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diff --git a/old/62444-h.zip b/old/62444-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9d73cf1..0000000 --- a/old/62444-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/62444-h/62444-h.htm b/old/62444-h/62444-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 989f281..0000000 --- a/old/62444-h/62444-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1072 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" - "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> - <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> - <title> - The Preservation of the Exterior of Wooden Buildings, by Allerton S. Cushman, a Project Gutenberg eBook. - </title> - <style type="text/css"> - -body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} - -p {margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1.5em;} - -hr {width: 33%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;} - -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-top: 2em;} -hr.tb {width: 45%;} -hr.r10 {width: 10%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;} - -.pagenum {position: absolute; right: 3.5%; font-style: normal; /* prevent italics, etc. */ - font-size: small; text-align: right; color: #808080;} /* page numbers */ -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} -.center {text-align: center; margin:0; text-indent: 0;} -.smaller {font-size: 0.5em;} -h1, h2 .caption3 {font-weight: bold; text-align: center; text-indent:0;} -h1 {font-size:2.00em; margin-top: 1.5em;} -h2 {font-size:1.50em; margin-top: 1.0em;} -.caption3 {font-size:1.25em; margin-top: 0.5em;} -.caption3nb {font-size:1.25em; margin-top: 0.5em; text-align: center; text-indent:0; margin-top: 1.0em;} -.pmt4 {margin-top: 4em;} -.pmt2 {margin-top: 2em;} -.pmb4 {margin-bottom: 4em;} - -/* Images */ - -.fig_center {margin: auto; text-align: center;} - -.fig_caption {margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 2em; - text-indent: -2em; text-align: center;} - -.hanging {margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; text-align: justify; font-size: 0.75em;} -.hanging2 {margin-left: 2em; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0; font-size: 0.75em;} - -/* Footnotes */ -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} -.fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} - - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Preservation of the Exterior of Wooden -Buildings, by Allerton S. Cushman and Henry A. Gardner - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Preservation of the Exterior of Wooden Buildings - -Author: Allerton S. Cushman - Henry A. Gardner - -Release Date: June 21, 2020 [EBook #62444] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRESERVATION EXTERIOR WOODEN BUILDINGS *** - - - - -Produced by Charlene Taylor, Tom Cosmas and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - -</pre> - - - - - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 299px;"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="299" height="474" alt="The Preservation of the Exterior of Wooden Buildings, by Allerton S. Cushman" /> -</div> - - - -<p class="caption3 pmt4">THE INSTITUTE OF INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH</p> - -<div style="width: 500px; margin: 0 auto;"> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap">Allerton S. Cushman</span>, A. M., Ph. D., <i>Director, In Charge -Division Metallurgical Problems</i>.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap">Henry A. Gardner</span>, <i>Assistant Director, In Charge Division of -Paint Technology</i>.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap">N. Monroe Hopkins</span>, Ph. D., <i>In Charge Division of Electrical -Engineering and Electrochemistry</i>.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap">Chas. A. Crampton</span>, M. D., Ph. G., <i>In Charge Division of -Food and Drug Products</i>.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap">G. W. Coggeshall</span>, Ph. D., <i>In Charge Division of Mill -Problems</i>.</p> - -<p class="hanging pmb4"><span class="smcap">Chas. Baskerville</span>, Ph. D., F. C. S., <i>In Charge Technology -of the Rarer Elements</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="center">Copyright, 1911, The Institute of Industrial Research</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">« 1 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<p class="caption3">THE INSTITUTE OF INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH</p> - -<hr class="r10" /> - -<h1>THE PRESERVATION<br /> - -<span class="smaller">OF THE</span><br /> - -EXTERIOR OF WOODEN BUILDINGS</h1> - -<p class="center">BY</p> - -<h2>ALLERTON S. CUSHMAN, <span class="smcap">Director</span><br /> -<span class="smaller">THE INSTITUTE OF INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH</span></h2> - -<p class="center">AND</p> - -<h2>HENRY A. GARDNER, <span class="smcap">Asst. Director</span><br /> -<span class="smaller">IN CHARGE DIVISION OF PAINT TECHNOLOGY,<br /> -THE INSTITUTE OF INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH</span></h2> - - -<div style="width: 155px; margin: 2em auto;"> -<img src="images/logo.png" width="155" height="152" alt="Logo" /> -</div> - - -<p class="caption3nb">WASHINGTON -1911</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">« 2 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="center"> -WASHINGTON, D. C.<br /> -PRESS OF JUDD & DETWEILER, INC.<br /> -1911<br /> -</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">« 3 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE">PREFACE.</a></h2> - -<hr class="r10" /> - - -<p>For a number of years the writers have been making a -study of industrial problems and have been publishing the -information which they have acquired, regarding the value -of various structural materials, for the benefit of consumers -as well as producers. The Institute of Industrial Research -has received so many requests recently for information in -regard to just what paints should be selected for the protection -and decoration of houses and other buildings that it -has seemed best to sum up the subject in the form of a special -pamphlet or bulletin. It is only after years of investigation -work carried on by the authors, both separately and -in co-operation, that any review of the work has seemed -possible, for only recently have the results of tests carried -on in a number of different localities seemed to justify a definite -opinion in regard to the best selection of exterior paints. -No attack on any one paint material is here included, but the -value of each has been carefully weighed, and the attempt -is made to discuss them in the light of experience and knowledge. -It is the authors' intention in this bulletin to put into -the hands of architects and paint users who may not be thoroughly -familiar with the technical properties of paint materials, -information which will enable them to make a proper -and intelligent selection of paints for the preservation and -decoration of the exterior of wooden buildings.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">« 4 »</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>The Preservation of the Exterior of Wooden Buildings</h2> - -<hr class="r10" /> - - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Lumber and its Relation to Paints</i>: The proper choice -and treatment of lumber is one of the most important problems -which the builder as well as the painter has to face. -When about to build a dwelling, barn, or other structure -made principally of wood, the question is sure to arise in -regard to what variety to select so as to get the maximum -service and money value. The locality in which the structure -is to be built must often have a bearing upon this question. -While it is true that the painting of each type of wood -demands the special consideration of the painter, it is also -true that the study of paints for wood protection points -toward the production of a paint that will give satisfactory -results under all conditions and on all grades. It is the -writers' opinion that a paint may be made that will be perfectly -well suited for the preservation of every species of -wood, provided the paint is properly treated in the hands of -the skillful and intelligent painter, who can produce lasting -results on almost every type by varying the proportion of -thinners and oil in the various coats. The painter who uses -the same paint on soft pine, and again on hard pine, without -making a special study of how to reduce the priming coat -for the hard pine, will be likely to get inferior results on the -latter. In case of failure, the natural impulse is often to -place the blame upon the paint, whereas the real responsibility -may rest upon the painter's lack of knowledge.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—For a more detailed account of the lumber question, see "Modern -Lumber as a Problem for the Painter," read by John Dewar, at the Convention -of Master House Painters' and Decorators' Association of Pennsylvania, -January, 1911, Pittsburg, Pa.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<h2> -Photographs Showing Different Forms of<br /> -Decay Exhibited by Improperly<br /> -Made Paints<br /> -</h2> - -<hr class="chap" /> - - - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 391px;"> -<img src="images/blistering.png" width="391" height="594" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Blistering</span></div> -</div> - -<hr class="r10" /> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 390px;"> -<img src="images/chalking.png" width="390" height="610" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Chalking</span></div> -</div> - -<hr class="r10" /> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 389px;"> -<img src="images/checking.png" width="389" height="610" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Checking</span></div> -</div> - -<hr class="r10" /> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 389px;"> -<img src="images/cracking.png" width="389" height="606" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Cracking</span></div> -</div> - -<hr class="r10" /> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 383px;"> -<img src="images/scaling.png" width="383" height="599" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Scaling</span></div> -</div> - -<hr class="r10" /> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 392px;"> -<img src="images/gendisint.png" width="392" height="591" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">General Disintegration</span></div> -</div> - -<hr class="r10" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">« 5 »</a></span></p> - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Signs of Paint Failure</i>: Those who are responsible for -the care and maintenance of property are familiar with the -condition of surface presented by almost all wooden buildings -or structures which have been improperly painted with -inferior paints. "Chalking" or "flouring" are terms used -to describe the condition of a paint surface which has deteriorated -within the paint film. The formation of minute -fissures, generally spoken of as "checking," as well as the -effects best described as cracking, scaling, peeling, and blistering, -are other signs of failure which cause paint coatings -to present an unsightly appearance, and which point inevitably -either to the use of improperly made paints or to -improper application. The cause of these conditions is -not difficult to understand when even a brief study of the -character of the materials entering into the composition of -a paint has been made. It is, however, a fortunate circumstance -that the proper admixture of different types of pigments -enables us to correct the strong tendency exhibited by -special pigments to rapidly deteriorate in an oil film. This -point will be more fully discussed in a later paragraph.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Requisites of a Good Paint</i>: Progressive manufacturers -are aiming to produce a paint which will show, under the -widest range of conditions, good hiding power, adhesiveness, -freedom from internal strains, permanency of color, -relatively high imperviousness to moisture, sufficient elasticity -to prevent scaling or cracking when subjected to expansion -or contraction, and freedom from the chemical -action which results in deep checking or excessive chalking. -Such a product as this cannot be attained, in the writers' -opinion, by the use of any one pigment in linseed oil. In -order to meet all the demands as stated above, there should -be in an economical and durable paint a proper percentage -of the various pigments which, united, will tend to correct -each other's faults, and thus produce a durable paint coating -of maximum efficiency.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">« 6 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>The Composition of Paints</i>: As is well known, a paint is -a mixture of one or more pigments and a vehicle which acts -the part of the spreading and binding medium. Up to the -present time the vehicle portion of paints has generally been -made of linseed oil, admixed with some volatile thinner, -such as turpentine. The subject of oils and paint vehicles -will be discussed more fully later on.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Physical Properties of Pigments</i>: The pigment portion -of a paint for use on barns and farm buildings may, if desired, -be composed of properly selected iron oxides or other -colored pigments, even containing in some cases a moderately -high percentage of silica, clay, or other inert materials, and -give perfectly satisfactory results. For the preservation and -decoration of dwellings, however, the pigment portion of -paints is generally made as a whole or in part of the more -expensive white pigments, such as white lead and zinc oxide. -The relative values and properties of these white base pigments -will now be taken up.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>White Leads</i>: White lead, either of the corroded or sublimed -type, is perhaps the most generally used of all the -white pigments as a paint base. Corroded white lead is a -basic carbonate of lead, while sublimed white lead is a basic -sulphate of the same metal. Both of these types are white, -and admirably adapted as painting materials. They take -relatively the same amount of oil and spread easily, producing -paint films which are highly opaque and which, therefore, -hide efficiently the surface upon which they are placed. -Sublimed white lead is a relatively finer pigment than corroded -white lead, and seems to show a tendency to chalk -to a greater extent upon exposure to the weather. Corroded -white lead is more alkaline, however, than sublimed -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">« 7 »</a></span> -white lead, and when used alone with linseed oil generally -shows a tendency to chalk to a considerable extent in a short -time and to show deep checking, thus permitting the admission -of moisture. The alkaline nature of this pigment produces -considerable action upon certain tinting colors and -results in fading or darkening, when mixed with delicate -greens or blues.</p> - -<p>The use of white lead has been condemned in some parts -of this country as well as abroad, because of its alleged -poisonous properties. While it is true that lead poisoning -may occasionally occur in some factories where the workman -and his conditions are not properly safeguarded, it is, nevertheless, -a fact that lead poisoning very seldom occurs among -painters of experience and cleanly habits. Carelessness in -mixing white lead is, fortunately, a practice almost obsolete -among modern painters. The use of paints already ground -in oil by means of machinery to a pasty condition, allowing -easy working and reducing, obviates the danger of lead -poisoning from any such cause as this, even though the percentage -of lead in such paints is in preponderance. Recent -efforts that have been made by the legislatures of certain -States to brand lead paints as poisonous are not only unnecessary, -but show a complete ignorance of the problem.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Zinc Pigments</i>: Another pigment which has proved itself -of great value to the painter is zinc oxide. The use of this -pigment may be said to have almost revolutionized the paint -industry of the world, and its increased consumption during -the last ten years is sufficient evidence of its value as a painting -material. Zinc oxide is produced by oxidation and sublimation -of zinc ores and is not only extremely fine, but of -great whiteness. It has good hiding power, although not -quite so great as that shown by the white leads. It tends to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">« 8 »</a></span> -produce a glossy surface, making it especially valuable for -use on interior work and in enamels. When used alone it -has the effect of hardening the oil film in which it is enveloped, -and upon long exposure causes cracking and scaling. -However, when the sublimed or corroded white leads are -properly combined with zinc oxide, a more durable surface -is produced, the shortcomings of each pigment being overbalanced -by the good properties of the other. The proper -combining properties of zinc oxide with white lead may be -said to vary between 20 to 55 per cent of zinc oxide for -paints designed for exterior use. In the opinion of the authors, -lead and zinc pigments in the above percentage, properly -blended and ground, make paints of far better wearing -value than can be produced with either white lead or zinc -oxide used alone.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Zinc Lead</i>: Zinc lead, a pigment sublimed from mixed -lead and zinc ores and containing about equal proportions of -zinc oxide and lead sulphate intimately combined, as well as -leaded zinc, a produce similarly produced, but with the zinc -oxide running about 75 per cent, are white base pigments of -value, which are used to a considerable extent. They are -generally slightly off color, however, and are therefore used -most largely in paints which are to be tinted in various -colors.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Lithopone</i>: Lithopone, a pigment produced by precipitation, -and consisting of zinc sulphide and barium sulphate, is -of great value in the manufacture of interior paints. On account -of its liability to darken and disintegrate, however, it -is seldom used on exterior work, although recent tests have -shown that when used in combination with zinc oxide and -whiting, it gives very promising results.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">« 9 »</a></span></p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Crystalline Pigments and Their Use</i>: Barytes (barium -sulphate), silex (silica), whiting (calcium carbonate), gypsum -(calcium sulphate), asbestine (silicate of magnesia), -and China clay (silicate of alumina) are white crystalline -pigments which, when ground in oil, become transparent. -All of these pigments possess the property of strengthening -a paint film made of white lead and zinc oxide, and often -increase the durability of such a paint. Barytes, silica, and -China clay are especially valuable for this purpose. Asbestine, -because of its needle-like structure and low gravity, prevents -settling and acts as a reinforcer of paint films. Whiting -or calcium carbonate should be used when zinc oxide is -in excess in a paint, so that the hardness of the paint may be -overcome.</p> - -<p>A white paint must be possessed of sufficient opacity to -efficiently hide the surface upon which it is placed, when -three coats are applied for new work or two coats for repainting -work. Mixtures of the white leads and zinc oxide, -with the latter pigment running not over 55 per cent, will -easily produce such a result and wear well. It is generally -deemed advisable, however, by most manufacturers to take -advantage of the excessive opacity of such mixtures, which -allows the introduction of moderate percentages of those -inert pigments which give greater strength and other desirable -features to a paint. The percentage of natural crystalline -inert pigments to add to a white paint made of lead and -zinc must, however, be moderate and insufficient to detract -materially from the hiding power of the paint.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—Pigments such as silica, barytes, China clay, and asbestine are -thoroughly inert. Recent investigations have proved that they accelerate -the drying of linseed oil, but this is not due to any chemical action they -exert, but rather to their physical action in distributing the mass of oil in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">« 10 »</a></span> -which they are ground, and thus allowing a greater surface to be exposed -to the oxygen of the air.</p> - -<p class="hanging2">It is also possible that some of the inert pigments may stimulate oxidation -by catalytic or contact action, although they are not chemically active -in themselves.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>White-Paint Formulas</i>: From these conclusions which -have come from wide experience in the testing of paints -under actual service conditions, there can be recommended -to the buyer of paints and to the manufacturer and master -painter those machine-mixed paints in white, made by reputable -manufacturers, the composition of which will show a -mixture of white lead and zinc oxide, with the latter pigment -within limits of between 15 to 55 per cent, and especially the -same mixtures reinforced with the moderate percentage of -crystalline inert pigments referred to above.</p> - -<p>Tinted paints possess greater hiding power than white -paints, and the above proportions would be somewhat -changed for a tinted paint containing any percentage of -coloring material. Tinted paints are, moreover, far more -serviceable than white paints, as will be shown later.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Mill vs. Paddle</i>: The mixtures under consideration should -be ground in linseed oil by the manufacturer, through stone -or steel mills, to a very fine condition, as it is only through -proper grinding that the pigments can be properly blended. -The mixing of paint by hand is, fortunately, to a large extent -a thing of the past. The uneven lumping of hand-mixed -paints are often the cause of their failure. Such ancient -and crude practice should be avoided by every painter, -for it is more economical to obtain semi-paste paints, properly -ground by machinery, to such a condition that they may -be easily broken up and tempered. Such paints may be reduced -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">« 11 »</a></span> -to the proper consistency with oil and volatile thinner -for application to any kind of wood.</p> - -<p>In the opinion of the writers, a majority of the paints -sold by reputable dealers and made by reputable manufacturers -in this country are not only made from the -best linseed oil and highest-grade pigments obtainable, but -are put up in a form ready for the painter to thin down with -full oil or turpentine reductions, either for priming work -or to be used without reductions for finishing coats. The -large metropolitan painter who wishes to make his own tints -and shades may, however, prefer to have his mixed pigment -paint ground by the manufacturer in heavy paste form for -certain purposes.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Results of Field Tests</i>: A careful analysis of the results -of field tests which have been carried on in different parts of -the country would be far too voluminous for insertion in -this bulletin. The official findings of special committees of -inspection have already been published in special reports. -Whereas there may still remain ground for some difference -of opinion in regard to the interpretation of the results obtained -on the various test fences, there can be no doubt that -considerable information of the highest value has been -yielded, both to the producers and consumers of paints. -One of the principal results obtained from these tests has -led to the opinion expressed above by the writers, that better -results can be obtained by a proper mixture of selected pigments -than by the use of any one pigment in linseed oil. -This conclusion has also been reached by engineers of the -United States Navy, and, as a result, the specifications of the -Bureau of Yards and Docks for paints made of straight white -lead and oil have recently been changed to call for white lead -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">« 12 »</a></span> -combined with upwards of 50 per cent of zinc oxide. Many -engineers and master painters have interpreted the results of -the tests in the same way, and the attention of the authors -has been called to a number of opinions which show that the -tendency of demand among those who are properly informed -is for a high-grade combination type of paint rather than for -any single pigment paint.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Color</i>: The selection of the color for a dwelling or other -structure is a matter that depends largely upon the good -judgment and taste of the owner, combined with the advice -of the painter. One point, however, should be impressed -upon the mind of both, namely, that <span class="smcap">PRACTICALLY ALL -SHADES OR TINTS MADE UPON A GOOD WHITE PAINT BASE, -THROUGH THE USE OF PERMANENT TINTING COLORS, WILL -BETTER WITHSTAND EXPOSURE TO THE ATMOSPHERE THAN -THE WHITE BASE USED ALONE</span>. Owing to the cheerful -effect produced by the use of white paint on dwellings, a -very large quantity of white will continue to be used. If -these white paints are designed in line with the suggestions -brought out above—that is to say, if the white lead bases -are properly reinforced with zinc oxide and other pigmentary -materials—better results will undoubtedly be obtained, -as far as appearance and durability is concerned, than if -white lead had been used alone. The consumer should remember, -however, that more durable results will be obtained -by the use of tinted paints.</p> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Reductions and Thinners</i>: Turpentine, with its sweet -odor, high solvent action, and wonderful oxidizing value, -has always taken first place among the volatile liquids used -for thinning paints. Wood turpentines, produced from the -steam distillation of fine-cut fat pinewood or from the destructive -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">« 13 »</a></span> -distillation of stumpage and sawdust, have been -refined in some cases, by elimination of odor and toxic effects, -to such purity that they are equally as good as the purest -grades of gum turpentine, and their use is bound to increase -in the paint industry.</p> - -<p>The painter and manufacturer have come to understand -that certain grades of asphaltum and paraffine distillates are -equally as satisfactory as turpentine for use in paints for exterior -purposes. Those volatile oils which are distilled -from crude oil with either a paraffine or asphaltum base and -possessed of boiling point, flash point, color, and evaporative -value approximating similar constants of turpentine, -are excellently suited to partly, and in some cases wholly, -replace turpentine in exterior paints. A little additional -drier added to paints thinned with these materials will cause -oxidation to take place in the proper time.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Prominent master painters<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> have shown that benzol, a -product obtained from the distillation of coal tar, differing -from benzine, a product obtained from the distillation of -petroleum, is a valuable thinner to use in the reduction of -paints for the priming of resinous lumber such as cypress -and yellow pitch pine. The penetrating and solvent -value of benzol is high, and it often furnishes a unison between -paint and wood that is a prime foundation to subsequent -coatings, preventing the usual scaling and sap exudations, -which often appear on a painted surface. Because of -the great solvent action of benzol, however, this material -should never be used in the second and third coatings. These -facts will doubtless interest the Southern painter, who has so -much wood of a refractory nature to paint.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> Dewar, Titzel <i>et al.</i></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">« 14 »</a></span></p></div> - - -<p class="pmt2"><i>Oils</i>: The increasing cost of linseed oil has raised the interesting -question as to whether or not it is good practice to -use an admixture of other oils in connection with it, in high -grade paint coatings. Strong differences of opinion will -probably be found in regard to this question, and undoubtedly -further investigation work is necessary in order to decide -it. A number of different oils have been proposed for the -purpose, of which, perhaps, soya bean oil is the one which -has been most prominently discussed. No definite formulas, -however, should be recommended until the results of investigations -which are now being carried on are in hand. A systematic -series of test panels is now being erected in Washington, -D. C., on the grounds of The Institute of Industrial -Research, which are designed to gather data covering just -this point.</p> - -<p>The flax crop conditions have been most discouraging -during the past two years, and the natural shortage of seed -has caused a rise in the price of linseed oil, which has necessitated -a rise in the price of paint. The added protection to -be secured, however, through the frequent application of -paint far outweighs any increased cost which has been caused -by the rise in price of the raw commodities entering into the -composition of paint.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - - - - - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Preservation of the Exterior of -Wooden Buildings, by Allerton S. Cushman and Henry A. 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Cushman and Henry A. Gardner - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Preservation of the Exterior of Wooden Buildings - -Author: Allerton S. Cushman - Henry A. Gardner - -Release Date: June 21, 2020 [EBook #62444] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRESERVATION EXTERIOR WOODEN BUILDINGS *** - - - - -Produced by Charlene Taylor, Tom Cosmas and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - -THE INSTITUTE OF INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH - - - Allerton S. Cushman, A. M., Ph. D., _Director, In Charge - Division Metallurgical Problems_. - - Henry A. Gardner, _Assistant Director, In Charge Division of - Paint Technology_. - - N. Monroe Hopkins, Ph. D., _In Charge Division of Electrical - Engineering and Electrochemistry_. - - Chas. A. Crampton, M. D., Ph. G., _In Charge Division of - Food and Drug Products_. - - G. W. Coggeshall, Ph. D., _In Charge Division of Mill - Problems_. - - Chas. Baskerville, Ph. D., F. C. S., _In Charge Technology - of the Rarer Elements_. - - -Copyright, 1911, The Institute of Industrial Research - - - - - THE INSTITUTE OF INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH - - - THE PRESERVATION - - OF THE - - EXTERIOR OF WOODEN BUILDINGS - - - BY - - ALLERTON S. CUSHMAN, Director - THE INSTITUTE OF INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH - - AND - - HENRY A. GARDNER, Asst. Director - IN CHARGE DIVISION OF PAINT - TECHNOLOGY, THE INSTITUTE OF INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH - - - [Illustration] - - - WASHINGTON 1911 - - - - WASHINGTON, D. C. - PRESS OF JUDD & DETWEILER, INC. - 1911 - - - - - -PREFACE. - - -For a number of years the writers have been making a study of -industrial problems and have been publishing the information which they -have acquired, regarding the value of various structural materials, -for the benefit of consumers as well as producers. The Institute -of Industrial Research has received so many requests recently for -information in regard to just what paints should be selected for the -protection and decoration of houses and other buildings that it has -seemed best to sum up the subject in the form of a special pamphlet -or bulletin. It is only after years of investigation work carried on -by the authors, both separately and in co-operation, that any review -of the work has seemed possible, for only recently have the results -of tests carried on in a number of different localities seemed to -justify a definite opinion in regard to the best selection of exterior -paints. No attack on any one paint material is here included, but the -value of each has been carefully weighed, and the attempt is made -to discuss them in the light of experience and knowledge. It is the -authors' intention in this bulletin to put into the hands of architects -and paint users who may not be thoroughly familiar with the technical -properties of paint materials, information which will enable them to -make a proper and intelligent selection of paints for the preservation -and decoration of the exterior of wooden buildings. - - - - -The Preservation of the Exterior of Wooden Buildings - - -_Lumber and its Relation to Paints_: The proper choice and treatment of -lumber is one of the most important problems which the builder as well -as the painter has to face. When about to build a dwelling, barn, or -other structure made principally of wood, the question is sure to arise -in regard to what variety to select so as to get the maximum service -and money value. The locality in which the structure is to be built -must often have a bearing upon this question. While it is true that the -painting of each type of wood demands the special consideration of the -painter, it is also true that the study of paints for wood protection -points toward the production of a paint that will give satisfactory -results under all conditions and on all grades. It is the writers' -opinion that a paint may be made that will be perfectly well suited -for the preservation of every species of wood, provided the paint is -properly treated in the hands of the skillful and intelligent painter, -who can produce lasting results on almost every type by varying the -proportion of thinners and oil in the various coats. The painter who -uses the same paint on soft pine, and again on hard pine, without -making a special study of how to reduce the priming coat for the hard -pine, will be likely to get inferior results on the latter. In case -of failure, the natural impulse is often to place the blame upon the -paint, whereas the real responsibility may rest upon the painter's lack -of knowledge. - - Note.--For a more detailed account of the lumber question, - see "Modern Lumber as a Problem for the Painter," read by - John Dewar, at the Convention of Master House Painters' and - Decorators' Association of Pennsylvania, January, 1911, - Pittsburg, Pa. - - - Photographs Showing Different Forms of - Decay Exhibited by Improperly - Made Paints - -[Illustration: Blistering] - -[Illustration: Chalking] - -[Illustration: Checking] - -[Illustration: Cracking] - -[Illustration: Scaling] - -[Illustration: General Disintegration] - -_Signs of Paint Failure_: Those who are responsible for the care and -maintenance of property are familiar with the condition of surface -presented by almost all wooden buildings or structures which have been -improperly painted with inferior paints. "Chalking" or "flouring" -are terms used to describe the condition of a paint surface which -has deteriorated within the paint film. The formation of minute -fissures, generally spoken of as "checking," as well as the effects -best described as cracking, scaling, peeling, and blistering, are -other signs of failure which cause paint coatings to present an -unsightly appearance, and which point inevitably either to the use of -improperly made paints or to improper application. The cause of these -conditions is not difficult to understand when even a brief study of -the character of the materials entering into the composition of a paint -has been made. It is, however, a fortunate circumstance that the proper -admixture of different types of pigments enables us to correct the -strong tendency exhibited by special pigments to rapidly deteriorate -in an oil film. This point will be more fully discussed in a later -paragraph. - - -_Requisites of a Good Paint_: Progressive manufacturers are aiming to -produce a paint which will show, under the widest range of conditions, -good hiding power, adhesiveness, freedom from internal strains, -permanency of color, relatively high imperviousness to moisture, -sufficient elasticity to prevent scaling or cracking when subjected -to expansion or contraction, and freedom from the chemical action -which results in deep checking or excessive chalking. Such a product -as this cannot be attained, in the writers' opinion, by the use of -any one pigment in linseed oil. In order to meet all the demands as -stated above, there should be in an economical and durable paint a -proper percentage of the various pigments which, united, will tend to -correct each other's faults, and thus produce a durable paint coating -of maximum efficiency. - - -_The Composition of Paints_: As is well known, a paint is a mixture of -one or more pigments and a vehicle which acts the part of the spreading -and binding medium. Up to the present time the vehicle portion of -paints has generally been made of linseed oil, admixed with some -volatile thinner, such as turpentine. The subject of oils and paint -vehicles will be discussed more fully later on. - - -_Physical Properties of Pigments_: The pigment portion of a paint -for use on barns and farm buildings may, if desired, be composed -of properly selected iron oxides or other colored pigments, even -containing in some cases a moderately high percentage of silica, clay, -or other inert materials, and give perfectly satisfactory results. For -the preservation and decoration of dwellings, however, the pigment -portion of paints is generally made as a whole or in part of the more -expensive white pigments, such as white lead and zinc oxide. The -relative values and properties of these white base pigments will now be -taken up. - - -_White Leads_: White lead, either of the corroded or sublimed type, is -perhaps the most generally used of all the white pigments as a paint -base. Corroded white lead is a basic carbonate of lead, while sublimed -white lead is a basic sulphate of the same metal. Both of these types -are white, and admirably adapted as painting materials. They take -relatively the same amount of oil and spread easily, producing paint -films which are highly opaque and which, therefore, hide efficiently -the surface upon which they are placed. Sublimed white lead is a -relatively finer pigment than corroded white lead, and seems to show -a tendency to chalk to a greater extent upon exposure to the weather. -Corroded white lead is more alkaline, however, than sublimed white -lead, and when used alone with linseed oil generally shows a tendency -to chalk to a considerable extent in a short time and to show deep -checking, thus permitting the admission of moisture. The alkaline -nature of this pigment produces considerable action upon certain -tinting colors and results in fading or darkening, when mixed with -delicate greens or blues. - -The use of white lead has been condemned in some parts of this country -as well as abroad, because of its alleged poisonous properties. While -it is true that lead poisoning may occasionally occur in some factories -where the workman and his conditions are not properly safeguarded, it -is, nevertheless, a fact that lead poisoning very seldom occurs among -painters of experience and cleanly habits. Carelessness in mixing -white lead is, fortunately, a practice almost obsolete among modern -painters. The use of paints already ground in oil by means of machinery -to a pasty condition, allowing easy working and reducing, obviates the -danger of lead poisoning from any such cause as this, even though the -percentage of lead in such paints is in preponderance. Recent efforts -that have been made by the legislatures of certain States to brand -lead paints as poisonous are not only unnecessary, but show a complete -ignorance of the problem. - - -_Zinc Pigments_: Another pigment which has proved itself of great -value to the painter is zinc oxide. The use of this pigment may be -said to have almost revolutionized the paint industry of the world, -and its increased consumption during the last ten years is sufficient -evidence of its value as a painting material. Zinc oxide is produced -by oxidation and sublimation of zinc ores and is not only extremely -fine, but of great whiteness. It has good hiding power, although not -quite so great as that shown by the white leads. It tends to produce -a glossy surface, making it especially valuable for use on interior -work and in enamels. When used alone it has the effect of hardening -the oil film in which it is enveloped, and upon long exposure causes -cracking and scaling. However, when the sublimed or corroded white -leads are properly combined with zinc oxide, a more durable surface is -produced, the shortcomings of each pigment being overbalanced by the -good properties of the other. The proper combining properties of zinc -oxide with white lead may be said to vary between 20 to 55 per cent -of zinc oxide for paints designed for exterior use. In the opinion of -the authors, lead and zinc pigments in the above percentage, properly -blended and ground, make paints of far better wearing value than can be -produced with either white lead or zinc oxide used alone. - - -_Zinc Lead_: Zinc lead, a pigment sublimed from mixed lead and zinc -ores and containing about equal proportions of zinc oxide and lead -sulphate intimately combined, as well as leaded zinc, a produce -similarly produced, but with the zinc oxide running about 75 per cent, -are white base pigments of value, which are used to a considerable -extent. They are generally slightly off color, however, and are -therefore used most largely in paints which are to be tinted in various -colors. - - -_Lithopone_: Lithopone, a pigment produced by precipitation, and -consisting of zinc sulphide and barium sulphate, is of great value in -the manufacture of interior paints. On account of its liability to -darken and disintegrate, however, it is seldom used on exterior work, -although recent tests have shown that when used in combination with -zinc oxide and whiting, it gives very promising results. - - -_Crystalline Pigments and Their Use_: Barytes (barium sulphate), silex -(silica), whiting (calcium carbonate), gypsum (calcium sulphate), -asbestine (silicate of magnesia), and China clay (silicate of -alumina) are white crystalline pigments which, when ground in oil, -become transparent. All of these pigments possess the property of -strengthening a paint film made of white lead and zinc oxide, and often -increase the durability of such a paint. Barytes, silica, and China -clay are especially valuable for this purpose. Asbestine, because of -its needle-like structure and low gravity, prevents settling and acts -as a reinforcer of paint films. Whiting or calcium carbonate should be -used when zinc oxide is in excess in a paint, so that the hardness of -the paint may be overcome. - -A white paint must be possessed of sufficient opacity to efficiently -hide the surface upon which it is placed, when three coats are applied -for new work or two coats for repainting work. Mixtures of the white -leads and zinc oxide, with the latter pigment running not over 55 per -cent, will easily produce such a result and wear well. It is generally -deemed advisable, however, by most manufacturers to take advantage of -the excessive opacity of such mixtures, which allows the introduction -of moderate percentages of those inert pigments which give greater -strength and other desirable features to a paint. The percentage of -natural crystalline inert pigments to add to a white paint made of -lead and zinc must, however, be moderate and insufficient to detract -materially from the hiding power of the paint. - - Note.--Pigments such as silica, barytes, China clay, and - asbestine are thoroughly inert. Recent investigations have - proved that they accelerate the drying of linseed oil, but - this is not due to any chemical action they exert, but rather - to their physical action in distributing the mass of oil in - which they are ground, and thus allowing a greater surface to be - exposed to the oxygen of the air. - - It is also possible that some of the inert pigments may stimulate - oxidation by catalytic or contact action, although they are not - chemically active in themselves. - - -_White-Paint Formulas_: From these conclusions which have come -from wide experience in the testing of paints under actual service -conditions, there can be recommended to the buyer of paints and to the -manufacturer and master painter those machine-mixed paints in white, -made by reputable manufacturers, the composition of which will show a -mixture of white lead and zinc oxide, with the latter pigment within -limits of between 15 to 55 per cent, and especially the same mixtures -reinforced with the moderate percentage of crystalline inert pigments -referred to above. - -Tinted paints possess greater hiding power than white paints, and -the above proportions would be somewhat changed for a tinted paint -containing any percentage of coloring material. Tinted paints are, -moreover, far more serviceable than white paints, as will be shown -later. - - -_Mill vs. Paddle_: The mixtures under consideration should be ground -in linseed oil by the manufacturer, through stone or steel mills, to -a very fine condition, as it is only through proper grinding that the -pigments can be properly blended. The mixing of paint by hand is, -fortunately, to a large extent a thing of the past. The uneven lumping -of hand-mixed paints are often the cause of their failure. Such ancient -and crude practice should be avoided by every painter, for it is more -economical to obtain semi-paste paints, properly ground by machinery, -to such a condition that they may be easily broken up and tempered. -Such paints may be reduced to the proper consistency with oil and -volatile thinner for application to any kind of wood. - -In the opinion of the writers, a majority of the paints sold by -reputable dealers and made by reputable manufacturers in this country -are not only made from the best linseed oil and highest-grade pigments -obtainable, but are put up in a form ready for the painter to thin down -with full oil or turpentine reductions, either for priming work or to -be used without reductions for finishing coats. The large metropolitan -painter who wishes to make his own tints and shades may, however, -prefer to have his mixed pigment paint ground by the manufacturer in -heavy paste form for certain purposes. - - -_Results of Field Tests_: A careful analysis of the results of field -tests which have been carried on in different parts of the country -would be far too voluminous for insertion in this bulletin. The -official findings of special committees of inspection have already been -published in special reports. Whereas there may still remain ground -for some difference of opinion in regard to the interpretation of the -results obtained on the various test fences, there can be no doubt that -considerable information of the highest value has been yielded, both -to the producers and consumers of paints. One of the principal results -obtained from these tests has led to the opinion expressed above by the -writers, that better results can be obtained by a proper mixture of -selected pigments than by the use of any one pigment in linseed oil. -This conclusion has also been reached by engineers of the United States -Navy, and, as a result, the specifications of the Bureau of Yards and -Docks for paints made of straight white lead and oil have recently been -changed to call for white lead combined with upwards of 50 per cent -of zinc oxide. Many engineers and master painters have interpreted the -results of the tests in the same way, and the attention of the authors -has been called to a number of opinions which show that the tendency -of demand among those who are properly informed is for a high-grade -combination type of paint rather than for any single pigment paint. - - -_Color_: The selection of the color for a dwelling or other structure -is a matter that depends largely upon the good judgment and taste of -the owner, combined with the advice of the painter. One point, however, -should be impressed upon the mind of both, namely, that PRACTICALLY -ALL SHADES OR TINTS MADE UPON A GOOD WHITE PAINT BASE, THROUGH THE USE -OF PERMANENT TINTING COLORS, WILL BETTER WITHSTAND EXPOSURE TO THE -ATMOSPHERE THAN THE WHITE BASE USED ALONE. Owing to the cheerful -effect produced by the use of white paint on dwellings, a very large -quantity of white will continue to be used. If these white paints are -designed in line with the suggestions brought out above--that is to -say, if the white lead bases are properly reinforced with zinc oxide -and other pigmentary materials--better results will undoubtedly be -obtained, as far as appearance and durability is concerned, than if -white lead had been used alone. The consumer should remember, however, -that more durable results will be obtained by the use of tinted paints. - - -_Reductions and Thinners_: Turpentine, with its sweet odor, high -solvent action, and wonderful oxidizing value, has always taken first -place among the volatile liquids used for thinning paints. Wood -turpentines, produced from the steam distillation of fine-cut fat -pinewood or from the destructive distillation of stumpage and sawdust, -have been refined in some cases, by elimination of odor and toxic -effects, to such purity that they are equally as good as the purest -grades of gum turpentine, and their use is bound to increase in the -paint industry. - -The painter and manufacturer have come to understand that certain -grades of asphaltum and paraffine distillates are equally as -satisfactory as turpentine for use in paints for exterior purposes. -Those volatile oils which are distilled from crude oil with either -a paraffine or asphaltum base and possessed of boiling point, flash -point, color, and evaporative value approximating similar constants of -turpentine, are excellently suited to partly, and in some cases wholly, -replace turpentine in exterior paints. A little additional drier added -to paints thinned with these materials will cause oxidation to take -place in the proper time. - - * * * * * - -Prominent master painters[A] have shown that benzol, a product obtained -from the distillation of coal tar, differing from benzine, a product -obtained from the distillation of petroleum, is a valuable thinner to -use in the reduction of paints for the priming of resinous lumber such -as cypress and yellow pitch pine. The penetrating and solvent value of -benzol is high, and it often furnishes a unison between paint and wood -that is a prime foundation to subsequent coatings, preventing the usual -scaling and sap exudations, which often appear on a painted surface. -Because of the great solvent action of benzol, however, this material -should never be used in the second and third coatings. These facts will -doubtless interest the Southern painter, who has so much wood of a -refractory nature to paint. - -[A] Dewar, Titzel _et al._ - - -_Oils_: The increasing cost of linseed oil has raised the interesting -question as to whether or not it is good practice to use an admixture -of other oils in connection with it, in high grade paint coatings. -Strong differences of opinion will probably be found in regard to this -question, and undoubtedly further investigation work is necessary in -order to decide it. A number of different oils have been proposed for -the purpose, of which, perhaps, soya bean oil is the one which has been -most prominently discussed. No definite formulas, however, should be -recommended until the results of investigations which are now being -carried on are in hand. A systematic series of test panels is now -being erected in Washington, D. C., on the grounds of The Institute of -Industrial Research, which are designed to gather data covering just -this point. - -The flax crop conditions have been most discouraging during the past -two years, and the natural shortage of seed has caused a rise in the -price of linseed oil, which has necessitated a rise in the price -of paint. The added protection to be secured, however, through the -frequent application of paint far outweighs any increased cost which -has been caused by the rise in price of the raw commodities entering -into the composition of paint. - - * * * * * - - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Preservation of the Exterior of -Wooden Buildings, by Allerton S. Cushman and Henry A. 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