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text-indent:0em; text-align:justify; } -span.attr { font-size:80%; font-family:sans-serif; } -span.pn { display:inline-block; width:4.7em; text-align:left; margin-left:0; text-indent:0; } -</style> -</head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Geology and Inhabitants of the Ancient World, by -Richard Owen - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Geology and Inhabitants of the Ancient World - -Author: Richard Owen - -Release Date: June 17, 2020 [EBook #62414] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEOLOGY, INHABITANTS OF ANCIENT WORLD *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Stephen Hutcheson, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - -<div id="cover" class="img"> -<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Geology and Inhabitants of the Ancient World" width="500" height="790" /> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig1"> -<img src="images/p00.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="580" /> -<p class="pcap">GEOLOGY AND INHABITANTS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. -<br />THE EXTINCT ANIMALS RESTORED BY B. WATERHOUSE HAWKINS. F.G.S. F.L.S. -<br /><span class="small">PUBLISHED FOR THE CRYSTAL PALACE LIBRARY, BY BRADBURY & EVANS, 11, BOUVERIE ST. -<br />MACLURE & CO. LITH. TO THE QUEEN.</span></p> -</div> -<div class="box"> -<h1>GEOLOGY AND INHABITANTS -<br /><span class="smallest">OF THE</span> -<br />ANCIENT WORLD.</h1> -<p class="tbcenter"><span class="smaller">DESCRIBED BY</span> -<br /><span class="large">RICHARD OWEN, F.R.S.</span></p> -<p class="tbcenter"><span class="small">THE ANIMALS CONSTRUCTED BY B. W. HAWKINS, F.G.S.</span></p> -<p class="tbcenter">CRYSTAL PALACE LIBRARY, -<br /><span class="smallest">AND</span> -<br /><span class="small">BRADBURY & EVANS, 11, BOUVERIE STREET, LONDON. -<br />1854.</span></p> -</div> -<p class="center smaller">BRADBURY AND EVANS, -<br />PRINTERS TO THE CRYSTAL PALACE COMPANY, -<br />WHITEFRIARS.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_3">3</div> -<h2 id="toc" class="center">CONTENTS.</h2> -<dl class="toc"> -<dt class="small">PAGE</dt> -<dt><a href="#c1">INTRODUCTION</a> 5</dt> -<dd><a href="#c2">THE SECONDARY ISLAND</a> 7</dd> -<dt><a href="#c3">CHALK FORMATION</a> 9</dt> -<dd><a href="#c4">THE MOSASAURUS</a> 10</dd> -<dd><a href="#c5">THE PTERODACTYLE</a> 11</dd> -<dt><a href="#c6">WEALDEN FORMATION</a> 14</dt> -<dd><a href="#c7">THE IGUANODON</a> 14</dd> -<dd><a href="#c8">THE HYLÆOSAURUS</a> 17</dd> -<dt><a href="#c9">OOLITE FORMATION</a> 19</dt> -<dd><a href="#c10">THE MEGALOSAURUS</a> 19</dd> -<dd><a href="#c11">PTERODACTYLES OF THE OOLITE</a> 22</dd> -<dd><a href="#c12">TELEOSAURUS</a> 22</dd> -<dt><a href="#c13">LIAS FORMATION</a> 25</dt> -<dd><a href="#c14">ENALIOSAURIA</a> 25</dd> -<dd><a href="#c15">THE ICHTHYOSAURUS</a> 25</dd> -<dd><a href="#c16">ICHTHYOSAURUS PLATYODON</a> 29</dd> -<dd><a href="#c17">ICHTHYOSAURUS TENUIROSTRIS</a> 30</dd> -<dd><a href="#c18">ICHTHYOSAURUS COMMUNIS</a> 30</dd> -<dd><a href="#c19">PLESIOSAURUS</a> 31</dd> -<dd><a href="#c20">PLESIOSAURUS MACROCEPHALUS</a> 31</dd> -<dd><a href="#c21">PLESIOSAURUS DOLICHODEIRUS</a> 32</dd> -<dd><a href="#c22">PLESIOSAURUS HAWKINSII</a> 33</dd> -<dt><a href="#c23">NEW RED SANDSTONE</a> 35</dt> -<dd><a href="#c24">BATRACHIA</a> 35</dd> -<dd><a href="#c25">LABYRINTHODON SALAMANDROIDES</a> 36</dd> -<dd><a href="#c26">LABYRINTHODON PACHYGNATHUS</a> 38</dd> -<dd><a href="#c27">DICYNODON</a> 38</dd> -</dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p00b.jpg" alt="{uncaptioned}" width="800" height="517" /> -</div> -<h1 title=""><span class="smaller">GEOLOGY AND INHABITANTS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.</span></h1> -<h2 id="c1"><span class="small">INTRODUCTION.</span></h2> -<p>Before entering upon a description of the restorations of the -Extinct Animals, placed on the Geological Islands in the great -Lake, a brief account may be premised of the principles and procedures -adopted in carrying out this attempt to present a view of -part of the animal creation of former periods in the earth’s -history.</p> -<p>Those extinct animals were first selected of which the entire, -or nearly entire, skeleton had been exhumed in a fossil state. To -accurate drawings of these skeletons an outline of the form of the -entire animal was added, according to the proportions and relations -of the skin and adjacent soft parts to the superficial parts of -the skeleton, as yielded by those parts in the nearest allied living -<span class="pb" id="Page_6">6</span> -animals. From such an outline of the exterior, Mr. Waterhouse -Hawkins prepared at once a miniature model form in clay.</p> -<p>This model was rigorously tested in regard to all its proportions -with those exhibited by the bones and joints of the skeleton of -the fossil animal, and the required alterations and modifications -were successively made, after repeated examinations and comparisons, -until the result proved satisfactory.</p> -<p>The next step was to make a copy in clay of the proof model, -of the natural size of the extinct animal: the largest known -fossil bone, or part, of such animal being taken as the standard -according to which the proportions of the rest of the body were -calculated agreeably with those of the best preserved and most -perfect skeleton. The model of the full size of the extinct animal -having been thus prepared, and corrected by renewed comparisons -with the original fossil remains, a mould of it was prepared, and a -cast taken from this mould, in the material of which the restorations, -now exposed to view, are composed.</p> -<p>There are some very rare and remarkable extinct animals of -which only the fossil skull and a few detached bones of the -skeleton have been discovered: in most of these the restoration -has been limited to the head, as, for example, in the case of the -Mosasaurus; and only in two instances—those, viz., of the -Labyrinthodon and Dicynodon—has Mr. Hawkins taken upon -himself the responsibility of adding the trunk to the known -characters of the head, such addition having been made to illustrate -the general affinities and nature of the fossil, and the kind -of limbs required to produce the impressions of the footprints, -where these have been detected and preserved in the petrified -sands of the ancient sea-shores trodden by these strange forms of -the Reptilian class.</p> -<p>With regard to the hair, the scales, the scutes, and other modifications -of the skin, in some instances the analogy of the nearest -allied living forms of animals has been the only guide; in a few -instances, as in that of the Ichthyosaurus, portions of the petrified -integument have been fortunately preserved, and have guided -the artist most satisfactorily in the restoration of the skin and soft -parts of the fins; in the case of other reptiles, the bony plates, -spines, and scutes have been discovered in a fossil state, and have -<span class="pb" id="Page_7">7</span> -been scrupulously copied in the attempt to restore the peculiar -tegumentary features of the extinct reptiles, as <i>e.g.</i> in the -Hylæosaurus.</p> -<p>In every stage of this difficult, and by some it may be thought, -perhaps, too bold, attempt to reproduce and present to human -gaze and contemplation the forms of animal life that have successively -flourished during former geological phases of time, and have -passed away long ages prior to the creation of man, the writer of -the following brief notice of the nature and affinities of the -animals so restored feels it a duty, as it is a high gratification to -him, to testify to the intelligence, zeal, and peculiar artistic skill -by which his ideas and suggestions have been realised and carried -out by the talented director of the fossil department, Mr. Waterhouse -Hawkins. Without the combination of science, art, and -manual skill, happily combined in that gentleman, the present -department of the Instructive Illustrations at the Crystal Palace -could not have been realised.</p> -<h3 id="c2"><span class="sc">The Secondary Island.</span></h3> -<p>The most cursory observation of the surface of the earth -shows that it is composed of distinct substances, such as clay, -chalk, lias, limestone, coal, slate, sandstone, &c.; and a study -of such substances, their relative position and contents, has -led to the conviction that these external parts of the earth have -acquired their present condition gradually, under a variety of -circumstances, and at successive periods, during which many races -of animated beings, distinct both from those of other periods and -from those now living, have successively peopled the land and the -waters; the remains of these creatures being found buried in -many of the layers or masses of mineral substances, forming the -crust of the earth.</p> -<p>The object of the Islands in the Geological Lake is to demonstrate -the order of succession, or superposition, of these layers or -strata, and to exhibit, restored in form and bulk, as when they -lived, the most remarkable and characteristic of the extinct -animals and plants of each stratum.</p> -<p>The series of mineral substances and strata represented in the -<span class="pb" id="Page_8">8</span> -smaller island have been called by geologists “secondary formations,” -because they lie between an older series termed “primary,” and -a newer series termed “tertiary:” the term “formation” meaning -any assemblage of rocks or layers which have some character in -common, whether of origin, age, or composition.<a class="fn" id="fr_1" href="#fn_1">[1]</a></p> -<p>Following the secondary formations as they descend in the -earth, or succeed each other from above downwards, and as they -are shown, obliquely tilted up out of their original level position -from left to right, in the Secondary Island, they consist: 1st, of -the Chalk or Cretaceous group; 2nd, the Wealden; 3rd, the -Oolite; 4th, the Lias; and 5th, the New Red Sandstone.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_9">9</div> -<h2 id="c3"><span class="small"><span class="ss">THE CHALK.</span></span></h2> -<p>The chalk formations or “cretaceous group of beds” include -strata of various mineral substances; but the white chalk which -forms the cliffs of Dover and the adjoining coasts, and the downs -and chalk quarries of the South of England, is the chief and most -characteristic formation. Chalk, immense as are the masses in -which it has been deposited, owes its origin to living actions; -every particle of it once circulated in the blood or vital juices of -certain species of animals, or of a few plants, that lived in the -seas of the secondary period of geological time. White chalk consists -of carbonate of lime, and is the result of the decomposition -chiefly of coral-animals (<i>Madrepores</i>, <i>Millepores</i>, <i>Flustra</i>, <i>Cellepora</i>, -&c.), of sea-urchins (<i>Echini</i>), and of shell-fishes (<i>Testacea</i>), and of -the mechanical reduction, pounding, and grinding of their shells. -Such chalk-forming beings still exist, and continue their operations -in various parts of the ocean, especially in the construction of -coral reefs and islands.</p> -<p>Every river that traverses a limestone district carries into the -sea a certain proportion of caustic lime in solution: the ill effects -of the accumulation of this mineral are neutralised by the power -allotted to the above-cited sea-animals to absorb the lime, combine -it with carbonic-acid, and precipitate or deposit it in the condition -of insoluble chalk, or carbonate of lime.</p> -<p>The entire cretaceous series includes from above downwards:</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">Maestricht beds of yellowish chalk.</p> -<p class="t0">Upper white chalk with flints.</p> -<p class="t0">Lower white chalk without flints.</p> -<p class="t0">Upper green-sand.</p> -<p class="t0">Gault.</p> -<p class="t0">Lower green-sand and Kentish rag.</p> -</div> -<p>The best known and most characteristic large extinct animal of -the chalk formations is chiefly found in the uppermost and most -recent division, and is called</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_10">10</div> -<h3 id="c4">No. 1.—<span class="sc">The Mosasaurus.</span> -<br />(<i>Mosasaurus Hoffmanni</i>, Hoffmann’s Mosasaur.)</h3> -<p>Of this animal almost the entire skull has been discovered, but -not sufficient of the rest of the skeleton to guide to a complete -restoration of the animal. The head only, therefore, is shown, of -the natural size, at the left extremity of the Secondary Island.</p> -<p>The first or generic name of this animal is derived from the -locality, Maestricht, on the river Meuse (Lat. <i>Mosa</i>), in Germany, -where its remains have been chiefly discovered, and from the -Greek word <i>sauros</i>, a lizard, to which tribe of animals it belongs. -Its second name refers to its discoverer, Dr. Hoffmann, of Maestricht, -surgeon to the forces quartered in that town in 1780. -This gentleman had occupied his leisure by the collection of the -fossils from the quarries which were then worked to a great extent -at Maestricht for a kind of yellowish stone of a chalky nature, -and belonging to the most recent of the secondary class of formations -in geology. In one of the great subterraneous quarries or -galleries, about five hundred paces from the entrance, and ninety -feet below the surface, the quarrymen exposed part of the skull of -the Mosasaurus, in a block of stone which they were engaged in -detaching. On this discovery they suspended their work, and -went to inform Dr. Hoffmann, who, on arriving at the spot, -directed the operations of the men, so that they worked out the -block without injury to the fossil; and the doctor then, with his -own hands, cleared away the matrix and exposed the jaws and -teeth, casts of which are shown in the cretaceous rock of the -Island.</p> -<p>This fine specimen, which Hoffmann had added with so much -pains and care to his collection, soon, however, became a source -of chagrin to him. One of the canons of the cathedral at -Maestricht, who owned the surface of the soil beneath which was -the quarry whence the fossil had been obtained, when the fame -of the specimen reached him, pleaded certain feudal rights to -it. Hoffmann resisted, and the canon went to law. The -Chapter supported the canon, and the decree ultimately went -<span class="pb" id="Page_11">11</span> -against the poor surgeon, who lost both his specimen and his -money—being made to pay the costs of the action. The canon -did not, however, long enjoy possession of the unique specimen. -When the French army bombarded Maestricht in 1795, directions -were given to spare the suburb in which the famous fossil was -known to be preserved; and after the capitulation of the town it -was seized and borne off in triumph. The specimen has since -remained in the museum of the Garden of Plants at Paris.</p> -<p>This skull of the Mosasaurus measures four and a half feet -long and two and a half feet wide. The large pointed teeth on the -jaws are very conspicuous; but, in addition to these, the gigantic -reptile had teeth on a bone of the roof of the mouth (the pterygoid), -like some of the modern lizards. The entire length of the animal has -been estimated at about thirty feet. It is conjectured to have been -able to swim well, and to have frequented the sea in quest of prey: -its dentition shows its predatory and carnivorous character, and its -remains have hitherto been met with exclusively in the chalk formations. -Besides the specimens from St. Peter’s Mount, Maestricht, -of which the above-described skull is the most remarkable, fossil -bones and teeth of the Mosasaurus have been found in the chalk -of Kent, and in the green-sand—a member of the cretaceous -series—in New Jersey, United States of America. No animal -like the Mosasaurus is now known to exist.</p> -<h3 id="c5">Nos. 2 & 3.—<span class="sc">The Pterodactyle.</span></h3> -<p>Nos. 2 and 3 are restorations of a flying reptile or dragon, -called Pterodactyle, from the Greek words <i>pteron</i>, a wing, and -<i>dactylos</i>, a finger; because the wings are mainly supported by the -outer finger, enormously lengthened and of proportionate strength, -which, nevertheless, answers to the little finger of the human hand. -The wings consisted of folds of skin, like the leather wings of the -bat; and the Pterodactyles were covered with scales, not with -feathers: the head, though somewhat resembling in shape that of -a bird, and supported on a long and slender neck, was provided -with long jaws, armed with teeth; and altogether the structure of -these extinct members of the reptilian class is such as to rank -them amongst the most extraordinary of all the creatures yet discovered -in the ruins of the ancient earth.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_12">12</div> -<p>Remains of the Pterodactyle were first discovered, in 1784, by -Prof. Collini, in the lithographic slate of Aichstadt, in Germany, -which slate is a member of the oolitic formations: the species so discovered -was at first mistaken for a bird, and afterwards supposed -to be a large kind of bat, but had its true reptilian nature demonstrated -by Baron Cuvier, by whom it was called the <i>Pterodactylus -longirostris</i>, or Long-beaked Pterodactyle: it was about the size of a -curlew.</p> -<p>A somewhat larger species—the <i>Pterodactylus macronyx</i>, or -Long-clawed Pterodactyle—was subsequently discovered by the -Rev. Dr. Buckland, in the lias formation of Lyme Regis: its -wings, when expanded, must have been about four feet from tip to -tip. The smallest known species—the <i>Pterodactylus brevirostris</i>, or -Short-beaked Pterodactyle—was discovered in the lithographic slate -at Solenhofen, Germany, and has been described by Professor -Soemmering.</p> -<p>Remains of the largest known kinds of Pterodactyle have been -discovered more recently in chalk-pits, at Burham, in Kent. The -skull of one of these species—the <i>Pterodactylus Cuvieri</i>—was about -twenty inches in length, and the animal was upborne on an expanse -of wing of probably not less than eighteen feet from tip to -tip. The restored specimen of this species is numbered 3.</p> -<p>A second very large kind of Pterodactyle—the <i>Pterodactylus -compressirostris</i>, or Thin-beaked Pterodactyle—had a head from -fourteen to sixteen inches in length, and an expanse of wing, from -tip to tip, of fifteen feet. The remains of this species have also -been found in the chalk of Kent. From the same formation and -locality a third large kind of Pterodactyle, although inferior in -size to the two foregoing, has been discovered, called the <i>Pterodactylus -conirostris</i>, and also—until the foregoing larger kinds were -discovered—<i>Pterodactylus giganteus</i>. The long, sharp, conical teeth -in the jaws of the Pterodactyles indicate them to have preyed upon -other living animals; their eyes were large, as if to enable them to -fly by night. From their wings projected fingers, terminated by -long curved claws, and forming a powerful paw, wherewith the -animal was enabled to creep and climb, or suspend itself from trees. -It is probable, also, that the Pterodactyles had the power of swimming; -some kinds, <i>e.g.</i>, the <i>Pterodactylus Gemmingi</i>, had a long -<span class="pb" id="Page_13">13</span> -and stiff tail. “Thus,” writes Dr. Buckland, “like Milton’s -Fiend, all qualified for all services and all elements, the creature -was a fit companion for the kindred reptiles that swarmed in the -seas, or crawled on the shores of a turbulent planet.</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t10">‘The Fiend,</p> -<p class="t0">O’er bog, or steep, through strait, rough, dense, or rare,</p> -<p class="t0">With head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way,</p> -<p class="t0">And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies.’</p> -<p class="lr"><i>Paradise Lost</i>, Book II.”</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_14">14</div> -<h2 id="c6"><span class="small"><span class="ss">THE WEALDEN.</span></span></h2> -<p>The Wealden is a mass of petrified clay, sand, and sandstone, -deposited from the fresh or brackish water of probably some -great estuary, and extending over parts of the counties of Kent, -Surrey, and Sussex. This fresh-water formation derives its name -from the “Weald” or “Wold” of Kent, where it was first geologically -studied, and where it is exposed by the removal of the -chalk, which covers or overlies it, in other parts of the South of -England.</p> -<p>The Wealden is divided into three groups of strata, which succeed -each other in the following descending order:—</p> -<p>1st. Weald Clay, sometimes including thin beds of sand and -shelly limestone, forming beds of from 140 to 280 feet in depth or -vertical thickness.</p> -<p>2nd. Hastings Sand, in which occur some clays and calcareous -grits, forming beds of from 400 to 500 feet in depth.</p> -<p>3rd. Purbeck Beds, so called from being exposed chiefly in the -Isle of Purbeck, off the coast of Dorsetshire, where it forms the -quarries of the limestone for which Purbeck is famous: the beds -of limestones and marls are from 150 to 200 feet in depth.</p> -<h3 id="c7">Nos. 4 & 5.—<span class="sc">The Iguanodon.</span> -<br />(<i>Iguanodon Mantelli</i>, Conybeare.)</h3> -<p>One afternoon, in the spring of 1822, an accomplished lady, the -wife of a medical practitioner, at Lewes, in Sussex, walking along -the picturesque paths of Tilgate Forest, discovered some objects in -the coarse conglomerate rock of the quarries of that locality, which, -from their peculiar form and substance, she thought would be -interesting to her husband, whose attention had been directed, -during his professional drives, to the geology and fossils of his -neighbourhood.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_15">15</div> -<p>The lady was Mrs. Mantell: her husband, the subsequently -distinguished geologist, Dr. Mantell,<a class="fn" id="fr_2" href="#fn_2">[2]</a> perceived that the fossils -discovered by his wife were teeth, and teeth of a large and -unknown animal.</p> -<p>“As these teeth,” writes the doctor, “were distinct from any -that had previously come under my notice, I felt anxious to submit -them to the examination of persons whose knowledge and -means of observation were more extensive than my own. I -therefore transmitted specimens to some of the most eminent -naturalists in this country and on the continent. But although -my communications were acknowledged with that candour and -liberality which constantly characterise the intercourse of scientific -men, yet no light was thrown upon the subject, except by -the illustrious Baron Cuvier, whose opinions will best appear by -the following extract from the correspondence with which he -honoured me:—</p> -<p>“‘These teeth are certainly unknown to me; they are not from -a carnivorous animal, and yet I believe that they belong, from -their slight degree of complexity, the notching of their margins, -and the thin coat of enamel that covers them, to the order of -reptiles.</p> -<p>“‘May we not here have a new animal!—a herbivorous reptile? -And, just as at the present time with regard to mammals (land-quadrupeds -with warm blood), it is amongst the herbivorous that -we find the largest species, so also with the reptiles at the remote -period when they were the sole terrestrial animals, might not the -largest amongst them have been nourished by vegetables?</p> -<p>“‘Some of the great bones which you possess may belong to -this animal, which, up to the present time, is unique in its kind. -Time will confirm or confute this idea, since it is impossible but -that one day a part of the skeleton, united to portions of jaws -with the teeth, will be discovered.’”</p> -<p>“These remarks,” Dr. Mantell proceeds to say, “induced me to -pursue my investigations with increased assiduity, but hitherto they -have not been attended with the desired success, no connected -<span class="pb" id="Page_16">16</span> -portion of the skeleton having been discovered. Among the specimens -lately connected, some, however, were so perfect, that I -resolved to avail myself of the obliging offer of Mr. Clift (to whose -kindness and liberality I hold myself particularly indebted), to -assist me in comparing the fossil teeth with those of the recent -Lacertæ in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. The -result of this examination proved highly satisfactory, for in an -Iguana which Mr. Stutchbury had prepared to present to the -College, we discovered teeth possessing the form and structure of -the fossil specimens.” (Phil. Trans., 1825, p. 180.) And he -afterwards adds:—“The name Iguanodon, derived from the form -of the teeth, (and which I have adopted at the suggestion of the -Rev. W. Conybeare,) will not, it is presumed, be deemed objectionable.” -(Ib. p. 184.)</p> -<p>The further discovery which Baron Cuvier’s prophetic glance -saw buried in the womb of time, and the birth of which verified -his conjecture that some of the great bones collected by Dr. Mantell -belonged to the same animal as the teeth, was made by Mr. W. H. -Bensted, of Maidstone, the proprietor of a stone-quarry of the -Shanklin-sand formation, in the close vicinity of that town. This -gentleman had his attention one day, in May, 1834, called by his -workmen to what they supposed to be petrified wood in some pieces -of stone which they had been blasting. He perceived that what -they supposed to be wood was fossil bone, and with a zeal and -care which have always characterised his endeavours to secure for -science any evidence of fossil remains in his quarry, he immediately -resorted to the spot. He found that the bore or blast by which these -remains were brought to light, had been inserted into the centre of -the specimen, so that the mass of stone containing it had been shattered -into many pieces, some of which were blown into the adjoining -fields. All these pieces he had carefully collected, and proceeding -with equal ardour and success to the removal of the matrix from -the fossils, he succeeded after a month’s labour in exposing them -to view, and in fitting the fragments to their proper places.</p> -<p>This specimen is now in the British Museum.</p> -<p>Many other specimens of detached bones, including vertebræ or -parts of the back-bone, especially that part resting on the hind -limbs, and called the “pelvis,” bones of the limbs, down to those -<span class="pb" id="Page_17">17</span> -that supported the claws, together with jaws and teeth, which have -since been successively discovered, have enabled anatomists to reconstruct -the extinct Iguanodon, and have proved it to have been a -herbivorous reptile, of colossal dimensions, analogous to the diminutive -Iguana in the form of its teeth, but belonging to a distinct and -higher order of reptiles, more akin to the crocodiles. The same -rich materials, selecting the largest of the bones as a standard, have -served for the present restorations (Nos. 4 and 5) of the animal, as -when alive: all the parts being kept in just proportion to the -standard bones, and the whole being thus brought to the following -dimensions:—</p> -<table class="center" summary=""> -<tr><td class="l">Total length, from the nose or muzzle to the end of the tail </td><td class="r">34 </td><td class="c">feet </td><td class="r">9 </td><td class="c">inches.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Greatest girth of the trunk </td><td class="r">20 </td><td class="c">” </td><td class="r">5 </td><td class="c">”</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Length of the head </td><td class="r">3 </td><td class="c">” </td><td class="r">6 </td><td class="c">”</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Length of the tail </td><td class="r">15 </td><td class="c">” </td><td class="r">6 </td><td class="c">”</td></tr> -</table> -<p>The character of the scales is conjectural, and the horn more -than doubtful, though attributed to the Iguanodon by Dr. Mantell -and most geologists.</p> -<p>This animal probably lived near estuaries and rivers, and may -have derived its food from the <i>Clathrariæ</i>, <i>Zamiæ</i>, <i>Cycades</i>, and -other extinct trees, of which the fossil remains abound in the same -formations as those yielding the bones and teeth of the Iguanodon.</p> -<p>These formations are the Wealden and the Neocomian or green-sand: -the localities in which the remains of the Iguanodon have been -principally found, are the Weald of Kent and Sussex: Horsham, -in Sussex; Maidstone, in Kent; and the Isle of Wight.</p> -<p>Restorations of the <i>Cycas</i> and <i>Zamia</i> are placed, with the -Iguanodon, on the Wealden division of the Secondary Island.</p> -<h3 id="c8">No. 6.—<span class="sc">The Hylæosaurus.</span> (<i>Hylæosaurus Owenii.</i>)</h3> -<p>The animal, so called by its discoverer, Dr. Mantell, belongs to -the same highly organised order of the class of reptiles as the -Iguanodon, that, viz., which was characterised by a longer and -stronger sacrum and pelvis, and by larger limbs than the reptiles of -the present day possess; they were accordingly better fitted for -progression on dry land, and probably carried their body higher and -more freely above the surface of the ground.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_18">18</div> -<p>Visiting, in the summer of 1832, a quarry in Tilgate Forest, -Dr. Mantell had his attention attracted to some fragments of a large -mass of stone, which had recently been broken up, and which exhibited -traces of numerous pieces of bone. The portions of the rock, -which admitted of being restored together, were cemented, and -then the rock was chiselled from the fossil bones, which consisted -of part of the back-bone or vertebral column, some ribs, the -shoulder bones called scapula and coracoid, and numerous long -angular bones or spines which seemed to have supported a lofty -serrated or jagged crest, extended along the middle of the back, as -in some of the small existing lizards, <i>e.g.</i>, the Iguana: cut No. 6. -Many small dermal bones were also found, which indicate the -Hylæosaurus to have been covered by hard tuberculate scales, like -those of some of the Australian lizards, called <i>Cyclodus</i>.</p> -<p>This character of the skin, and the serrated crest, are accurately -given in the restoration, the major part of which, however, is -necessarily at present conjectural, and carried out according to the -general analogies of the saurian form. The size is indicated with -more certainty according to the proportions of the known vertebræ -and other bones.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig2"> -<img src="images/p01.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="533" /> -<p class="pcap">No. 6. Diagram of the Slab containing the Bones of Hylæosaurus.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_19">19</div> -<h2 id="c9"><span class="small"><span class="ss">THE OOLITE.</span></span></h2> -<p>The division of the secondary formations, called “Oolite,” takes -its name from the most characteristic of its constituents, which is a -variety of limestone composed of numerous small grains, resembling -the “roe” or eggs of a fish, whence the term, (from the Greek <i>oon</i>, -an egg, <i>lithos</i>, a stone). The oolite, however, includes a great series -of beds of marine origin, which, with an average breadth of thirty -miles, extend across England, from Yorkshire in the north-east to -Dorsetshire in the south-west.</p> -<p>The oolite series lies below the Wealden, and where this is -wanting, below the chalk, and consists of the following subdivisions, -succeeding each other in the descending order:—</p> -<table class="center" summary=""> -<tr class="th"><th colspan="2"><span class="sc">Oolite.</span></th></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Upper. </td><td class="l">Portland stone and sand.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Kimmeridge clay.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Middle. </td><td class="l">Coral rag.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Oxford clay.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Lower. </td><td class="l">Cornbrash and forest marble.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Great oolite and Stonesfield slate.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Fuller’s earth.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Inferior oolite.</td></tr> -</table> -<p>Upon the portion of the island representing the oolite series, the -most conspicuous of the restored animals of that period is—</p> -<h3 id="c10">No. 7.—<span class="sc">The Megalosaurus.</span></h3> -<p>The Megalosaurus, as its name implies (compounded by its discoverer, -Dr. Buckland, from the Greek <i>megas</i>, great, and <i>sauros</i>, -lizard), was a lizard-like reptile of great size, “of which,” writes Dr. -Buckland, “although no skeleton has yet been found entire, so -many perfect bones and teeth have been discovered in the same -quarries, that we are nearly as well acquainted with the form and -dimensions of the limbs as if they had been found together in a single -block of stone.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_20">20</div> -<p>The restoration of the animal has been accordingly effected, -agreeably with the proportions of the known parts of the skeleton, -and in harmony with the general characters of the order of -reptiles to which the Megalosaurus belonged. This order—the -Dinosauria (Gr. <i>deinos</i>, terribly great <i>sauros</i>, a lizard)—is that -to which the two foregoing huge reptiles of the Wealden series -belong, viz., the Iguanodon and Hylæosaurus, and is characterised -by the modifications already mentioned, that fitted them for more -efficient progression upon dry land. The Iguanodon represented -the herbivorous section of the order, the Hylæosaurus appears, from -its teeth, to have been a mixed feeder, but the Megalosaurus was -decidedly carnivorous, and, probably, waged a deadly war against -its less destructively endowed congeners and contemporaries.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig3"> -<img src="images/p02.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="374" /> -<p class="pcap">No. 7. Megalosaurus.</p> -</div> -<p>Baron Cuvier estimated the Megalosaurus to have been about -fifty feet in length; my own calculations, founded on more complete -evidence than had been at the Baron’s command, reduce its -size to about thirty-five feet:<a class="fn" id="fr_3" href="#fn_3">[3]</a> but with the superior proportional -height and capacity of trunk, as contrasted with the largest existing -crocodiles, even that length gives a most formidable character to -this extinct predatory reptile.</p> -<p>As the thigh-bone (<i>femur</i>) and leg-bone (<i>tibia</i>) measure each -nearly three feet, the entire hind-leg, allowing for the cartilages of -the joints, must have attained a length of two yards: a bone of the -<span class="pb" id="Page_21">21</span> -foot (metatarsal) thirteen inches long, indicates that part, with the -toes and claws entire, to have been at least three feet in length. -The form of the teeth shows the Megalosaurus to have been strictly -carnivorous, and viewed as instruments for providing food for -so enormous a reptile, the teeth were fearfully fitted to the -destructive office for which they were designed. They have compressed -conical sharp-pointed crowns, with cutting and finely -serrated anterior and posterior edges; they appear straight, as -seen when they had just protruded from the socket, but become -bent slightly backwards in the progress of growth, and the -fore part of the crown, below the summit, becomes thick and -convex.</p> -<p>A minute and interesting description of these teeth will be found -in Dr. Buckland’s admirable “Bridgewater Treatise” (vol. i. -p. 238), from which he concludes that the teeth of the Megalosaurus -present “a combination of contrivances analogous to those which -human ingenuity has adopted in the construction of the knife, the -sabre, and the saw.” The fossils which brought to light the former -existence of this most formidable reptile, were discovered in 1823, -in the oolitic slate of Stonesfield, near Oxford, and were described -by Dr. Buckland, in the volume of the “Geological Transactions” -for the year 1824.</p> -<p>Remains of the Megalosaurus have since been discovered in the -“Bath oolite,” which is immediately below the Stonesfield slate, -and in the “Cornbrash,” which lies above it. Vertebræ, teeth, -and some bones of the extremities have been discovered in the -Wealden of Tilgate Forest, Kent, and in the ferruginous sand, -of the same age, near Cuckfield, in Sussex. Remains of the -Megalosaurus also occur in the Purbeck limestone at Swanage Bay, -and in the oolite in the neighbourhood of Malton, in Yorkshire.</p> -<p>Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins’s restoration, according to the proportions -calculated from the largest portions of fossil bones of the -Megalosaurus hitherto obtained, yields a total length of the animal, -from the muzzle to the end of the tail, of thirty-seven feet; the -length of the head being five feet, the length of the tail fifteen feet; -and the greatest girth of the body twenty-two feet six inches.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_22">22</div> -<h3 id="c11">Nos. 8 & 9.—<span class="sc">Pterodactyles of the Oolite.</span></h3> -<p>To the right of the Hylæosaurus, on the rock representing the -greater oolite formation, are restorations of species of Pterodactyle -(<i>Pterodactylus Bucklandi</i>, No. 9), smaller than and distinct from those -of the chalk formations. The remains of Buckland’s Pterodactyle are -found pretty abundantly in the oolitic slate of Stonesfield, near -Oxford.</p> -<h3 id="c12">Nos. 10 & 11.—<span class="sc">Teleosaurus.</span></h3> -<p>On the shore beneath the overhanging cliff of oolitic rock are two -restorations, Nos. 10 and 11, of a large extinct kind of crocodile, -to which the long and slender-jawed crocodile of the Ganges, called -“Gaviàl” or “Gharriàl” by the Hindoos, offers the nearest resemblance -at the present day. Remains of the ancient extinct British -gavials have been found in most of the localities where the oolitic formations -occur, and very abundantly in the lias cliffs near Whitby, in -Yorkshire. The name Teleosaurus (<i>telos</i>, the end, <i>sauros</i>, a lizard), -was compounded from the Greek by Professor Geoffroy St. Hilaire, -for a species of these fossil gavials, found by him in the oolite stone -at Caen, in Normandy, and has reference to his belief that they -formed one—the earliest—extreme of the crocodilian series, as this -series has been successively developed in the course of time on our -planet.</p> -<p>The jaws are armed with numerous long, slender, sharp-pointed, -slightly curved teeth, indicating that they preyed on fishes, and the -young or weaker individuals of co-existing reptiles. The nostril -is situated more at the end of the upper jaw than in the modern -gavial: the fore-limbs are shorter, and the hind ones longer and -stronger than in the gavial, which indicates that the Teleosaur was -a better swimmer; the vertebræ or bones of the back are united by -slightly concave surfaces, not interlocked by cup and ball joints as -in the modern crocodiles, whence it would seem that the Teleosaur -lived more habitually in the water, and less seldom moved on dry -land; and, as its fossil remains have been hitherto found only in -the sedimentary deposits from the sea, it may be inferred that it -was more strictly marine than the crocodile of the Ganges.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_23">23</div> -<p>The first specimen of a Teleosaur that was brought to light was -from the “alum-schale” which forms one layer of the lofty lias -cliffs of the Yorkshire coast, near Whitby. A brief description, -and figures, of this incomplete fossil skeleton were published by -Messrs. Wooller and Chapman, in separate communications, in -the 50th volume of the “Philosophical Transactions,” in 1758. -Captain Chapman observes, “it seems to have been an alligator;” -and Mr. Wooller thought “it resembled in every respect the -Gangetic gavial.” Thus, nearly a century ago, the true nature of -the fossil was almost rightly understood, and various were the -theories then broached to account for the occurrence of a supposed -Gangetic reptile in a petrified state in the cliffs of Yorkshire. It -has required the subsequent progress of comparative anatomy to -determine, as by the characters above defined, the essential distinction -of the Teleosaur from all known existing forms of crocodilian -reptiles.</p> -<p>Very abundant remains, and several species, of the extinct genus -have been subsequently discovered: but always in the oolitic and -liassic formations of the secondary series of rocks.</p> -<p>The oolitic group of rocks are very rich in remains of both -plants and animals: many reptiles of genera and species distinct -from those here restored have been recognised and determined by -portions of the skeleton. Extremely numerous are the remains of -fishes, chiefly of an almost extinct order (<i>Ganoidei</i>), characterised -by hard, shining, enamelled scales. But the most remarkable -fossils are those which indisputably prove the existence, during the -period of the “Great” or “Lower Oolite,” of insectivorous and -marsupial mammalia—<i>i.e.</i>, of warm-blood quadrupeds, which, -like the shrew or hedgehog, fed on insects, and, like the opossum, -had a pouch for the transport of the young. The lower jaw of -one of these earliest known examples of the mammalian class, -found in the Stonesfield slate, near Oxford, may be seen at the -British Museum, to which it was presented by J. W. Broderip, -Esq., F.R.S., by whom it was described in the “Zoological -Journal,” vol. iii., p. 408.</p> -<p>It is interesting to observe that the marsupial genera, to which -the above fossil quadruped, called <i>Phascolotherium</i>, was most -nearly allied, are now confined to New South Wales and Van -<span class="pb" id="Page_24">24</span> -Diemen’s Land; since it is in the Australian seas that is found -the <i>Cestracion</i>, a cartilaginous fish which has teeth that are most -like those fossil teeth called <i>Acrodus</i> and <i>Psammodus</i>, so common -in the oolite. In the same Australian seas, also, near the shore, -the beautiful shell-fish called <i>Trigonia</i> is found living, of which -genus many fossil species occur in the Stonesfield slate. Moreover, -the Araucarian pines are now abundant, together with ferns, -in Australia, as they were in Europe in the oolitic period.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_25">25</div> -<h2 id="c13"><span class="small"><span class="ss">THE LIAS.</span></span></h2> -<p>“Lias” is an English provincial name adopted in geology, and -applied to a formation of limestone, marl, and petrified clay, which -forms the base of the oolite, or immediately underlies that division -of secondary rocks. The lias has been traced throughout a great -part of Europe, forming beds of a thickness varying from 500 to -1000 feet of the above-mentioned substances, which have been -gradually deposited from a sea of corresponding extent and -direction. The lias abounds with marine shells of extinct species, -and with remains of fishes that were clad with large and hard -shining scales. Of the higher or air-breathing animals of that -period, the most characteristic were the</p> -<h3 id="c14"><span class="sc">Enaliosauria.</span></h3> -<p>The creatures called Enaliosauria or Sea-lizards (from the Greek -<i>enalios</i>, of the sea, and <i>sauros</i>, lizard), were vertebrate animals, or -had back bones, breathed the air like land quadrupeds, but were -cold-blooded, or of a low temperature, like crocodiles and other -reptiles. The proof that the Enaliosaurs respired atmospheric air -immediately, and did not breathe water by means of gills like fishes, -is afforded by the absence of the bony framework of the gill -apparatus, and by the presence, position, and structure of the air -passages leading from the nostrils, and also by the bony mechanism -of the capacious chest or thoracic-abdominal cavity: all of which -characters have been demonstrated by their fossil skeletons. With -these characters the Sea-lizards combined the presence of two pairs -of limbs shaped like fins, and adapted for swimming.</p> -<p>The Enaliosauria offer two principal modifications of their -anatomical, and especially their bony, structure, of which the two -kinds grouped together under the respective names of Ichthyosaurus -and Plesiosaurus are the examples.</p> -<h3 id="c15"><span class="sc">The Ichthyosaurus.</span></h3> -<p>The genus Ichthyosaurus includes many species: of which three -<span class="pb" id="Page_26">26</span> -of the best known and most remarkable have been selected for -restoration to illustrate this most singular of the extinct forms of -animal life.</p> -<p>The name (from the Greek <i>ichthys</i>, a fish, and <i>sauros</i>, a lizard) -indicates the closer affinity of the Ichthyosaur, as compared with -the Plesiosaur, to the class of fishes. The Ichthyosaurs are remarkable -for the shortness of the neck and the equality of the width of -the back of the head with the front of the chest, impressing the -observer of the fossil skeleton with a conviction that the ancient -animal must have resembled the whale tribe and the fishes in the -absence of any intervening constriction or “neck.”</p> -<p>This close approximation in the Ichthyosaurs to the form of the -most strictly aquatic back-boned (vertebrate) animals of the existing -creation is accompanied by an important modification of the surfaces -forming the joints of the back-bone, each of which surfaces -is hollow, leading to the inference that they were originally connected -together by an elastic bag, or “capsule,” filled with fluid—a -structure which prevails in the class of fishes, but not in any of -the whale or porpoise tribe, nor in any, save a few of the very -lowest and most fish-like, of the existing reptiles.</p> -<p>With the above modifications of the head, trunk, and limbs, in -relation to swimming, there co-exist corresponding modifications of -the tail. The bones of this part are much more numerous than in -the Plesiosaurs, and the entire tail is consequently longer; but it -does not show any of those modifications that characterise the bony -support of the tail in fishes. The numerous “caudal vertebræ” -of the Ichthyosaurus gradually decrease in size to the end of the -tail, where they assume a compressed form, or are flattened from -side to side, and thus the tail instead of being short and broad, as -in fishes, is lengthened out as in crocodiles.</p> -<p>The very frequent occurrence of a fracture of the tail, about -one fourth of the way from its extremity, in well-preserved -and entire fossil skeletons, is owing to that proportion of the -end of the tail having supported a tail-fin. The only evidence -which the fossil skeleton of a whale would yield of the -powerful horizontal tail-fin characteristic of the living animal, is -the depressed or horizontally flattened form of the bones supporting -such fin. It is inferred, therefore, from the corresponding bones -<span class="pb" id="Page_27">27</span> -of the Ichthyosaurus being flattened from side to side, that it -possessed a tegumentary tail-fin expanded in the vertical direction. -The shape of a fin composed of such perishable material is of -course conjectural, but from analogies, not necessary here to -further enlarge upon, it was probably like, or nearly like, that -which the able artist engaged in the restoration of the entire form -of the animal has given to it. Thus, in the construction of the -principal swimming-organ of the Ichthyosaurus we may trace, as -in other parts of its structure, a combination of mammalian -(beast-like), saurian (lizard-like), and piscine (fish-like) peculiarities. -In its great length and gradual diminution we perceive its saurian -character; the tegumentary nature of the fin, unsustained by bony -fin-rays, bespeaks its affinity to the same part in the mammalian -whales and porpoises; whilst its vertical position makes it closely -resemble the tail-fin of the fish.</p> -<p>The horizontality of the tail-fin of the whale tribe is essentially -connected with their necessities as warm-blooded animals breathing -atmospheric air; without this means of displacing a mass of -water in the vertical direction, the head of the whale could not be -brought with the required rapidity to the surface to respire; but -the Ichthyosaurs, not being warm-blooded, or quick breathers, -would not need to bring their head to the surface so frequently, or -so rapidly, as the whale; and, moreover, a compensation for the -want of horizontality of their tail-fin was provided by the addition -of a pair of hind-paddles, which are not present in the whale -tribe. The vertical fin was a more efficient organ in the rapid -cleaving of the liquid element, when the Ichthyosaurs were in -pursuit of their prey, or escaping from an enemy.</p> -<p>That the Ichthyosaurs occasionally sought the shores, crawled -on the strand, and basked in the sunshine, may be inferred from -the bony structure connected with their fore-fins, which does not -exist in any porpoise, dolphin, grampus, or whale; and for want of -which, chiefly, those warm-blooded, air-breathing, marine animals are -so helpless when left high and dry on the sands: the structure in question -in the Ichthyosaur is a strong osseous arch, inverted and spanning -across beneath the chest from one shoulder-joint to the other; -and what is most remarkable in the structure of this “scapular” -arch, as it is called, is, that it closely resembles, in the number, -<span class="pb" id="Page_28">28</span> -shape, and disposition of its bones, the same part in the singular -aquatic mammalian quadruped of Australia, called <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, -<i>Platypus</i>, and Duck-mole. The Ichthyosaurs, when so visiting the -shore, either for sleep, or procreation, would lie, or crawl prostrate, -or with the belly resting or dragging on the ground.</p> -<p>The most extraordinary feature of the head was the enormous -magnitude of the eye; and from the quantity of light -admitted by the expanded pupil it must have possessed great -powers of vision, especially in the dusk. It is not uncommon to -find in front of the orbit (cavity for the eye), in fossil skulls, a -circular series of petrified thin bony plates, ranged round a central -aperture, where the pupil of the eye was placed. The eyes of -many fishes are defended by a bony covering consisting of two -pieces; but a compound circle of overlapping plates is now found -only in the eyes of turtles, tortoises, lizards, and birds. This -curious apparatus of bony plates would aid in protecting the eyeball -from the waves of the sea when the Ichthyosaurus rose to the -surface, and from the pressure of the dense element when it dived -to great depths; and they show, writes Dr. Buckland,<a class="fn" id="fr_4" href="#fn_4">[4]</a> “that -the enormous eye, of which they formed the front, was an optical -instrument of varied and prodigious power, enabling the Ichthyosaurus -to descry its prey at great or little distances, in the -obscurity of night, and in the depths of the sea.”</p> -<p>Of no extinct reptile are the materials for a complete and -exact restoration more abundant and satisfactory than of the Ichthyosaurus; -they plainly show that its general external figure must -have been that of a huge predatory abdominal fish, with a longer -tail, and a smaller tail-fin: scale-less, moreover, and covered by -a smooth, or finely wrinkled skin analogous to that of the -whale tribe.</p> -<p>The mouth was wide, and the jaws long, and armed with -numerous pointed teeth, indicative of a predatory and carnivorous -nature in all the species; but these differed from one another in -regard to the relative strength of the jaws, and the relative size -and length of the teeth.</p> -<p>Masses of masticated bones and scales of extinct fishes, that -lived in the same seas and at the same period as the Ichthyosaurus, -<span class="pb" id="Page_29">29</span> -have been found under the ribs of fossil specimens, in the -situation where the stomach of the animal was placed; smaller, -harder, and more digested masses, containing also fish-bones and -scales have been found, bearing the impression of the structure of -the internal surface of the intestine of the great predatory sea-lizard. -These digested masses are called “coprolites.”</p> -<p>In tracing the evidences of creative power from the earlier to the -later formations of the earth’s crust, remains of the Ichthyosaurus -are first found in the lower lias, and occur, more or less abundantly, -through all the superincumbent secondary strata up to, and inclusive -of, the chalk formations. They are most numerous in the lias and -oolite, and the largest and most characteristic species have been -found in these formations.</p> -<h3 id="c16">No. 12.—<span class="sc">Ichthyosaurus platyodon.</span></h3> -<p>This most gigantic species, so called on account of the crown of -the tooth being more flattened than in other species, and having -sharp edges, as well as a sharp point, was first discovered in the -lias of Lyme Regis, in Dorsetshire. Fossil remains now in the -British Museum, and in the museum of the Geological Society, -fully bear out the dimensions exhibited by the restoration of the -animal as seen basking on the shore between the two specimens of -Long-necked Plesiosaurs. The head of this species is relatively -larger in proportion to the trunk, than in the <i>Ichthyosaurus communis</i> -or <i>Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris</i>: the lower jaw is remarkably massive -and powerful, and projects backwards beyond the joint, as far as -it does in the crocodile. In the skull of an individual of this species, -preserved in the apartments of the Geological Society of London, the -cavity for the eye, or orbit, measures, in its long diameter, fourteen -inches. The fore and hind paddles are large and of equal size.</p> -<p>The lias of the valley of Lyme Regis, Dorsetshire, is the chief -grave-yard of the <i>Ichthyosaurus platyodon</i>; but its remains are -pretty widely distributed. They have been found in the lias of -Glastonbury, of Bristol, of Scarborough and Whitby, and of Bitton, -in Gloucestershire; some vertebræ, apparently of this species, -have likewise been found in the lias at Ohmden, in Germany.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_30">30</div> -<h3 id="c17">No. 13.—<span class="sc">Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris.</span></h3> -<p>Behind the <i>Ichthyosaurus platyodon</i>, is placed the restoration of -the <i>Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris</i>, or Slender-snouted Fish-lizard. The -most striking peculiarity of this species is the great length and -slenderness of the jaw-bones, which, in combination with the large -eye-sockets and flattened cranium, give to the entire skull a form -which resembles that of a gigantic snipe or woodcock, with the bill -armed with teeth. These weapons, in the present species, are -relatively more numerous, smaller, and more sharply pointed than in -the foregoing, and indicate that the <i>Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris</i> preyed -on a smaller kind of fish. The fore-paddles are larger than the hind -ones. In the museum of the Philosophical Institution, at Bristol, -there is an almost entire skeleton of the present species which -measures thirteen feet in length. It was discovered in the lias -of Lyme Regis. Portions of jaws and other parts of the -skeletons of larger individuals have been found fossil in the -lias near Bristol, at Barrow-on-Soar, in Leicestershire, and at -Stratford-on-Avon. The <i>Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris</i> has also left its -remains in the lias formation at Boll and Amburg, in Wirtemberg, -Germany.</p> -<h3 id="c18">No. 14.—<span class="sc">Ichthyosaurus communis.</span></h3> -<p>Of this species, which was the most “common,” when first discovered -in 1824, but which has since been surpassed by other -species in regard to the known number of individuals, the head is -restored, as protruded from the water, to the right of the foregoing -species.</p> -<p>The <i>Ichthyosaurus communis</i> is characterised by its relatively -large teeth, with expanded, deeply-grooved bases, and round conical -furrowed crowns; the upper jaw contains, on each side, from forty -to fifty of such teeth. The fore-paddles are three times larger than -the hind ones. With respect to the size which it attained, the -<i>Ichthyosaurus communis</i> seems only to be second to the <i>Ichthyosaurus -platyodon</i>. In the museum of the Earl of Enniskillen, there is a -fossil skull of the <i>Ichthyosaurus communis</i> which measures, in length, -two feet nine inches, indicating an animal of at least twenty feet -in length.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_31">31</div> -<h3 id="c19"><span class="sc">Plesiosaurus.</span></h3> -<p>The discovery of this genus forms one of the most important -additions that geology has made to comparative anatomy. Baron -Cuvier deemed “its structure to have been the most singular, and -its characters the most monstrous, that had been yet discovered amid -the ruins of a former world.” To the head of a lizard it united -the teeth of a crocodile, a neck of enormous length, resembling the -body of a serpent, a trunk and tail having the proportions of an -ordinary quadruped, the ribs of a chameleon, and the paddles of a -whale. “Such,” writes Dr. Buckland, “are the strange combinations -of form and structure in the Plesiosaurus, a genus, the -remains of which, after interment for thousands of years amidst -the wreck of millions of extinct inhabitants of the ancient earth, -are at length recalled to light by the researches of the geologist, -and submitted to our examination, in nearly as perfect a state as -the bones of species that are now existing upon the earth.” (Op. -cit., vol. v. p. 203).</p> -<p>The first remains of this animal were discovered in the lias of -Lyme Regis, about the year 1823, and formed the subject of the -paper by the Rev. Mr. Conybeare (now Dean of Llandaff), and -Mr. (now Sir Henry) De la Beche, in which the genus was -established and named Plesiosaurus (from the Greek words, <i>plesios</i> -and <i>sauros</i>, signifying “near” or “allied to,” and “lizard”), -because the authors saw that it was more nearly allied to the lizard -than was the Ichthyosaurus from the same formation.</p> -<p>The entire and undisturbed skeletons of several individuals, of -different species, have since been discovered, fully confirming the -sagacious restorations by the original discoverers of the <i>Plesiosaurus</i>. -Of these species three have been selected as the subjects of Mr. -Waterhouse Hawkins’s reconstructions and representations of the -living form of the strange reptiles.</p> -<h3 id="c20">No. 15.—<span class="sc">Plesiosaurus macrocephalus.</span></h3> -<p>The first of these has been called, from the relatively larger size -of the head, the <i>Plesiosaurus macrocephalus</i> (No. 15), (Gr. <i>macros</i>, -long, <i>cephale</i>, head). The entire length of the animal, as indicated -by the largest remains, and as given in the restoration, is eighteen -<span class="pb" id="Page_32">32</span> -feet, the length of the head being two feet, that of the neck six -feet; the greatest girth of the body yields seven feet.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig4"> -<img src="images/p03.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="563" /> -<p class="pcap">No. 15. Plesiosaurus macrocephalus.</p> -</div> -<p>Although Baron Cuvier and Dr. Buckland both rightly allude -to the resemblance of the fins or paddles of the Plesiosaur to -those of the whale, yet this most remarkable difference must be -borne in mind, that, whereas the whale tribe have never more than -one pair of fins, the Plesiosaurs have always two pairs, answering -to the fore and hind limbs of land quadrupeds; and the fore-pair -of fins, corresponding to those in the whale, differed by being more -firmly articulated, through the medium of collar-bones (clavicles), -and of two other very broad and strong bones (called coracoids), -to the trunk (thorax), whereby they were the better enabled to -move the animal upon dry land.</p> -<p>Remains of the <i>Plesiosaurus macrocephalus</i> have been discovered -in the lias of Lyme Regis, in Dorsetshire, and of Weston, in -Somersetshire.</p> -<h3 id="c21">No. 16.—<span class="sc">Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus.</span></h3> -<p>Further to the left, on the shore of the Secondary Island, is a -restoration of the <i>Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus</i>, or Long-necked Plesiosaurus -(No. 16). The head in this remarkable species is smaller, and -<span class="pb" id="Page_33">33</span> -the neck proportionally longer than in the <i>Plesiosaurus macrocephalus</i>. -The remains of the Long-necked Plesiosaur have been found chiefly -at Lyme Regis, in Dorsetshire. The well known specimen of an -almost entire skeleton, formerly in the possession of His Grace the -Duke of Buckingham, is now in the British Museum.</p> -<h3 id="c22">No. 17.—<span class="sc">Plesiosaurus Hawkinsii.</span></h3> -<p>The most perfect skeletons of the Plesiosaurus are those that -have been wrought out of the lias at Street, near Glastonbury, by -Mr. Thomas Hawkins, F.G.S., and which have been purchased by -the trustees of the British Museum. A restoration is given by -Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins, at No. 17, of a species with characters -somewhat intermediate between the Large-headed and Long-necked -Plesiosaurs, and which has been called, after its discoverer, <i>Plesiosaurus -Hawkinsii</i>.</p> -<p>The Plesiosaurs breathed air like the existing crocodiles and the -whale tribe, and appear to have lived in shallow seas and estuaries. -That the Long-necked Sea-lizard was aquatic is evident from the -form of its paddles; and that it was marine is almost equally so, -from the remains with which its fossils are universally associated; -that it may have occasionally visited the shore, the resemblance of -its extremities to those of a turtle leads us to conjecture; its -motion, however, must have been very awkward on land; its long -neck must have impeded its progress through the water, presenting -a striking contrast to the organisation which so admirably adapted -the Ichthyosaurus to cut its swift course through the waves. “May -it not, therefore, be concluded that it swam upon, or near the -surface,” asks its accomplished discoverer, “arching back its long -neck like a swan, and occasionally darting it down at the fish that -happened to float within its reach? It may perhaps have lurked -in shoal-water along the coast, concealed among the sea-weed, and, -raising its nostrils to a level with the surface from a considerable -depth, may have found a secure retreat from the assaults of -dangerous enemies; while the length and flexibility of its neck -may have compensated for the want of strength in its jaws, and -its incapacity for swift motion through the water, by the suddenness -<span class="pb" id="Page_34">34</span> -and agility of the attack which enabled it to make on every -animal fitted for its prey which came within its reach.”<a class="fn" id="fr_5" href="#fn_5">[5]</a></p> -<p>For the Secondary Island three species of the Plesiosaurus have -been restored, the <i>Plesiosaurus macrocephalus</i>, the <i>Plesiosaurus -dolichodeirus</i> (Gr. <i>dolichos</i>, long, <i>deire</i>, neck), and the <i>Plesiosaurus -Hawkinsii</i>. The name “long-necked” was given to the second of -these species before it was known that many other species with -long and slender necks had existed in the seas of the same ancient -period: the third species is named after Mr. Thomas Hawkins, -F.G.S., the gentleman by whose patience, zeal, and skill, the -British Museum has been enriched with so many entire skeletons -of these most extraordinary extinct sea-lizards.</p> -<p>The remains of all these species occur in the lias at Lyme Regis, -and at Street, near Glastonbury; but the <i>Plesiosaurus Hawkinsii</i> -is the most abundant in the latter locality.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p04.jpg" alt="{uncaptioned}" width="800" height="567" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_35">35</div> -<h2 id="c23"><span class="small"><span class="ss">NEW RED SANDSTONE.</span></span></h2> -<p>“Trias” is an arbitrary term applied in geology to the upper -division of a vast series of red loams, shales, and sandstones, interposed -between the lias and the coal, in the midland and western -counties of England. This series is collectively called the “New -Red Sandstone formation,” to distinguish it from the “Old Red -Sandstone formation,” of similar or identical mineral character, -which lies immediately beneath the coal.</p> -<p>The animals which have been restored and placed on the lowest -formation of the Secondary Island, are peculiar to the “triassic,” -or upper division of the “New Red Sandstone” series, which -division consists, in England, of saliferous (salt-including) shales and -sandstones, from 1000 to 1500 feet thick in Lancashire and -Cheshire, answering to the formation called “Keuper-sandstone” -by the German geologists; and of sandstone and quartzose conglomerate -of 600 feet in thickness, answering to the German -“Bunter-sandstone.”</p> -<p>The largest and most characteristic animals of the trias are -reptiles of the order</p> -<h3 id="c24"><span class="sc">Batrachia.</span></h3> -<p>The name of this order is from the Greek word <i>batrachos</i>, -signifying a frog: and the order is represented in the present -animal-population of England by a few diminutive species of frogs, -toads, and newts, or water-salamanders. But, at the period of the -deposition of the new red sandstone, in the present counties of -Warwick and Cheshire, the shores of the ancient sea, which were -then formed by that sandy deposit, were trodden by reptiles, -having the essential bony characters of the Batrachia, but combining -these with other bony characters of crocodiles and lizards; -and exhibiting both under a bulk which is made manifest by the -restoration of the largest known species, (No. 16), occupying the -<span class="pb" id="Page_36">36</span> -extreme promontory of the Island, illustrative of the lowest and -oldest deposits of the secondary series of rocks. The species in -question is called the—</p> -<h3 id="c25">No. 18.—<span class="sc">Labyrinthodon Salamandroides.</span></h3> -<p>or the Salamander-like Labyrinthodon; the latter term being from -the Greek, signifying the peculiar structure of the teeth, which -differ from all other reptiles in the huge Batrachia in question, by -reason of the complex labyrinthic interblending of the different -substances composing the teeth. The skull of the Labyrinthodon -is attached to the neck-bones by two joints or condyles, and the -teeth are situated both on the proper jaw-bones, and on the bone -of the roof of the mouth called “vomer:” both these characters -are only found at the present day in the frogs and salamanders. -The hind-foot of the Labyrinthodon was also, as in the toad and -frog, much larger than the fore-foot; and the innermost digit in -both was short and turned in, like a thumb.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig5"> -<img src="images/p05.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="552" /> -<p class="pcap">No. 18. Labyrinthodon Salamandroides.</p> -</div> -<p>Consecutive impressions of the prints of these feet have been -traced for many steps in succession (as is accurately represented in -<span class="pb" id="Page_37">37</span> -the new red sandstone part of the Secondary Island) in quarries of -that formation in Warwickshire, Cheshire, and also in Lancashire, -more especially at a quarry of a whitish quartzose sandstone at -Storton Hill, a few miles from Liverpool. The foot-marks are -partly concave and partly in relief; the former are seen upon the -upper surface of the sandstone slabs, but those in relief are only -upon the lower surfaces, being, in fact, natural casts, formed on the -subjacent foot-prints as in moulds. The impressions of the hind-foot -are generally eight inches in length and five inches in width: -near each large footstep, and at a regular distance—about an inch -and a half—before it, a smaller print of the fore-foot, four inches -long and three inches wide, occurs. The footsteps follow each -other in pairs, each pair in the same line, at intervals of about -fourteen inches from pair to pair. The large as well as the small -steps show the thumb-like toe alternately on the right and left -side, each step making a print of five toes.</p> -<p>Foot-prints of corresponding form but of smaller size have been -discovered in the quarry at Storton Hill, imprinted on five thin -beds of clay, lying one upon another in the same quarry, and -separated by beds of sandstone. From the lower surface of the -sandstone layers, the solid casts of each impression project in high -relief, and afford models of the feet, toes, and claws of the animals -which trod on the clay.</p> -<p>Similar foot-prints were first observed in Saxony, at the village of -Hessberg, near Hillburghausen, in several quarries of a gray -quartzose sandstone, alternating with beds of red sandstone, and of -the same geological age as the sandstones of England that had -been trodden by the same strange animal. The German geologist, -who first described them, proposed the name of <i>Cheirotherium</i> (Gr. -<i>cheir</i>, the hand, <i>therion</i>, beast), for the great unknown animal that -had left the foot-prints, in consequence of the resemblance, both of -the fore and hind feet, to the impression of a human hand, and -Dr. Kaup conjectured that the animal might be a large species of -the opossum-kind. The discovery, however, of fossil skulls, jaws, -teeth, and a few other bones in the sandstones exhibiting the -footprints in question, has rendered it more probable that both the -footprints and the fossils are evidences of the same kind of huge -extinct Batrachian reptiles.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_38">38</div> -<p>An entire skull of the largest species discovered in the new red -sandstones of Wurtemberg; a lower jaw of the same species found -in the same formation in Warwickshire; some vertebræ, and a -few fragments of bones of the limbs, have served, with the indications -of size and shape of the trunk of the animal yielded by the -series of consecutive foot-prints, as the basis of the restoration of -the <i>Labyrinthodon salamandroides</i>, in the Secondary Island. It is -to be understood, however, that, with the exception of the head, -the form of the animal is necessarily more or less conjectural.</p> -<h3 id="c26">Nos. 19 & 20.—<span class="sc">Labyrinthodon pachygnathus.</span></h3> -<p>This name, signifying the Thick-jawed Labyrinthodon, was given -by its discoverer to a species of -these singular Batrachia, found in -the new red sandstone of Warwickshire, -and which bears to the largest -species the proportion exhibited by -the head and fore-part of the body, -as emerging from the water, for -which parts alone the fossils hitherto -discovered justify the restoration.<a class="fn" id="fr_6" href="#fn_6">[6]</a></p> -<div class="img" id="fig6"> -<img src="images/p06.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="301" /> -<p class="pcap">Nos. 19 & 20. Section of Tooth of Labyrinthodon. -<br /><i>a</i> Pulp-cavity: <i>b b</i> inflected folds of ossified capsule of tooth.</p> -</div> -<h3 id="c27">Nos. 21 & 22.—<span class="sc">Dicynodon.</span></h3> -<p>In 1844 Mr. Andrew G. Bain, who had been employed in the -construction of military roads in the colony of the Cape of Good -Hope, discovered, in the tract of country extending northwards -from the county of Albany, about 450 miles east of Cape Town, -several nodules or lumps of a kind of sandstone, which, when -broken, displayed, in most instances, evidences of fossil bones, and -usually of a skull with two large projecting teeth. Accordingly, -these evidences of ancient animal life in South Africa were first -notified to English geologists by Mr. Bain under the name of -“Bidentals;” and the specimens transmitted by him were submitted -<span class="pb" id="Page_39">39</span> -at his request to Professor Owen for examination. The -results of the comparisons thereupon instituted went to show that -there had formerly existed in South Africa, and from geological -evidence, probably, in a great salt-water lake or inland sea, since -converted into dry land, a race of reptilian animals presenting in -the construction of their skull characters of the crocodile, the -tortoise, and the lizard, coupled with the presence of a pair of huge -sharp-pointed tusks, growing downwards, one from each side of the -upper jaw, like the tusks of the mammalian morse or walrus. No -other kind of teeth were developed in these singular animals: the -lower jaw was armed, as in the tortoise, by a trenchant sheath of -horn. Some bones of the back, or vertebræ, by the hollowness of -the co-adapted articular surfaces, indicate these reptiles to have been -good swimmers, and probably to have habitually existed in water; -but the construction of the bony passages of the nostrils proves -that they must have come to the surface to breathe air.</p> -<p>Some extinct plants allied to the Lepidodendron, with other -fossils, render it probable that the sandstones containing the -Dicynodont reptiles were of the same geological age as those that -have revealed the remains of the Labyrinthodonts in Europe.</p> -<p>The generic name Dicynodon is from the Greek words signifying -“two tusks or canine teeth.” Three species of this genus have -been demonstrated from the fossils transmitted by Mr. Bain.</p> -<p>The <i>Dicynodon lacerticeps</i>, or Lizard-headed Dicynodon, attained -the bulk of a walrus; the form of the head and tusks is correctly -given in the restoration (No. 21); the trunk has been added -conjecturally, to illustrate the strange combination of characters -manifested in the head.</p> -<p>A second species, with a head so formed as to have given the -animal somewhat of the physiognomy of an owl, has been partially -restored at No. 22.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_40">40</div> -<div class="img" id="fig7"> -<img src="images/p07.jpg" alt="" width="504" height="799" /> -<p class="pcap">No. 8. Dinornis.</p> -</div> -<h2 id="c28"><span class="small">FOOTNOTES</span></h2> -<div class="fnblock"><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_1" href="#fr_1">[1]</a>Lyell, “Manual of Elementary Geology.” -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_2" href="#fr_2">[2]</a>“The first specimens of the teeth were found by Mrs. Mantell in the coarse -conglomerate of the Forest, in the spring of 1822.”—Mantell, “Geology of the -South-East of England,” 8vo, 1833, p. 268. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_3" href="#fr_3">[3]</a>“Report of British Fossil Reptiles,” 1841, p. 110. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_4" href="#fr_4">[4]</a>Op. cit., p. 174. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_5" href="#fr_5">[5]</a>“Transactions of the Geological Society,” Second Series, vi. 503. 1841. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_6" href="#fr_6">[6]</a>Conybeare, Geol. Trans., i. 388. -</div> -</div> -<p class="tbcenter"><span class="smaller">BRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS.</span></p> -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> -<ul> -<li>Silently corrected a few typos.</li> -<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li> -<li>In the text versions only, text in <i>italics</i> is delimited by _underscores_.</li> -</ul> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Geology and Inhabitants of the Ancient -World, by Richard Owen - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEOLOGY, INHABITANTS OF ANCIENT WORLD *** - -***** This file should be named 62414-h.htm or 62414-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/4/1/62414/ - -Produced by deaurider, Stephen Hutcheson, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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