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diff --git a/old/62414-0.txt b/old/62414-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index a84f030..0000000 --- a/old/62414-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1709 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Geology and Inhabitants of the Ancient World, by -Richard Owen - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Geology and Inhabitants of the Ancient World - -Author: Richard Owen - -Release Date: June 17, 2020 [EBook #62414] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEOLOGY, INHABITANTS OF ANCIENT WORLD *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Stephen Hutcheson, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - [Illustration: GEOLOGY AND INHABITANTS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. - THE EXTINCT ANIMALS RESTORED BY B. WATERHOUSE HAWKINS. F.G.S. F.L.S. - PUBLISHED FOR THE CRYSTAL PALACE LIBRARY, BY BRADBURY & EVANS, 11, - BOUVERIE ST. - MACLURE & CO. LITH. TO THE QUEEN.] - - - - - GEOLOGY AND INHABITANTS - OF THE - ANCIENT WORLD. - - - DESCRIBED BY - RICHARD OWEN, F.R.S. - - - THE ANIMALS CONSTRUCTED BY B. W. HAWKINS, F.G.S. - - - CRYSTAL PALACE LIBRARY, - AND - BRADBURY & EVANS, 11, BOUVERIE STREET, LONDON. - 1854. - - BRADBURY AND EVANS, - PRINTERS TO THE CRYSTAL PALACE COMPANY, - WHITEFRIARS. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - INTRODUCTION 5 - THE SECONDARY ISLAND 7 - CHALK FORMATION 9 - THE MOSASAURUS 10 - THE PTERODACTYLE 11 - WEALDEN FORMATION 14 - THE IGUANODON 14 - THE HYLÆOSAURUS 17 - OOLITE FORMATION 19 - THE MEGALOSAURUS 19 - PTERODACTYLES OF THE OOLITE 22 - TELEOSAURUS 22 - LIAS FORMATION 25 - ENALIOSAURIA 25 - THE ICHTHYOSAURUS 25 - ICHTHYOSAURUS PLATYODON 29 - ICHTHYOSAURUS TENUIROSTRIS 30 - ICHTHYOSAURUS COMMUNIS 30 - PLESIOSAURUS 31 - PLESIOSAURUS MACROCEPHALUS 31 - PLESIOSAURUS DOLICHODEIRUS 32 - PLESIOSAURUS HAWKINSII 33 - NEW RED SANDSTONE 35 - BATRACHIA 35 - LABYRINTHODON SALAMANDROIDES 36 - LABYRINTHODON PACHYGNATHUS 38 - DICYNODON 38 - - [Illustration: {uncaptioned}] - - - - - GEOLOGY AND INHABITANTS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. - - - - - INTRODUCTION. - - -Before entering upon a description of the restorations of the Extinct -Animals, placed on the Geological Islands in the great Lake, a brief -account may be premised of the principles and procedures adopted in -carrying out this attempt to present a view of part of the animal -creation of former periods in the earth’s history. - -Those extinct animals were first selected of which the entire, or nearly -entire, skeleton had been exhumed in a fossil state. To accurate -drawings of these skeletons an outline of the form of the entire animal -was added, according to the proportions and relations of the skin and -adjacent soft parts to the superficial parts of the skeleton, as yielded -by those parts in the nearest allied living animals. From such an -outline of the exterior, Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins prepared at once a -miniature model form in clay. - -This model was rigorously tested in regard to all its proportions with -those exhibited by the bones and joints of the skeleton of the fossil -animal, and the required alterations and modifications were successively -made, after repeated examinations and comparisons, until the result -proved satisfactory. - -The next step was to make a copy in clay of the proof model, of the -natural size of the extinct animal: the largest known fossil bone, or -part, of such animal being taken as the standard according to which the -proportions of the rest of the body were calculated agreeably with those -of the best preserved and most perfect skeleton. The model of the full -size of the extinct animal having been thus prepared, and corrected by -renewed comparisons with the original fossil remains, a mould of it was -prepared, and a cast taken from this mould, in the material of which the -restorations, now exposed to view, are composed. - -There are some very rare and remarkable extinct animals of which only -the fossil skull and a few detached bones of the skeleton have been -discovered: in most of these the restoration has been limited to the -head, as, for example, in the case of the Mosasaurus; and only in two -instances—those, viz., of the Labyrinthodon and Dicynodon—has Mr. -Hawkins taken upon himself the responsibility of adding the trunk to the -known characters of the head, such addition having been made to -illustrate the general affinities and nature of the fossil, and the kind -of limbs required to produce the impressions of the footprints, where -these have been detected and preserved in the petrified sands of the -ancient sea-shores trodden by these strange forms of the Reptilian -class. - -With regard to the hair, the scales, the scutes, and other modifications -of the skin, in some instances the analogy of the nearest allied living -forms of animals has been the only guide; in a few instances, as in that -of the Ichthyosaurus, portions of the petrified integument have been -fortunately preserved, and have guided the artist most satisfactorily in -the restoration of the skin and soft parts of the fins; in the case of -other reptiles, the bony plates, spines, and scutes have been discovered -in a fossil state, and have been scrupulously copied in the attempt to -restore the peculiar tegumentary features of the extinct reptiles, as -_e.g._ in the Hylæosaurus. - -In every stage of this difficult, and by some it may be thought, -perhaps, too bold, attempt to reproduce and present to human gaze and -contemplation the forms of animal life that have successively flourished -during former geological phases of time, and have passed away long ages -prior to the creation of man, the writer of the following brief notice -of the nature and affinities of the animals so restored feels it a duty, -as it is a high gratification to him, to testify to the intelligence, -zeal, and peculiar artistic skill by which his ideas and suggestions -have been realised and carried out by the talented director of the -fossil department, Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins. Without the combination of -science, art, and manual skill, happily combined in that gentleman, the -present department of the Instructive Illustrations at the Crystal -Palace could not have been realised. - - - The Secondary Island. - -The most cursory observation of the surface of the earth shows that it -is composed of distinct substances, such as clay, chalk, lias, -limestone, coal, slate, sandstone, &c.; and a study of such substances, -their relative position and contents, has led to the conviction that -these external parts of the earth have acquired their present condition -gradually, under a variety of circumstances, and at successive periods, -during which many races of animated beings, distinct both from those of -other periods and from those now living, have successively peopled the -land and the waters; the remains of these creatures being found buried -in many of the layers or masses of mineral substances, forming the crust -of the earth. - -The object of the Islands in the Geological Lake is to demonstrate the -order of succession, or superposition, of these layers or strata, and to -exhibit, restored in form and bulk, as when they lived, the most -remarkable and characteristic of the extinct animals and plants of each -stratum. - -The series of mineral substances and strata represented in the smaller -island have been called by geologists “secondary formations,” because -they lie between an older series termed “primary,” and a newer series -termed “tertiary:” the term “formation” meaning any assemblage of rocks -or layers which have some character in common, whether of origin, age, -or composition.[1] - -Following the secondary formations as they descend in the earth, or -succeed each other from above downwards, and as they are shown, -obliquely tilted up out of their original level position from left to -right, in the Secondary Island, they consist: 1st, of the Chalk or -Cretaceous group; 2nd, the Wealden; 3rd, the Oolite; 4th, the Lias; and -5th, the New Red Sandstone. - - - - - THE CHALK. - - -The chalk formations or “cretaceous group of beds” include strata of -various mineral substances; but the white chalk which forms the cliffs -of Dover and the adjoining coasts, and the downs and chalk quarries of -the South of England, is the chief and most characteristic formation. -Chalk, immense as are the masses in which it has been deposited, owes -its origin to living actions; every particle of it once circulated in -the blood or vital juices of certain species of animals, or of a few -plants, that lived in the seas of the secondary period of geological -time. White chalk consists of carbonate of lime, and is the result of -the decomposition chiefly of coral-animals (_Madrepores_, _Millepores_, -_Flustra_, _Cellepora_, &c.), of sea-urchins (_Echini_), and of -shell-fishes (_Testacea_), and of the mechanical reduction, pounding, -and grinding of their shells. Such chalk-forming beings still exist, and -continue their operations in various parts of the ocean, especially in -the construction of coral reefs and islands. - -Every river that traverses a limestone district carries into the sea a -certain proportion of caustic lime in solution: the ill effects of the -accumulation of this mineral are neutralised by the power allotted to -the above-cited sea-animals to absorb the lime, combine it with -carbonic-acid, and precipitate or deposit it in the condition of -insoluble chalk, or carbonate of lime. - -The entire cretaceous series includes from above downwards: - - Maestricht beds of yellowish chalk. - Upper white chalk with flints. - Lower white chalk without flints. - Upper green-sand. - Gault. - Lower green-sand and Kentish rag. - -The best known and most characteristic large extinct animal of the chalk -formations is chiefly found in the uppermost and most recent division, -and is called - - - No. 1.—The Mosasaurus. - (_Mosasaurus Hoffmanni_, Hoffmann’s Mosasaur.) - -Of this animal almost the entire skull has been discovered, but not -sufficient of the rest of the skeleton to guide to a complete -restoration of the animal. The head only, therefore, is shown, of the -natural size, at the left extremity of the Secondary Island. - -The first or generic name of this animal is derived from the locality, -Maestricht, on the river Meuse (Lat. _Mosa_), in Germany, where its -remains have been chiefly discovered, and from the Greek word _sauros_, -a lizard, to which tribe of animals it belongs. Its second name refers -to its discoverer, Dr. Hoffmann, of Maestricht, surgeon to the forces -quartered in that town in 1780. This gentleman had occupied his leisure -by the collection of the fossils from the quarries which were then -worked to a great extent at Maestricht for a kind of yellowish stone of -a chalky nature, and belonging to the most recent of the secondary class -of formations in geology. In one of the great subterraneous quarries or -galleries, about five hundred paces from the entrance, and ninety feet -below the surface, the quarrymen exposed part of the skull of the -Mosasaurus, in a block of stone which they were engaged in detaching. On -this discovery they suspended their work, and went to inform Dr. -Hoffmann, who, on arriving at the spot, directed the operations of the -men, so that they worked out the block without injury to the fossil; and -the doctor then, with his own hands, cleared away the matrix and exposed -the jaws and teeth, casts of which are shown in the cretaceous rock of -the Island. - -This fine specimen, which Hoffmann had added with so much pains and care -to his collection, soon, however, became a source of chagrin to him. One -of the canons of the cathedral at Maestricht, who owned the surface of -the soil beneath which was the quarry whence the fossil had been -obtained, when the fame of the specimen reached him, pleaded certain -feudal rights to it. Hoffmann resisted, and the canon went to law. The -Chapter supported the canon, and the decree ultimately went against the -poor surgeon, who lost both his specimen and his money—being made to pay -the costs of the action. The canon did not, however, long enjoy -possession of the unique specimen. When the French army bombarded -Maestricht in 1795, directions were given to spare the suburb in which -the famous fossil was known to be preserved; and after the capitulation -of the town it was seized and borne off in triumph. The specimen has -since remained in the museum of the Garden of Plants at Paris. - -This skull of the Mosasaurus measures four and a half feet long and two -and a half feet wide. The large pointed teeth on the jaws are very -conspicuous; but, in addition to these, the gigantic reptile had teeth -on a bone of the roof of the mouth (the pterygoid), like some of the -modern lizards. The entire length of the animal has been estimated at -about thirty feet. It is conjectured to have been able to swim well, and -to have frequented the sea in quest of prey: its dentition shows its -predatory and carnivorous character, and its remains have hitherto been -met with exclusively in the chalk formations. Besides the specimens from -St. Peter’s Mount, Maestricht, of which the above-described skull is the -most remarkable, fossil bones and teeth of the Mosasaurus have been -found in the chalk of Kent, and in the green-sand—a member of the -cretaceous series—in New Jersey, United States of America. No animal -like the Mosasaurus is now known to exist. - - - Nos. 2 & 3.—The Pterodactyle. - -Nos. 2 and 3 are restorations of a flying reptile or dragon, called -Pterodactyle, from the Greek words _pteron_, a wing, and _dactylos_, a -finger; because the wings are mainly supported by the outer finger, -enormously lengthened and of proportionate strength, which, -nevertheless, answers to the little finger of the human hand. The wings -consisted of folds of skin, like the leather wings of the bat; and the -Pterodactyles were covered with scales, not with feathers: the head, -though somewhat resembling in shape that of a bird, and supported on a -long and slender neck, was provided with long jaws, armed with teeth; -and altogether the structure of these extinct members of the reptilian -class is such as to rank them amongst the most extraordinary of all the -creatures yet discovered in the ruins of the ancient earth. - -Remains of the Pterodactyle were first discovered, in 1784, by Prof. -Collini, in the lithographic slate of Aichstadt, in Germany, which slate -is a member of the oolitic formations: the species so discovered was at -first mistaken for a bird, and afterwards supposed to be a large kind of -bat, but had its true reptilian nature demonstrated by Baron Cuvier, by -whom it was called the _Pterodactylus longirostris_, or Long-beaked -Pterodactyle: it was about the size of a curlew. - -A somewhat larger species—the _Pterodactylus macronyx_, or Long-clawed -Pterodactyle—was subsequently discovered by the Rev. Dr. Buckland, in -the lias formation of Lyme Regis: its wings, when expanded, must have -been about four feet from tip to tip. The smallest known species—the -_Pterodactylus brevirostris_, or Short-beaked Pterodactyle—was -discovered in the lithographic slate at Solenhofen, Germany, and has -been described by Professor Soemmering. - -Remains of the largest known kinds of Pterodactyle have been discovered -more recently in chalk-pits, at Burham, in Kent. The skull of one of -these species—the _Pterodactylus Cuvieri_—was about twenty inches in -length, and the animal was upborne on an expanse of wing of probably not -less than eighteen feet from tip to tip. The restored specimen of this -species is numbered 3. - -A second very large kind of Pterodactyle—the _Pterodactylus -compressirostris_, or Thin-beaked Pterodactyle—had a head from fourteen -to sixteen inches in length, and an expanse of wing, from tip to tip, of -fifteen feet. The remains of this species have also been found in the -chalk of Kent. From the same formation and locality a third large kind -of Pterodactyle, although inferior in size to the two foregoing, has -been discovered, called the _Pterodactylus conirostris_, and also—until -the foregoing larger kinds were discovered—_Pterodactylus giganteus_. -The long, sharp, conical teeth in the jaws of the Pterodactyles indicate -them to have preyed upon other living animals; their eyes were large, as -if to enable them to fly by night. From their wings projected fingers, -terminated by long curved claws, and forming a powerful paw, wherewith -the animal was enabled to creep and climb, or suspend itself from trees. -It is probable, also, that the Pterodactyles had the power of swimming; -some kinds, _e.g._, the _Pterodactylus Gemmingi_, had a long and stiff -tail. “Thus,” writes Dr. Buckland, “like Milton’s Fiend, all qualified -for all services and all elements, the creature was a fit companion for -the kindred reptiles that swarmed in the seas, or crawled on the shores -of a turbulent planet. - - ‘The Fiend, - O’er bog, or steep, through strait, rough, dense, or rare, - With head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way, - And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies.’ - _Paradise Lost_, Book II.” - - - - - THE WEALDEN. - - -The Wealden is a mass of petrified clay, sand, and sandstone, deposited -from the fresh or brackish water of probably some great estuary, and -extending over parts of the counties of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex. This -fresh-water formation derives its name from the “Weald” or “Wold” of -Kent, where it was first geologically studied, and where it is exposed -by the removal of the chalk, which covers or overlies it, in other parts -of the South of England. - -The Wealden is divided into three groups of strata, which succeed each -other in the following descending order:— - -1st. Weald Clay, sometimes including thin beds of sand and shelly -limestone, forming beds of from 140 to 280 feet in depth or vertical -thickness. - -2nd. Hastings Sand, in which occur some clays and calcareous grits, -forming beds of from 400 to 500 feet in depth. - -3rd. Purbeck Beds, so called from being exposed chiefly in the Isle of -Purbeck, off the coast of Dorsetshire, where it forms the quarries of -the limestone for which Purbeck is famous: the beds of limestones and -marls are from 150 to 200 feet in depth. - - - Nos. 4 & 5.—The Iguanodon. - (_Iguanodon Mantelli_, Conybeare.) - -One afternoon, in the spring of 1822, an accomplished lady, the wife of -a medical practitioner, at Lewes, in Sussex, walking along the -picturesque paths of Tilgate Forest, discovered some objects in the -coarse conglomerate rock of the quarries of that locality, which, from -their peculiar form and substance, she thought would be interesting to -her husband, whose attention had been directed, during his professional -drives, to the geology and fossils of his neighbourhood. - -The lady was Mrs. Mantell: her husband, the subsequently distinguished -geologist, Dr. Mantell,[2] perceived that the fossils discovered by his -wife were teeth, and teeth of a large and unknown animal. - -“As these teeth,” writes the doctor, “were distinct from any that had -previously come under my notice, I felt anxious to submit them to the -examination of persons whose knowledge and means of observation were -more extensive than my own. I therefore transmitted specimens to some of -the most eminent naturalists in this country and on the continent. But -although my communications were acknowledged with that candour and -liberality which constantly characterise the intercourse of scientific -men, yet no light was thrown upon the subject, except by the illustrious -Baron Cuvier, whose opinions will best appear by the following extract -from the correspondence with which he honoured me:— - -“‘These teeth are certainly unknown to me; they are not from a -carnivorous animal, and yet I believe that they belong, from their -slight degree of complexity, the notching of their margins, and the thin -coat of enamel that covers them, to the order of reptiles. - -“‘May we not here have a new animal!—a herbivorous reptile? And, just as -at the present time with regard to mammals (land-quadrupeds with warm -blood), it is amongst the herbivorous that we find the largest species, -so also with the reptiles at the remote period when they were the sole -terrestrial animals, might not the largest amongst them have been -nourished by vegetables? - -“‘Some of the great bones which you possess may belong to this animal, -which, up to the present time, is unique in its kind. Time will confirm -or confute this idea, since it is impossible but that one day a part of -the skeleton, united to portions of jaws with the teeth, will be -discovered.’” - -“These remarks,” Dr. Mantell proceeds to say, “induced me to pursue my -investigations with increased assiduity, but hitherto they have not been -attended with the desired success, no connected portion of the skeleton -having been discovered. Among the specimens lately connected, some, -however, were so perfect, that I resolved to avail myself of the -obliging offer of Mr. Clift (to whose kindness and liberality I hold -myself particularly indebted), to assist me in comparing the fossil -teeth with those of the recent Lacertæ in the Museum of the Royal -College of Surgeons. The result of this examination proved highly -satisfactory, for in an Iguana which Mr. Stutchbury had prepared to -present to the College, we discovered teeth possessing the form and -structure of the fossil specimens.” (Phil. Trans., 1825, p. 180.) And he -afterwards adds:—“The name Iguanodon, derived from the form of the -teeth, (and which I have adopted at the suggestion of the Rev. W. -Conybeare,) will not, it is presumed, be deemed objectionable.” (Ib. p. -184.) - -The further discovery which Baron Cuvier’s prophetic glance saw buried -in the womb of time, and the birth of which verified his conjecture that -some of the great bones collected by Dr. Mantell belonged to the same -animal as the teeth, was made by Mr. W. H. Bensted, of Maidstone, the -proprietor of a stone-quarry of the Shanklin-sand formation, in the -close vicinity of that town. This gentleman had his attention one day, -in May, 1834, called by his workmen to what they supposed to be -petrified wood in some pieces of stone which they had been blasting. He -perceived that what they supposed to be wood was fossil bone, and with a -zeal and care which have always characterised his endeavours to secure -for science any evidence of fossil remains in his quarry, he immediately -resorted to the spot. He found that the bore or blast by which these -remains were brought to light, had been inserted into the centre of the -specimen, so that the mass of stone containing it had been shattered -into many pieces, some of which were blown into the adjoining fields. -All these pieces he had carefully collected, and proceeding with equal -ardour and success to the removal of the matrix from the fossils, he -succeeded after a month’s labour in exposing them to view, and in -fitting the fragments to their proper places. - -This specimen is now in the British Museum. - -Many other specimens of detached bones, including vertebræ or parts of -the back-bone, especially that part resting on the hind limbs, and -called the “pelvis,” bones of the limbs, down to those that supported -the claws, together with jaws and teeth, which have since been -successively discovered, have enabled anatomists to reconstruct the -extinct Iguanodon, and have proved it to have been a herbivorous -reptile, of colossal dimensions, analogous to the diminutive Iguana in -the form of its teeth, but belonging to a distinct and higher order of -reptiles, more akin to the crocodiles. The same rich materials, -selecting the largest of the bones as a standard, have served for the -present restorations (Nos. 4 and 5) of the animal, as when alive: all -the parts being kept in just proportion to the standard bones, and the -whole being thus brought to the following dimensions:— - - Total length, from the nose or muzzle 34 feet 9 inches. - to the end of the tail - Greatest girth of the trunk 20 ” 5 ” - Length of the head 3 ” 6 ” - Length of the tail 15 ” 6 ” - -The character of the scales is conjectural, and the horn more than -doubtful, though attributed to the Iguanodon by Dr. Mantell and most -geologists. - -This animal probably lived near estuaries and rivers, and may have -derived its food from the _Clathrariæ_, _Zamiæ_, _Cycades_, and other -extinct trees, of which the fossil remains abound in the same formations -as those yielding the bones and teeth of the Iguanodon. - -These formations are the Wealden and the Neocomian or green-sand: the -localities in which the remains of the Iguanodon have been principally -found, are the Weald of Kent and Sussex: Horsham, in Sussex; Maidstone, -in Kent; and the Isle of Wight. - -Restorations of the _Cycas_ and _Zamia_ are placed, with the Iguanodon, -on the Wealden division of the Secondary Island. - - - No. 6.—The Hylæosaurus. (_Hylæosaurus Owenii._) - -The animal, so called by its discoverer, Dr. Mantell, belongs to the -same highly organised order of the class of reptiles as the Iguanodon, -that, viz., which was characterised by a longer and stronger sacrum and -pelvis, and by larger limbs than the reptiles of the present day -possess; they were accordingly better fitted for progression on dry -land, and probably carried their body higher and more freely above the -surface of the ground. - -Visiting, in the summer of 1832, a quarry in Tilgate Forest, Dr. Mantell -had his attention attracted to some fragments of a large mass of stone, -which had recently been broken up, and which exhibited traces of -numerous pieces of bone. The portions of the rock, which admitted of -being restored together, were cemented, and then the rock was chiselled -from the fossil bones, which consisted of part of the back-bone or -vertebral column, some ribs, the shoulder bones called scapula and -coracoid, and numerous long angular bones or spines which seemed to have -supported a lofty serrated or jagged crest, extended along the middle of -the back, as in some of the small existing lizards, _e.g._, the Iguana: -cut No. 6. Many small dermal bones were also found, which indicate the -Hylæosaurus to have been covered by hard tuberculate scales, like those -of some of the Australian lizards, called _Cyclodus_. - -This character of the skin, and the serrated crest, are accurately given -in the restoration, the major part of which, however, is necessarily at -present conjectural, and carried out according to the general analogies -of the saurian form. The size is indicated with more certainty according -to the proportions of the known vertebræ and other bones. - - [Illustration: No. 6. Diagram of the Slab containing the Bones of - Hylæosaurus.] - - - - - THE OOLITE. - - -The division of the secondary formations, called “Oolite,” takes its -name from the most characteristic of its constituents, which is a -variety of limestone composed of numerous small grains, resembling the -“roe” or eggs of a fish, whence the term, (from the Greek _oon_, an egg, -_lithos_, a stone). The oolite, however, includes a great series of beds -of marine origin, which, with an average breadth of thirty miles, extend -across England, from Yorkshire in the north-east to Dorsetshire in the -south-west. - -The oolite series lies below the Wealden, and where this is wanting, -below the chalk, and consists of the following subdivisions, succeeding -each other in the descending order:— - - Oolite. - - Upper. Portland stone and sand. - Kimmeridge clay. - - Middle. Coral rag. - Oxford clay. - - Lower. Cornbrash and forest marble. - Great oolite and Stonesfield slate. - Fuller’s earth. - Inferior oolite. - -Upon the portion of the island representing the oolite series, the most -conspicuous of the restored animals of that period is— - - - No. 7.—The Megalosaurus. - -The Megalosaurus, as its name implies (compounded by its discoverer, Dr. -Buckland, from the Greek _megas_, great, and _sauros_, lizard), was a -lizard-like reptile of great size, “of which,” writes Dr. Buckland, -“although no skeleton has yet been found entire, so many perfect bones -and teeth have been discovered in the same quarries, that we are nearly -as well acquainted with the form and dimensions of the limbs as if they -had been found together in a single block of stone.” - -The restoration of the animal has been accordingly effected, agreeably -with the proportions of the known parts of the skeleton, and in harmony -with the general characters of the order of reptiles to which the -Megalosaurus belonged. This order—the Dinosauria (Gr. _deinos_, terribly -great _sauros_, a lizard)—is that to which the two foregoing huge -reptiles of the Wealden series belong, viz., the Iguanodon and -Hylæosaurus, and is characterised by the modifications already -mentioned, that fitted them for more efficient progression upon dry -land. The Iguanodon represented the herbivorous section of the order, -the Hylæosaurus appears, from its teeth, to have been a mixed feeder, -but the Megalosaurus was decidedly carnivorous, and, probably, waged a -deadly war against its less destructively endowed congeners and -contemporaries. - - [Illustration: No. 7. Megalosaurus.] - -Baron Cuvier estimated the Megalosaurus to have been about fifty feet in -length; my own calculations, founded on more complete evidence than had -been at the Baron’s command, reduce its size to about thirty-five -feet:[3] but with the superior proportional height and capacity of -trunk, as contrasted with the largest existing crocodiles, even that -length gives a most formidable character to this extinct predatory -reptile. - -As the thigh-bone (_femur_) and leg-bone (_tibia_) measure each nearly -three feet, the entire hind-leg, allowing for the cartilages of the -joints, must have attained a length of two yards: a bone of the foot -(metatarsal) thirteen inches long, indicates that part, with the toes -and claws entire, to have been at least three feet in length. The form -of the teeth shows the Megalosaurus to have been strictly carnivorous, -and viewed as instruments for providing food for so enormous a reptile, -the teeth were fearfully fitted to the destructive office for which they -were designed. They have compressed conical sharp-pointed crowns, with -cutting and finely serrated anterior and posterior edges; they appear -straight, as seen when they had just protruded from the socket, but -become bent slightly backwards in the progress of growth, and the fore -part of the crown, below the summit, becomes thick and convex. - -A minute and interesting description of these teeth will be found in Dr. -Buckland’s admirable “Bridgewater Treatise” (vol. i. p. 238), from which -he concludes that the teeth of the Megalosaurus present “a combination -of contrivances analogous to those which human ingenuity has adopted in -the construction of the knife, the sabre, and the saw.” The fossils -which brought to light the former existence of this most formidable -reptile, were discovered in 1823, in the oolitic slate of Stonesfield, -near Oxford, and were described by Dr. Buckland, in the volume of the -“Geological Transactions” for the year 1824. - -Remains of the Megalosaurus have since been discovered in the “Bath -oolite,” which is immediately below the Stonesfield slate, and in the -“Cornbrash,” which lies above it. Vertebræ, teeth, and some bones of the -extremities have been discovered in the Wealden of Tilgate Forest, Kent, -and in the ferruginous sand, of the same age, near Cuckfield, in Sussex. -Remains of the Megalosaurus also occur in the Purbeck limestone at -Swanage Bay, and in the oolite in the neighbourhood of Malton, in -Yorkshire. - -Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins’s restoration, according to the proportions -calculated from the largest portions of fossil bones of the Megalosaurus -hitherto obtained, yields a total length of the animal, from the muzzle -to the end of the tail, of thirty-seven feet; the length of the head -being five feet, the length of the tail fifteen feet; and the greatest -girth of the body twenty-two feet six inches. - - - Nos. 8 & 9.—Pterodactyles of the Oolite. - -To the right of the Hylæosaurus, on the rock representing the greater -oolite formation, are restorations of species of Pterodactyle -(_Pterodactylus Bucklandi_, No. 9), smaller than and distinct from those -of the chalk formations. The remains of Buckland’s Pterodactyle are -found pretty abundantly in the oolitic slate of Stonesfield, near -Oxford. - - - Nos. 10 & 11.—Teleosaurus. - -On the shore beneath the overhanging cliff of oolitic rock are two -restorations, Nos. 10 and 11, of a large extinct kind of crocodile, to -which the long and slender-jawed crocodile of the Ganges, called -“Gaviàl” or “Gharriàl” by the Hindoos, offers the nearest resemblance at -the present day. Remains of the ancient extinct British gavials have -been found in most of the localities where the oolitic formations occur, -and very abundantly in the lias cliffs near Whitby, in Yorkshire. The -name Teleosaurus (_telos_, the end, _sauros_, a lizard), was compounded -from the Greek by Professor Geoffroy St. Hilaire, for a species of these -fossil gavials, found by him in the oolite stone at Caen, in Normandy, -and has reference to his belief that they formed one—the -earliest—extreme of the crocodilian series, as this series has been -successively developed in the course of time on our planet. - -The jaws are armed with numerous long, slender, sharp-pointed, slightly -curved teeth, indicating that they preyed on fishes, and the young or -weaker individuals of co-existing reptiles. The nostril is situated more -at the end of the upper jaw than in the modern gavial: the fore-limbs -are shorter, and the hind ones longer and stronger than in the gavial, -which indicates that the Teleosaur was a better swimmer; the vertebræ or -bones of the back are united by slightly concave surfaces, not -interlocked by cup and ball joints as in the modern crocodiles, whence -it would seem that the Teleosaur lived more habitually in the water, and -less seldom moved on dry land; and, as its fossil remains have been -hitherto found only in the sedimentary deposits from the sea, it may be -inferred that it was more strictly marine than the crocodile of the -Ganges. - -The first specimen of a Teleosaur that was brought to light was from the -“alum-schale” which forms one layer of the lofty lias cliffs of the -Yorkshire coast, near Whitby. A brief description, and figures, of this -incomplete fossil skeleton were published by Messrs. Wooller and -Chapman, in separate communications, in the 50th volume of the -“Philosophical Transactions,” in 1758. Captain Chapman observes, “it -seems to have been an alligator;” and Mr. Wooller thought “it resembled -in every respect the Gangetic gavial.” Thus, nearly a century ago, the -true nature of the fossil was almost rightly understood, and various -were the theories then broached to account for the occurrence of a -supposed Gangetic reptile in a petrified state in the cliffs of -Yorkshire. It has required the subsequent progress of comparative -anatomy to determine, as by the characters above defined, the essential -distinction of the Teleosaur from all known existing forms of -crocodilian reptiles. - -Very abundant remains, and several species, of the extinct genus have -been subsequently discovered: but always in the oolitic and liassic -formations of the secondary series of rocks. - -The oolitic group of rocks are very rich in remains of both plants and -animals: many reptiles of genera and species distinct from those here -restored have been recognised and determined by portions of the -skeleton. Extremely numerous are the remains of fishes, chiefly of an -almost extinct order (_Ganoidei_), characterised by hard, shining, -enamelled scales. But the most remarkable fossils are those which -indisputably prove the existence, during the period of the “Great” or -“Lower Oolite,” of insectivorous and marsupial mammalia—_i.e._, of -warm-blood quadrupeds, which, like the shrew or hedgehog, fed on -insects, and, like the opossum, had a pouch for the transport of the -young. The lower jaw of one of these earliest known examples of the -mammalian class, found in the Stonesfield slate, near Oxford, may be -seen at the British Museum, to which it was presented by J. W. Broderip, -Esq., F.R.S., by whom it was described in the “Zoological Journal,” vol. -iii., p. 408. - -It is interesting to observe that the marsupial genera, to which the -above fossil quadruped, called _Phascolotherium_, was most nearly -allied, are now confined to New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land; since -it is in the Australian seas that is found the _Cestracion_, a -cartilaginous fish which has teeth that are most like those fossil teeth -called _Acrodus_ and _Psammodus_, so common in the oolite. In the same -Australian seas, also, near the shore, the beautiful shell-fish called -_Trigonia_ is found living, of which genus many fossil species occur in -the Stonesfield slate. Moreover, the Araucarian pines are now abundant, -together with ferns, in Australia, as they were in Europe in the oolitic -period. - - - - - THE LIAS. - - -“Lias” is an English provincial name adopted in geology, and applied to -a formation of limestone, marl, and petrified clay, which forms the base -of the oolite, or immediately underlies that division of secondary -rocks. The lias has been traced throughout a great part of Europe, -forming beds of a thickness varying from 500 to 1000 feet of the -above-mentioned substances, which have been gradually deposited from a -sea of corresponding extent and direction. The lias abounds with marine -shells of extinct species, and with remains of fishes that were clad -with large and hard shining scales. Of the higher or air-breathing -animals of that period, the most characteristic were the - - - Enaliosauria. - -The creatures called Enaliosauria or Sea-lizards (from the Greek -_enalios_, of the sea, and _sauros_, lizard), were vertebrate animals, -or had back bones, breathed the air like land quadrupeds, but were -cold-blooded, or of a low temperature, like crocodiles and other -reptiles. The proof that the Enaliosaurs respired atmospheric air -immediately, and did not breathe water by means of gills like fishes, is -afforded by the absence of the bony framework of the gill apparatus, and -by the presence, position, and structure of the air passages leading -from the nostrils, and also by the bony mechanism of the capacious chest -or thoracic-abdominal cavity: all of which characters have been -demonstrated by their fossil skeletons. With these characters the -Sea-lizards combined the presence of two pairs of limbs shaped like -fins, and adapted for swimming. - -The Enaliosauria offer two principal modifications of their anatomical, -and especially their bony, structure, of which the two kinds grouped -together under the respective names of Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus -are the examples. - - - The Ichthyosaurus. - -The genus Ichthyosaurus includes many species: of which three of the -best known and most remarkable have been selected for restoration to -illustrate this most singular of the extinct forms of animal life. - -The name (from the Greek _ichthys_, a fish, and _sauros_, a lizard) -indicates the closer affinity of the Ichthyosaur, as compared with the -Plesiosaur, to the class of fishes. The Ichthyosaurs are remarkable for -the shortness of the neck and the equality of the width of the back of -the head with the front of the chest, impressing the observer of the -fossil skeleton with a conviction that the ancient animal must have -resembled the whale tribe and the fishes in the absence of any -intervening constriction or “neck.” - -This close approximation in the Ichthyosaurs to the form of the most -strictly aquatic back-boned (vertebrate) animals of the existing -creation is accompanied by an important modification of the surfaces -forming the joints of the back-bone, each of which surfaces is hollow, -leading to the inference that they were originally connected together by -an elastic bag, or “capsule,” filled with fluid—a structure which -prevails in the class of fishes, but not in any of the whale or porpoise -tribe, nor in any, save a few of the very lowest and most fish-like, of -the existing reptiles. - -With the above modifications of the head, trunk, and limbs, in relation -to swimming, there co-exist corresponding modifications of the tail. The -bones of this part are much more numerous than in the Plesiosaurs, and -the entire tail is consequently longer; but it does not show any of -those modifications that characterise the bony support of the tail in -fishes. The numerous “caudal vertebræ” of the Ichthyosaurus gradually -decrease in size to the end of the tail, where they assume a compressed -form, or are flattened from side to side, and thus the tail instead of -being short and broad, as in fishes, is lengthened out as in crocodiles. - -The very frequent occurrence of a fracture of the tail, about one fourth -of the way from its extremity, in well-preserved and entire fossil -skeletons, is owing to that proportion of the end of the tail having -supported a tail-fin. The only evidence which the fossil skeleton of a -whale would yield of the powerful horizontal tail-fin characteristic of -the living animal, is the depressed or horizontally flattened form of -the bones supporting such fin. It is inferred, therefore, from the -corresponding bones of the Ichthyosaurus being flattened from side to -side, that it possessed a tegumentary tail-fin expanded in the vertical -direction. The shape of a fin composed of such perishable material is of -course conjectural, but from analogies, not necessary here to further -enlarge upon, it was probably like, or nearly like, that which the able -artist engaged in the restoration of the entire form of the animal has -given to it. Thus, in the construction of the principal swimming-organ -of the Ichthyosaurus we may trace, as in other parts of its structure, a -combination of mammalian (beast-like), saurian (lizard-like), and -piscine (fish-like) peculiarities. In its great length and gradual -diminution we perceive its saurian character; the tegumentary nature of -the fin, unsustained by bony fin-rays, bespeaks its affinity to the same -part in the mammalian whales and porpoises; whilst its vertical position -makes it closely resemble the tail-fin of the fish. - -The horizontality of the tail-fin of the whale tribe is essentially -connected with their necessities as warm-blooded animals breathing -atmospheric air; without this means of displacing a mass of water in the -vertical direction, the head of the whale could not be brought with the -required rapidity to the surface to respire; but the Ichthyosaurs, not -being warm-blooded, or quick breathers, would not need to bring their -head to the surface so frequently, or so rapidly, as the whale; and, -moreover, a compensation for the want of horizontality of their tail-fin -was provided by the addition of a pair of hind-paddles, which are not -present in the whale tribe. The vertical fin was a more efficient organ -in the rapid cleaving of the liquid element, when the Ichthyosaurs were -in pursuit of their prey, or escaping from an enemy. - -That the Ichthyosaurs occasionally sought the shores, crawled on the -strand, and basked in the sunshine, may be inferred from the bony -structure connected with their fore-fins, which does not exist in any -porpoise, dolphin, grampus, or whale; and for want of which, chiefly, -those warm-blooded, air-breathing, marine animals are so helpless when -left high and dry on the sands: the structure in question in the -Ichthyosaur is a strong osseous arch, inverted and spanning across -beneath the chest from one shoulder-joint to the other; and what is most -remarkable in the structure of this “scapular” arch, as it is called, -is, that it closely resembles, in the number, shape, and disposition of -its bones, the same part in the singular aquatic mammalian quadruped of -Australia, called _Ornithorhynchus_, _Platypus_, and Duck-mole. The -Ichthyosaurs, when so visiting the shore, either for sleep, or -procreation, would lie, or crawl prostrate, or with the belly resting or -dragging on the ground. - -The most extraordinary feature of the head was the enormous magnitude of -the eye; and from the quantity of light admitted by the expanded pupil -it must have possessed great powers of vision, especially in the dusk. -It is not uncommon to find in front of the orbit (cavity for the eye), -in fossil skulls, a circular series of petrified thin bony plates, -ranged round a central aperture, where the pupil of the eye was placed. -The eyes of many fishes are defended by a bony covering consisting of -two pieces; but a compound circle of overlapping plates is now found -only in the eyes of turtles, tortoises, lizards, and birds. This curious -apparatus of bony plates would aid in protecting the eyeball from the -waves of the sea when the Ichthyosaurus rose to the surface, and from -the pressure of the dense element when it dived to great depths; and -they show, writes Dr. Buckland,[4] “that the enormous eye, of which they -formed the front, was an optical instrument of varied and prodigious -power, enabling the Ichthyosaurus to descry its prey at great or little -distances, in the obscurity of night, and in the depths of the sea.” - -Of no extinct reptile are the materials for a complete and exact -restoration more abundant and satisfactory than of the Ichthyosaurus; -they plainly show that its general external figure must have been that -of a huge predatory abdominal fish, with a longer tail, and a smaller -tail-fin: scale-less, moreover, and covered by a smooth, or finely -wrinkled skin analogous to that of the whale tribe. - -The mouth was wide, and the jaws long, and armed with numerous pointed -teeth, indicative of a predatory and carnivorous nature in all the -species; but these differed from one another in regard to the relative -strength of the jaws, and the relative size and length of the teeth. - -Masses of masticated bones and scales of extinct fishes, that lived in -the same seas and at the same period as the Ichthyosaurus, have been -found under the ribs of fossil specimens, in the situation where the -stomach of the animal was placed; smaller, harder, and more digested -masses, containing also fish-bones and scales have been found, bearing -the impression of the structure of the internal surface of the intestine -of the great predatory sea-lizard. These digested masses are called -“coprolites.” - -In tracing the evidences of creative power from the earlier to the later -formations of the earth’s crust, remains of the Ichthyosaurus are first -found in the lower lias, and occur, more or less abundantly, through all -the superincumbent secondary strata up to, and inclusive of, the chalk -formations. They are most numerous in the lias and oolite, and the -largest and most characteristic species have been found in these -formations. - - - No. 12.—Ichthyosaurus platyodon. - -This most gigantic species, so called on account of the crown of the -tooth being more flattened than in other species, and having sharp -edges, as well as a sharp point, was first discovered in the lias of -Lyme Regis, in Dorsetshire. Fossil remains now in the British Museum, -and in the museum of the Geological Society, fully bear out the -dimensions exhibited by the restoration of the animal as seen basking on -the shore between the two specimens of Long-necked Plesiosaurs. The head -of this species is relatively larger in proportion to the trunk, than in -the _Ichthyosaurus communis_ or _Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris_: the lower -jaw is remarkably massive and powerful, and projects backwards beyond -the joint, as far as it does in the crocodile. In the skull of an -individual of this species, preserved in the apartments of the -Geological Society of London, the cavity for the eye, or orbit, -measures, in its long diameter, fourteen inches. The fore and hind -paddles are large and of equal size. - -The lias of the valley of Lyme Regis, Dorsetshire, is the chief -grave-yard of the _Ichthyosaurus platyodon_; but its remains are pretty -widely distributed. They have been found in the lias of Glastonbury, of -Bristol, of Scarborough and Whitby, and of Bitton, in Gloucestershire; -some vertebræ, apparently of this species, have likewise been found in -the lias at Ohmden, in Germany. - - - No. 13.—Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris. - -Behind the _Ichthyosaurus platyodon_, is placed the restoration of the -_Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris_, or Slender-snouted Fish-lizard. The most -striking peculiarity of this species is the great length and slenderness -of the jaw-bones, which, in combination with the large eye-sockets and -flattened cranium, give to the entire skull a form which resembles that -of a gigantic snipe or woodcock, with the bill armed with teeth. These -weapons, in the present species, are relatively more numerous, smaller, -and more sharply pointed than in the foregoing, and indicate that the -_Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris_ preyed on a smaller kind of fish. The -fore-paddles are larger than the hind ones. In the museum of the -Philosophical Institution, at Bristol, there is an almost entire -skeleton of the present species which measures thirteen feet in length. -It was discovered in the lias of Lyme Regis. Portions of jaws and other -parts of the skeletons of larger individuals have been found fossil in -the lias near Bristol, at Barrow-on-Soar, in Leicestershire, and at -Stratford-on-Avon. The _Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris_ has also left its -remains in the lias formation at Boll and Amburg, in Wirtemberg, -Germany. - - - No. 14.—Ichthyosaurus communis. - -Of this species, which was the most “common,” when first discovered in -1824, but which has since been surpassed by other species in regard to -the known number of individuals, the head is restored, as protruded from -the water, to the right of the foregoing species. - -The _Ichthyosaurus communis_ is characterised by its relatively large -teeth, with expanded, deeply-grooved bases, and round conical furrowed -crowns; the upper jaw contains, on each side, from forty to fifty of -such teeth. The fore-paddles are three times larger than the hind ones. -With respect to the size which it attained, the _Ichthyosaurus communis_ -seems only to be second to the _Ichthyosaurus platyodon_. In the museum -of the Earl of Enniskillen, there is a fossil skull of the -_Ichthyosaurus communis_ which measures, in length, two feet nine -inches, indicating an animal of at least twenty feet in length. - - - Plesiosaurus. - -The discovery of this genus forms one of the most important additions -that geology has made to comparative anatomy. Baron Cuvier deemed “its -structure to have been the most singular, and its characters the most -monstrous, that had been yet discovered amid the ruins of a former -world.” To the head of a lizard it united the teeth of a crocodile, a -neck of enormous length, resembling the body of a serpent, a trunk and -tail having the proportions of an ordinary quadruped, the ribs of a -chameleon, and the paddles of a whale. “Such,” writes Dr. Buckland, “are -the strange combinations of form and structure in the Plesiosaurus, a -genus, the remains of which, after interment for thousands of years -amidst the wreck of millions of extinct inhabitants of the ancient -earth, are at length recalled to light by the researches of the -geologist, and submitted to our examination, in nearly as perfect a -state as the bones of species that are now existing upon the earth.” -(Op. cit., vol. v. p. 203). - -The first remains of this animal were discovered in the lias of Lyme -Regis, about the year 1823, and formed the subject of the paper by the -Rev. Mr. Conybeare (now Dean of Llandaff), and Mr. (now Sir Henry) De la -Beche, in which the genus was established and named Plesiosaurus (from -the Greek words, _plesios_ and _sauros_, signifying “near” or “allied -to,” and “lizard”), because the authors saw that it was more nearly -allied to the lizard than was the Ichthyosaurus from the same formation. - -The entire and undisturbed skeletons of several individuals, of -different species, have since been discovered, fully confirming the -sagacious restorations by the original discoverers of the -_Plesiosaurus_. Of these species three have been selected as the -subjects of Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins’s reconstructions and representations -of the living form of the strange reptiles. - - - No. 15.—Plesiosaurus macrocephalus. - -The first of these has been called, from the relatively larger size of -the head, the _Plesiosaurus macrocephalus_ (No. 15), (Gr. _macros_, -long, _cephale_, head). The entire length of the animal, as indicated by -the largest remains, and as given in the restoration, is eighteen feet, -the length of the head being two feet, that of the neck six feet; the -greatest girth of the body yields seven feet. - - [Illustration: No. 15. Plesiosaurus macrocephalus.] - -Although Baron Cuvier and Dr. Buckland both rightly allude to the -resemblance of the fins or paddles of the Plesiosaur to those of the -whale, yet this most remarkable difference must be borne in mind, that, -whereas the whale tribe have never more than one pair of fins, the -Plesiosaurs have always two pairs, answering to the fore and hind limbs -of land quadrupeds; and the fore-pair of fins, corresponding to those in -the whale, differed by being more firmly articulated, through the medium -of collar-bones (clavicles), and of two other very broad and strong -bones (called coracoids), to the trunk (thorax), whereby they were the -better enabled to move the animal upon dry land. - -Remains of the _Plesiosaurus macrocephalus_ have been discovered in the -lias of Lyme Regis, in Dorsetshire, and of Weston, in Somersetshire. - - - No. 16.—Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus. - -Further to the left, on the shore of the Secondary Island, is a -restoration of the _Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus_, or Long-necked -Plesiosaurus (No. 16). The head in this remarkable species is smaller, -and the neck proportionally longer than in the _Plesiosaurus -macrocephalus_. The remains of the Long-necked Plesiosaur have been -found chiefly at Lyme Regis, in Dorsetshire. The well known specimen of -an almost entire skeleton, formerly in the possession of His Grace the -Duke of Buckingham, is now in the British Museum. - - - No. 17.—Plesiosaurus Hawkinsii. - -The most perfect skeletons of the Plesiosaurus are those that have been -wrought out of the lias at Street, near Glastonbury, by Mr. Thomas -Hawkins, F.G.S., and which have been purchased by the trustees of the -British Museum. A restoration is given by Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins, at No. -17, of a species with characters somewhat intermediate between the -Large-headed and Long-necked Plesiosaurs, and which has been called, -after its discoverer, _Plesiosaurus Hawkinsii_. - -The Plesiosaurs breathed air like the existing crocodiles and the whale -tribe, and appear to have lived in shallow seas and estuaries. That the -Long-necked Sea-lizard was aquatic is evident from the form of its -paddles; and that it was marine is almost equally so, from the remains -with which its fossils are universally associated; that it may have -occasionally visited the shore, the resemblance of its extremities to -those of a turtle leads us to conjecture; its motion, however, must have -been very awkward on land; its long neck must have impeded its progress -through the water, presenting a striking contrast to the organisation -which so admirably adapted the Ichthyosaurus to cut its swift course -through the waves. “May it not, therefore, be concluded that it swam -upon, or near the surface,” asks its accomplished discoverer, “arching -back its long neck like a swan, and occasionally darting it down at the -fish that happened to float within its reach? It may perhaps have lurked -in shoal-water along the coast, concealed among the sea-weed, and, -raising its nostrils to a level with the surface from a considerable -depth, may have found a secure retreat from the assaults of dangerous -enemies; while the length and flexibility of its neck may have -compensated for the want of strength in its jaws, and its incapacity for -swift motion through the water, by the suddenness and agility of the -attack which enabled it to make on every animal fitted for its prey -which came within its reach.”[5] - -For the Secondary Island three species of the Plesiosaurus have been -restored, the _Plesiosaurus macrocephalus_, the _Plesiosaurus -dolichodeirus_ (Gr. _dolichos_, long, _deire_, neck), and the -_Plesiosaurus Hawkinsii_. The name “long-necked” was given to the second -of these species before it was known that many other species with long -and slender necks had existed in the seas of the same ancient period: -the third species is named after Mr. Thomas Hawkins, F.G.S., the -gentleman by whose patience, zeal, and skill, the British Museum has -been enriched with so many entire skeletons of these most extraordinary -extinct sea-lizards. - -The remains of all these species occur in the lias at Lyme Regis, and at -Street, near Glastonbury; but the _Plesiosaurus Hawkinsii_ is the most -abundant in the latter locality. - - [Illustration: {uncaptioned}] - - - - - NEW RED SANDSTONE. - - -“Trias” is an arbitrary term applied in geology to the upper division of -a vast series of red loams, shales, and sandstones, interposed between -the lias and the coal, in the midland and western counties of England. -This series is collectively called the “New Red Sandstone formation,” to -distinguish it from the “Old Red Sandstone formation,” of similar or -identical mineral character, which lies immediately beneath the coal. - -The animals which have been restored and placed on the lowest formation -of the Secondary Island, are peculiar to the “triassic,” or upper -division of the “New Red Sandstone” series, which division consists, in -England, of saliferous (salt-including) shales and sandstones, from 1000 -to 1500 feet thick in Lancashire and Cheshire, answering to the -formation called “Keuper-sandstone” by the German geologists; and of -sandstone and quartzose conglomerate of 600 feet in thickness, answering -to the German “Bunter-sandstone.” - -The largest and most characteristic animals of the trias are reptiles of -the order - - - Batrachia. - -The name of this order is from the Greek word _batrachos_, signifying a -frog: and the order is represented in the present animal-population of -England by a few diminutive species of frogs, toads, and newts, or -water-salamanders. But, at the period of the deposition of the new red -sandstone, in the present counties of Warwick and Cheshire, the shores -of the ancient sea, which were then formed by that sandy deposit, were -trodden by reptiles, having the essential bony characters of the -Batrachia, but combining these with other bony characters of crocodiles -and lizards; and exhibiting both under a bulk which is made manifest by -the restoration of the largest known species, (No. 16), occupying the -extreme promontory of the Island, illustrative of the lowest and oldest -deposits of the secondary series of rocks. The species in question is -called the— - - - No. 18.—Labyrinthodon Salamandroides. - -or the Salamander-like Labyrinthodon; the latter term being from the -Greek, signifying the peculiar structure of the teeth, which differ from -all other reptiles in the huge Batrachia in question, by reason of the -complex labyrinthic interblending of the different substances composing -the teeth. The skull of the Labyrinthodon is attached to the neck-bones -by two joints or condyles, and the teeth are situated both on the proper -jaw-bones, and on the bone of the roof of the mouth called “vomer:” both -these characters are only found at the present day in the frogs and -salamanders. The hind-foot of the Labyrinthodon was also, as in the toad -and frog, much larger than the fore-foot; and the innermost digit in -both was short and turned in, like a thumb. - - [Illustration: No. 18. Labyrinthodon Salamandroides.] - -Consecutive impressions of the prints of these feet have been traced for -many steps in succession (as is accurately represented in the new red -sandstone part of the Secondary Island) in quarries of that formation in -Warwickshire, Cheshire, and also in Lancashire, more especially at a -quarry of a whitish quartzose sandstone at Storton Hill, a few miles -from Liverpool. The foot-marks are partly concave and partly in relief; -the former are seen upon the upper surface of the sandstone slabs, but -those in relief are only upon the lower surfaces, being, in fact, -natural casts, formed on the subjacent foot-prints as in moulds. The -impressions of the hind-foot are generally eight inches in length and -five inches in width: near each large footstep, and at a regular -distance—about an inch and a half—before it, a smaller print of the -fore-foot, four inches long and three inches wide, occurs. The footsteps -follow each other in pairs, each pair in the same line, at intervals of -about fourteen inches from pair to pair. The large as well as the small -steps show the thumb-like toe alternately on the right and left side, -each step making a print of five toes. - -Foot-prints of corresponding form but of smaller size have been -discovered in the quarry at Storton Hill, imprinted on five thin beds of -clay, lying one upon another in the same quarry, and separated by beds -of sandstone. From the lower surface of the sandstone layers, the solid -casts of each impression project in high relief, and afford models of -the feet, toes, and claws of the animals which trod on the clay. - -Similar foot-prints were first observed in Saxony, at the village of -Hessberg, near Hillburghausen, in several quarries of a gray quartzose -sandstone, alternating with beds of red sandstone, and of the same -geological age as the sandstones of England that had been trodden by the -same strange animal. The German geologist, who first described them, -proposed the name of _Cheirotherium_ (Gr. _cheir_, the hand, _therion_, -beast), for the great unknown animal that had left the foot-prints, in -consequence of the resemblance, both of the fore and hind feet, to the -impression of a human hand, and Dr. Kaup conjectured that the animal -might be a large species of the opossum-kind. The discovery, however, of -fossil skulls, jaws, teeth, and a few other bones in the sandstones -exhibiting the footprints in question, has rendered it more probable -that both the footprints and the fossils are evidences of the same kind -of huge extinct Batrachian reptiles. - -An entire skull of the largest species discovered in the new red -sandstones of Wurtemberg; a lower jaw of the same species found in the -same formation in Warwickshire; some vertebræ, and a few fragments of -bones of the limbs, have served, with the indications of size and shape -of the trunk of the animal yielded by the series of consecutive -foot-prints, as the basis of the restoration of the _Labyrinthodon -salamandroides_, in the Secondary Island. It is to be understood, -however, that, with the exception of the head, the form of the animal is -necessarily more or less conjectural. - - - Nos. 19 & 20.—Labyrinthodon pachygnathus. - -This name, signifying the Thick-jawed Labyrinthodon, was given by its -discoverer to a species of these singular Batrachia, found in the new -red sandstone of Warwickshire, and which bears to the largest species -the proportion exhibited by the head and fore-part of the body, as -emerging from the water, for which parts alone the fossils hitherto -discovered justify the restoration.[6] - - [Illustration: Nos. 19 & 20. Section of Tooth of Labyrinthodon. - _a_ Pulp-cavity: _b b_ inflected folds of ossified capsule of - tooth.] - - - Nos. 21 & 22.—Dicynodon. - -In 1844 Mr. Andrew G. Bain, who had been employed in the construction of -military roads in the colony of the Cape of Good Hope, discovered, in -the tract of country extending northwards from the county of Albany, -about 450 miles east of Cape Town, several nodules or lumps of a kind of -sandstone, which, when broken, displayed, in most instances, evidences -of fossil bones, and usually of a skull with two large projecting teeth. -Accordingly, these evidences of ancient animal life in South Africa were -first notified to English geologists by Mr. Bain under the name of -“Bidentals;” and the specimens transmitted by him were submitted at his -request to Professor Owen for examination. The results of the -comparisons thereupon instituted went to show that there had formerly -existed in South Africa, and from geological evidence, probably, in a -great salt-water lake or inland sea, since converted into dry land, a -race of reptilian animals presenting in the construction of their skull -characters of the crocodile, the tortoise, and the lizard, coupled with -the presence of a pair of huge sharp-pointed tusks, growing downwards, -one from each side of the upper jaw, like the tusks of the mammalian -morse or walrus. No other kind of teeth were developed in these singular -animals: the lower jaw was armed, as in the tortoise, by a trenchant -sheath of horn. Some bones of the back, or vertebræ, by the hollowness -of the co-adapted articular surfaces, indicate these reptiles to have -been good swimmers, and probably to have habitually existed in water; -but the construction of the bony passages of the nostrils proves that -they must have come to the surface to breathe air. - -Some extinct plants allied to the Lepidodendron, with other fossils, -render it probable that the sandstones containing the Dicynodont -reptiles were of the same geological age as those that have revealed the -remains of the Labyrinthodonts in Europe. - -The generic name Dicynodon is from the Greek words signifying “two tusks -or canine teeth.” Three species of this genus have been demonstrated -from the fossils transmitted by Mr. Bain. - -The _Dicynodon lacerticeps_, or Lizard-headed Dicynodon, attained the -bulk of a walrus; the form of the head and tusks is correctly given in -the restoration (No. 21); the trunk has been added conjecturally, to -illustrate the strange combination of characters manifested in the head. - -A second species, with a head so formed as to have given the animal -somewhat of the physiognomy of an owl, has been partially restored at -No. 22. - - [Illustration: No. 8. Dinornis.] - - - - - FOOTNOTES - - -[1]Lyell, “Manual of Elementary Geology.” - -[2]“The first specimens of the teeth were found by Mrs. Mantell in the - coarse conglomerate of the Forest, in the spring of 1822.”—Mantell, - “Geology of the South-East of England,” 8vo, 1833, p. 268. - -[3]“Report of British Fossil Reptiles,” 1841, p. 110. - -[4]Op. cit., p. 174. - -[5]“Transactions of the Geological Society,” Second Series, vi. 503. - 1841. - -[6]Conybeare, Geol. Trans., i. 388. - - - BRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Silently corrected a few typos. - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Geology and Inhabitants of the Ancient -World, by Richard Owen - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEOLOGY, INHABITANTS OF ANCIENT WORLD *** - -***** This file should be named 62414-0.txt or 62414-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/4/1/62414/ - -Produced by deaurider, Stephen Hutcheson, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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