. - - [XXVIII-11] The grants were repealed in April 1854. _Guat._, - _Recop. Ley._, i. 838-9; _Belize_, _Packet Intelligencer_, - June 17, 1854; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 512-13; _Payne's Hist. - Europ. Colonies_, 327; _Crosby's Statem._, MS., 98. - - [XXVIII-12] See laws and decrees of Feb. 29, 1868, Oct. 2, - 1873, Aug. 19, 1878, June 27, 1884, and a decree of Presid. - Barillas in 1885; also official correspond with the U. S. - govt. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 841-5; _Id._, _Id._, _Gob. - Democ._, i. 197-8; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 18, 1868; _S. - F. Times_, May 9, 1868; _Mex._, _Diario Ofic._, Sept. 18, - 1878; _Manero_, _Doc. Interes._, 105-6; _U. S. Govt Doc._, - Cong. 42, Sess. 2, H. Ex. Doc. 1 (For. Rel.), 542-3; _El - Guatemalteco_, June 30, 1884; _S. F. Bulletin_, June 15, - 1885. - - [XXVIII-13] Cultivating one half, and becoming a citizen, - provided he had not been imprisoned meanwhile for crime. The - concession involved several other facilities, and privileges. - _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1884, 7-8; _Pan. Star and - Herald_, July 23, 1883. - - [XXVIII-14] On the ground that a large number of - English-speaking negroes thus introduced could never become - assimilated with their already mixed population, and would - soon create a balance of power in their hands, as against - the remainder of the population. The rulers saw in the plan - danger to their institutions and customs. _U. S. Govt Docs._, - Cong. 35, Sess. 2, Sen. Miscel. Doc., 26; _Foreign Affairs_, - 1862, 881-4, 897-910; _Crosby's Statem. of Events in Cal._, - MS., 95-100; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, 138-46. - - [XXVIII-15] _Squier's Cent. Am._, 275-6; _Squier's Hond._, - 267-78; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 21, 1867; Jan. 4, 25, Nov. - 14, 1868; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Sept. 17, Dec. 4, 1885. - - [XXVIII-16] The government granting 500,000 square varas of - land to each family, and specifying the number of families - to be settled. It was to guard against improper persons - being introduced, that is to say, only those of good moral - character and industrious habits, professing the catholic - religion, and willing to sever their connection with and - throw off the protection of their former nationalities, were - to be received. Upon complying with the required conditions, - they would be granted the rights of citizenship. _Rocha_, - _Cód. Nic._, i. 167-8. A number of Prussians, among whom - were several families, arrived in September 1846 on the brig - _Frisch_ at San Juan del Norte, desiring to settle in the - country. The government tendered them facilities to settle - in the interior, provided they would first relinquish their - allegiance to Prussia. Only six men remained; the rest went - away. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, 345-6, 367. In 1851 it was - contemplated to establish, under liberal grants, a French - colony in Nic.; but it was not carried out. _Dupuy_, _Nic._, - 8-27. - - [XXVIII-17] Congress on Feb. 13, 1862, declared the former - null and void, and refused to sanction the latter. _Rocha_, - _Cód. Nic._, i. 187; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 1, 1862. - - [XXVIII-18] The deed of full ownership was to be executed six - months after the immigrant's arrival. He was also exempted - from import dues on everything he brought to enable him - to settle. Fabens, Walker's friend, was named director of - colonization. _Perez_, _Mem._, 7; _El Nicaragüense_, Jan. - 5, 1856; _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 106-11; _Nic._, _Boletin - Ofic._, Apr. 16, 1856. - - [XXVIII-19] The govt declared it null in 1866. _La Union de - Nic._, May 18, 1861; _Nic._, _Decretos_, 1865-6, 74-5. - - [XXVIII-20] The govt has not ceased to promote immigration. - In 1873 concessions were made to the colony in Gottel - Valley, and in 1878 efforts were made to bring colonists - from Alsace-Loraine. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 11, 1865; Apr. 6, - Aug. 24, 1867; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Apr. 13, Aug. 3, 1873; - _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Dec. 12, 1878. - - [XXVIII-21] It has refrained from introducing the African - element, though men of that race can alone be advantageously - employed in her low-lying hot region. The immigration of - Chinese has been prohibited as injurious. _Bates' Cent. Am._, - 140; _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Hac._, 1875, 7-8. - - [XXVIII-22] With the same civil and political rights enjoyed - by natives. Those desiring to retain their nationality are - equally protected, and are exempted from military service - and extraordinary taxation. They may freely dispose of their - property, which at their death goes to their legal heir, - whether by will or ab intestato. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, v. - 114-16; _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 44. - - [XXVIII-23] They were exempted from imposts for 15 years. - - [XXVIII-24] The settlement was effected where there were no - ready means to procure supplies, or to dispose of products - without great trouble and expense. Besides, the settlers were - unfamiliar with tropical agriculture. - - [XXVIII-25] Nineteen died at San José. One was killed by - a tiger on the way there, and his remains, with those of - his wife and child, were buried under the evergreens of San - Miguel; the rest went up the Sesapiqui River, where 9 were - soon after put under the sod; 9 died at Miravalles, and 4 at - Alajuela. - - [XXVIII-26] Concession to Sir Henry Bulwer. _Costa R._, - _Boletin Ofic._, July 20, 1854. - - [XXVIII-27] The grant covered 54 square miles in the - Reventazon Valley, between Cartago and the Atlantic Ocean; - the company were to settle 7,000 adult colonists within 20 - years. An additional absolute concession of 32 acres for each - colonist was also made. But the principal grant was to be - forfeited if the main condition was not fulfilled. _Bülow_, - _Nic._, 124-39; _Costa R._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 9, 1854; - _Calvo_, _Memoria_, 8; _Costa R._, _Mem. Sec. Rel._, 1851, - 7-8; 1854, 8; _Id._, _Informe Gobern. y Rel._, 1853, 13-14; - _Id._, _Doc. Soc. Itin._, 1-102; _Wagner_, _Costa R._, 181-3, - 332-5; _Marr_, _Cent. Am._, ii. 172-3, 179-81, 218-19, 228-9. - - [XXVIII-28] Each family was to have 10 acres, a temporary - dwelling, provisions for six months, the use of a cow and - ox for one year, all for $80, reimbursable in equal annual - instalments during 10 years. _Wagner_, _Costa R._, 250-6, - 473-93. - - [XXVIII-29] Further details on the subject may be found in - _Squier's Cent. Am._, 462, 473-80; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 355-6; - _Reichardt_, _Nic._, 245-8, 290-6, ix.-xiv.; _Molina_, _Bosq. - Costa R._, 126; _Id._, _Coup d'œil Costa R._, 30-3; _Id._, - _Der Freistaat Costa R._, 67-83. - - [XXVIII-30] That same year the colonization of Golfo Dulce - was contemplated. _El Nicaragüense_, July 19, 1856; _Lafond_, - _Golfo Dulce_. - - [XXVIII-31] _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xv. 176-9. - - [XXVIII-32] In 1878 with Barreto to introduce Canary - Islanders, and in 1881 with Perera. _Voz de Méj._, Aug. 30, - 1878; _Mex._, _Diario Ofic._, Sept. 2, 1878; _Costa R._, - _Col. Ley._, 1881, 94-8. - - [XXVIII-33] Mestizo is the offspring of white and Indian; - mulatto of white and black; quadroon of white and mulatto; - octoroon of white and quadroon; zambo is an offspring of - Indian and negro, more extended intermixtures are given - elsewhere. - - [XXVIII-34] For examples, in Nic., Gen. Corral, Walker's - victim, Gregorio Juarez and Rosalío Cortez, ministers of - state, were mulattoes. Anselmo Rivas, also a minister, - resembled an Abyssinian; Fruto Chamorro, the conservative - president, showed evidences of many mixtures. _Belly_, - _Nic._, i. 255. - - [XXVIII-35] The whites in their social intercourse maintain a - certain exclusion, but in other respects equality prevails. - Knowing their numerical inferiority, they have followed the - policy of concession. _Squier's Travels_, i. 268. - - [XXVIII-36] According to Trollope, pure Spanish blood is - an exception. He thinks there must be a great admixture of - Indian blood with it. The gen. color is that of a white man, - but of a very swarthy one. _W. Ind. and the Sp. Main._, 275. - - [XXVIII-37] _Belly_, _Nic._, ii. 132. Trollope, _West - Ind._, 275-6, speaks disparagingly of Costa Rican women's - personal appearance. Another Englishman treats them with - more gallantry: 'Blonde hair, gray eyes, and red cheeks - are rare in no class; and many a pretty face may be seen on - market-day, scarcely darker or more Spanish-looking than a - west-country girl's. _Boyle's Ride Across a Continent_, 225. - - [XXVIII-38] Being a compact population, and constantly - thrown into the company of one another through family or - business relations, a certain fraternity became established, - and the practice obtained of calling each other hermano and - hermanitico at every meeting. _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, - 52-3. Owing to that practice, the Costa Ricans have been - nicknamed hermaniticos. - - [XXVIII-39] That is to say, they are not given to stealing or - barefaced cheating; but at a bargain they will take all the - advantage they can; and if a lie will help, their conscience - is elastic enough to use it. In this they are neither better - nor worse than other nations claiming a high standard of - honesty. Their sense of morality, in sex relations, is not - what it should be. Divorces and separations are common, and - concubinage quite prevalent. The superintendent of the census - for 1864 recorded '1,200 separados de hecho, quienes sin - equivocarme puedo decir que viven en concubinato, sin contar - la frecuencia de este entre solteros y solteras.' _Costa R._, - _Censo_, 1864, xxv. - - [XXVIII-40] They dislike wasting their resources in wars - or war material, preferring the arts of peace, and to - welcome those bringing them wealth from other countries. - _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatémala_, 45-6, 57. - - [XXVIII-41] A large number of houses in Cent. Am. are made - with tapial, which is common earth put moist into boxes of - the dimensions of the walls, and beaten with mallets. Another - sort of building is made by driving a number of poles into - the ground at a yard or two from each other, to which long - canes are tied, the space between the canes being filled - up with mud, or with mud and stones. When dry, the outside - is plastered over with mortar. The houses are protected by - projecting roofs. There are likewise many houses built with - thick adobe walls, covered with concave tiles. - - [XXVIII-42] Dirty and slovenly. _Trollope's W. Ind._, 260, - 268. The only articles of furniture in them are a hammock, a - table, a bedstead without mattress, and two or three of the - commonest wooden chairs. - - [XXVIII-43] _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 367-8. - - [XXVIII-44] Hence the constant use of emetics, castor oil, - soda purgante or refrescante, rhubarb, quinine, sarsaparilla, - and florida water, which are looked upon as universal - panaceas. _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 57. The large - revenue derived by the government from the monopoly of - the sale of spirituous liquors shows how great must be the - consumption. _Boyle's Ride Across a Continent_, ii. 225. - - [XXVIII-45] The Indians are never found in the cities. - _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 42-4. - - [XXVIII-46] Belly speaks of the great variety and abundance - of commodities exhibited in the market on such days. Cacao - nibs were used as small change. The sales of one Saturday - that he visited the market exceeded $100,000. _Nic._, i. 392. - - [XXVIII-47] Some of these rebozos are of silk, made in San - Salvador, and sold in Costa Rica at $18 or $20 apiece. - - [XXVIII-48] All classes seem to be given to the vice. At - the club a minister of state or some other high functionary - presides over the faro-bank. _Boyle's Ride_, 226. - - [XXVIII-49] There is a good deal of heresy and infidelity - exhibited by the higher class; but the poor people are very - devout. - - [XXVIII-50] A favorite amusement of all Cent. Am. - _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 56-7; _Reichardt_, _Nic._, - 123-5. In connection with the manners and customs of Costa - Ricans, see also _Frisch_, _Staaten von Mex._, 88; _Wagner_, - _Costa R._, 170-8, 189-92, 194. - - [XXVIII-51] The native women when carrying a jar of water on - their heads present the sculptural profiles of caryatides. - _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 198. Beautifully moulded and unobtrusive - in their manners; kind and hospitable to strangers. _Squier's - Travels_, i. 284, 294. - - [XXVIII-52] The women are not well educated; but they are - simple and unaffected, quick of apprehension, and ready at - good-natured repartee. _Id._, 269. - - [XXVIII-53] Cemeteries being generally in bad condition. - Squier has it that the priests have perpetuated the practice, - because they derive a considerable fee from each burial. - _Travels_, i. 383-4. - - [XXVIII-54] 'The aristocracy keeps the shops, and there it - dozes;... the lower orders keep the plaza, and there they - doze.' _Boyle's Ride Across a Continent_, 102. - - [XXVIII-55] Belly, _Nic._, 217, speaking of those of mixed - blood, says they are the victims of traditional indolence, - and of the absence of moral light rather than of actual - depravity. The nearer to the pure Indian type, the more - reliable and faithful they are. Stout, _Nic._, 118, says that - the Nicaraguans are possessed of many virtues. - - [XXVIII-56] Such offences which in other countries would be - indelible blots, throwing their authors out of the company - of honorable people, are after a while overlooked, and the - perpetrators reinstated in society. _Lévy_, _Nic._, 275. - - [XXVIII-57] The waistcoat and cravat are often dispensed - with. Gloves are rarely worn. Loud colors, with large chains - and trinkets are too often displayed. - - [XXVIII-58] The ordinary saddle or albarda is a cheap affair - and uncomfortable. There are horses of an easy amble, which - are quite rapid and yet gentle. _Squier's Travels_, i. 157; - ii. 91. - - [XXVIII-59] _Lévy_, _Nic._, 272; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 198; - _Wells' Explor._, 74-5. The people generally are clean in - their persons except when travelling, or when ill, and in - the latter case the touch of water is prohibited. _Squier's - Travels_, 59, 153-4, 269, 271, 289. - - [XXVIII-60] For a hot climate the adobe, warm in winter and - cool in summer, is not to be surpassed as a dwelling. In the - courts are shade trees, making the corridors upon which all - the rooms open exceedingly pleasant. _Id._, i. 33-4; _Id._, - _Cent. Am._, 365; _Id._, _Nic._, 649; _Stout's Nic._, 38, - 62-4, 66. Doors and windows are wide. The windows have no - glass, being enclosed on the outside with an iron railing - constructed sometimes like a balcony. The floors are of soft - brick. The roof, sloping considerably, is of concave tiles. - The yard often has a flower garden, or is used for raising - poultry, or maybe pigs. - - [XXVIII-61] Kitchen, laundry, stables, etc., are at the end - of the yard, or when possible, in a separate yard. - - [XXVIII-62] In late years some foreign furniture has been - imported. Most parlors are furnished as follows: Chairs with - leather seats, easy chairs of the same, mostly rockers. In - houses of the wealthy is a round or oval centre-table, and - other tables fitting into the corners, and possibly a piano, - a hanging lamp, and small mirrors, together with framed - lithographs or paintings hanging on the walls. The bedrooms - have similar chairs, a hammock, and a bed of rawhide extended - and nailed to a wooden frame, supported by four legs. At each - end rises a pillar to sustain a sort of awning which covers - the whole bed, and answers also for a mosquito net. The - appurtenances of the bed are a mat, sheets, and pillows. No - mattresses are ever used. Some persons prefer a common cot. - _Levy_, _Nic._, 262-7; _Belly_, _Nic._, 197. - - [XXVIII-63] In some places coyol oil or lard in tin lamps are - used, with or without a glass chimney. In Segovia the people - often have no other light than that emitted by a burning - piece of resinous pine. - - [XXVIII-64] Quite simple. _Squier's Travels_, 120, 272-5. - Breakfast invariably comprises eggs, roast meat, beans, and - cheese, to which other dishes may be added or not; finishing - with chocolate or coffee, the former mixed with roasted corn, - and the latter with milk. The dinner consists of soup, boiled - meat and greens, followed by a stew of beef, pork, fish, - or fowl, with some vegetables, and dessert in the form of a - variety of dulces. Rice is as necessary at dinner as beans - at breakfast. Between breakfast and dinner, fruits or some - cooling beverage are partaken of. Supper is a frugal meal, - accompanied with chocolate, or tiste, which is the national - beverage of Nic.—a mixture of cacao, and ground roasted - corn, beaten in cold water with sugar. Wheaten bread is made - of imported flour; but it is too expensive for general use, - and is generally sweetened. The tortilla of Nic. is larger, - thicker, and of coarser dough than in other parts. In many - places it is considered 'artículo de lujo,' and instead - of it, boiled or roasted green plantains are used. Wine is - rarely brought into requisition. The only fermented liquor - in common use is the aguardiente distilled from molasses, - which only the lower classes drink, and not to excess. The - poorer classes are very irregular in their eating, for they - eat at all hours; living mostly on plantains, beans, cheese, - and chicharrones and other fat portions of pork. Fruit in - superabundance is eaten. _Lévy_, _Nic._, 267-72; _Stout's - Nic._, 130-2; _Squier's Travels_, i. 271. - - [XXVIII-65] The govt has at the capital a fine military band, - which gives public concerts in the open air twice a week. The - marimba and old Spanish guitar are much used. Occasionally a - Spanish dramatic or zarzuela company, or a troupe of acrobats - or other artists, visit the country. - - [XXVIII-66] In Leon some of the élite do not frequent the - place, but they, not excepting the priests, practise it in - their corridors. Little parties are got up of afternoons to - have chicken-fights, and at times large sums change hands. - - [XXVIII-67] Govt has from time to time passed laws to - prohibit gaming. _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, ii. 81-3; _La Union de - Nic._, March 9, 1861; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 15, 1870; _Pan. - Star and Herald_, March 20, 1886. - - [XXVIII-68] Occasionally those who take part in the dangerous - amusement receive fatal injuries. _Lévy_, _Nic._, 288-94; - _Squier's Travels_, i. 331-3. The following authorities - also treat of the character, and manners, and customs of - the Nicaraguans. _Reichardt_, _Nic._, 80-1, 88-90, 102-25; - _Heine_, _Wanderbilder_, 96-107, 187-204, passim; _De Bow's - Rev._, xiii. 236-58; _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 44-79, 84-5, - 106-7, 241-2, 422. - - [XXVIII-69] 'Whatever may be the future history of Cent. Am., - its most important part, in all that requires intelligence, - activity, concentration, and force, will be performed by San - Salvador.' _Squier's Cent. Am._, 315. - - [XXVIII-70] Aboriginal names of places have been generally - preserved; and there are a few towns, exclusively inhabited - by Indians, who use their own language among themselves. - _Squier's Cent. Am._, 318-23. - - [XXVIII-71] About 50 miles in length, and 20 to 25 miles in - breadth, lying between La Libertad and Acajutla. - - [XXVIII-72] Nevertheless, in business transactions he is - indisposed to trust others. - - [XXVIII-73] This garment is elaborately but rudely - embroidered about the neck and shoulders with colored thread. - It is often laid aside in the country towns. _Montgomery's - Narr._, 98-9; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 321. - - [XXVIII-74] _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 211-21. - - [XXVIII-75] Upon the death of an infant, all rejoice, dance, - and carouse, the parents also taking part, presumably on the - belief that it has joined the choir of angels in heaven. If - the child is a male one, they paint whiskers and a mustache - on its face to make it resemble that of Jesus, and call it a - jesusito. - - [XXIX-1] A large number of the priests are blacks, and they - regard with ill-concealed jealousy the advance of Americans - in Cent. Am. Every measure of the liberals to promote foreign - immigration meets with opposition on the part of the black - priests. - - [XXIX-2] Lying between the Rio Roman and Cape or Segovia - River, an area of some 15,000 square miles. - - [XXIX-3] Their ancestors had favored the French in the - squabbles with England, and in 1796 were, by order of - the British government, transported en masse, to the - number of about 5,000, and at heavy expense, to the then - deserted island of Roatan, in the bay of Honduras. They - were subsequently invited by the Spanish authorities to the - mainland; and aided to found settlements near the port of - Trujillo. Since then they have rapidly increased, extending - themselves both to the eastward and westward of that port. - _Squier's Cent. Am._, 232. - - [XXIX-4] The black Caribs are represented as tall and stout, - and more mercurial and vehement than the pure Caribs; the - latter are shorter, but powerfully built. - - [XXIX-5] Leaving out the dignified and courteous members - of the old and wealthy families, the people show a - strange mixture of politeness, simplicity, shrewdness, - and effrontery, and above all, an indescribably passive - indifference of countenance. _Wells' Hond._, 202-3. - - [XXIX-6] It has been said of the Cent. Am. woman, 'she - nursed, made tortillas, and died.' _Id._, 215. - - [XXIX-7] The women of this class lead a degraded life. If the - man has large means, his mistress has menials under her; if - not, she is maid of all work. _Bates' Cent. Am._, 115. - - [XXIX-8] Notwithstanding this lack of education, Cent. Am. - women never fail to interest the traveller by the peculiar - gentleness and dignity of their demeanor. _Wells' Hond._, - 227-8. - - [XXIX-9] 'Sitting at the window in the afternoon and evening - to recover from the fatigue of it.' _Id._, 195. - - [XXIX-10] Breakfast bill of fare: boiled rice and beans, - salads, bread, butter, cheese, tortillas, coffee and milk, - fruit. Dinner: soup, beef, salad, a variety of vegetables. - There are other dishes, such as ollas fried with garlic, - piccadillo of half-cooked lights, oil, rice, and plantains, - baked slices of liver, salchichas or blood puddings with - plenty of garlic, catamales filled with bits of fat meat and - cheese, boiled meat, broth, etc.; the repast concludes with - sweetmeats and coffee. Wines and liquors are generally of - poor quality. The rum of the country is the most harmless. - Cooking is generally done on an adobe fogon, or range, in a - small building behind the dwelling-house. _Id._, 192-4. - - [XXIX-11] The couriers, wearing leathern caites, travel that - distance every day, at a gait between a fast walk and a run. - - [XXIX-12] Gloves fringed around the cuffs with silver, and - a small riding-whip, complete the attire. To ride and dance - well are parts of the Central American's education. _Id._, - 201, 227. - - [XXIX-13] Religious feasts are common, and the people seem to - be close observants of the ceremonies, and yet cannot be said - to be as much priest-ridden as other Central Americans. - - [XXIX-14] Even manacled prisoners are permitted, under guard, - to beg for money to relieve their condition. - - [XXIX-15] Good colored servants brought in from abroad soon - fall into the indolent habits of the blacks surrounding them. - The stranger then finds that his man 'Bob Long has become Don - Roberto Longorio.' - - [XXIX-16] An official document sets the whole population on - the 1st of Jan., 1886, at 1,322,544 souls. _Guat._, _Mem. - Sec. Fomento_, 1886, annex no. 1. - - [XXIX-17] Among those traders are a number of European - Spaniards, who are every year joined by some of their - relations from the old country. - - [XXIX-18] Of mild disposition, good natural talents, aptitude - for learning, and lively imagination. Hospitality is one of - their virtues. _Montgomery's Narr._, 157-60. - - [XXIX-19] Belly, who wrote before the upsetting of the old - conservative régime, says: 'Un population que son beau - climat sollicite à l'inertie, et qui sort a peine de la - plus abominable éducation religieuse et morale que jamais - un peuple ait subie.' _A trav. l'Amér. Cent._, i. 153-4. - Laferrière visited the country some years later, and fully - confirms the above. _De Paris à Guatém._, 263. - - [XXIX-20] 'Those of the better class will compare well with - any people for good morals, discreet conduct, and admirable - behavior.' _Min. Hudson's Rept_, in _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. - Doc., Cong. 43, Sess. 1, i. 446. - - [XXIX-21] Most of the women smoke, the elder ones cigars, and - the young cigarettes. They do it, however, in a pretty and - refined manner. _Stephens' Trav. Cent. Am._, i. 256. - - [XXIX-22] 'A natural roving appetite inclines them to favor - and to freely indulge such intercourse.' _Min. Hudson's - Rept_, in _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 43, Sess. 1, - i. 445. - - [XXIX-23] Every Ind. village has its own authorities, most of - whom are chosen from among the inhabitants. - - [XXIX-24] The old system attempted to improve their condition - by enacting laws believed to be conducive to that end. - Witness clauses of a decree of the constituent assembly - of Nov. 8, 1851, giving force to certain laws of 1839, - and reviving others of the old Spanish Recop. de Indios, - which were intended to prevent the maltreatment of Indians. - _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 246, 512-15, 846-53. On the - 6th of Sept., 1879, a decree was passed, acknowledging the - lamentable condition of ignorance and abjectedness the Indian - had been kept in, and providing that at least a portion of - them should attend the pub. schools already established in - nearly all the departments. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Sept. - 20, 1879. - - [XXIX-25] The German writers Scherzer and Von Tempski, and - the American Stephens, have occupied themselves with those - people. According to them the inhabitants live isolated, and - render no service to Guat. They practise a religion which - is a mixture of catholic and heathen rites. The only ladinos - allowed to live with them are the priest and his attendants. - - [XXIX-26] The towns conquered by the Spaniards did not - contain all the Lacandones. According to Pinelo, the - Lacandones and Manchés were computed, in 1637, at 100,000. - This was subsequent to the invasion of their territory by - Quiñones. Squier, _Cent. Am._, 568-72, gives much information - on the subject. - - [XXIX-27] Now and then a few of them visit the Mexican states - of Chiapas, Tabasco, and Campeche to procure tobacco and - other things, and suddenly disappear by unknown paths, and - never allow strangers to visit them. - - [XXIX-28] The eastern Lacandones are tillers of the soil, - hunters, and fishermen. Though occasionally baptized by - catholic missionaries, and fond of saying prayers, they still - adhere to their old heathen worship, and indulge in polygamy. - They visit the whites and settled Indians to sell their - produce. _Berendt's Explor. in Cent. Am._, in _Smithsonian - Rept_, 1867, 425. - - [XXIX-29] Fine and costly tortoise-shell combs were at - one time much used. Women wear hats only when riding on - horseback. The Guat. female is fond of embroidered articles, - costly fans, rich jewelry, and every other finery. There are - other women in the world like them. - - [XXIX-30] It being starched into stiff folds, it supplied in - some measure the place of a jacket. - - [XXIX-31] Wealthy women objected to their female servants - wearing other than naguas, and would have none that wore - shoes. - - [XXIX-32] Such places are convenient, though not agreeable, - owing to the variety and abundance of fleas, jiggers, etc. - _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 267; _Stephens' Trav. - Cent. Am._, i. 163-81. - - [XXIX-33] In bull-fights they merely worry and torture the - animal, but never kill it in presence of the public. - - [XXIX-34] The vice is not prevalent among the Indians who - live apart in their villages. During the bathing season - in Amatitlan, for instance, the time is spent in gambling, - and intrigues between the sexes, and among the visitors are - always a number of veritable sharpers. The native generally - bears his losses with hardly a sign of impatience. _Dunlop's - Cent. Am._, 152-3; _Stephens' Trav. Cent. Am._, i. 261, - 298-301; _Boddam Whetham_, _Across Cent. Am._, 136-8. - - [XXIX-35] _Barrios_, _Mensaje_, 1876, 55-6; _Guat._, _Mem. - Sec. Fomento_, 1880, 35-6; 1883, 59-60; 1884, 40-1; 1885, - 44-6. - - [XXIX-36] _Bates' Cent. Am., etc._, 110. - - [XXIX-37] The fevers of the country are the intermittent, - resembling the worst form of fever and ague in the western - U. S.; the calentura, which is a type of the same. It is - not common in the interior, and yields usually to strong - cathartics, followed by quinine, which physicians are - wont to administer in heavy doses. _Wells' Hond._, 547-8. - Yellow fever breaks out with more or less virulence some - years at the ports, particularly on the Atlantic side; - it has occasionally spread to the interior. _Diario de - Méx._, 539-40, 569-71; _Amér. Cent. Cie Belge_, ii. 48-52; - _Disturnell's Infl. of Clim._, 252; _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. - Gobern._, 1869, 15; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, May 9 to Aug. 8, 1868; - _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 47-8, and table 444 B. - Measles and scarlet fever have also made their appearance - epidemically, destroying many lives. _Salv._, _El Siglo_, May - 28 to Aug. 14, 1851; _Id._, _Diario Ofic._, July 31, 1875; - _Costa R._, _Mem. Sec. Guerra_, etc., 1867, doc. D, 31. - - [XXIX-38] Nic. adopted timely precautions to escape it, by - having the people vaccinated. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Aug. - 2, 1862. - - [XXIX-39] _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, ii. 165; _Costa R._, _Mem. - Min. Gobern._, 1852-3; _Id._, 1884, annex A. - - [XXIX-40] Elephantiasis is not common, but occasionally found - in the upland regions. Only one leg is stricken; the swelling - often reaches above the knee. It is considered incurable - and fatal. _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Interior_, 1864, 9-10; - _Nic._, _Informe Min. Gobern._, 1871, 7; _Guat._, _Recop. - Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, ii. 21; _Wells' Hond._, 548. - - [XXIX-41] _Journ. of a Voy._, in _Am. Register_, iii. 147; - _Soc. Mex. Geog._, _Bol._, viii. 507; _Costa R._, _Col. - Ley._, xxiii. 259-63; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Gobern._, 1884, - 99-100. - - [XXIX-42] But few cases appeared in Hond. down to 1856. - _Wells' Hond._, 549. A malady presenting some of the symptoms - of cholera did considerable havoc in Costa R. in 1845, and - it was apprehended that it might degenerate into the Asiatic - type, but it fortunately did not. In the same state the - government, to ward off an expected invasion of the disease - on the 9th of Feb., 1849, established a strict quarantine, - which was raised on the 9th of April. _Nic._, _Registro - Ofic._, 107; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xi. 14-15, 20. - - [XXIX-43] We have seen how previous to and during the - Walker war cholera destroyed a conservative army in Managua, - and later one from Costa Rica, and how for a long time it - hindered military operations. _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. - Nic._, 140; _Costa R._, _Mem. Min. Rel._, 1856, 9-11; _S. - F. Herald_, Sept. 5, 1855; _Id._, _Bulletin_, June 6, 1856; - _Id._, _Alta_, Oct. 2, 1857; _El Tiempo_, Aug. 14, Sept. 15, - 1857; _El Estandarte Nac._, Sept. 15, 1857; _El Eco Nac._, - Oct. 1, 1857. - - [XXIX-44] Costa R. by timely precautions escaped the - infliction. _Nic._, _Gac._, Dec. 22, 1866; March 9 to Nov. - 9, 1867, passim; Jan. 25, 1868; _Id._, _Decretos_, 1867, 50; - _Id._, _Mem. Min. Fomento_, 1869, 7; _Costa R._, _Mem. Sec. - Guerra_, etc., 1867, 8, doc. A, 23, D, 31; _El Porvenir de - Nic._, Feb. 18, 1872. - - [XXX-1] Thus were established in Salv. the Colegio Seminario, - which subsequently assumed the name of Colegio y Universidad - del Salvador, in Nic., the Universidad de Leon, and in - Guatemala was founded the Academia de Estudios, with which - became incorporated the old university of San Cárlos, the - Colegio de Abogados, and the Protomedicato, which had existed - several years of the colonial period. _Squier's Trav. Cent. - Am._, ii. 390-1; _Squier_, _Compend. Hist. Cent. Am._, 36-7; - _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 22; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 181; - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 333; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, - i. 798-806; iii. 11-214. The Colegio de Abogados y Junta - Académica de Jurisprudencia had been installed June 5, 1810. - _Diario de Méx._, Sept. 22, 1810; _Juarros_, _Guat._, ii., p. - vii. - - [XXX-2] See laws, official reports, and statements of - travellers. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, iii. 223-6; xi. 158-215; - xii. 156; _Montúfar_, _Resúmen Hist._, iii. 562-4, 640-1; - Ministerial annual reports, 1848-54; _El Costaricense_, Nov. - 10, 17, 1849; _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 46-7; _Squier's - Cent. Am._, 468-9; _Wagner_, _Costa R._, 186-8, 219-29; - _Costa R._, _Bol. Ofic._, Jan. 10, 1856. - - [XXX-3] There was a normal school for training teachers, at - San José, and institutes for secondary instruction in several - cities. - - [XXX-4] It was created May 3, 1843, made pontificial in 1853 - by Pius IX. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, viii. 25-8, 121-82; xi. - 9-12; xii. 268-75; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 412-14, - 419; _El Costaricense_, Dec. 1, 1849; _Wagner_, _Costa R._, - 220-3. - - [XXX-5] The percentage of each dept given in _Costa R._, - _Gaceta_, July 11, 1885, suppl. See also _Annual Repts of - Min. of Pub. Instruc._, 1858-83; _Wappäus_, _Mex. und Cent. - Am._, 359-60. - - [XXX-6] Early in 1872 the university of Leon, the former - Colegio Tridentino, had but three chairs and 66 alumni, and - four classes of secondary instruction attended by 102 pupils; - that of Granada had only a chair of law, and seven classes - of secondary instruction attended by 160 pupils. In primary - instruction, there were at that time only 92 schools for boys - and 9 for girls, a number of them private, and one missionary - in Cuapa, attended by 3,871 boys and 532 girls, out of - a population of 205,500, or say 20 children out of 1,000 - inhabitants; only 532 girls out of 18,000 of school age, and - 4,000 boys out of 12,000, were receiving instruction. _Lévy_, - _Nic._, 360-3. Teachers of pub. schools are paid $12 a month - and a little extra in larger towns. That state of things was - due mainly to the neglect of parents. The funds appropriated - for education were constantly tampered with and defrauded; - this was acknowledged by the minister of instruction. There - were no schools for adults, no professional institutes. As a - rule, wealthy families sent their sons to be educated abroad, - or at least in Guat. There was in 1873 no scientific course - provided with the requisite materials, no laboratories, no - museum, no public or private collections, no observatory, - nothing; not even a small library. The conclusion to be drawn - from the above is that the general intellectual level could - not be high. - - [XXX-7] 'Fuera de la multitud de causas dependientes del - carácter, y del estado social de nuestros pueblos ... no - tenemos nuestros idóneos suficientes.' _Mensaje_, in _Costa - R._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 4, 1885. - - [XXX-8] The newspapers often contain fine poetical - compositions by native writers. - - [XXX-9] The following authorities contain further details: - The official reports of ministers from 1850 to the present - time; _Nic._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, from 1851 down; _Id._, - _Gaceta_, Oct. 14, 1848; March 31, 1849; and for years 1862 - to 1874 passim, and others. - - [XXX-10] Even in the dark days, when her affairs were in the - hands of despotic rulers, education was not neglected as much - as might have been expected. - - [XXX-11] _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 52-3, 270. - - [XXX-12] The Am. min., Jan. 8, 1872, says: 'Primary - instruction is expanding yearly in its numbers and area.' - Min. Biddle's Desp., in _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. - 42, Sess. 3, i. 511-12. - - [XXX-13] At San Salvador, Santa Ana, and San Miguel. - - [XXX-14] In 1875 there were 333 primary schools for boys, 50 - for girls, 23 mixed, 29 high schools, one normal for males - and one for females, one telegraphic, one lithographic, and - one academy of fine arts. The appropriations for teachers in - 1874 were nearly $69,000. It must be also remarked that many - are teaching without compensation to benefit their country. - Secondary and higher instruction are free. The primary is - uniform, gratuitous, and obligatory. _Laferrière_, _De Paris - à Guatém._, 202, 206, 282. - - [XXX-15] The press, though not fully developed, has, - nevertheless, given at times evidences of ability, when not - hampered by restrictions on the part of would-be despotic - rulers. _Salv._, _Gac._, Dec. 21, 1849; Dec. 5, 1877; - _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Jan. 2, 1875, to Oct. 23, 1879, - passim; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 4, May 10, 1875; Sept. - 18, 1882; Sept. 9 and 18, 1885. - - [XXX-16] Montúfar gives the causes, speaking on the subject - for 1838. _Resúmen Hist._, iii. 278-9. - - [XXX-17] In chemistry, engineering, the higher mathematics, - they are deficient, and cannot compete with the universities - of Nic., Salv., or Guat. They are, in fact, but little in - advance of the common schools in the U. S. Still, they give - promise of greater usefulness and advancement in the future. - _Squier's Cent. Am._, 267-8. - - [XXX-18] Hond. has furnished more than her quota of the - distinguished men of Cent. Am.; among them soldiers, - statesmen, and orators. _Wells' Hond._, 549. - - [XXX-19] Such as exist with only a feeble life are generally - engaged in acrimonious political wranglings. - - [XXX-20] President Soto in his message of 1877 enumerates the - improvements made, but confesses that they do not satisfy his - aspirations. _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, June 19, 20, 1877. - - [XXX-21] In 1881 about $64,000, and in 1882 nearly $74,000, - were expended for public instruction. A number of teachers - arrived early in 1883 from Europe, as also a complete outfit - for a scientific college. _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 23, - 1883. - - [XXX-22] At the end of 1882 there were 811 primary schools; - namely, 528 elementary for boys and 226 for girls, 5 - complementary for boys, 3 for girls; one Sunday school for - working-women, and 48 night schools for artisans, etc. This - was an increase of 26 over 1881. The attendance was of 26,773 - boys and 10,696 girls, an increase of 2,166 of both sexes - over 1881. Early in 1884, the primary schools were 844, - including 47 night schools for men, one for women, one Sunday - school for women, and 16 mixed schools. The attendance had - also greatly increased. The buildings confiscated from the - church in 1872 were applied to education. There were likewise - several private and municipal schools. _Barrios_, _Mensaje_, - Sept. 11, 1876, 33-8; _B. Whetham's Across Cent. Am._, 39; - _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 44, Sess. I, i. pt i. - 137-8, 148, 175; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, ii. - 81-192, passim; _Belly_, _A trav. l'Amér. Cent._, i. 131-4; - _Salv._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 18, Oct. 7, Nov. 8, 1876; Feb. 11 to - Nov. 27, 1877, passim; _Id._, _Diario Ofic._, Aug. 15, 1878; - _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Instruc. Púb._, 1880-4; _Reichardt_, - _Cent. Am._, 57, 227; _La Estrella de Pan._, Jan. 10, 1884; - _Batres_, _Sketch of Guat._, 19-20, 40-72, passim; _El - Guatemalteco_, Jan. 26, Feb. 2, Dec. 24, 1884; _Conkling's - Guide_, 337, 341. - - [XXX-23] _Pan. Ev'g Telegram_, May 26, 1886. - - [XXX-24] The academy has pupils who pay their own expenses, - and are not obliged to join the military service; and others - placed therein by the govt, and intended to be commissioned - as officers of the army. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. 11, - 1877; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Guerra_, 1882-4; _Guat._, _Recop. - Ley._, ii. 692-700; _Id._, _Id._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 141-54; - ii. 125-8; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Sept. 19, 1877; July 5, - 1878. - - [XXX-25] Besides having a school of drawing, painting, - and modelling, and a night-school for artisans, it is - provided with a cabinet of physics, with the view of - establishing a school of chemistry applicable to industry. - The museum installed in 1866 is every day enriched with new - acquisitions. - - [XXX-26] 1872-4, paid by municipalities, $16,051; by national - govt, $112,048; 1879-83, paid by municipalities, to whom had - been ceded the urban tax, $36,242; by the national treasury, - $1,773,899. It seems that the total amount paid for pub. - instruction from 1860 to 1870 had not much exceeded $60,000. - _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1885, annex 12, table 16. - - [XXX-27] Under the former régime books objectionable to the - church, for sustaining liberal ideas on social or religious - topics, were placed, by a decree of the national assembly of - Oct. 16, 1841, in the list of the forbidden; and the church - was authorized to proceed against them. _Guat._, _Recop. - Ley._, iii. 286-7. - - [XXX-28] This was made evident in several acts. The clergy - were daily abused; the liberal leaders constantly inveighing - against their fanaticism and intolerance, and ridiculing - many things which the populace looked upon as sacred. Friars - were held up in a multitude of anecdotes, and otherwise, as - so many destructive insects. _El Liberal_, nos. 28-30, 41, - 45, 49. The arts and objects of priestcraft were exposed - to ridicule, contempt, and reprobation. A play called 'La - Inquisicion por dentro' had a great run, and brought that - institution into effectual and lasting odium. _Squier's - Travels Cent. Am._, i. 372. The inquisition of Mex. had had - jurisdiction over Cent. Am. After its final abolishment, the - king of Spain decreed, March 9, 1820, that all cases pending - before its courts should be referred to the ordinaries for - determination. The inquisitors failed to obey, and removed - from the archives of Guat. all the cases pending there, - alleging complicity on the part of the archbishop. The matter - was laid before the córtes by Deputy Mendez of Salv. May 14, - 1821. _Dispos. Var._, iii. 152; _Fernando VII._, _Decretos_, - 285-6; _Córtes_, _Diario_, xviii. 1821, May 14, 6. - - [XXX-29] One on pastorals; another required the archbishop's - appointments of parish priests to be previously submitted - for confirmation to the chief of the state. _La Tertulia - Patriótica_, no. 4. By law of Nov. 8, 1824, the clergy were - deprived of their privilege to import goods free of duties; - another of June 9, 1826, reduced the tithes to one half. _El - Liberal_, no. 36. Others of May 3, and June 9, 1826, gave - natural children the right to inherit either extestamento or - abintestato, and those of ordained priests and professed nuns - were placed in the same category; one forbidding, Sept. 1, - 1826, the prelates of religious orders to recognize obedience - to or hold relations with their respective generals in Spain; - and finally, the famous decrees of June 10 and July 20, - 1826, forbidding the admission into convents or nunneries - of persons under 23 years, or to profession any under - 25. _Marure_, _Bosq. Rev. Cent. Am._, i. 244-6; _Guat._, - _Gaceta_, Feb. 16, 1856; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 265-7. - - [XXX-30] Such writings appeared in _El Indicador_, nos. 90, - 94, 95, 149, 152. - - [XXX-31] This was almost unanimously sanctioned by the - people, and at once carried into effect. _Rocha_, _Cód. - Nic._, i. 373; ii. 373-80; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 273; - _Id._, _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 156-8; _Squier_, - _Compend. Hist. Cent. Am._, 61; _Squier's Trav. Cent. Am._, - i. 370-1; ii. 390-4; _Thompson's Guat._, 145-50; _Stout's - Nic._, 149-51; _Crowe's Gospel_, 123-32, 135; _Reichardt_, - _Cent. Am._, 39; _Cal. Overland Monthly_, xiv. 160-1; - _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 178, 181, 186; _Nic._, _El Porvenir_, - Oct. 22, 1871; Feb. 16, 1873. - - [XXX-32] Under this law Fred. Crowe, an English protestant - missionary, and the author of the _Gospel in Central - America_, resided several years in Guat., till he was driven - away by the serviles. - - [XXX-33] Pursuant to which Father Delgado was chosen and - acted as bishop of San Salvador, though without confirmation - by the pope, for about four years. He was never confirmed, - but retained as vicar-general, under the archb. of Guat. - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 13-17; _Marure_, _Bosq Hist. - Rev. Cent. Am._, 196-9, and Docs, xviii.-xix., xxx.-xxxii.; - _Id._, _Efem._, 14; _Mem., Hist. Rev. Cent. Am._, 32-7; - _Cabildo_, _Ecles. Informe_, 54-5; _Squier's Trav. Cent. - Am._, i. 370-1; _Niles' Reg._, xxix. 39. - - [XXX-34] _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, iii. 273, 294-324; - _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iii. 522-4; iv. 146, 205-7, 552; - _Crosby's Statem._, MS., 91, 105-7, 110-11; _Squier's Cent. - Am._, 515-16; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 162-3. - - [XXX-35] Infidelity spread extensively among the mestizos, - and the white people also, so that the requirements of the - church became constantly neglected. Obnoxious books were in - the hands of all classes. Some of the more candid priests - avowed deistical and atheistical notions. _Crowe's Gospel_, - 256-7. - - [XXX-36] A large number were charged with libidinous - practices; even unnatural crimes were among the number. - Excesses in eating and drinking, gambling, rioting, and bad - language were quite common with them. Exorbitant fees, and - extorting personal services, and grinding the poor were of - daily occurrence. And yet the offenders were not punished, - nor even suspended. - - [XXX-37] At Habana, Cuba, whose diocese he had charge of for - many years, never resigning the see of Guatemala, though he - repeatedly refused to return thereto. His remains were taken - there, however, by the Spanish war schooner _Polka_, and - interred in Santa Teresa church, June 1846, with the utmost - pomp of church and state. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. - 12-13, 19-25. - - [XXX-38] The Marquis José de Aycinena, who had expected the - appointment, was balked in his ambition, but was made bishop - of Trajanapolis in part. infid.; he died Feb. 17, 1865. A few - months earlier, Aug. 23, 1864, occurred the death of another - prelate, a native of Guat., named José M. Barrutia y Cróquer, - bishop of Camaco in part. infid. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Sept. - 24, 1864; March 18, 1865. Antonio Larrazábal, who had also - been made a bishop in part. infid., had died Dec. 2, 1853. - _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 7, 1854; _Belly_, _A trav. l'Amér. - Cent._, i. 136-7. - - [XXX-39] _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 16, 1867; _Pan. Mercantile - Chronicle_, Feb. 17, 1867. - - [XXX-40] Piñol died at Habana, June 24, 1881; Urruela's - demise was on June 8, 1873, at Leon. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, June - 14, 1873; _Voz de Méj._, July 28, 1881. - - [XXX-41] In 1872 the Capuchin friars of La Antigua, who were - natives of Spain, were sent out of the country; all convents - of friars were closed, and the property of the several - orders was confiscated. In 1873 the consolidation of mortmain - property, proceeding from pious endowments, capellanías, and - legacies to the church and benevolent establishments, was - decreed. In 1874 nunneries were closed, and the confiscation - of their estates went on. The government agreed to allow - pensions to the nuns and native friars for their support. - At the same time all communities of religions of either sex - under any form whatever were forbidden forever. The fuero - eclesiástico was abolished, and the most unlimited freedom - of religion proclaimed. Civil marriage was declared legal, - and where the parties desired a religious ceremony the former - must precede it. Ecclesiastics were forbidden to appear - with frocks or other official insignia in public out of the - church. Cemeteries were secularized. _Barrios_, _Mensaje_, - Sept. 11, 1876; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley. Gob. Democ._, i. - 159-61, 192-6; ii. 13-14, 23-7, 58, 64-5, 205; _El Porvenir - de Nic._, Apr. 20, 27, 1873; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. - Doc., Cong. 43, Sess. 2, i. 99-101, 106, 147; _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Oct. 23, 1873; _Salv._, _Diario_, Dec. 21, 1878; - _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Gobern. y Just._, 1880, 2-5; 1882, 11-12. - - [XXX-42] In 1883 a protestant chapel was established in the - capital, in charge of Rev. Mr Hill. _Pan. Star and Herald_, - March 23, 1883. - - [XXX-43] There had been before him, from 1539 to 1810, - twenty bishops, the immediate predecessor of Barranco being - Manuel Julian Rodriguez, who ruled till 1810. Bernardo Pavon - was appointed but died before his consecration. _Juarros_, - _Guat._, i. 181; _Mex._, _Compend. Concilio III. en Mex._, - 418-21; _Morelli_, _Fast. Nov. Orb._, 107. - - [XXX-44] _Nic._, _Corr. Ist._, Dec. 1, 1849; _Guat._, _Gac._, - Nov. 30, 1849. - - [XXX-45] Formerly there were convents of Franciscan, Merced, - and Carmelite orders. - - [XXX-46] The church has no property whatever; the priests - are generally poor, and entirely dependent on fees, and on - contributions of the devout for festivals, etc. - - [XXX-47] _Wells' Hond._, 551-2, 555; _Wappäus_, _Mex. und - Cent. Am._, 305. - - [XXX-48] The papal bull to erect the diocese of San Salvador - is dated 4th day of the Kalends of Oct., 1842. _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, iv. 171-85. - - [XXX-49] He was a strong, finely formed, and pretentious - individual; a count palatine, and attendant on the - pontifical throne, one who had a right to be preceded by a - tintinnabulum. He was not like the poor, meek man who was - born in a stable at Bethlehem. - - [XXX-50] _Id._, _Reseña Hist._, v. 649, 661-2; _Salv._, - _Gac._, July 29, 1853; _Id._, _Diario Ofic._, Nov. 4, 1875; - _Nic._, _Corr. Ist._, May 23, 1851. - - [XXX-51] _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Aug. 8, 13, 1875. - - [XXX-52] The most noted were: Friar Benito de Baldonado, - 1620-9, who founded two hospitals; he died in Leon; Diego - Morsillo Rubio de Auñon, 1704-9, who being afterward - transferred to La Paz, was twice viceroy and captain-general - of Peru; Isidro Marin de Bullon y Figueroa, 1746-8, who - began the construction of the cathedral of Leon, and died - in Guatemala; Estévan Lorenzo de Tristan, 1775-83; in 1780 - he finished and inaugurated the cathedral, and it is added - that through his exertions Cent. Am. obtained the privilege - of free trade; José Antonio de la Huerta Casso, 1795-1804, - notable for his efforts in developing education. Montúfar - makes severe comments on some of the prelates. _Reseña - Hist._, iv. 136-9. Nicolás García Jerez, a Dominican, became - bishop in 1810, and figured prominently in the revolutionary - period. He had to emigrate in 1824 to Guatemala, where he - died in 1825. Vicar Cuadra was guardian till 1851, when - under a reconstruction of the diocese, Costa R. having - been detached, Jorge Viteri y Ungo was transferred to it - from Salvador. He died July 25, 1853. The see had no bishop - till the appointment of Bernardo Piñol y Aycinena. It took - place in Nov. 1855, and the papal bulls reached Granada in - 1856, where, owing to Walker's war, they were kept in the - parish church, and finally destroyed with the city. Piñol - was consecrated in Guat. July 17, 1859, and performed his - functions till Sept. 14, 1868, when he departed for Guat. - as archb. During his rule Manuel Ulloa was made bishop of - Lemira, in part. infid., and coadjutor; he was made bishop - of Nic. in 1871, and resigned the office in 1883. _El - Costaricense_, Nov. 10, 1849; _Salv._, _Gaceta_, March 8, - 1850; Aug. 12, 1853; _Pio IX._, _Carta_; _Squier's Trav. - Cent. Am._, i. 391; _Nic._, _Corr. Ist._, Feb. 6, March 7, - June 20, Dec. 12, 1850; _Id._, _Gac._, Aug. 13, Sept. 3, - 1853, Dec. 16, 1865; Jan. 6, Apr. 21, 1866; _Id._, _Semanal - Nic._, Oct. 10, 1872; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, Apr. 12, 1862; - _Id._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, 1859, ii. 162; 1863, 215; 1865, - 136; _El Rol_, March 15, 1855; _Decreto sobre la bula de - S. S._; _Perez_, _Mem. Rev. Nic._, i. 8-9; _El Porvenir de - Nic._, Feb. 25, 1872; _Levy_, _Nic._, 62-6; _Pan. Star and - Herald_, July 2, 1883. - - [XXX-53] In 1871 a number of jesuits expelled from Guat. - managed to get into the country, and were allowed to remain - several years, but were finally sent away. Details have been - given in a former chapter. In 1872 several friars expelled - from other parts tried to enter the country, but were not - permitted to stay. _El Porvenir de Nic._, Oct. 1, 1871, to - Feb. 16, 1873, passim; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, June 18, 1872; - _Id._, _Mem. Min. Gobern._, 1875, 23-4; 1883, 25-6, annex B, - 27-8, F, 1-4. - - [XXX-54] For the seminary $2,000; the bishop $3,000; the - chapter and other ecclesiastics $4,158; music $1,000; - other expenses about $4,000. The chapter consists of dean, - archdeacon, chancellor, three canons, and six or seven other - officials. The church gets the first-fruits from farmers. - Tithes have been abolished since 1862. 300 or 400 priests - without parishes depend entirely on fees. The cathedral has - no valuables, having been sacked several times. _Nic._, - _Boletin Ofic._, Dec. 6, 1856; March 1, 1862; _Union_, - _Nic._, March 2, 1861; _Nic._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, 1857-8, - 261-5; _Id._, _Gac._, Aug. 6, 1870; _Lévy_, _Nic._, 383-4. - - [XXX-55] See treaty with France of Apr. 11, 1859. - - [XXX-56] Appointments of parish priests, and publications - of papal bulls or briefs, and decrees of ecclesiastical - councils must first obtain an exequatur from the president - of the republic. Parish priests before assuming their offices - must take the oath to support the constitution, and to do no - act against the nation's independence or the public peace. - _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Fomento_, 1869, 13-16; 1871, 9-10; _Id._, - _Mem. Min. Rel._, 1871, 7-10, 25-8; _Id._, _Gaceta_, May 30, - 1868; Oct. 29, Nov. 5, 1870. - - [XXX-57] Anselmo Llorente y Lafuente was the first called - to fill the position of bishop of San José de Costa Rica, - April 10, 1851. He had not been long in office when he tried - to collect tithes on coffee, but failed, and his course - greatly displeased the people and lowered their regard for - the church. The matter was finally settled by a concordat - entered into at Rome, Oct. 2, 1852, and tithes were declared - abolished. He died in 1872; and the government soon after - proposed a successor, who was not approved of by the Roman - curia. Finally, Oct. 11, 1879, the government nominated - Bernard August Thiel, a native of Germany, and professor - of the university of Costa Rica, for the office, and he was - confirmed by the pope Feb. 27, 1880. During the vacancy the - see was under the guardianship of the bishop of Abydos, in - part. infid. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, v. 155-60; _Marure_, - _Bosq. Hist. Rev. Cent. Am._, 208; _Montúfar_, _Reseña - Hist._, ii. 247-9; _Costa R._, _Mem. Min. Rel._, 1851, 1-2, - 10-12; 1854, 11-12; _Id._, _Informe Sec. Rel._, 1872, 19-20; - 1873, 19; 1874, 12; 1880, 19-20; _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, - 63, 111-12; _El Siglo_, July 18, 1851. - - [XXX-58] For the bishop $3,000, the ecclesiastical chapter - $3,000, and the Colegio Tridentino $3,000. _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, ii. 207; _Costa R._, _Mem. Min. Rel._, 1859, - 11; _Id._, _Gac. Gob._, July 16, 23, 30, 1853; _Hond._, - _Gac. Ofic._, Jan. 24, 1853, suppl.; _Salv._, _Gac._, - Aug. 12, 1853; _Guat._, _Gac._, Sept. 16, Oct. 14, 1853; - _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 49-50. - - [XXX-59] _Costa R._, _Mem. Sec. Rel._, 1884, 31. - - [XXX-60] The clergy have, indeed, lost much of their - influence. The mode of life of the majority of them cannot - inspire respect. Letter from Costa R. by a British consul, - quoted in _Squier's Cent. Am._, 468-9; _Wappäus_, _Mex. - und Cent. Am._, 360. Laferrière, writing for 1873, gives a - discreditable picture of the church, its priests and feasts. - _De Paris à Guatém._, 56. - - [XXX-61] There is a protestant church and cemetery in San - José. The government cordially upholds the liberal laws on - the subject of religion. _Costa R._, _Mem. Sec. Rel._, 1884, - 32. - - [XXX-62] His salary was also suspended. _Costa R._, _Mem. - Sec. Rel._, 1885, 17. - - [XXX-63] Of whom 39 received their offices during the - colonial period, the last one being Friar Higinio Duran, of - the order of Mercy and a native of Lima. He took possession - in 1818, and died in Chepo on the 22d of Oct., 1823. - This bishop was one of the signers of the declaration of - independ. of the Isthmus in 1821. His successors were Manuel - Vasquez, Juan J. Cabarcas Gonzalez, Juan F. del R. Manfiedo - y Ballestas, Friar Eduardo Vasquez, who died in Rome, Jan. - 2, 1870, Ignacio Antonio Parra, who took possession June 3, - 1871. _Hernaez_, _Extracto del Libro de la Comp. de Jesus_, - in _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít de Pan._, MS., 34-5; _Pan._, - _Col. Docs._, MS., nos. 125-6; _Pan. Docs._; _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, iv. 344; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Nov. - 1, 1862; _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 4, 1869; _Id._, - _Gaceta_, June 6, 1871. Parra held the office only a few - years, and was succeeded by Telésforo Paúl, who occupied it - till Dec. 1884, when he repaired to Bogotá, his native city, - to fill that archepiscopal see. The assembly of the state - on the 22d of Dec., 1884, adopted a resolution recognizing - his efforts to promote harmony, and appointed a committee - to escort him as far as Barranquilla. _La Estrella de Pan._, - Jan. 1, 1885; _El Cronista_ (Pan.), Jan. 3, 1885. - - [XXX-64] _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 242. The congress of Nueva - Granada in 1837 fixed the bishop's salary at $4,000. _N. - Granada_, _Registro Ofic._, 21. - - [XXX-65] Originally there were 11 churches, 4 convents of - friars, one nunnery, a cathedral, and one ecclesiastical - college established by the government of Old Colombia under - a rector, vice-rector, and assistant, with a sufficient - revenue. A law of New Granada provided for the sale at - auction of all property that had formerly belonged to the - jesuits not required for national use. _Pan._, _Crón. Ofic._, - Aug. 5, 1852. Stories are related of buried treasures having - been disinterred in after years by jesuit agents, from the - ground of their old house, and from the orchard of T. M. - Feuillet. These stories bear some semblance of truth. See - Memoranda, in _Maldonado_, _Apuntes_, MS., 36 et seq. - - [XXX-66] The bishops in the exercise of their functions, - and administration of church property, had the assistance of - the civil authorities, who carried out their orders without - questioning them. - - [XXX-67] Every New Granadan or Colombian assigned, to the - prejudice of his heirs, a certain amount to the church for - masses and other supposed benefits it could do to his soul. - Successive descendants followed the example. The priests - often threatened the dying with the penalties of hell if they - did not purchase their salvation. Clerical intolerance knew - no limits. - - [XXX-68] Excepting only cathedrals, the chief church of each - parish, and the sacred vessels and ornaments. _Maldonado_, - _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 3-5, 15, 17. - - [XXX-69] The bishop of Panamá left, and his priests followed - his example one by one. Panamá was thus left without a - priest; the dead had to be buried without the offices - of a minister; for more than a year the churches had no - bell-tolling or officiating minister. An English catholic - missionary, passing to San Francisco, ventured to say mass - and baptize in private. He was arrested, though finally - allowed to embark. _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 238-43. - - [XXX-70] The laws were modified in May 1864. The govt - reserved the right of inspection, but made the oath of - submission obligatory on the chief of the church having - authority as such. Bulls or orders emanating from any one - residing in a foreign country could not be published or - enforced without first obtaining permission from the national - executive. _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, Jan. 16, 1868. - - [XXX-71] Under Mosquera's decrees when he was dictator, the - few nuns—four aged and one young—occupying the convent of La - Concepcion in Panamá were made to abandon it in Sept. 1862. - _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Oct. 4, 1862. These women would - not forsake the cloister, but sought an asylum in Lima. With - tearful eyes they exiled themselves from their home, and from - friends, many of whom had received their education from them. - Their departure caused no little feeling in the pub. heart. - _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 18. - - [XXX-72] Dec. 15, 1868, a charter was granted by the state - govt to a protestant church association. _Pan._, _Boletin - Ofic._, Feb. 18, 1869. - - [XXXI-1] Some of the alcaldes mayores had in 1810 only - $300 allowed them yearly, others $500, and the highest - paid received $1,200. The system did not recommend itself. - _Guat._, _Apunt._, 65-71. There was also a consulado or - tribunal of commerce established in Guat. April 30, 1794. - _Juarros' Stat. and Comm. Hist. Guat._, 142-3. - - [XXXI-2] Royal decree of July 25, 1814. _Fernando VII._, - Dec., 12. - - [XXXI-3] The king ratified it June 4, 1820. The Indians were - benefited thereby, for even priests were strictly forbidden - to flog them. _Id._, 301-2. - - [XXXI-4] Those desirous of studying the judiciary of Guat. - as it existed down to 1872 may find information in _Guat._, - _Recop. Ley._, i. 241-2, 603-4; ii. 21-45, 51-69; iii. - 215-29, 365-6; _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, ii. 242-3; _Montúfar_, - _Reseña Hist._, ii. 336-41; _Guat._, _Boletin Ofic._, 132-7. - - [XXXI-5] The first complete reorganization was by the law - of May 22, 1872. The creation of the superior court at - Quezaltenango was by law of July 29, 1872. _Guat._, _Recop. - Ley. Gob. Democ._, i. 88-9, 114-15. On the 15th of Oct., - 1876, a supreme court, composed of a president and four - magistrados, was established, because the organization of - the superior courts hindered the prompt administration - of justice. _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct. 13, 14, 1876. - Subsequently, there was an increase in the number of - justices, the court was divided into five sections or - chambers, of which the fifth was suppressed March 29, 1882. - - [XXXI-6] Trial by jury had been decreed, on the promulgation - of the Livingston code in Jan. 1837, under the law of Aug. - 27, 1836. It was suspended by decree of March 13, 1838, on - the ground of its impracticability in a country so unprepared - for it as Guat. then was. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. - 289-343; iii. 63-84; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Feb. 14, 1875; - _Pineda de Mont_, _Nota_, in _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 464; - _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 192; _Squier's Trav. Cent. Am._, ii. - 419, 426. - - [XXXI-7] In consequence 350 reformatory articles were adopted - in connection with the civil code, and the reforms to the - code of procedure in civil cases were almost as extensive; - a few were also made to the commercial; and a considerable - number to the penal code, and to that of procedure in - criminal causes. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Gobern., etc._, 1880-3. - - [XXXI-8] _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1880, 38-9, 65-6, - 1885, 53, and annex 13. - - [XXXI-9] During 1881 the supreme court, issued 1,995 - sentences in criminal cases, only two of them were capital, - one of which was commuted; in 1882, 1,467; 1883, 1,726; 1884, - 2,489 offences were classified as crimes, and 10,130 as mere - misdemeanors; of the former 1,321, and of the latter 1,460, - were acquitted; 1,168 of the former and 8,670 of the latter - were sentenced, none to death, and only two to extraordinary - imprisonment. - - [XXXI-10] It was notorious that escaped criminals freely - moved, menacing the lives of those who had had any agency - in their arrest. The facility for evading the action of the - law was such that criminals did not fear it. _Hond._, _Mem. - Ministro Gen._, 1852, 9-10. - - [XXXI-11] A robber and murderer named Umansor, who effected - his escape from the fort at Omoa, survived under 400 blows on - two occasions; but 200 blows on the bare back generally ended - the sufferings of the culprit when applied with that design. - _Wells' Hond._, 229-30. - - [XXXI-12] _Presid. Soto_, _Mensaje_, May 27, 1877. - - [XXXI-13] _Salv._, _Mem. Sec. Gobern._, 1875; _Id._, _Diario - Ofic._, March 17, 1875. - - [XXXI-14] Trial by jury in criminal cases was first - established in Aug. 1832, but being found impracticable, - owing to the ignorance of the masses, it was abolished. - _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 186. The system was restored by the - constitution of 1872. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Oct. 17, 1875. - - [XXXI-15] The supreme court is composed of eleven - magistrados, one of whom is the president. In San Salv. there - are two chambers of 2d resort with two justices in each, and - one of 3d resort composed of the president and the two senior - justices. A majority of the magistrados constitutes the - full supreme court. There is also a chamber of 2d instance - in San Miguel, and another in Santa Ana. Seven suplentes - or substitutes fill temporary absences of the incumbents, - three for the capital, and two for each of the others. No - magistrado, or judge of a court of first resort, can hold - office in the executive or legislative departments of the - government. The supreme court-martial was abolished by law of - Aug. 31, 1875. Military courts of first instance existing in - the depts were suppressed, excepting that in the capital, and - their functions devolved on the comandantes. _Salv._, _Diario - Ofic._, Sept. 3d-8th; _Id._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Sept. 13, 1876. - - [XXXI-16] _Presid. Zaldívar_, _Mensaje_, Jan. 14, 1878. - - [XXXI-17] The 1st chamber of 2d instance in the capital, - 1,736; the 2d, 1,889; that of Santa Ana, 2,323; and the one - at San Miguel, 1,370. _Salv._, _Mem. Sec. Rel. Just., etc._, - 1879; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, June 26, 28, July 4, 13, 1878. - - [XXXI-18] The Livingston code of Louisiana with trial by jury - was established in 1836, but suspended in 1845. _Dunlop's - Cent. Am._, 192; _Sandoval_, _Rev. Polít._, 22. The organic - law of the courts is dated July 4, 1857, and underwent - modifications Sept. 3, 1858. _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, ii. - 167-98; _Nic._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, 1859, ii. 27-8; _Informe_, - _Min. Gobern._, 1859. - - [XXXI-19] The former has jurisdiction over the depts of - Leon, Chinandega, and Segovia; and the latter over those of - Granada, Rivas, Chontales, and Matagalpa. _Lévy_, _Nic._, - 344. - - [XXXI-20] There is in each department or district a court - for civil and criminal affairs; but in largely populated - departments there is also a court of criminal jurisdiction. - _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, ii. 217, 244-316. There should also be - a juez de agricultura, and a juez de la mesta, under existing - laws. Cases involving only $100 are acted upon verbally; all - others in writing. - - [XXXI-21] _Nic._, _Informe Min. Fomento_, 1869; _Id._, _Dec. - y Acuerdos_, 1871, 123-33; _Id._, _Gaceta_, March 18, Apr. 1, - 22, June 3, 1871; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Oct. 22, 1871; Feb. - 25, 1872; _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Hac._, 1872; _Id._, _Informe - Min. Gobern._, 1875. - - [XXXI-22] 'Los pleitos, por decirlo así, se eternizan, y - es muy raro ver uno que llegue á concluirse.' _Mensaje del - Presid._, Marzo 1871. - - [XXXI-23] _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Oct. 16, 1873. - - [XXXI-24] _Marure_, _Efem._, 49. It has been asserted that - as a rule offenders are not vigorously prosecuted, and for - various reasons often go unpunished. - - [XXXI-25] _Ley de presidios_, Aug. 18, 1858; _Ley de Palos_, - Sept. 1, 1858. Prisoners sentenced to hard labor serve out - their terms on the works in forts San Juan and San Cárlos, - by president's order of Oct. 6, 1880. _Nic._, _Mem. Min. - Gobern._, 1883, 22-3, and annex B, 27. - - [XXXI-26] Of which 578 resulted in conviction; 244 were - dismissed; and 1,087 were pending. _Id._, annex G, no. vi. - - [XXXI-27] _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, iii.-xxii., passim; _Id._, - _Mem. Min. Gobern._, 1857 and 1859; _Montúfar_, _Reseña - Hist._, v. 344, 348. - - [XXXI-28] The yearly salaries are: chief president, $2,160; - the other presidents, $2,040 each; justices, $1,800 each; - secretary, $1,200. The yearly appropriation for the supreme - court is nearly $43,000. _Costa R._, _Mem. Sec. Gobern._, - 1884, annex D. - - [XXXI-29] Suits for sums not exceeding $100 and trivial - offences are attended to by alcaldes and jueces de paz. - There is also a special court of hacienda to adjudicate upon - claims of the treasury against private parties, and for the - trial of offences against the revenue, including also the - counterfeiting of coin. The expense of this court is nearly - $700 per month. In Limon there is an alcalde who acts as - judge. The civil and criminal judges of San José receive $105 - a month each; the other judges, $125; the alcalde at Limon, - $50. The yearly expenditure of the judiciary, including - the supreme court, fiscal agencies, casa de reclusion $720; - presidio de San Lúcas $11,560; and contingents for the year - 1884 was a little over $90,100. In former years, when the - ecclesiastic and military fueros were recognized, each had - its own courts, the system being an inheritance from the old - Spanish rule. It has been abolished. - - [XXXI-30] _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Int._, 1860 and 1865. - - [XXXI-31] This was recognized by the min. of justice in - his report of May 15, 1884. _Costa R._, _Mem. Soc. Just. y - Gracia_, 1884, 29. - - [XXXI-32] The commissions began their labors at once, but had - not completed them in July 1885. _Costa R._, _Mem. Just. y - Gracia_, 1872-85. - - [XXXI-33] A law of July 10, 1873, introduced the jury system - in criminal causes. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xxii. 52-69; - _Id._, _Informe Sec. Just._, 1873, 23-4; 1876, 19-20. - - [XXXI-34] The prison on Coco was first decreed July 3, 1874, - but the law not having been carried out, it was reiterated - Jan. 21, 1878. The regulation of Feb. 25, 1874, for San Lúcas - placed it under the control of the governor of the comarca - of Puntarenas. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xxii. 35-48, 89-90; - _Id._, _Inf. Sec. Gobern._, 1874, 28; 1879, 16-18; _Id._, - _Col. Dispos. Leg._, 1878, 92-3. - - [XXXI-35] Composed of three justices, whose terms of office - are of four years. There are substitutes to fill temporary - vacancies. - - [XXXI-36] The alcaldes and regidores have charge of the - preservation of order in their respective districts, and - initiate proceedings for offences against the laws, and after - the investigation has been completed, pass the papers to the - proper court. These officials also have jurisdiction over - civil causes not exceeding $200 in value. When the claim - does not exceed $25, the court's decision is final. If it - does, the court hears the parties, receives the testimony - of witnesses, and renders a decision, which may be appealed - from to the superior court. Judges and alcaldes in former - years were greatly respected by the people, and their decrees - obeyed without demur. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, - MS., 2, 5. - - [XXXI-37] Other penalties: imprisonment, banishment, - deprivation or suspension of political rights, surveillance - of the authorities, fines, etc. Credits are allowed prisoners - for good behavior. Trial by jury in criminal cases exists. A - jury of seven meet at the chief town, hear the evidence, and - by an absolute majority convict, qualifying the offence, or - acquit. _Pan._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 30, to Sept. 24, 1863; Feb. - 19, 1880; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, Nov. 18, 1865. - - [XXXI-38] The civil, penal, procedure, military, and - commercial codes. _Id._, Sept. 5, 1868; _Id._, _Inf. Mem. - Sec. Est._, 1872, 13; 1877, 33. - - [XXXI-39] He drew the conclusion that the jury system, in the - state of ignorance so general among the masses, instead of - being a safeguard for society served to afford impunity to - criminals. _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Jen. Est._, 1876, 19-22; 1879, - 102-3. - - [XXXI-40] _Pan._, _Ley._, 1879-80, 52-5. - - [XXXI-41] _Pan._, _Informe Gobernador_, 17-19. - - [XXXI-42] A decree of Dec. 23, 1879, fixed the force at 140 - with the officers; a second of March 1, 1880, ordered the - organization of the battalion Ancon no. 1 with 95 to 125; - another of Feb. 22, 1881, reduced it to 75. The pay of the - rank and file was fixed in 1880 as follows: 1st sergt, $27; - 2d sergt, $24; 1st corporal, $21; 2d corp., $18; private, - $15. No rations allowed. _Pan._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 8, March 21, - May 9, June 24, 27, 1880; Sept. 15, 25, 1881. The force was - greatly augmented during the disturbances of 1885. _Pan. Star - and Herald_, Dec. 22, 1885. - - [XXXI-43] A law of 1881 established the ranks of - gen.-in-chief, gen. of division, gen. of brigade, colonel, - lieut-col, major, capt., lieut, and sub-lieut. On the 1st of - Dec., 1877, there were 8 generals, 43 colonels, lieut-col, - and majors, and 254 from captains down. The appropriations - for 1877 and 1878 were $64,000 each, of which $45,000 was for - pay. _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. Jen. Est._, 1878, p. xxvii.-xxxii.; - _Id._, _Id._, _Hacienda_, 1878, annex X. - - [XXXI-44] Laferrière, writing for 1873, says that the - regulars did not count for much as to numbers, though the - country had been of late years under a military gov. _De - Paris à Guatém._, 55-6. - - [XXXI-45] _Costa R._, _Mem. Min. Guer._, 1883 and 1884. - - [XXXI-46] There were garrisons in Managua, Granada, - Leon, Corinto, San Cárlos, Castillo Viejo, and Matagalpa, - aggregating with the officers 506 men. The revenue guards - and police number about 460. _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Guer._, 1883. - The battalions stationed at Managua, the capital, bears the - name of guardia de los supremos poderes, being the guard - of honor of congress or the executive. The officers and - soldiers are well dressed. The other troops merely get a pair - of pants and a shirt. The bright trimmings distinguish them - from civilians. As to pay, the general of division in active - service receives $5 per day; the private only 30 cts per day - and no rations. _Lévy_, _Nic._, 343-4. - - [XXXI-47] In 1882 the monthly appropriation for pensions was - $1,188. _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Guer._, 1883. - - [XXXI-48] The army might be raised to 30,000 or 40,000 - men. _Pan. Star and Herald_, June 2, 1886. The practice has - been to send out press-gangs, to seize men and force them - into the ranks, thus forming as motley a set as can well be - imagined; some have shirts, some jackets, and others neither. - Most of them probably have breeches, but exceedingly short - at the legs. _Wells' Hond._, 238-40; Laferrière, _De Paris - à Guatém._, 100-1; _Squier's Trav._, ii. 183-4. - - [XXXI-49] The eastern, furnished by the departments of San - Miguel, Usulutan, La Union, and Gotera; the central, by San - Vicente, Cabañas, Cuscatlan, and Chalatenango; the western, - by Santa Ana, Sonsonat, and Ahuachapan; and the reserve, by - San Salvador, La Paz, and La Libertad. Each division was - formed with four brigades, and another of artillery; each - brigade to have 1,000 men in two battalions; five companies - of 100 men to form a battalion. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Apr. - 6, May 16, July 9, 10, 1879. - - [XXXI-50] Divisions to be commanded by generals of division, - brigades by generals of brigade; battalions to have colonels - and lieut-colonels; and each company a capt., 1st lieut, - 2d lieut, and 2 sub-lieuts, 5 sergeants, and 8 corporals. - Brevets were recognized in all grades of commissioned - officers, under an executive decree of 1875. _Id._, Aug. 13, - 1875. - - [XXXI-51] The pay of a gen. of div. was $150 per month, of - a gen. of brig. $125, col $100, lieut-col $90, capt. $57, - lieut $45, sub-lieut $37.50, serg. $15, corporals, $13⅛, and - private $11.25. The new organization given the army at that - time was said to secure a saving of $200,000 a year. _Salv._, - _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct. 7, 11, 1876. - - [XXXI-52] The scale was fixed in March 1877, from $50 for a - general of division down to $10 for a sub-lieut, sergeants - $7 and $6, corporals $5, and privates $4. The same scale - standing for widows and orphans to whom pensions might be - allowed. _Id._, Feb. 16, March 6, 1877. - - [XXXI-53] It went into effect on the 15th of that month and - year. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Jan. 2-14, 1880. - - [XXXI-54] A few paid for their exemption till 1892. _Guat._, - _Mem. Sec. Hac._, 1883, 24, and annex 19. - - [XXXI-55] The ranks of captain-general and lieutenant-gen., - created for Miguel García Granados and J. Rufino Barrios - respectively, soon after the overthrow of the oligarchs, - were suppressed by the latter in his decree of Feb. 9, - 1873, together with the grade of mariscal de campo formerly - existing. He likewise annulled the grade of sargento mayor, - creating in lieu thereof those of segundo comandante and - primer comandante. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley. Gob. Democ._, ii. - 12-13, 25. - - [XXXI-56] The pay of a private is three reales per day, out - of which he supports and clothes himself. - - [XXXI-57] The secretary of war said of it: 'Este - establecimiento promete mucho para el porvenir.' And indeed, - a number of its graduates were already engaged in engineering - work on the northern railroad, in running the boundary line - with Mexico, and in instructing the several battalions. Some - had been also assigned to the artillery department. _Guat._, - _Mem. Sec. Guer._, 1884, 6, annex no. 1. - - [XXXI-58] Officers in active service cannot marry without - leave from the sec. of war, which is not granted if their - marriage may prove detrimental to the service. _Id._, 1882, - 5, 13-14. - - [XXXI-59] It has been properly kept, with beneficial results. - _Id._, 1882, 15; 1883, 6-7, annex 3; 1884, 9-10, doc. 3. - - [XXXI-60] _Id._, 1884, annex no. 1. Other authorities - containing information on military affairs of Guat. from 1822 - to 1873: _Thompson's Guat._, 496-504; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, - 168-9; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, ii. 639-759, passim; _Id._, - _Gob. Democ._, i. 6, 103-5, 132-7; _Id._, _Decretos_, nos. - 11, 23, 36-7; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Guer._, 1837, 24-6, table 6; - _Squier's Cent. Am._, 516-17; _Boddam Whetham's Across Cent. - Am._, 205-8. - - [XXXII-1] Humboldt estimated the production at the value - of $4,500,000. _Essai Polit._, ii. 446; _Guat._, _Apunt._, - 17-20; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, vi. 70-1, 293-337, passim. - - [XXXII-2] The yearly products of Cent. Am. were estimated in - 1826 at $52,529,450. _Ocios Esp. Emigr._, v. 3-11. - - [XXXII-3] _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 658-89, 744-60. - - [XXXII-4] Though land was free to all, agriculture was so low - that even on the richest soil staples were scarcely produced - in sufficient quantities for the consumption. _Berendt_, in - _Smithsonian Rept_, 1867, 424. - - [XXXII-5] The annual export was estimated at nearly - $1,100,000, but chemical substances having been discovered to - take its place for coloring, the decadence of the industry - soon followed. Cochineal could not fetch over 2 to 3 francs - per kilogr. in France. _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, - 247. - - [XXXII-6] It had young trees planted in every department, - and for the further increase of the staple, exempts the - product from interior taxation and export dues. _Pan. Star - and Herald_, May 29, 1886. - - [XXXII-7] _Presid. Barrios_, _Mensaje_, Sept. 11, 1876. - - [XXXII-8] _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Gobern. y Just._, 1880; _Id._, - _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1880-2; _Id._, _Sec. Hac._, 1882-3; - _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 2, May 29, 1886. - - [XXXII-9] Cochineal, reduced from 67,709 qls in 1860-4 - to 2,845 in 1879-83. Coffee, 1860-4, none; crop of 1883-4 - was 495,385 qls; next year's estimated 520,000, valued at - $5,291,074. Sugar, 1860-4, 115,486 qls; the production of - 1883 of sugar, panela, muscovado, and molasses valued at - $976,902; 1884, $1,058,551; 1885, $915,789. Rubber, 1879-83, - 9,074 qls. Sundries, 1879-83, 115,999 qls. Flour, 1884, - probable production 931,144 qls. Tobacco cult. progressing. - Live-stock, 1884, horses, 107,187; mules and asses, 41,386; - neat cattle, 441,307; sheep, 417,577; goats, 27,618; swine, - 177,118. Total value, $15,112,233. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. - Fomento_, 1885-5; _El Guatemalteco_, Jan. 1, Sept. 15, 1884; - _Pan. Ev'g Telegram_, May 26, 1886. - - [XXXII-10] As early as 1800 there were 9,600 trees of China - cotton. _Quinta Junta Púb._, 14-15; _Juarros_, _Guat._, i. - 38-46. - - [XXXII-11] _Viag. Univ._, xxvii. 172-4. The Sp. gov. had all - the vines destroyed for fear of injury to the wine industry - of the mother country. _Squier's Cent. Am._, 273; _W. Ind._, - _Descr. Sp. Settlers_, 45. - - [XXXII-12] _Squier's Cent. Am._, 192-204; _Laferrière_, _De - Paris à Guatém._, 97. - - [XXXII-13] They do not yield a high income, however, the - consumption at home being comparatively small, and the demand - of the neighboring states limited. _Id._, 209-11, 272. Gov. - is endeavoring to improve the breed. - - [XXXII-14] Comparative values: Indigo—as early as 1630 the - yield was 10,000 quintals a year; the production from 1791 to - 1800 was 8,752,562 ℔s. at $2 a ℔.; 1864, $1,129,105; 1877, - $2,146,423. Coffee—1864, about $80,000; 1877, $2,115,669. - Maize—1877, $2,786,433. Sugar and muscovado—1877, $334,361. - Rice—1877, $154,728. Hides and deer-skins—1876, $444,805. - Cattle—1876, $672,948. Aggregate values for 1876-7—including - rum made from molasses, and set down at $925,457—were - $15,448,794. These figures are from official sources, but may - not be altogether reliable. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Oct. 21, - 1875; _Id._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Feb. 7, 24, 1877; Feb. 19, 1878. - - [XXXII-15] The cotton is of superior quality, and grown - in considerable quantities; the cacao is second only to - Soconusco; the sugar-cane is indigenous, and yields beautiful - sugar; the indigo has a high reputation; the coffee is fully - as good as Costa Rica's, and flourishes well in the higher - grounds. The same may be said of tobacco. Maize and rice grow - in perfection and abundance. _Stout's Nic._, 73-85, 345-53; - _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 265-7; _Baily's Cent. Am._, 120-4; - _Squier's Cent. Am._, 363-4, 377-8, 663; _Id._, _Trav._, i. - 34-9, 158-63; _Id._, _Nic._, 620-2; _Lévy_, _Nic._, 458-81; - _Wells' Hond._, 141-3; _Id._, _Walker's Exped._, 116; - _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 77-80; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, - H. Ex. Doc., 75, 210-12, 216, vol. x. Cong. 31, Sess. 1; - _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 13, 1886. - - [XXXII-16] Exempting them from taxation and otherwise. - _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 191-4, 206-11; ii. 106-11; _Nic._, - _Reg. Ofic._, 328-9; _Id._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, vol. for - 1851-61, passim; _Ley de Agric._, Feb. 18, 1862; _Nic._, - _Boletin Ofic._, Feb. 15, 1862; _Id._, _Gaceta_, years - 1865-74, passim. - - [XXXII-17] Mahogany abounds, especially on the margins of - the branches of the large rivers. The cutters are mostly - Mosquitos and Caribs, who hire themselves for the season at - $10 to $15 a month and fed. In 1862-9 the govt adopted the - plan of farming out the privilege of cutting mahogany. The - caoutchouc trees were by law declared in 1860 govt property. - _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Hac._, 1862; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 1, - 1865; _El Nacional_, Nov. 10, 1860. - - [XXXII-18] Nutritious grasses and water are scarce in the - summer. On the other hand, an immense quantity of vermin - constantly torment the animals, and disease takes hold of - them, killing many. Cows yield only a small quantity of milk. - A dairy possessing 150 to 200 milch cows is said to do well - if they yield 50 lbs. of cheese per day. _Lévy_, _Nic._, 478. - - [XXXII-19] Said to be as good as that of Soconusco; but the - country is generally too high and cold for cacao culture; - nor is the climate favorable for cochineal, cotton, or grape, - owing to excessive rains. _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 30-1; - _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 37. Spec. laws have been passed - for the promotion of cacao and indigo culture. _Costa R._, - _Col. Ley._, xi. 299-301; xii. 216-17; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, - 1866, 161-2; _Id._, xix. 184-6. - - [XXXII-20] As late as 1829 her sole article of export was - Brazil wood. The miserable condition of the country made - its name ridiculous. But in a few years the situation became - changed. An act was passed Sept. 7, 1831, to promote coffee - culture, and in 1835 the first export of the article took - place. Another decree for the same purpose was issued in - 1843. _Id._, iii. 94-6; _El Nicaragüense_, Jan. 9, 1856. - In 1845 no less than 45,000 quintals were produced; in 1848 - double that quantity; and in 1850, 140,000 qls; from 1854 to - 1856 there was no increase, owing to cholera, locusts, and - the Walker war in Nic. However, the crop of 1856 was about - 55,200 qls. _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 26, 1850; July 1 to - Sept. 23, 1854; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, June 29, 1854; _Id._, - _Mem. Sec. Rel._, 1856, 10-12; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 7, - 1853; _Wagner_, _Costa R._, 41, 307-21; _Squier's Cent. Am._, - 454-72; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 48-9; _Belly_, _A - trav. l'Amér. Cent._, i. 397-400. - - [XXXII-21] In 1862 there was a fair crop: 1873, 333,843 qls; - 1874, about 300,000 valued in Puntarenas port at $15.50 per - quintal of 100 lbs.; 1876, a scanty crop; 1877, 186,000; - 1877, 180,652; 1879, excessive rains caused heavy loss; 1884, - about 375,000 quintals; but 1885 only yielded 125,000 or - 130,000. _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Interior_, 1862, 10-11; - _Id._, _Sec. Agric._, 1874, 28; 1876, 20-1; 1878, 14; 1879, - 22; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 34; _Jülfs_, _Die - Seehäfen_, 18; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 9, 23, 1885. - - [XXXII-22] The manufacture of rum from sugar-cane is a - government monopoly. The cultivation of tobacco has been for - many years under the strictest regulations; its manufacture - and sale was exclusively in the hands of govt agents. In - 1850 it was declared free from Jan. 1, 1852, but the law was - repealed June 23, 1851. In 1869 the monopoly was abolished, - but restored again by law of Feb. 4, 1884. _Molina_, _Bosq. - Costa R._, 30; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, x. 132-40; xi. 331-3; - _Id._, _Col. Ley._, 1869, 15-17, 219-20; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. - Hac._, 1852-3; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Gobern. Hac., etc._, 1884, - 25-6. - - [XXXII-23] The U. S. govt evinced in 1863 a disposition to - promote its cultiv. See correspond. of agric. dept. with U. - S. consul in Pan. _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 268-70. - - [XXXII-24] Exempting from taxation, and by other privileges. - _Pan. Ley._, 1876-7, 7; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 7, 1877; - _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 264-72; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. - Doc. 113, vol. vi. 1-2, 35-7, Cong. 41, Sess. 2. - - [XXXII-25] Tobacco, 2,770 quintals; grain, 197,320 qls; - cacao, 261 qls; sugar, 155 qls; panela, 29,445 qls; molasses, - 4,694 jugs; coffee, 2,853 qls; rubber, 80 qls; sundries, - 354,285 qls; medicinal roots, 390 qls. Total value, $518,662. - _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1882, annex L. - - [XXXII-26] No sheep are raised, and the goats, sometimes - killed, are a poor substitute. The pork is excellent. - Live-stock said to exist on the Isthmus in 1882: neat cattle, - 114,157; mules and asses, 470; horses, 9,942; goats, 24,732; - hogs, 203,209. Total value, $1,270,945. _Id._ - - [XXXII-27] It would take too much space to enumerate them; - but a list may be found in the report on the physical and - polit. geog. of the state of Pan., drawn up by a commission - despatched thither for that purpose, by the govt of New - Granada, in 1859. See also report of Martin, New Granada - minister in London, May 1858, in _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, - 322-40. - - [XXXII-28] Silver ores are the most abundant, and chiefly - located on the Pac. group of mountains, whereas the gold - washings, if not the gold mines proper, are most numerous on - the Atlantic side. The mineral districts in the departments - of Tegucigalpa, Choluteca, and Gracias are very rich in - silver in various combinations. The upper or old mine of - Coloal yielded 58 per ct. of copper, and 78 to 84 ounces - of silver to the ton; the ores of the new mines of Coloal, - a combination of chloride of silver, a little sulphuret - of silver, oxide of iron, and antimony, mixed with earthy - matter, yielded 8,470 ounces per ton of 2,000 lbs. Gold mines - abound in Hond., but only a few have been worked. The chief - supplies have been drawn from the washings of Olancho. The - rivers of Guayape and Jalan, as well as the streams running - into them, are decidedly the richest in auriferous sands. The - finest gold is from the Guayape, Jalan, and Mangualil, and - from the Sulaco, Caimito, and Pacaya, in the dept of Yoro. - The southern districts bordering on Nic. have rich placers. - Hond. has also mines of copper, iron, platina, cinnabar, - zinc, and coal. Very productive opal mines are worked to some - extent in Gracias. Amethysts are said to be found in Campuca. - _Squier's Cent. Am._, 145-51, 178-89; _Id._, _Hond. R. R._, - 85-94; _Montgomery's Narr._, 1134; _Baily's Cent. Am._, - 100-2; _Hond. Gac. Ofic._, Feb. 20, March 10, 1853; _Wells' - Hond._, 233-539, passim. - - [XXXII-29] Foreigners are allowed to work and own mines, - under the federal law of June 27, 1825. The ordenanzas of New - Spain regarding mines were declared to be in force June 17, - 1825. _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 209; _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, - i. 238. - - [XXXII-30] The absence of roads and difficulty of travel make - mining unprofitable as yet. _Presid. Soto_, _Mensaje_, Feb. - 19, 1883; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 23, 1883; Feb. 23, - 1886; _H. S. Davys' Gold Fields along the Guayape, etc._, in - _Cincinnati Enquirer_. - - [XXXII-31] Combined with lead and copper, and also as a - sulphide of silver. Materials convenient for working them - were at hand. The Central Am. Mining Co. operating on the - locality sold between 1858 and 1865 ore and bar silver to - the amount of 621,000 ounces, worth over $700,000. _U. S. - Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 40, Sess. 2, pt 1, 212-14; - _Squier's Cent. Am._, 526; _U. S. Land Off. Rep._, 1867, - 116-17, 131-2, 188-90; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 28, 1866. - - [XXXII-32] Early in the present century nuggets of 22 carats - were found near Chol. In some mines the ore treated with - quicksilver yielded one ounce of gold to the 100 ℔s., or $320 - to the ton of 2,000 ℔s. _Blazquez_, _Opinion_, in _Doc. Orig. - Chiapas_, 5. - - [XXXII-33] Gold placers in the dept. of Izabal were being - worked on a large scale. Several silver mines promise large - yields when they become exploited. The Indians of Zunil - repeatedly offer for sale in Quezaltenango quicksilver - obtained from a mine which they keep strictly secret. In the - departments of Quiché, Alta, Vera Paz, and Huehuetenango are - salt springs and deposits; in Chimaltenango peat and lignite; - between Guastoya and Izabal, marble; and in several places on - the Atlantic slope, coal. The government had a mineralogical - survey of the country made. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, 1882, - 28; 1883, 34, 72-4; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1884, 42; - _Wagner_, _Costa R._, 36; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. 17, - 1883. - - [XXXII-34] Among them must be mentioned zinc, iron, copper, - lead, tin, antimony. The mines of lead, iron, and copper - are believed to be inexhaustible. They are situated in a - fertile, cool, healthy, and picturesque region, affording - every other facility for working them. The whole northern - frontier abounds in silver, a little of it being obtained - by primitive processes. Quicksilver mines, though not rich, - are common. The gold veins of Nic. come from Hond., running - along the cordillera to the San Juan River, where they become - somewhat ramified before crossing it, and reappear in Costa - R. The chief one crosses the Machuca River. The gold is - almost pure when washed from river-beds, and more or less - mixed with silver when dug out of the earth. In the districts - of Juigalpa and Libertad hundreds of mines have been entered. - The Jícaro mines near Trinidad, and those of Santa Rosa, - Achuapa, San Francisco, etc., have been famous. The Potosí - and Corpus in colonial times yielded large quantities of - gold. The whole upper region of the Coco River is rich. It - may be asserted that the mines of Nic. are excellent, but - the miners are generally incompetent. They use the crowbar, - avoiding gunpowder as too expensive. Men are easily procured, - who work steadily though slowly and by primitive methods, - earning $8 to $10 per month, and their rations. The mills - are mostly poor. Sixteen carat gold is worth at the mine - $12 an ounce, but the average price paid by factors was - $8 or $9. Considerable quantities of gold are taken by the - Indians from river sands and bed, and washed in pans. _Lévy_, - _Nic._, 160-6, 482-6; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 364, 392-400; - _Id._, _Nic._, 653-6; _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Fomento_, 1871; - _Id._, _Mem. Min. Rel._, 1875; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. - Doc., 212-13, vol. x., Cong. 31, Sess. 1; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. - 340-6; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 11, 1865; May 26, 1866, suppl.; - Sept. 7, 1867; Jan. 11, July 18, Aug. 8, 1868. - - [XXXII-35] _Nic._, _Gaceta_, March 1, 1873; _Rocha_, _Cód. - Nic._, i. 163-72; _Nic._, _Correo Ist._, Aug. 29, 1850. - - [XXXII-36] It is said their yield was 47 to 2,537 oz. of - silver to the ton. Dunlop has it that they yielded at one - time $1,000,000 annually, though worked rudely and without - machinery, and the chief one of them once produced $200,000 - annually. _Trav. in Cent. Am._, 277. A French company - undertook to work the Tabanco and Encuentros, invested a - large capital, and sustained losses. The Loma Larga and - Divisaderos, though represented as richer, probably fared - not much better. _Dunn's Guat._, 225-6; _Baily's Cent. Am._, - 92-3; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 291-4; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, - Dec. 1, 2, 1875; Jan. 23, 1876; Jan. 28, 1879; _Id._, _Gaceta - Ofic._, Oct. 24, 1875; Jan. 30, Aug. 15, Nov. 11, 1877. - - [XXXII-37] _Squier's Coal-mines of Riv. Lempa_, 3-13. - - [XXXII-38] It is believed that the Tisingal, which gave the - country its name, lies near the Colombian frontier on the - Atlantic. _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 33. - - [XXXII-39] _Squier's Cent. Am._, 457; _Lond. Geog. Soc._, - _Jour._, vi. 128; _Thompson's Guat._, 214-15; _Dunlop's Cent. - Am._, 42; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, July 15, 1854; _Id._, _Inf. - Sec. Hac._, 1872; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 36; - _Wheelright's Isth. Pan._, 7. - - [XXXII-40] Information for the years preceding 1800 may - be gleaned from _Juarros_, _Guat._, 16-79, passim; _Id._, - _Stat. and Com. Hist. Guat._, 21-105, passim; _Montanus_, - _Die Nieuwe Weereld_, 275-7; _Arevalo_, _Compend._, 175; - _Russell's Hist. Am._, 191, 391-2; _Churchill's Coll._, viii. - 764-5; _Dunn's Guat._, 222-5; _Squier's Trav._, i. 39-40; - _Id._, _Guat._, 586-7. To the end of the Spanish rule most - of the precious metals from Hond. were smuggled out through - Belize and Mosquito, probably one third only reaching the - mint at Guat. The coinage in 1817-18, was $983,225; 1820-4, - $1,319,106. _Thompson's Guat._, 217, 520. The superintend. - of the old Guat. mint calculated the coinage in gold and - silver for the 15 years anterior to 1810 at $2,193,832, and - for the 15 years posterior at $3,810,382, adding that much - of the production had been exported in its native state - or manufactured. He estimated the actual products of the - mines in those 30 years at ten times the amount coined; - his estimate could probably bear some deduction. _De Bow's - Review_, Jan. 1855, 77-8. - - [XXXII-41] The Guat. mint has coined in the years 1879-83 - $974,957, all in silver pieces from one dollar down to 3⅛ - cents. _Guat. Mem._, _Sec. Hac._, 1880-4, in tables 6, 11, - 14, 20, 18, respectively. The coinage of the Costa Rican - mint from 1829 to 1880, both inclusive, was as follows: - gold, $2,351,808; silver, $568,648; copper, $1,682; total, - $2,922,138. _Costa R._, _Mem. Min. Hac._, 1883, table 11. - - [XXXII-42] 'Hay oro en mucha cantidad; están descubiertos - veinte rios, y treinta que tienen oro salen de una sierra - que está fasta dos leguas de esta villa.' _Carta_, _Eno 20, - 1513_, in _Navarrete_, _Col. Viages_, iii. 363. - - [XXXII-43] They were several times plundered by buccaneers. - Harris in 1684 took away 120 lbs. of gold. Dampier speaks - glowingly of them in that year; 'the richest gold mines ever - yet found in America.' _New Voy. round the World_, i. 158-9. - Another exped. in 1702 carried off 50 lbs. - - [XXXII-44] An extensive and able report by the governor, - many years after, gives much information on the whole Darien - region, especially on its mineral wealth, making particular - mention of the Cuque gold mine, and of a silver one in the - country of the Curias Indians, who allowed no whites to visit - it. _Ariza_, _Comentos de la rica y fertilísima Prov. del - Darien_, Apr. 5, 1774, MS., 2, 12, 19-21, 32-7; _Id._, in - _Anales Instruc. Púb. Colombia_, May 1883, 369, 380, 687-9, - 397-401. - - [XXXII-45] _Gisborne's Isth. Darien_, 173; _Pan._, _Boletin - Ofic._, July 4, Aug. 1, 1867. - - [XXXII-46] _Restrepo_, _Minas de Oro y Plata de Colombia_, - in _Anales Instruc. Púb. Colombia_, Mar. 1884, 230-45. Many - rivers are represented to contain abundance of gold, namely, - Marea and Balsas in Darien, Coclé, Belen, Indios, and their - tributaries. Their are mines in Las Tablas, etc. Gold has - also been taken from Indian graves. _Seemann's Narr._, i. - 242-3; _Pan._, _Crón. Ofic._, March 6, 1853; _Id._, _Gaceta - del Est._, Dec. 15, 1855; June 14, 1856; June 22, 1857; Sept. - 23, Oct. 22, 1859; May 4, 1860; _Id._, _Gac._, Sept. 6, 1873; - Feb. 20, 1876, to May 8, 1881, passim; _U. S. Govt Doc._, 54, - 169-72, vol. ix., Cong. 40, Sess. 3. - - [XXXII-47] Six hundred and four millions in gold and - auriferous silver, and 26 millions in silver. _Restrepo, - Vicente_, _Industria Minera_, in _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. - 2, 1884. - - [XXXII-48] _Bogotá_, _Gaceta Ofic._, Feb. 6, 1848; _Pan._, - _Gac. Estado_, Aug. 4, 1855; Jan. 5, 1856; May 10, 1862; - _Id._, _Gac._, Aug. 22, 1874; Feb. 27, 1875; Jan. 12, 1876; - Nov. 7, 1880; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, Dec. 7, 1867; _Id._, - _Star and Herald_, Feb. 28, 1876; _Wheelright's Isth. Pan._, - 8; _Pan. Rept on Coal Bocas del Toro_, in _Costa R. Bound_, - 3-19; _Selfridge's Explor._, 177-80; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, - H. Ex. Doc., 41, 45-53, vol. vi. Cong. 36, Sess. 2; _S. F. - Bulletin_, July 26, 1873. - - [XXXII-49] They were known, however, from the earliest times, - and the needs of the inhabitants in cotton and woollen goods, - pottery, etc., were mostly supplied at home. The decline of - cotton manufactures began in 1773, after the destruction - of old Guat. city, and was completed when permission was - given a little previous to 1799, for the importation of - foreign manufactured goods. _Diario_, _Méx._, March 29, - 1806; _Juarros_, _Guat._, i. 16-82, passim; _Saravia_, _Bosq. - Polít. Est._, 12; _Guat._, _Apuntam._, 12, 138-9. - - [XXXII-50] Exempting from taxation, establishing schools - of mechanic arts, introducing skilful mechanics, granting - subsidies, etc. _Montúfar_, _Resúmen Hist._, i. 321; _Guat._, - _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1880-4; _Batres_, _Sketch_, 53, 60. - - [XXXII-51] Guat. has been creditably represented at several - international exhibitions; she has also entered into - conventions with several foreign powers to secure patents - for inventions. _Costa R._, _Mem. Sec. Rel._, 1884, annex 8; - _El Guatemalteco_, Sept. 24, Oct. 12, Nov. 1, 1884; _Voz de - Méj._, Sept. 14, 1878; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1885, - 36-8. - - [XXXII-52] A cotton rebozo may be had for $4 or $5, and a - silk one for $12, the finest selling at from $16 to $20. - _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 209-10. - - [XXXII-53] Some machinery for refining sugar, ginning cotton, - distilling liquors, cleaning coffee, sawing lumber, and - extracting fibres have been introduced. _Nic._, _Mem. Min. - Fomento_, 1871, 3. - - [XXXII-54] Mats, baskets, palm-leaf and maguey hats, - and cordage. The hammocks of Masaya and Sutiaba are much - esteemed. Cotton fabrics are coarse but strong, and dyed - with permanent colors, and of original design. They also - make good rebozos, but the silk in some of them is imported. - Hides enter into the manufacture of several common articles. - Rum is made and sold by the govt. The miller's art is in its - infancy. _Lévy_, _Nic._, 486-91; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 373; - _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 188-90; _Nic._, _Reg. Ofic._, 328-9; - _Sandoval_, _Rev. Polít._, 58. - - [XXXII-55] Aside from some furniture, arms, etc., their - hammocks, nets, cotton goods, and pottery, are all made - in a very primitive manner. There is no skill whatever. - _Fernandez_, _Col. Doc._, iii. 366-8; _Costa R._, _Censo_, - 1864, p. xxv. Beer and rum are also made, the latter said - to be a good imitation of Jamaica; distilling rum is a govt - monopoly. _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 53; _Costa R._, - _Col. Ley._, v. 122-45; xi. 331-46. - - [XXXII-56] Subsidies granted in 1885 for silk culture and - manufacturing paper, rebozos, cotton goods, and sacks. - _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 2, 5, 12, 13, 1885; _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Sept. 9, 1885. - - [XXXII-57] An official report for 1882 gave the following - as about the extent of such industry in that year: 1,600 - rush hats and 1,600 of jipijapa, 200 M tiles, 7 M jars, 525 - M bricks. _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1882, annex L. It is - said that a factory for making carriages was opened in 1885. - _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. 5, 1886. - - [XXXIII-1] Two or three vessels at most came every year to - Acajutla from Peru with wines, olive oil, and other articles - for the table, and 200,000 or 300,000 pesos in specie for the - purchase of indigo. From Cuba came eight or ten vessels with - petty cargoes of rum, onions, etc., the average worth being - $5,000 or $6,000. They each took back, besides indigo, 30,000 - or 40,000 pesos in coin and in gold and silver bullion. - _Mex._, _Gaceta_, 1804-5, xii. 178-80; _Cancelada_, _Ruina - N. Esp._, 48-9; _Córtes_, _Col. Doc._, ii. 341; _Henderson's - British Hond._, 30-1, 35; _Guat._, _Apuntam._, 136-41; - _Nic. y Hond._, _Docs._, 11-12; _Arrillaga_, _Informe_, in - _Cedulario_, iv. 60-1; _Urrutia_, _Modelo_, 2-3; _Guat._, - _Gaz._, vii. 293-320, passim; iii. 70, 464, 504. - - [XXXIII-2] This hybrid commerce was effected through Belize - and Curaçoa; and also by foreign whalers at Realejo and - Acajutla, where they were wont to enter with the pretext of - procuring water and fresh stores, and while in port sold - English goods, receiving in return copper, wool, sugar, - cacao, etc. _Humboldt_, _Essai Polít._, ii. 467-73. - - [XXXIII-3] _Bustamante_, _Voz de la Patria_, iv. no. 18, 4-8; - _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 745-7; ii. 301; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, - H. Ex. Doc., 75, 215-16, x., Cong. 31, Sess. 1; _Squier's - Trav._, i. 44-5. - - [XXXIII-4] In 1853 the several governments entered into - contracts with the Central Am. Steam Navigation Co., an - American concern, to run a line of steamers once a month - between Iztapam in Guatemala and Panamá, touching at - Acajutla, La Libertad, La Union, Amapala, Realejo, San Juan - del Sur, and Puntarenas, for the conveyance of passengers, - merchandise, and mails at fixed rates, each government paying - a subsidy, and allowing exemptions from port dues and other - privileges. The service began early in 1854, and continued - with repeated trips in each month, first by the Panamá - Railway Company's steamers, and subsequently by those of - the U. S. Pac. Mail Steamship Company. _Costa R._, _Boletin - Ofic._, Feb. 16, 1854; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, xii. 256-7; - _Salv._, _Gac._, Jan. 20, 1854; _Id._, _El Rol_, Dec. 1, - 1854; _Cent. Am. Miscel. Doc._, 44; _Hunt's Merchants' Mag._, - xxiii. 113. - - [XXXIII-5] Guatemala: chief articles of export, cochineal, - coffee, cotton, wool, sugar, India-rubber, hides, and indigo; - also rice, mules, cacao, pork, horns, timber, sarsaparilla, - vanilla, tobacco, etc. Cochineal at one time was a great - staple, the export being nearly 68,000 centals in 1860-4, - and about 59,000 centals in 1870-4; reduced to about 2,845 - in 1879-83. The principal importations were comestibles, - wines and liquors, cotton, linen, woollen, and silk fabrics, - clothing, hats, fancy goods, furniture, arms, articles for - agric., arts, and sciences. Arms, lead, and gunpowder might - not be imported without special permission of the govt. - Some articles were exempt from duty, such as material for - ship-building, instruments for medicine, surgery, science, - schools, arts, implements of agric., machinery, and tools for - manuf., steam-engines, money, gold, silver, guano, mineral, - coal, etc. Articles of luxury paid an import duty; foreign - manufactures entered with a high duty. Small amounts should - be paid at the time of entry in cash; and larger sums, part - at the adjustment of the duties, and the rest in instalments - of from one to three months. The republic has several ports - open to foreign commerce on both oceans; namely, Santo Tomás, - Livingston, and Golfo Dulce, which is navigable only for - vessels of light draught, on the Atlantic, and San José, - San Luis, Champerico, and Ocós on the Pacific. Iztapam - or Independencia was closed in 1853, and the custom-house - removed to the roadstead of San José, which is sheltered by - a bold breakwater. Actual value of foreign trade: imports, - 1851-7, $7,672,682; 1860-4, $6,268,227; 1871-5, $12,304,289; - 1876-80, $15,054,152. The average of importations in the - five years 1880-4 was $2,700,000. The largest importations - in 1883 were from G. Britain, including Belize, $884,205; - U. S., $529,458; France, $149,687; Germany, $128,296; - Switzerland, $76,278; Spain, $65,470; China, $54,855. The - rest from Belgium, Cent. Am., Italy, Colombia, and Denmark. - The war between Guat. and Salv., and revolution in Pan., - paralyzed trade in 1885. It is noticed that notwithstanding - the greater proximity and wealth of the U. S., Guatemala's - commercial relations are greater with England. Exports: - 1851-7, $9,613,099; 1860-4, $7,386,541; 1870-4, $12,418,083; - 1879-83, $22,552,867. Coffee loomed up from none in 1860-4, - 695,671 centals in 1870-4, to 1,519,494 centals in 1879-83. - Sugar was also a prominent staple, followed by India-rubber. - The number of merchant vessels which visited Guat. ports on - the Pac. during 1883 were 7 steamers of the Pac. Mail S. Co., - which made their periodical trips; 3 stmrs. of the Kosmos - (German) line, to which special privileges were granted by - the Guat. govt, in 1882. Sailing vessels, 6 Am., 1 Eng., 6 - French, 3 German, and 1 Salvadoran. To Livingston, on the - Atlantic, came monthly 4 Am. and one Eng. steamer. Seven - vessels did coasting trade under the Eng. flag. Vessels - arrived in 1884, 171 with 173,982 tons; departed 168 with - 173,758 tons, carrying away 109,402 packages of merchandise - and products of the country. - - Honduras: exports consisted of bullion, mahogany, and other - woods, hides, sarsaparilla, tobacco, cattle, and indigo; - the imports, of cottons, silk, hardware, etc. The chief - ports are Omoa and Trujillo on the Atlantic, and Amapala - on the Pacific. Values of imports: 1856, $750,000, chiefly - from Great Britain; 1867, $750,000; 1873, $1,000,000; 1877, - $640,000; 1880, $750,000; 1882-3, $2,885,000; 1886, from - $2,000,000 to $2,500,000. The tariff was low. Exports: - 1856, $825,000; 1867, $825,000; 1872-3, $2,370,000; - 1876, $1,234,983; 1877, $595,000; 1880, $650,000; 1882-3, - $3,415,000; 1886, $2,000,000 to $2,500,000. British Hond. - or Belize: imports: 1873, $1,183,074; 1878-81, $1,923,000, - nearly two thirds from G. Britain, and the rest from the U. - S. Exports: $1,251,000, about two thirds to G. Britain, and - the rest to the U. S. The principal exports to the latter - country were woods, raw sugar, fruits, nuts, coffee, drugs - and dyes, rubber, hides, etc. - - Salvador: articles of export, indigo, coffee, sugar, tobacco, - caoutchouc, rebozos, balsam, hides, and cotton. Imports: - comestibles, wines and liquors, cotton, linen, woollen, - and silk fabrics, hardware, etc. The ports of entry were La - Union, La Libertad, and Acajutla. Imported goods pay duties - according to the tariff, which were mostly specific, but many - articles paid, besides, 20 per cent ad valorem. Products - of the other Central American states on being imported, - reciprocity existing, paid only 4 per cent ad val. Articles - intended for the development of industries and education - were exempt. The importation of arms, without special leave - of the government, alcohol and common rum, cognac, gin, - absinthe, aniseseed, coriander, sassafras, saltpetre, and - obscene images was forbidden. Products of the country were - free from export dues, except indigo, ores, gold and silver - bullion, and jewelry. Import values: 1855-61, $6,816,879; - 1864, $1,233,711; 1866-8, $5,799,912; 1871-4, $12,869,514; - 1877, $2,186,000; 1880-3, $5,750,000. Exports: the greater - part to Great Britain, the U. S. occupying the second place: - 1855-61, $8,831,990; 1864-8, $13,931,675, cotton counting - somewhat among the exports during the war in the U. S.; but - after its termination this staple ceased to figure; 1871-8, - $29,206,953; 1880-3, $8,708,000. - - Nicaragua: principal markets, U. S., Eng., France, and Cent. - Am.; chief exports, coffee, India-rubber, cattle, hides, - and gold; also cabinet and dye woods, indigo, sugar, rum, - cacao, dairy products, gums, pearl and tortoise shells, etc. - Ports San Juan del Norte, San Juan del Sur, and Realejo or - Corinto. The first named was declared a free port in 1860. - Import values: 1861-73, $3,355,600, exclusive of coin, and - not including the years 1870-2. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 21, - 1874. Lévy, a good authority, gives the imports for 1865-71 - at $6,275,324, adding that in the first two years the - balance of trade was against Nic. to the amount of $453,429; - 1873-6, $4,313,876; 1877-80, $5,117,661; 1881-4, $7,157,525; - these figures include about half a million dollars in coin. - Wholesale merchants sold at long terms, often 18 months; - most of the buyers disposed of the goods at once, with 20 - per ct loss, but for cash, and during 17 months' use of the - capital making as much as 50 per ct profit, which enabled - them to pay for the merchandise originally bought. Exports: - 1861-73, $4,153,677, without including for 1871-2. Lévy - has for 1865-71, $6,789,841; 1873-6, $5,694,009; 1877-80, - $6,303,589; 1881-4, $8,926,965. In view of the fall in the - price of coffee in late years in foreign markets, and of the - decrease in the production of rubber, there was cause to fear - that the day was not distant when the balance of trade would - be against Nic., unless with the facilities afforded by the - railroads the exportations of timber and dye-woods should be - greatly developed, as expected. The exports of cattle to the - other states of Cent. Am. have become quite considerable. - The two chief centres of internal trade were Granada and - Leon, which supplied their own departments. Chontales was - supplied from the former, Segovia from the latter, Matagalpa - from both. Rivas and Chinandega imported a portion of their - supplies, buying the rest respectively at Granada and Leon. - Rivas furnished cacao; Jinotepeque and Chinandega, sugar; - Leon, corn and salt; Masaya and other towns, edibles. - - Costa Rica imported cotton, linen, woollen, and silk fabrics, - fancy articles, comestibles, wines, liquors, and other - things, from England, France, U. S., etc., and exported - chiefly coffee, tortoise-shells, hides, rubber, vanilla, - sarsaparilla, timber, etc. Her ports for foreign trade are at - present Limon on the Atlantic, and Puntarenas on the Pacific; - the latter being, down to 1883, almost the only port of Costa - Rica; but of late the former, owing to railroad facilities, - has obtained the first rank; shipments through Puntarenas - being mainly of produce from Esparta, and other places near - it. It was a free port at one time, but ceased to be such - in Jan. 1861. In earlier years Matina and Caldera had been - open ports, and even Guanacaste was made a free port in 1848. - Port Limon was created in Oct. 1852; it has a free zone under - decrees passed in 1883. Costa Rica's import values: 1845, - $463,000, through Matina and Puntarenas; 1852-9, $7,330,398; - 1864, $1,718,000; 1871, $2,225,000; 1873-4, $6,980,000; - 1877, about $2,000,000; 1880-3, $7,220,000. Exports: 1845, - $631,700; 1852-9, $7,458,913; 1864, $1,812,682; 1868, - $2,189,118; 1871, $2,288,450; 1873-4, $8,192,517; 1877, - $5,308,000; May 1, 1879, to Apr. 30, 1881, $7,724,810; - 1882-3, $6,470,000. The exports of coffee from Puntarenas - and Limon in 1884 were 191,719 centals. Large quantities of - bananas were also exported from Limon. Vessels arrived in - 1882-3, at Limon 86, at Puntarenas 75; in 1883-4, at Limon - 77, at Puntarenas 110. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, - i. 147; _Baily's Cent. Am._, 158; _Squier's Cent. Am._, - 269-70, 310, 458-9, 471-2, 526; _Squier's Travels_, i. 83; - _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 31-3, 64-6; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. - 93; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 34-7, 51-4, 168-9, - 261-3, 436; _Am. Cyclop._, v. 290, 395; viii. 790; xiv. 610; - _Montúfar_, _Resúmen Hist._, v. 519; _Encyclop. Brit._ (Am. - ed.), vi. 398; xii. 135-6; _El Guatemalteco_, March 19, May - 19, 1884; _Wappäus_, _Mex. und Cent. Am._, 322, 359; _Jülfs_, - _Die Seehäfen_, 36; _Lévy_, _Nic._, 512, 516-17; _Batres' - Sketch Guat._, 862-6, 73; _Camp's Year-Book_, 1861, 527; - _Salv._, _Constitucional_, no. 6; _Id._, _Diario Ofic._, - June 3, 7, Oct. 21, 1875; March 4, 1876; Sept. 17, 1878, - suppl.; Jan. 11, May 3, 1879; _Id._, _Gac._, Aug. 12, 1853; - Oct. 27, 1876; Feb. 27, 1877; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Dec. 23, - 1865; Dec. 15, 1866; Aug. 22, 1868; March 12, 1870; _Id._, - _Decretos_, 1869-70, 141-4; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 8, - 1862; _Id._, _Mem. Min. Fomento_, for years 1867-71; _Id._, - _Mem. Min. Hac._, 1871-83; _Presid. Cárdenas_, _Mensaje_, - Jan. 15, 1885; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 771, 785-92; _Id._, - _Gob. Democ._, i. 2-3; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, for years - 1880-4; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, for years 1883-5; _U. S. - Gov. Docs._, _Comm. Rel._, for years 1856-77; _Id._, H. Ex. - Doc., Cong. 43, Sess. 1, vol. i. years 1873-4, 440-7; Sess. - 2, xvi. 188-95, 200; Cong. 46, Sess. 2, xxv. pt 1, 27; Cong. - 47, Sess. 1, xiv. 38; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, iv. 112-14; v. - 232-4; vi. 301-3; x. 78-9, 142-4, 148-57; xvi. 199-200; xvii. - 135-6; _Id._, _Col. Dispos. Legisl._, 1878, 113-14; _Id._, - _Mem. Sec. Hac._, 1853, 11-12; 1875, 34; 1880, annexes 15-23; - 1883, annexes 11-12; 1884, 24, 246-66, 304, 308; _Id._, - _Informe Sec. Obras Púb._, 1878, 15-17; _Id._, _Informe Sec. - Agric._, 1879, 22, and table 4; 1880, 23-4; _Id._, _Gaceta - Gob._, Jan. 26, Feb. 16, 1850; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Marina_, - 1883, 7, and two tables, annex 5; _Id._, _Regl. Franquicias_, - 1883, 1-15; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 23, 1881; Sept. 13, - 1882; Jan. 17, Feb. 1, 17, March 23, 1883; March 8, 15, Dec. - 16, 1884; March 9, Oct. 24, 1885; June 2, 1886; _La Estrella - de Pan._, Nov. 6, 1884; _Samayoa, J. M._, _Apuntam._, 1885, - 5. - - [XXXIII-6] The principal fairs were held at Chalatenango, San - Vicente, and San Miguel, in Salvador. That of San Miguel took - place in November, and lasted two weeks. There was another - fair at the same town about the beginning of Feb., to which, - as well as to the former one, large numbers of cattle were - taken from Hond. and Nic. In Guat. annual fairs were held in - several places; namely, Esquipulas, where large quantities - of merchandise were sold; it was also a cattle fair; Rabinal - in Vera Paz, for dry goods; Mazatenango, for cattle, cacao, - dry goods, etc.; San Pedro Ayampuk; Sololá, for dry goods, - fruit, and stock; Quezaltenango and Chimaltenango, for - woollen manufactures. In Jocotenango a fair was held every - Aug. In later times fairs have been authorized at several - other places, to wit, at the hippodrome, near the capital, - Salcajá, Santa Cruz del Quiché, Jalapa, Santa Rosa, and San - Pedro Pinula. _Squier's Cent. Am._, 309-530; _Guat._, _Mem. - Sec. Fomento_, 1882, 38; 1885, 39-40; _Pan. Star and Herald_, - Sept. 14, 1885. - - [XXXIII-7] The Am. Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Co. of - New York, of which Vanderbilt and White were the chief - owners, undertook to construct an interoceanic canal. - Their contract with the Nic. govt involved the privilege to - the company of exclusive steam navigation in the interior - waters, meaning Lake Nicaragua. The company concluded to - separate this privilege from the rest of the contract, and - succeeded, Aug. 1851, in obtaining from the Nic. govt the - monopoly of transit from San Juan del Norte to San Juan del - Sur. It is unnecessary to go into details as to how this - was consummated; suffice it to say, it was by fostering the - intestine war then raging. _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., - 75, 141-5, x., Cong. 31, Sess. 1; _Id._, Sen. Doc., 68, - 84-103, xiii., Cong. 34, Sess. 1; _Cent. Am. Miscel. Doc._, - 45; _Stout's Nic._, 272-91; _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 203-5; - _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 210-11; _Scherzer_, _Cent. Am._, - 245-6. - - [XXXIII-8] The first steamboat used in Nic. waters was - the _Orus_, wrecked on the Machuca rapids; the next, the - _Director_, was worked over the rapids, and plied on the lake - for several years, being the sole transport for passengers - from San Cárlos to La Vírgen. The increase of the Transit - company's business brought the _Central America_ and other - steamers. _Nic._, _Corr. Ist._, Sept. 5, 1850; _Stout's - Nic._, 65-6. - - [XXXIII-9] The particulars of this transaction appear - elsewhere. Previous to this, in 1854, there had been serious - differences between the gov. of Nic. and the company, about - the settlement of accounts, and even then the govt threatened - to cancel the charter. _Guat._, _Gaceta_, May 13, July 8, - 1853; _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 55-6; _Id._, _Mem. - Camp. Nac._, 27-30; _El Nicaragüense_, Feb. 23, 1856. - - [XXXIII-10] In 1858 the Nic. govt confiscated the company's - property, and the next year made the transit free to all - nations. However, under a subsequent arrangement between - it and the original Transit co., under the name of Cent. - American Transit Co., ratified in March 1861, the latter - agreed to reopen the route; but failing to do it within - the required time, the govt seized all the property, as - agreed in the contract. The matter was settled in diplomatic - correspond. with the U. S. govt in 1863. _Rocha_, _Cód. - Nic._, ii. 133-4, 141-2; _Nic._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, 1857-8, - 44-5; 1859, ii. 78-9; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 16, 1864. The - company renewed its operations, and continued them until - annihilated by the overland railway to S. F., in 1869. - _Lévy_, _Nic._, 434. - - [XXXIII-11] Costa R. in 1872 forbade the navigation of the - Colorado River by Hollenbeck & Co. _Nic._, _La Union_, June - 29, 1861; _Id._, _Dec. y Ac._, 1861, iv. 57-68; 1869-70, - 100-6; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 8, 1868; March 12, July 23, Aug. - 20, 1870; Dec. 7, 1872; _Id._, _Mem. Min. Guerra_, 1872, 12; - _Semanal Nic._, Dec. 5, 1872; _El Porvenir de Nic._, May 26, - June 2, 1872. Trade between Granada and San Juan del Norte - was continued in piraguas and steamers, the former measuring - from 15 to 25 tons. There were river and lake steamers. - Merchandise was first transferred at San Cárlos, and often in - the summer a second time at the Castillo. For some time the - steamboat plying in the lower part of the river passed by the - Colorado branch because of scanty water in the San Juan. - - [XXXIII-12] _Costa R._, _Informe Obras Púb._, for years - 1876-80; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, years 1883-4; _Belly_, - _Nic._, i. 321; _Lévy_, _Nic._, 412; _Nic._, _Mem. Min. - Guerra_, 1875, pp. x.-xv.; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 2, - 1881; Feb. 1, 2, 1883; _Id._, _Cronista_, Jan. 20, 1883; - _Salv._, _Gac. Ofic._, Sept. 5, 7, 1876; _Presid. Barrios_, - _Mensaje_, 1876, 39-60; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. - Democ._, 10-12; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, for years 1880-5. - - [XXXIII-13] Gold pieces of 10, 5, 2, and one dollar, the - first named having the weight of 16,120 grammes. In former - years it coined gold ounces with the weight of 25,836 - grammes, worth $16, and halves, quarters, eighths, and - sixteenths; silver peso, and its subdivisions worth 50, 25, - 10, and 5 cts. Copper one-cent pieces containing 95 parts of - copper and 5 of nickel. Silver in coins of 10 and 5 cts in - legal tender only to the sum of $100; and cents not exceeding - 100. The money coined in Costa Rica in the years 1829-82 has - been as follows: gold, $2,351,808; silver, $56,648; total, - $2,922,138. _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 41; _Costa R._, - _Gaceta_, Nov. 21, 1885; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, 1883, annex - no. 10. - - [XXXIII-14] There is a nominal money used in retail trade - called peso sencillo, worth 80 cents. The old Costa R. - doubloon passes for $14.40 only, and the subdivisions in - proportion. The new Costa R. piece of $5 is worth only $4.50. - Chilian and Colombian condors pass for $9. _Lévy_, _Nic._, - 370-1, 521. - - [XXXIII-15] It paralyzed foreign trade, became depreciated, - and caused other evils. _Montúfar_, _Res. Hist._, iii. - 277. The govt endeavored to retire this coin by a gradual - redemption every year. - - [XXXIII-16] Foreign coins pass at their true valuation. Very - little money leaves Honduras. _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, May - 20, 1853; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 272; _Wells' Hond._, 567-72. - - [XXXIII-17] In former times there was the ounce of $16 and - its subdivisions, and the silver peso with its subdivisions - down to medio real, or 6¼ cents. Most of the silver coin in - circulation was the macuquina or cut, which was a nuisance. - The government in 1873 ordered it retired, which was in the - course of time done. The system established in the law of - 1870 found favor with the people as regarded gold coin. Not - so with silver; the public clinging to the old denominations, - and refusing to accept base metals which this law had also - provided for. - - [XXXIII-18] Standard of the coin 0.900. Weight of the peso 25 - grammes. - - [XXXIII-19] Mex. eagle $20; its subdivisions in proportion. - Peruvian pieces of $20 and $10, and Colombian condors of $20 - and $10, at their face value. Chilian condors of $10, $9.50. - German gold piece of 20 marks, $4.93¾. American, French, - and English gold coins have their full value; though they - generally command a high premium. Further details may be - found in _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, ii. 578-82; _Id._, _Gob. - Dem._, i. 83, 197; _Salv._, _Diario_, Dec. 14, 1878. - - [XXXIII-20] There were in 1883 two banks, the Internacional - and Colombiano, in the city of Guatemala; both having ample - capital for a time stood high. The former, founded in 1878, - suspended in 1885. The latter, founded in 1879 by capitalists - who were mostly Colombians, has no agencies, and limits - its operations within the capital of the republic, and to - the sale of bills of exchange on foreign markets. There was - also the Banco de Occidente at Quezaltenango with a capital - of $100,000; its main object being to assist agriculture - and manufactures in the wealthy departments of Los Altos. - Its standing was somewhat shaken by its bills having been - largely counterfeited in Sept. 1882; but it managed to - weather the storm. The Banco de Nicaragua, a bank of issue, - loans, and discounts, with a capital of $600,000, has been - quite successful. It was chartered in May 1871. The Banco - Anglo-Costaricense went into operation at Managua in 1873, - with a capital of $100,000, under the management of Allan - Wallis. The Banco Internacional of Salvador began business - on the 20th of Aug., 1880, and has since been prosperous, - excepting in 1885, owing to the war with Guatemala, and a - subsequent revolution. However, the results of the first - six months were satisfactory. In 1867 the Banco Nacional de - Costa Rica went into operation at San José, with a capital of - $500,000, and power to increase it to one million dollars, - under a contract for ten years between John Thompson and - the government. Dec. 1, 1876, the government decreed the - statutes of the Banco de Emision, with a capital of $500,000 - secured with mortgages on real estate to the amount of - $1,000,000. But the stockholders failing to pay in the - capital, the government suspended the bank, which had been - operating, and ordered the books transferred to the Banco - Nacional of San José, which was to redeem all notes of that - bank in circulation. The Banco Nacional had been created by - a decree of Dec. 25, 1877, with a capital of $250,000. Its - operations were not to include the issue of notes. A charter - was granted in Jan. 1881, to establish a Banco Hipotecario - Franco-Costaricense with a capital of $500,000. The by-laws - were approved by govt in July 1881. The bank was to have a - branch in Paris. _Batres' Sketch Guat._, 24; _S. F Cronista_, - Feb. 3, 1883; Jan. 31, Apr. 25, 1885; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Aug. - 3, 1867; July 8, 1871; _Id._, _Semanal Nic._, Apr. 10, 1873; - _Pan. Star and Herald_, Aug. 3, 1867; Sept. 2, 1885; _Costa - R._, _Col. Ley._, xvii. 45-50, 51-5; xx. 4-19, 110-16, 295-7, - 304-6, 311-12; xxiv. 197-205; xxv. 245-60; Id., 1878, 104-6; - 1881, 17-26, 64-6, 143-68; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, - 1882, 37. - - [XXXIII-21] In 1809 there was a postal service between - Guatemala and David in Panamá, via Cartago in Costa Rica, by - which route correspondence was kept up with South America. - In 1811 a tri-monthly mail was established between Guat. and - Mex., Merida, the Windward Islands, and Spain. In 1829 there - was a monthly packet between New York and the Isthmus. After - that, some sort of mail service was kept up till it became - regular with the establishment of steamship lines. In 1844 - the first mail steamer touched at Chagres, and in 1845 a - line was established between Panamá and Valparaiso. In 1846 - a post-route between the two oceans was established under a - grant of the Brit. govt. At this time the U. S. contemplated - establishing a line of steamers from Pan. to Or. via Cal. - The present Pacific Mail Steamship Company was organized in - 1847 for that purpose, and on the 5th of Oct. their pioneer - steamship, the _California_, went to sea, followed at short - intervals by the _Panamá_ and _Oregon_. At the inception - of the enterprise, success was looked for only from the - agricultural resources of the Pacific coast. The discovery - of gold in Cal. secured that success. The company kept up the - service between N. Y. and Colon, and between Panamá and S. F. - via Acapulco and Manzanilla, and later sent ships to China. - _Niles' Reg._, xxxvii. 242; _Pan. Constitucional del Istmo_, - Oct. 30, 1834; _Mayer's Mex. as it Was, etc._, 369-74; - _Pan._, _El Movimiento_, Dec. 22, 1844; _Seemann's Hist. Ist. - Pan._, in _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 17, 1847; _Crosby's - Statem._, MS., 3-10. - - [XXXIII-22] Costa R. has been quite successful. The number - of pieces received at and forwarded by the main office at - San José in 1883 were 1,377,243, against 549,096, in 1880, - and 1,172,259, in 1882. In Nic. the service is a source of - considerable expense to the govt. In 1861-2, the expenses - were only $5,349. In 1881-2, $39,327; the receipts $19,476, - leaving a deficit of $19,851. This is owing to long distances - and sparse population. In Hond. the exchange of mail matter - amounted in 1880 to 937,331 pieces; the expenses of the - department, $17,102. In Guat. the aggregate amount of mail - matter was as follows: 1880, 835,906; 1881, 1,039,652; 1882, - 1,400,043; 1883, 2,111,366; 1884, 2,912,411. The receipts - in 1884, $48,342; expend. $46,017. The appropriation for - the fiscal year 1886-7 was computed at $58,812. _Costa R._, - _Mem. Sec. Gobern._, years 1883-4; _Id._, _Guerra_, 1880, - 1883; _Id._, _Hac._, 1884; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 3, 1885; - _Pan. Canal_, Jan. 13, 1883; _Id._, _Star and Herald_, July - 2, 1881; Feb. 8, 1883; Sept. 9, 1885; _Nic._, _Informe Sec. - Hac._, 1875; _Id._, _Id._, 1883; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Gobern._, - 1883; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Feb. 18, Nov. 30, 1875; - July 12, Nov. 2, 1878; March 5, 1879; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. - Fomento_, 1880-5; _Id._, _Presupuesto Gen._, 1886, 18-19; - _Encyc. Brit._, xvi. 492; _El Guatemalteco_, Feb. 2, Sept. - 24, 1884; _Batres' Sketch Guat._, 69-76. - - [XXXIII-23] _Crosby's Statem._, MS., 3-10. At the sailing - of the _Panamá_ there were 2,000 persons to embark for - S. F.; four steamships to sail for the same destination; - namely, _Sarah Sands_, _Carolina_, _Isthmus_, and _Gold - Hunter_. Early in the summer of the same year there were - 4,000 passengers waiting for vessels to take them to Cal., - in a place which could hardly afford accommodations for 100. - Hundreds of deaths occurred. _Pan. Star_, March 29, 1850; - _Sac. Placer Times_, i., Apr. 26, 1850; _Advent. of a Capt.'s - Wife_, 18; _Cal. Courier_, Sept. 14, 1850. The steamer _W. - H. Aspinwall_ then began to ply on the River Chagres, between - Chagres and Gorgona, which did away with the bongos nuisance. - _Sac. Transcript_, March 14, 1851. - - [XXXIII-24] 1850-5 were years of brisk business for the - Isthmus. Gold circulated so abundantly that few did not - handle gold coin. Provisions ruled high. Silver was so - scarce that in 1850 a five-dollar gold piece could buy only - 40 dimes. Americans said that Panamá was a better place for - business than S. F. _Maldonado_, _Anales Polít. Pan._, MS., - 7. - - [XXXIII-25] 1852-66: passengers, 517,852; gold and silver, - $849,157,076; paper money, $19,062,567; jewelry, $513,001; - 1855-66: merchandise, mail matter, baggage and coal, 614,535 - tons. Mail matter averaged 380 tons yearly. Merchandise - steadily increased from 10,658 tons in 1856, the lowest, to - 93,414 tons in 1866, the highest; and coal from 8,934 in 1856 - to 13,418 in 1866. In 1860 and 1861, the coal transportation - exceeded 16,000 tons a year. The total tonnage transported - across the road in 1856 was 20,053, which increased every - year till it reached 107,590 tons in 1866. The largest - number of passengers crossed was in 1859, 46,976, nearly - 5,000 in excess of 1858; the smallest number was in 1862, - 26,420, being 5,280 less than in 1866. The large travel of - 1859 was due to great reduction of passage money by steam - lines running in opposition. The gold transported in 1856 - was $48,047,692; in 1866, $48,234,463; at no other period - did it equal these amounts. Silver showed a gradual increase - from $9,439,648 in 1856 to $18,653,239, declining in 1866 to - $14,331,751. Paper money was transported by the U. S. govt - during the war. Jewelry varied from $192,718 to $844,490, - but gradually declined. The tariff rates established by the - company Jan. 1, 1865, were as follows: passengers, foreign, - $25 each, children of 6 to 12 years one half, under 6, one - quarter; Colombians, $10 each. Baggage exceeding 50 lb., 5 - cts per lb. Merchandise, special rates: 1st class paying 50 - cts per cubic foot; 2d to 6th 1½ cts to ¼ cent respectively - per lb. All payments in Am. gold, or its equivalent. - _Otis' Hist. Pan. R. R._, 139-45; _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, - 277-86, 389-93. In 1867, the value of the transit trade in - merchandise and treasure over the route was $92,191,980, and - 35,076 passengers. In 1872 the road conveyed 194 millions - pounds of weight, 2½ millions of feet, besides 215,000 - gallons of oil, 13,952 of wine, and 13,952 passengers. - _Jülfs_, _Die Seehäfen_, 11. 1878-9, merchandise, 314,220 - tons; 1880-4, 1,033,596 tons; the quantity in 1884 was - 287,243, not including 10,000 tons of bananas, an increase of - 71,518 over 1883. 1880-4, passengers, 1,024,128; the number - in 1884 was 515,520, an excess of 75 per cent over 1883; - the large increase being mainly due to the operations of the - interoceanic canal company, and the transportation of their - vast material. _Pan. Star and Herald_, May 2, 14, 1867; May - 17, Sept. 5, 1877; June 23, 1881; Apr. 22, 1885; _S. F. Ev'g - Bulletin_, Apr. 12, 1878; Apr. 2, 1884; _S. F. Chronicle_, - Apr. 3, 1884; _Superint. Burt's Report_, March 7, 1885; _U. - S. Govt Doc._, Comm. Rel., years 1857-77. - - [XXXIII-26] The steamship lines doing such service in 1867 - were the following: 1st. The Pacific Mail Co. of N. Y., whose - capital in 1847 was $400,000; raised in 1850 to $2,000,000; - in 1860 to $4,000,000; and in 1866 to $20,000,000; the - lowest estimate of its property being set down in 1867 - at $30,000,000. This company has passed through many - vicissitudes, as indicated by the stock market. The highest - rates attained by its shares were 248 in 1863, 325 in 1864, - 329 in 1865, 234 in 1866. Every other year they have been - under 200, the highest being in 173½ in 1867. From that time - they sank very low, even to 16¼ cents in 1876, the highest - that year being 39¼. 2d. Brit. and W. India and Pac. running - between Liverpool, W. Ind., W. coast of S. and Cent. Am., and - Colon. 3d. Brit. Royal Mail, between Southampton, W. Ind., - eastern coast of Mexico, S. and Cent. Am., and Colon. 4th. - Brit. Pan., New Zealand, and Australia. 5th. Brit. Pac. Steam - Navigation Co., between Pan. and ports of Colombia, Ecuador, - Peru, Bolivia, and Chile. 6th. Pan. R. Road Co.'s steamers - between Pan. and Acapulco, touching at all Cent. Am. ports. - This line finally was merged in the Pacific Mail Co. 7th. Am. - Cal. Or. and Mex. Co.'s line running between S. F. and Mex., - and between S. F. and Portland, Or., and Island of Vancouver. - It was afterward discontinued. 8th. French Transatlantic - Co. running between St Nazaire in France, W. Ind., Mex., and - Colon. 9th. German line. In 1871 the following arrivals of - vessels occurred: steamers, Brit., 84, with 158,579 tons; - Am., 25, with 66,813 tons; German, 36, with 42,740 tons; - French, 24, with 15,782. Sailing vessels, 56 Brit., 43 Am., - 12 German, 4 French, 8 Italian, 112 Colombian, mostly small. - Grand total of tonnage, 316,271 tons. _Otis' Hist. Pan. R. - R._, 50-6, 148-60, 169-232; _Pan. Star and Herald_, May 2, - 1867; Apr. 14, 1877; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, Comm. Rel., 1871-2, - 252, 263; _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 353-7. The author of the - last-quoted work was British vice-consul at Panamá, and - enjoyed leisure and opportunity for gathering facts from many - sources, concerning the past and present history of Panamá, - as well as on her resources, trade, etc. The arrangement of - the book, as he acknowledges, is defective, there being no - order—chronological or other—in the information he gives. The - description of the social and political condition of the city - and country, to the time of his writing, is quite accurate. - - [XXXIII-27] Between 1825 and 1830 the expense of conveying a - bale of goods overland, including duties and taxes, was $10 - or $12. - - [XXXIII-28] In 1820 it was deplorable. _Córtes_, _Diario_, - 1820, iv. 180-2; _Gordon's Hist. and Geog. Mem._, 48-9. - - [XXXIII-29] It was said that $45,000,000 of English - manufactures unlawfully crossed the Isthmus for Sp. Am. - between 1810 and 1817. _Arrillaga_, _Inf._, in _Cedulario_, - iv. no. 1, 72; _Alaman_, _Hist. Méj._, iv. 473-4. - - [XXXIII-30] Communication was kept up on the Atlantic side - with Jamaica by a Brit. man-of-war which twice a month - carried letters and specie; with Cartagena by government - vessels bimonthly; and with the same and other points by - independent traders. On the Pacific traffic was better along - the whole coast. In 1825 the spirit of enterprise was rash. - Exclusive of small coasters, there came to Chagres 1 ship, - 7 brigs from France, 21 schooners from the W. Indies, 6 - schooners from the U. S., and 3 from Cartagena. In 1828, - these numbers were reduced to about 20 all together. In the - same years the entries at Panamá were respectively 17 and 24 - vessels. In 1830 trade was in a state of stagnation. _Lloyd's - Notes Isth. Pan._, in _Roy. Geog. Soc._, i. 96-7; _Niles' - Reg._, xxxviii. 141. - - [XXXIII-31] Bocas del Toro was also made a free port. _El - Arco Iris_, July 25, 1847; _Molina_, _der Freistaat, Costa - R._, 58-9; _S. F. Californian_, ii., Sept. 29, 1847. - - [XXXIII-32] The passengers from Cal. no longer remained in - Pan., but were hurried off to Colon; thus the expenditure - formerly made by the thousands of passengers ceased. Many - business houses had to close in 1855 and 1856. Later the - influx of passengers from Europe, who stop longer at Panamá, - helped to support the hotels, etc. _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, - 263. - - [XXXIII-33] A portion of the imports was paid for in - remittances of specie, or in bills on Europe, sold from time - to time by foreign men-of-war and steamship companies. The - amount of exports may be augmented some $100,000 by produce - sold to steamship companies. Besides pearls and pearl shells, - ivory, nuts, and India-rubber figured considerably among - the exports. The recklessness with which the rubber-trees - have been cut down has reduced the production in 1886 to - an insignificant quantity. The imports from 1856 to 1863 - inclusive reached $6,386,135; the exports from 1857 to - 1863 probably $5,000,000 or $6,000,000. Data on this point - are unreliable. _U. S. Govt Doc._, Comm. Rel., 1859-61; - _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 265-7, 277-8; _Pan. Star and Herald_, - May 2, 1867. - - [XXXIII-34] Adopted in 1853. _Pan._, _Crónica Ofic._, Aug. - 20, 1853. - - [XXXIII-35] The national government of Colombia, on the 3d - of May, 1861, decreed that the notes of the National Bank, - silver coin of the fineness of 0.500, and nickel coin, should - be the only legal tender receivable at public offices of the - nation, states, and department of Panamá. The enforcement - of the decree in Panamá, where the money in circulation is - sufficient for all purposes, is deemed ruinous, as the paper - thus forced into circulation is irredeemable. There are no - manufactures nor products that merchants can send abroad - in payment of the articles of daily necessity which are - imported. _Pan. Star and Herald_, May 31, 1886. - - [XXXIII-36] _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 39-40; _Wagner_, _Costa - R._, 458-65; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 457. The exportation of - shells on a large scale upon the coasts of the mainland, - gulfs, and islands was farmed out in Oct. 1885, to a private - party for 16 years, the lessee paying for the privilege as - follows: 1st. $1,000 a year during the first six years, and - $2,000 a year for each of the other ten. 2d. $6 for every - 1,000 kilog. of pearl shells taken out in the first six - years, and $8 per 1,000 kilog. the next ten years. _Costa - R._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 7, 1885. - - [XXXIII-37] _Findlay_, _Directory_, i. 236. _J. Laferrière_, - _De Paris à Guatémala_; _Notes de Voyages au Centre Amérique_, - Paris, 1877, fol. 448 pp., 4 sheets, and wood-cuts, is - a narrative of a commercial traveller of three journeys - to and through the five republics of Cent. Am., in 1866, - 1870, and 1874-5, containing general information on their - history and resources, agriculture, and other industries, - and the character, manner, and customs of their inhabitants. - Statistical tables, and numerous cuts of important towns - and of natives are accompanied. The style is plain, clear, - and concise, and the mode of treatment shows an intelligent - observer. In an unpretentious manner the author gives much - that is valuable on those countries. - - [XXXIII-38] The information which has reached us for the - years previous to 1817 is both meagre and contradictory. - One authority has it that Spain undoubtedly received every - year till 1809 a net revenue of a little over 50,000 pesos; - another claims that a yearly allowance of 150,000 pesos came - from the treasury of New Spain. _Torrente_, _Revol. Hisp. - Am._, i. 23-5; _Mex._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, 1875, 65. In 1812 - the Sp. córtes abolished the tribute till then exacted from - the Indians. _Córtes_, _Diario_, 1811-12, xi. 376. - - [XXXIII-39] Including 157,681 pesos from excise, 3,872 pesos - from gunpowder, and 256,975 from tobacco. During those five - years the tobacco monopoly had sales amounting to 2,920,316 - pesos, the expenses being 1,325,869 pesos, leaving a clear - profit to the treasury of 1,594,447 pesos, or an average of - 318,890 pesos a year. _Dunn's Guat._, 214. - - [XXXIII-40] 'Habia desaparecido durante la esclavitud del - imperio.' _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 140. - - [XXXIII-41] The public debt amounted to $3,726,144, and - the yearly expenses were nearly $900,000, to meet which the - revenue was totally inadequate. The several states were in no - better condition, inasmuch as the revenue from stamped paper, - rum, excise, and other small sources, which had been assigned - them, was not enough for their needs. - - [XXXIII-42] A security for the payment of the interest and - of the sinking fund to extinguish the principal, the revenue - from tobacco and customs was hypothecated. Under the contract - the interest was payable quarterly together with $50,000 for - the sinking fund. It was calculated that the debt would be - extinguished in twenty years, and that the interest would - come to $482,571. _El Indicador de Guat._, Apr. 21, May 18, - 1826; _Guat._, _Mem. Min. Hac._, 1830-1. - - [XXXIII-43] A natural result of selling $100 bonds at $30, - and paying $100 the next year. The govt was shamefully - swindled by the few men who had a share in the transactions. - _Id._, 1846, 51-6. On the other hand, the funds received from - the loan were misapplied. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, - 142-7. - - [XXXIII-44] Direct imposts: Guatemala's sources of revenue - were 3 per thousand on the assessed value of real estate, - military, and road taxes. Several others existing as late as - 1882, such as a tax on sugar-cane, were suppressed. Indirect - duties on imports and exports, and port charges paid by - ships. Stamped paper, slaughtering cattle, imposts on native - flour, salt, inheritances, and endowments, and 5 per ct on - sales and transfers of real estate. Monopoly of spirituous - liquors, tobacco since 1879, gunpowder, and saltpetre. To - these are to be added a number of other means of lesser - import, but which in the aggregate yield considerably over - $100,000. - - [XXXIII-45] From the following sources, namely: direct - taxation, $176,908; indirect ditto, $1,916,987; govt - monopolies, $1,549,173; special revenue, $323,212; divers - and extraordinary receipts, $88,577; contracts and divers - negotiations, $2,569,418, being for temporary loans, etc. - The total amount of revenue from customs included in the - item of indirect taxation was $1,485,280, mostly collected - at the general custom-house in Guatemala city; to which - must be added $52,793 collected on the frontiers, $3,734 for - export duties, and $1,530 for port charges. The revenue from - imports in the four preceding years were: 1879, $1,501,729; - 1880, $2,008,237; 1881, $211,765; and 1882, $1,679,047. - The total revenue from all sources from 1852 to 1862 footed - up $8,442,835; from 1863 to 1871, $8,547,529; 1871 yielded - only $750,848; 1872-9, $19,571,233; 1880, $4,158,199; 1881, - $4,423,964; 1882, $4,131,945. The net proceeds or actual - revenue from the sale of spirituous liquors for 1878-83 was - $6,178,095; from tobacco, 1879, for licenses, $8,656; 1880, - two months, $32,232; 1881-3, $484,263. The total amount of - municipal revenue throughout the republic was $485,622 in - 1883, and $535,364 in 1884. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, 1873, - 1880-4; _Id._, _Fomento_, 1885. - - [XXXIII-46] The outlay in 1855 appears to have been $993,522, - including $317,094 applied to payment of the public debt; - 1864, $1,130,708; 1879, $4,526,263, as follows: Ordinary - expenses, $2,728,457; public works, $27,837; advance to the - railway company, $200,000; payment of warrants, reimbursement - of temporary loans, etc., $1,569,969; 1881, $7,313,889, of - which only $3,333,470 was for expenses; $163,241 was for - purchase of tobacco, powder, and saltpetre; the balance to - payment of debts; 1882, $6,503,422, of which $3,414,747 was - for the actual expenses. _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 84-5; - _Camp's Year-Book_, 1869, 1527; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, - 1880-4. - - [XXXIII-47] In order to be enabled to meet expenses, and - payments of the internal debt, the rate of duties on imports - was raised in 1873 and again in 1879. It also established - an export duty of 12½ cents per quintal on coffee. In 1879, - after consolidating the whole debt, 40 per cent of the - customs revenue was reserved for its gradual payment. - - [XXXIII-48] The interest and portion of the sinking fund - were made payable twice a year; viz., April 1st and Oct. - 1st. After several deductions, the amount actually received - in Guat. was $1,351,069. One of the deductions was of - £15,000 for retiring from the London market £20,000 five per - cent bonds of the federal loan, purchased at 75 per cent. - _Samayoa_, _Apuntam._, 1885, 29-37; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. - Ex. Doc., Cong. 48, Sess. 1, pt 1, 72; _Mex._, _Informe - Sec. Hac._, 1873, 24-5; _Pan. Canal_, Jan. 13, 1883; _Id._, - _Cronista_, Feb. 21, 1883; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, 1880-4. - - [XXXIII-49] According to the calculation of the secretary - of the treasury, it had become increased on Apr. 1, 1880, to - $3,404,967. - - [XXXIII-50] _Guat. Presupuesto Gen._, 1886, 111-14. - - [XXXIII-51] The chief sources are import duties and port - charges, export duty on woods, tax on spirituous liquors, - stamped paper, tobacco, and gunpowder monopoly, etc. Squier, - _Cent. Am._, 271, estimated the revenue in 1856 at about - $250,000; but Astaburuaga, _Cent. Am._, 71-3, sets it down at - $154,248, and deducting $37,713 for loans and other receipts - not belonging to ordinary revenue, and $24,000 for two years' - interest on the English debt, there remained $92,535 to meet - an expenditure calculated at $116,898. The assembly voted - for 1857, $134,253; 1858, $119,852; 1859, $132,912. In 1857 - and 1858 $40,000 more had to be added, owing to political - disturbances. _Wappäus_, _Mex. und Cent. Am._, 306. In 1867 - the receipts seem to have been about $200,000, exceeding the - expense some $17,000. _Camp's Year-Book_, 1869, 527. Those of - 1869 are set down at about $560,000. _Mex._, _Informe Sec. - Hac._, 1873, 88. For 1872 they were estimated at $400,000. - _Am. Cyclop._, viii. 791. According to President Soto's - message in 1883, the revenue in 1881 was $1,120,175, and in - 1882, $1,298,878. _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 23, 1883; - June 2, 1886. - - [XXXIII-52] It is understood that President Bogran, in his - efforts to diminish the expenditures, reduced in 1886 his own - and other salaries. _Id._, June 2, 1886. - - [XXXIII-53] Pres. Soto, in his message of 1883, says - that the opinion prevailed in Europe that Honduras had - been victimized; he believed that in truth and justice - the republic cannot be held responsible for the enormous - debt. Indeed, it is of a very questionable origin. It - was contracted for the alleged purpose of constructing an - interoceanic railway. There were four loans negotiated; - namely, two in London, in 1867, for the nominal amount of - £1,000,000, issued at 80 with 10 per cent interest; another - in 1868 at Paris for the nominal sum of 62,252,700 francs, - issued at 75 and 6 per cent interest, and the last in - London in 1870, for £2,500,000, issued at 80 and 10 per cent - interest. _Am. Cyclop._, viii. 791; _Pan. Star and Herald_, - March 23, 1883; _La Estrella de Pan._, Jan. 10, 1884. - - [XXXIII-54] The chief sources were customs, monopoly of - spirituous liquors, tobacco, and gunpowder, stamped paper, - etc. The receipts of 1848-56, including $175,419 for loans - in 1856, were $3,408,068, averaging $359,183 a year; for - 1866-9, $3,224,348, or $806,087 per year; for 1870-4, - $4,930,238, or $1,232,560 yearly; for 1875-8, $7,880,316, or - an average of $1,970,079. Expenditures: 1848-56, $3,251,802; - 1867-8, $1,468,850; 1873-8, $9,269,113. _Squier's Cent. - Am._, 307; _Salv._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 31, 1851; March 20, 1877; - _Id._, _Diario Ofic._, March 24, 25, 1875; March 13, 14, - 1878; _Costa R._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 14, 1855; _Nic._, - _Gaceta_, March 23, 1867; Feb. 22, 1868; _Astaburuaga_, - _Cent. Am._, 76; _Camp's Year-Book_, 1869, 527; _Pan. Star - and Herald_, Apr. 1, 1869; Aug. 29, 1874; May 10, 1875; Feb. - 26, 1884; Sept. 29, 1886; _Id._, _Cronista_, Jan. 20, 1883; - _Jülfs_, _Die Seehäfen_, 36; _Mex._, _Informe Sec. Hac._, - 1873, 88; _Salv._, _Mem. Min. Hac._, 1875-9; _Laferrière_, - _De Paris à Guatém._, 190-1. - - [XXXIII-55] The greater portion was Salvador's share of the - federal debt; which was augmented by several foreign claims - aggregating about $100,000. No interest on the federal debt - had been paid since 1848. _Squier's Cent. Am._, 308. - - [XXXIII-56] I find that the republic paid up in 24 years, - prior to 1875, $4,833,775 to cover both the federal debt and - its own—an equivalent of about a million and a quarter every - five years by a population of only 600,000 souls. _Salv._, - _Diario Ofic._, Apr. 6, Aug. 4, Oct. 28, 1875; Oct. 17, 1878; - _Id._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Feb. 15, 1878; _Am. Cyclop._, xiv. - 610; _Mex._, _Informe Sec. Hac._, 1873, 25; _Laferrière_, - _De Paris à Guatém._, 191; _Salv._, _Mem. Min. Hac._, 1875; - _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Apr. 16, 1874; _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Feb. 26, 1884. - - [XXXIII-57] The chief sources of revenue are those of - customs, slaughtering cattle, and sales of spirituous - liquors, tobacco, gunpowder, and stamped paper. The total - revenue of 1845 amounted to $74,911, a sum entirely - inadequate to meet the most necessary expenses of the - government. The import duty was 20 per cent ad valorem, to - which was added 8 per cent. The only export duty was 1 to - 3 per cent on gold, silver, and precious stones. A transit - duty of 5 per cent was levied on goods passing through - Nic. to the other states. Merchant vessels paid 50 cts per - ton. The total revenue from customs in 1846 was $51,818; - from internal taxation, $3,626; from rum, etc, $24,260. The - revenue from tobacco was pledged to the Brit. govt, in order - to ransom the port of San Juan del Norte. Other sources - were insignificant. Receipts of 1851, $122,686; 1857-60, - $1,327,637; 1861-70, $5,665,877. The tariff of imports was - modified in Dec. 1868, and increased 10 per cent in Feb. - 1870. Agricultural implements, materials for mining, and - other articles, were exempted from import duty by a law of - Nov. 2, 1869. The revenue from customs became flourishing, - and yielded in 1883 $1,275,506, due to the law of Sept. - 25, 1879, which raised the duties on several articles, and - changed the mode of collecting from ad valorem to weight. - It seems that most goods paid no more under the new system - than formerly; but much fraud was averted. Imports generally - paid 50 per cent ad val. The port of San Juan del Norte and - the Mosquito reservation have a free zone, the merchants of - San Juan paying a tax in lieu of import duties. Receipts of - 1871, $958,922; 1873-80, $8,416,879; 1881-2, $3,351,767, an - increase of $951,674 over the preceding two years. _Belly_, - _Nic._, i. 311; _Lévy_, _Nic._, 353-8; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, - March 6, 1863; March 18, Apr. 29, 1865; Jan. 20, 1866; March - 21, 1868; Jan. 2, 23, 30, Nov. 6, 1869; May 27, 1871; Jan. - 20, 1872; _Id._, _Decretos_, 1869-70, 123; _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Feb. 1, 1883. - - [XXXIII-58] Expenses of the supreme powers, $112,548; - departments of the interior, $513,069; war, $389,466; - treasury, $1,353,612; foreign relations, $762,457; sundries, - $109,787. During this term was paid $57,586 outstanding from - the preceding, the ordinary expenses of administration; for - improvements, $563,918; and extraordinary expenses caused - by disturbances. The expenditures in 1846 and 1851 were - $106,145 and $173,646, respectively, in both cases creating - deficits; in 1859-60, $652,515; 1861-70, $5,316,951; 1871-2, - $1,721,355; 1873-4, $1,995,040. Those of the following - years kept pace with the increased revenues; but large sums - were appropriated to internal improvements, education, and - other purposes conducive to the intellectual and material - advancement of the republic. _Nic._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, for - years 1846 to 1883; and the _Gacetas_ quoted in the preceding - note. - - [XXXIII-59] She had on the 15th of Sept., 1867, recognized - £45,000 as her proportion. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, March 28, 1868. - - [XXXIII-60] _Presid. Cárdenas_, _Mensaje_, Jan. 15, 1885, - in _Costa R._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Feb. 4, 1885. For further - information, see the biennial reports of the minister of the - treasury; _Lévy_, _Nic._, 358-60; _Am. Cyclop._, xii. 424; - _Pan. Star and Herald_, Feb. 1, 1883. - - [XXXIII-61] From customs, $427,395, which was less than had - been expected; liquor monopoly, $200,168; stamped paper and - stamps, $63,033; paper money issued, $310,764; the balance - from sundry sources. The receipts in specie were $1,046,967. - The law of Dec. 10, 1839, first established the sources of - revenue for the state govt as follows: Maritime and internal - duties on merchandise; purchase and coinage of bullion; sales - of public lands; monopoly in cultivation and sale of tobacco; - sale of gunpowder, stamped paper, domestic and foreign - liquors; postage, excise, confiscation of contraband goods, - and fines. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iii. 272, 570. - - [XXXIII-62] A new tariff, to go into effect Jan. 1, 1886, - was decreed, subjecting imported merchandise to specific - duties, and considerably modifying the tariff of 1877. - Gold and silver in bullion, bars, dust, or coin, as also - fence wire, lightning rods, machinery for agriculture, - material and tools for ship-building, ships, and animals - were exempted from duty. _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 12, - 13, 1885; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, xxv. 15-47. The following - figures show approximately the receipts of the government - for about forty years past, to wit: 1845, $132,000—there is - no published history of the finances of Costa R. prior to - 1845; 1847-50, $1,006,207; 1851-60, $5,956,873; 1861-70, - $8,518,636; 1871-82, $30,475,828, less amounts included, - which were merely casual receipts, $4,545,277, leaving for - actual revenue, $25,930,551. _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 45; - _Squier's Cent. Am._, 470-1; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 43; - _Encyclop. Brit._ (Am. ed.), vi. 398; _Costa R._, _Informe - Sec. Hac._, 1852-85. - - [XXXIII-63] As near as I have been able to ascertain, the - outlay of the Costa Rican treasury has been, for 1847-50, - $986,245; 1851-60, $6,637,124; 1861-70, $9,682,265; 1871-82, - $32,362,189. _Id._; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Aug. 14, 1886. - - [XXXIII-64] 'Se logró la total cancelacion de la deuda - inglesa.' _Costa R._, _Informe Min. Hac., etc._, 1848, 16. - - [XXXIII-65] The history of these loans, as furnished in - the reports of the Costa Rican treasury department, is the - following: In 1871, Costa Rica contracted with Bischoffsheim - and Goldsmidt for a loan of the nominal amount of £1,000,000, - at 72 with 6 per cent interest, and 2 per cent for a sinking - fund; however, per agreement of May 5, 1871, the rate was - reduced to 56, and only yielded £560,000. Bischoffsheim - and Goldsmidt retained £105,000, which reduced the proceeds - to £455,000, and this sum was further diminished £42,000, - leaving only £413,000, or somewhat less than 42 per cent. - A new loan was negotiated in 1872, with Knowles and Foster - of London, which appeared as for £2,400,000, but did not - exceed £2,226,500, the difference not having been taken up. - The negotiation was at 82, with interest at 7 per cent, and - 1 per cent for a sinking fund. This loan actually yielded to - Costa Rica £598,611 18_s._ 5_d._, which is explained thus: - Knowles and Foster paid over to E. Erlanger and Co. of London - in money £1,576,240 9_s._ 1_d._, the difference between this - sum and that taken up being £650,259. Erlanger and Co. were - the syndics of the loan under the 8th clause of the contract - with Knowles and Foster, and had bound themselves to take - up £800,000 of it. Under the 3d and 4th clauses, they were - empowered to repurchase bonds for account of Costa Rica, - though subject to the following conditions: 1st. That the - repurchasing should be indispensable to secure the success - of the loan; 2d. It was not to be done with the £800,000 - Erlanger and Co. were bound for; and 3d. The operations were - not to be effected but within 30 days of the issue. This - condition was violated. Erlanger and Co. claimed to have - repurchased with the money received by them bonds of both the - 6 per cent and 7 per cent loans to the value of £1,426,500. - The result of this transaction was that the loan, save the - £800,000 taken up by Erlanger and Co., was exhausted; and yet - it was said, in and out of Costa Rica, that her government - had received $17,000,000. _Encyclop. Brit._ (Am. ed.), vi. - 398. The whole yield of both loans was but £1,011,611 18_s._ - 5_d._, or $5,058,060. Besides the £105,000 retained by - Bischoffsheim and Goldsmidt, under the pretext of securing - the interest of the 6 per cent loan, the government remitted - for interest and sinking fund £135,000, which were taken - from the very funds received, and reduced them to £876,611 - 18_s._ 5_d._ Moreover, under an agreement with Erlanger and - Co., the government of Costa Rica was authorized to draw on - them for £150,000. Its drafts were allowed to go to protest, - and the amounts drawn for had to be replaced. The government - felt that it had been victimized, and in order to protect - the country's good name, after consultation with legal lights - of London, established suits at law against the parties. The - suit has cost a great deal of money; early in 1877 $373,380 - had been paid for expense. _Costa R._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, - 1874-7. Should the decisions of the British courts be against - Costa Rica, her financial situation should not be deemed very - alarming, as is made apparent. The 7 per cent loan, reduced - to Costa Rican money at 9 per cent, £2,226,500, nominal - $12,134,425. - - Bonds repurchased, £1,026,500 $5,594,425 - - Received from Erlanger and Co., and appearing among - the liabilities, £598,611 18_s._ 5_d._ 3,262,435 - - Amount not appearing among the liabilities, - £601,388 1_s._ 7_d._ 3,277,565 - ----------- - $12,134,425 - - Accepting the responsibility for the whole 7 per cent loan, - it would amount to $12,134,425, deducting $3,262,435, and - $5,594,425 for repurchased bonds, the total sum not included - in the liability in 1876 would be reduced to $3,277,565, to - which must be added $13,517, balance of the 6 per cent loan, - making $3,291,082. Advantageous offers were received from - Europe to extinguish the debt, which, if accepted, would - reduce the nominal indebtedness of $11,990,000 to $2,398,000. - This loan was negotiated for funds to build a railway. The - road has cost $12,239,296, and its three sections are valued - in 1883 at $6,600,000. _Id._, 1872-5, 1883, annexes 7 and 8. - - [XXXIII-66] _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 29, 1884; _Costa - R._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 4, 1885. Half a million dollars was - voted by congress in July 1886 to the extinction of the - internal debt. _Id._, Aug. 14, 1886. - - [XXXIII-67] From customs, $145,000; rum, $24,000; loans, - $42,500; received from Spain, $10,000; voluntary and forced - contributions, $150,000; judicial deposits, $101,000; papal - dispensation bulls, $27,000—were among the items. _Lloyd's - Notes Isth. Pan._, in _Roy. Geog. Soc._, _Jour._, i. 99. - - [XXXIII-68] Including $4,527, balance from the preceding - year; $86,820 of loans; $70,000 from customs; $15,820, duties - on tobacco. _Id._, 98. - - [XXXIII-69] The general government decreed in 1849 the - suppression of tithes; requiring of the several provinces of - the Isthmus to make up the amount which the suppressed tax - yielded the previous year. The aggregate was to be applied to - cover national expenses. _Pinart_, _Pan. Col. Doc._, MS., no. - 86, p. 14; _Pan._, _Crónica Ofic._, Oct. 23, 1849. - - [XXXIII-70] The commercial tax was not to be more than double - that assessed in 1885. The general govt on the 1st of April, - 1885, established a salt monopoly, and in the same year - decreed the reëstablishment of custom-houses at the Isthmus - ports. This decree was subsequently suspended. _La Estrella - de Pan._, May 16, 1885; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Nov. 2, 4, - Dec. 30, 1885. The budgets for the ten years from 1867 to - 1876 amounted together to $3,018,391, and the appropriations - voted for the same year were $3,335,084. The absence of - regular accounts for the period 1867-75 renders it impossible - to find out what were the actual receipts and expenditures. - The revenue from Jan. 1, 1876, to June 30, 1877, was - $339,526, and the expenses reached $356,483, though only - $274,298 were paid. The revenue collected from July 1, 1877, - to June 30, 1878, $218,095; the assembly voted for expenses - of that fiscal year $382,841, but the government seems to - have paid out only $226,278. For 1880-1 the legislature - computed the revenue at $300,628. It had the preceding year - authorized the executive to increase the commercial tax 25 - per cent. The expenditures for the year were estimated at - $316,077. _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. Jen._, 1878, 43-6, 48; 1879, 3, - 32-3; _Id._, _Leyes_, 1879-80, 8, 9, 64-78. - - [XXXIII-71] $81,375 of it bore interest at 6 per cent. - _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, 1879, 37. Dec. 19, 1879, the - legislature authorized the executive to borrow $50,000 at 12 - per cent. For further information, see _Pan._, _Gaceta_, Nov. - 17, 1870, to Sept. 1, 1881, passim. - - [XXXIV-1] See summary of geographical knowledge and discovery - from the earliest records to the year 1540. _Hist. Cent. - Am._, i. 68-154, this series. - - [XXXIV-2] They thus argued from the first: Quintus Metellus - Celer, proconsul of Rome in Gaul, was presented by the king - of Suevia with a number of red men, who had been thrown - upon his coast. So said Cornelius Nepos, and Pliny repeated - it. Now these savages, having no knowledge of ships or - navigation, could not have come from America; they were not - black, and consequently were not from Africa. There were - no people in Europe like them; so they must have come from - Asia. But how? Either from the east or from the west; they - could not have rounded the eastern hemisphere either by its - northern or southern side, for obvious reasons; therefore - they must have come from the north-west, and hence there - must be a way from Asia north-eastward to Europe, running - round the north pole. Upon this logic were staked thousands - of lives and millions of money. Dominicus Marius Niger, the - geographer, speaks of men who were driven from India through - the north sea to Germany, while on a trading expedition. - As late as 1160, some strange persons arrived on the coast - of Germany. Humboldt thought they might have been Eskimos. - Othon, in his _Storie of the Gothes_, speaks of such - arrivals, arguing that they must have drifted in through a - north-west passage. Gilbert's Discourse, in _Hakluyt_, iii. - 16-17. Again, Hakluyt finds it recorded that some 200 years - before the coming of Christ, the Romans sent a fleet against - the Grand Khan, which, crossing the strait of Gibraltar, and - steering toward the N. W., in lat 50° found a channel, in - which it sailed to the westward until it reached Asia, and - after fighting the king of Cathay, returned by the way it - went. - - [XXXIV-3] _Hist. Cal._, i. 1-109; _Hist. Northwest Coast_, - i. 1-342; _Hist. North Mexican States and Texas_, i. 1-201; - _Hist. Oregon_, i. I will add, in this connection, that - Juan de Ayola, with 200 Spaniards, in 1535 crossed from the - Paraguay River to Peru. Irola, twelve years later, ascended - the Paraguay River to 17° S., crossed the mountains to the - Guapay River, and succeeded in establishing communications - between Peru and her dependency, La Plata. _Lardner's Cabinet - Cyclop._, ii. 90. - - [XXXIV-4] They fitted out two vessels, Le Maire advancing - most of the money, and going on the voyage as supercargo, - Van Schouten as commander. They doubled the cape with - one remaining ship in Jan. 1616. The Spaniards afterward - completed the exploration, and their forts in Magellan Sound - became useless. The straits of Magellan have been, however, - used in late years as the transit of an English steamship - line. - - [XXXIV-5] Previously several attempts had been made. - Kotzebue, of the Russian navy, went in 1815 to Bering Strait, - and the next year discovered the sound bearing his name. - Golovnin made a voyage also, but accomplished nothing. The - English made a number of efforts, which, if unsuccessful - in not attaining the main object, added much to geographic - knowledge. Herewith I give the expeditions fitted out in - England, or under English auspices. In 1818 two ships, the - _Dorothea_ and _Trent_, under Buchan and Franklin, went to - the Spitzbergen waters, but could not advance far. Two other - ships, the _Isabella_ and _Alexander_, under John Ross and W. - E. Parry, were ordered to Davis Strait and verified Baffin's - exploration of Baffin Bay. Ross entered Lancaster Sound, - and reached 81° 30' W. by 74° 3' N. Parry made three other - voyages, in 1819, 1821, and 1824, in the last of which one - of his ships, the _Fury_, was wrecked in seeking a passage - through Regent Inlet. In 1827 he attempted the polar voyage - in sled-boats from Spitzbergen, reaching 82° 40' 30", the - farthest point hitherto attained. Capt. John Franklin tried - to find the passage overland from York Factory on the west - coast of Hudson Bay. He wintered at Fort Chepeweyan in 1819, - and in the _Enterprise_ in 1820. In July 1821 he navigated - the Arctic sea, east of Coppermine River, a considerable - distance, hoping from the trend of the coast to reach Hudson - Bay. Want of provisions compelled the abandonment of the - expedition, and after severe hardships, and journeying 5,500 - miles, reached Great Slave Lake in Dec. 1821. Lyon in 1824 - attained Sir Thomas Rowe's Welcome. Franklin renewed his land - survey of the Arctic coasts, 1825-7. He wintered in 1825 - on Great Bear Lake, descended the Mackenzie, and surveyed - the coast line westward to Return Reef in 70° 26' N., and - 148° 52' W. Meanwhile Richardson and Kendall of his party - made a voyage from Mackenzie to Coppermine River, doubling - several capes, and completing the survey of the coast through - 60 degrees of longitude. Beechey in 1826 in the _Blossom_ - explored the coast from Kotzebue Sound to Icy Bay. One of - his parties reached Cape Barrow. He waited for Franklin till - Oct. 1827, and returned home via Cape Horn. Ross in 1829 - tried to find a passage through Regent Inlet, but had to - abandon his ship in Victoria Harbor, near 70°. P. W. Dease - and T. Simpson in 1837-9 made important explorations between - Point Barrow and Mackenzie River; the portion on the east - side between Point Turnagain and the estuary of the Back's - Great Fish River; and also the south sides of Victoria Land - and King William Land. John Rae of the Hudson's Bay Company - surveyed a part of the Arctic coast east. In 1845 he surveyed - Regent Inlet east and west, found an isthmus between Regent - Inlet and the sea explored by Dease and Simpson. Franklin - and Crozier were despatched in May 1845 with two stout - ships, the _Erebus_ and _Terror_, well supplied for three - years. The expedition sent letters from Whalefish Island, - near Disco, and was last seen on July 26th waiting to cross - the 'middle ice' on to Lancaster Sound, 220 miles distant. - The orders were to proceed to about 74¼° N. lat. and 98° W. - long.; thence take a S. and W. course for Bering's Strait, - the passage west from Melville Island being precluded. A - number of expeditions were despatched in search of Franklin; - namely, one under John Richardson and Rae, 1847-9; ships - _Enterprise_ and _Investigator_ under Ross and Bird, 1848-9; - _Herald_ and _Plover_ under Kellet and Moore, 1848-52; _North - Star_, commanded by Saunders, 1849-50; the _Investigator_ - and _Enterprise_, in 1850, under McClure and Collinson; - whaler _Advice_, under Goodsir; a squadron commanded by - Austin, consisting of the _Resolute_ and the _Assistance_. - Capt. Ommaney with two steam tenders under lieuts Osborn - and McClintock; several ships sent by Franklin's wife; Rae - in 1851; expedition under Edward Belcher, 1852-4; ships - _Amphitrite_ and _Plover_, 1852-5; McCormick in 1852; Rae - in 1853-4; Anderson in 1855; and several others, among which - deserve mention the American expeditions under lieut De Haven - and S. P. Griffin, E. K. Kane, Hayes, Hall, and Schwatka; - most of whom made important geographical discoveries and - found relics of Franklin's party. It was ascertained beyond - a doubt that Franklin sailed up Wellington Channel to - 77°, descended by the west side of Cornwallis Island, and - wintered 1845-6 at Beechey Island. The wintering positions - of the ships were in 1846-7-8 off the north end of King - William's Island. Franklin died June 11, 1847, and the ships - were abandoned near the above spot Apr. 22, 1848, Capt. - Crozier intending to lead the 105 survivors to Great Fish - River. Only 40 men reached the vicinity of this river, and - all died, according to Eskimo accounts. On this journey - Lancaster Strait was connected with the navigable channel - along the continent, and the existence of the north-west - passage proved. _Richardson's Polar Regions_, 136-7, 146-9, - 151-202; _Lardner's Cabinet Cyclop._, iii. 176-7, 198-247; - _Tytler's Hist. View_, 133-4, 283-92; _Franklin's Narr._, i. - ii.; _Quarterly Rev._, xviii. 219; _Am. Jour._, xvi. 130-2; - _Encyclop. Brit._, xi. 347; xviii. 329-30; xix. 331-2, 335-8; - _Dictionnaire de la Conversation_, xii. 2; xiii. 608-10. - - [XXXIV-6] Sent by Capt. Pellet on Barrow Strait, and was - guided by a message left by McClure at Winter Harbor on - Melville Island. - - [XXXIV-7] Nordenskiöld, a Swedish professor and experienced - navigator, with the steamer _Vega_, commanded by Lieut - Palander, on the 19th of August, 1878, reached Cape Severo - or Tchelyusken, the most northern point of Siberia and of the - Old World in 77° 41' N., and steered a south-easterly course, - the sea free from ice and quite shallow. Aug. 27th the mouth - of the Lena River was passed, the _Vega_ parting company with - her tender, the _Lena_, and continuing her course eastward; - she almost accomplished the passage that first season; but - toward the end of Sept. the _Vega_ was frozen in off the - shore of a low plain in 67° 7' N. and 173° 20' W. near the - settlement of the Chugaches. After an imprisonment of 294 - days, the _Vega_ on the 18th of July, 1879, continued her - voyage, and on the 20th passed Bering Strait. Nordenskiöld, - without loss of life or damage to his ship, arrived at - Yokohama Sept. 2, 1879. _Encyclop. Brit._ (Am. ed.), xix. - 337. - - [XXXIV-8] For canal: I. Tehuantepec, connecting the rivers - Coatzacoalcos and Chimilapa. II. Honduras. III. River San - Juan de Nicaragua: 3. River San Cárlos, Gulf of Nicoya. - Nicaragua Lake: 4. Rivers Niño and Tempisque, Gulf of Nicoya; - 5. River Sapoa, Bay of Salinas; 6. San Juan del Sur; 7. Port - Brito. Managua Lake: 8. River Tamarindo; 9. Port Realejo; - 10. Bay of Fonseca. IV. Panamá: River Chagres: 11. Gorgona, - Panamá; 12. Trinidad, Caimito; 13. Navy Bay, Rivers Chagres, - Bonito and Bernardo; 14. Gulf of San Blas, and River Chepo. - V. Darien: 15. Bay of Caledonia, Port Escocés, Gulf of San - Miguel; 16. Rivers Arguia, Paya, and Tuyra, Gulf of San - Miguel. River Atrato: 17. River Napipi, Bay of Cupica; 18. - River Uruando, Kelley's Inlet. Overland. 1st. Coatzacoalcos, - Tehuantepec; 2d. Bay of Honduras to Bay of Fonseca; 3d. River - San Juan, Nicaragua, Managua, Bay of Fonseca; 4th. Port Limon - to Caldera, Costa Rica; 5th. Laguna de Chiriquí on Golfo - Dulce; 6th. Colon, Gorgona, and Panamá; 7th. Gorgon Bay, - Realejo; 8th. Gorgon Bay and San Juan del Sur. _Nouv. Annales - des Voy._, cliii. 9-10; _Davis' Rept_, 20. - - [XXXIV-9] A survey made in 1715 was sent to the secret - archives of Madrid, where other like documents lie hidden. In - 1774 the Spanish officers Corral and Cramer, after inspecting - the route reported that a canal of about eight leagues - might join the Chimalapa and Malpaso rivers, and establish a - communication between the two streams. The Spanish general - Orbegoso in 1821 explored this isthmus, and formed a map, - which was not published till 1839. In 1825 he showed that it - was not easy to carry a through-canal across Tehuantepec. - In 1842-3 a survey was made under the auspices of José de - Garay by C. Moro and others, to determine the practicability - of a ship canal by way of the Coatzacoalcos to the gulf of - Tehuantepec. The objections to the route were shown to be the - expense of cutting, the uncertainty of water upon the summit - level, and inadequate ports at the termini. Garay, however, - announced as practicable a canal of the same size as the - Caledonia, in Scotland, and was put in possession of lands, - etc.; but nothing came of the transaction but diplomatic - complications resulting from Garay's transfer of his grant - to a foreign company. Finally, the Mexican congress in 1851 - declared the grant forfeited. _Nouv. Annales des Voy._, ci., - iii., 8-9; _Duflot de Mofras_, _Explor. de l'Oregon_, 119; - _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 183-4, 188-9; _Córtes_, _Diario_, - 1813, xix. 392; _Robles_, _Prov. Chiapa_, 70; _Chevalier_, - _Pan._, 61-2; _Mex. Col. Dec. y Ord._, 115; _Id._, _Col. - Ley._, _Ord. y Dec._, iii. 113-14; _Bustamante_, _Med. - Pacific_, MS., ii., supplem. 15; _Mex. Mem. Sec. Rel._, 47-8; - _Rivera_, _Gobern. Mex._, ii. 116; _Id._, _Hist. Jalapa_, - ii. 362; iv. 211, 225, 236; _Dublan_ and _Lozano_, _Legisl. - Mej._, i. 738-9; _Instituto Nac. de Geog._, Bol. No. 1, - 30-43, with map and profile; _Ward's Mex._, i. 311; _Liot's - Pan., Nic. and Tehuan._, 6-12; _Ramirez_, _Mem._, 1-108; - _Garay_, _Privilegio_, 1-28; _Id._, _Survey Isth. Tehuan._, - 3-188; _Manero_, _Notic. Hist._, 51-6; _Id._, _Apunt. Hist._, - 12-13; _Mex. Mem. Sec. Guerra_, 1852, 19-22; _Id._, _Mem. - Instruc. de los derechos_, etc., in _Mexican Financier_, - no. 1, 1-39. In 1850-1 an American commission headed by Maj. - Barnard, U. S. Engineers, surveyed the route, who reported - it to possess but little 'merits as a practicable line for - the construction of a ship canal.' _Davis' Report_, 5-6. In - 1869 officers of the U. S. surveyed the route, and made a - favorable report. In 1870 Capt. R. W. Shuffeldt, of the U. S. - navy, made another survey, which confirmed the conclusions of - the former, to the effect that no extraordinary engineering - difficulties existed, as sufficient water could be had from - rivers in the Sierra Madre to supply the canal. The route - begins about 30 miles above the mouth of the Coatzacoalcos, - and after traversing a long distance, rises to a level of - about 680 ft, then descends to the lagoon on the Pacific, a - total distance of 120 miles. The distance from New Orleans - to Hongkong would be 8,245 miles less than by Cape Horn, and - 1,588 less than by way of Panamá. _Am. Cyclop._, iii. 690; - _Manero_, _Apunt. Hist._, 13-15. - - [XXXIV-10] By resolution of the Mexican congress, the - contract of the American company was declared void in Oct. - 1882, and soon after the govt made an arrangement to have - the road built on its own account. _Id._, _Artículos, Soc. - Arquit._, 7-10; _S. F. Call_, Oct. 5, 1882; _Mex._, _Diario - Ofic._, Oct. 10, 17, 18, 20, 1882. - - [XXXIV-11] _Mex._, _Diario Debates_, 10th Cong., i. 273-1930, - passim.; _Id._, _El Noticioso_, Nov. 29, 1880; _Id._, _Col. - Ley._, xxxvi. 320-4; _Id._, _Diario Ofic._, June 2, 1881; - Aug. 10, 23, 1882; _Mex'n Financier_, Dec. 13, 20, 27, 1884; - Jan. 10, 24, 1885. - - [XXXIV-12] The Mexican govt guaranteed in 1885 one and a - quarter million dollars per annum for 15 years. _Pan. Star - and Herald_, Jan. 16, 1886. - - [XXXIV-13] Gov. Pedrarias Dávila had the outlet of lakes - Nicaragua and Managua discovered. His officers Este and - Rojas favored the plan of a canal round the falls of the San - Juan, and another on the Pacific slope. The project occupied - the court and colony for many years. _Herrera_, iv., iii., - ii.; _Cent. Am._, _Extractos Sueltos_, in _Squier's MS._, - xxii. 108; _Fröbel_, _Aus. Am._, i. 144, 241. The plan not - only engaged the Spaniards but the French and English, the - latter contemplating the conquest of the country. The royal - engineer Manuel Galisteo in 1781, the system of locks being - little known then, declared the connection of the lake with - the Pacific to be impracticable. In 1791 La Bastide proposed - widening the river Sapoa between the lake and Papagayo - Gulf, and cutting a canal between that river and the gulf - of Nicoya; but the French revolution caused the matter to - be forgotten. In 1814 the Spanish córtes decreed the survey - and construction, but subsequent political events made - that decree inoperative. _Saravia_, _Bosq. Polít. Est._, - 13-17; _Viajero_, _Univ._, xxvii. 180-4; _Bastide_, _Mém. - Sur. Nouv. Passage_, 1-70; _Humboldt_, _Essai Polít._, - i. 1-17; _Bourgoane's Trav._, in _Pinkerton's Coll._, ii. - 498-9; _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 169-70; _Duflot de Mofras_, - _Explor. de l'Oregon_, i. 137; _Squier's Nic._, 658. - - [XXXIV-14] Herewith I give a synopsis of what occurred. - In 1823 a franchise was given to John Baily for a house - in London, who did nothing, and the privilege was granted - to parties in New York, who also failed to carry out the - stipulations. Numerous proposals came between 1825 and - 1829, which were successively accepted, but neither of them - had effect. In 1829 a franchise was decreed to the king - of Holland, and there was some prospect of a canal being - constructed; but the war which detached Belgium from Holland - broke out, and the king abandoned the project. President - Morazan then contemplated doing the work on Central American - account, and the survey was begun in 1837, interrupted - by Morazan's fall, but continued in 1838 for account of - Nicaragua. This same year Edward Belcher, of the Brit. navy, - suggested the possibility of an artificial communication - between Lake Managua and the bay of Fonseca. Baily's - explorations along the line from Rio Lajas to San Juan del - Sur were terminated in 1843, and their publication furnished - exact data on the canal. Meanwhile, P. Rouhand (1839), Viteri - (1840), Castellon and Jerez (1842), had unsuccessfully tried - to raise funds for the work in Europe. The king of France in - 1844 refused his coöperation. In 1846 Louis Napoleon became - warmly interested for a time. Great Britain in 1847 seized - San Juan del Norte on the north, and Tiger Island on the - south. Louis Napoleon turned his thoughts to other subjects. - Örsted studied, in 1847-8, for the Costa Rican govt, a canal - project which differed from Baily's in choosing a low line - south of San Juan del Sur along the Sapoa River into Salinas - Bay. Nicaragua in 1848 entered into a contract to build the - canal with a house in New York, which, however, surrendered - it. _Baily's Cent. Am._, 127-50; _Annales des Voy._, cliii. - 14-17; clvii. 16-17; _Nouv. Annales des Voy._, xxviii. - (1825), 370-82; xxxii. (1826), 369-74; _Squier's Trav._, - ii. 251-80, 405-20; _Id._, _Nic._, 658; _Liot's Pan. Nic. - and Tehuan._, 13-16; _Niles' Reg._, xxx. 447; xxxi. 2, 72-3; - lxiv. 130-1; lxv. 57-61; lxvii. 148; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, - Dec. 16, 1879; _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 171-3; _Lond. Geog. - Soc._, _Jour._, xiv. 127-9; xx. 172; _Scherzer_, _Cent. Am._, - 241; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 84-7, 137; _Id._, _Carte d'études_, - 35-45; _Strain's Int. Comm._, 7-8; _Garella_, _Projet_, - 182-8; _Sampson's Cent. Am._, 7-18; _Marure_, _Mem. Hist._, - 1-47; _Bülow_, _Nic._, 44-57; _U. S. Comm. Rept_, 145, p. - 230-65; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, Sen. Miscel., Cong. 30, Sess. 1, - no. 80, 69-75; _Id._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 31, Sess. 1, no. 75, - 50-326, passim. - - [XXXIV-15] This survey was considered reliable. English - engineers pronounced Brito 'unworthy of this great ship - navigation.' _Davis' Report_, 6-7. - - [XXXIV-16] S. Bayley in 1852 proposed a route from La Vírgen - to San Juan del Sur, nearly following that of the Transit - Co. without passing through the valley of the Lajas, which - Baily recommended in 1843. In 1853 E. G. Squier tried to - revive Belcher's plan of utilizing both lakes, and reaching - Fonseca Bay through the Conejo Valley and the Estero Real. - Squier's proposed Honduras railway also was to reach that - bay; and it is quite possible that he contemplated connecting - the two works. Felix Belly, for Belly, Millaud, and Company, - in a contract of May 1858 with the Nicaraguan government, - purposed carrying into execution Örsted's proposition; but - after several years' waiting without Belly or his assigns, - the International Canal Co., accomplishing anything, or - offering better prospects for the future, the government, - in 1868, declared his contract forfeited, and entered into - another with Michel Chevalier, from which better expectations - were entertained; but they were destined not to be realized. - Chevalier required, as a condition sine qua non, that the - contract should be ratified by the Costa Rican congress. This - took place a year later, and then came the war between France - and Prussia, and Nicaragua's last effort, like all former - ones, was frustrated. _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 31-50, 170-4, - 401-6; ii. 1-13, 27-36, 59-464; _Id._, _Carte d'études_, - 19-27, 49-91; _Nic. Canal de_, 1-21; _Col. Dec. y Acuerdos_, - 1863, 39-40, 118; 1869-70, 8-23; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, - 1-14, 58, 116-34, 221-30, 322-70, 394; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Jan. - 7, Apr. 8, 1865; March 20, Apr. 17, 1869; _Id._, _Informe - Sec. Rel._, 1869, 8-9; _Id._, _Id._, _Hacienda_, 1869, 3-5; - _Marcoleta_, _Min. Nic._, 1-32; _Hunt's Merch. Mag._, lv. - 31-48; lvi. 32-4. - - [XXXIV-17] _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Dec. 12, 24, 1863; Nov. 9, 1867. - - [XXXIV-18] The exploration by Com. Lull, of the U. S. navy, - established the existence of a practicable route for a - canal with Lake Nicaragua as its summit level, 107 ft above - mean tide. It was proposed to connect the lake with the - Pacific by a canal 16.3 miles in length, from the mouth of - the Medio River to Port Brito. The first 7.5 miles would - require an excavation averaging 54 ft in depth, which would - be the most costly part of the work. The plan calls for ten - locks, and one tide-lock between the lake and the sea. The - lake navigation is of 56 miles. The river San Juan would be - improved by means of four dams; namely, at the rapids of - Castillo, Balas, and Machuca, and at the mouth of the San - Cárlos River, all of which places are suitable for dams. A - short section of canal with one lock would be needed to get - around each of the upper three dams. From the fourth dam - to San Juan del Norte, an independent canal 41.4 miles long - with 7 locks must be constructed, which presents no apparent - engineering difficulty. The total length of the canal would - be 61.7 miles. No tunnelling needed. The harbor of San - Juan del Norte must be dredged, and otherwise improved, to - insure that no water but that of the canal shall run into - the harbor. Short breakwaters must be built to protect the - entrances from the surf. Lake Nicaragua with a surface of - 2,700 sq. miles, and a drainage area of 8,000 sq. miles, - will supply 38 times the maximum possible demand of water. - The depth of water would be 26 ft; the width at bottom 72 - ft, and at surface 150 ft. The locks, 21 in number, with a - lift of from 8 to 10 ft, would be 400 ft long, 72 ft wide. - The cost was estimated at about eighty million dollars. _U. - S. Gov. Doc._, _Sen. Jour._, 916, Cong. 41, Sess. 2; Id., H. - Ex. Doc., Cong. 42, Sess. 2, i. no. 1, pt. 1, 670-8; Id., - 3d Sess., i. p. 160, 462-5; _Id._, _Sec. Navy Rept_, Cong. - 43, Sess. 1, p. 10-12; _Id._, Nic. Ship Canal Route, Cong. - 43, Sess. 1; _Lévy_, _Nic._, 428-40; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Aug. - 20, 27, Oct. 22, Dec. 24, 1870; Oct. 21, 1871; Jan. 11, Feb. - 22, July 12, 1873; March 21, June 6, Nov. 28, 1874; _Id._, - _Mem. Sec. Rel._, 1871, 10-16, 29-39; 1875, xiii.-xiv.; - 1879, xxvii.-viii.; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xix. 17-34, - 180-1; _Id._, _Informe Sec. Rel._, 1872, 2-5; 1877, 2; - 1885, 4-6, 47-54; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Rel._, 1884, 6, 8, - 9; _Pan. Canal_, March 5, 1883; _Id._, _Star and Herald_, - Feb. 12, 14, 1883; _La Estrella de Pan._, Jan. 15, 1885; - _El Guatemalteco_, March 4, 1884. It has been asserted that - formidable obstacles exist to a permanent deep-water entrance - at San Juan del Norte, owing to sand and other detritus - carried into it by the San Juan River, rendering it shallow - and dangerous. _Gisborne's Isth. Darien_, 8-11. - - [XXXIV-19] The report of course gives in minute detail the - engineering features of the three divisions. The proposed - locks have a uniform length of 650 ft between gates, and at - least 65 ft of width. The canal is to have a depth of 28 or - 30 ft. It is anticipated that a ship can pass from San Juan - to Brito in 30 hours. Thirty-two vessels can pass the canal - in a day. Excellent materials for construction are at hand. - _Pan. Star and Herald_, Dec. 5, 1885, and San Francisco - newspapers. - - [XXXIV-20] This latter objection seems to be disproved by - the researches of the American engineers. But the great - difficulty still remains about the establishment and future - maintenance of a deep-water entrance to the canal at San Juan - del Norte. _Encyclop. Brit._ (Am. ed.), iv. 701. - - [XXXIV-21] This Isthmus was surveyed in 1520 by two Flemish - engineers, who reported adversely. The king for politic - reasons would not have the subject mentioned again. So it has - been said. _Duflot de Mofras_, _Explor. de l'Oregon_, i. 119. - The section was repeatedly explored. In 1534 preliminary work - for a ship canal was done, under royal order, by Gov. Gama. - The Chagres River was made navigable to where the wagon road - began. _Pan. Céd._, in _Squier's MSS._, xi. 1-6; _Andagoya_, - _Carta al Rey._, in _Id._, 8; _Garella_, _Isth. de Pan._, - 3-5; _Datos Biog._, in _Cartas de Ind._, 761. Various - schemes were broached in the 17th century, meeting with no - encouragement. In 1687 Lionel Wafer was guided by Mandinga - Indians from the gulf of San Miguel to Concepcion on the - Atlantic side. W. Paterson, from his settlement at Caledonia - Harbor, made several journeys into the interior, recommending - it to his company for interoceanic traffic. Ulloa and - Jorge Juan explored Panamá for a route in 1736. _Juan_ and - _Ulloa Voy._, i. 94; _Fitz-Roy_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc._, - _Jour._, xx. 170, 178; _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 164-5. A - road was opened on the isth. of Darien by Gov. Ariza from - Puerto Escocés to Puerto del Príncipe on the Sabana River, - which enters the Pacific. _Ariza_, _Darien_, MS., 11-12; - _De Puydt_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc._, _Jour._, xxxviii. 69; - _Cullen's Darien_, 192-204; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, 183-4; - _Scherzer_, _Cent. Am._, i. 248-9. In 1820 Capt. Illingsworth - of the Chilian corvette _La Rosa_ (a) _Andes_ had his shallop - drawn across the cordillera, and launched in the Napipi, - whence it proceeded to Quibdó or Citerá, near the mouth of - the Atrato, where it was found in 1824 by Cochrane, who in - examining Darien for a canal route found the obstacles almost - insurmountable. _Annales des Voy._, cliii. 8, 22, 36. Domingo - Lopez, a Colombian, traced a line for a canal between Panamá - and Portobello. _Arosemena_, _Apuntes Hist._, 4. In 1827, C. - Friend of the British navy made an excursion from the banks - of the Atrato to the bay of Cupica. But the first formal - exploration was made, shortly after Friend's tour, by Lloyd - of Pres. Bolívar's staff, and Capt. Falmarc, a Swede in the - Colombian service, under Bolívar's auspices. After completing - their labors in 1829, they declared that a railway, if not - a canal, was feasible between Chagres and Panamá. The notes - of the expedition were published in _Philosophical Trans._, - for 1830, and in _London Geog. Soc._, _Jour._, i. 69-101; - _Chevalier_, _Pan._, 112-13; _Bull. Societé Geog._, xiv. 88, - 53-66; _Democ. Rev._, vi. 297-8; _Nouv. Annales des Voy._, - xlviii. 380-1; _Garella_, _Isth. de Pan._, 8-9. - - [XXXIV-22] Thierry's canal project, 1835; Biddle's survey for - a canal, 1836; Morel, soon after Lloyd's survey, in 1837-8, - sought a canal route somewhat south of the line from Chagres - to Pan. in the angle between the rivers Chagres and Trinidad, - through Vino Tinto Lake. In a later survey he kept more - to the left; Watts' explorations in 1838; Barnet's survey - of Chiriquí in 1839. _Niles' Reg._, xlviii.; _Arosemena_, - _Exámen_, 8-34; _Pinart_, _Misc. Papers_, no. 1, Decrees - 113-17; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Oct. 4, 1882; _Interoc. - Canal and Monroe Doct._, 23-4; _Chevalier_, _Pan._, 117-22; - _Barnet's Surv._, in _Chiriquí Imp. Co. Coll._; _Pan._, - _Gaceta Ist._, Sept. 20, 1841; _G. B. Watts_, in _Am. Geog. - and Stat._, _Soc. Bull._, i., pt. iii. 64-80. - - [XXXIV-23] Garella's canal, beginning at Limon Bay, was to - pass under the Ahogayegua ridge by means of a tunnel 120 ft - high and 17,390 ft long, to the bay of Vaca del Monte, 12 - miles west of Panamá. The route follows the Bernardino and - Caimito valleys on the southern slope, and those of Quebrado - and Chagres on the northern. The highest elevation 459 feet - above the sea level, the mountain being tunnelled 324 feet - 9 in. below its highest point; so that the canal would at - the summit be 135 feet above the sea, and require 35 locks. - Lloyd, acting for the British government, arrived at the same - conclusions. _Garella_, _Projet d'un canal_, 11-194, 230; - _Nouv. Ann. des Voy._, cvi. 36-40; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Com. - Rept, 145, p. 70-7, 506-71, Cong. 30, Sess. 2; _Arosemena_, - _Exámen_, 5-6, 11. Hellert, in 1844-5, explored the Darien - from Rio Paya to the Atrato. W. B. Liot, of the Brit. navy, - proposed in 1845 a macadamized road, or a railroad from - Portobello to Panamá. Capt. Kellet, being informed by Indians - that the Napipi River, a tributary of the Atrato, approached - very closely to the bay of Cupica, crossed on foot in 1847 - till he reached a river which was supposed to flow into the - Atlantic. Cullen claimed to have crossed the Darien. In 1849 - he found the Sabana River, ascended it, crossed from Cañasas - to the sea-shore at Port Escocés and returned. In 1850 and - 1851 he crossed several times alone by different routes from - the Sabana to Escocés, convinced that this must be the future - route for ships. Here are the requisite secure harbors; the - highest elevation of the valleys through the ridges is not - over 150 feet, which is lower than any level as yet found; - locks and tunnel might be avoided; the canal need be only 26 - or 27 miles long, two miles through hard rock. Unfortunately, - Cullen gave no notes or measurements to prove this. Capt. - Fitz-Roy, of the British navy, published a memoir on a - communication between the Atrato, by way of its tributary - the Napipi or Naipi, and Cupica Bay. Greiff, a Swedish - engineer, confirmed his observations. In 1850-1 Chevalier - explored the Isthmus for information on interoceanic routes. - _U. S. Coast Survey_, 1868, 260-7; _Liot's Pan., etc._, p. - iii.; _Seemann's Voy._, i. 220; _Davis' Rept_, 9-14, and - several maps; _Cullen's Isth. Darien Ship Canal_, 2d ed., 19; - _Annales des Voy._, cliii. 23; _Chevalier_, in _Soc. Géog. - Bull._, ser. iv., tom. iv., no. 19, pp. 30-70. - - [XXXIV-24] The U. S. had the country surveyed in 1833-4 - between the Chagres and Panamá. _Fairbairn_, in _United - Serv. Jour._, 1832, pt ii. 207-9; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, 4 Ex. - Doc. 228, vol. iv., Cong. 25, Sess. 2; _Id._, Id. 77, vol. - iv., Cong. 28, Sess. 1; _Id._, U. S. Comm. Rep. 145, p. 3, - 265-332, Cong. 30, Sess. 2; _Pub. Treaties_, 1875, p. 558; - _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 18, 1848; _Niles' Reg._, i. 440; - _Tucker's Monroe Doc._, 43-4. - - [XXXIV-25] The parties forming the company were William H. - Aspinwall, Henry Chauncey, and John L. Stephens, all of New - York, who on the 15th of April, 1850, made a contract with - the New Granadan government, binding themselves to construct - within a given time a railway between a point on the Atlantic - and Panamá, for the transportation of travellers, cattle, - merchandise, etc., under a fixed tariff of rates. Certain - advantages were allowed New Granadan citizens. It is not - necessary to state here all the terms of the contract. It - was to be in force 49 years, and the New Granadan government - was to receive three per centum of the net profits. It - subsequently received $10,000 a year additional on the mails. - Passengers, merchandise, and everything else passing in - transitu over the railroad, were to be free of duties and - imposts. The contract was amended July 5, 1867. Under the new - arrangement the company was to own the railway for 99 years; - and pay the Colombian government one million dollars in gold, - and thereafter $250,000 a year in quarterly instalments, - Colombian mails passing over the road free of expense. Large - grants of land were made to the company, who further bound - themselves to carry the railroad to the islands of Naos, - Culebra, Perico, and Flamenco, or to some other suitable - place on the bay. The prolongation has never been carried - out. _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 299-308, 397-417; _Pan._, - _Boletin Ofic._, Nov. 15, 1867; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 31, - 1880; _Arosemena_, _Pan. Prolong. Ferrocarril_, 1-18; _Pan. - Star and Herald_, Sept. 3, Oct. 5, 1867; Sept. 12, 13, 28, - 1877; _Rouhaud_, _Régions Nouv._, 1878-9, p. 343-51; _Pan. - Mem. Sec. Jen._, 1877, 21-2. - - [XXXIV-26] The difficulties of the ground and climate, - together with scanty resources of the country and scarcity of - labor, were overcome. The road runs on the easterly bank of - the Chagres River as far as Barbacoas, where it crosses the - river over a bridge 625 ft long, 18 ft broad, and 40 ft above - the mean level. A full account of the construction may be - found in _Otis' Hist. Pan. R. R._, 1-46; _Thornton's Oregon - and Cal._, ii. 349-52; _Pim's Gateway_, 192-209, 415-28; - _Nic._, _Corr. Ist._, May 30, June 12, 1850; _De Bow's - Encyc._, pt ii. 493-4; _Fremont's Am. Trav._, 171-2, and - other authorities too numerous to name here. The construction - cost many lives of all nationalities, owing to the climate; - and was finally completed with negroes of the Isthmus, - Jamaica, the coast of Cartagena and Santa Marta. _Maldonado_, - _Asuntos Polít._, MS., 6. - - [XXXIV-27] Receipts from 1852 to Dec. 31, 1854, $1,026,162; - 1855-60, $8,748,026; 1861-6, $12,369,662. Total, $22,143,850. - Expenses to end of 1855, including share of profits paid - the New Granadan govt, $1,123,081; of 1856-66, $8,748,318. - Total, $9,871,399. Net proceeds, $12,272,451. The transit - trade has been the main business of the Isthmus. For many - years, till the Brit. steamship trade by the straits of - Magellan developed, and the overland railway between Omaha - and S. F. was completed, almost all merchandise going to or - from Europe and the eastern ports of the United States, Cuba, - etc., to California, the west coast of South America, and - Central America, was sent by way of the Isthmus, including - even copper from Bolivia and Chile. Receipts of the railroad - 1883-4, $6,306,760. Expenses in same years, $3,979,144. Net - proceeds $2,327,616; a net increase of earnings in 1884 over - 1883, of $24,032. Further information in the last preceding - chapter connected with the Isthmus transit trade. _Bidwell's - Isth. Pan._, 286; _Otis' Hist. Pan. R. R._, 59-69; _Superint. - Burt's Rept_, March 7, 1885, in _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. - 22, 1885; _La Estrella de Pan._, May 2, 1885. - - [XXXIV-28] _Pan. Star and Herald_, June 23, 1881; Sept. 18, - 1882; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 48, Sess. 1, i. - pt 1, 217-19. - - [XXXIV-29] _Davis' Rept_, 8; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Journ., - 1345, Cong. 36, Sess. 1; 541, Cong. 36, Sess. 2; _Id._, - Sen. Doc. 1, pp. 17, 36-44, iii. pt 1, Cong. 36, Sess. 2; - _Harper's Mag._, xxii. 193-209. - - [XXXIV-30] New Granada granted, in 1852, to Fox, Cullen, and - others, the privilege of opening a canal between Caledonia - Bay and the gulf of San Miguel. _Cullen's Darien Ship Canal_, - 1-146. Gisborne thought it was a mere matter of excavation - costing about sixty million dollars. After having spent - a great deal of time on the examination of the Atrato and - San Juan rivers since 1852, F. M. Kelly, of N. Y., in 1864 - explored the route from Chepo River to the gulf of San Blas, - which is only 30 miles long, but calls for a tunnel. Several - surveys followed; namely, Strain, of the U. S. navy, early - in 1854, with a party explored the Darien. After several - weeks' toil they lost themselves; five men perished, the rest - reaching Yavisa on the east coast. About the same time a New - Granadan expedition under Codazzi made a similar attempt, - but meeting with disaster, after losing several men, gave up - the enterprise. The same year English and French officers - made explorations. Cullen and Gisborne were with them, and - saw their former statements proved false. Next in order is - Kennish's examination, followed by Michler and Cravens, of - the U. S. navy, who confirmed his report in all essential - points. _Scherzer_, _Cent. Am._, 250-1; _Mex. Anales Min. - Fomento_, i. 83-8; _Strain's Inter. Comm._, 18-27. La Charme, - in 1865, by order of the merchant Gogorza, surveyed from - the south of the gulf of Darien to the gulf of San Miguel - by way of the Tuyra River. De Puydt, for the International - Colombia Co., reported having found a favorable route from - Puerto Escondido to the Tuyra, and thence to the gulf of - San Miguel. _Abert's Ship Canal_, 63-9, 72-9; _La Charme_, - in _Putnam's Mag._, iii. 329-41; _Pan._, _Gaceta_, July - 2, 1876; _Lond. Geog. Soc._, _Jour._, xxiv. 249; xxxviii. - 69-99. Bourdivl, in 1864, passed from the Pacific with 25 men - to the mouth of the Lara, and thence across the Isthmus to - Chucunaque River, reaching it just below the Sucubti. Here - the natives left him for fear of the savages, and he had - to return. Rear-adm. C. H. Davis, supt of the U. S. Naval - Observatory at Washington, issued a _Report_ on Interoceanic - Canals and Railways, for his government, in 1867, reviewing - modern explorations of the continent from Darien to Honduras - for canals and railroad routes, and giving maps thereof, and - a list of authorities thereon. His work is quite thorough to - its date. _Davis' Rept_, 15-19. The secretary of the U. S. - navy thus summarized in 1873 the report of Com. Selfridge, - who, in 1870-2, made a thorough exploration of several lines - in the narrower portion of Darien. This route includes 100 - miles of navigation of the Atrato River, which is capable - of being navigated by the largest steamers. Between the - Atrato and the Pacific, a canal must be made of 28 miles - in length, of which it would pass 22 through a plain with - a gradual rise of 90 feet. Of the other 6 three would be in - moderate cutting, the other three would be of tunnelling. The - estimated cost was between $52,000,000 and $63,000,000, and - the time for completing the work ten years. The tunnel would - be 112 ft high, 60 feet wide, and have 87 ft of clear headway - above the surface of the water. The canal would have 25 ft - in depth, 50 ft of width at the bottom, and 70 at surface. - The locks, 20 in number, were to be 427 ft long, 54 ft wide, - with a lift of 10 ft. The water supply, much in excess of - the requirement, would be derived from the Napipi River. - Two alternative schemes were also presented, increasing the - length of tunnelling, and diminishing the number of locks, - at an estimated cost of $85,000,000 to $90,000,000. He proved - De Puydt's line impracticable. Selfridge's full report, with - maps and illustrations, etc., in _U. S. Gov. Doc._, Darien - Explor., Cong. 42, Sess. 3; Brief reports by sec. of the navy - and Selfridge, in _Id._, H. Ex. Doc., i. p. 3 (sec. of navy), - vol. iii., pp. 9-10, 133-41, Cong. 41, Sess. 3; _Harper's - Mag._, xlvii. (Nov. 1873), 801-20; _Encyclop. Brit._ (Am. - ed.), iv. 700-1. In 1873 Selfridge surveyed the valley of the - Bojaya, another tributary of the Atrato, more to the north, - which was regarded as more favorable. The Am. govt despatched - two other expeditions in 1874, one of which surveyed a line - between the Atrato and the Pacific across the state of Cauca; - the other a line parallel with the Panamá railway. - - [XXXIV-31] It affords a much shorter route than that of - Darien, and the cordillera is there less than 290 ft high. - The watershed being nearer the Pacific than the Atlantic, - the streams running into the former ocean are of little - importance, whereas the Chagres on the Atlantic slope, with - its tributary, the Obispo, forms a navigable channel, which - in the rainy season attains to formidable proportions. - - [XXXIV-32] A copy of the contract and grant appears - in _Bogotá_, _Diario Ofic._, May 22, 1878; an English - translation in _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 46, - Sess. 2, i. pt i. 243. Under the contract the Colombian govt - will receive at certain periods of it from 6 to 8 per cent of - the net receipts; but its share is never to be under $250,000 - a year. - - [XXXIV-33] The U. S. govt tried to secure by treaty with - Colombia the right to establish forts, arsenals, and naval - stations on the Isthmus, though no forces were to be kept - there in time of peace. A protocol was signed in New York by - representatives of both governments in Feb. 1881, to amend - the treaty of 1846, but failed of ratification at Bogotá. - _Diario de Cundinamarca_, Apr. 28, 1881; _Pan. Star and - Herald_, May 20, 24, June 24, 25, 1881. - - [XXXIV-34] De Lesseps, Wyse, and other officials of the - canal, received the highest marks of regard from the people - of the Isthmus. _Pan. Ley._, years 1879-80, 9-11, 30; - _Id._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 1, 12, 19, 22, 1880; Jan. 27, Feb. 13, - 17, 1881. The company at once made provision for a health - service, in spacious and well-regulated hospitals, etc. - _Companyo_, _Projet d'organiz. du serv. de santé_, 1-137, and - a map. - - [XXXIV-35] The bottom throughout its length, 8½ metres below - the mean level of both oceans; width, 22 metres at bottom, - 50 metres at top; except through the Culebra ridge, where - the depth will be 9 metres, with the width of 24 metres at - bottom and 28 metres at top. It must be observed that the - levels of the two oceans are not alike at all times; at - Colon the difference in the tides never exceeds 23 inches, - whereas in Panamá it is usually 13 ft, and at times nearly - 20. This must produce a current in the canal sufficient to - impede navigation for several hours at each tide. The great - difficulties to overcome are the mountain and the river - Chagres. The company contemplated at first to tunnel the - mountain, but gave up the plan, and resolved to cut down - through the solid strata—fortunately soft and otherwise - easy—for a depth of between 300 and 400 ft over a long - distance. The next task—by far the most difficult one—is to - deal with the eccentricities of the Chagres, which discharges - at Matachin a volume of water averaging 100 cubic metres - per second, which at low water may sink to 15 or 20 cubic - metres, and at flood rise to 500 or 600. Several plans have - been contemplated, one of which was to construct an enormous - dam at Gamboa, between the Obispo and Santa Cruz hills, - 960 metres at the base, 1,960 at the top, with a width at - bottom, of 1,000 metres, and a height of 45 metres. But it - is understood that the engineers have finally concluded to - make no use of the waters of the Chagres, but to change their - course and let them run to the ocean through the desert; - this will be left to the last. Moreover, locks will be - built to control the tides. De Lesseps, confident that the - canal will be finished in 1889, says there will be no time - in the interval to construct the locks; that they can be - made later. The chief point being that shipping shall pass - through the canal. See _Bulletin du Canal Océanique_, issued - since 1879; _Engineering_, 1883-4; _Reclus_, _Explor._, in - _Tour du Monde_, for a series of views; _Sullivan's Problem - of Interoc. Communic._, Washington, 1883; _Ammen's Interoc. - Ship Canal_, Phila., 1880; _N. Y. Herald_, Feb. 6, 1882; - _Encyclop. Brit._ (Am. ed., 1885), xviii. 213. - - [XXXIV-36] It is estimated that the excavation of the canal - proper demands the removal of about 122,000,000 metres, and - up to Jan. 31, 1886, only 15,000,000 metres had been done, at - an expense of $30,000,000. - - [XXXIV-37] Charles D. Jameson, a member of the Boston - Society of Civil Engineers, thinks there is no insurmountable - obstacle. The following newspapers contain information on - the canal's affairs. _Pan. Canal_, July 12, 1881; _Id._, - _Star and Herald_, July 20, 1881; July 11, Nov. 10, 1882; and - in almost every issue till 1886 inclusive. _La Estrella de - Pan._, July 31, 1884; _S. F. Bulletin_; _Id._, _Alta Cal._; - _Id._, _Morning Call_; _Id._, _Chronicle_; and every other - published on the Pacific coast, as well as in the whole - United States; _Mex. Financier_, July 5, 1884; _Correoso's - Statement_, MS., 9-11. - - [XXXIV-38] To raise the original capital the liabilities of - the company became $150,000,000, which at 4 per cent equals - $6,000,000 annual interest. If ships crossing the canal be - charged $3 per ton, $5,780,000 will be yearly required to pay - the interest. _S. F. Call_, Nov. 9, 1886. De Lesseps reckoned - the monthly output of excavation, which in 1885 was 658,000 - metres and in 1886 1,079,000, should reach 2,000,000 metres - a month in 1887, and 3,000,000 metres a month in 1888, and - up to the completion of the work in 1889. _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Aug. 5, 7, 11, 12, 1886. - - [XXXIV-39] It is well to say in this connection that tramways - have also been built in the capital, under the auspices - of the govt. It was also planned to have another from the - department of Sacatepequez, to run from the town of Ciudad - Vieja, through Antigua Guatemala, to the town of Pastores. - - [XXXIV-40] _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, for years 1880-5; - _Id._, _Sec. Rel._, year 1884; _Id._, _El Guatemalteco_ - (official), March 4, May 10, 22, Oct. 12, 1884; July 19, - 1885; _Batres' Sketch Book_, 8-10, 43; _Pan. Star and - Herald_, Nov. 24, Dec. 16, 1882; March 8, 1884; _Id._, - _Canal_, Jan. 17, 1883. - - [XXXIV-41] _Aniñon_, _Discurso_, _Izaguirre_, _Relacion_, - _Duarte_, _Relacion_, and _Criado de Castilla_, _Descub._, - all in _Squier's MSS._, v., vii., viii., and xvii., - respectively. - - [XXXIV-42] Loans were raised in Europe for the purpose, the - particulars of which are given in connection with Honduran - finances. - - [XXXIV-43] For further information, see _Squier's Cent. Am._, - 74-9, 680, 729-30, 756-9; _Id._, _Hond._, 207-16, 225-35; - _Id._, _Hond. Interoc. Railway_, 1-102; _Reichardt_, _Nic._, - 284-6; _Wells' Hond._, 130-1; _Fitz-Roy's Rept Railway_; - _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 27, 1854; _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, - May 10, 1854; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, March 4 to Oct. 21, 1854, - passim; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, July 25, Nov. 21, 1868; March - 20, Nov. 13, 1869; Feb. 19, 1870; Feb. 11, Aug. 19, 1871; - _Id._, _El Porvenir_, Oct. 1, 1871; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. - Doc., Cong. 42, Sess. 3, i. 306; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, May - 15, 1873; _Am. Cyclop._, viii. 790; _Froebel's Cent. Am._, - 189-90; _Belly_, _Nic._, ii. 22-7; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, - 313-21; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guat._, 101-6; _Pan. Star - and Herald_, March 23, Oct. 4, 1883; March 20, 1886; _Id._, - _Canal_, March 28, 1883; _Mex. Financier_, Dec. 8, 1883. - - [XXXIV-44] _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Hac._, 1883, pp. vii.-viii.; - _Presid. Cardenas_, _Mensaje_, Jan. 15, 1885, in _Costa R._, - _Gaceta Ofic._, Feb. 4, 1885. - - [XXXIV-45] The termination of the Atlantic and other - lines depends on the arrangement of the republic's foreign - indebtedness. The cost of the three sections was $12,239,296; - and in 1883 they were valued at $6,600,000. _Costa R._, _Mem. - Sec. Hacienda_, 1883, Table no. 10; Annexes 8 and 9; 1884, - 152-3, 287; _Id._, _Id._, _Fomento_, 1883, 1-4; 1884, 29-30; - _Pan. Star and Herald_, Dec. 8, 1883; July 23, Oct. 24, 1885; - _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, May 16, Aug. 12, Sept. 1-27, 1885. - - [XXXIV-46] For particulars, see _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. - Gobern._, years 1873-4; _Id._, _Id._, _Obras Púb._, 1879-80; - _Id._, _Id._, _Hac._, 1880, 1883; _Id._, _Id._, _Fomento_, - 1883; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, 1880, 85-9; 1881, 55-9; _Nic._, - _Semanal Nic._, Jan. 15, 1884; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Aug. - 18, Sept. 12, 1878; _Id._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Aug. 12, 1876; - Jan. 9, Feb. 22, June 29, 30, 1877; Apr. 19 to Nov. 13, - 1879, passim; _Nic._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, 1883; _Id._, _Id._, - _Gobern._, 1883; _Id._, _Id._, _Interior_, 1883; _Guat._, - _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, ii. 81; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. - Fomento_, years 1880-5; _Id._, _Presupuesto Gen._, 19-29. - - [XXXIV-47] _Eardley-Wilmot's Our Journal_, 69; _Colombia_, - _Diario Ofic._, Feb. 26, Sept. 10, 1874; _Pan._, _Gaceta_, - Jan. 11, Aug. 12, 1880. The connection at La Libertad was - established on the 1st of Oct., 1882. _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. - Ex. Doc., For. Rel., Cong. 47, Sess. 2, i. 51-4. - - Scattered through this third volume have been given - bibliographical notices of about twenty of the chief works - consulted in its preparation. I have now to add a few - others deserving of special mention. _The Gospel in Central - America_ was written by Frederick Crowe, an Englishman, - and a Baptist preacher, who resided some time in Central - America in the interest of his church. The book—a 12mo of - 588 pages, published in London, 1850—contains, as its title - implies, a sketch of the country, including British Honduras, - physical and geographical, historical and political, - moral and religious. The author did his task as well as - circumstances permitted, in view of the fact that at his - violent deportation much of the material he had gathered was - left behind and never recovered. At all events, it afforded - much which till then was little known of that country. The - statements contained therein not original are credited to - the sources from which they were taken; for events after the - declaration of independence the author relied on the book of - travels by Robert C. Dunlop, from which I have also culled - some important facts. _Centro-Amerika_, and _Nicaragua_, - both written in German by the traveller C. F. Reichardt, - and published in Braunschweig, in 8vo form, respectively - in 1851 and 1854; the former being of 256, and the latter - of 296 pages, one and the other provided with maps. The - two works contain valuable data, entitled to credit. _Aus - Amerika_, by Julius Fröbel, issued in 1855 at Leipzig, and - _Geographie und Statestif von Mexico und Centralamerika_, - by J. G. Wappäus, published at Leipzig in 1863, have also - afforded much useful knowledge. In writing this chapter on - interoceanic communication, I am indebted to the _Cabinet - Cyclopædia_, directed by Dionysius Lardner, and to John - Richardson's _Polar Regions_, the first-named giving in its - first three volumes all that was known to 1830-1, on the - geography of the ancients and middle ages, and on modern - voyages and discoveries. The latter narrates the voyages - made to discover the north-west passage, furnishing likewise - a view of the physical geography and ethnology of the polar - regions north and south; the whole subject, though treated - in a summary way, brings it out quite comprehensively. The - _Report on Interoceanic Canals and Railroads_, between the - Atlantic and Pacific oceans—an 8vo of 37 pages with numerous - maps printed in Washington, 1867—by Charles H. Davis, - superintendent of the U. S. Naval Observatory, contains all - that was known on the subject to the time of its publication. - The _Encyclopædia Britannica_—American edition, issued, - 1875-86, at Philadelphia—has also afforded valuable data - on the voyages in the polar seas, and on explorations and - surveys connected with canal matters. None of those works, - however, nor the numerous others consulted, have furnished - the required information from the beginning of the 19th - century to the present time; and those of later years do not - usually, to any extent, go back to early ones, or if they do, - it is only to give some meagre information. - - But my researches have not been confined to books. Aside - from the important facts obtained directly from the lips - of intelligent natives and other persons conversant with - Central American and Panamanian affairs, I have had before - me presidential messages, reports of ministers and other - officials of the several states, U. S. govt reports, official - journals, statements of explorers and surveyors, cyclopædias, - magazines, reviews, and a host of newspapers of different - countries and in various languages, among which special - credit should be given to the _Star and Herald_ of Panamá for - an ever well-informed and reliable gatherer and transmitter - of news to and from the countries on both oceans over this - bridge of the nations. Important data, wheresoever found, - have been brought into requisition. - - [XXXIV-48] 'Mr. Hopkins,' says Capt Fitzroy, p. 23, 'was - lately prevented by the Indians from ascending the Chepo - River toward Mandinga or San Blas Bay; Mr Wheelwright was - also stopped there in 1837; and Dr Cullen was likewise - stopped by the aborigines while endeavoring to ascend the - Paya River, that runs from near the mouths of the Atrato to - the Tuyra, which falls into the gulf of San Miguel.' - - I learned in Darien that Mr Hopkins and Don Pepe Hurtado, a - Granadian engineer, made a present of a scarlet military coat - to an Indian on the Chepo, and that as soon as the Indian - chief of the district learned it, he flogged the Indian who - accepted the present, and summoned his people to arms, and - Mr H. and Don Pepe had to fly for their lives. Most probably - the chief looked upon the acceptance of gaudy trappings as an - acknowledgment of submission to foreigners. I have mentioned - elsewhere my having learned subsequently that the reason - of the Indians having stopped me was the fear of small-pox - being introduced amongst them rather than any dislike to - foreigners. - - [XXXIV-49] This I attribute to the jealousy of the Spaniards, - who were careful to withhold any information that might lead - the English to the discovery of an easy communication between - the two seas. Alcedo, in his _Diccionario Histórico de las - Indias Occidentales_, says that it was interdicted, _on pain - of death, even to propose_ opening the navigation between - the two seas. 'En tiempo de Felipe II. se proyectó cortarlo, - y comunicar los dos mares por medio de un canal, y á este - efecto se enviaron para reconocerlo dos Ingenieros Flamencos, - pero encontraron dificultades insuperables, y el consejo de - Indias representò los perjuicios que de ello se seguirían á - la monarquia, por cuya razon mandò aquel Monarca que nadie - propusièse ó tratase de ello en adelante, _pena de la vida_.' - The navigation of the Atrato also was interdicted, on pain of - death. - - [XXXIV-50] In its upper course, as it is navigable for large - vessels nearly to Príncipe. - - [XXXIV-51] 'It is ascertained,' says Captain Fitzroy, 'that - there is only a trifling difference between the levels of the - ocean at this Isthmus. A rise of tide not exceeding two feet - is found on the Atlantic side, while in Panama Bay the tide - rises more than eighteen feet; the mean level of the Pacific - in this particular place being two or three feet above that - of the Atlantic. It is high water at the same hour in each - ocean.' - - Colonel Lloyd says that the Pacific at high water is thirteen - feet higher than the Atlantic, while the Atlantic is highest - at low water by six feet. Baron Humboldt said, in 1809: - 'The difference of level between the Caribbean Sea and the - Pacific Ocean does not, probably, exceed nine feet; and at - different hours in the day, sometimes one sea, sometimes - the other, is the more elevated.' But this difference would - be no hindrance, but, on the contrary, a most important - advantage in a ship-canal, since it would create a current - from the Atlantic to the Pacific during the ebb, and one from - the Pacific to the Atlantic during the flood-tide of the - Pacific, and these alternate currents would enable each of - the fleets to pass through at different times, those bound - from the Atlantic to the Pacific during the ebb-tide of the - latter, and those from the Pacific to the Atlantic during the - flood-tide of the former. This arrangement in the periods of - transit would afford many advantages, such as obviating the - meeting of the vessels, and the necessity of their passing - one another, and preventing their accumulation or crowding - together in the canal, as each fleet could be carried right - through in one tide, if not by the current alone, at least - with the aid of tug steamers. The alternation of the currents - would have the further beneficial effect of washing out the - bed of the canal, and keeping it free from the deposition of - sand or mud, so that dredging would never become necessary; - and would also render the degree of width necessary for the - canal less; though I do not reckon this to be a point of - moment, as the wider and deeper it is cut the better, and - the work once finished will last to the end of the world, - since the natural effect of the alternate currents will be a - gradual process of deepening and widening, which will convert - the canal into a strait. - - [XXXIV-52] And subsequent months, in a controversy with Evan - Hopkins, Esq., C. E. & M. E. - - [XXXIV-53] _Narrative of an Official Visit to Guatemala_, by - G. A. Thompson. London, 1829, p. 512. - - [XXXIV-54] March 13, 1788. - - [XXXIV-55] Masthead angles were taken in Córdova's voyage, - 1785-6. - - [XXXIV-56] Four hundred. - - [XXXIV-57] Five leagues from the shore. _Sp. MS._ - - [XXXIV-58] The arms of Santa Maria de la Antigua were a - _golden castle_ between a jaguar and a puma. - - [XXXIV-59] Squier's Nicaragua, vol. i. p. 195. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft, -Volume 8, by Hubert Howe Bancroft - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WORKS OF HUBERT HOWE BANCROFT, VOL 8 *** - -***** This file should be named 62657-0.txt or 62657-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/6/5/62657/ - -Produced by Melissa McDaniel and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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