diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/62431-h/62431-h.htm')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/62431-h/62431-h.htm | 5137 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 5137 deletions
diff --git a/old/62431-h/62431-h.htm b/old/62431-h/62431-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 9e46e89..0000000 --- a/old/62431-h/62431-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5137 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" - "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> -<head> -<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> -<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Etruscan Tomb Paintings, by Frederik Poulsen</title> - <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> - <style type="text/css"> - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - -h1 -{ - margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; - text-align: center; - font-size: x-large; - font-weight: normal; - line-height: 1.6; -} - - h2,h3{ - text-align: center; - clear: both; - } - -div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} - -.half-title { - margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; - text-align: center; - font-size: x-large; - font-weight: normal; - line-height: 1.6; - } - -/* Paragraphs */ - -p {text-indent: 1em; - margin-top: .75em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .75em; - } - -.psig {text-align: right; margin-right: 2em;} -.pdate {margin-left: 2em;} - -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: 33.5%; - margin-right: 33.5%; - clear: both; -} - -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} -hr.small {width: 25%; margin-left: 37.5%; margin-right: 37.5%;} -hr.full {width: 95%; margin-left: 2.5%; margin-right: 2.5%;} - -ul.index { list-style-type: none; } -li.ifrst { margin-top: 1em; } -li.indx { margin-top: .5em; } - -table { - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; -} - .tdr {text-align: right;} - .tdrb {text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;} - .tdrt {text-align: right; vertical-align: top;} - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; -} /* page numbers */ - -.bbox {border: solid thin; padding: 1em; margin: auto;} -.center {text-align: center;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} -.lowercase { text-transform:lowercase; } - -.xs {font-size: x-small;} -.small {font-size: small;} -.fs2 {font-size: 70%;} -.fs3 {font-size: 90%;} - - -/* Images */ - -img {border: none; max-width: 100%} -.caption {font-size: smaller; font-weight: bold;} - -.figcenter { - margin: 1em auto; - text-align: center; - } - - -.figright { - float: right; - clear: right; - margin-left: 1em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-top: 1em; - margin-right: 0; - padding: 0; - text-align: center; - } - -/* dropcaps */ - -p.drop-cap { - text-indent: 0em; -} -p.drop-cap:first-letter -{ - float: left; - margin: 0.15em 0.1em 0em 0em; - font-size: 250%; - line-height:0.85em; -} - -/* Sidenotes */ - - .sidenote { - font-style: italic; - font-size: 80%; - max-width: 35%; - border: dashed 1px; - text-indent: 0em; - margin-right: .5em; - margin-left: -.5em; - padding: .1em; - float: left; - clear: left; - } - -/* Footnotes */ - - .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} - - .footnote { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; - font-size: 0.9em; - } - -.footnote .label { - position: absolute; - right: 84%; - text-align: right; - } - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: none; - white-space: nowrap - } - -/* Poetry */ - - .poetry-container { - text-align: center; - margin: .5em 0 .5em 0; - } - - .poetry { - display: inline-block; - text-align: left; - } - -.poetry .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} - -.poetry .verse { - text-indent: -3em; - padding-left: 3em; - } - - -@media handheld { - .poetry { - display: block; - margin-left: 1em; - } - - -.figright { - float: right; - clear: right; - margin-left: 1em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-top: 1em; - margin-right: 0; - padding: 0; - text-align: center; - } - - .sidenote { - float: left; - } - -p.drop-cap { - text-indent: 0em; -} -p.drop-cap:first-letter -{ - float: left; - margin: 0.15em 0.1em 0em 0em; - font-size: 250%; - line-height:0.85em; -} -} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ - -.transnote { - background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; - } - - - h1.pgx { text-align: center; - clear: both; - font-weight: bold; - font-size: 190%; - margin-top: 0em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - word-spacing: 0em; - letter-spacing: 0em; - line-height: 1; } - h2.pgx { text-align: center; - clear: both; - font-weight: bold; - font-size: 135%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - word-spacing: 0em; - letter-spacing: 0em; - page-break-before: avoid; - line-height: 1; } - h3.pgx { text-align: center; - clear: both; - font-weight: bold; - font-size: 110%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - word-spacing: 0em; - letter-spacing: 0em; - line-height: 1; } - h4.pgx { text-align: center; - clear: both; - font-weight: bold; - font-size: 100%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - word-spacing: 0em; - letter-spacing: 0em; - line-height: 1; } - hr.pgx { width: 100%; - margin-top: 3em; - margin-bottom: 0em; - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; - height: 4px; - border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ - border-style: solid; - border-color: #000000; - clear: both; } - </style> -</head> -<body> -<h1 class="pgx" title="">The Project Gutenberg eBook, Etruscan Tomb Paintings, by Frederik Poulsen, -Translated by Ingeborg Andersen</h1> -<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States -and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no -restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it -under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this -eBook or online at <a -href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you are not -located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this ebook.</p> -<p>Title: Etruscan Tomb Paintings</p> -<p> Their Subjects and Significance</p> -<p>Author: Frederik Poulsen</p> -<p>Release Date: June 19, 2020 [eBook #62431]</p> -<p>Language: English</p> -<p>Character set encoding: UTF-8</p> -<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ETRUSCAN TOMB PAINTINGS***</p> -<p> </p> -<h4 class="pgx" title="">E-text prepared by ellinora, Les Galloway,<br /> - and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> - (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br /> - from page images generously made available by<br /> - Internet Archive<br /> - (<a href="https://archive.org">https://archive.org</a>)</h4> -<p> </p> -<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> - <tr> - <td valign="top"> - Note: - </td> - <td> - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - <a href="https://archive.org/details/etruscantombpain00poul"> - https://archive.org/details/etruscantombpain00poul</a> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p> </p> -<hr class="pgx" /> -<p> </p> -<p> </p> - -<div class="chapter"></div> - - -<p class="half-title">ETRUSCAN<br /> - -TOMB PAINTINGS</p> - -<hr class="chapter" /> - - -<p class="center"> -Oxford University Press</p> -<p class="center small"> -<i>London</i> <i>Edinburgh</i> <i>Glasgow</i> <i>Copenhagen</i><br /> -<i>New York</i> <i>Toronto</i> <i>Melbourne</i> <i>Cape Town</i><br /> -<i>Bombay</i> <i>Calcutta</i> <i>Madras</i> <i>Shanghai</i><br /> -Humphrey Milford Publisher to the <span class="smcap">University</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a id="Fig_11"></a> -<img src="images/i_frontis.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> ‘LA BELLA BALLERINA’ IN THE -TOMBA FRANCESCA GIUSTINIANI <br /> -After the facsimile of the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek<br /> -<i>Frontispiece</i> -</div> -</div> - - -<div class="bbox"> -<h1> -ETRUSCAN<br /> -TOMB PAINTINGS</h1> - -<p class="center">THEIR SUBJECTS AND SIGNIFICANCE</p> - -<p class="center small">BY</p> - -<p class="center">FREDERIK POULSEN<br /> -<span class="xs"> -KEEPER OF THE CLASSICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE NY CARLSBERG GLYPTOTEK, COPENHAGEN<br /> -FELLOW OF THE DANISH ROYAL SOCIETY</span></p> - -<p class="center small">TRANSLATED BY</p> - -<p class="center">INGEBORG ANDERSEN, M.A.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<img src="images/i_title.jpg" alt="Publisher's Device" /> -</div> - -<hr class="full" /> -<p class="center">OXFORD<br /> - -<span class="fs3">AT THE CLARENDON PRESS</span><br /> - -<span class="fs2">1922</span></p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<p class="center"> -TO MY FRIEND IN STUDIES</p> -<p class="center"> -AND TRAVELS</p> -<p class="center"> -OVE JÖRGENSEN, M.A. -</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - - -<h2 id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> following sketch is based upon investigations made -in the Etruscan Tombs at Corneto and Chiusi, and on -comparison of the original wall-paintings with the facsimiles -and drawings made from them and preserved in the -Helbig Museum in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek. It was -originally published in Danish, in 1919, as a guide to -students in that Department.</p> - -<p>I am greatly indebted to Mr. G. F. Hill, of the British -Museum, for his revision of the translation.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile the first volume of the promised work of -Fritz Weege (<i>Etruskische Malerei</i>, Halle, 1921) has appeared, -copiously and splendidly illustrated. The text contains -general views concerning Etruscan religion and society rather -than descriptions of the paintings themselves, and I cannot -refrain from saying that I find Weege’s statements and -opinions, and the parallels which he adduces, too often more -fanciful than convincing, in spite of the vast erudition displayed -therein. I do not find anything in my own text -which I feel inclined to alter after reading his book.</p> - -<p class="psig"> -FREDERIK POULSEN.</p> - -<p class="pdate small"><span class="smcap">Copenhagen</span>,<br /> -<i>January</i> 1921.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">ix</span></p> - - -<h2 id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> - - -<div class="center small"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr"><i>Facing page</i></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_1">1</a></td> - <td align="left">Wall-painting from the Tomba Campana</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_2">2</a></td> - <td align="left">Main picture in the Tomba dei Tori at Corneto</td> - <td class="tdrb">7</td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_3">3</a></td> - <td align="left">Back wall in the Tomba degli Auguri</td> - <td class="tdrb">11</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_4">4</a></td> - <td align="left">Right main wall in the Tomba degli Auguri</td> - <td class="tdrb">12</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_5">5</a></td> - <td align="left">Part of the left main wall in the Tomba degli Auguri. (After a -coloured drawing in the Helbig Museum)</td> - <td class="tdrb">12</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_6">6</a></td> - <td align="left">Painting from the Tomba del Pulcinella</td> - <td class="tdrb">12</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_7">7</a></td> - <td align="left">Left main wall of the Tomba delle Iscrizioni</td> - <td class="tdrb">15</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_8">8</a></td> - <td align="left">Back wall of the Tomba delle Iscrizioni</td> - <td class="tdrb">15</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_9">9</a></td> - <td align="left">Picture from the Tomba del Morto at Corneto</td> - <td class="tdrb">16</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_10">10</a></td> - <td align="left">Picture from the Tomba del Triclinio</td> - <td class="tdrb">16</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_11">11</a></td> - <td align="left">‘La bella ballerina’ in the Tomba Francesca Giustiniani</td> - <td class="tdrb"><i>Frontispiece</i></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_12">12</a></td> - <td align="left">Right main wall in the Tomba delle Iscrizioni</td> - <td class="tdrb">19</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_13">13</a></td> - <td align="left">Back wall in the Tomba delle Leonesse at Corneto</td> - <td class="tdrb">20</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_14">14</a></td> - <td align="left">Left main wall in the Tomba del Barone</td> - <td class="tdrb">20</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_15">15</a></td> - <td align="left">Right main wall in the Tomba delle Bighe</td> - <td class="tdrb">22</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_16">16</a></td> - <td align="left">Etruscan terracotta head in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek</td> - <td class="tdrb">22</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_17">17</a></td> - <td align="left">Part of the small frieze in the Tomba delle Bighe. (After <i>Arch. Jahrb.</i> -1916)</td> - <td class="tdrb">22</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_18">18</a></td> - <td align="left">Wall-painting from the Tomba del Morente: the lassoing of the horse</td> - <td class="tdrb">24</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_19">19</a></td> - <td align="left">Part of the small frieze in the Tomba delle Bighe. (After <i>Arch. Jahrb.</i> -1916)</td> - <td class="tdrb">24</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_20">20</a></td> - <td align="left">Part of the Tomba della Scimmia at Chiusi</td> - <td class="tdrb">24</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_21">21</a></td> - <td align="left">Part of the small frieze in the Tomba delle Bighe. (After <i>Arch. Jahrb.</i> -1916)</td> - <td class="tdrb">27</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_22">22</a></td> - <td align="left">Part of the small frieze in the Tomba delle Bighe. (After <i>Arch. Jahrb.</i> 1916)</td> - <td class="tdrb">27</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_23">23</a></td> - <td align="left">Symposium in the Tomba delle Bighe</td> - <td class="tdrb">27</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_24">24</a></td> - <td align="left">Back wall in the Tomba dei Leopardi (After <i>Arch. Jahrb.</i> 1916. Pl. 9)</td> - <td class="tdrb">31 <span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">x</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_25">25</a></td> - <td align="left">Married couple on an Etruscan cinerary urn</td> - <td class="tdrb">31</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_26">26</a></td> - <td align="left">Picture from the Tomba degli Scudi at Corneto</td> - <td class="tdrb">35</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_27">27</a></td> - <td align="left">Picture from the Tomba degli Scudi at Corneto. - (After a coloured drawing in the Helbig Museum)</td> - <td class="tdrb">35</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_28">28</a></td> - <td align="left">Arnth Velchas and wife on couch. Picture in the Tomba dell’ Orco -(After a coloured drawing in the Helbig Museum)</td> - <td class="tdrb">36</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_29">29</a></td> - <td align="left">Head of Arnth Velchas’ wife. From the Tomba dell’ Orco</td> - <td class="tdrb">37</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_30">30</a></td> - <td align="left">Back wall in the Tomba del Vecchio</td> - <td class="tdrb">37</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_31">31</a></td> - <td align="left">Symposium in the Tomba Golini at Orvieto</td> - <td class="tdrb">38</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_32">32</a></td> - <td align="left">Wall-painting in the Tomba Golini</td> - <td class="tdrb">38</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_33">33</a></td> - <td align="left">Kitchen interior in the Tomba Golini</td> - <td class="tdrb">40</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_34">34</a></td> - <td align="left">Painting in the Tomba del Letto funebre, at Corneto</td> - <td class="tdrb">40</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_35">35</a></td> - <td align="left">Demon in the Tomba dell’ Orco</td> - <td class="tdrb">49</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_36">36</a></td> - <td align="left">Picture in the Tomba dell’ Orco at Corneto</td> - <td class="tdrb">50</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_37">37</a></td> - <td align="left">Hades, Persephone and Geryon in the Tomba dell’ Orco</td> - <td class="tdrb">50</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_38">38</a></td> - <td align="left">Drawing from Michelangelo’s sketch-book</td> - <td class="tdrb">51</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_39">39</a></td> - <td align="left">Wall-painting from the Tomba François at Vulci</td> - <td class="tdrb">54</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_40">40</a></td> - <td align="left">Painting in the Tomba Golini at Orvieto</td> - <td class="tdrb">54</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_41">41</a></td> - <td align="left">Painting from the Tomba della Pulcella</td> - <td class="tdrb">54</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_42">42</a></td> - <td align="left">Relief on a tomb altar from Chiusi. In the Barracco Collection in Rome</td> - <td class="tdrb">56</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_43">43</a></td> - <td align="left">Cinerary urn from Chiusi</td> - <td class="tdrb">56</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_44">44</a></td> - <td align="left">Roman sarcophagus in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek</td> - <td class="tdrb">58</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_45">45</a></td> - <td align="left">Procession of the dead in the Tomba del Tifone</td> - <td class="tdrb">58</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_46">46</a></td> - <td align="left">Painted frieze in the Tomba del Cardinale</td> - <td class="tdrb">58</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><a href="#Fig_47">47</a></td> - <td align="left">Part of the frieze in the Tomba del Cardinale</td> - <td class="tdrb">58</td> -</tr> -</table></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p> - - -<p class="half-title">ETRUSCAN TOMB-PAINTINGS</p> - - -<h2 id="I">I</h2> - - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> tombs and tomb-paintings of Etruria constitute a field -of archaeology in which the investigator is particularly -apt to be reminded of numerous sins of omission and -to be haunted by a painfully uneasy conscience. Indeed, the -older archaeologists have less reason to plead guilty before -the bar of science than those of more recent times. When -the discovery and excavation of the Etruscan tombs began -to make headway in the twenties of the nineteenth century, -publications in text and illustrations followed comparatively -close upon the discoveries. The first misfortune, however, -took place when three of the most interesting tombs were -published, the Tomba delle Bighe, the Tomba delle Iscrizioni, -and the Tomba del Barone.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">STACKELBERG AND KESTNER</div> - -<p>It was the major-domo of the Bishop of Corneto, Vittorio -Masi, who first opened them together with other tombs in -the vicinity of Corneto. In the spring of 1827 he invited -two German barons, Stackelberg, an able archaeologist, and -Kestner, the Hanoverian ambassador in Rome, to inspect -them, and, if they so desired, to survey, draw, and publish -the pictures in the tombs. The two men arrived, accompanied -by Thürmer, a Bavarian architect, to find the tombs -themselves despoiled of their accessories, but the walls -covered with wonderful pictures dating from the sixth and -fifth centuries <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> They set to work immediately, studying -and copying the pictures in the richest of the tombs, the -Tomba delle Bighe. Stackelberg made five charming water-colours -in order to save the colouring for posterity; Thürmer -executed eleven careful drawings. In all, the two men painted -and drew two hundred and twenty-five figures, and the whole -of the material is now preserved in the Archaeological<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span> -Seminar of the University of Strasburg. In his diary -Stackelberg gives a vivid description of the discomfort which -they experienced, drawing by torchlight in the cold, dank -tomb-chamber, and only emerging now and then into the -warm Italian spring sunlight in order to recuperate or to -enjoy a light repast on the top of the tumulus, commanding -a view of the sea. To this were added fatiguing social duties; -local patriotism was aroused in Corneto; the noble families -in the town vied in displaying hospitality to the Germans, -and big banquets were held, at which sonnets were recited -to the ‘heroes’ who once slept in the tombs. The drawing -and copying of the colours on the walls in the Tomb of the -Chariots, as well as in the Tomb of the Inscriptions and in -the Tomb of the Baron—so called after Baron Kestner—were -rightly considered the chief matter, because in the very -first summer after they were opened, the dampness of the -tombs in a few weeks ruined large portions of them, especially -in the Tomba delle Bighe. After his return to Rome, Baron -Stackelberg caught typhoid fever and did not recover till late -in the winter. In the next spring he went to Germany, where -his excavations had created such an immense sensation that -even the aged Goethe asked Stackelberg to dine with him in -Weimar and studied the drawings with the greatest interest. -But, in spite of the national enthusiasm called forth by the -excavations, the projected great work came to nothing; the -coloured plates of the paintings, with the then existing means -of reproduction, promised to be so expensive that the -publishers took alarm. Pending these negotiations, the -paintings from the three tombs were published in French -and Italian works in very poor and incorrect reproductions, -and no other reproductions were available till 1916, when the -German archaeologist, Weege, at last managed to bring out -an admirable publication of the Tomba delle Bighe, the most -important of the three tombs.<a id="FNanchor_1_1" href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">1</a></p> - -<p>Similar uncoloured, not very reliable drawings continued -to be the method of reproducing the Etruscan tomb-paintings<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span> -in the following decades; after these drawings were made -the reproductions in handbooks like Jules Martha’s <i>L’Art -étrusque</i> (Paris, 1889). An Englishman, George Dennis, in -his <i>Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria</i> (London, 1878), gives a -vivid description of Tuscan scenery and of the ancient tombs. -At times he rises to a lyrical enthusiasm; for instance, in his -description of a dancing figure, ‘la bella ballerina di Corneto’, -in the Tomba Francesca Giustiniani. But neither Dennis -nor any later visitor procured copies which come up to their -enthusiasm; in fact, the beautiful ballerina has never even -been drawn or photographed, and is not to be found in any -work on archaeology or art. Dennis’s book throws a dreadful -light upon contemporary excavation. About Veii, he writes -that the greater part of the district belongs to the Queen of -Sardinia, who in the excavating season positively lets out -tracts of land to Roman dealers, who rifle the tombs of -everything convertible into cash and then cover them in -with earth. He describes such an excavation at Vulci: a -tomb being opened, nothing but pottery was found; the -excavators, in their disgust, smashed and destroyed everything, -in spite of the English traveller’s protests and entreaties. -This took place on the estate of the Princess of Canino.<a id="FNanchor_2_2" href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">2</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">MODERN LITERATURE</div> - -<p>This happened in the sixties. In the seventies such -vandalism comes to an end; but the publications do not -improve. For example, in the excellent article on the Tomba -François at Vulci which Körte published in the <i>Archäologisches -Jahrbuch</i> for 1897, the illustrations are poor: and it -was not until 1907 that Körte published, in the second -volume of the <i>Antike Denkmäler</i>, beautiful coloured reproductions -of the paintings in three tombs at Corneto, the -Tomba dei Tori, the Tomba delle Leonesse, and the Tomba -della Pulcella. A popular description by Mary Lovett -Cameron, <i>Old Etruria and Modern Tuscany</i> (London, 1909), -marks no progress as far as the illustrations are concerned, -and the text is amateurish and superficial.<a id="FNanchor_3_3" href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> Von Stryk<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span>’s -dissertation, <i>Die etruskischen Kammergräber</i>, published at -Dorpat in 1910, is unillustrated: the text is full of errors, -and in the discursive descriptions no account is taken of the -difference between the present state of the tomb-paintings -and that revealed by the earlier publications. Weege’s above-mentioned -article on the Tomba delle Bighe and the Tomba -dei Leopardi only appeared in 1916: here at last the entire -material is utilized—the old drawings and descriptions, -modern photographs, and the author’s own careful notes. -According to a prospectus recently issued, a larger work on -Etruscan tomb-paintings, by the same author, is shortly to -appear; it will be awaited with interest.</p> - -<p>It is to be hoped that Mr. Weege’s book will supply a -want which is felt the more acutely when we consider the -growing interest in antique painting displayed in the last -decades. In 1904 Furtwängler, with the assistance of the -painter Reichhold, began the publication of the great work -on the masterpieces of Greek vase-painting (<i>Griechische Vasenmalerei</i>), -which was continued by Hauser: part of the third -volume is now published. In 1906 appeared the first instalment -of Paul Hermann’s great collection of plates after -antique, especially Pompeian, wall-painting; this work, -which is still in progress, contains beautiful reproductions -with and without colours (<i>Denkmäler der Malerei des Altertums</i>). -Finally, in 1914, Walther Riezler published a -splendid work on the white Attic lekythoi (<i>Weissgründige -attische Lekythen</i>). But during these years nobody thought -of bringing to light the treasures hidden away in the sepulchral -chambers of Corneto, Chiusi, and Orvieto, although these -pictures were much more exposed to destruction than either -the vases in the well-guarded rooms of the Museums or the -Pompeian wall-paintings. For after heavy showers the floors -of the deeply sunk tombs of Corneto are under water, and -the damp then loosens the tufa of the walls so that the layer -of stucco, on which the colours are laid <i>al fresco</i>, peels off. -The heavy iron doors which the Italian Government has -placed before the entrances are worse than useless, because<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span> -they shut the moisture in and prevent the tombs from getting -dry. If these doors had been placed at the top of the stairs -leading to the tombs, thus changing place with the lattice -doors which are now there, all would have been well. -At Corneto, it is moisture which demolishes the stucco -layer, varying from ¼ to 1 cm. in thickness, and bleaches -the colours—red chalk, vermilion, lime-colour, ochre, cobalt, -and copper colours, at Chiusi it is the drought which most -frequently destroys the paintings, the colours here being laid -directly on the stone walls.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE NY CARLSBERG FACSIMILES</div> - -<p>We have, therefore, every reason to be deeply grateful to -the late Carl Jacobsen who, at the beginning of the nineties, -had the Etruscan tomb-paintings facsimiled on their actual -scale. A somewhat similar experiment had already been -tried, and the result is a number of facsimiles preserved in -the Museo Gregoriano of the Vatican, but these are more -decorative than exact. At first, the Italian painters, to -whom Helbig, at the request of Carl Jacobsen, entrusted -the task—the first was Marozzi—evidently imagined that -Carl Jacobsen wanted these paintings as mural decorations -for his museum and had no artistic or scientific aim in -view, and letters from Helbig show that, as late as 1895, he -did not scruple to let Becchi, the painter, fill in a damaged -head from a picture in the Tomba dei Vasi Dipinti after -the reproduction in <i>Monumenti</i>, vol. ix (1870). The first -copies sent to the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek were therefore -of the same ‘picture-postcard’ colouring as the earlier ones -in the Museo Gregoriano, but gradually Carl Jacobsen -increased the rigour of his demands for conscientious exactitude, -and the facsimiles now on exhibition in the Helbig -Museum of the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek are almost all -executed according to the more modern and better principles -of copying. To be sure, these copies still leave a great deal -to be desired in the way of scientific exactitude; I have been -able myself to ascertain this by a careful comparison with -notes taken from the originals in the tombs of Corneto, and -Weege more especially has pointed out rather grave mistakes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span> -in the copies of the paintings from the Tomba delle Bighe. -But these may be supplemented by a series of beautiful -coloured drawings dating from the last years of Jacobsen’s -life: they are framed and constitute a whole picture-book -open to the public in the Helbig Collection. A large number -of ground plans and decorative details are included in these -drawings, in addition to the most important of the paintings, -and here the copying has been executed with great accuracy. -The Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, then, thanks to Carl Jacobsen, -is the place where investigators can most easily form an idea of -the development of Etruscan wall-painting, far more easily -than in Florence where the late Director, Milani, ordered -new copies which, in my opinion, are considerably inferior -to those of Carl Jacobsen. But for all that, the facsimiles of -the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek ought not to be the last word of -science on the subject. Mr. Weege proposes, as the method -of the future, the taking in the tombs themselves of gigantic -photographs on which careful painters might add the colouring; -instead of two there will thus only be one possibility of -distortion, namely, in the colours themselves. But one might -perhaps go still further and take large chromatic photographs -which would fix both forms and colours for all time, so that -we might view the gradual destruction of the originals with -less dismay than at present.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">FUTURE REPRODUCTIONS</div> - -<p>A detailed estimate of the <i>artistic</i> significance and -properties of the Etruscan wall-paintings is not yet possible, -if only because no adequate pictures for reproduction exist. -What can be done—and what will be attempted in the -following pages—is to give an account of the content of the -pictures and of the main lines of their development. Even -that is not superfluous. Investigators have never really given -themselves time to enter deeply into the spirit and content -of these pictures, or to ask themselves the question which -arises, one may say, with every picture, namely, how far the -representation is a loan from Greek art and civilization, and -how far it bears the local Etruscan stamp.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a id="Fig_1"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig1.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> WALL-PAINTING -FROM THE TOMBA CAMPANA </div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_2"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig2.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> -MAIN PICTURE IN THE TOMBA DEI TORI AT CORNETO -</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span></p> - - -<h2 id="II">II</h2> - - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA CAMPANA AT VEII</div> - -<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> first stage of development is represented by the -Tomba Campana at Veii. This tomb was discovered in 1843, -and a good description of it is given by Canina in <i>Antica -Città di Veii</i> (1847), but it has never been published with -adequate illustrations. A new and thorough treatment of -the ornamentation and motives of its pictures is given in a -Leipzig dissertation by Andreas Rumpf (<i>Die Wandmalereien -in Veii</i>, 1915). But this, too, is without illustrations. The -central doorway of the back wall is provided with an ornamental -painted border and flanked by paintings in yellow, -grey, and red on a blue ground. The work is primitive. -The ornamentation is akin to that of Greek vase-painting of -the seventh century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> The pictures are purely decorative: -animals and fabulous animals such as lion, sphinx, deer, and -panther fill the surface side by side with lotus-flowers and -palmettes. There is no narrative element. To be sure, -Weege, like others before him, has tried to construe one of -the pictures (<a href="#Fig_1">fig. 1</a>) into a mythological scene: the boy on -the horse, which is led by the bridle by a man walking behind, -is thought to be a dead man on his way to Hades, and the -man with the loin-cloth, carrying an axe over his shoulder, to -the left in front of the horse, to be the Etruscan death-god -and conductor of souls, Charun, to whom we shall return -later. Weege also thinks that the animal crouching on the -back of the horse is a hunting leopard. But, apart from the -rather puzzling question, what the hunting leopard has to do -with the ride to Hades, the animal is not a hunting leopard at -all: it is a feline animal with a short tail, while the hunting -leopard has a long tail. The animal was only placed there to -fill up the space, thus illustrating the poverty of ideas in -these pictures. Moreover, as the man with the axe is not -characterized as Charun, either by colour or by dress, it -seems unnecessary to force a mythological explanation. The -human figures in this picture, as in the Melian vases of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span> -seventh century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, are purely decorative: they ride when -the space above the back of the horse has to be filled in, and -they walk when a long, narrow field makes the human figure -more appropriate than a seated or walking animal as a means -of filling the space. The absurd alternation of colours within -the same figure, every single animal being coloured in compartments -of yellow and red and having alternately red and -yellow legs, affords a good instance of purely decorative -conception and suggests the idea of woven tapestry. Hence -it is an all but obvious conclusion to imagine, as prototype -of this painting, some magnificently coloured wall-tapestry -imported into Etruria in the seventh century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> from Crete -or one of the islands in the Aegean Sea, to the vase-paintings -of which the ornamentation of the tomb shows close affinity.<a id="FNanchor_4_4" href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> -Thus there is in these pictures neither any action nor any -reference to death or the tomb. They serve as a decorative -ornamentation of the tomb-chamber, like the six painted -shields in the inner chamber of the tomb, which suggest -those ‘brass circles’ mentioned by Livy (<span class="smcap lowercase">VIII</span>, 20, 8) as -common votive offerings in early Rome. We can imagine -the home of a rich Etruscan in the seventh century decorated -with similar frescoes: painted tapestries and painted shields -as substitutes for real wall-tapestries and metal shields.<a id="FNanchor_5_5" href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> The -Tomba Campana is the most impressive but not the only -representative of this earliest class of tombs, in the ornamentation -of which only decorative considerations have been -kept in view. Tombs at Cosa, Chiusi, Magliano, and Caere -contain still more primitive paintings of the same sort, but -they are badly preserved and still more imperfectly described.<a id="FNanchor_6_6" href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">6</a></p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span></p> - - -<h2 id="III">III</h2> - - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA DEI TORI AT CORNETO</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> next stage in the development is represented by the -Tomba dei Tori at Corneto, discovered in 1892 and admirably -published by G. Körte in <i>Antike Denkmäler</i>.<a id="FNanchor_7_7" href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> The back -wall of the main chamber in this tomb has two doors, and it -is between these that the one large figure painting is placed, -again in such a way as to suggest a tapestry stretched on the -wall (<a href="#Fig_2">fig. 2</a>). But now the picture has a narrative content, -inasmuch as a scene from the Greek cycle of myths is depicted: -Achilles watches for the Trojan prince Troilus at a well. -Achilles, to the left, wears a crested Corinthian helmet, -sword, greaves, and red loin-cloth. Troilus is naked and -only decorated with armlets and elegant shoes. He wears -his hair long, according to Ionic fashion, and in his hand he -carries a goad (kentron). This is, as a rule, only used when -two horses are ridden, and the drawing shows traces of -double contours near the head and the right leg of the horse; -it is probable, therefore, that two horses were originally -planned. In this picture also, the proportions of man and -horse are impossible, but progress is perceptible in the monochromatic -treatment of the body and legs of the horse. On -the other hand, the old manner of painting in stripes or -compartments is still retained in the running chimera in the -pediment above; it also lingers for a very long time in the -pedimental figures of the following period. The style is -Ionic of the first half of the sixth century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> A truly -Ionian monster, created under Oriental influence, is the -human-faced bull in the pediment above the door, one of -the two bulls from which the tomb derives its name, and -which are omitted here because of the obscene groups on -either side of them. Other decorative details point to Cyrene -and Egypt, especially the characteristic frieze of lotuses and -pomegranates, which corresponds with the Cyrenaic vases of -the sixth century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, and the stylized flower-bed under the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span> -belly of the horse, which has its origin in Egyptian and its -parallels in Phoenician and in orientalizing Greek art.<a id="FNanchor_8_8" href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> In -this tomb the painting is not executed <i>al fresco</i> but in a -yellowish-white pigment which unfortunately scales off in -large flakes.</p> - -<p>Thus in the Tomba dei Tori, besides a decorative treatment -of the wall surface with friezes, we have a main picture -with a mythological subject, painted in the Greek spirit and -perhaps actually executed by a Greek mural painter. We do -not find even the slightest allusion to death or entombment, -or the least trace of any Etruscan characteristics. The -inscription in the large frieze is of interest because it shows -the Etruscan language in its archaic form, with a rich vocalization -which must have made it much more euphonious than -the language spoken later, in the fourth or following centuries. -The inscription runs: ‘arnth spuriana s[uth]il hece ce -fariceka,’ and means, ‘Aruns Spurinna monumentum sepulcrale -... condidit, adornavit,’ or the like.<a id="FNanchor_9_9" href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">9</a></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<h2 id="IV">IV</h2> - - -<p><span class="smcap">A considerable</span> group of Etruscan tomb-paintings, dating -from the middle of the sixth century, show in their composition -close connexion with Ionic vase-painting, especially with -the so-called Caeretan hydriae, while their main pictures tell -us something about the Etruscans themselves and their -conceptions of Life and Death and Eternity. Only in the -animal friezes beneath the painted roof-supports does the -old decorative conception of the human and animal figure -still linger; elsewhere the pictures now have content and -meaning.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA DEGLI AUGURI</div> - -<p>We may take the Tomba degli Auguri in Corneto, -discovered in 1878, as our starting-point. There are coloured -drawings as well as full-sized facsimiles of its pictures in the -Helbig Museum.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a id="Fig_3"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> -BACK WALL IN THE TOMBA DEGLI AUGURI -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span></p> - -<p>The middle of the back wall of this tomb is occupied by -a painted door flanked by two men in white chitons and -short black cloaks lined with red; on their feet are peaked -shoes. They raise both arms in a gesture of lament, ‘beating -their foreheads’ as the ancient texts have it.<a id="FNanchor_10_10" href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">10</a> With this -scene (<a href="#Fig_3">fig. 3</a>) the key-note is struck: the living stand at the -door of the tomb and moan for the dead, a subject specially -appropriate to the decoration of the walls of a tomb.</p> - -<p>The scenes on the main walls are also associated with the -funeral ceremonies. On the right-hand main wall (<a href="#Fig_4">fig. 4</a>) a -boy is seen to the left in a white tunic with black dots, carrying -a stool and raising one arm and his face to a man who, dressed -in a red and brown cloak and brown shoes, seems to beckon -to the boy with his right hand, gesticulating at the same time -with his left. Between them a small figure is seated who -reminds one of the small boys in the Greek tomb reliefs -‘weeping on their cold knees’. To the right is another man -clad in chiton and mantle, gesticulating violently with his -left hand, and carrying a crook in his right. Above him, and -above the excited man to the right, runs the inscription: -‘Tevarath’, probably meaning umpire (βραβευτής, ἀγωνοθέτης). -For now follow representations of athletic contests: -two wrestlers engaging in the initial grips, the elder bearded, -the younger beardless: between them are seen the prizes—metal -bowls; these are supposed to be arranged in the -background, but owing to the lack of perspective they seem -to be in the way of the combatants. This scene throws light -on the preceding one: the man with the crook is evidently -not an augur, as originally conjectured because of the staff -and the flying birds, but the umpire who has to see that no -unfair tricks are used; the other man is the spectator who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span> -has not yet seated himself, but beckons to the slave-boy to -bring him the stool on which he will sit down like the Roman -knights of later times who brought their own stools into the -orchestra of the theatre. On the other hand, the mourning, -crouching slave-boy seems to repeat the death lament of the -back wall. Here already, then, we can observe the curious -fragmentariness of the scenes in Etruscan art: they look as -if they had been cut out of more comprehensive wholes, and -put together without logical sequence. Clarity and unity are -wanting. There is not the sustained composition or the -pleasure in detailed narrative which are regular in Greek -and Egyptian art. The Etruscan artist is content with hints -and fragments.</p> - -<p>To the right of the wrestlers, on the same main wall, -is a particularly interesting representation: beneath the -inscription Phersu, a man, dressed and masked like a punchinello, -is leading a dog in a long leash which is wound round -his antagonist and ends in a wooden collar round the neck -of the dog. The ferocious blood-hound has inflicted bleeding -wounds on the legs and thighs of the antagonist, and the -antagonist, whose head is muffled in a sack, is vainly trying -to disentangle himself from the leash and to hit the dog with -a club. The explanation of this exciting and brutal contest, -to which no parallel can be found in Greek art, is evidently -that Phersu tries to make his dog bite his antagonist to death -before the latter can get his head out of the sack and hit man -and dog with his club. If the club-bearer succeeds in freeing -himself from the sack and the dog, Phersu has only one -chance: to run away. As runner, he has his legs stiffened -with thongs, and in the much damaged fresco on the left -main wall of the tomb we see the flight of Phersu (<a href="#Fig_5">fig. 5</a>) and -(not reproduced) the club-bearer pursuing him. They are -separated by a pair of pugilists who are boxing to the accompaniment -of flutes, again an evidence of Etruscan indifference -to incongruities in the composition. The escaping Phersu -is painted alone in another tomb at Corneto, the Tomba del -Pulcinella, the name of which is derived from this figure, but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span> -here he is placed beside a horseman (<a href="#Fig_6">fig. 6</a>), who represents -the equestrian processions at funerals, to which we shall turn -our attention later. The Tomba del Pulcinella, which was -discovered in 1872, also dates from the sixth century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, -and like the Tomb of the Augur it bears the stamp of Ionic -art, especially in the receding contours of the crown of the -head and in the plump forms of the body.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a id="Fig_4"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig4.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> RIGHT MAIN WALL IN THE TOMBA DEGLI AUGURI</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_5"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig5.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> PART OF THE LEFT MAIN WALL -IN THE TOMBA DEGLI AUGURI<br /> -After a coloured drawing in the Helbig Museum</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_6"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig6.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> PAINTING FROM THE TOMBA DEL PULCINELLA</div> -</div> - -<p>In these two sepulchres, then, we are confronted with -representations which are associated not only with death -and the tomb, but also with Etruscan local customs and -national character. It is true that prize-fights and wrestling -contests in connexion with obsequies are known in the -Greek civilized world as well, for instance from the description -in the <i>Iliad</i> of the funeral of Patroclus, and lingered for -a long time especially in the outskirts of the Greek world—thus -King Nicocles of Cyprus, in the beginning of the fourth -century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, honoured his deceased father with choral -dancing, athletic games, horse-races, trireme races.<a id="FNanchor_11_11" href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> But we -know of no example from Hellas of a fight like that between -Phersu, accompanied by his blood-hound, and the muffled -club-bearer: a fight the attraction of which, apart from its -sanguinary character, evidently depended on the disparity -of the weapons, as it did in the combat between gladiator -and retiarius, the man armed with net and trident, in the -Roman arenas of a later day.<a id="FNanchor_12_12" href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">12</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">GLADIATORS IN ETRURIA</div> - -<p>From the Greek author Athenaeus,<a id="FNanchor_13_13" href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> we learn that the -gladiatorial games originated in Campania, where they were -introduced as entertainments at banquets, but that the -Romans adopted them from the Etruscans. This tradition -is confirmed by the facts that the name applied to the leader -and trainer of the Roman gladiatorial school, <i>lanista</i>, is of -Etruscan origin, and that the person, who even in late Rome<a id="FNanchor_14_14" href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> -dragged the corpses from the arena, the so-called <i>Dispater</i>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span> -was furnished with satyr-ears and a mask with savage features, -and carried a hammer, thus being a faithful copy of the -Etruscan death-god, Charun.<a id="FNanchor_15_15" href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> Moreover, as the Etruscans -in the heyday of their glory, in the sixth and fifth centuries -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, also ruled over Campania, it is most natural to -attribute to them, and not to the Campanian Graeculi, the -doubtful honour of being the actual ‘inventors’ of gladiatorial -combats. These combats were a piquant and exciting -substitute for actual human sacrifices in honour of the -deceased noble or the gods, and as one of the parties was -given a chance to save his life the practice may even be -considered an advance in humanity.</p> - -<p>Etruscan obscurity and inconsistency lead to curious -confusion in the transition from mythological pictures to -funereal scenes. Thus we find on the front of an early -archaic Etruscan terracotta sarcophagus, now in the British -Museum,<a id="FNanchor_16_16" href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> a representation in relief, manifestly inspired by -Greek mythology, of a battle scene with men and women as -spectators; at one end of the sarcophagus, the left, leave-taking -before marching out to battle; on the back, a banqueting-scene, -evidently representing the funeral feast, since -the relief on the other end of the sarcophagus shows four -mourning women, two of them holding drinking-bowls in -their hands.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<h2>V</h2> - - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA DELLE ISCRIZIONI</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">A good</span> idea of the different sort of athletic contests at -the great Etruscan funerals is given by the wall-paintings in -the Tomba delle Iscrizioni at Corneto, described and copied -by Stackelberg and Kestner in 1827,<a id="FNanchor_17_17" href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> and represented in the -Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek by facsimiles and coloured drawings -executed in 1907, after a chemical treatment of the plaster -stucco, which brought out a number of details more plainly.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span> -The pictures are of the same period as those of the Augur tomb, -and of similar style. The numerous inscriptions from which -the tomb has derived its title seem to be mostly proper -names. Each of the three wall-surfaces of this tomb, which -contains only one chamber, has a false painted door in the -middle. Of the first figures on the left main wall, two -pugilists, only very little is preserved (<a href="#Fig_7">fig. 7</a>). They are -contending, like the two wrestlers to the right of them, one -of whom has lifted the other from the ground, to the accompaniment -of the flute-player who is standing between the -two groups. This and many other Etruscan paintings confirm -the statement of Aristotle<a id="FNanchor_18_18" href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> that the Etruscans made their -boxers perform to the sound of the flute. Flute-playing was -so popular that masters scourged their slaves and caused -their cooks to work in the kitchen to the sound of the flute; -and here again the Romans adopted the Etruscan tradition -and gave their flute-players a recognized position in the -community, as is shown by the amusing story about the strike -of the Roman flute-players<a id="FNanchor_19_19" href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">19</a>: the flute-players left Rome in -disgust and went in a body to Tibur, and the only device the -Romans could think of was to make the excellent fellows -drunk and cart them back to Rome, where the citizens made -haste to confirm the ancient privileges of the flute-players -and to add several new ones in order to make the awakening -more pleasant.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_7"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig7.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> LEFT MAIN WALL OF THE TOMBA DELLE ISCRIZIONI.<br /> - After a coloured drawing in the Helbig Museum</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_8"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig8.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> BACK WALL OF THE TOMBA DELLE ISCRIZIONI</div> -</div> - -<p>On the other side of the false door the equestrian procession -begins and is continued on the back wall to the central -false door (<a href="#Fig_8">fig. 8</a>). Four young naked horsemen, some of -them with staves in their hands, are received by a naked -youth who carries a palm-branch over his shoulder. Apart -from the nakedness, which must be attributed to the influence -of Greek art, this equestrian procession is genuinely Etruscan. -Appian derives the festive processions at triumphs and -funerals from Etruscan prototypes, while Dionysius of Halicarnassus -finds their prototypes in Hellas. But it cannot be -denied that Dionysius’s description of these <i>pompae</i> in early<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span> -Rome<a id="FNanchor_20_20" href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> suggests Etruria: first came young horsemen, then -foot-soldiers; after these, athletes with their sexual organs -covered (in contrast to Greek custom), then the tripartite -chorus of dancers in purple cloaks and bronze belts, then the -grotesque dancers, flute-players, lyre-players, and thurifers, -and finally the procession of chariots with the images of the -gods. In the following pages we shall make acquaintance -with all these groups in the Etruscan world of art.</p> - -<p>The equestrian procession is presumably the preliminary -to a horse-race. The nobles of Etruria were celebrated for -their race-horses and often sent their chariot-teams to the -games in early Rome.<a id="FNanchor_21_21" href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> It is a characteristic fact that one of -the few Etruscan words given by the Greek lexicographer -Hesychius is no other than the word for horse, δάμνος -according to the Greek version.<a id="FNanchor_22_22" href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">22</a></p> - -<p>To the right of the false door in the back wall three jolly -dancers are seen: the first has his brow wreathed, carries -a drinking-bowl in hand, and wears boots, red skirt, and -blue neckerchief. The figure is shown by the flesh tint to be -male, not female as stated in Carl Jacobsen’s catalogue. -After him dances the flute-player, with red boots, blue loin-cloth, -and red chaplet, and last comes a naked dancing youth -with boots, necklace, and chaplet.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA DEL MORTO</div> - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA DEL TRICLINIO</div> - -<p>Dancers appear in a number of Etruscan tomb-paintings, -and abandon themselves to their gambols with a frenzy which -might seem incompatible with death and entombment. In -the Tomba del Morto at Corneto, dating from the same -period, we find traces of a pirouetting dancer close to the -couch of the dead and the lamenting mourners; the dance -was thus as important as the funeral lament (<a href="#Fig_9">fig. 9</a>). The -finest representations of Etruscan mourning dancers are -found in the Tomba del Triclinio, which dates from the -beginning of the fifth century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>: the Ny Carlsberg Glyp<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span>totek -contains several earlier, inferior facsimiles, made from -the copies in the Museo Gregoriano and only touched up at -Corneto by the painter Mariani;<a id="FNanchor_23_23" href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> and some more recent ones -carefully executed on the spot (<a href="#Fig_10">fig. 10</a>). On each wall three -female and two male dancers are seen among trees; fillets and -singing-birds appear in the foliage. The male dancers play -on lyre and flute; the dancing-girls have castanets and the -foremost a strap or chaplet with bells over her shoulder. -Similar chaplets with bells are often seen hanging on the -walls in pictures representing the symposia in honour of the -dead (see below), and bear witness to the childish predilection -of the Etruscans for gipsy-like noise and merry-making. -The most beautiful dancing-girl, however, in any Etruscan -tomb is the already mentioned ‘bella ballerina di Corneto’, -discovered on a wall in the Tomba Francesca Giustiniani. -We give this figure, which has never been reproduced, after -the facsimile in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek which arrived -there shortly before the death of Carl Jacobsen and gave him -one of the last pleasures in his life (<a href="#Fig_11">fig. 11</a>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_9"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig9.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> PICTURE FROM THE TOMBA DEL MORTO AT CORNETO</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_10"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig10.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> PICTURE FROM THE TOMBA DEL TRICLINIO</div> -</div> - -<p>When I examined the original in the tomb at Corneto -I made the following notes: the drapery (chiton), which is -ornamented with a pattern of dotted rosettes, is distinctly -preserved from the hips down to the elegant fluttering edge. -Much of the middle part of the body has been destroyed; -the fluttering ends of the red scarf across the shoulders are -visible to right and left. The upper part of the body and the -shoulders are also well preserved. The right arm is raised, -and visible from shoulder to elbow; a faint outline of the -left arm is also visible.<a id="FNanchor_24_24" href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> Of the head, the brow, the beginning -of the nose, the ear, the green fluttering head-dress, the red -hair with a loosened tress in front of the ear have been preserved. -To the spectator the picture still conveys an impression -of joy, of graceful movement, and of filmy fluttering -draperies.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">ETRUSCAN DANCE AND SONG</div> - -<p>Here also we find Etruscan tradition continued on Roman -soil, not only in the dancers of the festival processions, but -in the tradition that Etruscan dancers, <i>ludii</i> or <i>ludiones</i>, were -imported to Rome to dance at the great festivals. The Greeks -compared the Roman reel to the Dionysiac ‘cancan’, σίκιννις, -while its Roman name is <i>tripudium</i>; it was danced at every -period of Roman history by the Salii, the ancient priesthood -of the Roman war-god, on the chief festival of the god, -March 19. According to Livy (vii. 2. 4-7) the earliest -Roman poetry, the coarse Fescennines, originated in the text -which accompanied the dance of the <i>ludiones</i>, and the fact -that the dancers during the Fescennines daubed their faces -with minium supports the theory of Etruscan influence, which -also makes itself felt in the custom observed by the Roman -triumphators, who in the earliest times daubed their whole -bodies with minium. For we know that the Etruscans coated -the images of their gods with minium at their festivals, and -that the Romans gave the ancient terracotta statue of the -Capitoline Jupiter a similar coat of ‘war paint’ at the high -festivals, a task which it fell to the censors to superintend.<a id="FNanchor_25_25" href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> -The red minium was meant to heighten the natural red-brown -hue of the men; it produced an artificial virile complexion, -just as white lead and chalk served to emphasize the pale -feminine hue.<a id="FNanchor_26_26" href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">26</a></p> - -<p>The primitive nature of the verses connected with these -dances is shown by the song of the Salii, the burden of -which is the five times repeated ‘triumpe’ (jump!) and the -text of which runs: ‘Help us, lares, let not the evil disease -fall upon any more of us, Mars! Be satisfied, cruel Mars! -Jump on to the threshold. Cease jumping. Help us, -Mars!’ At the triumphs also, ‘carmina incondita’, as Livy -tells us, were sung (iv. 20. 2), and we venture to think that -Etruscan poetry was no better than this, and that the disappearance -of the texts, which accompanied the dances, is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span> -no great loss. Varro mentions tragedies in the Etruscan -language, but they were undoubtedly versions of the Greek -ones, even worse than those made for the Romans by Livius -Andronicus. Apart from some religious and a little historical -literature, and a number of recipes for the gathering -of simples, capable of rousing the admiration of the -Greeks for ‘the descendants of the Tyrrhenians, the people -skilled in medical lore’,<a id="FNanchor_27_27" href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> no tradition of any Etruscan intellectual -life in writing or poetry has been handed down to -posterity.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a id="Fig_12"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig12.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span> RIGHT MAIN WALL IN THE TOMBA DELLE ISCRIZIONI.</span> RIGHT MAIN WALL IN THE TOMBA DELLE ISCRIZIONI</div> -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA DELLE ISCRIZIONI</div> - -<div class="sidenote">LAUREL DECORATIONS</div> - -<p>We pass on to the right main wall in the Tomba delle -Iscrizioni (<a href="#Fig_12">fig. 12</a>) where dancers in a row with drinking-bowls -in their hands alternate with servants carrying wine in -large bowls. That the funeral dance was animated by free -indulgence in wine is often exemplified in the tombs. In the -Tomba delle Leonesse, named after the beasts of prey in the -pediment, which are really hunting leopards, a red-brown lad -to the right is dancing with a girl; to the left is a woman -with castanets, and in the centre, flanked by a flute-player -and a lyre-player, stands the wine-bowl wreathed with fresh -leaves (<a href="#Fig_13">fig. 13</a>), ‘the wine-bowl filled with joy,’ in Xenophanes’ -words. Evidently the Etruscans drank heavily to -celebrate the memory of their dead, as Xenophon relates of -another barbarian tribe, the Odrysians.<a id="FNanchor_28_28" href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> To the right of the -false door of the same main wall in the Tomba delle Iscrizioni -(<a href="#Fig_12">fig. 12</a>), a man in a loin-cloth with a laurel branch in each -hand is greeting another man, who carries chaplets and rests -one leg on the cushions of a couch. Laurel branches constantly -recur in the reliefs of the Etruscan cinerary urns, -where the death lament round the bier of the deceased is -reproduced, and it seems probable that laurel branches were -carried round the house and used for wall decoration in the -house of the deceased on the funeral day, for the purpose of -purification. This decoration of the walls, then, would be -the subject of our picture, together with the other preparations<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span> -for the funeral, as shown by the paintings.<a id="FNanchor_29_29" href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> Perhaps it was a -general custom of the Etruscans to decorate their walls on -festival days with laurel branches, just as the Egyptians -decorated theirs with lotus, and this would often account -for all the foliage which appears in the backgrounds of the -paintings alternating with suspended chaplets, even where -the action—the death lament (<a href="#Fig_9">fig. 9</a>) or the symposium—takes -place indoors. In other cases, however, as in the Tomba -dei Tori (<a href="#Fig_2">fig. 2</a>) and in the Tomba del Triclinio (<a href="#Fig_10">fig. 10</a>), there -is no doubt that real trees and open-air scenes are represented, -but even there the chaplets are often seen hanging—on the -wall. Again a proof of the want of clarity in Etruscan art! -Trees, however, in the background of scenes with figures are -also found on South Italian vases of the same time, and thus -seem to be a common Italic trait.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="VI">VI</h2> - - -<p><span class="smcap">Contemporary</span> with the group of the Tomba degli Auguri -and the Tomba delle Iscrizioni is the Tomba del Barone, -discovered at Corneto in 1827 and named, as already mentioned, -after Baron Kestner. After the paintings of this tomb -Stackelberg executed a fine water-colour, and Thürmer a -number of drawings, now in the University of Strasburg. -The style—both in the shape of the heads and in the treatment -of the draperies—is still Ionic, but the proportions are more -slender, probably owing to Chian or Attic influence.</p> - -<p>Composition and technique are both unique in the -paintings of this tomb. We content ourselves with reproducing -one main wall, the left (<a href="#Fig_14">fig. 14</a>), where a black horse -with light grey hoofs, mane, and tail, is led by a man wearing -red boots and a brown mantle lined with green. He is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span> -speaking with one hand raised to a woman in a long grey -chiton, a brown mantle lined with green, and a brown cap. -Then comes a man with green boots leading a brown horse.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a id="Fig_13"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig13.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span> BACK WALL IN THE TOMBA DELLE LEONESSE<br /> -After a drawing in the Helbig Museum</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_14"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig14.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span> LEFT MAIN WALL IN THE TOMBA DEL BARONE</div> -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA DEL BARONE</div> - -<p>Similar quiet pictures are found on the other two walls -of the tomb; on the back wall a man is standing with his arm -round a young flute-player’s neck, and is greeted by a woman. -The dress of the woman is Etruscan; the subjects also are -probably Etruscan—the preparations for the pompa and the -dancing feast. But everything breathes coolness and calm, -and we miss the usual jollity. The technique is equally -remarkable. It is not the usual fresco painting: experiments -have been made with size-paint, that is, an attempt at painting -in distemper on the plaster stucco covering the walls. The -attempt has failed; the colour has run in large blotches.</p> - -<p>These two characteristics of the artist of the Tomba del -Barone are of great interest because the German archaeologist, -Gustav Körte, has demonstrated the existence of marks made -by Greek artisans on the walls of this tomb. It was not in -Etruscan, but in Greek letters that the artist indicated the -amount of his day’s work, with a view to his wages. The -explanation, then, seems to be the following: a Greek -decorator was charged with the task of ornamenting the walls -of the tomb, and he did it, as far as the dresses are concerned, -according to local tradition; but he experimented boldly with -a new technical process, the success of which was prevented -by the dampness of the rock-wall; and he composed his -pictures with a grandeur of line and a tranquillity in execution -which make one think of the pediment of a Greek temple. -In the light of this it is easier to realize how much of the -Etruscan temperament there really is in the other paintings, -all Greek influence on style notwithstanding. It must be -noted here that artisans’ marks are the only written evidence -left by the decorative painters of Etruria; artists’ signatures -are unknown, whether in Greek or in Etruscan. The Etruscan -nobles, like the Roman later, evidently employed Greek -artists, but granted them no social position.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span></p> - - -<h2 id="VII">VII</h2> - - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA DELLE BIGHE</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the next period the predominant stylistic influence is -Attic. A whole group of tombs dates from about 500 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>: -they are thus contemporaneous with the severe red-figured -vase-paintings. Very Attic and, at the same time, like a -complete pictorial procession, representing everything which -took place at a great Etruscan funeral, is the Tomba delle -Bighe, previously mentioned and now published by Weege. -As the pictures in this tomb are clearer and more complete -than most Etruscan paintings, we will take some of them as -a starting-point for a closer examination of the facts of -Etruscan life.</p> - -<p>There are two friezes on the three walls of the tomb: a -narrower and lighter above; and a broader one below, in -which the figures are painted on a deep red ground; the -height of the friezes is respectively 36 and 90 cm., and they -are separated by a broad, coloured band. The narrow frieze -with the dark figures on light ground still reminds one of the -black-figured Attic vases, whereas the lower purple frieze, in -which the skin of the men is reserved in a somewhat lighter -red, that of the women in white, recalls the red-figured vase-paintings, -all differences notwithstanding.</p> - -<p>On the right-hand main wall (<a href="#Fig_15">fig. 15</a>), in the broad frieze, -men and women are dancing in honour of the dead among -laurel branches. There are the usual ecstasy and the familiar -animated gestures with the big fan-like hands, reminding one -of the figures in archaic Greek vase-painting and plastic art.<a id="FNanchor_30_30" href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">30</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE TUTULUS—CHARIOT RACE</div> - -<p>Especially splendid is the female flute-player who turns -round as she dances, her light chiton and red cloak fluttering -about her; she can almost compare with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span> ‘la bella ballerina’. -The dancing-women all wear the high Etruscan wreathed -cap, the so-called <i>tutulus</i>, which in the Tomba delle Iscrizioni -is also worn by a male dancer. We meet with it again in -Etruscan terracotta sculpture. The fashion is of Oriental -origin, and goes back, ultimately, to the pointed ’sugar-loaf -hat’ of the Hittites. It probably reached Etruria by way of -Cyprus, where it is frequently seen in reliefs of the seventh -century <span class="smcap lowercase">B. C.</span> In Etruria the pointed woollen cap became -part of the national dress.<a id="FNanchor_31_31" href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">31</a> Rome of course adopted the -headgear and preserved the Etruscan tradition in the priesthoods; -a purple tutulus adorned the Roman Flaminicae, and -certain secondary priests wore a tutulus down to the time of -Tertullian.<a id="FNanchor_32_32" href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> In early Rome all women wore the tutulus, and -under it a head-cloth such as is shown in Etruscan terracottas -(<a href="#Fig_16">fig. 16</a>); this is clear from a description of a Roman mourning -scene in Dionysius of Halicarnassus (xi. 39), where the women -tear their many and various fillets and hair-ornaments off -their heads.<a id="FNanchor_33_33" href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">33</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a id="Fig_15"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig15.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span> RIGHT MAIN WALL IN THE TOMBA DELLE BIGHE</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a id="Fig_16"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig16.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span> ETRUSCAN TERRA-COTTA HEAD IN -THE NY CARLSBERG GLYPTOTEK</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_17"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig17.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span> PART OF THE SMALL FRIEZE IN THE -TOMBA DELLE BIGHE</div> -</div> - -<p>The dancing scene, in the painted frieze referred to above -(<a href="#Fig_15">fig. 15</a>), ends at the sideboard on the left, which bears a -number of metal bowls: a cup-bearer, partially obliterated in -the original, is just putting down a vessel. The wine to inspire -the dancers is ready.</p> - -<p>In the narrow frieze—the most beautiful and most carefully -executed of those in the tomb, but very badly copied in -the facsimile of the Glyptotek—we see the preparations for -a chariot race. The horses are being led out and harnessed -to the chariot. We reproduce, after Stackelberg’s drawing, -the most interesting part of the frieze (<a href="#Fig_17">fig. 17</a>), in which three -young men are busy harnessing two horses to the light, two-wheeled -chariot, the Biga. The chariot is represented in -foreshortening, and the shaft is lifted up by a naked boy. -The young men have each one foot strongly foreshortened.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA DELLE BIGHE</div> - -<p>We find here the same experimentation with this new and -difficult problem, as in the Greek vase-paintings of about -500 <span class="smcap lowercase">B. C.</span>, in the vases of Euthymides and Euphronius. The -horse to the right is blue, that to the left grey, both have red -hoofs and red harness, and two youths, with a sort of shawl -round their loins, are busily engaged with them, striking -them on the flanks to get them into place. These two excellent -figures are quite misdrawn and misconstrued in the -Ny Carlsberg facsimile, the draughtsman not having realized -that they are seen from behind.</p> - -<p>We have, therefore, preparations for a chariot race; in -a wall-painting in the Tomba del Morente at Corneto we -have a still earlier phase represented, the lassoing of the -horse which is to be harnessed (<a href="#Fig_18">fig. 18</a>); here the horse is -red, with blue mane and tail. The disposition of the colours -is no more naturalistic in Etruscan wall-painting than in the -pediments of Greek temples: in applying the colours, the -painter’s object was purely decorative.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_18"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig18.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span> WALL-PAINTING FROM THE TOMBA DEL MORENTE<br /> -THE LASSOING OF THE HORSE</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_19"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig19.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span> PART OF THE SMALL FRIEZE IN THE TOMBA DELLE BIGHE<br /> -After Arch. Jahrb. 1916</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_20"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig20.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span> PART OF THE TOMBA DELLA SCIMMIA -AT CHIUSI</div> -</div> - - -<p>After the preparations comes the ceremonial parade of -the racing chariots past the stands; three chariots are seen -in a row (<a href="#Fig_15">fig. 15</a>): the first has not yet begun to move, -the horses are pawing the ground impatiently, and the groom -is standing at their heads trying to pacify them; the second -chariot has already started, and the team of the third chariot -is going a little faster, a fine crescendo which reminds one of -good Greek art rather than of Etruscan. To the left are the -stands for the spectators, which are continued on the back -wall; similar stands are seen in the corner where back wall -and left main wall adjoin. We give, after Stackelberg’s -drawing, the two parts from the first-mentioned corner -(<a href="#Fig_19">fig. 19</a>). On elevated platforms, bounded above by lines -evidently meant to indicate curtains which might be drawn -before the ‘box’ against sun or heavy showers, men and -women are seated and show their absorption in the games -by their eager gestures. The foremost woman to the right -actually greets the procession of chariots with her raised -hand. She is a matron wearing a shawl (epiblema) over the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span> -arms, and the back of her head, and under that a tutulus. Next -to her sits a young girl with a tutulus, noble in bearing and -gesture like a young goddess. Then follows a varied company -of youths, women, and a bearded man. The young man, who is -represented partly frontal with his chin resting on his hand -and the head and left leg frontal, is of special interest. The -problem of foreshortening has been very neatly solved. Under -the wooden floor of the stands the common folk are disporting -themselves, some of them engrossed in anything but the -games.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">THE AUDIENCE</div> - -<p>In order to understand the significance of this representation -one has to realize that such detailed pictures of spectators -at athletic games are unknown in Greek art. The nearest -parallel is the assembly of the gods, the Olympian spectators, -in the frieze of the Treasury of the Siphnians at -Delphi,<a id="FNanchor_34_34" href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> and in the Parthenon frieze, between which the -Tomba delle Bighe chronologically occupies an intermediate -position, about twenty-five years later than the former, and -about fifty years earlier than the latter. At the same time we -learn that female spectators were also present; this was not -so at the Olympic games, but seems to have been a common -Italic custom. The stands, too, appear typically Italic; -on such ἴκρια the spectators were seated at those athletic -games and contests which in earlier times, according to -Vitruvius (v. 1), were held in the market-places of Italian -towns. Amphitheatres were not known till the first century -<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, but if one imagines these market-places on festival -days with such wooden stands built up on all four sides, and -these stands curved round at the corners in order that the -spectators might see better, one can understand how the -shape of the amphitheatre originated.<a id="FNanchor_35_35" href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">35</a></p> - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA DELLA SCIMMIA AT CHIUSI</div> - -<p>Within the sphere of Etruscan painting also, this is the -only large representation of an audience. Elsewhere the -artist limited himself to the individual figure as representative -of the spectators; thus in the Tomba della Scimmia (the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span> -Monkey Tomb) at Chiusi, the only spectator is a lady dressed -in black and sheltered by a sunshade; she is seated on a high -chair without a back (diphros), her feet on a footstool (<a href="#Fig_20">fig. 20</a>). -The tomb was discovered in 1846 by François. The pictures -are executed in a thin colour, probably a sort of water-colour, -applied directly to the stone without an intermediate layer -of stucco; a similar technique is employed in the other and -larger tomb at Chiusi, the Tomba Casuccini. The four -walls are decorated with scenes from the race-course and the -palaestra. Behind the lady on the wall which is reproduced, -we see two men in rapid motion and with ample gestures -probably intended to render the bustle and hurry at the -funeral, which is also represented, as we have seen, by one -of the figures in the Augur tomb (cp. <a href="#Fig_4">fig. 4</a>). The sunshade -carried by the ‘widow’ was an Oriental fashion, but in the -fifth century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> the women of Greece had adopted it, -as is shown by the <i>Knights</i> of Aristophanes (l. 1348 -σκιάδειον). To the left the usual flute-player is standing, -and the round dais in front of him is not an altar, but, as -Milani was the first to point out, the small table on which -prizes were placed.<a id="FNanchor_36_36" href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">36</a> Next comes a girl with a censer on her -head. She is generally taken to be a female juggler, but -carrying a tall object on one’s head is still a common practice -with the women of the South, and censers (thymiateria), as -we learn from Dionysius of Halicarnassus, were always -carried at the ‘pompae’ in early Rome; at the high festivals -they were placed in front of the Roman doorways.<a id="FNanchor_37_37" href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> They -were sometimes of costly material.<a id="FNanchor_38_38" href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> But our woman seems -to be standing on a platform, and the near presence of the -flute-player, and the turning of her body and position of her -arms, seem to indicate some difficult dance performed with -the big object borne on her head in a small, limited space; -hence a kind of old Etruscan dervish-dance of which we -have no other knowledge. The two figures next to her are -a big and a small man who are cooling their bleeding noses<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span> -with sponges: the artist gives the atmosphere of the scene -after the fight. On one of the other walls in this tomb the -boxers are ready for action, raising their cestus-bound fists -against each other, one hand closed for attack, the other open -for defence, as frequently described in the ancient authors.<a id="FNanchor_39_39" href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> -Cicero tells us that boxers sighed and groaned, in order to -increase the force of the blow.<a id="FNanchor_40_40" href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> These cestus fights must have -been terrible. The guard, nowadays less, was then more -important than the blow, for it was too dangerous to take the -risk of being hit by one’s opponent when attacking him, -even if one was confident that one’s own blow would be the -harder; one had to play for an opening, at the same time -guarding against the single blow which was sufficient to -knock a man out. Finally, on the extreme left of the picture -(<a href="#Fig_20">fig. 20</a>) we meet with a scene which is repeated in another -picture in the same tomb, as well as in the Tomba del Triclinio: -a rider seated sideways and at the same time leading -another horse. The race with a led horse was an Oriental -custom, and appears for the first time on the Phoenician metal -bowls of the eighth and seventh centuries <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> This seat, -sideways on the horse, is of Scythian origin, and in Greek art -usually characterizes the Amazons. The Etruscans, with -their passion for difficult games, evidently combined the two -in order to make the races as exciting as possible.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_21"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig21.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span> -PART OF THE SMALL FRIEZE IN THE TOMBA DELLE BIGHE<br /> -After Arch. Jahrb. 1916</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_22"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig22.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span> -PART OF THE SMALL FRIEZE IN THE TOMBA DELLE BIGHE<br /> -After Arch. Jahrb. 1916</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_23"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig23.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span> SYMPOSIUM IN THE TOMBA DELLE BIGHE</div> -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA DELLE BIGHE</div> - -<p>In the small frieze on the back wall of the Tomba delle -Bighe we find a rider with a led horse, dressed in tunic and -helmet, and seated astride; we reproduce part of it after -Stackelberg’s water-colour (<a href="#Fig_21">fig. 21</a>). To the left of him we -see a naked man standing on one leg and nursing his raised -left leg. It was formerly conjectured that he was playing -leap-frog with the young man planting the jumping-pole in -the ground behind him, but it is not usual to play leap-frog -on one leg, and Weege has pointed out the same position in -athletic scenes on Greek vases and supposes it to be a kind -of preparatory exercise. His supposition is correct: any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span> -modern acrobat would recognize it as one of his exercises; the -contraction of the muscles by nursing right and left knee in -turn. Acrobats practise this exercise when travelling, to keep -themselves fit when they are unable to train.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="VIII">VIII</h2> - - -<div class="sidenote">PALAESTRA LIFE</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> will not dwell on all the forms of wrestling contests -and boxing matches which appear in the small frieze of the -Bighe tomb, but only describe a part of the left main wall, -which presents an important and difficult problem (<a href="#Fig_22">fig. 22</a>). -To the left of a young man in a himation (not reproduced) -we see the lower part of a statue of a deity, who would seem, -from the faint traces in Stackelberg’s water-colour, to have -wings on his ankles. If so, it is Hermes, the protector of the -palaestra, and the black object in front of him is a small altar. -On the other side of the altar a boy, accompanied by one of -the caretakers of the palaestra, clad in a blue mantle and -carrying a knotted stick, is standing with his hand raised. -This usually indicates the adorer praying to the divinity for -victory in the contest. An absolutely Greek palaestra interior! -We have now escaped from the sphere of the customary rude -games held at the Etruscan funerals, and the question arises -whether the Etruscan knew real palaestra life of the Greek -type or not. In the Oscan towns of Lucania and Campania -the youths were devoted to Greek sports, and Weege is -therefore inclined, in view especially of this picture, to -believe the same of the nobles of Etruria at the height of -their glory in the sixth and fifth centuries <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> But this is -a dangerous inference. Wherever else we meet with Etruscan -athletic types they are rough and lumbering of build and -evidently professionals. In the Tomba delle Bighe a Greek -artist has been at work; this was already admitted by -Stackelberg and Kestner, and the same view is held in -our own times. Although the artist has complied with the -demands of his patron more fully than the Greek artist in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span> -the Tomba del Barone, who only troubled himself to do so -as far as dress was concerned, but for the rest painted entirely -in the spirit of his native country, Greek influence, nevertheless, -has penetrated everywhere. It is seen, for instance, in -the incongruities of the picture: the spectators in the corners, -suggesting actual athletic games; then this interior from a -Greek palaestra, which <i>might</i> be interpreted, however, as -part of a public contest; next comes the prize table, as in -the Tomba della Scimmia, but on both sides himation-clad -boys are seen, loitering like typical figures of the everyday -life of the palaestra, who have absolutely nothing to do with -the concentrated excitement of the sports in the arena. To -the left of the low table we see a little armed dancer, with -helmet, shield, and spear, in Greek nudity, not fully dressed like -the gladiator in the Tomba della Scimmia; his lance is bent -zigzag-wise, apparently an Etruscan peculiarity. With the -Greeks also, the armed dance—the pyrrhiche—formed part -of the sepulchral festival, especially in Cyprus and Crete, -where it was called prylis;<a id="FNanchor_41_41" href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> and the custom may very well -have been adopted by the Etruscans.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="IX">IX</h2> - - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA DELLE BIGHE SYMPOSIUM</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Similar</span> incongruities, due to Greek artists, or at any rate -Greek art, having set a Greek stamp on the wall-painting of -Etruria, meet us in the representations of <i>symposia</i>. Again -we can take the Bighe tomb as our starting-point (<a href="#Fig_23">fig. 23</a>).<a id="FNanchor_42_42" href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> -Three festive couches are seen with two young men on each.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span> -The youths are naked to the waist, and have sumptuous gold -necklaces, red or blue mantles, and chaplets on their heads. -Some of them hold flat drinking-bowls, some eggs, and others -have branches in their hands—all this, however, we only -learn from the old copies: they are reclining on metal -couches, whereas the tables in front of them are wooden, as -is clearly proved by the colours employed. We may wonder -that the couches are of metal, for according to the literary -tradition the first metal couches came to Rome as late as -187 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> Nevertheless, ivory and golden couches are already -mentioned by Plautus; this may, however, be due to the -Greek text on which he based his comedy (<i>Stichus</i> 377). -The Etruscans, at any rate, knew bronze couches at least -three hundred years earlier, and this is corroborated by the -find of an actual bronze banqueting-couch in a tomb at -Corneto.<a id="FNanchor_43_43" href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> The couches are covered with many-coloured -woven or embroidered bolsters and cushions; these also -are mentioned in the Roman comedies as ornaments of -couches.<a id="FNanchor_44_44" href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">44</a> Ducks appear beneath the couches, and the guests -are attended by three naked lads: a flute-player, a boy -holding a branch, and another with a ladle, which are wrongly -reproduced in the Ny Carlsberg facsimile as a staff.</p> - -<p>The symposium has begun, the tables having been cleared. -Only young beardless men are seen feasting together, and -nothing informs us who they are or why they are drinking. -All that is certain is the luxury and pomp which seem to have -characterized Etruscan houses and which are especially manifest -in the jingling necklaces and the material and appointment -of the festive couch.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a id="Fig_24"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig24.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 24 -BACK WALL IN THE TOMBA DEI LEOPARDI<br /> -After Arch. Jahrb. 1916, pl. 9</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_25"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig25.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 25 -MARRIED COUPLE ON AN ETRUSCAN CINERARY URN</div> -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA DEI LEOPARDI—HUNTING LEOPARDS</div> - -<p>New problems arise with the large symposium scene in -the Tomba dei Leopardi at Corneto, which was discovered in -1875 and has now been described in an exemplary manner<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span> -by Weege in the article mentioned above. The pictures are -among the best preserved in the whole of Etruria, and date -from about the same time as the Bighe tomb, about 500 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> -The tomb takes its name from the two almost life-sized -leopards in the pediment (<a href="#Fig_24">fig. 24</a>). They have been neatly -proved by Weege to be hunting leopards. As early as the -days of ancient Egypt leopards were trained for hunting purposes, -and hunting leopards appear in Greek vase-paintings -and Etruscan wall-paintings, for instance, in the earlier -tombs such as the Tomba delle Leonesse and the Tomba del -Triclinio, where the animal lies beneath a couch. In the -Middle Ages the hunting leopard was still trained in the -East, and is therefore depicted in the paintings of the Renaissance—for -instance in the pictures of Gentile da Fabriano -and Benozzo Gozzoli—as seated on the cruppers of the horses -behind the Magi or their servants.<a id="FNanchor_45_45" href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> In modern India leopards -are still trained to hunt.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA DEI LEOPARDI</div> - -<p>Beneath the two long-bodied hunting leopards we see the -main picture of the back wall (<a href="#Fig_24">fig. 24</a>) representing a symposium. -On the couch to the left two youths are reclining, on -each of the two others a youth and a young girl.<a id="FNanchor_46_46" href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> The young -men are attired in mantles, the girls in chitons and mantles; -all wear garlands. In their hands they hold either chaplets, -drinking-bowls, or round objects usually supposed to be -eggs. Similar ‘eggs’ appear in numerous Etruscan banqueting-scenes: -in the Tomba del Triclinio, del Letto -funebre, della Pulcella, degli Scudi, &c., and as egg-shells -are frequently found in the tombs at Corneto, and eggs must -therefore have been offered to the dead<a id="FNanchor_47_47" href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">47</a>—as the most -nourishing of foods, and one which stimulates in particular<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span> -the procreative force—it is not improbable that the old -interpretation is the correct one. Weege supposes them to -be ballot-balls used to decide who should be the master of -the symposium (symposiarch), but this was usually decided -by throwing dice. A third conceivable interpretation, which -I think might be acceptable in certain cases where a man -and a woman hand each other these round objects, is that -they are rings. In Plautus’s <i>Asinaria</i> (778) it is spoken -of as typical of two young lovers reclining on one couch at the -symposium that one of them gives the other his or her ring to -look at.</p> - -<p>Beneath and above the banqueting-couch we find the -previously noted laurel branches—not laurel trees as Weege -calls them—the familiar adornment of the walls. The guests -are served by two naked pages: one of these, who holds -a jug, beckons to the other, who holds a small jug and -a strainer, to make haste. How necessary it was to strain the -wine is seen from the description of the elder Cato. The -Latin word for cleaning the wine-jars of the grape-skins -deposited by the wine is <i>deacinare</i>.<a id="FNanchor_48_48" href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">48</a></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<h2 id="X">X</h2> - - -<div class="sidenote">THE HETAERAE</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">This</span> wall-painting is apparently a faithful copy of a -Greek painted representation of a symposium with hetaerae, -and this is also Weege’s view of the scene. In his opinion, -those who take part in the drinking bouts of the young men -are not married or respectable women, but hetaerae. It -seems to me that such a representation in a <i>tomb</i> would -argue a complete dissolution of family relations in ancient -Etruria, whether we choose to interpret the pictures as scenes -from life, or as an expression of the wish that the next life -might take the form of nothing more or less than a revel with -hetaerae. Weege maintains, further, that hetaerae reclined -at table, whereas wives sat with their husbands: but this is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span> -contrary to the express literary tradition, according to which -the Greeks were shocked because the Etruscan women -reclined at table with men ‘under the same coverlet’. The -earliest authority for this statement is Aristotle<a id="FNanchor_49_49" href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">49</a> and, according -to this and other accounts of the fourth century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, the -free intercourse between men and women gave rise to much -immorality, the women abandoning themselves to the strange -men with whom they reclined.<a id="FNanchor_50_50" href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">50</a> It would have been absurd -for the Greeks to take offence at this if it did not apply to -free-born women of good family, but only to hetaerae, who -in Hellas did exactly the same. How things were with the -Greeks in this respect is made sufficiently clear by a passage -in the orator Isaeus<a id="FNanchor_51_51" href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">51</a>: ‘No one would dare to serenade -married women, and neither do the married women attend -banquets with their husbands, nor do they consider it proper -to partake of meals with strangers, especially chance acquaintances’.</p> - -<p>With this severe Athenian custom we must compare these -scandalized Greek outbursts, and, at the same time, we must -remember that in the fourth century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> Etruscan civilization -and morals were already on the decline, so that an original -latitude, which in the beginning of the fifth century was -natural and did not affect the morals of domestic life, may -at this time have been abused. Incidentally, we are able to -ascertain the degree of exaggeration in another Greek account -of the same time concerning the luxuriousness of the Etruscans<a id="FNanchor_52_52" href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">52</a>: -‘They reclined on flowered cushions drinking out of -sumptuous silver bowls and attended by servants in costly -dresses, <i>sometimes by naked women</i>.’ In the Etruscan paintings -there are numerous naked pages in attendance, just as in the -Greek symposium pictures, but not a single naked handmaid. -As to the question whether respectable women reclined or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span> -sat at table, invariable rules did not exist in Etruria any more -than they existed in ancient Rome, where we know that -Jupiter alone reclined at the lectisternia (the sacred banquets -given by the state) whereas Juno and Minerva sat; furthermore, -in the last century of the republic, respectable women -sat with the men at banquets, while brides reclined.<a id="FNanchor_53_53" href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">53</a> The -practice of brides reclining can hardly, however, be accounted -for except as a case of adherence to an ancient and honourable -custom which was superseded by later and severer notions.</p> - -<p>Etruscan works of art, however, give sufficient information -to confute the whole of Weege’s hetaera theory. Man and -woman are often seen reclining together on Etruscan sarcophagi -and cinerary urns, and on the face of it it would seem -improbable that a man would have himself pictured on his -sarcophagus with a hetaera. Dr. S. P. Cortsen kindly informs -me that this view is confirmed by the fact that two of these -cinerary urns with a pair of figures on the lid have an inscription -in which the word <i>tusurthi</i> or <i>tusurthir</i> occurs—one of -the few Etruscan words the signification of which is certain: -it means<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span> ‘spouses’.<a id="FNanchor_54_54" href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> And if we look at the type of womanhood -represented in several of the recumbent couples on the later -urns, when realism prevails in Etruscan portrait sculpture, -the appellation hetaera becomes as preposterous as that of -matrons is certain (<a href="#Fig_25">fig. 25</a>).<a id="FNanchor_55_55" href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">55</a></p> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_26"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig26.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span> PICTURE FROM THE TOMBA DEGLI SCUDI AT CORNETO</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_27"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig27.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span> PICTURE FROM THE TOMBA DEGLI SCUDI<br /> -After a coloured drawing in the Helbig Museum</div></div> - - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA DEGLI SCUDI</div> - -<p>But proof is furnished by the tomb-paintings themselves. -In the Tomba degli Scudi at Corneto, discovered in 1870, -and, to judge by the style, dating from the end of the fifth -century <span class="smcap lowercase">B. C.</span>, the wife (as might be expected) is pictured -sitting with her husband, who is reclining on the couch with -a drinking-bowl in his left hand, his right resting on the -woman’s shoulder (<a href="#Fig_26">fig. 26</a>). According to the inscription the -man’s name is <i>Velthur Velcha</i>, that of the woman <i>Ravnthu -Aprthnai</i> (the family name is in the nominative and is a -woman’s name, the Latin <i>Abortennia</i>; so the family of the -mother was the more distinguished). The figure and the -diadem of the woman recall those of the Hera Borghese -and determine the date of the tomb. On the table in front -of the couch are a bowl, a cake (<i>pyramis</i>), and a heap of -fruits: or they may be the ‘ball-cakes’ (<i>spirae</i> or <i>spaeritae</i>) -referred to by Cato (<i>De agricultura</i> 82). At the foot of -the couch a lyre-player and a flute-player accompany the -meal with music, recalling a statement of Cicero’s<a id="FNanchor_56_56" href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> that at -banquets in early Rome the sound of stringed instruments -and flutes was deemed indispensable. On the whole, it -might perhaps be as well to abandon all theories of the austere -morals of early Rome. The patrician families of the first -centuries of the republic undoubtedly lived a life which in -pomp and luxury vied with the life of the nobility of the -Etruscan towns. Again, in the painting on the back wall of -this tomb, where the recumbent man is a priest (<i>cechaneri</i>), -the wife is seated with her husband (<a href="#Fig_27">fig. 27</a>). As to the priesthood, -it must be borne in mind that the priestly office was -hereditary in the Etruscan noble families. The statue of -Juno at Veii, for instance, might only be touched by a priest -of a certain family.<a id="FNanchor_57_57" href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> It was especially the art of divination, -however, which was reserved for the noblemen and their -wives.<a id="FNanchor_58_58" href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">58</a> Even when the Romans had conquered Etruria they -continued to support the efforts of the Etruscans to confine -initiation into the art of divination to the nobility. Even -Cicero, in his book on the ideal State, maintains that omens -and presages must be submitted to haruspices, and the nobles -of Etruria must teach the ‘disciplina<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span>’.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA DELL’ORCO</div> - -<p>In the pictures of the Scudi tomb the wife, as we have -seen, <i>is sitting</i>. But in the Tomba dei Vasi Dipinti, besides -a man and a woman, two children are present at the symposium, -which would be inconceivable in a hetaera picture; and -in a picture in the front chamber of the Tomba dell’Orco at -Corneto, discovered in 1868 and dating from the same period -as the Scudi tomb, there are traces of a man and a woman -reclining together, and the inscription informs us that the -woman is a free-born woman named Velia—the family name -has unfortunately been destroyed—and that she is married -to Arnth Velchas, a descendant of one of the noblest families -in Etruria (<a href="#Fig_28">fig. 28</a>). With this, then, the last and final proof -of the untenability of the hetaera theory has been adduced: -this woman, whose head is one of the most beautiful in the -sepulchral chambers of Etruria (<a href="#Fig_29">fig. 29</a>), reclines with her -husband on the couch in the picture in the tomb, even as she -was buried with him in the tomb itself. A failure to appreciate -this fact would imply a complete denial of Etruscan family -feeling and pride of race.</p> - -<p>The dancing women, on the other hand, for instance, the -woman in the Tomba delle Leonesse already cited above, -and another, still more wanton, who in the Tomba degli -Bacchanti foots it with a fat dancer, must be interpreted -as hetaerae. They illustrate the phrase of Plautus: ‘prostibile -est tandem? stantem stanti savium dare amicum -amicae?’ To the same category of hired dancers belongs -the man to the left of the one who is dancing with inverted -cithara.<a id="FNanchor_59_59" href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">59</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_28"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig28.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span> ARNTH VELCHAS AND WIFE ON COUCH -PICTURE IN THE TOMBA DELL’ ORCO<br /> -After a coloured drawing in the Helbig Museum</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a id="Fig_29"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig29.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span> HEAD OF ARNTH VELCHAS’ WIFE -FROM THE TOMBA DELL’ ORCO</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_30"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig30.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span> BACK WALL IN THE TOMBA DEL VECCHIO</div> -</div> - - -<p>Generally speaking, what has made doubt or error possible -in the matter is the fact that the pictures, as we have already -said, in form suggest Greek pictures of hetaerae; symposia -of any other kind between men and women were unknown in -Hellas. And to what extent the influence of Greek art has -prevailed is shown by the picture of a momentary phase of -emotion in the Tomba Querciola, where a couple reclining on -the couch are kissing each other, a motive as suitable to a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span> -Greek hetaera picture as it is incongruous in a picture representing -family life after death.<a id="FNanchor_60_60" href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> Another source of error is -the pronounced sensualism of these pictures; in a sepulchral -painting as early as the sixth century, the main picture of the -Tomba del Vecchio, we see on a banqueting-couch, under -the wreaths and chaplets with bells hanging on the wall, a -hoary old <i>roué</i> in vivacious conversation with his beautiful -young wife who holds a garland, a hypothymis, under his -nose (<a href="#Fig_30">fig. 30</a>).<a id="FNanchor_61_61" href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">61</a> This picture is typically Etruscan in its -combination of wine and love. ‘As soon as we had eaten,’ -sings the Greek poet Dromon,<a id="FNanchor_62_62" href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">62</a> ‘the slave girl removed the -tables; one brought us water for washing, and we washed -ourselves; then we seized again the wreaths of violets and -bound our brows with garlands.’ The Etruscans seem to have -followed the Greek rules minutely, but like the Egyptians -they let the free-born women partake of the festivity of the -symposium itself.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="XI">XI</h2> - - -<div class="sidenote">SYMPOSIA</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">But</span> we can go still further and establish beyond the -possibility of doubt that where men alone are gathered at -the symposium of eternity, the pictures represent the heads of -the families who ordered the tombs and had them decorated. -To be sure, the pictures of the sixth and the beginning of -the fifth centuries do not give us any information as to this—even -the symposium in the Tomba delle Bighe is without -inscription; but in this respect also the sepulchral paintings -become more communicative after the middle of the fifth -century. In the Tomba Golini at Orvieto, discovered in 1863<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span> -and called after its discoverer, and, to judge from its style, -contemporary with the Tomba degli Scudi and the front -chamber of the Tomba dell’Orco, we see in the symposium -on the back wall (<a href="#Fig_31">fig. 31</a>) two men on the same couch drinking -to the accompaniment of the two familiar musicians. Beneath -the couch we can make out dimly a servant, and a hunting -leopard, probably feeding; both have their names attached: -that of the animal is Kankru. In Egyptian reliefs also, dating -from the Fifth Dynasty, we occasionally find names attached to -the domestic animals depicted, for instance ducks and pigeons.</p> - -<p>Of the two men reclining on the couch the foremost holds -a drinking-bowl and an egg. In the Ny Carlsberg facsimile -he is represented as beardless, but no doubt wrongly. It is -an elderly man; his face is one of the earliest examples of -naturalism in Etruscan portraiture. The other, full-bearded, -holds a flat, fluted vessel without foot, presumably one of the -celebrated Etruscan golden vessels which are more minutely -characterized in a symposium in the Tomba della Pulcella; -they were even introduced into Athens, where, side by side -with Corinthian works in bronze, they formed part of the -decoration of a wealthy house, and they are eulogized in a -poem by Critias,<a id="FNanchor_63_63" href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> one of Athens’ finest <i>beaux esprits</i>.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA GOLINI AT ORVIETO</div> - -<p>In this painting in the Tomba Golini the inscriptions -give us much valuable information as to the connexion -between the two persons.<a id="FNanchor_64_64" href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">64</a> Above the first we read: ‘Vel -lecates arnthial ruva larthialisa clan velusum nefs marniu -spurana eprthnec tenve mechlum rasneas cleusinsl zilachnve -pulum rumitrine thi ma[l]ce clel lur.’ In translation the -text runs:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span> ‘Vel Lecates, Arnth’s brother,<a id="FNanchor_65_65" href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">65</a> son of Larth, -and descendant of Vel. He held the offices of Maro urbanus -(<i>spur</i> means town) and Eprthne (secular official title) and -was Zilach (dictator) of the Etruscan people in Clusium....’ -The rest is unintelligible. It is interesting in the inscription -to come across the name by which the Etruscans called -themselves, <i>rasneas</i>; Dionysius of Halicarnassus (i. 30) -was therefore justified in saying that the Etruscans called -themselves Rasenas. The name Larth is common in Etruscan -inscriptions. The Romans knew it and called the well-known -Etruscan king by his full name, Lars Porsenna (in Etruscan, -Larth Pursna).<a id="FNanchor_66_66" href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">66</a></p> - - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a id="Fig_31"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig31.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span> SYMPOSIUM IN THE TOMBA GOLINI AT ORVIETO</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_32"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig32.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"> <span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span> WALL-PAINTING IN THE TOMBA GOLINI</div> -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA GOLINI</div> - -<p>We now turn to the inscription above the bearded man -on the same couch; his name is Arnth Leinies, son of Larth, -and descendant of Vel; his official titles follow, and the -inscription ends: ‘ru[va] l[ecates velus] amce,’ i. e., was -brother of Vel Lecates. Thus we have two brothers reclining -on the same couch, and the inscription makes it probable -that the other symposiasts, too, are not chance revellers, but -members of the same family, united in the picture as they -were in life and in the grave.</p> - -<p>In the same tomb, to the left of this scene, we see -a table, bearing several metal vessels, a thymiaterion, and -an ivory box for incense, and flanked by two candelabra -with lighted candles stuck into birds’ beaks (<a href="#Fig_32">fig. 32</a>). The -Etruscans were considered inventors of the art of candlemaking -and taught the Romans to manufacture different -kinds of candles, from big wax candles—candelae and cerei—to -cheap dips—sebaceae. The Italic peoples used candles -and candlesticks until Roman Imperial times, though in the -last centuries they also had oil lamps, the manufacture and -use of which they had learned from the Greeks; the oldest -clay lamps found in the northern part of Italy date from -about 300 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span><a id="FNanchor_67_67" href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">67</a> To the left of the table is seen a naked -slave with a jug and a dish; to the right a young man in -a light-coloured, sleeved chiton, who has been conjectured<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span> -to be another servant. But again the inscription affords -positive information: ‘Vel leinies larthial ruva arnthialum -clan velusum prumaths avils semphs lupuce’; i.e. ‘Vel -Leinies, Larth’s brother, son of Arnth and descendant of -Vel; he died (<i>lupuce</i>) at the age of 7.’<a id="FNanchor_68_68" href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> So the boy is son -of the hindmost man on the banqueting-couch and belongs -to the noble family interred in the tomb.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<h2 id="XII">XII</h2> - - -<p><span class="smcap">Corresponding</span> to the lassoing of the horse in the Tomba -del Morente, as a preparation for the chariot race, we find -in the Tomba Golini pictures of the preparations for the -banquet which is celebrated in the pictures mentioned above. -In one of the pictures we see cattle, venison, and poultry -hanging in the larder, in another the cooking in the kitchen -itself (<a href="#Fig_33">fig. 33</a>); like everything else in Etruria, it is accompanied -by the flute. To the left of the flute-player a woman is -struggling with a sideboard piled with food; to the right -a naked slave with a loin-cloth is working at a small table, -using two small implements rather like plummets. Various -interpretations have been advanced: that he is kneading -dough, or grinding colours; the latter explanation, however, -is improbable in a kitchen scene. Besides these -Dennis proposes a third possibility—that he is chopping -vegetables, but he dares not commit himself to a decision. -The table itself, at which the slave is standing, seems to -have a raised edge, and thereby recalls the elder Cato’s -recipe for the preparation of cheese cakes and puffs<a id="FNanchor_69_69" href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">69</a>: -‘Take a clean table, a foot broad, surround it with an edge -(<i>balteus</i>), and then mix honey and cheese on it.’ For puffs, -directions are given to belabour the dough with two sticks -or staves (<i>rudes</i>). After all the procedure here is somewhat -similar, only that the dough is kneaded with pieces of metal -and not with staves.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_33"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig33.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span> -KITCHEN INTERIOR IN THE TOMBA GOLINI</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_34"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig34.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span> PAINTING IN THE TOMBA DEL LETTO FUNEBRE<br /> -After a coloured drawing in the Helbig Museum</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">KITCHEN SCENES</div> - -<p>In these scenes from kitchen and wine-cellar, where the -wood is being chopped,<a id="FNanchor_70_70" href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">70</a> where the cooks are swinging the -saucepans or working at the range,<a id="FNanchor_71_71" href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> where young slaves are -struggling with sideboards covered with drinking-vessels, the -inscriptions contain the names of the slaves. Men desired -to be served in the after-life by the same skilful slaves as -in the present, and it was therefore the custom in later -times to add the names. This reminds one of the Egyptian -tomb-reliefs, where sometimes the serfs and the slave girls -are designated only by the name and mark of the estate, -so that in a way each of them represents one of the estates -of the deceased lord, whereas in other cases they have their -proper names attached and survive as personalities in the -after-life.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<h2 id="XIII">XIII</h2> - - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA DEL LETTO FUNEBRE</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Thus</span> we see a slow transformation taking place in the -ideas which inspired the Etruscan tomb-paintings. In the -Tomba del Morto and the Tomba degli Auguri, the representation -of the death lament showed plainly that the main -theme was the festival in honour of the dead; and the -memorial feast itself should probably in most cases be recognized -in the banquet accompanied by the symposium or—as -in the Tomba delle Iscrizioni—the preparations for it. -This conception is also clearly expressed in the sepulchral -paintings of the fifth century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, such as the Tomba del -Letto funebre, where the main picture (<a href="#Fig_34">fig. 34</a>) represents -an enormous couch with a footstool in front<a id="FNanchor_72_72" href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">72</a>; on the tall<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> -pile of bolsters and coverlets rest two pairs of cushions, each -of them supporting a green chaplet encircling a pointed cap -(<i>tutulus</i>). Green festoons and a long red cord hang on the -walls: to the right of the couch are two symposiasts and two -slaves; the slaves face the big central couch, and hold one -an egg, the other a loaf in their raised hands. To the left -of the picture are the flute-player and the sideboard with -vases. Here we get an idea how a lectisternium was spread -in honour of the dead, in connexion with the symposium at -a memorial feast. The dead are represented by their headgear; -to that the slaves to the right are offering sacrifice, -to that the flute-player to the left sounds his notes. How -deeply, in this direction also, tradition influenced the -Romans, and how long the practice lingered, is seen from -the description which the satirist Persius gives (iii. 103) of -a noble Roman lying in state:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">Hinc tuba, candelae, tandemque beatulus alto</div> - <div class="verse">compositus lecto crassisque lutatus amomis</div> - <div class="verse">in portam rigidas calces extendit: at illum</div> - <div class="verse">hesterni capite induto subiere Quirites.</div> -</div><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">And then the horns, the candles! and the dead,</div> - <div class="verse">Smeared with thick balms, lies stiff on lofty bed,</div> - <div class="verse">Heels pointing doorwards, till he’s borne away</div> - <div class="verse">By new-capped citizens<a id="FNanchor_73_73" href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> of yesterday.</div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>But the pictures in the Tomba Golini seem to indicate -that the symposium is not only a ceremony on the funeral -day or at memorial feasts, but that the purpose is, by means -of the painting as well as by the undoubtedly splendid -accessories of the tombs, which were rifled and removed -long ago, to secure to the dead or the whole of the family, -who in course of time were interred in the tomb, a happy -and festive existence hereafter; the same idea as in the -Egyptian tomb-reliefs, the object of which was to safeguard -the deceased against ‘the second death’, that is, annihilation. -And just as the Egyptian tomb-reliefs extend to all aspects<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span> -of life in order that the dead may enjoy without restriction -the sight of everything which made his life rich and festive, -from the industry of the slaves and artisans occupied in -his service to his own boating and hunting expeditions in -the papyrus thickets of the Nile, so the Etruscan sepulchral -paintings have a further object and treat subjects which are -only intelligible if the end in view is to procure for the dead -a full enjoyment of the delights of life, and which cannot -in any way be associated with funeral or funeral feast. This -applies especially to the hunting pictures of the sixth and -fifth centuries <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, found respectively in the Tomba della -Caccia e della Pesca and in the Tomba Querciola.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<h2 id="XIV">XIV</h2> - - -<div class="sidenote">ETRUSCAN IMPERIALISM</div> - -<div class="sidenote">THE POWER OF ETRURIA</div> - -<div class="sidenote">ETRUSCAN INFLUENCE IN ROME</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the older group of tombs of the latter part of the -sixth and the earlier part of the fifth centuries <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> we find -a bright and cheerful delight in the material pleasures of -life, and a clear confidence in the belief that the race, whose -means are sufficient to provide and adorn a sumptuous -sepulchral chamber, will also be permitted to enjoy all this—from -wine and women to hunting and sanguinary games—in -the hereafter. Thus it is not for nothing that these tombs -synchronize with the time of Etruscan imperialism. Previous -to this, the maritime power of Etruria had made it dreaded -and hated by the Greeks, whose ships were exposed to -seizure and piracy as often as they ventured across the ‘Tyrrhenian -Sea’, so that the Greeks had only one colony on -the north coast of Sicily, and had great trouble in keeping -up communications with the Campanian Kyme and with -Massilia.<a id="FNanchor_74_74" href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">74</a> ‘The savage Etruscan’ already appears in post-Homeric -poetry, where Circe bears Odysseus two children, -Latinus and Agrius (the savage), who represent the two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span> -principal races of Italy, the Latins and the Etruscans. At -length, in 474 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, the Kymeans, in alliance with Hieron, -the ruler of Syracuse, succeeded in gaining a sea victory -over the Etruscan fleet, which Pindar has celebrated in the -first Pythian Ode (i. 72 ff.), and after which Hieron sent to -Olympia a bronze helmet with an inscription recording the -victory, now in the British Museum. This defeat was the -first warning that the Etruscans had reached the zenith of -their power, but as late as the latter part of the fourth century -their piracy was still dangerous and troublesome to Greek -shipping, as is seen from a passage of Aristotle and an inscription -of 325-324 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span><a id="FNanchor_75_75" href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">75</a> As a bulwark of their maritime power, -as early as the sixth century they had conquered Corsica, -and on land they ruled from the plain of the Po, which they -likewise conquered in the sixth century, to the southernmost -part of Campania, where they made Capua itself submit to -their power.<a id="FNanchor_76_76" href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">76</a> Cato was justified in saying that almost the -whole of Italy in the days of old had been ‘in the power of -the Tuscans’,<a id="FNanchor_77_77" href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">77</a> and when Sophocles<a id="FNanchor_78_78" href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">78</a> would enumerate the -districts of Italy he mentions only three: Oinotria (South -Italy), the Tyrrhenian, and the Ligurian land. When the -Athenians during the Peloponnesian War undertook the -desperate campaign against Syracuse, they allied themselves -in 415 with the Etruscans, whose auxiliaries were amongst -the bravest in the Athenian offensive force.<a id="FNanchor_79_79" href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> In the period -of the wall-paintings in question, Rome herself was also -made subject to them and had to pay contributions to the -powerful Etruscan confederation, after the king of Clusium, -Porsenna, had seized the city in 508 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> As is well known, -attempts were made by later historians to gloss over this -capture of the town, and the honorary decrees of the senate -to Porsenna are described as voluntary, but tell quite plainly -their own tale of subjection.<a id="FNanchor_80_80" href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">80</a> Against the background of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span> -this event the contemporary Tomba della Scimmia at Chiusi -acquires a new interest; it was constructed for one of those -families which took part in the victory over Rome. But -previous to this, the names of the Roman kings: Lucius -Tarquinius and Tarquinius Superbus—Tarquinius is the -Etruscan Tarchna<a id="FNanchor_81_81" href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">81</a>—bear witness to the dependence of -Rome, which is also evident from the permanent Etruscan -occupation of the Janiculum. It is quite possible that the -expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus does not mark the fall of -the national monarchy, but was simply an attempt to throw -off the foreign yoke, an attempt which led to Porsenna’s -occupation of the city two years later and thus did not bring -about the emancipation of the Romans.<a id="FNanchor_82_82" href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">82</a> It is in this period -of dependence that the Etruscans left their mark on the laws -and customs of Rome, that the three oldest Roman tribes, -Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, got their names, which, as -stated by Varro,<a id="FNanchor_83_83" href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">83</a> on the evidence of an Etruscan tragedian -Volnius, are Etruscan, a view shared by the modern philologist -Wilhelm Schulze.<a id="FNanchor_84_84" href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">84</a> The insignia also of the Roman -officials, such as the curule chair and the toga praetexta,<a id="FNanchor_85_85" href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">85</a> -and the twelve consular lictors with the fasces,<a id="FNanchor_86_86" href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">86</a> are rightly -traced back to Etruria. For the Etruscan confederation -consisted of twelve towns, and each of these chose a king -who appeared at the gatherings followed by a lictor, and -only when they chose a common overlord and war-leader -could he appear with twelve lictors. It is therefore rather -improbable that the Roman kings appeared with twelve -lictors in their train; more probably this large retinue only -became the privilege of the <i>consuls</i> after the suppression of -Etruria. But it was upon the nobility of Rome that those -years of Etruscan predominance left their deepest impress, -and it has thus been possible for Wilhelm Schulze, through -his investigations of Etruscan and Latin proper names, to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span> -throw a remarkable light on the earliest history of Rome -and to prove that a great number of the oldest patrician -families of Rome were descendants of the Etruscan ruling -race, and that intermarriage with Etruscans, and Etruscan -influence on Rome, persisted down to the end of the Roman -republic.<a id="FNanchor_87_87" href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">87</a> It is also beyond doubt that the peculiar Roman -system of patron and client, by which clients attached themselves -to a nobleman as followers (<i>cluentes</i>), added his name -to their own, and paid him dues in peace time, though they -were originally immune from military service,<a id="FNanchor_88_88" href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">88</a> was of -Etruscan origin, nay, was the essential feature in the structure -of the Etruscan community. In course of time the Roman -clients became liable to military service, obtaining at the -same time civic rights, and it is presumably this fact which -accounts for Rome’s final victory over the Etruscans, whose -proud Lucumones reserved to themselves both civic privileges -and military skill, and were therefore doomed to extinction -when luxury and effeminacy had sapped their strength.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">ETRUSCAN NOBILITY AND CLIENTS</div> - -<p>But at the period of the tombs in question the blood of -the nobility is still healthy and is in no need of regeneration. -This is the nobility whose long lances controlled Italy, and -whose cavalry was so terrible in onset.<a id="FNanchor_89_89" href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">89</a> The pictures of the -tombs show them at the death lament, at feasts, and on -hunting expeditions, at symposia, where men and women -freely indulge in wine and love, and finally in the Tomba -delle Bighe as spectators seated on the stands. On the other -hand, the horsemen, the dancers, the dancing-women, and -the athletes are certainly of lower extraction, hired servants -like the corresponding performers in Rome, perhaps, to some -extent, clients.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span></p> - - -<h2 id="XV">XV</h2> - - -<div class="sidenote">DECLINE AND FALL OF ETRURIA</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">But</span> domestic and foreign enemies destroyed this race -of rulers. At the beginning of the fourth century they -were attacked simultaneously by the Gauls from the north, -by the Samnites<a id="FNanchor_90_90" href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">90</a> from the south-east, and by the Romans -from the south. The Gauls inundated for some time the -whole of Etruria and presently captured Rome as well, but -were driven back again to North Italy. The Samnites seized -Capua; but a far heavier blow was the loss of the great city -of Veii, the southernmost city of Etruria proper, which was -captured by the Romans in 396 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span><a id="FNanchor_91_91" href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">91</a> In spite of the alliance -with Carthage, the maritime power of the Etruscans also -declined in the course of the fourth century, but it was not -until the third century that they received the death-blow -at the hands of the Romans and Latins. That they were -still dangerous antagonists at the beginning of the third -century may be seen from Livy’s account, but at the end -of the century, during the second Punic war, their rebellious -spirit was easily quelled, and even Hannibal could not tempt -them to unite in revolt.<a id="FNanchor_92_92" href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">92</a> At that time the country was still -rich, as is plainly shown by the requisitions for Scipio’s -army.<a id="FNanchor_93_93" href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">93</a> It was not until the following century that Etruria -sank into deep poverty; in the time of the Gracchi the -country was almost a waste.<a id="FNanchor_94_94" href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">94</a> Plautus describes the Etruscan -people as very immoral; in the <i>Cistellaria</i> (562) the poet -speaks of those who procure their dowry ignobly, like the -Tuscans, by selling their bodies, and in the <i>Curculio</i> (482) -the Etruscan quarter of Rome is referred to as ‘inhabited -by persons who sell themselves’. Then followed in the first -century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> the military colonies of Sulla,<a id="FNanchor_95_95" href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">95</a> which gradually -Romanized the country. Inscriptions, especially from the -borderland of Umbria, which had been partly Etruscan, bear -ample witness to the way in which the language changed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span> -even within the old Etruscan families. About the middle -of the first century parts of the country were ravaged by -P. Clodius Pulcher and his bands of soldiers.<a id="FNanchor_96_96" href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> Then comes -the foundation of new military colonies by Caesar and, -finally, the complete Romanization of the country under -Augustus. Propertius<a id="FNanchor_97_97" href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">97</a> describes, not without pathos, the -extermination of the last Etruscan strongholds during the -Perusian war in the year 40 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>: ‘eversosque focos antiquae -gentis Etruscae’.</p> - -<p>The knowledge of the Etruscan language was preserved -all through antiquity by the Etruscan soothsayers. The -emperor Claudius was versed in Etruscan, and delivered -a long address in the Senate about the preservation of the -old Etruscan ritual against the invasion of new, oriental -elements. The other emperors had, as a rule, an Etruscan -soothsayer in their suite, whom they consulted before taking -any important step, and this custom survived down to the -introduction of Christianity. Julian the Apostate was accompanied -by hosts of Etruscan soothsayers, who, however, -undoubtedly read the sacred books in the Latin translation -by Tarquitius Priscus,<a id="FNanchor_98_98" href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">98</a> and, as late as 408, we learn -that Tuscan soothsayers and scribes still existed. If any -of them at that time could still read the language, then -Etruscan, as a dead and sacred language, had survived the -disappearance of the people by about half a millennium.<a id="FNanchor_99_99" href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">99</a></p> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_35"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig35.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span> DEMON IN THE TOMBA DELL’ ORCO</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span></p> - - -<h2 id="XVI">XVI</h2> - - -<p>To this long, sad period of national decline the later -group of Etruscan tomb-paintings and reliefs on cinerary -urns form a remarkable and melancholy accompaniment.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA DELL’ ORCO</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> continuity is unbroken; the new creeps in, at first, -without superseding the old subjects. This is especially -clear in the front room of the Tomba dell’ Orco, which -dates from the latter part of the fifth century, and from which -we reproduced the beautiful married couple at the symposium -(figs. <a href="#Fig_28">28</a>, <a href="#Fig_29">29</a>); in the same sepulchral chamber we see in a -corner, beneath a finely stylized vine, a terrible death demon, -with large wings and a shock of wildly fluttering reddish hair, -which is sharply outlined on a blue background as if it were -surrounded by a halo. His beard is pointed, his nose terminates -in an eagle’s beak; over his shoulder a snake rears -itself, and the latchets of his shoes are snakes. His dress -consists of a sleeved chiton with belt and shoulder-straps, -and in his hand he carries a torch or a hammer. The eyes -roll horribly in the bluish face; the colour of the skin -recalls the blue-bottle fly (<a href="#Fig_35">fig. 35</a>).</p> - -<div class="sidenote">UNDERWORLD SCENES</div> - -<p>This death demon is painted isolated, unconnected with -the subjects of the rest of the paintings, and could indeed -be explained away as a decorative figure, created, to be -sure, by an imagination inflamed with terror. But in the -third room of the same tomb, the pictures of which belong -to the transition from the fifth to the fourth century, a similar -demon of the nether world is already represented in action -(<a href="#Fig_36">fig. 36</a>). The inscription gives his name, Tuchulcha; he -has asses’ ears, two snakes rear themselves like horns above -his brow, and with a huge snake he threatens a long-haired -youth who sits sorrowful on the rock, with a himation round -his loins; his name, according to the inscription, is ‘These’. -He is the Greek Theseus, and the young man opposite -to him is Pirithous; the motive is their sufferings in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span> -Underworld, where they had ventured down in order to abduct -Persephone. But there broods over the scene a sinister -spirit which is not Greek. Thus we see behind the rock -on which Theseus is seated a loathsome snake with winged -head, and the remains of a blue demon with staff and chiton, -a kinsman of Tuchulcha. The appearance, to the left of -this weird phantasmagoria, of the peaceful sideboard with -its fine metal bowls<a id="FNanchor_100_100" href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">100</a> and with a handsome naked slave as -cup-bearer in front of it, has undeniably a somewhat odd -effect. This is a reminiscence of the old joyous symposium -scenes, and a remarkable witness to the lack of clearness in -the Etruscan mind and to the fragmentary character of -Etruscan pictorial art. A similar mixture of everyday life -and myth would be inconceivable in Egyptian or in Greek art.</p> - -<p>Similarly, in the Tomba Golini, we see the side-table -and the slave in immediate continuation of the picture -representing the two enthroned rulers of the Underworld—Hades -and Persephone (inscriptions: Eita and Phersipnai). -Hades has a wolf-helmet and a snake-sceptre and is caressing -Persephone, who has a bird-crowned sceptre in her left hand, -and rests her right hand on the knee of Hades (see above -<a href="#Fig_32">fig. 32</a>). Her dress, her face, and her yellow hair under the -golden diadem are all splendidly painted.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_36"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig36.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span> PICTURE IN THE TOMBA DELL’ ORCO AT CORNETO</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_37"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig37.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span> HADES, PERSEPHONE AND GERYON IN -THE TOMBA DELL’ ORCO</div> -</div> - - -<p>In later Etruscan paintings we come upon two new -groups of motives—fantastic pictures of the Underworld, and -scenes from Greek mythology. Sometimes they mingle as -in the Theseus and Pirithous scene and in the pictures of -Hades and Persephone. Hades and Persephone recur in -a painting in the third chamber of the Tomba dell’ Orco -(inscription: Aita and Phersipnei), where weird mists roll -about them, and a figure with three heads, Gerun, is standing -before their throne (<a href="#Fig_37">fig. 37</a>). It is the Geryon of the -Greeks, but he is not the cowherd on the far-distant island -Erythra, but a warrior in complete armour who seems to be -receiving the commands of Hades. Evidently the Etruscans<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span> -have made him the servant and champion of Hades. Persephone -has snakes in her hair and a curious collar which -we meet again on the chitons of women in white Attic -lekythoi of the fifth century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span><a id="FNanchor_101_101" href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">101</a> Hades wears the traditional -wolf-helmet. It is remarkable that a head exactly similar -to that of Hades is found among Michelangelo’s sketches -(<a href="#Fig_38">fig. 38</a>), which seems to indicate that Michelangelo somewhere -in Tuscany saw and sketched an old Etruscan tomb. -To be sure, the snout of the animal reminds one of a pig’s, -but the long ears and the fur are those of the wolf.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA DELL’ ORCO</div> - -<div class="figright" > -<a id="Fig_38"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig38.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption">Fig. 38.</div> -</div> - -<p>In the other paintings of the Tomba dell’ Orco we meet -furthermore with Agamemnon in the underworld, and in -front of him Tiresias (Hinthial Teriasals -it reads, i. e. the shade of Tiresias). But -in the second chamber of this tomb, dating -from the fourth century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, there is also -a scene from Greek mythology which has -nothing to do with death and the underworld; -Odysseus blinding the Cyclops -Polyphemus (inscriptions: Uthuste and -Cuclu). We can here speak of a renaissance, -in so far as a scene from a Greek -myth formed the subject of the big picture -of the beginning of the sixth century in the Tomba dei Tori -(cp. <a href="#Fig_2">fig. 2</a>). But the aim of the later school of Etruscan painters -is not so much to adorn the tomb with a beautiful decorative -panel after some Greek prototype; on the contrary, they turn -to the Greek myths for the sake of their subjects and pick out -motives which also give expression to the curious strain -of cruelty inherent in the Etruscan mind.</p> - -<p>This is seen most clearly in the famous picture from the -François tomb at Vulci, discovered in 1857 by the Italian -painter Alessandro François. The Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek -possesses a facsimile, executed by the painter Mariani after -the original in the Palazzo Torlonia, whither the Prince -Torlonia had it removed together with other wall-paintings<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span> -from the same tomb: but the copy is too smooth to be -trustworthy. Unfortunately, permission to obtain another -copy from the inaccessible Palazzo is certainly not to be -had. The picture (<a href="#Fig_39">fig. 39</a>) represents the sacrifice of Trojan -captives on the grave of Patroclus. Achilles (Etruscan -Achle) slaughters with his own hands the captured Trojans -(Etruscan Truials); Ajax, son of Oileus (Aivas Vilatas), and -Ajax, son of Telamon (Aivas Tlamunus) stand by, Agamemnon -(Achmemrun) is also present, and the shade of -Patroclus, thirsting for the blood (Hinthial Patrucles), as -well as two truly Etruscan figures, a female winged genius -of death, Vanth, and the Etruscan death-god, Charun, -coloured like the blue-bottle fly, with hammer uplifted.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA FRANÇOIS</div> -<div class="sidenote">ETRUSCAN CRUELTY</div> - -<p>This subject was chosen for the sake of the slaughter.<a id="FNanchor_102_102" href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">102</a> -Sex and cruelty are, to use a chemical expression, the ‘basic -group’ of the Etruscan mind. Thus the same subject is -found repeatedly on Etruscan sarcophagi and vases, and in -the relief on a cinerary urn, and may be compared with the -most common and popular representation in Etruscan reliefs: -Eteocles and Polynices killing each other. Even a motive -like Ajax falling on his own sword constantly recurs in -Etruscan art, as well as the barbarous subject, maschalismos -(maiming of slain enemies), which is especially common on -Etruscan gems.<a id="FNanchor_103_103" href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">103</a> A characteristic feature of the picture in -the François tomb is the deep wounds in the legs of the -Trojan captives; they are meant to prevent attempts to -escape and were evidently in keeping with Etruscan custom. -For stress is laid on the cruelty of the Etruscans towards -prisoners of war by Greek as well as by Latin authors; -thus, as early as the fifth century, the inhabitants of Caere, -after a sea victory, stoned to death their Phocaean captives<a id="FNanchor_104_104" href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">104</a>; -and yet Strabo writes of the Caeretans that they were highly -respected for their bravery and love of justice, and because,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span> -powerful as they were, they refrained from piracy. The -Romans knew better when they personified Etruscan cruelty -in Mezentius, King of Caere, who had living and dead tied -together to rot side by side; nor did the Romans ever forget -that the inhabitants of Tarquinii once slaughtered three -hundred and seven Roman captives,<a id="FNanchor_105_105" href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">105</a> and they took bloody -revenge on them. The Greeks also knew of the massacring -of prisoners of war, but they always cherished scruples about -it and felt qualms, as when Themistocles was compelled to -pay a tribute of slain captives to ‘Dionysius, the eater of -raw flesh’.<a id="FNanchor_106_106" href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">106</a></p> - -<p>Before we leave the François tomb we must remind the -reader of the existence of a remarkable series of pictures -with subjects taken from the conflicts between Etruria and -Rome in the time of the Roman kings.<a id="FNanchor_107_107" href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">107</a></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<h2 id="XVII">XVII</h2> - - -<div class="sidenote">CHARUN AND THE LASAS</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> demons of the Underworld who figure in the -Etruscan paintings are almost all sinister. The devils -brandishing torches and snakes, familiar both from the -paintings and from the reliefs on the cinerary urns, remind -one of Livy’s<a id="FNanchor_108_108" href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">108</a> description of the fight of the Tarquinians -and the Faliscans against the Romans in 354 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, when a -troop of Etruscan priests, armed with flaming torches and -live snakes, threw themselves in ecstatic fury on the Roman -armies, who received them undauntedly and won the day. -Charun, also, is a common figure on the Etruscan sarcophagi -and cinerary urns of the fourth and following centuries, -suggesting by his colour the demon of putrefaction, Eurynomus, -whom Polygnotus had painted, in his great picture of -the Underworld in the Lesche of the Cnidians at Delphi, -seated snarling on the skin of a carrion-vulture, his flesh the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span> -colour of a blue-bottle fly.<a id="FNanchor_109_109" href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">109</a> Charun, therefore, is not identical -with the old ferryman, Charon, of the Greeks; he is the -messenger of death, the terrible fetcher of souls, like Charos -in the popular Greek belief of our own day. Only the -‘Charon door’ of the Greek theatre indicates the existence -of similar popular ideas among the ancient Greeks.</p> - -<p>The winged Vanth in the François tomb seems to be -one of the benevolent demons of the underworld, the Lasas. -Such a one also appears in a door panel in the Tomba Golini, -already frequently cited: here she has wings, snakes in -her girdle, and a scroll in her hand (<a href="#Fig_40">fig. 40</a>). She is -evidently either receiving or escorting the dead, a young man -in a mantle, who stands in a biga with running horses; in -the inscription above him the word Larth can easily be read, -proving that he is not a professional charioteer, but a young -man of high standing. His arrival in the underworld is -greeted by a trumpeter, painted over the door. We may -notice here that the ‘Tyrrhenian trumpet’ was famous far -and wide and was even introduced into Greece; it is mentioned -several times in Greek tragedies.<a id="FNanchor_110_110" href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">110</a> The curved -trumpet here seen is also depicted on a wall in the Tomba -degli Scudi at Corneto and, like the curved staff of the augurs, -was adopted by the Romans, who designated both of them -by the name of lituus; Cicero maintains that the lituus-trumpet -was the earlier of the two and gave its form and name -to the lituus-staff, the badge of the augurs. The introduction -of the lituus-staff was attributed to Romulus, and his sacred -staff was said to have been rediscovered by a miracle in the -time of Camillus.<a id="FNanchor_111_111" href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">111</a></p> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_39"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig39.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span> WALL-PAINTING FROM THE TOMBA FRANÇOIS AT VULCI</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_40"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig40.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span> PAINTING IN THE TOMBA GOLINI AT ORVIETO</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_41"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig41.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span> PAINTING FROM THE TOMBA DELLA PULCELLA</div> -</div> - - -<p>The scroll in the hand of the female demon, referred to -above, presumably contained an account of the good actions -of the dead, to be used when he presented himself before the -throne of Hades. The good genius herself is seen at work -in a small panel of the Tomba degli Scudi, where she is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span> -scratching an inscription on a tablet (cp. <a href="#Fig_27">fig. 27</a>), while -another holds a torch upside down. Both these figures are -repeated in the reliefs of the Etruscan cinerary urns and pass -directly into the plastic art of Roman sarcophagi as two -allegorical figures: Fama, who writes the merits of the -dead on a tablet, and the genius of Death with torch inverted.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">CEREMONY OF THE CERECLOTH</div> - -<p>A couple of flying genii appear already in the Tomba della -Pulcella, which belongs to the first half of the fifth century, -in the pointed pediment above the recess in which the ashes -of the dead were deposited. They carry between them a -cloth which they seem to be laying down, probably the cerecloth -for the dead (<a href="#Fig_41">fig. 41</a>).<a id="FNanchor_112_112" href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">112</a> Perhaps this also explains the -mysterious scene, figured on two tomb altars from Chiusi, -one of which is in the Barracco Collection (<a href="#Fig_42">fig. 42</a>), the other -in the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek (Catalogue No. H. 76). The -motives of the reliefs on these limestone altars from Chiusi -and on the cinerary urns from the same town, all dating from -the sixth century, are taken from the funeral, like the subjects -in the contemporary tomb-paintings, and represent the -lament of men and women over the dead on the bier, the -burial feast and the preparations for it, and the wild dancing-scenes -at the funeral. It may thus be that the scene on the -relief illustrated, which seems to give a picture of the women’s -quarters, represents the women of the house in the act of -scrutinizing and choosing the cerecloth for the deceased; -meanwhile, the house was probably draped with cloth, and -the dwellers of the house put on mourning. Presumably -the mourning colour of the Etruscans was white, like that -of the Romans at a later date; when in mourning, the women -of Rome, to the wonder of Plutarch, assumed white dresses -and white headgear, at the same time loosening their hair.<a id="FNanchor_113_113" href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">113</a> -The hair flowing down upon the shoulders is also frequently -seen in reliefs on cinerary urns. But there is still something -mysterious in this motive, and an examination of the mutilated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span> -ash urn in the Museum of Chiusi (<a href="#Fig_43">fig. 43</a>) does not make it -any clearer. This urn has hitherto been explained as representing -a marriage scene. But as the opposite side of the -urn represents scenes at the door of the tomb, it is more -natural to interpret this relief also as a death scene; the -flute-player and the two men with laurel branches we know -from the funeral ceremonies (cp. p. <a href="#Page_19">19</a>), and the curious scene -to the right, where two men draw a fringed cloth like a -baldachin over a veiled centre figure, each of whose arms is -held by two side figures (probably a man and a woman), -might then be conjectured to represent a sort of symbolic -interment where the dead is placed in a sitting posture, -supported by the family, instead of the normal posture, -full length on the bier.</p> - -<p>It is to be hoped that future investigation may throw -some light on this point, and may also deal with the question -whether the oft-recurring motive on the Roman sarcophagi -of two genii holding a cloth (parapetasma) between them, as -a background either for a scene or for the portrait of the -deceased (<a href="#Fig_44">fig. 44</a>), can be traced to Etruscan prototypes or -not. Hitherto, we have probably been too one-sided in -attributing the types and symbols of the plastic art of Roman -sarcophagi to Greek pictures, and the investigation of the -share of Etruria therein would be a fine subject for a monograph.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="XVIII">XVIII</h2> - - -<div class="sidenote">ETRUSCAN DEMONS</div> - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA DEL TIFONE</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">But</span> the benevolent genii and Lasas are absolutely in the -minority in the paintings and plastic art of Etruria, and -become rarer as time goes on. The mood rises from sinister -gloom to wild terror. Two pictures will illustrate this -climax. In the Tomba del Tifone at Corneto, which was -discovered in 1832 and which is one of the grandest of the -family vaults of Etruria, there is preserved, besides the -serpent-legged demons from which the tomb has derived its -name, a large wall-painting representing the journey of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span> -young man to the realm of the dead (<a href="#Fig_45">fig. 45</a>). To the left is -seen an altar towards which the procession of mantle-clad -youths moves; they are led by a young demon with snakes -in his hair, and a torch and a snake in his hands. The -procession advances to the sound of a lituus-trumpet, and -the young men carry staves and seem to be the clients of the -central figure. The central figure is made conspicuous by -walking without any attributes in the centre of the procession -right in the front, but over his right shoulder we see Charun’s -clawlike hand, and Charun advances behind him like a -black shadow, characterized by pointed asses’ ears, snakes in -his hair, and his terrible hammer. The high rank of the -young man is made apparent by the inscription over his -head: ‘Laris Pumpus Arnthal clan cechase,’ i. e. Laris -Pumpus, son of Arnth, priest (<i>sacerdos</i>). Here, then, we -have another of the priestly aristocrats of Etruria. After him -come two more companions with staffs, and a trumpeter,<a id="FNanchor_114_114" href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">114</a> as -well as two young men without any attributes, and the scene -is terminated by some dim figures, one of which seems to be -a woman with a snake in her hair and another to be of negroid -type; possibly these are the rulers of the underworld -according to a later local Etruscan conception. One thing, -at any rate, is plain, that the dead youth, in spite of his -splendid following, goes to meet a sorrowful fate. What -can the sound of the instruments avail when Charun’s claw -is laid on his shoulder!</p> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_42"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig42.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span> -RELIEF ON A TOMB ALTAR FROM CHIUSI<br /> -In the Barracco Collection in Rome</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_43"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig43.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span> CINERARY URN FROM CHIUSI</div> -</div> - - -<div class="sidenote">TOMBA DEL CARDINALE</div> - -<p>This tomb dates, as far as can be judged by the style of -the painting, from the first half of the fourth century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span><a id="FNanchor_115_115" href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">115</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span> -From the beginning of the next century dates the Tomba del -Cardinale at Corneto, which was discovered shortly after -1760,<a id="FNanchor_116_116" href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">116</a> then forgotten and filled in again, and finally reopened -in 1786<a id="FNanchor_117_117" href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">117</a> by Cardinal Garambi, bishop of Corneto. It has -suffered much by exposure to wind and weather and to -tourists for more than a hundred and fifty years. It has a -narrow frieze with battle scenes, doubtless mythological, but -the interest is centred in the long narrow frieze of pictures -under the ceiling. The subject of this is the march of the -shades towards the other side (<a href="#Fig_46">fig. 46</a>). A woman is drawn -on a two-wheeled cart by two winged demons, one light and -the other blue-black, both wearing the traditional garb of -the genii of death, familiar from the contemporary sarcophagi -and cinerary urns: a shirt with braces, and high top boots. -This is perhaps the young woman who is mentioned in the -inscription of the tomb: ‘Ramtha, daughter of Vel and -Vestrcni, who was wife (<i>puia</i>) of Larth Lartha, and who lived -(<i>valce</i> instead of <i>svalce</i>) nineteen years.’ A young man follows -in a long cloak: he turns round to a black, winged demon -carrying a hammer (<a href="#Fig_47">fig. 47</a>). Beyond the gateway of the -underworld behind him a devil of the same type is seated, -and then comes a crowd of young people driven along by -two devils, one of whom threatens them with his hammer.<a id="FNanchor_118_118" href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">118</a> -A woman, who looks back moaning, is being brutally dragged -along by two male demons, and at the end of the procession -two winged devils are seen hastening forward, slender of -limb and agile of movement, like poisonous insects. In a -fragment of a frieze, which is now badly damaged, the Charun -devil was once more seen in the act of crushing a skull with -his hammer.<a id="FNanchor_119_119" href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">119</a></p> - - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a id="Fig_44"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig44.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span> ROMAN SARCOPHAGUS IN THE NY CARLSBERG -GLYPTOTEK</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_45"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig45.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span> PART OF THE FRIEZE IN THE TOMBA DEL -CARDINALE</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_46"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig46.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span> PAINTED FRIEZE IN THE TOMBA DEL CARDINALE</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" > -<a id="Fig_47"></a> -<img src="images/i_fig47.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span> PROCESSION OF THE DEAD IN THE TOMBA DEL TIFONE</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span></p> - -<div class="sidenote">CONCEPTION OF THE HEREAFTER</div> - -<p>This picture has a quality which reminds one of the -frescoes in the Campo Santo at Pisa, but which is much more -terrible because no hope of paradise atones for the horror. -The reliefs on contemporary cinerary urns tell the same tale. -To be sure, the dead reclines fat and finely bedecked on the -lid of these cinerary urns, holding a drinking-bowl, or, -if female, a fan. This is only tradition and has nothing -to do with actual feeling. It is clear enough that the old -confident conception of the hereafter as an eternal symposium -has been exploded. To this the reliefs on the urns -bear witness. These reliefs, if they do not directly evade -the problem by choosing neutral scenes from Greek mythology, -reveal a demoniac possession of appalling intensity. -We need no literature in order to realize that the Etruscans -under the pressure of disaster became another people, pessimistic, -in terror of death, and devoid of any resiliency which -would allow them to indulge in the pleasures of life. If this -spiritual incubus descended upon the masses of the Roman -people we can better understand how it is that the poet -Lucretius can feel enthusiasm, and can arouse it in others, -when he preaches the gospel of godlessness and the annihilation -of the soul in death.<a id="FNanchor_120_120" href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">120</a> For of the Etruscan people, at -any rate, the words of Lucretius<a id="FNanchor_121_121" href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">121</a> hold good:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">Omnia perfunctus vitai praemia marces.</div> -</div><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">All that life had to give, thou hast enjoyed,</div> - <div class="verse">And now thou fadest.</div> -</div></div></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span></p> - - -<h2 id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> - -<p>The * indicates that the citation is in the notes.</p> - -<div class="index"> - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">A</li> - -<li class="indx">Achilles, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Acrobats, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aeschylus, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>*, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Agamemnon, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ajax, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Altars, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Amphitheatres, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Apollodorus, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Apollonius Rhodius, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Appian, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aristophanes, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aristotle, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>*, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Athenaeus, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>*, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>*, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>*, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Attic influence, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Auguri, Tomba degli, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a> f., <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Augustus, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">B</li> - -<li class="indx">Bacchanti, Tomba dei, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ballerina, la bella, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ballot-balls, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Barone, Tomba del, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a> f., <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Barracco Collection, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bells, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bighe, Tomba delle, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a> ff., <a href='#Page_28'>28</a> ff., <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Black vessels, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bolsters, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Boxers, <i>see</i> Pugilists.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brass circles, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">British Museum, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bruschi, Tomba, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>*.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">C</li> - -<li class="indx">Caccia, Tomba della, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caere, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caeretan hydriae, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cakes, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cameron, Mary Lovett, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Campana, Tomba, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Campania, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a> f., <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Candelabra, candles, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cardinale, Tomba del, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Casuccini, Tomba, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cato, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Catullus, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cerecloth, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chaplets, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chariot race, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Charun, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a> ff., <a href='#Page_57'>57</a> ff.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chiusi, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>*, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cicero, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>*, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>*, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>*, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Clients, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cloth, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Clusium, <i>see</i> Chiusi.</li> - -<li class="indx">Copenhagen, <i>see</i> Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek.</li> - -<li class="indx">Corneto, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>-2 <i>and passim</i>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cortsen, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>*, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>*, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cosa, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Couches, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crete, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Critias, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cyprus, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>*, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cyrene, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">D</li> - -<li class="indx">Dancers, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a> ff., <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Danielsson, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dasti, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Deacinare, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Demons, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a> ff., <a href='#Page_53'>53</a> ff., <a href='#Page_56'>56</a> ff.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dennis, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Diodorus, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dionysius of Halicarnassus, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>*, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>*, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>*, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>*, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>*, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dispater, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Door, painted, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dromon, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">E</li> - -<li class="indx">Eggs, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Egypt <a href='#Page_9'>9</a> f., <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Equestrian procession, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a> f., <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eteocles and Polynices, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Etruria, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a> ff. <i>and passim</i>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Euphronius, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Euripides, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Euthymides, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Exercises, preparatory, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a> f.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">F</li> - -<li class="indx">Fama, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fescennines, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flaminicae, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flute-players, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Footstools, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">François, Tomba, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a> ff.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">G</li> - -<li class="indx">Gauls, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Geryon, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Giustiniani, Tomba Francesca, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gladiators, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Goethe, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Golden vessels, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Golini, Tomba, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a> ff., <a href='#Page_40'>40</a> f., <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gregoriano, Museo, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">H</li> - -<li class="indx">Hades, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Helbig, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hermes, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Herodotus, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hesychius, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hetaerae, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a> ff.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hieron, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hittites, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Horses, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hunting leopards, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hypothymis, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">I</li> - -<li class="indx">Iliad, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">India, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Inscriptions, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a> f., <a href='#Page_47'>47</a> f., <a href='#Page_50'>50</a> f., <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ionian style, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Isaeus, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Iscrizioni, Tomba delle, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a> ff., <a href='#Page_19'>19</a> ff., <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Isocrates, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>*.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">J</li> - -<li class="indx">Jacobsen, Carl, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Juvenal, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>*, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>*.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">K</li> - -<li class="indx">Kestner, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kitchen-scenes, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kneading, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Körte, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kyme, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a> f.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">L</li> - -<li class="indx">Lanista, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Larth, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lasas, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lassoing of the horse, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Laurels, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a> f., <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lectisternia, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lecythi, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Leonesse, Tomba delle, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Leopardi, Tomba dei, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lesche, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Letto funebre, Tomba del, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lituus, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Livy, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>*, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>*, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>*, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>*, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>*, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>*, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>*, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lucretius, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ludii, ludiones, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lysias, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>*.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">M</li> - -<li class="indx">Magliano, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Martha, Jules, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Medical lore, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Melian vases, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mezentius, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Michelangelo, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Milani, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Minium, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Morente, Tomba del, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Morto, Tomba del, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Müller-Deecke, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>*, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>*.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">N</li> - -<li class="indx">Naked pages, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nicocles, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a> <i>and passim</i>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">O</li> - -<li class="indx">Odrysians, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Odysseus, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Olympic Games, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Orco, Tomba dell’, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a> ff.</li> - -<li class="indx">Orfeo e d’Eurydice, Tomba d’, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Orvieto, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">P</li> - -<li class="indx">Palaestra, scenes of the, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Parapetasma, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Parthenon, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Patroclus, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pausanias, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Persephone, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Persius, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Persona, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Phersu, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Philochorus, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Phoenicians, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pindar, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Plautus, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>*, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>*, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Plutarch, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>*, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>*, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>*, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>*, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>*, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Polybius, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>*, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Polygnotus, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pompae, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Porsenna, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Priesthood, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Prinia, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Prisoners of war, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Propertius, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Prylis, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pugilists, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pulcella, Tomba della, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pulcinella, Tomba del, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pyrrhiche, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Q</li> - -<li class="indx">Querciola, Tomba, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">R</li> - -<li class="indx">Rasenas, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Reclining at table, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Riding sideways, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rings, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rome, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a> f. <i>and passim</i>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rumpf, Andreas, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rushforth, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ruva, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>*.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">S</li> - -<li class="indx">Salii, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Samnites, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sappho <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>*, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sarcophagi, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a> f., <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Schulze, Wilh., <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>*, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scimmia, Tomba della, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a> f., <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scudi, Tomba degli, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a> ff., <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Seneca, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shields, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Skutsch, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Slaves, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Soothsayers, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sophocles, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spectators, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stackelberg, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stands, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Strabo, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Struppus, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stryk, von, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sunshade, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Symposia, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a> ff., <a href='#Page_37'>37</a> ff., <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">T</li> - -<li class="indx">Tacitus, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tapestries, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tarquinius, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tarquitius Priscus, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Technique, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tertullian, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>*, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tevarath, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Theophrastus, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>*, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Theopompus, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Theseus, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thomsen, Vilh., <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thucydides, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thulin, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thürmer, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thymiaterion, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tifone, Tomba del, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Timaeus, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tiresias, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tomba, <i>see the different names</i>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tonsilia tappetia, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tori, Tomba dei, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a> f., <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Torlonia, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Treasury of the Siphnians, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Triclinio, Tomba del, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a> f., <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tripudium, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Triumphators, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Troilus, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trumpets <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tuchulcha, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a> f.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tusurthi, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tutulus, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a> f., <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tyrrhenians, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">U</li> - -<li class="indx">Urns, cinerary, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>*, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">V</li> - -<li class="indx">Vanth, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Varro, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>*, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vases, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a> ff.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vasi: Tomba dei V. Dipinti, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vecchio, Tomba del, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Veii <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Virgil, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vitruvius, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Volnius, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vulci, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">W</li> - -<li class="indx">Weege, <a href='#Page_2'>2</a>, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a> ff., <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a> f., <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wigand, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>*.</li> - -<li class="indx">Women, Etruscan, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wrestlers, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">X</li> - -<li class="indx">Xenophanes, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Xenophon, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.</li> -</ul> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span></p> - - -<p class="center">PRINTED IN ENGLAND<br /> - -AT THE OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1_1" href="#FNanchor_1_1" class="label">1</a> -<i>Jahrbuch des deutschen archäologischen Instituts</i>, xxxi. 1916, p. 106 ff.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2_2" href="#FNanchor_2_2" class="label">2</a> -<i>Cities and Cemeteries</i>, p. 119.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3_3" href="#FNanchor_3_3" class="label">3</a> -The same is true of the second -edition of Luigi Dasti’s <i>Notizie di Tarquinia-Corneto</i>, -1910.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4_4" href="#FNanchor_4_4" class="label">4</a> -Cp. Fr. Poulsen, <i>Der Orient and -die frühgriechische Kunst</i>, p. 128, where -I tried to prove that the pictures of the -tomb are influenced by the art and -style of decoration of the island of -Cyprus. Rumpf (<i>op. cit.</i> 50) was -nearer the mark in perceiving the connexion -with the decorative art of Crete -and the Cyclades in the seventh century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> -The horsemen, in particular, -recall the frieze from Prinia in Crete, -<i>Bollettino d’Arte</i>, 1908, p. 457 ff.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5_5" href="#FNanchor_5_5" class="label">5</a> -Shields were also common mural -decorations with the early Greeks, -cp. Poulsen, <i>Orient</i>, p. 77, and Alcaeus, -<i>fragm.</i> 15 (Bergk).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6_6" href="#FNanchor_6_6" class="label">6</a> -See the summary account in -Rumpf, <i>op. cit.</i> 61 ff.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7_7" href="#FNanchor_7_7" class="label">7</a> -II, Tafel 41, and Hilfstafel 1-8.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8_8" href="#FNanchor_8_8" class="label">8</a> -Poulsen, <i>Orient</i>, p. 67.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9_9" href="#FNanchor_9_9" class="label">9</a> -I am greatly indebted to Professor -O. A. Danielsson of Upsala for information -about this as well as about -other inscriptions, and for numerous -linguistic suggestions on the general -subject of my treatise.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_10_10" href="#FNanchor_10_10" class="label">10</a> -Παίειν τὰ μέτωπα, Dionys. Halicarn. -x. 9; ‘frontem ferire’, Cicero, -<i>Epist. ad Attic.</i> i. 1; for other instances -see Sittl, <i>Gebärden der Griechen and -Römer</i>, p. 21.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_11_11" href="#FNanchor_11_11" class="label">11</a> -Isocrates ix. 1.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_12_12" href="#FNanchor_12_12" class="label">12</a> -With reference to <i>phersu</i>, which is -supposed to be synonymous with and -the origin of the Latin <i>persona</i>, see -Pauly-Wissowa, vi. 775, and S.P. -Cortsen, <i>Vocabulorum Etruscorum interpretatio</i> -in <i>Nord. Tidsskr. for Filologi</i>, -1917, p. 174.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_13_13" href="#FNanchor_13_13" class="label">13</a> -iv. 153 f.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_14_14" href="#FNanchor_14_14" class="label">14</a> -Tertullian, <i>Ad nation.</i> i. 10.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_15_15" href="#FNanchor_15_15" class="label">15</a> -Pauly-Wissowa, iii. 2178.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_16_16" href="#FNanchor_16_16" class="label">16</a> -B 630. Figured in <i>Terra-cotta -Sarcophagi in British Museum</i>, pl. ix-xi.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_17_17" href="#FNanchor_17_17" class="label">17</a> -Kestner, <i>Annali</i> i (1829), p. 101 ff.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_18_18" href="#FNanchor_18_18" class="label">18</a> -Athenaeus iv. 154a.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_19_19" href="#FNanchor_19_19" class="label">19</a> -Livy ix. 30. 5-10. Plutarch, <i>Aetia Romana</i>, 55.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_20_20" href="#FNanchor_20_20" class="label">20</a> -Dionys. Halicarn. vii. 72-3.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_21_21" href="#FNanchor_21_21" class="label">21</a> -Livy i. 35. 9.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_22_22" href="#FNanchor_22_22" class="label">22</a> -Hesych. <i>s. v.</i> The word is not -mentioned in S.P. Cortsen’s <i>Vocabulorum -Etruscorum interpretatio</i> in -<i>Nordisk Tidsskr. for Filologi</i>, 1917; -no doubt because he considers -Hesychius’s statement insufficiently -authoritative. Cp. Skutsch, Pauly-Wissowa, -vi. 775.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_23_23" href="#FNanchor_23_23" class="label">23</a> -Helbig’s letters of June 21 and -December 10, 1895.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_24_24" href="#FNanchor_24_24" class="label">24</a> -Thus the facsimile at this point -gives more than I at any rate could -see: on the other hand, less as far as -brow and nose are concerned.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_25_25" href="#FNanchor_25_25" class="label">25</a> -Plutarch, <i>Aetia Romana</i> 98.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_26_26" href="#FNanchor_26_26" class="label">26</a> -Plautus, <i>Truculentus</i> 290, 294, -<i>Mostellaria</i> 259 ff. In Greece also, -women used white lead as paint: -Lysias i. 14 and 17.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_27_27" href="#FNanchor_27_27" class="label">27</a> -Quotation from Aeschylus by -Theophrastus (who endorses the -opinion): <i>History of Plants</i> ix. 15. 1.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_28_28" href="#FNanchor_28_28" class="label">28</a> -<i>Hellenica</i> iii. 2. 5.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_29_29" href="#FNanchor_29_29" class="label">29</a> -Cp. Tacitus, <i>Histor.</i> iv. 53, on the -inauguration of the rebuilt Capitolium: -’spatium omne quod templo -dicabatur evinctum vittis coronisque; -ingressi milites, quis fausta nomina, -<i>felicibus ramis</i>.’ -</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_30_30" href="#FNanchor_30_30" class="label">30</a> -Cp. Fr. Poulsen, <i>Delphi</i>, <a href="#Fig_44">fig. 44</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_31_31" href="#FNanchor_31_31" class="label">31</a> -Daremberg-Saglio, <i>s. v.</i> <i>Tutulus</i>. -Fr. Poulsen, <i>Der Orient und die frühgriech. -Kunst</i>, p. 97, fig. 99, and p. 107. -Martha, <i>L’art étrusque</i>, p. 306, fig. 206 -(Cyprus). <i>Antike Denkmäler</i> iii, pl. 1.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_32_32" href="#FNanchor_32_32" class="label">32</a> -In the same manner the Roman -priests used flint knives in their cult, -and their razors had to be of copper, -and, as late as Roman imperial -times, they used black vessels (<i>nigrum -catinum</i>), corresponding to the Etruscan -bucchero vases, at sacrifices. -Livy i. 24. 9: Juvenal vi. 343. Cp. -Müller-Deecke, <i>Die Etrusker</i> ii. p. 275.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_33_33" href="#FNanchor_33_33" class="label">33</a> -The Latin name of the head-cloth -is <i>struppus</i>, and from that a festival at -Falerii, <i>struppearia</i>, derived its name. -It comes from Ionia, and is mentioned -in the poems of Sappho (χειρόμακτρον).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_34_34" href="#FNanchor_34_34" class="label">34</a> -Fr. Poulsen, <i>Delphi</i>, <a href="#Fig_44">fig. 44</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_35_35" href="#FNanchor_35_35" class="label">35</a> -Cp. Daremberg-Saglio and Pauly-Wissowa, <i>s. v.</i> <i>Amphitheatrum</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_36_36" href="#FNanchor_36_36" class="label">36</a> -<i>Museo archeol. di Firenze</i>, p. 303.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_37_37" href="#FNanchor_37_37" class="label">37</a> -Livy xxix. 14. 13.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_38_38" href="#FNanchor_38_38" class="label">38</a> -Cicero, <i>In Verrem</i> iv. 46. See -also Karl Wigand, <i>Thymiateria</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_39_39" href="#FNanchor_39_39" class="label">39</a> -For instance in Apollonius Rhodius, -<i>Argonautica</i> ii. 68.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_40_40" href="#FNanchor_40_40" class="label">40</a> -Cicero, <i>Tusculanae disputationes</i> -ii. 56.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_41_41" href="#FNanchor_41_41" class="label">41</a> -Aristotle, <i>fragm.</i> 519 R. Scholia -to Homer’s <i>Iliad</i> xxiii. 130. A similar -dancer or armed runner appears in the -Tomba Casuccini at Chiusi; both -remind us in posture of the Tübingen -armed runner (Bulle, <i>Der schöne -Mensch</i>, pl. 89).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_42_42" href="#FNanchor_42_42" class="label">42</a> -The large frieze with dancing -scenes on the left main wall was already -badly damaged in 1827. A copy -of it, now in the Vatican, is mere -fiction, and has unfortunately served -as basis for the large facsimile in the -Glyptotek. On the other hand, its -damaged state is correctly represented -in the small drawing of the tomb in -the Glyptotek.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_43_43" href="#FNanchor_43_43" class="label">43</a> -Blümner, <i>Römische Privataltertümer</i>, -p. 118.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_44_44" href="#FNanchor_44_44" class="label">44</a> -On Etruscan cinerary urns and -terracotta sarcophagi the covers are -as a rule strongly scalloped. These -are presumably the <i>tonsilia tappetia</i> -referred to by Plautus (<i>Pseudolus</i> -145 ff.). They usually came from -Alexandria and were decorated with -pictures of wild beasts, whereas the -bed coverlets proper came from Campania.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_45_45" href="#FNanchor_45_45" class="label">45</a> -These cheetahs were brought alive -to Italy, if not actually used for hunting -by the princes of the Renaissance. -For among Pisanello’s drawings in the -Codex Vallardi in the Louvre is a fine -study of one of these animals from the -life; it wears a collar round its neck, -showing that it was led on a leash. -I owe this reference to Mr. G. F. Hill.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_46_46" href="#FNanchor_46_46" class="label">46</a> -Dennis and Stryk are mistaken in -speaking of a youth and a girl on the -left couch; the error is due to the -damaged condition of the colouring.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_47_47" href="#FNanchor_47_47" class="label">47</a> -Cp. Juvenal, <i>Satires</i> v. 82, where -eggs are referred to as a common -course at funerals.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_48_48" href="#FNanchor_48_48" class="label">48</a> -Cato, <i>De re rustica</i> 26. In the Greek pictures of symposia also the slave -boy carries a strainer, ἡθμός.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_49_49" href="#FNanchor_49_49" class="label">49</a> -Athenaeus i. 23 d. On the Etruscan -custom of reclining at table, like -the Greeks, and unlike the men of the -Homeric age and later the Macedonians, -who sat, see Athenaeus i. -17 f, 18 a.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_50_50" href="#FNanchor_50_50" class="label">50</a> -Athenaeus xii. 517d. Cp. Dionys. -Halic. ix. 16.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_51_51" href="#FNanchor_51_51" class="label">51</a> -Isaeus iii. 14.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_52_52" href="#FNanchor_52_52" class="label">52</a> -Athenaeus iv. 153 d. (= Timaeus, -<i>fragm.</i> 18 in Müller, <i>Fragmenta histor. -Graecorum</i>).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_53_53" href="#FNanchor_53_53" class="label">53</a> -Friedländer, <i>Sittengeschichte Roms</i> -i. 472, 478, 493 f.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_54_54" href="#FNanchor_54_54" class="label">54</a> -<i>Corpus inscriptionum Etruscarum</i>, -3858, 3860.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_55_55" href="#FNanchor_55_55" class="label">55</a> -The Etruscan character for immorality -is chiefly due to Theopompus -(<i>fragm.</i> 222 in Müller, <i>Fragm. hist. -Graec.</i> i. p. 315), but he gives similar -descriptions of the Thessalians, and -seems to have specialized in <i>chroniques -scandaleuses</i>. Of equal value is his -information that the Sybarites loved -the Etruscans because of their luxuriousness -(Athenaeus xii. 519 b). It -is regrettable that Theophrastus’ work -on the Etruscans is lost; it would -have provided information of quite -a different character. (Cp. the Scholia -to Pindar, <i>Pythia</i> ii. 3.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_56_56" href="#FNanchor_56_56" class="label">56</a> -<i>De oratore</i> iii. 197.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_57_57" href="#FNanchor_57_57" class="label">57</a> -Livy v. 22. 5.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_58_58" href="#FNanchor_58_58" class="label">58</a> -The most famous of all the Etruscan -women versed in divination is the -wise but guileful Tanaquil, who played -a political part in Rome: Livy i. 34.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_59_59" href="#FNanchor_59_59" class="label">59</a> -Τὴν κιθαράν στρέψας, like Apollo in the contest with Marsyas (Apollodorus, -<i>Bibliotheca</i> i. 4. 2).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_60_60" href="#FNanchor_60_60" class="label">60</a> -In the same picture we also find -a representation of a true Greek -motive, kottabos. Another momentary -motive appears in the Tomba -d’Orfeo e d’Euridice at Corneto -(<i>Monumenti</i> v. pl. 17), a slave pulling -off his master’s slippers.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_61_61" href="#FNanchor_61_61" class="label">61</a> -Hypothymides were first used ‘by -the Aeolians and Ionians who wore -them round their necks, as we learn -from the poems of Anacreon and Alcaeus’ -(Athenaeus xv. 678 d); Cp. -Plutarch, <i>Quaest. conviv.</i> iii. <i>probl.</i> 1, 3. -In Ionia the women perfumed their -bosoms and wore wreaths of flowers -round their ‘delicate necks’, as Sappho -says (Athenaeus xv. 674 c-d).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_62_62" href="#FNanchor_62_62" class="label">62</a> -Athenaeus ix. 409 e.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_63_63" href="#FNanchor_63_63" class="label">63</a> -Athenaeus i. 28 b.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_64_64" href="#FNanchor_64_64" class="label">64</a> -<i>Corpus inscr. Etrusc.</i> 5093-4. -I am indebted to my friend, Dr. -S. P. Cortsen, for help in the interpretation -of this and other Etruscan inscriptions. -These are for the greater -part incorrectly copied in the Ny -Carlsberg facsimiles.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_65_65" href="#FNanchor_65_65" class="label">65</a> -That <i>ruva</i> means brother seems to -be unanimously accepted, though it -only appears in the two inscriptions of -this tomb.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_66_66" href="#FNanchor_66_66" class="label">66</a> -The name Pursna or Pursena has, -however, never been found in any -Etruscan inscription. The Etruscan -Lar or Larth has nothing to do with -the Roman Las or Lar. Cp. Schulze, -<i>Zur Geschichte latein. Eigennamen</i>, 85. -1; Pauli, <i>Altital. Studien</i>, iv. 64 ff.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_67_67" href="#FNanchor_67_67" class="label">67</a> -With reference to the use of tapers -at the bier in antiquity see Rushforth, -<i>Journal of Roman Studies</i>, v. 1915, -p. 149 ff.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_68_68" href="#FNanchor_68_68" class="label">68</a> -Cp. Vilh. Thomsen, <i>Remarques sur -la parenté de la langue étrusque</i>, <i>Bulletin -de l’Académie royale de Danemark</i>, -1899, no. 4, p. 391.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_69_69" href="#FNanchor_69_69" class="label">69</a> -<i>De agricultura</i> 76 and 86.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_70_70" href="#FNanchor_70_70" class="label">70</a> -Cp. Plautus, <i>Pseudolus</i> 158 ‘te -cum securi caudicali praeficio provinciae.’</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_71_71" href="#FNanchor_71_71" class="label">71</a> -Cp. Seneca, <i>Epist.</i> 114. 26 ‘adspice -culinas nostras et concursantis -inter tot ignes coquos.’</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_72_72" href="#FNanchor_72_72" class="label">72</a> -Footstools were also used in -Rome for mounting the high couches. -Varro, <i>De lingua Latina</i> v. 168.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_73_73" href="#FNanchor_73_73" class="label">73</a> -i. e. slaves made free by his will, and entitled to wear the cap of liberty.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_74_74" href="#FNanchor_74_74" class="label">74</a> -Strabo vi. p. 410 (= Ephorus, -<i>fragm.</i> 2 in Müller, <i>Fragmenta historic. -graec.</i> i. p. 246). The ingenious etymologist -Philochorus even derived -the word ‘tyrant’ from Tyrrhenians -(Philoch. <i>fragm.</i> 5 in Müller, <i>op. cit.</i>).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_75_75" href="#FNanchor_75_75" class="label">75</a> -Dittenberger, <i>Sylloge inscriptionum -Graecarum</i>,<sup>3</sup> 305, with note 1.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_76_76" href="#FNanchor_76_76" class="label">76</a> -Polybius ii. 17. Livy v. 33. 7-8.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_77_77" href="#FNanchor_77_77" class="label">77</a> -<i>Origines</i> 62.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_78_78" href="#FNanchor_78_78" class="label">78</a> -Dionys. Halic. i. 12.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_79_79" href="#FNanchor_79_79" class="label">79</a> -Thucydides vi. 88, and vii. 54-5.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_80_80" href="#FNanchor_80_80" class="label">80</a> -Dionys. Halic. v. 26, 35, 39.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_81_81" href="#FNanchor_81_81" class="label">81</a> -Schulze, <i>Zur Geschichte latein. -Eigennamen</i>, p. 95 f., 262 ff.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_82_82" href="#FNanchor_82_82" class="label">82</a> -Dionys. Halic. iii. 45, 47 ff.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_83_83" href="#FNanchor_83_83" class="label">83</a> -Varro, <i>De lingua Latina</i> v. 5; -Livy i. 13. 8.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_84_84" href="#FNanchor_84_84" class="label">84</a> -Cp. E. Kornemann, <i>Klio</i> xiv. -1914-15, p. 190.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_85_85" href="#FNanchor_85_85" class="label">85</a> -Livy i. 8. 3.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_86_86" href="#FNanchor_86_86" class="label">86</a> -Dionys. Halic. iii. 61-2.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_87_87" href="#FNanchor_87_87" class="label">87</a> -Wilhelm Schulze, <i>Zur Geschichte -lateinischer Eigennamen. Abh. der kgl. -Gesellsch. der Wissensch. zu Göttingen, -Phil.-hist. Kl.</i>, Neue Folge, Bd. 5, -No. 5, p. 62 ff.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_88_88" href="#FNanchor_88_88" class="label">88</a> -Dionys. Halic. ii. 8, 10.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_89_89" href="#FNanchor_89_89" class="label">89</a> -Livy iv. 18. 8. Cp. ix. 29. 2, -where the Etruscans are described as -the most dangerous enemies of the -Romans.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_90_90" href="#FNanchor_90_90" class="label">90</a> -Livy iv. 37. 1-2.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_91_91" href="#FNanchor_91_91" class="label">91</a> -Livy v. 22. 8.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_92_92" href="#FNanchor_92_92" class="label">92</a> -Livy xxvii. 21. 6; 38. 6.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_93_93" href="#FNanchor_93_93" class="label">93</a> -Livy xxviii. 45. 14-18.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_94_94" href="#FNanchor_94_94" class="label">94</a> -Plutarch, <i>Tiberius Gracchus</i> 8.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_95_95" href="#FNanchor_95_95" class="label">95</a> -As a punishment because the -country had joined the party of -Marius. Plutarch, <i>Marius</i> 41.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_96_96" href="#FNanchor_96_96" class="label">96</a> -Cicero, <i>Pro Milone</i> 26, 74, 87.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_97_97" href="#FNanchor_97_97" class="label">97</a> -ii. 1. 29. The later authors speak -of nothing but the corpulency and -imbecility of the Etruscans. Catullus, -<i>Carm.</i> 39. 21. Virgil, <i>Georg.</i> ii. 193; -<i>Aen.</i> xi. 732. Diodorus v. 40.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_98_98" href="#FNanchor_98_98" class="label">98</a> -Thulin, Pauly-Wissowa, vii. 2434.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_99_99" href="#FNanchor_99_99" class="label">99</a> -The best summary view of the -Etruscan civilization is still to be found -in Ottfried Müller, <i>Die Etrusker</i>, in -the second edition by Deecke.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_100_100" href="#FNanchor_100_100" class="label">100</a> -Cp. for the well-appointed table -Plautus’s description of a liberal host -(<i>Menaechmi</i> 102): ‘tantas struices -concinnat patinarias.’</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_101_101" href="#FNanchor_101_101" class="label">101</a> -Walther Riezler, <i>Weissgründige attische Lekythen</i>, pl. 70.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_102_102" href="#FNanchor_102_102" class="label">102</a> -It is to be observed that the Etruscans -thrust with the sword; this also -the Romans inherited; whereas the -Gauls cut and the Iberians thrust as -well as cut. Polybius ii. 33. 6, and -iii. 114.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_103_103" href="#FNanchor_103_103" class="label">103</a> -Cp. Beazley, <i>Lewes House Collection -of Gems</i>, p. 38, 74 f.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_104_104" href="#FNanchor_104_104" class="label">104</a> -Herodotus i. 167.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_105_105" href="#FNanchor_105_105" class="label">105</a> -Livy vii. 15. 10; 19. 3.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_106_106" href="#FNanchor_106_106" class="label">106</a> -Plutarch, <i>Themistocles</i> 13.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_107_107" href="#FNanchor_107_107" class="label">107</a> -Körte, <i>Jahrbuch des archäol. Instit.</i> -xii. 1897, p. 58 ff.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_108_108" href="#FNanchor_108_108" class="label">108</a> -Livy vii. 17. 3-5. Cp. iv. 33. 2.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_109_109" href="#FNanchor_109_109" class="label">109</a> -Pausanias x. 28. 7-8.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_110_110" href="#FNanchor_110_110" class="label">110</a> -Sophocles, <i>Ajax</i> 17. Aeschylus, -<i>Eumenides</i> 567. Euripides, <i>Rhesus</i> 988.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_111_111" href="#FNanchor_111_111" class="label">111</a> -Cicero, <i>De divinatione</i> i. 30. Plutarch, -<i>Camillus</i> 32.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_112_112" href="#FNanchor_112_112" class="label">112</a> -An Etruscan gem shows the dead -Ajax and a winged genius in the -act of placing the cerecloth over him. -Beazley, <i>The Lewes House Collection of -Ancient Gems</i>, p. 34., no. 37.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_113_113" href="#FNanchor_113_113" class="label">113</a> -Plutarch, <i>Aetia romana</i> 26 and 14.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_114_114" href="#FNanchor_114_114" class="label">114</a> -Trumpets at Roman funeral processions -are known from reliefs on -sarcophagi. <i>Röm. Mitt.</i> xxxiii. 1908, -pl. iv (pp. 18-25), and Cagnat and -Chabot, <i>Manuel d’Archéol. Romaine</i>, -p. 586, fig. 315. Notice in the second -relief from Amiternum, <i>Röm. Mitt.</i> -1908, pl. iv, at the bottom, how the -banquet with the members of the family -reclining on festive couches is also preserved -in early Rome (second to first -century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_115_115" href="#FNanchor_115_115" class="label">115</a> -Contemporary and akin in subject -is the Tomba Bruschi at Corneto. -<i>Monumenti</i>, viii, pl. 36. Stryk, <i>Kammergräber</i>, -p. 101. The processions -here have quite a festive look; a -woman finds time to look at herself in -a glass, but the devils, who appear in -the crowds or lurk in the corners, show -that the occasion is a serious one.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_116_116" href="#FNanchor_116_116" class="label">116</a> -Caylus, <i>Recueil d’antiquités</i> iv. -(Paris, 1761), 112 f.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_117_117" href="#FNanchor_117_117" class="label">117</a> -Tiraboschi, <i>Storia della lett. ital.</i>, -Venezia, 1795, i. 13 ff. footnote.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_118_118" href="#FNanchor_118_118" class="label">118</a> -Similar motives on tombstones -and Etruscan gems. Cp. Grenier, -<i>Bologna villanovienne et étrusque</i>, p. 447. -Ducati, <i>Monumenti dei Lincei</i> xx. -pp. 607-12. Beazley, <i>Lewes House -Collection of Ancient Gems</i>, p. 33, -no. 36 (pl. 3).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_119_119" href="#FNanchor_119_119" class="label">119</a> -Badly illustrated in Inghirami, -<i>Monumenti etruschi</i> iv. pl. xxvii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_120_120" href="#FNanchor_120_120" class="label">120</a> -<i>De rerum natura</i> iii. 912 ff.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_121_121" href="#FNanchor_121_121" class="label">121</a> -iii. 956.</p></div></div> - -<p> </p> -<p> </p> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p> </p> -<p> </p> - - -<div class="transnote"> -<h3>Transcriber’s Note</h3> - -<p>Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected.</p> - -<p>Variations in hyphenation has been standardised but all other spelling and -punctuation remains unchanged.</p> - -<p>Page headings have been treated as sidenotes and are placed at the -beginning of the relevant paragraph.</p> -</div> - -<p> </p> -<hr class="pgx" /> -<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ETRUSCAN TOMB PAINTINGS***</p> -<p>******* This file should be named 62431-h.htm or 62431-h.zip *******</p> -<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> -<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/6/2/4/3/62431">http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/4/3/62431</a></p> -<p> -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed.</p> - -<p>Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. -</p> - -<h2 class="pgx" title="Full Project Gutenberg License">START: FULL LICENSE<br /> -<br /> -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE<br /> -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK</h2> - -<p>To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license.</p> - -<h3 class="pgx" title="Section 1. General Terms">Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works</h3> - -<p>1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8.</p> - -<p>1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.</p> - -<p>1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others.</p> - -<p>1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States.</p> - -<p>1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:</p> - -<p>1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed:</p> - -<blockquote><p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United - States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost - no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use - it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with - this eBook or online - at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you - are not located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws - of the country where you are located before using this - ebook.</p></blockquote> - -<p>1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.</p> - -<p>1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work.</p> - -<p>1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.</p> - -<p>1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License.</p> - -<p>1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.</p> - -<p>1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.</p> - -<p>1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that</p> - -<ul> -<li>You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation."</li> - -<li>You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works.</li> - -<li>You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work.</li> - -<li>You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.</li> -</ul> - -<p>1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.</p> - -<p>1.F.</p> - -<p>1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment.</p> - -<p>1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE.</p> - -<p>1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem.</p> - -<p>1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.</p> - -<p>1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions.</p> - -<p>1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. </p> - -<h3 class="pgx" title="Section 2. The Mission of Project Gutenberg">Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm</h3> - -<p>Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life.</p> - -<p>Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org.</p> - -<h3 class="pgx" title="Section 3. The Project Gutenberg Literary">Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation</h3> - -<p>The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.</p> - -<p>The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact</p> - -<p>For additional contact information:</p> - -<p> Dr. Gregory B. Newby<br /> - Chief Executive and Director<br /> - gbnewby@pglaf.org</p> - -<h3 class="pgx" title="Section 4. Donations to PGLAF">Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation</h3> - -<p>Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS.</p> - -<p>The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/donate">www.gutenberg.org/donate</a>.</p> - -<p>While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate.</p> - -<p>International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.</p> - -<p>Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate</p> - -<h3 class="pgx" title="Section 5. Project Gutenberg Electronic Works">Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works.</h3> - -<p>Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support.</p> - -<p>Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition.</p> - -<p>Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org</p> - -<p>This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.</p> - -</body> -</html> - |