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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e813cf4 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #62376 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/62376) diff --git a/old/62376-0.txt b/old/62376-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index d643fcd..0000000 --- a/old/62376-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,23706 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of Pedagogy, by Gabriel Compayré - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The History of Pedagogy - -Author: Gabriel Compayré - -Translator: William Harold Payne - -Release Date: June 12, 2020 [EBook #62376] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY *** - - - - -Produced by Turgut Dincer, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE - - Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. - - Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=. - - Footnote anchors are denoted by [number], and the footnotes have been - placed at the end of each chapter. - - A superscript is denoted by ^x or ^{xx}, for example XVI^e or 1^{ere}. - - Some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book. - - - - - THE - - HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY. - - - BY - - GABRIEL COMPAYRÉ, - - DEPUTY, DOCTOR OF LETTERS, AND PROFESSOR IN THE NORMAL SCHOOL - OF FONTENAY-AUX-ROSES. - - - _TRANSLATED, WITH AN INTRODUCTION, - NOTES, AND AN INDEX_, - - BY - - W. H. PAYNE, A.M., - - CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NASHVILLE, AND PRESIDENT OF THE - STATE NORMAL COLLEGE; LATE PROFESSOR OF THE SCIENCE AND THE - ART OF TEACHING IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN. - - - BOSTON: - D. C. HEATH & COMPANY. - 1889. - - - - - COPYRIGHT, SEPT. 30, 1885, - - BY W. H. PAYNE. - - - J. S. CUSHING & CO., PRINTERS, BOSTON. - - - - - TABLE OF CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE v-vii - - INTRODUCTION ix-xxii - - CHAPTER I. --Education in Antiquity 1-16 - - CHAPTER II. --Education among the Greeks 17-42 - - CHAPTER III. --Education at Rome 43-60 - - CHAPTER IV. --The Early Christians and the Middle Age 61-82 - - CHAPTER V. --The Renaissance and the Theories of Education - in the Sixteenth Century.--Erasmus, - Rabelais, and Montaigne 83-111 - - CHAPTER VI. --Protestantism and Primary Instruction. - --Luther and Comenius 112-137 - - CHAPTER VII. --The Teaching Congregations.--Jesuits and - Jansenists 138-163 - - CHAPTER VIII. --Fénelon 164-186 - - CHAPTER IX. --The Philosophers of the Seventeenth Century. - --Descartes, Malebranche, and Locke 187-211 - - CHAPTER X. --The Education of Women in the Seventeenth - Century.--Jacqueline Pascal and Madame - de Maintenon 212-231 - - CHAPTER XI. --Rollin 232-252 - - CHAPTER XII. --Catholicism and Primary Instruction.--La - Salle and the Brethren of the Christian - Schools 253-278 - - CHAPTER XIII. --Rousseau and the _Émile_ 278-310 - - CHAPTER XIV. --The Philosophers of the Eighteenth Century. - --Condillac, Diderot, Helvetius, and Kant 311-339 - - CHAPTER XV. --The Origin of Lay and National Education. - --La Chalotais and Rolland 340-361 - - CHAPTER XVI. --The Revolution.--Mirabeau, Talleyrand, - and Condorcet 362-389 - - CHAPTER XVII. --The Convention.--Lepelletier Saint-Fargeau, - Lakanal, and Daunou 390-412 - - CHAPTER XVIII.--Pestalozzi 413-445 - - CHAPTER XIX. --The Successors of Pestalozzi.--Frœbel - and the Père Girard 446-477 - - CHAPTER XX. --Women as Educators 478-507 - - CHAPTER XXI. --The Theory and Practice of Education in - the Nineteenth Century 508-534 - - CHAPTER XXII. --The Science of Education.--Herbert Spencer, - Alexander Bain, Channing, and Horace Mann 535-570 - - APPENDIX 571-575 - - INDEX 577-598 - - - - -TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE. - - -The two considerations that have chiefly influenced me in making -this translation are the following:-- - -1. Of the three phases of educational study, the practical, the -theoretical, and the historical, the last, as proved by the number -of works written on the subject, has received but very little -attention from English and American teachers; and yet, if we allow -that a teacher should first of all be a man of culture, and that -an invaluable factor in his professional education is a knowledge -of what has hitherto been done within his field of activity, there -are the best of reasons why the claims of this study should be -urged upon the teaching profession. For giving breadth of view, -judicial candor, and steadiness of purpose, nothing more helpful -can be commended to the teacher than a critical survey of the -manifold experiments and experiences in educational practice. The -acutest thinkers of all the ages have worked at the solution of the -educational problem, and the educating art has been practised under -every variety of conditions, civil, social, religious, philosophic, -and ethnic. Is it not time for us to review these experiments, as -the very best condition for advancing surely and steadily? - -2. The almost complete neglect of this study among us has been due, -in great measure, to the fact that there have been no books on the -subject at all adapted to the ends to be attained. A dry, scrappy, -and incomplete narration of facts can end only in bewilderment and -in blunting the taste for this species of inquiry. The desirable -thing has been a book that is comprehensive without being tedious, -whose treatment is articulate and clear, and that is pervaded by -a critical insight at once catholic and accurate. Some years ago -I read with the keenest admiration, the _Histoire Critique des -Doctrines de l’Éducation en France depuis le Seizième Siècle_, -by Gabriel Compayré (Paris, 1879); and it seemed to me a model, -in matter and method, for a general history of education. Within -a recent period Monsieur Compayré has transformed this _Histoire -Critique_ into such a general history of education, under the title -_Histoire de la Pédagogie_. In this book all the characteristics of -the earlier work have been preserved, and it represents to my own -mind very nearly the ideal of the treatise that is needed by the -teaching profession of this country. - -The reader will observe the distinction made by Monsieur Compayré -between _Pedagogy_ and _Education_. Though our nomenclature does -not sanction this distinction, and though I prefer to give to the -term _Pedagogy_ a different connotation, I have felt bound on moral -grounds to preserve Monsieur Compayré’s use of these terms wherever -the context would sanction it. - -It seems mere squeamishness to object to the use of the word -_Pedagogy_ on account of historical associations. The fact that -this term is in reputable use in German, French, and Italian -educational literature, is a sufficient guaranty that we may use it -without danger. With us, the term _Pedagogics_ seems to be employed -as a synonym for _Pedagogy_. It would seem to me better to follow -continental usage, and restrict the term _Pedagogy_ to the art or -practice of education, and _Pedagogics_ to the correlative science. - -I feel under special obligations to Monsieur Compayré, and to his -publisher, Monsieur Paul Delaplane, for their courteous permission -to publish this translation. I am also greatly indebted to my -friend, Mr. C. E. Lowrey, Ph.D., for material aid in important -details of my work. - - W. H. PAYNE. - - UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, - Jan. 4, 1886. - - -The issue of a second edition has permitted a careful revision of -the translation and the correction of several verbal errors. In -subsequent editions, no effort will be spared by the translator and -his publishers to make this volume worthy of the favor with which -it has been received by the educational public. - - W. H. P. - - AUG. 1, 1886. - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -WHAT A COMPLETE HISTORY OF EDUCATION WOULD BE.--In writing an -elementary history of pedagogy, I do not pretend to write a history -of education. Pedagogy and education, like logic and science, or -like rhetoric and eloquence, are different though analogous things. - -What would a complete history of education not include? It would -embrace, in its vast developments, the entire record of the -intellectual and moral culture of mankind at all periods and in -all countries. It would be a _résumé_ of the life of humanity in -its diverse manifestations, literary and scientific, religious -and political. It would determine the causes, so numerous and -so diverse, which act upon the characters of men, and which, -modifying a common endowment, produce beings as different as are a -contemporary of Pericles and a modern European, a Frenchman of the -middle ages and a Frenchman subsequent to the Revolution. - -In fact, there is not only an education, properly so called, that -which is given in schools and which proceeds from the direct action -of teachers, but there is a natural education, which we receive -without our knowledge or will, through the influence of the -social environment in which we live. There are what a philosopher -of the day has ingeniously called the _occult coadjutors_ of -education,--climate, race, manners, social condition, political -institutions, religious beliefs. If a man of the nineteenth century -is very unlike a man of the seventeenth century, it is not merely -because the first was educated in a Lycée of the University and -the other in a college of the Jesuits; it is also because in the -atmosphere in which they have been enveloped they have contracted -different habits of mind and heart; it is because they have grown -up under different laws, under a different social and political -_régime_; because they have been nurtured by a different philosophy -and a different religion. Upon that delicate and variable -composition known as the human soul, how many forces which we -do not suspect have left their imprint! How many unobserved and -latent causes are involved in our virtues and in our faults! The -conscious and determined influence of the teacher is not, perhaps, -the most potent. In conjunction with him are at work, obscurely but -effectively, innumerable agents, besides personal effort and what -is produced by the original energy of the individual. - -We see what a history of education would be: a sort of philosophy -of history, to which nothing would be foreign, and which would -scrutinize in its most varied and most trifling causes, as well as -in its most profound sources, the moral life of humanity. - - -WHAT AN ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY SHOULD BE.--Wholly different -is the limited and modest purpose of a history of pedagogy, which -proposes merely to set forth the doctrines and the methods of -educators properly so called. In this more limited sense, education -is reduced to the premeditated action which the will of one man -exercises over other men in order to instruct them and train them. -It is the reflective auxiliary of the natural development of the -human soul. To what can be done by nature and by the blind and -fatal influences which sport with human destiny, education adds -the concurrence of art, that is, of the reason, attentive and -self-possessed, which voluntarily and consciously applies to the -training of the soul principles whose truth has been recognized, -and methods whose efficiency has been tested by experience. - -Even thus limited, the history of pedagogy still presents to our -inquiry a vast field to be explored. There is scarcely a subject -that has provoked to the same degree as education the best efforts -of human thinking. Note the catalogue of educational works -published in French, which Buisson has recently prepared.[1] Though -incomplete, this list contains not less than two thousand titles; -and probably educational activity has been more fruitful, and has -been given a still greater extension in Germany than in France. -This activity is due to the fact, first of all, that educational -questions, brought into fresh notice with each generation, exercise -over the minds of men an irresistible and perennial attraction; -and also to the fact that parenthood inspires a taste for such -inquiries, and, a thing that is not always fortunate, leads to -the assumption of some competence in such matters; and finally -to the very nature of educational problems, which are not to be -solved by abstract and independent reasoning, after the fashion of -mathematical problems, but which, vitally related to the nature -and the destiny of man, change and vary with the fluctuations of -the psychological and the moral doctrines of which they are but -the consequences. To different systems of psychology correspond -different systems of education. An idealist, like Malebranche, will -not reason upon education after the manner of a sensationalist -like Locke. In the same way there is in every system of morals -the germ of a characteristic and original system of education. A -mystic, like Gerson, will not assign to education the same end as -a practical and positive writer like Herbert Spencer. Hence a very -great diversity in systems, or at least an infinite variety in the -shades of educational opinion. - -Still farther, educational activity may manifest itself in -different ways, either in doctrines and theories or in methods and -practical applications. The historian of pedagogy has not merely -to make known the general conceptions which the philosophers of -education have in turn submitted to the approbation of men. If he -wishes to make his work complete, he must give a detailed account -of what has been accomplished, and make an actual study of the -educational establishments which have been founded at different -periods by those who have organized instruction. - -Pedagogy is a complex affair, and there are many ways of writing -its history. One of these which has been too little considered, -and which would surely be neither the least interesting nor the -least fruitful, would consist in studying, not the great writers -on education and their doctrines, not the great teachers and their -methods, but pupils themselves. If it were possible to relate -in minute detail, supposing that history would furnish us the -necessary information on this point, the manner in which a great or -a good man has been educated; if an analysis could be made of the -different influences which have been involved in the formation of -talent or in the development of virtue in the case of remarkable -individuals; if it were possible, in a word, to reproduce through -exact and personal biographies the toil, the slow elaboration -whence have issued at different periods solidity of character, -rectitude of purpose, and minds endowed with judicial fairness; the -result would be a useful and eminently practical work, something -analogous to what a history of logic would be, in which there -should be set forth not the abstract rules and the formal laws for -the search after truth, but the successful experiments and the -brilliant discoveries which have little by little constituted the -patrimony of science. This perhaps would be the best of logics -because it is real and in action; and also the best of treatises -on pedagogy, since there might be learned from it, not general -truths, which are often of difficult application and of uncertain -utility, but practical means and living methods whose happy and -efficient applications would be seen in actual use. - -We have just traced the imaginary plan of a history of pedagogy -rather than the exact outline of the series of lessons which this -book contains. However, we have approached this ideal as nearly -as we have been able, by attempting to group about the principal -philosophical and moral ideas the systems of education which they -have inspired; by endeavoring to retain whatever is essential; by -adding to the first rapid sketches studied and elaborate portraits; -by ever mingling with the expositions of doctrines and the -analysis of important works the study of practical methods and the -examination of actual institutions; and, finally, by penetrating -the thought of the great educators, to learn from them how they -became such, and by following them, as they have united practice -with theory, in the particular systems of education which they have -directed with success.[2] - - -DIVISION OF THE HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY.--The abundance and the variety -of pedagogical questions, the great number of thinkers who have -written upon education, in a word, the complexity of the subject, -might inspire the historian of pedagogy with the idea of dividing -his work, and of distributing his studies into several series. For -example, it would be possible to write the history of education -in general by itself, and then the history of instruction, which -is but an element of education. As education itself comprises -three parts, physical education, intellectual education, and moral -education, there would be an opportunity for three series of -distinct studies on these different subjects. But these divisions -would present grave inconveniences. In general, the opinions of an -educator are not susceptible of division; there is a connection -between his manner of regarding the matter of instruction and -the solution he gives to educational questions proper. One mode -of thinking pervades his theories or his practice in the matter -of moral discipline, and his ideas on intellectual education. It -is, then, necessary to consider each of the different systems of -education as a whole. - -Perhaps a better order of division would be that which, without -regard to chronological order, should distinguish all pedagogical -doctrines and applications into a certain number of schools, and -connect all educators with certain general tendencies: as the -ascetic tendency, that of the fathers of the church, for example, -and of the middle ages; the utilitarian tendency of Locke, and -of a great number of moderns; the pessimism of Port Royal, the -optimism of Fénelon; the literary school of the humanists of the -Renaissance, and the scientific school of Diderot and of Condorcet. -Such a mode of procedure would have its interest, because in the -manifestations of educational thought so apparently different it -would sharply distinguish certain uniform principles which reappear -at all periods of history; but this would be rather a philosophy of -the history of education than a simple history of pedagogy. - -The best we can do, then, is to follow the chronological order -and to study in turn the educators of antiquity, those of the -middle ages, of the Renaissance, and of modern times. We shall -interrogate in succession those who have become eminent as teachers -and educators, and ask of each how he has solved for himself the -various portions of the problems of education. Besides being more -simple and more natural, this order has the advantage of showing -us the progress of education as it has gradually risen from -instinct to reflection, from nature to art, and after long periods -of groping and many halts, ascending from humble beginnings to a -complete and definite organization. This plan also exhibits to -us the beautiful spectacle of a humanity in a state of ceaseless -growth. At first, instruction comprised but few subjects, at the -same time that only a select few participated in it. Then there was -a simultaneous though gradual extension of the domain of knowledge -which must be acquired, of the moral qualities demanded by the -struggle for existence, and of the number of men who are called to -be instructed and educated,--the ideal being, as Comenius has said, -that all may learn and that everything may be taught. - - -UTILITY OF THE HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY.--The history of pedagogy is -henceforth to form a part of the course of study for the primary -normal schools of France. It has been included in the prescribed -list of subjects for the third year, under this title: _History of -Pedagogy,--Principal educators and their doctrines; Analysis of the -most important works._[3] - -Is argument necessary to justify the place which has been assigned -to this study? In the first place, the history of pedagogy -possesses great interest from the fact that it is closely connected -with the general history of thought and also with the philosophic -explication of human actions. Certainly, pedagogical doctrines are -neither fortuitous opinions nor events without significance. On the -one hand, they have their causes and their principles in moral, -religious, and political beliefs, of which they are the faithful -image; on the other, they are instrumental in the training of mind -and in the formation of manners. Back of the _Ratio Studiorum_ of -the Jesuits, back of the _Émile_ of Rousseau, there distinctly -appears a complete religion, a complete philosophy. In the -classical studies organized by the humanists of the Renaissance we -see the dawn of that literary brilliancy which distinguished the -century of Louis XIV., and so in the scientific studies preached -a hundred years ago by Diderot and by Condorcet there was a -preparation for the positive spirit of our time. The education of -the people is at once the consequence of all that it believes and -the source of all that it is destined to be. - -But there are other reasons which recommend the study of educators -and the reading of their works. The history of pedagogy is a -necessary introduction to pedagogy itself. It should be studied, -not for purposes of erudition or for mere curiosity, but with a -practical purpose for the sake of finding in it the permanent -truths which are the essentials of a definite theory of education. -The desirable thing just now is not perhaps so much to find new -ideas, as properly to comprehend those which are already current; -to choose from among them, and, a choice once having been made, -to make a resolute effort to apply them to use. When we consider -with impartiality all that has been conceived or practised -previous to the nineteenth century, or when we see clearly what -our predecessors have left us to do in the way of consequences -to deduce, of incomplete or obscure ideas to generalize or to -illustrate, and especially of opposing tendencies to reconcile, we -may well inquire what they have really left us to discover. - -It is profitable to study even the chimeras and the educational -errors of our predecessors. In fact, these are so many marked -experiments which contribute to the progress of our methods by -warning us of the rocks which we should shun. A thorough analysis -of the paradoxes of Rousseau, and of the absurd consequences to -which the abuse of the principle of nature leads us, is no less -instructive than meditation on the wisest precepts of Montaigne or -of Port Royal. - -In truth, for him who has an exact knowledge of the educators of -past centuries, the work of constructing a system of education is -more than half done. It remains only to co-ordinate the scattered -truths which have been collected from their works by assimilating -them through personal reflection, and by making them fruitful -through psychological analysis and moral faith. - -Let it be observed that as studied by the men who first conceived -and practised them, pedagogical methods present themselves to -our examination with a sharpness of outline that is surprising. -Innovators lend to whatever they invent a personal emphasis, -something life-like and occasionally extravagant; but it is exactly -this which permits us the better to comprehend their thought, and -the more completely to discover its truth or its falsity. - -However, it is not alone the intellectual advantage which -recommends the history of pedagogy; it is also the moral stimulus -which will be derived from the study. For the sake of encouraging -to noble efforts the men and women who are our teachers, is it of -no moment to present to them the names of Comenius, Rollin, and -Pestalozzi as men who have attained such high excellence in their -profession? Will not the teacher who each day resumes his heavy -burden be revived and sustained? Will he not enter his class-room, -where so many difficulties and toils await him, a better and a -stronger man if his imagination teems with articulate memories of -those who, in the past, have opened for him the way, and shown him -by their example how to walk in it? By the marvellous agency of -electricity we are now able to transport material and mechanical -power, and to cause its transfer across space without regard to -distance. But by reading and by meditation we are able to do -something analogous to this in the moral world; we are able to -borrow from the ancients, across the centuries, something of the -moral energy that inspired them, and to make live again in our own -hearts some of their virtues of devotion and faith. Doubtless a -brief history of pedagogy could not, from this point of view, serve -as a substitute for the actual reading of the authors in question; -but it is a preparation for this work and inspires a taste for it. - -We are warranted in saying, then, that the utility of the history -of pedagogy blends with the utility of pedagogy itself. To-day it -is no longer necessary for us to offer any proof on this point. -Pedagogy, long neglected even in our country, has regained its -standing; nay more, it has become the fashion. “France is becoming -addicted to pedagogy” was a remark recently made by one of the -men who, of our day, will have contributed most to excite and -also to direct the taste for pedagogical studies.[4] The words -_pedagogue_, _pedagogy_, have encountered dangers in the history -of our language. Littré tells us that the word _pedagogue_ “is most -often used in a bad sense.” On the other hand, we shall see, if we -consult his dictionary, that several years ago the sense of the -word _pedagogy_ was not yet fixed, since it is there defined as -“the moral education of children.” To-day, not only in language, -but in facts and in institutions, the fate of pedagogy is settled. -Of course we must neither underrate it nor attribute to it a -sovereign and omnipotent efficiency that it does not have. We might -freely say of pedagogy what Sainte-Beuve said of logic: The best is -that which does not argue in its own favor; which is not enamoured -of itself, but which modestly recognizes the limits of its power. -The best is that which we make for ourselves, not that which we -learn from books. - -Even with this reserve, the teaching of pedagogy is destined to -render important services to the cause of education, and education, -let us be assured, is in the way of acquiring a fresh importance -day by day. This is due to the fact, first, that under a liberal -government, and in a republican society, it is more and more -necessary that the citizens shall be instructed and enlightened. -Liberty is a dangerous thing unless it has instruction for a -counterpoise. Moreover, we must recollect that in our day, among -those _occult coadjutors_ of which we have spoken, and which at all -times add their action to that of education proper, some have lost -their influence, while others, so far from co-operating in this -movement, oppose it and compromise it. On the one hand, religion -has seen her influence curtailed. She is no longer, as she once -was, the tutelary power under whose shadow the rising generations -peacefully matured. It is necessary that education, through the -progress of the reason and through the reflective development of -morality, should compensate for the waning influence of religion. - -On the other hand, social conditions, the very progress of civil -and political liberty, the growing independence accorded the child -in the family, the multiplication of books, good and bad, all these -collateral agents of education are not always compliant and useful -aids. They would prove the accomplices of a moral decadence did -not our teachers make an effort as much more vigorous to affect -the will and the heart, as well as the mind, in order to establish -character, and thus assure the recuperation of our country. - - - - -A SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF GABRIEL COMPAYRÉ.[5] - - -Gabriel Compayré was born Jan. 2, 1843, at Albi, a city of Southern -France, containing about fifteen thousand inhabitants, and the -capital of the province of Tarn. His early education was received -from his father, a man of sterling character, and the author of a -book entitled, _Historical Studies Concerning the Albigenses_. - -He passed from his father’s care to the _collège_ of Castres, -then to the _lycée_ of Toulouse, and finally to the _lycée -Louis-le-Grand_ at Paris. His fellow-pupils recall with pleasure -his triumphs at these institutions of learning. His brilliant -intellectual powers, his vivid imagination, his well-stored memory, -and his unwearied industry, marked him as destined to render signal -services to his race. - -He entered the _École Normale Supérieure_ in 1862. His tastes led -him to philosophical studies; indeed, he had already manifested -a strong tendency to moral and intellectual science. Yet his -intensely practical nature could not long remain satisfied with -metaphysical subtleties where he found no sure foot-hold. He became -a warm advocate of experimental methods, and of the Baconian -philosophy. He set himself to a study of man as he appears in -society and in the family; to the analysis of his emotions and his -acts, and to the deduction, from these analyses, of those rules -which ought to preside over his conduct and his intellectual and -moral development. - -He graduated from the normal school in 1865, and was immediately -appointed professor of philosophy at the _lycée_ of Pau. A lecture -upon Rousseau, which he delivered here, brought upon him the severe -condemnation of the ultramontane party, and involved him in a -controversy which has continued to the present time. - -In 1868, having been made a fellow of the University, he was -sent to the _lycée_ of Poitiers. At this place he manifested his -sympathy for the common people by a course of lectures to workmen -on moral subjects. About this time he received honorable mention -from the Academy for an eloquent eulogy upon Rousseau, in which he -carefully portrayed the influence of Rousseau upon the government -of his country and upon methods of school instruction, giving him -full credit for the reform in both. - -From this time forward Compayré’s life has been filled with labors -and with honors. In addition to his professional duties and -philosophical writings, he has made careful study of the social and -political questions of his country. - -Promoted from one post of honor to another, on the 14th of July, -1880, he was appointed Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. - -In 1874 he presented his theme for his doctor’s degree upon the -_Philosophy of David Hume_, a work of the highest philosophical -thought and language, which received a prize from the Academy. - -Between 1874 and 1880 his lectures were largely devoted to the -subjects most closely connected with modern thought. _A Study of -Darwinism_, _The Psychology of a Child_, _Educational Principles_, -are subjects that indicate the sweep of his investigations. The -brilliancy of his style, the liberality of his opinions, and the -extent of his learning have exposed him to bitter attacks from -those who envy his powers and disbelieve his doctrines; yet his -popularity has continually increased, and the young professor has -become a great power in the party of the republic, to whose cause -he early devoted himself. - -The works which he published during this period were numerous. He -translated with great care, adding valuable matter of his own: -Bain’s _Inductive and Deductive Logic_, Huxley’s _Hume, His Life -and Philosophy_, and Locke’s _Thoughts on Education_. His most -considerable work is his _History of the Doctrine of Education -in France since the Sixteenth Century_, a work of two volumes, -published in 1879, which reached its fourth edition in France -in 1883, has been translated entire into German, and from which -numerous extracts have been made for the educational journals -of England and America. If we add to these labors his work upon -the _Revue Philosophique_, and the _Dictionnaire de Pédagogie_, -we shall understand why he was called to Paris in 1881, by the -Minister of Public Instruction, to aid in founding the _École -Normale Supérieure des Institutrices, de Fontenay-aux-Roses_. He -successfully arranged the course of instruction for this school. In -the same year he assisted in the organization of a new school at -Sèvres, which prepares young teachers for the course of instruction -in the normal schools. - -In 1880 he published his _Manual of Civil and Moral Instruction_, -in two courses, or parts. This book has had a remarkable career. In -less than three years more than three hundred thousand copies of -the first part, and over five hundred thousand of the second part, -were sold. - -In 1882, in conjunction with a friend, M. A. Delplan, an author -of merit, he published his _Civil and Moral Lectures_. In 1883 he -published a _Course of Civil Instruction_ for normal schools. - -Compayré entered political life in 1881, having been elected -deputy from the arrondissement of Lavaur in Tarn. He occupies a -distinguished position among the men of to-day; his character, his -talents, his popularity, and his devotion to the cause of civil and -intellectual freedom, give him the assurance of a place no less -important among the men of the future. - -In his personal appearance Compayré combines the scholar and the -man of the world. His dark hair, parted in the middle, is combed -back from a forehead very high and very broad. His eye is bright -and piercing, and his face, clean shaven except upon the upper lip, -bears the impress of both his ingenuousness and his indomitable -perseverance. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] See the _Dictionnaire de Pédagogie_, by F. Buisson, Article -_Bibliographie_. - -[2] The book now offered to the public was taught before it was -written. It is the result of the lectures given for three years -past, either at the higher normal school of Fontenay-aux-Roses, or -in the normal courses for men at Sèvres and at Saint Cloud. - -[3] Resolution of Aug. 3, 1881. - -[4] See the Article of M. Pécaut in the _Revue Pédagogique_, No. 2, -1882. - -[5] Furnished by Mr. Geo. E. Gay, Principal of the Malden High -School. - - - - -THE HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY. - - - - -THE - -HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -EDUCATION IN ANTIQUITY. - - PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS; EDUCATION AMONG THE HINDOOS; - POLITICAL CASTE AND RELIGIOUS PANTHEISM; EFFECTS ON - EDUCATION; BUDDHISTIC REFORM; CONVERSATION OF BUDDHA AND - PURNA; EDUCATIONAL USAGES; EDUCATION AMONG THE ISRAELITES; - PRIMITIVE PERIOD; RELIGIOUS AND NATIONAL EDUCATION; PROGRESS - OF POPULAR INSTRUCTION; ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOLS; RESPECT FOR - TEACHERS; METHODS AND DISCIPLINE; EXCLUSIVE AND JEALOUS SPIRIT; - EDUCATION AMONG THE CHINESE; FORMALISM; LÂO-TSZE AND KHUNG-TSZE - (CONFUCIUS); EDUCATION AMONG OTHER PEOPLE OF THE EAST; THE - EGYPTIANS AND THE PERSIANS; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY. - - -1. PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS.--A German historian of philosophy -begins his work by asking this question: “Was Adam a philosopher?” -In the same way certain historians of pedagogy begin by learned -researches upon the education of savages. We shall not carry our -investigations so far back. Doubtless from the day when a human -family began its existence, from the day when a father and a -mother began to love their children, education had an existence. -But there is very little practical interest in studying these -obscure beginnings of pedagogy. It is a matter of erudition and -curiosity.[6] Besides the difficulty of gathering up the faint -traces of primitive education, there would be but little profit in -painfully following the slow gropings of primeval man. In truth, -the history of pedagogy dates but from the period relatively -recent, when human thought, in the matter of education, substituted -reflection for instinct, art for blind nature. So we shall hasten -to begin the study of pedagogy among the classical peoples, the -Greeks and the Romans, after having thrown a rapid glance over some -Eastern nations considered either in their birthplace and remote -origin, or in their more recent development. - - -2. THE PEDAGOGY OF THE HINDOOS.--It would not be worth our while to -enter into details respecting a civilization so different from our -own as that of the Hindoos. But we should not forget that we are -in part the descendants of that people, and that we belong to the -same ethnic group, and that the European languages are derived from -theirs. - - -3. POLITICAL CASTE AND RELIGIOUS PANTHEISM.--The spirit of caste, -from the social point of view, and pantheism, from the religious -point of view, are the characteristics of Hindoo society. The -Indian castes constituted hereditary classes where social rank and -special vocation were determined, not by free choice, but by the -accident of birth. The consequence of this was an endless routine, -with no care either for the individuality, or the personal talents, -or the inclination of children, and without the possibility of -rising by personal effort above one’s rank in life.[7] On the other -hand, religious ideas came to restrict, within the limits where it -was already imprisoned, the activity of the young Hindoo. God is -everywhere present; he manifests himself in all the phenomena of -heaven and earth, in the sun and in the stars, in the Himalayas -and in the Ganges; he penetrates and animates everything; the -things of sense are but the changing and ephemeral vestments of -the unchangeable being. “With this pantheistic conception of the -world and of life, the thought and the will of the Hindoo perished -in the mystic contemplation of the soul. To become master of one’s -inclinations; to abandon every terrestrial thought; after this -life to lose one’s identity, and to be annihilated by absorption -in the divine nature; to prepare one’s self by macerations and -expiations for complete submersion in the original principle of -all being,--this is the highest wisdom, the true happiness of the -Hindoo, the ideal of all serious education.”[8] - - -4. EFFECTS ON EDUCATION.--It is easy to predict what education -would become under the weight of these double chains, social and -religious. While the ideal in our modern societies is more and -more to enfranchise the individual, and to create for him personal -freedom and self-consciousness, the effort of the Hindoo Brahmins -consisted above all in crushing out all spontaneity, in abolishing -individual predilections, by preaching the doctrine of absolute -self-renunciation, of voluntary abasement, and of contempt for -life. Man was thus born doubly a slave,--by his social condition, -which predestinated him to the routine apprenticeship of his -ancestral caste, and by his mysterious dependence on the divine -being who absorbed in himself all real activity, and left to human -beings only the deceptive and frail appearance of it. - - -5. BUDDHIST REFORM.--The Buddhist reform, which so profoundly -affected Brahmanism at about the sixth century B.C., did not -sensibly modify, from the educational point of view, the ideas of -the Hindoos. Buddha also taught that the cause of evil resides in -the passions of men, and that in order to attain moral peace, there -is no other means to be employed than that of self-abnegation and -of the renouncement of everything selfish and personal. - - -6. CONVERSATION OF BUDDHA AND PURNA.--One of the traditions which -permit us the better to appreciate the original character, at once -affecting and ingenuous, of Indian thought, is the conversation of -Buddha with his disciple Purna about a journey the latter was going -to undertake to the barbarians for the purpose of teaching them the -new religion:-- - -“They are men,” said Buddha, “who are fiery in temper, passionate, -cruel, furious, insolent. If they openly address you in words -which are malicious and coarse, and become angry with you, what -will you think?” - -“If they address me to my face in coarse and insolent terms, this -is what I shall think: they are certainly good men who openly -address me in malicious terms, but they will neither strike me with -their hands nor stone me.” - -“But should they strike you with their hands and stone you, what -will you think?” - -“I shall think that they are good men, gentle men, who strike me -with their hands and stone me, but do not beat me with a club nor -with a sword.” - -“But if they beat you with a club and with a sword?” - -“They are good men, gentle men, who beat me with a club and with a -sword, but they do not completely kill me.” - -“But if they were really to kill you?” - -“They are good men, gentle men, who deliver me with so little pain -from this body encumbered with defilements.” - -“Very good, Purna! You may live in the country of those barbarians. -Go, Purna! Being liberated, liberate; being consoled, console; -having reached Nirvâna thus made perfect, cause others to go -there.”[9] - -Whatever there is to admire in such a strange system of morals -should not blind us to the vices which resulted from its practical -consequences: such as the abuse of passive resignation, the -complete absence of the idea of right and of justice, and no active -virtues. - - -7. EFFECTS ON EDUCATION.--Little is known of the actual state of -educational practice among the Hindoos. It may be said, however, -that the Brahmins, the priests, had the exclusive charge of -education. Woman, in absolute subjection to man, had no share -whatever in instruction. - -As to boys, it seems that in India there were always schools for -their benefit; schools which were held in the open country under -the shade of trees, or, in case of bad weather, under sheds. -Mutual instruction has been practised in India from the remotest -antiquity; it is from here, in fact, that Andrew Bell, at the -close of the eighteenth century, borrowed the idea of this mode -of instruction. Exercises in writing were performed first upon -the sand with a stick, then upon palm leaves with an iron style, -and finally upon the dry leaves of the plane-tree with ink. In -discipline there was a resort to corporal punishment; besides -the rod the teacher employed other original means of correction; -for example, he threw cold water on the offender. The teacher, -moreover, was treated with a religious respect; the child must -respect him as he would Buddha himself. - -The higher studies were reserved for the priestly class, who, long -before the Christian era, successfully cultivated rhetoric and -logic, astronomy and the mathematics. - - -8. EDUCATION AMONG THE ISRAELITES.--“If ever a people has -demonstrated the power of education, it is the people of -Israel.”[10] In fact, what a singular spectacle is offered us by -that people, which, dispossessed of its own country for eighteen -hundred years, has been dispersed among the nations without -losing its identity, and has maintained its existence without a -country, without a government, and without a ruler, preserving -with perennial energy its habits, its manners, and its faith! -Without losing sight of the part of that extraordinary vitality of -the Jewish people, which is due to the natural endowments of the -race, its tenacity of temperament, and its wonderful activity of -intelligence, it is just to attribute another part of it to the -sound education, at once religious and national, which the ancient -Hebrews have transmitted by tradition to their descendants. - - -9. EDUCATION, RELIGIOUS AND NATIONAL, DURING THE PRIMITIVE -PERIOD.--The chief characteristic of the education of the Hebrews -in the earliest period of their history is that it was essentially -domestic. During the whole Biblical period there is no trace of -public schools, at least for young children. Family life is the -origin of that primitive society where the notion of the state is -almost unknown, and where God is the real king. - -The child was to become the faithful servant of Jehovah. To this -end it was not needful that he should be learned. It was only -necessary that he should learn through language and the instructive -example of his parents the moral precepts and the religious beliefs -of the nation. It has been very justly said[11] that “among all -nations the direction impressed on education depends on the -idea which they form of the perfect man. Among the Romans it is -the brave soldier, inured to fatigue, and readily yielding to -discipline; among the Athenians it is the man who unites in himself -the happy harmony of moral and physical perfection; among the -Hebrews the perfect man is the pious, virtuous man, who is capable -of attaining the ideal traced by God himself in these terms: ‘Ye -shall be holy, for I the Lord your God am holy!’”[12] - -The discipline was harsh, as is proved by many passages in the -Bible: “He that spareth his rod, hateth his son,” say the Proverbs; -“but he that loveth him chasteneth him betimes.”[13] “Withhold -not correction from the child, for if thou beatest him with the -rod, he shall not die. Thou shalt beat him with the rod, and shalt -deliver his soul from hell.”[14] And still more significant: -“Chasten thy son while there is hope, and let not thy soul spare -for his crying.”[15] - -Only boys, it seems, learned to read and write. As to girls, they -were taught to spin, to weave, to prepare food for the table, to -superintend the work of the household, and also to sing and to -dance. - -In a word, intellectual culture was but an incident in the -primitive education of the Hebrews; the great thing, in their eyes, -was moral and religious instruction, and education in love of -country. Fathers taught their children the nation’s history, and -the great events that had marked the destiny of the people of God. -That series of events celebrated by the great feasts which were -often renewed, and in which the children participated, served at -once to fill their hearts with gratitude to God and with love for -their country. - - -10. PROGRESS OF POPULAR INSTRUCTION.--It is not easy to conceive -to what extent the zeal for instruction was developed among the -ancient Jews in the years that followed the advent of Christianity. -From being domestic, as it had been up to that time, Jewish -education became public. Besides, it was no longer sufficient to -indoctrinate children with good principles and wholesome moral -habits; they must also be instructed. From the first centuries of -the Christian era, the Israelites approached our modern ideal, -with respect to making education obligatory and universal. Like -every brave nation that has been vanquished, whose energy has -survived defeat, like the Prussians after Jena, or the French after -1870, the Jews sought to defend themselves against the effects of -conquest by a great intellectual effort, and to regain their lost -ground by the development of popular instruction. - - -11. ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOLS.--In the year 64, the high priest, -Joshua Ben Gamala, imposed on each town, under pain of -excommunication, the obligation to support a school. If the town -is cut in two by a river, and there is no means of transit by a -safe bridge, a school must be established on each side. Even to-day -we are far from having realized, as regards the number of schools -and of teachers, this rule stated in the Talmud: If the number of -children does not exceed twenty-five, the school shall be conducted -by a single teacher; for more than twenty-five, the town shall -employ an assistant; if the number exceeds forty, there shall be -two masters. - - -12. RESPECT FOR TEACHERS.--In that ancient time, what an exalted -and noble conception men had of teachers, “those true guardians of -the city”! Even then, how exacting were the requirements made of -them! But, on the other hand, how they were esteemed and respected! -The Rabbins required that the schoolmaster should be married; -they mistrusted teachers who were not at the same time heads of -families. Is it possible to enforce the advantages of maturity and -experience more delicately than in this beautiful language? “He who -learns of a young master is like a man who eats green grapes, and -drinks wine fresh from the press; but he who has a master of mature -years is like a man who eats ripe and delicious grapes, and drinks -old wine.” Mildness, patience, and unselfishness were recommended -as the ruling virtues of the teacher. “If your teacher and your -father,” says the Talmud, “have need of your assistance, help your -teacher before helping your father, for the latter has given you -only the life of this world, while the former has secured for you -the life of the world to come.”[16] - - -13. METHOD AND DISCIPLINE.--The child entered school at the age of -six. “If a child below the age of six is brought to your school,” -says the Talmud, “you need not receive him”; and to indicate that -after that age it is proper to regain the lost time, the Talmud -adds, “After the age of six, receive the child, and _load him like -an ox_.” On the contrary, other authorities of the same period, -more judicious and far-seeing, recommend moderation in tasks, and -say that it is necessary to treat “the young according to their -strength, and the grown-up according to theirs.” - -There was taught in the Jewish schools, along with reading and -writing,[17] a little of natural history, and a great deal of -geometry and astronomy. Naturally, the Bible was the first book put -in the hands of children. The master interspersed moral lessons -with the teaching of reading. He made a special effort to secure -a correct pronunciation, and multiplied his explanations in order -to make sure of being understood, repeating his comments even to -the _four-hundredth time_ if it were necessary. It seems that -the methods were suggestive and attractive, and the discipline -relatively mild. There were but few marks of the proverbial -severity of the ancient times. “Children,” says the Talmud, “should -be punished with one hand, and caressed with two.” The Christian -spirit, the spirit of him who had said “suffer the little children -to come unto me,” had affected the Jews themselves. However, -corporal punishment was tolerated to a certain extent, but, strange -to say, only for children above the age of eleven. In case of -disobedience, a pupil above that age might be deprived of food, and -even struck with a strap of shoe-leather. - - -14. EXCLUSIVE AND JEALOUS SPIRIT.--Some reservation must accompany -the encomiums justly due Jewish education. With respect to the -rest of the human race, the Jewish spirit was mean, narrow, and -malevolent. The Israelites of this day have retained something of -these jealous and exclusive tendencies. At the beginning of the -Christian era, the fierce and haughty patriotism of the Jews led -them to proscribe whatever was of Gentile origin, whatever had -not the sanction of the national tradition. Nothing of Greek or -Roman culture penetrated this closed world.[18] The Jewish doctors -covered with the same contempt him who raises hogs and him who -teaches his son Greek science. - - -15. EDUCATION AMONG THE CHINESE.--We have attempted to throw into -relief the educational practices of two Eastern nations to which -the civilization of the West is most intimately related. A few -words will suffice for the other primitive societies whose history -is too little known, and whose civilization is too remote from our -own, to make their plans of education anything more than an object -of curiosity. - -China has been civilized from time immemorial, and at every period -of her long history she has preserved her national characteristics. -For more than three thousand years an absolute uniformity has -characterized this immobile people. Everything is regulated by -tradition. Education is mechanical and formal. The preoccupation of -teachers is to cause their pupils to acquire a mechanical ability, -a regular and sure routine. They care more for appearances, for -a decorous manner of conduct, than for a searching and profound -morality. Life is but a ceremonial, minutely determined and -punctually followed. There is no liberty, no glow of spontaneity. -Their art is characterized by conventional refinement and by a -prettiness that seems mean; there is nothing of the grand and -imposing. By their formalism, the Chinese educators are the Jesuits -of the East. - - -16. LÂO-TSZE AND KHUNG-TSZE.--Towards the sixth century B.C. -two reformers appeared in China, Lâo-tsze and Khung-tsze. The -first represents the spirit of emancipation, of progress, of the -pursuit of the ideal, of protest against routine. He failed. The -second, on the contrary, who became celebrated under the name of -Confucius, and to whom tradition ascribes more than three thousand -personal disciples, secured the triumph of his ideas of practical, -utilitarian morality, founded upon the authority of the State and -that of the family, as well as upon the interest of the individual. - -A quotation from Lâo-tsze will prove that human thought, in the -sixth century B.C., had reached a high mark in China:-- - -“Certain bad rulers would have us believe that the heart and the -spirit of man should be left empty, but that instead his stomach -should be filled; that his bones should be strengthened rather than -the power of his will; that we should always desire to have the -people remain in a state of ignorance, for then their demands would -be few. It is difficult, they say, to govern a people that are too -wise. - -“These doctrines are directly opposed to what is due to humanity. -Those in authority should come to the aid of the people by means -of oral and written instruction; so far from oppressing them and -treating them as slaves, they should do them good in every possible -way.” - -In other words, it is by enlightening the people, and by an honest -devotion to their interests, that one becomes worthy to govern them. - -If the Chinese have not fully profited by these wise and exalted -counsels, it appears that at least they have attempted to make -instruction general. Hue, a Chinese missionary, boldly declares -that China is the country of all countries where primary -instruction is most widely diffused. To the same effect, a German -writer affirms that in China there is not a village so miserable, -nor a hamlet so unpretending, as not to be provided with a school -of some kind.[19] In a country of tradition, like China, we -can infer what once existed from what exists to-day. But that -instruction which is so widely diffused is wholly superficial -and tends merely to an exterior culture. As Dittes says, the -educational method of the Chinese consists, not in _developing_, -but in _communicating_.[20] - - -17. EDUCATION AMONG THE OTHER NATIONS OF THE EAST.--Of all the -oriental nations, Egypt is the one in which intellectual culture -seems to have reached the highest point, but only among men of a -privileged class. Here, as in India, the priestly class monopolized -the learning of the day; it jealously guarded the depository of -mysterious knowledge which it communicated only to the kings. The -common people, divided into working classes, which were destined -from father to son to the same social status, learned scarcely more -than was necessary in order to practise their hereditary trades and -to be initiated into the religious beliefs. - -In the more military but less theocratic nation, the Persian, -efforts were made in favor of a general education. The religious -dualism which distinguished Ormuzd, the principle of good, from -Ahriman, the principle of evil, and which promised the victory to -the former, made it the duty of each man to contribute to this -final victory by devoting himself to a life of virtue. Hence -arose noble efforts to attain physical and moral perfection. The -education of the Persians in temperance and frugality has excited -the admiration of certain Greek writers, especially Xenophon, and -there will be found in his _Cyropædia_ a thrilling picture of the -brave and noble manners of the ancient Persians.[21] - -On the whole, the history of pedagogy among the people of the East -offers us but few examples to follow. That which, in different -degrees, characterizes primitive education is that it is the -privilege of certain classes; that woman is most generally excluded -from its benefits; that in respect of the common people it is -scarcely more than the question of an apprenticeship to a trade, -or of the art of war, or of a preparation for the future life; -that no appeal is made to the free energy of individuals, but that -the great masses of the people in antiquity have generally lived -under the harassing oppression of religious conceptions, of fixed -traditions, and of political despotism. - - - [18. ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.--Speaking generally, the education - of the primitive nations of the East had the following - characteristics:-- - - 1. It was administered by the hieratic class. This was due to - the fact that the priests were the only men of learning, and - consequently the only men who could teach. - - 2. The knowledge communicated was in the main religious, ethical, - and prudential, and the final purpose of instruction was good - conduct. - - 3. As the matter of instruction was knowledge bearing the - sanction of authority, the learner was debarred from free - inquiry, and the general tendency was towards immobility. - - 4. As the knowledge of the day was embodied in language, the - process of learning consisted in the interpretation of speech, - and so involved a large and constant use of the memory; and - this literal memorizing of the principles and rules of conduct - promoted stability of character. - - 5. As the purpose of instruction was guidance, there was no - appearance of the conception that one main purpose of education - is discipline or culture. - - 6. The conception of education as a means of national - regeneration had a distinct appearance among the Jews; and among - this people we find one form of compulsion,--the obligation - placed on towns to support schools. - - 7. In Persia, the State appears for the first time as a distinct - agency in promoting education. - - 8. In China, from time immemorial, scholarship has been made - the condition for obtaining places in the civil service, and in - consequence education has been made subordinate to examinations. - - 9. Save to a limited extent among the Jews, woman was debarred - from the privileges of education. - - 10. In the main, education was administered so as to perpetuate - class distinctions. There was no appearance of the conception - that education is a universal right and a universal good.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[6] A knowledge of the mental and moral condition of savages serves -the invaluable purpose of showing what education has accomplished -for the human race. There would be much less grumbling at the -tax-gatherer if men could clearly conceive the condition of -societies where no taxes are levied. To know what education has -actually done we need to know the condition of societies unaffected -by systematic education. Such a book as Lubbock’s _Origin of -Civilization_ is a helpful introduction to the history of -education. Whoever reads such a book carefully will be confronted -with this problem: How is it that intellectual inertness, amounting -almost to stupidity, is frequently the concomitant of an acute and -persistent sense-training? Besides, savage tribes are historical -illustrations of what has been produced on a large scale by -“following Nature.” (P.) - -[7] There is an argument for caste in the modern fiction of a -“beautiful economy of Nature,” which plants human beings in society -as it does trees in the earth, and thus makes education consist -in the action of environment upon man and in the reaction of man -upon his environment. To support existence, man needs certain -endowments; but the force of circumstances creates these very -endowments. One man is predestined to be a Red Indian, another a -Bushman, and still another an accountant; and in each case the -function of education is to adapt the man to the place where Nature -has fixed him. This modern justification of caste is adroitly -worked out by Mr. Spencer in the first chapter of his _Education_. -(P.) - -[8] Dittes, _Histoire de l’éducation et de l’instruction_, -translated by Redolfi, 1880, p. 38. - -[9] Burnouf, _Introduction à l’histoire du Bouddhisme_, p. 252. - -[10] Dittes, p. 49. - -[11] _L’éducation et l’instruction chez les anciens Juifs_, by J. -Simon, Paris, 1879, p. 16. - -[12] Levit. xix. 2. - -[13] Prov. xiii. 24. - -[14] Prov. xxiii. 13, 14. - -[15] Prov. xix. 18. - -[16] On similar grounds, Alexander declared that he owed more to -Aristotle his teacher, than to Philip his father. (P.) - -[17] What were the methods followed in teaching reading and -writing? We are told by Renan in his _Vie de Jésus_ that “Jesus -doubtless learned to read and write according to the method of the -East, which consists in putting into the hands of the child a book -which he repeats in concert with his comrades till he knows it by -heart.” - -[18] This statement needs qualifying. “In nearly all the families -of high rank,” says the _Dictionnaire de Pédagogie_ (1^{ere} -Partie, Article JUIFS), “the daughters spoke Greek. The Rabbins -did not look with any favor upon the study of profane philosophy; -but notwithstanding their protests, there were many devoted -readers of Plato and Aristotle. It is said that among the pupils -of the celebrated Gamaliel there were five hundred who studied the -philosophy and the literature of Greece.” (P.) - -[19] For a series of interesting documents on the actual state -of education in China, consult the article CHINE, in Buisson’s -_Dictionnaire de Pédagogie_. - -[20] Dittes, _op. cit._, p. 32. - -[21] On a recent occasion Archdeacon Farrar referred to Persian -education as follows: “We boast of our educational ideal. Is it -nearly as high in some essentials as that even of some ancient -and heathen nations long centuries before Christ came? The -ancient Persians were worshippers of fire and of the sun; most of -their children would have been probably unable to pass the most -elementary examination in physiology, but assuredly the Persian -ideal might be worthy of our study. At the age of fourteen--the -age when we turn our children adrift from school, and do nothing -more for them--the Persians gave their young nobles the four -best masters whom they could find to teach their boys wisdom, -justice, temperance, and courage--wisdom including worship, justice -including the duty of unswerving truthfulness through life, -temperance including mastery over sensual temptations, courage -including a free mind opposed to all things coupled with guilt.” -(P.) - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -EDUCATION AMONG THE GREEKS. - - GREEK PEDAGOGY; ATHENIAN AND SPARTAN EDUCATION; THE SCHOOLS OF - ATHENS; SCHOOLS OF GRAMMAR; SCHOOLS OF GYMNASTICS; THE PALESTRA; - SCHOOLS OF MUSIC; THE SCHOOLS OF RHETORIC AND OF PHILOSOPHY; - SOCRATES AND THE SOCRATIC METHOD; SOCRATIC IRONY; MAIEUTICS, - OR THE ART OF GIVING BIRTH TO IDEAS; EXAMPLES OF IRONY AND OF - MAIEUTICS BORROWED FROM THE MEMORABILIA OF XENOPHON; PLATO AND - THE REPUBLIC; THE EDUCATION OF WARRIORS AND MAGISTRATES; MUSIC - AND GYMNASTICS; RELIGION AND ART IN EDUCATION; THE BEAUTIFUL - AND THE GOOD; HIGH INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION; THE LAWS; DEFINITION - OF EDUCATION; DETAILED PRECEPTS; XENOPHON; THE ECONOMICS AND - THE EDUCATION OF WOMAN; THE CYROPÆDIA; PROTESTS OF XENOPHON - AGAINST THE DEGENERATE MANNERS OF THE GREEKS; ARISTOTLE; GENERAL - CHARACTER OF HIS PLAN OF EDUCATION; PUBLIC EDUCATION; PROGRESSIVE - DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN NATURE; PHYSICAL EDUCATION; INTELLECTUAL AND - MORAL EDUCATION; DEFECTS IN THE PEDAGOGY OF ARISTOTLE, AND IN - GREEK PEDAGOGY IN GENERAL; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY. - - -19. GREEK PEDAGOGY.--Upon that privileged soil of Greece, in that -brilliant Athens abounding in artists, poets, historians, and -philosophers, in that rude Sparta celebrated for its discipline -and manly virtues, education was rather the spontaneous fruit of -nature, the natural product of diverse manners, characters, and -races, than the premeditated result of a reflective movement of the -human will. Greece, however, had its pedagogy, because it had its -legislators and its philosophers, the first directing education -in its practical details, the second making theoretical inquiries -into the essential principles underlying the development of the -human soul. In respect of education, as of everything else, the -higher spiritual life of modern nations has been developed under -the influence of Grecian antiquity.[22] - - -20. ATHENIAN AND SPARTAN EDUCATION.--In the spectacle presented -to us by ancient Greece, the first fact that strikes us by its -contrast with the immobility and unity of the primitive societies -of the East, is a freer unfolding of the human faculties, and -consequently a diversity in tendencies and manners. Doubtless, -in the Greek republics, the individual is always subordinate to -the State. Even in Athens, little regard is paid to the essential -dignity of the human person. But the Athenian State differs -profoundly from the Spartan, and consequently the individual life -is differently understood and differently directed in these two -great cities. At Athens, while not neglecting the body, the chief -preoccupation is the training of the mind; intellectual culture -is pushed to an extreme, even to over-refinement; there is such -a taste for fine speaking that it develops an abuse of language -and reasoning which merits the disreputable name of sophistry. At -Sparta, mind is sacrificed to body; physical strength and military -skill are the qualities most desired; the sole care is the training -of athletes and soldiers. Sobriety and courage are the results -of this one-sided education, but so are ignorance and brutality. -Montaigne has thrown into relief, not without some partiality for -Sparta, these two contrasted plans of education. - -“Men went to the other cities of Greece,” he says, “to find -rhetoricians, painters, and musicians, but to Lacedæmon for -legislators, magistrates, and captains; at Athens fine speaking -was taught; but here, brave acting; there, one learned to unravel -a sophistical argument and to abate the imposture of insidiously -twisted words; here, to extricate one’s self from the enticements -of pleasure and to overcome the menaces of fortune and death by -a manly courage. The Athenians busied themselves with words, but -the Spartans with things; with the former, there was a continual -activity of the tongue; with the latter, a continual activity of -the soul.”[23] - -The last remark is not just. The daily exercises of the young -Spartans,--jumping, running, wrestling, playing with lances and at -quoits,--could not be regarded as intellectual occupations. On the -other hand, in learning to talk, the young Athenians learned also -to feel and to think. - - -21. THE SCHOOLS OF ATHENS.--The Athenian legislator, Solon, had -placed physical and intellectual training upon the same footing. -Children, he said, ought, above everything else, to learn “to swim -and to read.” It seems that the education of the body was the chief -preoccupation of the Athenian republic. While the organization of -schools for grammar and music was left to private enterprise, the -State took a part in the direction of the gymnasia. The director -of the gymnasium, or the gymnasiarch, was elected each year by the -assembly of the people. Nevertheless, Athenian education became -more and more a course in literary training, especially towards the -sixth century B.C. - -The Athenian child remained in the charge of a nurse and an -attendant up to his sixth or seventh year. At the age of seven, a -pedagogue, that is, a “conductor of children,” usually a slave, -was charged with the oversight of the child. Conducted by his -pedagogue, the pupil attended by turns the school for grammar, -the _palestra_,[24] or school for gymnastics, and the school -for music. The grammarian, who sometimes gave his lessons in -the open air, in the streets and on the public squares, taught -reading, writing, and mythology. Homer was the boy’s reading-book. -Instruction in gymnastics was given in connection with instruction -in grammar. It was begun in the palestra and continued in the -gymnasium. Instruction in music succeeded the training in grammar -and gymnastics. The music-master, or _citharist_, first taught his -pupils to sing, and then to play upon the stringed instruments, the -lyre and the cithara. We know what value the Athenians attributed -to music. Plato and Aristotle agree in thinking that the rhythm -and harmony of music inspire the soul with the love of order, -with harmoniousness, regularity, and a soothing of the passions. -We must recollect, moreover, that music held a large place in the -actual life of the Greeks. The laws were promulgated in song. It -was necessary to sing in order to fulfil one’s religious duties. -It was held that the education of Themistocles had been neglected -because he had not learned music. “We must regard the Greeks,” -says Montesquieu, “as a race of athletes and fighters. Now those -exercises, so proper to make men hardy and fierce, had need of -being tempered by others which could soften the manners. Music, -which affected the soul through the organs of the body, was exactly -adapted to this purpose.”[25] - -In the elementary schools of Athens, at least at the first, -the current discipline was severe. Aristophanes, bewailing the -degeneracy of his time, recalls in these terms the good order that -reigned in the olden school:[26]-- - -“I will relate what was the ancient education in the happy time -when I taught (it is Justice who speaks) and when modesty was the -rule. Then the boys came out of each street with bare heads and -feet, and, regardless of rain and snow, went together in the most -perfect order towards the school for music. There they were seated -quietly and modestly. They were not permitted to cross their legs, -and they learned some good songs. The master sang the song for them -slowly and with gravity. If some one took a notion to sing with -soft and studied inflections, he was severely flogged.” - - -22. THE SCHOOLS OF RHETORIC AND PHILOSOPHY.--Grammar, gymnastics, -and music proper, represented the elementary instruction of the -young Athenian. But this instruction was reserved for citizens -in easy circumstances. The poor, according to the intentions of -Solon, were to learn only _reading_, _swimming_, and a trade. The -privilege of instruction became still more exclusive in the case of -the schools of rhetoric and philosophy frequented by those of adult -years. - -It would be beside our purpose to speak in this place of the -courses in literature, or to make known the methods of those -teachers of rhetoric who taught eloquence to all who presented -themselves for instruction, either in the public squares or in -the gymnasia. The sophists, those itinerant philosophers who went -from city to city offering courses at high rates of tuition, and -teaching the art of speaking on every subject, and of making a plea -for error and injustice just as skilfully as for justice and truth, -at the same time made illustrious and disgraceful the teaching of -eloquence.[27] The philosophers were more worthy of their task. -Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle were illustrious professors of -ethics. Socrates had no regular school, but he grouped about him -distinguished young men and initiated them into learning and -virtue. The _Academy_ of Plato and the _Lyceum_ of Aristotle were -great schools of philosophy, real private universities, each -directed by a single man. The teaching given in these schools has -traversed the ages, and has been preserved in imperishable books. -Moreover, those illustrious spirits of Greece have transmitted to -us either methods or general ideas which the history of pedagogy -should reverently collect, as the first serious efforts of human -reflection on the art of education. - - -23. SOCRATES: THE SOCRATIC METHOD.--Socrates spent his life in -teaching, and in teaching according to an original method, which -has preserved his name. He had the genius of interrogation. To -question all whom he met, either at the gymnasium or in the -streets; to question the sophists in order to convince them of -their errors and to confound their arrogance, and presumptuous -young men in order to teach them the truth of which they were -ignorant; to question great and small, statesmen and masons, now -Pericles and now a shopkeeper; to question always and everywhere -in order to compel every one to form clear ideas; such was the -constant occupation and passion of his life. When he allowed -himself to dream of the future life, he said smilingly that he -hoped to continue in the Elysian Fields the habits of the Athenian -Agora, and still to interrogate the shades of the mighty dead. With -Socrates, conversation became an art, and the dialogue a method. -He scarcely ever employed the didactic form, or that of direct -teaching. He addressed himself to his interlocutor, urged him to -set forth his ideas, harassed him with questions often somewhat -subtile, skilfully led him to recognize the truth which he himself -had in mind, or the rather permitted him to go off on a false -route in order finally to discover to him his error and to sport -with his confusion; and all this with an art of wonderful analysis, -with a subtilty of reasoning pushed almost to an extreme, and also -with a great simplicity of language, and with examples borrowed -from common life, such as we are accustomed to call intuitive -examples. - - -24. THE SOCRATIC IRONY.--To form an intelligible account of the -Socratic method, it is necessary to distinguish its two essential -phases. Socrates followed a double method and sought a double end. - -In the first case, he wished to make war against error and to -refute false opinions. Then he resorted to what has been called -the Socratic _irony_.[28] He raised a question as one who simply -desired to be instructed. If there was the statement of an error in -the reply of the respondent, Socrates made no objection to it, but -pretended to espouse the ideas and sentiments of his interlocutor. -Then, by questions which were adroit and sometimes insidious, he -forced him to develop his opinions, and to display, so to speak, -the whole extent of his folly, and the next instant slyly brought -him face to face with the consequences, which were so absurd and -contradictory that he ended in losing confidence, in becoming -involved in his conclusions, and finally in making confession of -his errors. - - -25. MAIEUTICS, OR THE ART OF GIVING BIRTH TO IDEAS.--Analogous -processes constituted the other part of the Socratic method, that -which he himself called _maieutics_, or the art of giving birth to -ideas. - -Socrates was convinced that the human mind in its normal condition -discovers certain truths through its own energies, provided one -knows how to lead it and stimulate it; and so he here appealed to -the spontaneity of his auditor, to his innate powers, and thus -gently led him on his way by easy transitions to the opinion which -he wished to make him admit. However, he applied this method -only to the search for truths which could either be suggested by -the intuitions of reason and common sense, or determined by a -natural induction, that is, psychological, ethical, and religious -truths.[29] - - -26. EXAMPLES OF IRONY AND MAIEUTICS.--We can best give an exact -idea of the Socratic method by means of examples. These examples -are to be found in the writings of the disciples of Socrates, as in -the _Dialogues_ of Plato, such as the _Gorgias_, the _Euthydemus_, -etc., and still better in the _Memorabilia_ of Xenophon, where -the thought of the master and his manner of teaching are more -faithfully reproduced than in the bold and original compositions of -Plato. While recognizing the insufficiency of these extracts, we -shall here make two quotations, in which is displayed either his -incisive, critical spirit, or his suggestive and fruitful method: -“The thirty tyrants had put many of the most distinguished citizens -to death, and had encouraged others to acts of injustice. ‘It would -surprise me,’ said Socrates one day, ‘if the keeper of a flock, who -had killed one part of it and had made the other part poor, would -not confess that he was a bad herdsman; but it would surprise me -still more if a man standing at the head of his fellow-citizens -should destroy a part of them and corrupt the rest, and were not to -blush at his conduct and confess himself a bad magistrate.’ This -remark having come to the ears of the Thirty, Critias and Charicles -sent for Socrates, showed him the law, and forbade him to hold -conversation with the young. - -“Socrates inquired of them if he might be permitted to ask -questions touching what might seem obscure to him in this -prohibition. Upon their granting this permission: ‘I am prepared,’ -he said, ‘to obey the laws, but that I may not violate them through -ignorance, I would have you clearly inform me whether you interdict -the art of speaking because it belongs to the number of things -which are good, or because it belongs to the number of things which -are bad. In the first case, one ought henceforth to abstain from -speaking what is good; in the second, it is clear that the effort -should be to speak what is right.’ - -“Thereupon Charicles became angry, and said: ‘Since you do not -understand us, we will give you something easier to comprehend: -we forbid you absolutely to hold conversation with the young.’ -‘In order that it may be clearly seen,’ said Socrates, ‘whether I -depart from what is enjoined, tell me at what age a youth becomes -a man.’ ‘At the time when he is eligible to the senate, for he has -not acquired prudence till then; so do not speak to young men who -are below the age of thirty.’ - -“‘But if I wish to buy something of a merchant who is below the age -of thirty, may I ask him at what price he sells it?’ - -“‘Certainly you may ask such a question; but you are accustomed to -raise inquiries about multitudes of things which are perfectly -well known to you; it is this which is forbidden.’ - -“‘So I must not reply to a young man who asks me where Charicles -lives, or where Critias is.’ ‘You may reply to such questions,’ -said Charicles. ‘But recollect, Socrates,’ added Critias, ‘you must -let alone the shoemakers, and smiths, and other artisans, for I -think they must already be very much worn out by being so often in -your mouth.’ - -“‘I must, therefore,’ said Socrates, ‘forego the illustrations I -draw from these occupations relative to justice, piety, and all the -virtues.’”[30] - -In the final passage of this cutting dialogue, observe the -elevation of tone and the gravity of thought. So Socrates had -marvellous skill in allying enthusiasm with irony. - -Here is an extract in which Socrates applies the maieutic art to -the establishment of a moral truth, the belief in God: - -“I will mention a conversation he once had in my presence with -Aristodemus, surnamed the Little, concerning the gods. He knew -that Aristodemus neither sacrificed to the gods, nor consulted -the oracles, but ridiculed those who took part in these religious -observances. ‘Tell me, Aristodemus,’ said he, ‘are there men whose -talents you admire?’ ‘There are,’ he replied. ‘Then tell us their -names,’ said Socrates. ‘In epic poetry I especially admire Homer; -in dithyrambic, Melanippides; in tragedy, Sophocles; in statuary, -Polycletus; in painting, Zeuxis.’ ‘But what artists do you think -most worthy of admiration, those who form images destitute of -sense and movement, or those who produce animated beings, endowed -with the faculty of thinking and acting?’ ‘Those who form animated -beings, for these are the work of intelligence and not of chance.’ -‘And which do you regard as the creation of intelligence, and -which the product of chance, those works whose purpose cannot be -recognized, or those whose utility is manifest?’ ‘It is reasonable -to attribute to an intelligence the works which have some useful -purpose.’”[31] - -Socrates then points out to Aristodemus how admirably the different -organs of the human body are adapted to the functions of life and -to the use of man. And so proceeding from example to example, from -induction to induction, always keeping the mind of his auditor -alert by the questions he raises, and the answers that he suggests, -forcing him to do his share of the work, and giving him an equal -share in the train of reasoning, he finally brings him to the goal -which is to make him recognize the existence of God. - - -27. THE REPUBLIC OF PLATO.--“Would you form,” said J. J. Rousseau, -“an idea of public education? read the _Republic_ of Plato. It is -the finest treatise on education ever written.” For truth’s sake we -must discount the enthusiasm of Rousseau. The _Republic_ doubtless -contains some elements of a wise and practical scheme of education; -but, on the whole, it is but an ideal creation, a compound of -paradoxes and chimeras. In Plato’s ideal commonwealth, the -individual and the family itself are sacrificed to the State. Woman -becomes so much like man as to be subjected to the same gymnastic -exercises; she too must be a soldier as he is. Children know -neither father nor mother. From the day of their birth they are -given in charge of common nurses, veritable public functionaries. -In that common fold, “care shall be taken that no mother recognize -her offspring.” We may guess that in making this pompous eulogy -of the _Republic_, the paradoxical author of the _Émile_ hoped to -prepare the reader for giving a complaisant welcome to his own -dreams. - - -28. THE EDUCATION OF WARRIORS AND MAGISTRATES.--Plato, by some -unexplained recollection of the social constitution of the -Hindoos, established three castes in his ideal State,--laborers -and artisans, warriors, and magistrates. There was no education -for laborers and artisans; it was sufficient for men of this caste -to learn a trade. In politics, Plato is an aristocrat; he feels -a disdain for the people, “that robust and indocile animal.” It -should be observed, however, that the barriers which he set up -between these three social orders are not insuperable. If a child -of the inferior class gives evidence of exceptional qualities, he -must be admitted to the superior class; and so if the son of a -warrior or of a magistrate is notably incompetent and unworthy of -his rank, he must suffer forfeiture, and become artisan or laborer. - -As to the education which he designs for the warriors and the -magistrates, Plato is minutely careful in regulating it. The -education of the warriors comprises two parts,--music and -gymnastics. The education of the magistrates consists of a training -in philosophy of a high grade; they are initiated into all the -sciences and into metaphysics. Plato’s statesmen must be, not -priests, as in the East, but scholars and philosophers. - - -29. MUSIC AND GYMNASTICS.--Although Plato attaches a high value -to gymnastics, he gives precedence to music. Before forming the -body, Plato, the idealist, would form the soul, because it is the -soul, according to him, which, by its own virtue, gives to the -body all the perfection of which it is capable. Even in physical -exercises, the purpose should be to give increased vigor to the -soul: “In the training of the body, our young men shall aim, above -everything else, at augmenting moral power.” Note this striking -picture of the man who trains only his body: “Let a man apply -himself to gymnastics, and become trained, and eat much, and wholly -neglect music and philosophy, and at first his body will become -strengthened; but if he does nothing else, and holds no converse -with the Muses, though his soul have some natural inclination to -learn, yet if it remains uncultivated by acquiring knowledge, by -inquiry, by discourse, in a word, by some department of music, -that is, by intellectual education, it will insensibly become -weak, deaf, and blind. Like a wild beast, such a man will live -in ignorance and rudeness, with neither grace nor politeness.” -However, Plato is far from despising health and physical strength. -On the contrary, it is a reproach to him that he has imposed on -the citizens of his Republic the obligation of being physically -sound, and of having excluded from it all those whose infirmities -and feeble constitution condemn them to “drag out a dying life.” -The right to live, in Plato’s city, as in the most of ancient -societies, belonged only to men of robust health. The weak, the -ailing, the wretched, all who are of infirm constitution,--Plato -does not go so far as ordering such to be killed, but, what amounts -almost to the same thing,--“they shall be exposed,” that is, left -to die. The good of the State demands that every man be sacrificed -whose health renders him unfit for civil duties. This cruel and -implacable doctrine shocks us in the case of him whom Montaigne -calls the divine Plato, and shocks us even more when we discover it -among contemporary philosophers, whom the inspirations of Christian -charity or the feeling of human fraternity should have preserved -from such rank heartlessness. Is it not Herbert Spencer who blames -modern societies for nourishing the diseased and assisting the -infirm? - - -30. RELIGION AND ART IN EDUCATION.--Plato had formed a high ideal -of the function of art in education, but this did not prevent -him from being severe against certain forms of art, particularly -comedy and tragedy, and poetry in general. He would have the poets -expelled from the city and conducted to the frontier, though paying -them homage with perfumes which will continue to be shed upon their -heads, and with flowers with which they will ever be crowned. He -admits no other poetry than that which reproduces the manners and -discourse of a good man, and celebrates the brave deeds of the -gods, or chants their glory. As a severe moralist and worshipper -of the divine goodness, he condemns the poets of his time, either -because they attribute to the divinity the vices and passions of -men, or because they invest the imagination with base fears as they -speak of Cocytus and the Styx, and portray a frightful hell and -gods always mad with desire to persecute the human race. Elsewhere, -in the _Laws_, Plato explains his conception of religion. He says -that the religious books placed in the hands of children should -be selected with as much care as the milk of a nurse. God is an -infinite goodness who watches over men, and he should be honored, -not by sacrifices and vain ceremonies, but by lives of justice and -virtue. - -For making men moral, Plato counts more upon art than upon -religious feeling. To love letters, to hold converse with the -Muses, to cultivate music and dancing, such, in the opinion of -the noble spirits of Athens, is the natural route towards moral -perfection. In their view, moral education is above all an -education in art. The soul rises to the good through the beautiful. -“Beautiful and good” (καλὸς καὶ ἀγαθός) are two words constantly -associated in the speech of the Greeks. Even to-day we have much -to learn from reflections like these: “We ought,” says Plato, “to -seek out artists who by the power of genius can trace out the -nature of the fair and the graceful, that our young men, dwelling, -as it were, in a healthful region, may drink in good from every -quarter, whence any emanation from noble works may strike upon -their eye or their ear, like a gale wafting health from salubrious -lands, and win them imperceptibly from their earliest years into -resemblance, love, and harmony with the true beauty of reason. - -“Is it not, then, on these accounts that we attach such supreme -importance to a musical education, because rhythm and harmony sink -most deeply into the recesses of the soul, bringing gracefulness in -their train, and making a man graceful if he be rightly nurtured; -but if not, the reverse? and also because he that has been duly -nurtured therein will have the keenest eye for defects, whether in -the failures of art, or in the misgrowths of nature; and feeling -a most just disdain for them, will commend beautiful objects, and -gladly receive them into his soul, and feed upon them, and grow to -be noble and good; whereas he will rightly censure and hate all -repulsive objects, even in his childhood, before he is able to be -reasoned with; and when reason comes, he will welcome her most -cordially who can recognize her by the instinct of relationship, -and because he has been thus nurtured?”[32] - - -31. HIGH INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.--In the _Republic_ of Plato the -intellectual education of the warrior class remains exclusively -literary and æsthetic. In addition to this, the education of the -ruling class is to be scientific and philosophic. The future -magistrate, after having received the ordinary instruction up to -the age of twenty, is to be initiated into the abstract sciences, -mathematics, geometry, and astronomy. To this scientific -education, which is to continue for ten years, there will succeed -for five years the study of dialectics,[33] or philosophy, which -develops the highest faculty of man, the reason, and teaches him to -discover, through and beyond the fleeting appearances of the world -of sense, the eternal verities and the essence of things. But Plato -prolongs the education of his magistrates still further. After -having given them the nurture of reason and intellectual insight, -he sends them back to the cavern[34] at the age of thirty-five, -that is, calls them back to public life, and makes them pass -through all kinds of civil and military employments, until finally, -at the age of fifty, in possession of all the endowments assured -by consummate experience superadded to profound knowledge, they -are fitted to be charged with the burdens of office. In the -_Republic_ of Plato statesmen are not improvised. And yet in this -elaborate system of instruction Plato omits two subjects of great -importance. On the one hand, he entirely omits the physical and -natural sciences, because, in his mystic idealism, things of sense -are delusive and unreal images, and so did not appear to him worthy -of arresting the attention of the mind; and on the other, though -coming after Herodotus, and though a contemporary of Thucydides, -he makes no mention of history, doubtless through a contempt for -tradition and the past. - - -32. THE LAWS.--In the _Laws_, the work of his old age, Plato -disavows in part the chimeras of the _Republic_, and qualifies the -radicalism of that earlier work. The philosopher descends to the -earth and really condescends to the actual state of humanity. He -renounces the distinction of social castes, and his very practical -and very minute precepts are applied without distinction to -children of all classes.[35] - -First note this excellent definition of the end of education: “A -good education is that which gives to the body and to the soul all -the beauty and all the perfection of which they are capable.” As -to methods, it seems that Plato hesitates between the doctrine of -effort and the doctrine of attractive toil. In fact, he says on the -one hand that education is a very skilful discipline which, _by way -of amusement_,[36] leads the mind of the child to love that which -is to make it finished. On the other hand, he protests against -the weakness of those parents who seek to spare their children -every trouble and every pain. “I am persuaded,” he says, “that the -inclination to humor the likings of children is the surest of all -ways to spoil them. We should not make too much haste in our search -after what is pleasurable, especially as we shall never be wholly -exempt from what is painful.” - -Let us add this definition of a good education: “I call education -the virtue which is shown by children when the feelings of joy or -of sorrow, of love or of hate, which arise in their souls, are made -conformable to order.” - -With the statement of these principles, Plato enters into details. -For children up to the age of six, he recommends the use of -swaddling-clothes. The habit of rocking, the natural plays which -children find out for themselves, the separation of the sexes; -swimming, the bow, and the javelin, for boys; wrestling for giving -bodily vigor, and dancing, for graceful movement; reading and -writing reserved till the tenth year and learned for three years. - -It would require too much time to follow the philosopher to the -end. In the rules he proposes, he makes a near approach to the -practices followed by the Athenians of his day. The _Republic_ -was a work of pure imagination. The _Laws_ are scarcely more than -a commentary on the actual state of practice. But here we still -find what was nearest the soul of Plato, the constant search for a -higher morality. - - -33. XENOPHON.--As an educator, Xenophon obeyed two different -influences. His master, Socrates, was his good genius. That -graceful and charming book, the _Economics_, was written under the -benign and tempered inspiration of the great Athenian sage. But -Xenophon also had his evil genius,--the immoderate enthusiasm which -he felt for Sparta, her institutions and her laws. The first book -of the _Cyropædia_, which relates the rules of Persian education, -is an unfortunate imitation of the laws of Lycurgus. - - -34. THE ECONOMICS, AND THE EDUCATION OF WOMAN.--All should read the -_Economics_, that charming sketch of the education of woman. We -may say of this little work what Renan has said of the writings of -Plutarch on the same subject: “Where shall we find a more charming -ideal of family life? What good nature! What sweetness of manners! -What chaste and lovable simplicity!” Before her marriage, the -Athenian maiden has learned only to spin wool, to be discreet, and -to ask no questions,--virtues purely negative. Xenophon assigns -to her husband the duty of training her mind and of teaching her -the positive duties of family life,--order, economy, kindness to -slaves, and tender care of children. As a matter of fact, the -Athenian woman was still held in a position of inferiority. Shut up -in her own apartments, it was an exception that she learned to read -and write; it was very rare that she was instructed in the arts and -sciences. The idea of human dignity and of the value of the human -person had not yet appeared. Man had value only in proportion to -the services which he could render the State, or commonwealth, and -woman formed no part of the commonwealth. Xenophon has the merit -of rising above the prejudices of his time, and of approaching the -ideal of the modern family, in calling woman to participate more -intimately in the affairs of the house and in the occupations of -the husband.[37] - - -35. THE CYROPÆDIA.--The _Cyropædia_ is not worthy of the same -commendation. Under the pretext of describing the organization of -the Persian State, Xenophon here traces, after his manner, the -plan of an education absolutely uniform and exclusively military. -There is no domestic education, no individual liberty, no interest -in letters and arts. When the period of infancy is over, the young -Persian is made subject to military duty, and must not leave the -encampment, even at night. The state is but a camp, and human -existence a perpetual military parade. Montaigne praises Xenophon -for having said that the Persians taught their children virtue “as -other nations do letters.” But it is difficult to form an estimate -of the methods which were followed in these schools of justice and -temperance, and we may be allowed to suspect the efficiency of the -means proposed by Xenophon; for example, that which consisted in -transforming the petty quarrels of the scholars into regular trials -which were followed by sentences, acquittals, or convictions. The -author of the _Cyropædia_ is on surer ground when, recollecting -his own studies, he recommends the study of history to those who -would become just. He teaches temperance by practice rather than by -precept; his pupils have only bread for their food, only cresses -for seasoning, and only water for their drink. - -Whatever may be the faults and the fancies of the _Cyropædia_, we -must recollect, as a partial excuse for them, that the purpose -of the writer in tracing this picture of a simple, frugal, and -courageous life, was to induce a reaction against the excesses of -the fashionable and formal life of the Athenians. As Rousseau, in -the middle of the eighteenth century, protested against the license -and the artificial manners of his time by advising an imaginary -return to nature, so Xenophon, a contemporary of the sophists, -held forth the sturdy virtues of the Persians in opposition to the -degenerate manners of the Greeks and the refinements of an advanced -civilization. - - -36. ARISTOTLE: GENERAL CHARACTER OF HIS PLAN OF EDUCATION.--By -his vast attainments, by his encyclopædic knowledge, by the -experimental nature of his researches, and by the positive and -practical tendencies of his genius, Aristotle was enabled to -excel Plato in clearness of insight into pedagogical questions. -He had another advantage over Plato in having known and enjoyed -the delights of family life, and in having loved and trained his -own children, of whom he said, “parents love their children as a -part of themselves.” Let us add, finally, that he was a practical -teacher, since he was the preceptor of Alexander from 343 to 340 -B.C. Such opportunities, superadded to the force of the most mighty -genius the world has ever seen, give promise of a competent and -clear-sighted educator. Unfortunately, we have lost the treatise, -_On Education_ (περὶ παιδείας), which on the authority of Diogenes -Laërtius, Aristotle is said to have composed; and to form some -conception of his ideas on education, we have at our disposal only -some imperfect sketches, some portions, and those in an imperfect -state, of his treatises on ethics and politics.[38] - -Whoever labors to give stability to the family, and to tighten its -bond of union, labors also for the promotion of education. Even in -this respect, education is under great obligations to Aristotle. In -him the communism of Plato finds an able critic. That feeling of -affection which we of to-day would call charity or fraternity, he -declared to be the guaranty and the foundation of social life. Now, -communism weakens this feeling by diluting it, just as a little -honey dropped into a large quantity of water thereby loses all its -sweetness. “There are two things which materially contribute to the -rise of interest and attachment in the hearts of men,--property -and the feeling of affection.” It was thus in the name of good -sense, and in opposition to the distempered fancies of Plato, that -Aristotle vindicated the rights of the family and the individual. - - -37. PUBLIC EDUCATION.--But Aristotle does not go so far as his -premises would seem to lead him, and relinquish to parents the -care of educating their children. In accordance with the general -tendencies of antiquity, he declares himself the partisan of an -education that is public and common. He commends the Spartans for -having ordained that “education should be the same for all.” “As -there is one end in view in every city,” he says, “it is evident -that education ought to be one and the same in all, and that this -should be a common care, and not of each individual.... It is -the duty of the legislator to regulate this interest for all the -citizens.” There must, therefore, be the intervention of the State, -not from the day of birth, as Plato would have it, for the nursing -of infants, but only at the age of seven, for instructing and -training them in the habits of virtue. - -What, then, should be the training of the child, and upon what -subjects would Aristotle direct his studies? - - -38. THE PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN NATURE.--An essential and -incontrovertible distinction is taken by the Greek philosopher -as his starting-point. There are, he says, three moments, three -stages, in human development: first, there is the physical life of -the body; then, instinct and sensibility, or the irrational part -of the soul; and finally, the intelligence, or the reason. From -this, Aristotle concludes that the course of discipline and study -should be graduated according to these three degrees of life. “The -first care should necessarily be given to the body rather than to -the mind; and then to that part of the spiritual nature which is -the seat of the desires.” But he adds this important observation, -which is a refutation of Rousseau in advance: “In the care which -we give to the sensibilities, we must not leave out of account the -intelligence; and in our care of the body, we must not forget the -soul.” - - -39. PHYSICAL EDUCATION.--The son of a physician of the Macedonian -court, and well versed in the natural sciences, Aristotle is very -happy in his treatment of physical education. It begins before the -child is born, even before it has been conceived. Consequently he -enjoins a legal regulation of marriages, interdicts unions that -are too early or too late, indicates the climatic conditions most -favorable for marriage, and gives mothers wise counsels on matters -of hygiene, recommending them to nurse their own children, and -prescribing cold baths. Such, in outline, is a plan which a modern -hygienist would not disavow. - - -40. INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL EDUCATION.--It was the opinion of -Aristotle that intellectual education should not begin before the -age of five. But, in accordance with the principle stated above, -this period of waiting should not be the occasion of loss to the -intelligence of the child; even his play should be a preparation -for the work to which he will apply himself at a later period. On -the other hand, Aristotle strongly insists on the necessity of -shielding the child from all pernicious influences, such as those -which come from association with slaves, or from immoral plays. - -In accord with all his contemporaries, Aristotle includes grammar, -gymnastics, and music, among the elements of instruction. To these -he adds drawing. But he is chiefly preoccupied with music, by -reason of the moral influence which he attributes to it. He shared -the prepossession which caused the Greeks to say, that to relax or -to reform the manners of a people, it suffices to add a string to -the lyre or to take one from it.[39] - -Aristotle was strongly preoccupied with moral education. Like -Plato, he insists on the greatest care in forming the moral habits -of early life. In his different writings on ethics he has discussed -different human virtues in a spirit at once wise, practical, and -liberal. No one has better sung the praises of justice, of which -he says, “Neither the evening nor the morning star inspires as much -respect as justice.” - -It would do Aristotle injustice to seek for a complete expression -of his thoughts on education in the incomplete and curtailed -statements of theory which are found in his _Politics_. In -connection with these, we should recall the admirable instruction -which he himself gave in the Lyceum, and which embraced almost -all the sciences in its vast programme. He excluded from it only -the sciences and the arts which have a mechanical and utilitarian -character. Enslaved on this point to the prejudices of antiquity, -he regarded as servile and unworthy of a free man whatever has a -direct bearing on the practical and material utilities of life. He -recommended to his hearers only studies of the intellectual type, -those whose sole purpose is to elevate the mind and to fill it with -noble thoughts.[40] - - -41. FAULTS IN THE PEDAGOGY OF ARISTOTLE, AND IN GREEK PEDAGOGY IN -GENERAL.--It must be said in conclusion, that whatever admiration -we may feel for the pedagogy of Aristotle, it was wrong, like that -of all the Greek writers, in being but an aristocratic system of -education. The education of which Plato and Aristotle dreamed was -restricted to a small minority, and was even made possible only -because the majority was excluded from it. The slaves, charged with -the duty of providing for the sustenance of their superiors, and -of creating for them the leisure claimed by Aristotle, had no more -participation in education than in liberty or in property. In the -century of Pericles, at the most glorious period of the Athenian -republic, let us not forget that there were at Athens nearly four -hundred thousand slaves to do the bidding of twenty thousand free -citizens. To indulge in an easy admiration for Greek pedagogy, we -must detach it from its setting, and consider it in itself, apart -from the narrow plan on which the Greek states were constructed, -and apart from that social _régime_ which assured the education of -some, only by perpetuating the oppression of the many. - - - [42. ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.--1. A leading conception in Greek - education is that of symmetry, or harmony; the ideal man, - in Plato’s phrase, must be “harmoniously constituted”; all - opposing tendencies must be reconciled; and while the physical, - the intellectual, and the moral must each be made the subject - of systematic training, there must be no disproportionate - development in either direction. - - 2. The preoccupation of the Greek teacher was discipline or - culture, rather than the communication of useful knowledge; and - the final aim was a life of contemplation, rather than a life of - action; ethical rather than practical; “good conduct” rather than - mastery over what is material. - - 3. Physical training received great emphasis, not as an end in - itself, but as a means towards mental and spiritual health; and - knowledge was valued chiefly as the means for attaining moral - excellence. - - 4. The staple of instruction was _wisdom_, _i.e._, ethical and - prudential knowledge, which was the basis of right action; and - teaching, especially according to the Socratic conception of it, - consisted in causing the pupil’s mind to react on the materials - supplied by his own mind. Socrates, says Lewes, “believed that - in each man lay the germs of wisdom. He believed that no science - could be _taught_; only _drawn out_.” - - 5. The great teaching instrument was dialectic, _i.e._, - discussion, resolution, or analysis. Its use assumed that - the subject-matter of instruction was already in the pupil’s - possession, and that the highest office of the teacher was to - liberate the thought which had been formed by the active energies - of the pupil’s own mind. This is the maieutic art of Socrates. - - 6. The mode of mental activity which was chiefly brought into - requisition was the reason; in a secondary degree the imagination - and the emotions; and in a still lower degree, the memory. - - 7. The large place assigned to music by Plato and Aristotle shows - that the culture of the emotions was an important element in - Greek education. Æsthetic training was not only an end in itself, - but was regarded as the basis of moral and religious culture. - - 8. In the writings of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, we see the - first attempt to formulate a body of educational doctrine; we - have the germs of a science of education based on psychology, - ethics, and politics. - - 9. In the _Republic_, we see the theory of compulsion in both its - phases: the State must provide an education suitable for State - needs; and the young must accept this education because the State - has ordained it. For the first time in the history of thought, - the State appears distinctly and avowedly as an educator. - - 10. Practically, education was administered on the basis of - caste; though in the construction of his ideal State, Plato made - it possible for talent, industry, and worth, to find their proper - level.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[22] Upon this subject consult the excellent study of Alexander -Martin, entitled _Les Doctrines Pédagogiques des Grecs_. Paris, -1881. - -[23] Montaigne, _Essais_, I. I. chap. XXIV. - -[24] The _palestra_ was the school of gymnastics for children; the -_gymnasium_ was set apart for adults and grown men. - -[25] Montesquieu, _Esprit des lois_, I. IV. chap. VIII. - -[26] Aristophanes, _Clouds_. - -[27] The reputation of the sophists has been considerably raised by -Mr. Grote (_History of Greece_, vol. VIII.). For an entertaining -account of a sophist of a later age, see Pliny’s _Letters_, -Melmoth’s translation, Book II., Letter III. See also Blackie’s -_Four Phases of Morals_, and Ferrier’s _Greek Philosophy_. (P.) - -[28] The primitive meaning of the Greek word εἰρωνεία, irony, -is interrogation. Socrates gave a jeering, ironical turn to his -questions, and in consequence this word lost its primary meaning, -and took the one which we give it at this time. - -[29] The Socratic method for the discovery of truth can be employed -only in those cases where the pupil has the crude materials of -the new knowledge actually in store. Psychology, logic, ethics, -mathematics, and perhaps grammar and rhetoric, fall within the -sphere of the Socratic method; but to apply this method of -instruction to geography, history, geology, and, in general, -to subjects where the material is inaccessible, is palpably -absurd. The Socratic dialogue, in its negative phase, is aimed -at presumption, arrogance, and pretentious ignorance; but it is -sometimes misused to badger and bewilder an honest and docile -pupil. (P.) - -[30] _Memorabilia_, I. II. - -[31] _Memorabilia_, I. IV. - -[32] _Republic_, 401, 402. I have quoted from the version of -Vaughan and Davies. (P.) - -[33] Dialectic, as used in the _Republic_, is neither philosophy -nor logic. I doubt whether it can be considered a subject of -instruction at all. It is rather a method or an exercise, the -purpose of which is to subject received opinions, formulated -knowledge, current beliefs, etc., to a sifting or analysis for the -purpose of distinguishing the real from the apparent, the true from -the false. The Socratic dialogues are examples of the dialectic -method. Dialectic might be defined as the _method of thought -proper_ or the _discursive reason in act_. (P.) - -[34] See the allegory of the cavern, _Republic_, Book VII. ‘In -Plato’s scheme of education, knowing is to precede doing,’ thus -following Socrates (_Memorabilia_, IV. chap. II.) and Bias (Γνῶθι -καὶ τότε πράττε), and anticipating Bacon (“studies perfect nature, -and are perfected by experience”). (P.) - -[35] See especially Book VII. of the _Laws_. - -[36] Compare also this quotation: “A free mind ought to learn -nothing as a slave. The lesson that is made to enter the mind -by force, will not remain there. Then use no violence towards -children; the rather, cause them to learn while playing.” - -[37] See particularly Chaps. VII. and VIII. - -[38] See especially the _Politics_, Books IV., V. - -[39] It seems impossible to comprehend the almost sovereign power -which the Greeks ascribed to music, unless we conceive that the -Greek was endowed with peculiar and extreme sensitiveness. Perhaps -there is special significance in the story of Orpheus and his lyre. -(P.) - -[40] I think it may be doubted whether the disfavor shown by Plato -and Aristotle to practical studies was merely a mean prejudice. -Preoccupied as they were with the disciplinary value of studies, -they may have seen that the culture aim and the utilitarian aim are -in some sort antagonistic. (P.) - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -EDUCATION AT ROME. - - TWO PERIODS IN ROMAN EDUCATION; EDUCATION OF THE PRIMITIVE - ROMANS; PHYSICAL AND MILITARY EDUCATION; ROME AT SCHOOL IN - GREECE; WHY THE ROMANS HAD NO GREAT EDUCATORS; VARRO; CICERO; - QUINTILIAN; THE INSTITUTES OF ORATORY; GENERAL PLAN OF EDUCATION; - THE CHILD’S FIRST EDUCATION; READING AND WRITING; PUBLIC - EDUCATION; THE DUTIES OF TEACHERS; GRAMMAR AND RHETORIC; THE - SIMULTANEOUS STUDY OF THE SCIENCES; SCHOOLS FOR PHILOSOPHY; - SENECA; PLUTARCH; THE LIVES OF ILLUSTRIOUS MEN; THE TREATISE ON - THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN; A CHARMING PICTURE OF FAMILY LIFE; - THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN; THE FUNCTION OF POETRY IN EDUCATION; - THE TEACHING OF MORALS; MARCUS AURELIUS AND PERSONAL EDUCATION; - CONCLUSION; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY. - - -43. TWO PERIODS IN ROMAN EDUCATION.--In Greece, as we have seen, -there were two essentially different systems of education in -use: at Sparta, a one-sided education, wholly military, with no -regard for intellectual culture; at Athens, a complete education, -which brought into happy harmony the training of the body and the -development of the mind, and by means of which, as Thucydides -observed, “men philosophized without becoming effeminate.” - -Rome, in the long course of her history, followed these two -systems in succession. Under the Republic, down to the conquest of -Greece, preference was given to education after the Spartan type; -while under the emperors, Athenian education was dominant, with a -very marked tendency to give the first place to an education in -literature and oratory. - - -44. THE EDUCATION OF THE EARLY ROMANS.--The first schools were not -opened at Rome till towards the end of the third century B.C. Till -then, the Romans had no teachers save their parents and nature. -Education was almost exclusively physical and moral, or rather, -military and religious. On the one hand, there were the gymnastic -exercises on the Campus Martius, and on the other, the recitation -of the Salian hymns, a sort of catechism containing the names of -the gods and goddesses. Besides this, there was the study of the -Twelve Tables, that is, of the Roman Law. Men the most robust, the -most courageous, the best disciplined, and the most patriotic that -ever lived, were the fruit of this natural education. Rome was the -great school of the civic and military virtues. The Romans did -not imitate the Athenians in a disinterested pursuit of a perfect -physical and intellectual development. Rome worked for practical -ends; she was guided only by considerations of utility; she had no -regard for ideals; her purpose was simply the education of soldiers -and citizens who should be obedient and devoted. She did not know -man in the abstract; she knew only the Roman citizen. - -These high qualities of the early Romans were marred by a sort of -brutal insensibility and a contempt for the graces of intellect and -heart; and leaving out of account the circumstances of environment -and race, their practical virtues may be ascribed to three or four -principal causes. First among these was a firm family discipline. -The authority of the father was absolute, and answering to this -excessive power, there was blind obedience. Another cause was the -position of the mother in the family. At Rome, woman was held in -higher esteem than at Athens. She became almost the equal of man. -She was the guardian of the family circle and the teacher of her -children. The very name _matron_ inspires respect. Coriolanus, who -took up arms against his country, could not withstand the tears -of his mother Veturia. The noble Cornelia was the teacher of her -sons, the Gracchi, whom she was accustomed to call “her fairest -jewels.” Besides, the influence of religion was made to supplement -the active efforts of the family. The Roman lived surrounded by -deities. When a child was weaned, tradition would have it that one -goddess taught him to eat, and another to drink. Later on, four -goddesses guided his first steps and held his two hands. All these -superstitions imposed regularity and exactness on the most ordinary -acts of daily life. Men breathed, as it were, a divine atmosphere. -Finally, the young Roman learned to read in the laws of the Twelve -Tables, that is, in the civil code of his country. He was thus -accustomed from infancy to consider the law as something natural, -inviolable, and sacred. - - -45. ROME AT SCHOOL IN GREECE.--The primitive state of manners -did not last. Under Greek influence, Roman simplicity suffered a -change, and, as Horace says, Greece, in being conquered, conquered -in turn her rude victor. The taste for letters and arts was -introduced at Rome towards the close of the third century B.C., -and transformed the austere and rude education of the primitive -era. The Romans, in their turn, acquired a liking for fine phrases -and subtile dialectics. Schools were opened, and the rhetoricians -and philosophers took up the business of education. Parents no -longer charged themselves with the instruction of their children. -Following the fashion at Athens, they entrusted them to slaves, -without troubling themselves about the faults or even the vices of -these common _pedagogues_. - -“For if any of their servants,” says Plutarch, “be better than -the rest, they dispose some of them to follow husbandry, some to -navigation, some to merchandise, some to be stewards in their -houses, and some, lastly, to put out their money to use for them. -But if they find any slave that is a drunkard or a glutton, and -unfit for any other business, to him they assign the government of -their children; whereas, a good pedagogue ought to be such a one in -his disposition as Phœnix, tutor to Achilles, was.”[41] - - -46. WHY ROME HAD NO GREAT EDUCATORS.--In the age of Augustus, when -Latin literature was in all its glory, we are astonished not to -find, as in the century of Pericles, some great thinker like Plato -or Aristotle, who presents general views on education, and makes -himself famous by a remarkable work on pedagogy. This is due to -the fact that the Romans never formed a taste for disinterested -science and speculative inquiry. They reached distinction only in -the practical sciences; in the law, for example, in which they -excelled. Now pedagogy, while in one sense a practical science, -nevertheless reposes upon philosophical principles, upon a -knowledge of human nature, and upon a theoretical conception of -human destiny,--questions which had no living interest for the -Roman mind, and which even Cicero has noticed only in passing, -in the course of his translation of Plato, made with his usual -magnificence of literary style. - -It is to be noted, moreover, that the Romans seem never to have -considered education as a national undertaking, as an affair of the -State. The Law of the Twelve Tables is silent upon the education of -children. Up to the time of Quintilian there were at Rome no public -schools, no professional teachers. In the age of Augustus each -teacher had his own method. “Our ancestors,” says Cicero, “did not -wish that children should be educated by fixed rules, determined by -the laws, publicly promulgated and made uniform for all.”[42] And -he does not seem to disapprove of this neglect, even while noting -the fact that Polybius saw in this an important defect in Roman -institutions. - - -47. CICERO.--In all Cicero’s works we find scarcely a line relative -to education. And yet the great orator exclaims: “What better, -what greater service can we of to-day render the Republic than to -instruct and train the young?”[43] But he was content with writing -fine discourses on philosophy for his country, abounding more in -eloquence than in originality. - - -48. VARRO.--A less celebrated writer, Varro, seems to have had some -pedagogic instinct. He wrote real educational works on grammar, -rhetoric, history, and geometry. Most of these have been lost; but -if we may trust his contemporaries, they were instrumental in the -education of several generations. - - -49. QUINTILIAN (35-95 A.D.).--After the age of Augustus, education -became more and more an affair of oratory. The chief effort -in the way of education was a preparation for a career in the -Forum. But from these vulgar rhetoricians, occupied with the -exterior artifices of style, these “traffickers in words,” as -Saint Augustine called them, we must distinguish a rhetorician -of a higher order, who does not separate rhetoric from a general -culture of the intelligence. This is Quintilian, the author of the -_Institutes of Oratory_. - -Appointed at the age of twenty-six to a chair of eloquence, the -first that was established by the Roman state, and called at a -later period by the Emperor Domitian to direct the education of -his grand-nephews, Quintilian was practically acquainted with both -public and private instruction. - - -50. THE INSTITUTES OF ORATORY.--This work, under the form of a -treatise on rhetoric, is in parts a real treatise on education. -The author, in fact, begins the training of the future orator from -the cradle; he gives counsel to its nurse, and “not blushing to -descend to petty details,” he follows step by step the education of -his pupil. Let us add, that in the noble ideal which he conceives, -eloquence never being considered apart from wisdom, Quintilian was -led by his very subject to treat of moral education. - - -51. HIS GENERAL PLAN OF EDUCATION.--The first book entire is -devoted to education in general, and its teachings might be applied -indifferently to all children, whether destined or not to the -practice of oratory. - -“Has a son been born to you? From the first conceive the highest -hopes of him.” Thus Quintilian begins. He thinks that we cannot -have too high an opinion of human nature, nor propose for it too -high a purpose. Minds that rebel against all instruction are -unnatural. Most often it is the training which is at fault; it is -not nature that is to blame. - - -52. THE EARLY EDUCATION OF THE CHILD.--The child’s nurses should be -virtuous and prudent. Quintilian does not demand that they shall be -learned, as the stoic Chrysippus would have them; but he requires -that their language shall be irreproachable. The first impressions -of the child are very durable: “New vases preserve the taste of the -first liquor that is put into them; and wool, once colored, never -regains its primitive whiteness.” - -By an illusion analogous to that of the literary men of the -sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, who would have the little -French boy first learn Latin, Quintilian teaches his pupil Greek -before making him study his native tongue. - -Studies, moreover, should begin betimes: “Turn to account the -child’s first years, especially as the elements of learning demand -only memory, and the memory of children is very tenacious.” - -We seem to be listening to a modern teacher when Quintilian -recommends the avoidance of whatever might ruffle the spirits -of the child. “Let study be to him a play; ask him questions; -commend him when he does well; and sometimes let him enjoy the -consciousness of his little gains in wisdom.” - - -53. READING AND WRITING.--The passage relative to reading deserves -to be quoted in full. It is wrong, says Quintilian, to teach -children the names of the letters, and their respective places in -the alphabet, before they know their shapes. He recommends the use -of letters in ivory, which children take pleasure in handling, -seeing, and naming. - -As to writing, Quintilian recommends, for the purpose of -strengthening the child’s hand, and of preventing it from making -false movements, that he should practise on wooden tablets on -which the letters have been traced by cutting.[44] Later on, the -copies shall contain, “not senseless maxims, but moral truths.” -The Roman teacher did not counsel haste in any case. “We can -scarcely believe,” he says, “how progress in reading is retarded by -attempting to go too fast.” - - -54. PUBLIC EDUCATION.--Quintilian has made an unsurpassed plea for -public education and its advantages, which Rollin has reproduced -almost entire.[45] From this we shall quote only the following -passage, which proves how far the contemporaries of Quintilian -had already departed from the manly habits of the early ages; and -the truth which is herein expressed will always be applicable to -parents who are inclined to be over-indulgent: “Would that we -ourselves did not corrupt the morals of our children! We enervate -their very infancy with luxuries. That delicacy of education, -which we call fondness, weakens all the powers, both of body and -mind.... We form the palate of our children before we form their -pronunciation. They grow up in sedan chairs; if they touch the -ground, they hang by the hands of attendants supporting them on -each side. We are delighted if they utter anything immodest. -Expressions which would hot be tolerated even from effeminate -youths, we hear from them with a smile and a kiss. Need we be -astonished at this behavior? We ourselves have taught them.”[46] - - -55. DUTIES OF TEACHERS.--There was at Rome, in the first century -of the Christian era, a high conception of the duties of a -teacher: “His first care should be to ascertain with all possible -thoroughness the mind and the character of the child.” Judicious -reflections on the memory, on the faculty of imitation, and on the -dangers of precocious mental development, are proofs of the fine -psychological discernment of Quintilian. His insight is no less -accurate when he sketches the rules for moral discipline. “Fear,” -he says, “restrains some and unmans others.... For my part, I -prefer a pupil who is sensitive to praise, whom glory animates, and -from whom defeat draws tears.” - -Quintilian expresses himself decidedly against the use of the rod, -“although custom authorizes it,” he says, “and Chrysippus does not -disapprove of it.” - - -56. GRAMMAR AND RHETORIC.--Like his contemporaries, Quintilian -distinguishes studies into two grades,--Grammar and Rhetoric. “As -soon as the child is able to read and write, he must be placed -in the hands of the grammarian.” Grammar was divided into two -parts,--the art of speaking correctly and the explication of -the poets. Exercises in composition, development lessons called -_Chriæ_, and narratives, accompanied the theoretical study of the -rules of grammar.[47] It is to be observed that Quintilian gives -a high place to etymological studies, and that he attaches great -importance to reading aloud. “That the child may read well, let -him have a good understanding of what he reads.... When he reads -the poets, let him shun affected modulations. It is with reference -to this manner of reading that Cæsar, still a young man, made this -excellent observation: ‘If you are singing, you sing poorly; if you -are reading, why do you sing?’” - - -57. THE SIMULTANEOUS STUDY OF THE SCIENCES.--Quintilian is very far -from confining his pupil within the narrow circle of grammatical -study. Persuaded that the child is capable of learning several -things at the same time, he would have him taught geometry, music, -and philosophy simultaneously:-- - -“Must he learn grammar alone, and then geometry, and in the -meanwhile forget what he first learned? As well advise a farmer -not to cultivate, at the same time, his fields, his vines, his -olive trees, and his orchards, and not to give his thought -simultaneously to his meadows, his cattle, his gardens, and his -bees.”[48] - -Of course Quintilian considers the different studies which he -sets before his pupil only as the instruments for an education in -oratory. Philosophy, which comprises dialectics or logic, physics -or the science of nature, and lastly morals, furnish the orator -with ideas, and teach him the art of distributing them into a -consecutive line of argument. And so geometry, a near relative of -dialectics, disciplines the mind, and teaches it to distinguish -the true from the false. Lastly, music is an excellent preparation -for eloquence; it cultivates the sense of harmony and a taste for -number and measure. - - -58. THE SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY.--By the side of the schools of -rhetoric, in which the art of speech was cultivated, imperial -Rome saw flourish in great numbers schools of philosophy, whose -purpose was the formation of morals. It was through no lack of -moral sermonizing that there was a degeneration in the virtues of -the Romans. All the schools of Greece, especially the Stoics and -the Epicureans, and also the schools of Pythagoras, of Socrates, -of Plato, and of Aristotle, had their representatives at Rome; but -their obscure names have scarcely survived. - - -59. SENECA.--Among these philosophers and these moralists of the -first century of the Christian era, Seneca has the distinction -of standing in the front rank. It is true that he was not the -founder of a school, but by his numerous writings he succeeded -in maintaining among his contemporaries at least some vestiges -of the ancient virtues. His _Letters to Lucilius_, letters -abounding in real intellectual and moral insight, also contain -some pedagogical precepts. Seneca attempts to direct school -instruction to practical ends, in following out the thought of this -famous precept: “We should learn, not for the sake of the school, -but for the purposes of life” (_Non scholæ, sed vitæ discimus_). -Moreover, he criticises confused and ill-directed reading that does -not enrich the understanding, and concludes by recommending the -profound study of a single book (_timeo hominem unius libri_). In -another letter he remarks that the best means for giving clearness -to one’s own ideas is to communicate them to others; the best way -of being taught is to teach (_docendo discimus_). Let us quote -this other maxim so often repeated: “The end is attained sooner -by example than by precept” (_longum iter per præcepta, breve per -exempla_). - - -60. PLUTARCH (50-138 A.D.).--In the last period of Roman -civilization two names deserve to arrest the attention of the -educator,--Plutarch and Marcus Aurelius. Although he was born in -Bœotia, and wrote in Greek, Plutarch belongs to the Roman world. -He lived at Rome at several different times, and there opened a -school in the reign of Domitian, where he lectured on philosophy, -literature, and history. Numerous works have transmitted to us -the substance of that instruction which had such an extraordinary -success. - - -61. THE LIVES OF ILLUSTRIOUS MEN.--Translated in the fifteenth -century by Amyot, the _Parallel Lives_ of Plutarch were for our -fathers a true code of morals founded on history. How many of our -great men, or how many of our men of worth, have drawn from this -book, at least in part, the material which has nurtured their -virtues! L’Hôpital and d’Aubigné enriched their lives from this -source. Henry IV. said of this book: “It has been to me as my -conscience, and has whispered in my ear many virtuous suggestions -and excellent maxims for my own conduct and for the management of -my affairs.”[49] - - -62. THE ESSAY ON THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN.--The celebrated essay -entitled _Of the Training of Children_,[50] is the first treatise, -especially devoted to education, that antiquity has bequeathed to -us. Its authenticity has been called in question by German critics; -but this is of little moment, since these critics are the first to -recognize the fact that the author of this essay, whoever he might -have been, was intimately acquainted with Plutarch, and has given -us a sufficiently exact summary of the ideas which are more fully -developed in others of his works.[51] - -We shall not give an analysis of this work, which, however, abounds -in interesting reflections on the primary period of education. We -shall simply note the fundamental thought of the essay, its salient -and original characteristic, which is its warm appreciation of the -family. In society, as Plutarch conceives it, the State no longer -exercises absolute sovereignty. Upon the ruins of the antique -commonwealth Plutarch builds the family. It is to the family -that he addresses himself in order to assure the education of -children.[52] On this point he is not in accord with Quintilian. -What he recommends is an education that is domestic and individual. -He scarcely admits the need of public schools save for the higher -instruction. At a certain age a young man, already trained by the -watchful care of a preceptor under the supervision of his parents, -shall go abroad to hear the lectures of the moralists and the -philosophers, and to read the poets. - - -63. THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN.--One of the consequences of the -exalted function which Plutarch ascribes to the family is that -by this single act he raises the material and moral condition of -woman. In his essay entitled _Conjugal Precepts_, which recalls -the _Economics_ of Xenophon, he restores to the wife her place in -the household. He associates her with the husband in the material -support of the family, as well as in the education of the children. -The mother is to nurse her offspring. “Providence,” he naively -says, “hath also wisely ordered that women should have two breasts, -that so, if any of them should happen to bear twins, they might -have two several springs of nourishment ready for them.”[53] The -mother shall also take part in the instruction of her children, and -so she must herself be educated. Plutarch proposes for her the -highest studies, such as mathematics and philosophy. But he counts -much more upon her natural qualities, than upon the science that -she may acquire. “With women,” he says, “tenderness of heart is -enhanced by a pleasing countenance, by sweetness of speech, by an -affectionate grace, and by a high degree of sensitiveness.” - - -64. THE FUNCTION OF POETRY IN EDUCATION.--In the essay entitled -_How a Young Man Ought to Hear Poems_, Plutarch has given his -opinion as to the extent to which poetry should be made an element -in education. More just than Plato, he does not condemn the reading -of the poets. He simply demands that this reading should be done -with discretion, by choosing those who, in their compositions, -mingle moral inspiration with poetic inspiration. “Lycurgus,” -he says, “did not act like a man of sound reason in the course -which he took to reform his people that were much inclined to -drunkenness, by traveling up and down to destroy all the vines in -the country; whereas he should have ordered that every vine should -have a well of water near it, that (as Plato saith) the drunken -deity might be reduced to temperance by a sober one.”[54] - - -65. THE TEACHING OF MORALS.--Plutarch is above all else a moralist. -If he adds nothing in the way of theory to the lofty doctrines of -the Greek philosophers from whom he catches his inspiration, at -least he enters more profoundly into the study of practical methods -which insure the efficacy of fine precepts and exalted doctrines. -“That contemplation which is dissociated from practice,” he says, -“is of no utility.” He would have young men come from lectures -on morals, not only better instructed, but more virtuous. Of -what consequence are beautiful maxims unless they are embodied -in action? The young man, then, shall early accustom himself to -self-government, to reflection upon his own conduct, and to taking -counsel of his own reason. Moreover, Plutarch gives him a director -of conscience, a philosopher, whom he will go to consult in his -doubts, and to whom he will entrust the keeping of his soul. But -that which is of most consequence in his eyes is personal effort, -reflection always on the alert, and that inward effort which causes -our soul to assimilate the moral lessons which we have received, -and which causes them to enter into the very structure and fibre of -our personality. - -“As it would be with a man who, going to his neighbor’s to borrow -fire, and finding there a great and bright fire, should sit down -to warm himself and forget to go home; so is it with the one who -comes to another to learn, if he does not think himself obliged -to kindle his own fire within, and influence his own mind, but -continues sitting by his master as if he were enchanted, delighted -by hearing.”[55] - -So are those who are not striving to have a personal morality, -but who, incapable of self-direction, are always in need of the -tutorship of another. - -The great preoccupation of Plutarch--and by this trait he has a -legitimate place among the great educators of the world--was to -awaken, to excite, the interior forces of the conscience, and to -stimulate the intelligence to a high state of activity. When he -wrote this famous maxim, “The soul is not a vase to be filled, but -is rather a hearth which is to be made to glow,”[56] he was not -thinking alone of moral education, but also of a false intellectual -education which, instead of training the mind, is content with -accumulating in the memory a mass of indigested materials.[57] - - -66. MARCUS AURELIUS.--The wisest of the Roman emperors, the author -of the book entitled _To Myself_, better known as _Meditations_, -Marcus Aurelius deserves mention in the history of pedagogy. He is -perhaps the most perfect representative of Stoic morality, which is -itself the highest expression of ancient morality. He is the most -finished type of what can be effected in the way of soul-culture -by the influence of home-training and the personal effort of the -conscience. His teacher of rhetoric was the celebrated Fronto, -of whose character we may judge from this one characteristic: “I -toiled hard yesterday,” he wrote to his pupil; “I composed a few -figures of speech, with which I am pleased.” On the other hand, -Marcus Aurelius found examples for imitation in his own family. “My -uncle,” he says reverently, “taught me patience.... From my father -I inherited modesty.... To my mother I owe my feelings of piety.” -Notwithstanding the modesty that led him to attribute to others -the whole of his moral worth, it is especially to himself, to a -persistent effort of his own will, and to a ceaseless examination -of his own conscience, that he is indebted for becoming the most -virtuous of men, and the wisest and purest, next to Socrates, of -the moralists of antiquity. His _Meditations_ show us in action -that self-education which in our time has suggested such beautiful -reflections to Channing. - - -67. CONCLUSION.--Finally, it must be admitted that Roman literature -is poor in material for educational study. Some passages, scattered -here and there in the classical authors, nevertheless prove that -they were not absolutely strangers to pedagogical questions. - -Thus Horace professed independence of mind; he declares that he is -not obliged to swear by the “words of any master.”[58] On the other -hand, Juvenal defined the ideal purpose of life and of education -when he said that the desirable thing above all others is “a sound -mind in a sound body.”[59] Finally, Pliny the Younger, in three -words, _multum, non multa_, “much, not many things,” fixes one -essential point in educational method, and recommends the thorough -study of one single subject in preference to a superficial study -which extends over too many subjects. - -While by their taste, their accuracy of thought, and the perfection -of their style, the Latin writers are worthy of being placed by -the side of the Greeks as proficients in education of the literary -type, they at the same time deserve to be regarded as reputable -guides in moral education. At Rome, as at Athens, that which formed -the basis of instruction was the search after virtue. That which -preoccupied Cicero as well as Plato, Seneca as well as Aristotle, -was not so much the extension of knowledge and the development of -instruction as the progress of manners and the moral perfection of -man. - - - [68. ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.--1. In contrast with Greek education, - the chief characteristic of which was intellectual discipline - or culture, Roman education may be called _practical_. Greece - and Rome have thus furnished the world with two distinct types - of education, and their modern representatives are seen in our - classical and scientific courses respectively. - - 2. The disinclination of the Roman mind to speculative inquiry, - was a bar to the production of any contributions to the theory of - education. - - 3. In the _Institutes_ of Quintilian we see the first attempt to - expound the art of teaching; and in the _Morals_ of Plutarch we - have the first formal treatise on the education of children. - - 4. In the later period of Roman education, we see a higher - appreciation of woman, and a nobler conception of the family life. - - 5. In common with all the systems of education thus far studied, - Roman education is essentially literary, ethical, and prudential, - as distinguished from an education in science. The conception of - the money value of knowledge had not yet appeared.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[41] Plutarch, _Morals_, vol. I. p. 9. - -[42] Cicero, _De Republica_, IV. 115. - -[43] Cicero, _De Divinatione_, II. 2. - -[44] In principle, this is the same as the system of writing -commended by Locke: “Get a plate graved with the Characters of -such a Hand as you like best ... let several sheets of good -Writing-paper be printed off with red Ink, which he has nothing to -do but go over with a good Pen fill’d with black Ink, which will -quickly bring his Hand to the Formation of those Characters, being -first shewed where to begin, and how to form every Letter.” (_On -Education_, § 160.) (P.) - -[45] “Quintilian has treated this question with great breadth and -eloquence.” (_Traité des Études_, Liv. IV. Art. 2.) - -[46] Quintilian, _Institutes of Oratory_, Watson’s Translation, -Book I. chap. II. 6, 7. - -[47] _Institutes_, Book I. chap. IX. - -[48] _Institutes_, Book I. chap. XII. - -[49] Equally great has been Plutarch’s influence on English thought -and life. Sir Thomas North’s translation of Amyot’s version -appeared in 1579, and furnished Shakespeare with the materials -for his _Coriolanus_, _Julius Cæsar_, and _Antony and Cleopatra_. -Milton, Wordsworth, and Browning are also debtors to the _Parallel -Lives_. (P.) - -[50] “Comment il faut nourrir les enfants,” in the translation by -Amyot. “Of the Training of Children,” in Goodwin’s edition of the -_Morals_ (Vol. I.). - -[51] The references that follow are to Plutarch’s _Morals_. The -first translation into English was by Philemon Holland, in 1603. -The American edition in five volumes (Boston, 1871) is worthy of -all commendation. The references I make are to this edition. (P.) - -[52] Of course Plutarch, like all the writers of antiquity, writes -only in behalf of free-born children in good circumstances. “He -abandons,” as he himself admits, “the education of the poor and the -lowly.” - -Plutarch seems to aim at what appears to him to be _practicable_. -That he was liberal in his opinions must be evident, I think, from -this extract: “It is my desire that all children whatsoever may -partake of the benefits of education alike; but if yet any persons, -by reason of the narrowness of their estates, cannot make use of my -precepts, let them not blame me that give them, but Fortune, which -disableth them from making the advantage by them they otherwise -might. Though even poor men must use their utmost endeavor to -give their children the best education; or, if they can not, they -must bestow upon them the best that their abilities will reach.” -(_Morals_, vol. I. pp. 19, 20.) (P.) - -[53] _Of the Training of Children_, § 6. - -[54] _Morals_, vol. II. p. 44. - -[55] _Morals_, I. p. 463. This language directly follows the -quotation given in the note (1) at the close of this paragraph. (P.) - -[56] The exact reading is as follows: “For the mind requires not -like an earthen vessel to be filled up; convenient fuel and aliment -only will influence it with a desire of knowledge and ardent love -of truth.” (_Morals_, I. p. 463.) This makes the author’s meaning -more apparent. (P.) - -[57] This does not mean that Plutarch sets a low value on memory, -for he says: “Above all things, we must exercise the memory of -children, for it is the treasury of knowledge.” - -[58] “_Nullius addictus jurare in verba magistri_.” - -[59] “_Orandum est ut sit mens sana in corpore sano_.” (Sat. x. -356.) - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE EARLY CHRISTIANS AND THE MIDDLE AGE. - - THE NEW SPIRIT OF CHRISTIANITY; THE POVERTY OF THE EARLY - CHRISTIAN CENTURIES IN RESPECT OF EDUCATION; THE FATHERS OF - THE CHURCH; SAINT JEROME AND THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS; PHYSICAL - ASCETICISM; INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL ASCETICISM; PERMANENT TRUTHS; - INTELLECTUAL FEEBLENESS OF THE MIDDLE AGE; CAUSES OF THE - IGNORANCE OF THE MIDDLE AGE; THE THREE RENASCENCES; CHARLEMAGNE; - ALCUIN; THE SUCCESSORS OF CHARLEMAGNE; SCHOLASTICISM; ABELARD; - THE SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS; METHODS AND DISCIPLINE; THE UNIVERSITIES; - GERSON; VITTORINO DA FELTRE; OTHER TEACHERS AT THE CLOSE OF THE - MIDDLE AGE; RECAPITULATION; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY. - - -69. THE NEW SPIRIT OF CHRISTIANITY.--By its dogmas, by the -conception of the equality of all human creatures, by its spirit of -charity, Christianity introduced new elements into the conscience, -and seemed called to give a powerful impetus to the moral education -of men. The doctrine of Christ was at first a reaction of free -will and of personal dignity against the despotism of the State. -“A full half of man henceforth escaped the action of the State. -Christianity taught that man no longer belonged to society except -in part; that he was under allegiance to it by his body and his -material interests; that being subject to a tyrant, he must -submit; that as a citizen of a republic, he ought to give his -life for it; but that in respect of his soul, he was free, and -owed allegiance only to God.”[60] Henceforth it was not simply a -question of training citizens for the service of the State; but -the conception of a disinterested development of the human person -made its appearance in the world. On the other hand, in proclaiming -that all men had the same destiny, and that they were all equal in -the sight of God, Christianity raised the poor and the disinherited -from their condition of misery, and promised them all the same -instruction. To the idea of liberty was added that of equality; and -equal justice for all, and participation in the same rights, were -contained in germ in the doctrine of Christianity. - - -70. POVERTY OF THE FIRST CHRISTIAN CENTURIES IN RESPECT OF -EDUCATION.--Nevertheless, the germs contained in the doctrines of -the new religion did not bear fruit at once. It is easy to analyze -the causes which led to the poverty of educational thought during -the first centuries of the Christian era. - -In the first place, the Christian instruction was addressed to -barbarous peoples who could not at once rise to a high intellectual -and moral culture. According to the celebrated comparison of -Jouffroy, the invasion of the barbarians into the midst of ancient -society was like an armful of green wood thrown upon a blazing -fire; at first there could issue from it only a mass of smoke. - -Moreover, we must take into account the fact that the early -Christians, in order to establish their faith, had to struggle -against difficulties which were ever being renewed. The -first centuries were a period of struggle, of conquest, and -of organization, which left but little opportunity for the -disinterested study of education. In their contests with the -ancient world, the early Christians came to include in a common -hatred classical literature and pagan religion. Could they receive -with sympathy the literary and scientific inheritance of a society -whose morals they repudiated, and whose beliefs they were bent on -destroying? - -On the other hand, the social condition of the men who first -attached themselves to the new religion turned them aside from the -studies which are a preparation for real life. Obliged to conceal -themselves, to betake themselves to the desert, true Pariahs of -the pagan world, they lived a life of contemplation; they were -naturally led to conceive an ascetic and monastic existence as the -ideal of education. - -Moreover, by its mystical tendencies, Christianity at the first -could not be a good school for a practical and humane system of -education. The Christian was detached from the commonwealth of man, -only to enter into the commonwealth of God. He must break with a -corrupt and perverse world. By privations, and by the renunciation -of every pleasure, he must react against the immorality of -Græco-Roman society. Man must aspire to imitate God; and God -is absolute holiness, the very negation of all the conditions -of earthly life,--supreme perfection. The very disproportion -between such an ideal and human weakness as an actual fact must -have betrayed the early Christians into leading a mystical life -which was but a preparation for death. And the consequence of -these doctrines was to make of the Church the exclusive mistress -of education and instruction. Individual initiative, if called -into play, on the one hand, by the fundamental doctrines of -Christianity, was stifled, on the other, under the domination of -the Church. - - -71. THE FATHERS OF THE CHURCH.--Of the celebrated doctors who, -by their erudition and eloquence, if not by their taste, made -illustrious the beginning of Christianity, some were jealous -mystics and sectaries, in whose eyes philosophical curiosity was a -sin, and the love of letters a heresy; and others were Christians -of a conciliatory temperament, who, in a certain measure, allied -religious faith and literary culture. - -Tertullian rejected all pagan education. He saw in classical -culture only a robbery from God; a road to the false and arrogant -wisdom of the ancient philosophers. Even Saint Augustine, who in -his youth could not read the fourth book of the Æneid without -shedding tears, and who had been devotedly fond of ancient poetry -and eloquence, renounced, after his conversion, his literary tastes -as well as the mad passions of his early manhood. It was by his -influence that the Council of Carthage forbade the bishops to read -the pagan authors. - -This was not the course of Saint Basil, who demands, on the -contrary, that the young Christian shall be conversant with the -orators, poets, and historians of antiquity; who thinks that the -poems of Homer inspire a love for virtue; and who desires, finally, -that full use should be made of the treasures of ancient wisdom in -the training of the young.[61] Nor was this the thought of Saint -Jerome, who said he would be none the less a Ciceronian in becoming -a Christian. - - -72. SAINT JEROME AND THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS.--The letters of Saint -Jerome on the education of girls form the most valuable educational -document of the first centuries of Christianity.[62] They have -excited high admiration. Erasmus knew them by heart, and Saint -Theresa read selections from them every day. It is impossible, -to-day, while admiring certain parts of them, not to condemn the -general spirit which pervades them,--a narrow spirit, distrustful -of the world, which pushes the religious sentiment even to -mysticism, and disdain for human affairs to asceticism. - - -73. PHYSICAL ASCETICISM.--It is no longer the question of giving -power to the body, and thus of making of it the robust instrument -of a cultured spirit, as the Greeks would have it. The body is -an enemy that must be subdued by fasting, by abstinence, and by -mortifications of the flesh. - -“Do not allow Paula to eat in public, that is, do not let her take -part in family entertainments, for fear that she may desire the -meats that may be served there. Let her learn not to use wine, for -it is the source of all impurity. Let her food be vegetables, and -only rarely of fish; and let her eat so as always to be hungry.” - -Contempt for the body is carried so far that cleanliness is almost -interdicted. - -“For myself, I entirely forbid a young girl to bathe.” - -It is true that, alarmed at the consequences of such austerity, -Saint Jerome, by way of exception, permits children the use of the -bath, of wine, and of meat, but only “when necessity requires it, -and lest the feet may fail them before having walked.” - - -74. INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL ASCETICISM.--For the mind, as well as -for the body, we may say of Saint Jerome what Nicole wrote to a -nun of his time: “You feed your pupils on bread and water.” The -Bible is the only book recommended, and this is little; but it is -the Bible entire, which is too much. _The Song of Songs_, with -its sensual imagery, would be strange reading for a young girl. -The arts, like letters, find no favor with the mysticism of Saint -Jerome. - -“Never let Paula listen to musical instruments; let her even be -ignorant of the uses served by the flute and the harp.” - -As for the flute, which the Greek philosophers also did not like, -let it be so; but what shall we say of this condemnation of the -harp, the instrument of David and the angels, and of religious -music itself! How far we are, in common with Saint Jerome, from -that complete life, from that harmonious development of all the -faculties, which modern educators, Herbert Spencer, for example, -present to us with reason as the ideal of education! Saint Jerome -goes so far as to proscribe walking:-- - -“Do not let Paula be found in the ways of the world (emphatic -paraphrase for _streets_), in the gatherings and in the company of -her kindred; let her be found only in retirement.” - -The ideal of Saint Jerome is a monastic and cloistered life, -even in the world. But that which is graver still, that which is -the fatal law of mysticism, is that Saint Jerome, after having -proscribed letters, arts, and necessary and legitimate pleasures, -even brings his condemnation to bear on the most honorable -sentiments of the heart. The heart is human also, and everything -human is evil and full of danger: - -“Do not allow Paula to feel more affection for one of her -companions than for others; do not allow her to speak with such -a one in an undertone.” And as he held in suspicion even the -affections of the family, the Doctor of the Church concludes thus:-- - -“Let her be educated in a cloister, where she will not know -the world, where she will live as an angel, having a body but -not knowing it, and where, in a word, you will be spared the -care of watching over her.... If you will send us Paula, I will -charge myself with being her master and nurse; I will give her -my tenderest care; my old age will not prevent me from untying -her tongue, and I shall be more renowned than the philosopher -Aristotle, since I shall instruct, not a mortal and perishable -king, but an immortal spouse of the Heavenly King.” - - -75. PERMANENT TRUTHS.--The pious exaggerations of Saint Jerome only -throw into sharper relief the justice and the excellence of some -of his practical suggestions,--upon the teaching of reading, for -example, or upon the necessity of emulation:-- - -“Put into the hands of Paula letters in wood or in ivory, and teach -her the names of them. She will thus learn while playing. But it -will not suffice to have her merely memorize the names of the -letters, and call them in succession as they stand in the alphabet. -You should often mix them, putting the last first, and the first in -the middle. - -“Induce her to construct words by offering her a prize, or by -giving her, as a reward, what ordinarily pleases children of her -age.... Let her have companions, so that the commendation she may -receive may excite in her the feeling of emulation. Do not chide -her for the difficulty she may have in learning. On the contrary, -encourage her by commendation, and proceed in such a way that she -shall be equally sensible to the pleasure of having done well, and -to the pain of not having been successful.... Especially take care -that she do not conceive a dislike for study that might follow her -into a more advanced age.”[63] - - -76. INTELLECTUAL FEEBLENESS OF THE MIDDLE AGE.--If the early -doctors of the Church occasionally expressed some sympathy for -profane letters, it is because, in their youth, before having -received baptism, they had themselves attended the pagan schools. -But these schools once closed, Christianity did not open others, -and, after the fourth century, a profound night enveloped humanity. -The labor of the Greeks and the Romans was as though it never had -been. The past no longer existed. Humanity began anew. In the fifth -century, Apollinaris Sidonius declares that “the young no longer -study, that teachers no longer have pupils, and that learning -languishes and dies.” Later, Lupus of Ferrières, the favorite -of Louis the Pious and Charles the Bald, writes that the study -of letters had almost ceased. In the early part of the eleventh -century, the Bishop of Laon, Adalberic, asserts that “there is more -than one bishop who cannot count the letters of the alphabet on his -fingers.” In 1291, of all the monks in the convent of Saint Gall, -there was not one who could read and write. It was so difficult -to find notaries public, that acts had to be passed verbally. The -barons took pride in their ignorance. Even after the efforts of -the twelfth century, instruction remained a luxury for the common -people; it was the privilege of the ecclesiastics, and even they -did not carry it very far. The Benedictines confess that the -mathematics were studied only for the purpose of calculating the -date of Easter. - - -77. CAUSES OF THE IGNORANCE OF THE MIDDLE AGE.--What were the -permanent causes of that situation which lasted for ten centuries? -The Catholic Church has sometimes been held responsible for this. -Doubtless the Christian doctors did not always profess a very -warm sympathy for intellectual culture. Saint Augustine had said: -“It is the ignorant who gain possession of heaven (_indocti cœlum -rapiunt_).” Saint Gregory the Great, a pope of the sixth century, -declared that he would blush to have the holy word conform to -the rules of grammar. Too many Christians, in a word, confounded -ignorance with holiness. Doubtless, towards the seventh century, -the darkness still hung thick over the Christian Church. Barbarians -invaded the Episcopate, and carried with them their rude manners. -Doubtless, also, during the feudal period the priest often became -soldier, and remained ignorant. It would, however, be unjust to -bring a constructive charge against the Church of the Middle Age, -and to represent it as systematically hostile to instruction. -Directly to the contrary, it is the clergy who, in the midst of the -general barbarism, preserved some vestiges of the ancient culture. -The only schools of that period are the episcopal and claustral -schools, the first annexed to the bishops’ palaces, the second -to the monasteries. The religious orders voluntarily associated -manual labor with mental labor. As far back as 530, Saint Benedict -founded the convent of Monte Cassino, and drew up statutes which -made reading and intellectual labor a part of the daily life of the -monks. - -In 1179, the third Lateran Council promulgated the following -decree:-- - -“The Church of God, being obliged like a good and tender mother to -provide for the bodily and spiritual wants of the poor, desirous -to procure for poor children the opportunity for learning to read, -and for making advancement in study, orders that each cathedral -shall have a teacher charged with the gratuitous instruction of -the clergy of that church, and also of the indigent scholars, -and that he be assigned a benefice, which, sufficient for his -subsistence, may thus open the door of the school to the studious -youth. A tutor[64] shall be installed in the other churches and in -the monasteries where formerly there were funds set apart for this -purpose.” - -It is not, then, to the Church that we must ascribe the general -intellectual torpor of the Middle Age. Other causes explain -that long slumber of the human mind. The first is the social -condition of the people. Security and leisure, the indispensable -conditions for study, were completely lacking to people always at -war, overwhelmed in succession by the barbarians, the Normans, -the English, and by the endless struggles of feudal times. The -gentlemen of the time aspired only to ride, to hunt, and to figure -in tournaments and feats of arms. Physical education was above -all else befitting men whose favorite vocation, both by habit and -necessity, was war. On the other hand, the enslaved people did -not suspect the utility of instruction. In order to comprehend -the need of study, that great liberator, one must already have -tasted liberty. In a society where the need of instruction had not -yet been felt, who could have taken the initiative in the work of -instructing the people? - -Let us add that the Middle Age presented still other conditions -unfavorable for the propagation of instruction, in particular, the -lack of national languages, those necessary vehicles of education. -The vernacular languages are the instruments of intellectual -emancipation. Among a people where a dead language is supreme, a -language of the learned, accessible only to the select few, the -lower classes necessarily remain buried in ignorance. Moreover, -Latin books themselves were rare. Lupus of Ferrières was obliged -to write to Rome, and to address himself to the Pope in person, in -order to procure for his use a work of Cicero’s. Without books, -without schools, without any of the indispensable implements of -intellectual labor, what could be done for the mental life? It took -refuge in certain monasteries; erudition flourished only in narrow -circles, with a privileged few, and the rest of the nation remained -buried in an obscure night. - - -78. THE THREE RENASCENCES.--It has been truly said that there -were three Renascences: the first, which owed its beginning to -Charlemagne, and whose brilliancy did not last; the second, that of -the twelfth century, the issue of which was Scholasticism; and the -third, the great Renaissance of the sixteenth century, which still -lasts, and which the French Revolution has completed. - - -79. CHARLEMAGNE.--Charlemagne undoubtedly formed the purpose of -diffusing instruction about him. He ardently sought it for himself, -drilled himself in writing, and learned Latin and Greek, rhetoric -and astronomy. He would have communicated to all who were about -him the same ardor for study. “Ah! that I had twelve clerics,” he -exclaimed, “as perfectly instructed as were Jerome and Augustine!” -It was naturally upon the clergy that he counted, to make of them -the instruments of his plans; but, as one of his capitularies of -788 shows, there was need that the clergy themselves should be -reminded of the need of instruction: “We have thought it useful -that, in the bishops’ residences, and in the monasteries, care be -taken not only to live according to the rules of our holy religion, -but, in addition, to teach the knowledge of letters to those who -are capable of learning them by the aid of our Lord. Although -it avails more to practise the law than to know it, it must be -known before it can be practised. Several monasteries having -sent us manuscripts, we have observed that, in the most of them, -the sentiments were good, but the language bad. We exhort you, -then, not only not to neglect the study of letters, but to devote -yourselves to them with all your power.” - -On the other hand, the nobles did not make any great effort to -justify their social rank by the degree of their knowledge. -One day, as Charlemagne entered a school, displeased with the -indolence and the ignorance of the young barons who attended it, -he addressed them in these severe terms: “Do you count upon your -birth, and do you feel a pride in it? Take notice that you shall -have neither government nor bishoprics, if you are not better -instructed than others.” - - -80. ALCUIN (735-804).--Charlemagne was seconded in his efforts by -Alcuin of England, of whom it might be said, that he was the first -minister of public instruction in France. It is he who founded -the Palatine school, a sort of imperial and itinerant academy -which followed the court on its travels. It was a model school, -where Alcuin had for his pupils the four sons and two daughters of -Charlemagne, and Charlemagne himself, always eager to be instructed. - -Alcuin’s method was not without originality, but it is a great -mistake to say that it resembles the method of Socrates. Alcuin -doubtless proceeds by interrogation; but here it is the pupil who -interrogates, and the teacher who responds. - -“What is speech? asks Pepin, the eldest son of Charlemagne. It is -the interpreter of the soul, replies Alcuin. What is life? It is an -enjoyment for some, but for the wretched it is a sorrow, a waiting -for death. What is sleep? The image of death. What is writing? It -is the guardian of history. What is the body? The tenement of the -soul. What is day? A summons to labor.”[65] - -All this is either commonplace or artificial. The sententious -replies of Alcuin may be fine maxims, fit for embellishing the -memory; but in this procedure of the mere scholar, affected by the -over-refinements of his time, there is nothing which can call into -activity the intelligence of the pupil. - -Nevertheless the name of Alcuin marks an era in the history of -education. His was the first attempt to form an alliance between -classical literature and Christian inspiration,--to create a -“Christian Athens,” according to the emphatic phrase of Alcuin -himself. - - -81. THE SUCCESSORS OF CHARLEMAGNE.--It had been the ambition of -Charlemagne to reign over a civilized society, rather than over a -barbarous people. Convinced that the only basis of political unity -is a unity of ideas and of morals, he thought to find the basis of -that moral unity in religion, and religion itself he purposed to -establish upon a more widely diffused system of instruction. But -these ideas were too advanced for the time, and their execution -too difficult for the circumstances then existing. A new decadence -followed the era of Charlemagne. The clergy did not respond to the -hopes which the great emperor had placed on them. As far back as -817, the Council of Aix-la-Chapelle decided that henceforth no more -day-pupils should be received into the conventual schools, for the -reason that too large a number of pupils would make impossible the -maintenance of the monastic discipline. No one of Charlemagne’s -successors seems to have taken up the thought of the great emperor; -no one of them was preoccupied with the problems of education. It -is upon despotic authority, and not upon the intellectual progress -of their subjects, that those unintelligent rulers wished to found -their power. Under Louis the Pious and Charles the Bald there were -constructed more castles than schools. - -The kings of France were far from imitating the Anglo-Saxon king, -Alfred the Great (849-901), to whom tradition ascribes these two -sayings: “The English ought always to be free, as free as their own -thoughts”; “Free-born sons should know how to read and write.” - - -82. SCHOLASTICISM.--It was not till the twelfth century that the -human mind was awakened. That was the age of Scholasticism, the -essential character of which was the study of reasoning, and the -practice of dialectics, or syllogistic reasoning. The syllogism, -which reaches necessary conclusions from given premises, was the -natural instrument of an age of faith, when men wished simply to -demonstrate immutable dogmas, without ever making an innovation -on established beliefs. It has often been observed that the art -of reasoning is the science of a people still in the early stage -of its progress; we might almost say of a barbarous people. A -subtile dialectic is in perfect keeping with manners still rude, -and with a limited state of knowledge. It is only an intellectual -machine. It was not then a question of original thinking. All -that was necessary was simply to reason upon conceptions already -acquired, and the sacred depository of these was kept in charge -by Theology. Consequently, there was no independent science. -Philosophy, according to the language of the times, was but the -humble servant of Theology. The dialectics of the doctors of the -Middle Age was but a subtile commentary on the sacred books and on -the doctrines of Aristotle.[66] It seems, says Locke, to see the -inertness of the Middle Age, that God was pleased to make of man a -two-footed animal, while leaving to Aristotle the task of making -him a thinking being. From his point of view, an able educator of -the seventeenth century, the Abbé Fleury, pronounces this severe -judgment on the scholastic method:-- - -“This way of philosophizing on words and thoughts, without -examining the things themselves, was certainly an easy way of -getting along without a knowledge of facts, which can be acquired -only by reading” (Fleury should have added _and by observation_); -“and it was an easy way of dazzling the ignorant laics by peculiar -terms and vain subtilties.” - -But Scholasticism had its hour of glory, its erudite doctors, its -eloquent professors, chief among whom was Abelard. - - -83. ABELARD (1079-1142).--A genuine professor of higher -instruction, Abelard, by the prestige of his eloquence, gathered -around him at Paris thousands of students. Human speech, the -living words of the teacher, had then an authority, an importance, -which it has lost in part since books, everywhere distributed, -have, to a certain extent, superseded oral instruction. At a time -when printing did not exist, when manuscript copies were rare, -a teacher who combined knowledge with the gift of speech was a -phenomenon of incomparable interest, and students flocked from all -parts of Europe to take advantage of his lectures. Abelard is the -most brilliant representative of the scholastic pedagogy, with an -original and personal tendency towards the emancipation of the -mind. “It is ridiculous,” he said, “to preach to others what we can -neither make them understand, nor understand ourselves.” With more -boldness than Saint Anselm, he applied dialectics to theology, and -attempted to reason out the grounds of his faith. - - -84. THE SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS.--The seven liberal arts constituted -what may be called the secondary instruction of the Middle Age, -such as was given in the claustral or conventual schools, and -later, in the universities. The liberal arts were distributed into -two courses of study, known as the _trivium_ and the _quadrivium_. -The _trivium_ comprised grammar (Latin grammar, of course), -dialectics, or logic, and rhetoric; and the _quadrivium_, music, -arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. It is important to note the -fact that this programme contains only abstract and _formal_ -studies,--no real and concrete studies. The sciences which teach us -to know man and the world, such as history, ethics, the physical -and natural sciences, were omitted and unknown, save perhaps in a -few convents of the Benedictines. Nothing which can truly educate -man, and develop his faculties as a whole, enlists the attention -of the Middle Age. From a course of study thus limited there might -come skillful reasoners and men formidable in argument, but never -fully developed men.[67] - - -85. METHODS AND DISCIPLINE.--The methods employed in the -ecclesiastical schools of the Middle Age were in accord with the -spirit of the times, when men were not concerned about liberty and -intellectual freedom; and when they thought more about the teaching -of dogmas than about the training of the intelligence. The teachers -recited or read their lectures, and the pupils learned by heart. -The discipline was harsh. Corrupt human nature was distrusted. In -1363, pupils were forbidden the use of benches and chairs, on the -pretext that such high seats were an encouragement to pride. For -securing obedience, corporal chastisements were used and abused. -The rod is in fashion in the fifteenth as it was in the fourteenth -century. - -“There is no other difference,” says an historian, “except that -the rods in the fifteenth century are twice as long as those in -the fourteenth.”[68] Let us note, however, the protest of Saint -Anselm, a protest that pointed out the evil rather than cured it. -“Day and night,” said an abbot to Saint Anselm, “we do not cease -to chastise the children confided to our care, and they grow worse -and worse.” Anselm replied, “Indeed! You do not cease to chastise -them! And when they are grown up, what will they become? Idiotic -and stupid. A fine education that, which makes brutes of men! ... -If you were to plant a tree in your garden, and were to enclose it -on all sides so that it could not extend its branches, what would -you find when, at the end of several years, you set it free from -its bands? A tree whose branches would be bent and crooked; and -would it not be your fault, in having so unreasonably confined it?” - - -86. THE UNIVERSITIES.--Save claustral and cathedral schools, to -which must be added some parish schools, the earliest example -of our village schools, the sole educational establishment of -the Middle Age was what is called the _University_. Towards the -thirteenth and fourteenth century we see multiplying in the -great cities of Europe those centres of study, those collections -of students which recall from afar the schools of Plato and -Aristotle. Of such establishments were the university which opened -at Paris for the teaching of theology and philosophy (1200); -the universities of Naples (1224), of Prague (1345), of Vienna -(1365), of Heidelberg (1386), etc.[69] Without being completely -affranchised from sacerdotal control, these universities were a -first expansion of free science. As far back as the ninth century, -the Arabs had given an example to the rest of Europe by founding at -Salamanca, at Cordova, and in other cities of Spain, schools where -all the sciences were cultivated. - - -87. GERSON (1363-1429).--With the gentle Gerson, the supposed -author of the _Imitation_, it seems that the dreary dialectics -disappear to let the heart speak and make way for feeling. The -Chancellor of the University of Paris is distinguished from the -men of his time by his love for the people. He wrote in the common -tongue little elementary treatises for the use and within the -comprehension of the _plain people_. His Latin work, entitled _De -parvulis ad Christum trahendis_ (“Little children whom we must -lead to Christ”), gives evidence of a large spirit of sweetness -and goodness. It abounds in subtile and delicate observations. -For example, Gerson demands of teachers patience and tenderness: -“Little children,” he says, “are more easily managed by caresses -than by fear.” For these frail creatures he dreads the contagion -of example. “No living being is more in danger than the child -of allowing himself to be corrupted by another child.” In his -eyes, the little child is a delicate plant that must be carefully -protected against every evil influence, and, in particular, against -pernicious literature, such as the _Roman de la Rose_. Gerson -condemns corporal punishment, and requires that teachers shall have -for their pupils the affection of a father:-- - -“Above all else, let the teacher make an effort to be a father to -his pupils. Let him never be angry with them. Let him always be -simple in his instruction, and relate to his pupils that which is -wholesome and agreeable.” Tender-hearted and exalted spirit, Gerson -is a precursor of Fenelon.[70] - - -88. VITTORINO DA FELTRE (1379-1446).--It is a pleasure to place -beside Gerson one of his Italian contemporaries, the celebrated -Vittorino da Feltre, a professor in the University of Padua. It -was as preceptor to the sons of the Prince of Gonzagas, and as -founder of an educational establishment at Venice, that Vittorino -found occasion to show his aptitude for educational work. With -him, education again became what it was in Greece,--the harmonious -development of mind and body. Gymnastic exercises, such as -swimming, riding, fencing, restored to honor; attention to the -exterior qualities of fine bearing; an interesting and agreeable -method of instruction; a constant effort to discover the character -and aptitudes of children; a conscientious preparation for each -lesson; assiduous watchfulness over the work of pupils; such are -the principal features of the pedagogy of Vittorino da Feltre, a -system of teaching evidently in advance of his time, and one which -deserves a longer study. - - -89. OTHER TEACHERS AT THE CLOSE OF THE MIDDLE AGE.--Were we writing -a work of erudition, there would be other thinkers to point out -in the last years of the Middle Age, in that uncertain and, so to -speak, twilight period which serves as a transition from the night -of the Middle Age to the full day of the Renaissance. Among others, -let us notice the Chevalier de la Tour-Landry and Æneas Sylvius -Piccolomini. - -The Chevalier de la Tour-Landry, in the work which he wrote for the -education of his daughters (1372), scarcely rises above the spirit -of his time. Woman, as he thinks, is made to pray and to go to -church. The model which he sets before his daughters is a countess, -who “each day wished to hear three masses.” He recommends fasting -three times a week in order “the better to subdue the flesh,” and -to prevent it “from diverting itself too much.” There is neither -responsibility nor proper dignity for the wife, who owes obedience -to her husband, her lord, and “should do his will, whether wrong -or right; if wrong, she is absolved from blame, as the blame falls -on her lord.” - -Æneas Sylvius, the future Pope Pius II., in his tract on _The -Education of Children_ (1451), is already a man of the Renaissance, -since he recommends with enthusiasm the reading and study of most -of the classical authors. However, he traces a programme of studies -relatively liberal. By the side of the humanities he places the -sciences of geometry and arithmetic, “which are necessary,” he -says, “for training the mind and assuring rapidity of conceptions”; -and also history and geography. He had himself composed historical -narratives accompanied by maps. The distrusts of an overstrained -devotion were no longer felt by a teacher who wrote, “There is -nothing in the world more precious or more beautiful than an -enlightened intelligence.” - - -90. RECAPITULATION.--It is thus that the Middle Age in drawing to a -close came nearer and nearer, in the way of continuous progress, to -the decisive emancipation which the Renaissance and the Reformation -were soon to perpetuate. But the Middle Age, in itself, whatever -effort may be put forth at this day to rehabilitate it, and to -discover in it the golden age of modern societies, remains an -ill-starred epoch. A few virtues, negative for the most part, -virtues of obedience and consecration, cannot atone for the real -faults of those rude and barbarous centuries. A higher education -reserved to ecclesiastics and men of noble rank; an instruction -which consisted in verbal legerdemain, which developed only the -mechanism of reasoning, and made of the intelligence a prisoner -of the formal syllogism; agreeably to the barbarism of primitive -times, a fantastic pedantry which lost itself in superficial -discussions and in verbal distinctions; popular education almost -null, and restricted to the teaching of the catechism in Latin; -finally, a Church, absolute and sovereign, which determined for -all, great and small, the limits of thought, of belief, and of -action; such was, from our own point of view, the condition of -the Middle Age. It was time for the coming of the Renaissance to -affranchise the human mind, to excite and to reveal to itself the -unconscious need of instruction, and by the fruitful alliance of -the Christian spirit and profane letters, to prepare for the coming -of modern education. - - - [91. ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.--1. The fundamental characteristic of - Middle Age education was the domination of religious conceptions. - The training was for the life to come, rather than for this life; - it was almost exclusively religious and moral; was based on - authority; and included the whole human race. - - 2. This alliance of church and school, while giving an exclusive - aim to education, also gave it a spirit of intense seriousness - and earnestness. The survivals of this historical alliance are - church and parish schools, and a disposition of the modern Church - to dispute the right of the State to educate. - - 3. The supreme importance attached to the Scriptures made - education literary; made instruction dogmatic and arbitrary; - exalted words over things; inculcated a taste for abstract and - formal reasoning; made learning a process of memorizing; and - stifled the spirit of free inquiry. - - 4. The inclusion of the whole world in one Christian - Commonwealth, led to the intellectual enfranchisement of woman - and to the rise of primary education proper. - - 5. The general tendency was towards harshness in discipline, - coarseness in habits and manners, and a contempt for the - amenities of life. - - 6. Scholasticism erred by exaggeration; but its general effect - was to develop the power of deductive reasoning, to teach the use - of language as the instrument of thought, and to make apparent - the need of nice discriminations in the use of words. - - 7. The great intellectual lesson taught is the extreme difficulty - of attaining compass, symmetry, and moderation.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[60] Fustel de Coulanges, _La Cité antique_, p. 476. - -[61] See the Homily of Saint Basil _On the Utility which the young -can derive from the reading of profane authors_. - -[62] _Letter to Læta on the education of her daughter Paula_ (403). -_Letter to Gaudentius on the education of the little Pacatula._ The -letter to Gaudentius is far inferior to the other by reason of the -perpetual digressions into which the author permits himself to be -drawn. - -[63] For writing, Saint Jerome, like Quintilian, recommends that -children first practise on tablets of wood on which letters have -been engraved. - -[64] _Écolâtre._ The history of this word, as given by Littré, is -instructive. “There was no cathedral church (sixteenth century) in -which a sum was not appropriated for the salary of one who taught -the ordinary subjects, and another for one who had leisure for -teaching Theology. The first was called _escolastre_ (_écolâtre_), -the second _theologal_.” Pasquier. (P.) - -[65] For other examples, see the _Life of Alcuin_, by Lorenz; and -for Middle Age education in general, consult _Christian Schools and -Scholars_, by Augusta Theodosia Drane. (P.) - -[66] The following quotation illustrates this servile dependence on -authority: - -“At the time when the discovery of spots on the sun first began to -circulate, a student called the attention of his old professor to -the rumor, and received the following reply: ‘There can be no spots -on the sun, for I have read Aristotle twice from beginning to end, -and he says the sun is incorruptible. Clean your lenses, and if -the spots are not in the telescope, they must be in your eyes!’” -Naville, _La Logique de l’Hypothèse_. (P.) - -[67] This is no exception to the rule that the education of an age -is the exponent of its real or supposed needs. (P.) - -[68] Monteil, _Histoire des Français des divers états_. - -[69] Cambridge (1109), Oxford (1140). - -[70] In the _Traité de la visite des diocèses_, in 1400, he -directed the bishops to inquire whether each parish had a school, -and, in case there were none, to establish one. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE RENAISSANCE AND THE THEORIES OF EDUCATION IN THE SIXTEENTH -CENTURY. - - GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EDUCATION OF THE SIXTEENTH - CENTURY; CAUSES OF THE RENAISSANCE IN EDUCATION; THE THEORY AND - THE PRACTICE OF EDUCATION IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY; ERASMUS - (1467-1536); EDUCATION OF ERASMUS; THE JEROMITES; PEDAGOGICAL - WORKS OF ERASMUS; JUVENILE ETIQUETTE; EARLY EDUCATION; THE - INSTRUCTION OF WOMEN; RABELAIS (1483-1553); CRITICISM OF THE - OLD EDUCATION; GARGANTUA AND EUDEMON; THE NEW EDUCATION; - PHYSICAL EDUCATION; INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION; THE PHYSICAL AND - NATURAL SCIENCES; OBJECT LESSONS; ATTRACTIVE METHODS; RELIGIOUS - EDUCATION; MORAL EDUCATION; MONTAIGNE (1533-1592) AND RABELAIS; - THE PERSONAL EDUCATION OF MONTAIGNE; EDUCATION SHOULD BE - GENERAL; THE PURPOSE OF INSTRUCTION; EDUCATION OF THE JUDGMENT; - EDUCATIONAL METHODS; STUDIES RECOMMENDED; MONTAIGNE’S ERRORS; - INCOMPLETENESS OF HIS VIEWS ON THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN; ANALYTICAL - SUMMARY. - - -92. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EDUCATION OF THE SIXTEENTH -CENTURY.--Modern education begins with the Renaissance. The -educational methods that we then begin to discern will doubtless -not be developed and perfected till a later period; the new -doctrines will pass into practice only gradually, and with the -general progress of the times. But from the sixteenth century -education is in possession of its essential principles. The -education of the Middle Age, over-rigid and repressive, which -condemned the body to a régime too severe, and the mind to a -discipline too narrow, is to be succeeded, at least in theory, -by an education broader and more liberal; which will give due -attention to hygiene and physical exercises; which will enfranchise -the intelligence, hitherto the prisoner of the syllogism; which -will call into play the moral forces, instead of repressing them; -which will substitute real studies for the verbal subtilties of -dialectics; which will give the preference to things over words; -which, finally, instead of developing but a single faculty, -the reason, and instead of reducing man to a sort of dialectic -automaton, will seek to develop the whole man, mind and body, taste -and knowledge, heart and will. - - -93. CAUSES OF THE RENAISSANCE IN EDUCATION.--The men of the -sixteenth century having renewed with classical antiquity an -intercourse that had been too long interrupted, it was natural that -they should propose to the young the study of the Greeks and the -Romans. What is called secondary instruction really dates from the -sixteenth century. The crude works of the Middle Age are succeeded -by the elegant compositions of Athens and Rome, henceforth made -accessible to all through the art of printing; and, with the -reading of the ancient authors, there reappear through the fruitful -effect of imitation, their qualities of correctness in thought, -of literary taste, and of elegance in form. In France, as in -Italy, the national tongues, moulded, and, as it were, consecrated -by writers of genius, become the instruments of an intellectual -propaganda. Artistic taste, revived by the rich products of a race -of incomparable artists, gives an extension to the horizon of life, -and creates a new class of emotions. Finally, the Protestant Reform -develops individual thought and free inquiry, and at the same time, -by its success, it imposes still greater efforts on the Catholic -Church. - -This is not saying that everything is faultless in the educational -efforts of the sixteenth century. First, as is natural for -innovators, the thought of the teachers of this period is marked -by enthusiasm rather than by precision. They are more zealous in -pointing out the end to be attained, than exact in determining -the means to be employed. Besides, some of them are content to -emancipate the mind, but forget to give it proper direction. -Finally, others make a wrong use of the ancients; they are too -much preoccupied with the form and the purity of language; -they fall into _Ciceromania_, and it is not their fault if a -new superstition, that of rhetoric, does not succeed the old -superstition, that of the syllogism. - - -94. THE THEORY AND THE PRACTICE OF EDUCATION IN THE SIXTEENTH -CENTURY.--In the history of education in the sixteenth century, we -must, moreover, carefully distinguish the theory from the practice. -The theory of education is already boldly put forward, and is in -advance of its age; while the practice is still dragging itself -painfully along on the beaten road, notwithstanding some successful -attempts at improvement. - -The theory we must look for in the works of Erasmus, Rabelais, -and Montaigne, of whom it may be said, that before pretending -to surpass them, even at this day, we should rather attempt to -overtake them, and to equal them in the most of their pedagogical -precepts. - -The practice is, first, the development of the study of the -humanities, particularly in the early colleges of the Jesuits, and, -before the Jesuits, in certain Protestant colleges, particularly -in the college at Strasburg, so brilliantly administered by the -celebrated Sturm (1507-1589). Then it is the revival of higher -instruction, denoted particularly by the foundation of the College -of France (1530), and by the brilliant lectures of Ramus. Finally, -it is the progress, we might almost say the birth, of primary -instruction, through the efforts of the Protestant reformers, and -especially of Luther. - -Nevertheless, the educational thought of the sixteenth century is -in advance of educational practice; theories greatly anticipate -applications, and constitute almost all that is deserving of -special note. - - -95. ERASMUS (1467-1536).--By his numerous writings, translations, -grammars, dictionaries, and original works, Erasmus diffused about -him his own passionate fondness for classical literature, and -communicated this taste to his contemporaries. Without having a -direct influence on education, since he scarcely taught himself, -he encouraged the study of the ancients by his example, and by his -active propagandism. The scholar who said, “When I have money, I -will first buy Greek books and then clothes,” deserves to be placed -in the first rank among the creators of secondary instruction. - - -96. THE EDUCATION OF ERASMUS: THE JEROMITES.--Erasmus was educated -by the monks, as Voltaire was by the Jesuits, a circumstance -that has cost these liberal thinkers none of their independent -disposition, and none of their satirical spirit. At the age of -twelve, Erasmus entered the college of Deventer, in Holland. This -college was conducted by the Jeromites, or _Brethren of the Common -Life_. Founded in 1340 by Gerard Groot, the association of the -Jeromites undertook, among other occupations, the instruction of -children. Very mystical, and very ascetic at first, the disciples -of Gerard Groot restricted themselves to teaching the Bible, to -reading, and writing. They proscribed, as useless to piety, letters -and the sciences. But in the fifteenth century, under the influence -of John of Wessel and Rudolph Agricola, the Jeromites became -transformed; they were the precursors of the Renaissance, and the -promoters of the alliance between profane letters and Christianity. -“We may read Ovid once,” said John of Wessel, “but we ought to -read Virgil, Horace, and Terence, with more attention.” Horace and -Terence were precisely the favorite authors of Erasmus, who learned -them by heart at Deventer. Agricola, of whom Erasmus speaks only -with enthusiasm, was also the zealous propagator of the great works -of antiquity, and, at the same time, the severe critic of the state -of educational practice of the time when the school was too much -like a prison. - -“If there is anything which has a contradictory name,” he said, “it -is the school. The Greeks called it σχολὴ, which means _leisure_, -_recreation_; and the Latins, _ludus_, that is, _play_. But there -is nothing farther removed from recreation and play. Aristophanes -called it φροντιστήριον, that is, _place of care_, _of torment_, -and this is surely the designation which best befits it.” - -Erasmus then had for his first teachers enlightened men, who, -notwithstanding their monastic condition, both knew and loved -antiquity. But, as a matter of fact, Erasmus was his own teacher. -By personal effort he put himself at the school of the ancients. -He was all his life a student. Now he was a foundation scholar at -the college of Montaigu, in Paris, and now preceptor to gentlemen -of wealth. He was always in pursuit of learning, going over the -whole of Europe, that he might find in each cultivated city new -opportunities for self-instruction. - - -97. PEDAGOGICAL WORKS OF ERASMUS.--Most of the works written by -Erasmus relate to instruction. Some of them are fairly to be -classed as text-books, elementary treatises on practical education, -as, for example, his books _On the Manner of writing Letters_, -_Upon Rules of Etiquette for the Young_, etc. We may also notice -his _Adages_, a vast repertory of proverbs and maxims borrowed from -antiquity; his _Colloquies_, a collection of dialogues for the use -of the young, though the author here treats of many things which a -pupil should never hear spoken of. Another category should include -works of a more theoretical character, in which Erasmus sets forth -his ideas on education. In the essay _On the Order of Study_ -(_de Ratione Studii_), he seeks out the rules for instruction in -literature, for the study of grammar, for the cultivation of the -memory, and for the explication of the Greek and Latin authors. -Another treatise, entitled _Of the First Liberal Education of -Children_ (_De pueris statim ac liberaliter instituendis_), is -still more important, and covers the whole field of education. -Erasmus here studies the character of the child, the question of -knowing whether the first years of child-life can be turned to good -account, and the measures that are to be taken with early life. He -also recommends methods that are attractive, and heartily condemns -the barbarous discipline which reigned in the schools of his time. - - -98. JUVENILE ETIQUETTE.--Erasmus is one of the first educators -who comprehended the importance of politeness. In an age still -uncouth, where the manners of even the cultivated classes tolerated -usages that the most ignorant rustic of to-day would scorn, it was -good to call the attention to outward appearances and the duties -of politeness. Erasmus knew perfectly well that politeness has a -moral side, that it is not a matter of pure convention, but that it -proceeds from the inner disposition of a well-ordered soul. So he -assigns it an important place in education: - -“The duty of instructing the young,” he says, “includes several -elements, the first and also the chief of which is, that the -tender mind of the child should be instructed in piety; the second, -that he love and learn the liberal arts; the third, that he be -taught tact in the conduct of social life; and the fourth, that -from his earliest age he accustom himself to good behavior, based -on moral principles.” - -We need not be astonished, however, to find that the civility of -Erasmus is still imperfect, now too free, now too exacting, and -always ingenuous. “It is a religious duty,” he says, “to salute him -who sneezes.” “Morally speaking, it is not a proper thing to throw -the head back while drinking, after the manner of storks, in order -to drain the last drop from the glass.” “If one let bread fall on -the ground, he should kiss it after having picked it up.” On the -other hand, Erasmus seems to allow that the nose may be wiped with -the fingers, but he forbids the use of the cap or the sleeve for -this purpose. He requires that the face shall be bathed with pure -water in the morning; “but,” he adds, “to repeat this afterwards is -nonsense.” - - -99. EARLY EDUCATION.--Like Quintilian, by whom he is often -inspired, Erasmus does not scorn to enter the primary school, and -to shape the first exercises for intellectual culture. Upon many -points, the thought of the sixteenth century scholar is but an -echo of the _Institutes of Oratory_, or of the educational essays -of Plutarch. Some of his maxims deserve to be reproduced: “We -learn with great willingness from those whom we love;” “Parents -themselves cannot properly bring up their children if they make -themselves only to be feared;” “There are children who would be -killed sooner than made better by blows: by mildness and kind -admonitions, one may make of them whatever he will;” “Children -will learn to speak their native tongue without any weariness, by -usage and practice;” “Drill in reading and writing is a little bit -tiresome, and the teacher will ingeniously palliate the tedium -by the artifice of an attractive method;” “The ancients moulded -toothsome dainties into the forms of the letters, and thus, as -it were, made children swallow the alphabet;” “In the matter of -grammatical rules, instruction should at the first be limited to -the most simple;” “As the body in infant years is nourished by -little portions distributed at intervals, so should the mind of the -child be nurtured by items of knowledge adapted to its weakness, -and distributed little by little.” - -From out these quotations there appears a method of instruction -that is kindly, lovable, and full of tenderness for the young. -Erasmus claims for them the nourishing care and caresses of the -mother, the familiarity and goodness of the father, cleanliness, -and even elegance in the school, and finally, the mildness and -indulgence of the teacher. - - -100. THE INSTRUCTION OF WOMEN.--The scholars of the Renaissance did -not exclude women from all participation in the literary treasures -that a recovered antiquity had disclosed to themselves. Erasmus -admits them to an equal share. - -In the _Colloquy of the Abbé and the Educated Woman_, Magdala -claims for herself the right to learn Latin, “so that she may -hold converse each day with so many authors who are so eloquent, -so instructive, so wise, and such good counsellors.” In the book -called _Christian Marriage_, Erasmus banters young ladies who learn -only to make a bow, to hold the hands crossed, to bite their lips -when they laugh, to eat and drink as little as possible at table, -after having taken ample portions in private. More ambitious for -the wife, Erasmus recommends her to pursue the studies which will -assist her in educating her own children, and in taking part in the -intellectual life of her husband. - -Vives, a contemporary of Erasmus (1492-1540), a Spanish teacher, -expressed analogous ideas in his books on the education of women, -in which he recommends young women to read Plato and Seneca. - -To sum up, the pedagogy of Erasmus is not without value; but -with him, education ran the risk of remaining exclusively Greek -and Latin. A humanist above everything else, he granted but very -small place to the sciences, and to history, which it sufficed to -skim over, as he said; and, what reveals his inmost nature, he -recommended the study of the physical sciences for this reason in -particular, that the writer will find in the knowledge of nature an -abundant source of metaphors, images, and comparisons. - - -101. RABELAIS (1483-1553).--Wholly different is the spirit of -Rabelais, who, under a fanciful and original form, has sketched a -complete system of education. Some pages of marked gravity in the -midst of the epic vagabondage of his burlesque work, give him the -right to appear in the first rank among those who have reformed the -art of training and developing the human soul.[71] - -The pedagogy of Rabelais is the first appearance of what may be -called _realism_ in instruction, in distinction from the scholastic -_formalism_. The author of _Gargantua_ turns the mind of the young -man towards objects truly worthy of occupying his attention. He -catches a glimpse of the future reserved to scientific education, -and to the study of nature. He invites the mind, not to the labored -subtilties and complicated tricks which scholasticism had brought -into fashion, but to manly efforts, and to a wide unfolding of -human nature. - - -102. CRITICISM OF THE OLD EDUCATION: GARGANTUA AND EUDEMON.--In -the manners of the sixteenth century, the keen satire of Rabelais -found many opportunities for disporting itself; and his book may be -regarded as a collection of pamphlets. But there is nothing that he -has pursued with more sarcasms than the education of his day. - -At the outset, Gargantua is educated according to the scholastic -methods. He works for twenty years with all his might, and learns -so perfectly the books that he studies that he can recite them by -heart, backwards and forwards, “and yet his father discovered that -all this profited him nothing; and what is worse, that it made him -a madcap, a ninny, dreamy, and infatuated.” - -To that unintelligent and artificial training which surcharges the -memory, which holds the pupil for long years over insipid books, -which robs the mind of all independent activity, which dulls rather -than sharpens the intelligence,--to all this Rabelais opposes a -natural education, which appeals to experience and to facts, which -trains the young man, not only for the discussions of the schools, -but for real life, and for intercourse with the world, and which, -finally, enriches the intelligence and adorns the memory without -stifling the native graces and the free activities of the spirit. - -Eudemon, who, in Rabelais’ romance, represents the pupil trained by -the new methods, knows how to think with accuracy and speak with -facility; his bearing is without boldness, but with confidence. -When introduced to Gargantua, he turns towards him, “cap in hand, -with open countenance, ruddy lips, steady eyes, and with modesty -becoming a youth”; he salutes him elegantly and graciously. To all -the pleasant things which Eudemon says to him, Gargantua finds -nothing to say in reply: “His countenance appeared as though he had -taken to crying immoderately; he hid his face in his cap, and not -a single word could be drawn from him.” - -In these two pupils, so different in manner, Rabelais has -personified two contrasted methods of education: that which, -by mechanical exercises of memory, enfeebles and dulls the -intelligence; and that which, with larger grants of liberty, -develops keen intelligences, and frank and open characters. - - -103. THE NEW EDUCATION.--Let us now notice with some detail how -Rabelais conceives this new education.[72] After having thrown into -sharp relief the faults contracted by Gargantua in the school of -his first teachers, he entrusts him to a preceptor, Ponocrates, who -is charged with correcting his faults, and with re-moulding him; he -is to employ his own principles in the government of his pupil. - -Ponocrates proceeds slowly at first; he considers that “nature does -not endure sudden changes without great violence.” He studies and -observes his pupil; he wishes to judge of his natural disposition. -Then he sets himself to work; he undertakes a general recasting of -the character and spirit of Gargantua, while directing, at the same -time, his physical, intellectual, and moral education. - - -104. PHYSICAL EDUCATION.--Hygiene and gymnastics, cleanliness which -protects the body, and exercise which strengthens it,--these two -essential parts of physical education receive equal attention from -Rabelais. Erasmus thought it was nonsense (“_ne rime à rien_”) -to wash more than once a day. Gargantua, on the contrary, after -eating, bathes his hands and his eyes in fresh water. Rabelais -does not forget that he has been a physician; he omits no detail -relative to the care of the body, even the most repugnant. He is -far from believing, with the mystics of the Middle Age, that it is -permissible to lodge knowledge in a sordid body, and that a foul -or neglected exterior is not unbefitting virtuous souls. The first -preceptors of Gargantua said that it sufficed to comb one’s hair -“with the four fingers and the thumb; and that whoever combed, -washed, and cleansed himself otherwise, was losing his time in this -world.” With Ponocrates, Gargantua reforms his habits, and tries to -resemble Eudemon, “whose hair was so neatly combed, who was so well -dressed, of such fine appearance, and was so modest in his bearing, -that he much more resembled a little angel than a man.” - -Rabelais attaches equal importance to gymnastics, to walking, and -to active life in the open air. He does not allow Gargantua to grow -pale over his books, and to protract his study into the night. -After the morning’s lessons, he takes him out to play. Tennis and -ball follow the application to books: “He exercises his body just -as vigorously as he had before exercised his mind.” And so, after -the study of the afternoon till the supper hour, Gargantua devotes -his time to physical exercises. Riding, wrestling, swimming, -every species of physical recreation, gymnastics under all its -forms,--there is nothing which Gargantua does not do to give -agility to his limbs and to strengthen his muscles. Here, as in -other places, Rabelais stretches a point, and purposely resorts -to exaggeration in order to make his thought better comprehended. -It would require days of several times twenty-four hours, in -order that a real man could find the time to do all that the -author of Gargantua requires of his giant. In contrast with the -long asceticism of the Middle Age, he proposes a real revelry of -gymnastics for the colossal body of his hero. We will not forget -that here, as in all the other parts of Rabelais’ work, fiction -is ever mingled with fact. Rabelais wrote for giants, and it is -natural that he should demand gigantesque efforts of them. In order -to comprehend the exact thought of the author, it is necessary to -reduce his fantastic exaggerations to human proportions. - - -105. INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.--For the mind, as for the body, -Rabelais requires prodigies of activity. Gargantua rises at four -in the morning, and the greater part of the long day is filled -with study. For the indolent contemplations of the Middle Age, -Rabelais substitutes an incessant effort and an intense activity of -the mind. Gargantua first studies the ancient languages, and the -first place is given to Greek, which Rabelais rescues from the long -discredit into which it had fallen in the Middle Age, as is proved -by the vulgar adage, “_Græcum est, non legitur_.” - -“Now, all disciplines are restored, and the languages -reinstated,--Greek (without which it is a shame for a person to -call himself learned), Hebrew, Chaldean, Latin. There are very -elegant and correct editions in use, which have been invented in -my age by divine inspiration, as, on the other hand, artillery was -invented by diabolic suggestion. The whole world is full of wise -men, of learned teachers, and of very large libraries, and it is my -opinion that neither in the time of Plato nor in that of Cicero, -nor in that of Papinian, were there such opportunities for study as -we see to-day.” - -Like all his contemporaries, Rabelais is an enthusiast in classical -learning; but he is distinguished from them by a very decided -taste for the sciences, and in particular for the natural sciences. - - -106. THE PHYSICAL AND NATURAL SCIENCES.--The Middle Age had -completely neglected the study of nature. The art of observing was -ignored by those subtile dialecticians, who would know nothing of -the physical world except through the theories of Aristotle or the -dogmas of the sacred books; who attached no value to the study of -the material universe, the transient and despised abode of immortal -souls; and who, moreover, flattered themselves that they could -discover at the end of their syllogisms all that was necessary to -know about it. Rabelais is certainly the first, in point of time, -of that grand school of educators who place the sciences in the -first rank among the studies worthy of human thought. - -The scholar of the Middle Age knew nothing of the world. Gargantua -requires of his son that he shall know it under all its aspects: - -“As to the knowledge of the facts of nature,” he writes to -Pantagruel, “I would have you devote yourself to them with great -care, so that there shall be neither sea, river, nor fountain, -whose fish you do not know. All the birds of the air, all the -trees, shrubs, and fruits of the forests, all the grasses of the -earth, all the metals concealed in the depths of the abysses, the -precious stones of the entire East and South,--none of these should -be unknown to you. By frequent dissections, acquire a knowledge of -the other world, which is man. In a word, I point out a new world -of knowledge.” - -Nothing is omitted, it is observed, from what constitutes the -science of the universe or the knowledge of man. - -It is further to be noticed, that Rabelais wishes his pupil not -only to know, but to love and experience nature. He recommends -his pupils to go and read the _Georgics_ of Virgil in the midst -of meadows and woods. The precursor of Rousseau on this point as -upon some others, he thinks there is a gain in spiritual health by -refreshing the imagination and giving repose to the spirit, through -the contemplation of the beauties of nature. - -Ponocrates, in order to afford Gargantua distraction from his -extreme attention to study, recommended once each month some very -clear and serene day, on which they set out at an early hour from -the city, and went to Chantilly, or Boulogne, or Montrouge, or Pont -Charenton, or Vannes, or Saint Cloud. And there they passed the -whole day in playing, singing, dancing, frolicking in some fine -meadow, hunting for sparrows, collecting pebbles, fishing for frogs -and crabs.[73] - - -107. OBJECT LESSONS.--In the scheme of studies planned by Rabelais, -the mind of the pupil is always on the alert, even at table. There, -instruction takes place while talking. The conversation bears -upon the food, upon the objects which attract the attention of -Gargantua, upon the nature and properties of water, wine, bread, -and salt. Every sensible object becomes material for questions -and explanations. Gargantua often takes walks across fields, -and he studies botany in the open country, “passing through -meadows or other grassy places, observing trees and plants, -comparing them with ancient books where they are described, ... -and taking handfuls of them home.” There are but few didactic -lessons; intuitive instruction, given in the presence of the -objects themselves, such is the method of Rabelais. It is in the -same spirit that he sends his pupil to visit the stores of the -silversmiths, the founderies, the alchemists’ laboratories, and -shops of all kinds,--real scientific excursions, such as are in -vogue to-day. Rabelais would form a complete man, skilled in art -and industry, and also capable, like the _Émile_ of Rousseau, of -devoting himself to manual labor. When the weather is rainy, and -walking impracticable, Gargantua employs his time in splitting and -sawing wood, and in threshing grain in the barn. - - -108. ATTRACTIVE METHODS.--By a reaction against the irksome -routine of the Middle Age, Rabelais would have his pupil study -while playing, and even learn mathematics “through recreation -and amusement.” It is in handling playing-cards that Gargantua -is taught thousands of “new inventions which relate to the -science of numbers.” The same course is followed in geometry and -astronomy. The accomplishments are not neglected, especially -fencing. Gargantua is an enormous man, who is to be developed in -all directions. The fine arts, music, painting, and sculpture, -are not strangers to him. The hero of Rabelais represents, not so -much an individual man, as a collective being who personifies the -whole of society, with all the variety of its new aspirations, and -with all the intensity of its multiplied needs. While the Middle -Age, through a narrow spirit, left in inaction certain natural -tendencies, Rabelais calls them all into life, without choice, it -is true, and without discrimination, with the whole ardor of an -emancipated imagination. - - -109. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION.--In respect of religion as of everything -else, Rabelais is the adversary of an education wholly exterior -and of pure form. He ridicules his Gargantua, who, before his -intellectual conversion, when he was still at the school of “his -preceptors, the sophists,” goes to church, after a hearty dinner, -to hear twenty-six or thirty masses. What he substitutes for this -exterior devotion, for this abuse of superficial practices, is a -real feeling of piety, and the direct reading of the sacred texts: -“It is while Gargantua was being dressed that there was read to him -a page of Divine Scripture.”[74] Still more, it is the intimate -and personal adoration “of the great psalmodist of the universe,” -excited by the study of the works of God. Gargantua and his master, -Ponocrates, have scarcely risen when they observe the state of the -heavens, and admire the celestial vault. In the evening they devote -themselves to the same contemplation. After his meals, as before -going to sleep, Gargantua offers prayers to God, to adore Him, to -confirm his faith, to glorify Him for His boundless goodness, to -thank Him for all the time past, and to recommend himself to Him -for the time to come. The religious feeling of Rabelais proceeds -at the same time, both from the sentiment which provoked the -Protestant Reformation, of which he came near being an adherent, -and from tendencies still more modern,--those, for example, which -animate the deistic philosophy of Rousseau. - - -110. MORAL EDUCATION.--Those who know Rabelais only by reputation, -or through some of his innumerable drolleries, will perhaps be -astonished that the jovial author can be counted a teacher of -morals. It is impossible, however, to misunderstand the sincere and -lofty inspiration of such passages as this: - -“Because, according to the wise Solomon, wisdom does not enter into -a malevolent soul, and knowledge without conscience is but the -ruin of the soul; it becomes you to serve, to love, and to fear -God, and to place on Him all your thoughts, all your hopes.... -Be suspicious of the errors of the world. Apply not your heart -to vanity, for this life is transitory; but the word of God -endures forever. Be useful to all your neighbors, and love them as -yourself. Revere your teachers, flee the company of men whom you -would not resemble; and the grace which God has given you receive -not in vain. And when you think you have all the knowledge that can -be acquired by this means, return to me, so that I may see you, and -give you my benediction before I die.”[75] - - -111. MONTAIGNE (1533-1592) AND RABELAIS.--Between Erasmus, the -learned humanist, exclusively devoted to belles-lettres, and -Rabelais, the bold innovator, who extends as far as possible the -limits of the intelligence, and who causes the entire encyclopædia -of human knowledge to enter the brain of his pupil at the risk -of splitting it open, Montaigne occupies an intermediate place, -with his circumspect and conservative tendencies, with his -discreet and moderate pedagogy, the enemy of all excesses. It -seemed that Rabelais would develop all the faculties equally, and -place all studies, letters, and sciences upon the same footing. -Montaigne demands a choice. Between the different faculties he -attempts particularly to train the judgment; among the different -knowledges, he recommends by preference those which form sound -and sensible minds. Rabelais overdrives mind and body. He dreams -of an extravagant course of instruction where every science shall -be studied exhaustively.[76] Montaigne simply demands that “one -taste the upper crust of the sciences”; that one skim over them -without going into them deeply, “in French fashion.” In his view, -a well-made head is worth more than a head well filled. It is not -so much to accumulate, to amass, knowledge, as to assimilate as -much of it as a prudent intelligence can digest without fatigue. -In a word, while Rabelais sits down, so to speak, at the banquet -of knowledge with an avidity which recalls the gluttony of the -Pantagruelian repasts, Montaigne is a delicate connoisseur, who -would only satisfy with discretion a regulated appetite. - - -112. THE PERSONAL EDUCATION OF MONTAIGNE.--One often becomes -teacher through recollection of his personal education. This is -what happened to Montaigne. His pedagogy is at once an imitation of -the methods which a father full of solicitude had himself applied -to him, and a protest against the defects and the vices of the -college of Guienne, which he entered at the age of six years. The -home education of Montaigne affords the interesting spectacle of a -child who develops freely. My spirit, he himself says, was trained -with all gentleness and freedom, without severity or constraint. -His father, skilful in his tender care, had him awakened each -morning at the sound of musical instruments, so as to spare him -those brusque alarms that are bad preparations for toil. In a word, -he applied to him that tempered discipline, at once indulgent -and firm, equally removed from complacency and harshness, which -Montaigne has christened with the name of _severe mildness_. -Another characteristic of Montaigne’s education is, that he learned -Latin as one learns his native tongue. His father had surrounded -him with domestics and teachers who conversed with him only in -Latin. The result of this was, that at the age of six he was so -proficient in the language of Cicero, that the best Latinists -of the time feared to address him (_craignissent à l’accoster_). -On the other hand, he knew no more of French than he did of -Arabic.[77] It is evident that Montaigne’s father had taken a false -route, but at least Montaigne derived a just conception from this -experience, namely, that the methods ordinarily pursued in the -study of the dead languages are too slow and too mechanical; that -an abuse is made of rules, and that sufficient attention is not -given to practice: “No doubt but _Greek_ and _Latin_ are very great -ornaments, and of very great use, but we buy them too dear.”[78] - -At the college of Guienne, where he passed seven years, Montaigne -learned to detest corporal chastisements and the hard discipline -of the scholars of his day: “ ... Instead of tempting and alluring -children to letters by apt and gentle ways, our pedants do in -truth present nothing before them but rods and ferules, horror and -cruelty. Away with this violence! away with this compulsion! than -which, I certainly believe, nothing more dulls and degenerates a -well-descended nature.... The strict government of most of our -colleges has evermore displeased me.... ’Tis the true house of -correction of imprisoned youth.... Do but come in when they are -about their lesson, and you shall hear nothing but the outcries -of boys under execution, with the thundering noise of their -_Pedagogues_, drunk with fury, to make up the consort. A pretty -way this! to tempt these tender and timorous souls to love their -book, with a furious countenance, and a rod in hand. A cursed and -pernicious way of proceeding.... How much more decent would it be -to see their classes strewed with green leaves and fine flowers, -than with bloody stumps of birch and willows? Were it left to my -ordering, I should paint the school with the pictures of Joy and -Gladness, Flora and the Graces ... that where their profit is, they -might have their pleasure too.”[79] - - -113. IMPORTANCE OF A GENERAL RATHER THAN A SPECIAL EDUCATION.--If -Montaigne, in different chapters of his essays,[80] has given -passing attention to pedagogical questions, it is not only through -a recollection of his own years of apprenticeship, but also because -of his judgment as a philosopher, that “the greatest and most -important task of human understanding is in those matters which -concern the nurture and instruction of children.” - -For him, education is the art of forming men, and not specialists. -This he explains in his original manner under the form of an -anecdote: - -“Going to Orleans one day, I met in that plain this side Clery, two -pedants who were going towards Bordeaux, about fifty paces distant -from one another. Still further back of them, I saw a troop of -horse, and at their head a gentleman who was the late Count de la -Rochefoucault. One of my company inquired of the foremost of these -dominies, who that gentleman was who was following him. He had not -observed the train that was following after, and thought that the -question related to his companion; and so he replied pleasantly, -‘He is not a gentleman, but a grammarian, and I am a logician.’ -Now, as we are here concerned in the training, not of a grammarian, -or of a logician, but of a complete gentleman, we will let those -who will abuse their leisure; but we have business of another -nature.”[81] - -It is true that Montaigne says gentleman, and not simply man; but -in reality his thought is the same as that of Rousseau and of all -those who require a general education of the human soul. - - -114. THE PURPOSE OF INSTRUCTION.--From what has now been said, it -is easy to comprehend that, in the opinion of Montaigne, letters -and other studies are but the means or instrument, and not the -aim and end of instruction. The author of the _Essays_ does not -yield to the literary craze, which, in the sixteenth century, -took certain scholars captive, and made the ideal of education to -consist of a knowledge of the ancient languages. It is of little -consequence to him that a pupil has learned to write in Latin; -what he does require, is that he become better and more prudent, -and have a sounder judgment. “If his soul be not put into better -rhythm, if the judgment be not better settled, I would rather have -him spend his time at tennis.”[82] - - -115. EDUCATION OF THE JUDGMENT.--Montaigne has expressed his -dominant thought on education in a hundred different ways. He is -preoccupied with the training of the judgment, and on this point we -might quote whole pages: - -“ ... According to the fashion in which we are instructed, it is -not singular that neither scholars nor masters become more able, -although they become more wise. In fact, our parents devote their -care and expense to furnishing our heads with knowledge; but to -judgment and virtue no additions are made. Say of a passer-by to -people, ‘O what a learned man!’ and of another, ‘O what a good -man goes there!’ and they will not fail to turn their eyes and -attention towards the former. There should be a third to cry, ‘O -the blockheads!’ Men are quick to inquire, ‘Does he know Greek or -Latin? Does he write in verse or in prose?’ But whether he has -become better or more prudent, which is the principal thing, this -receives not the least notice; whereas we ought to inquire who is -the better learned, rather than who is the more learned?” - -“We labor only at filling the memory, and leave the understanding -and the conscience void. Just as birds sometimes go in quest of -grain, and bring it in their bills without tasting it themselves, -to make of it mouthfuls for their young; so our pedants go -rummaging in books for knowledge, only to hold it at their tongues’ -end, and then distribute it to their pupils.”[83] - - -116. STUDIES RECOMMENDED.--The practical and utilitarian mind of -Montaigne dictates to him his programme of studies. With him it -is not a question of plunging into the depths of the sciences; -disinterested studies are not his affair. If Rabelais proposed to -develop the speculative faculties, Montaigne, on the contrary, is -preoccupied with the practical faculties, and he makes everything -subordinate to morals. For example, he would have history learned, -not for the sake of knowing the facts, but of appreciating them. It -is not so necessary to imprint in the memory of the child “the date -of the fall of Carthage as the character of Hannibal and Scipio, -nor so much where Marcellus died as why it was unworthy of his duty -that he died there.”[84] - -And so in philosophy, it is not the general knowledge of man and -nature that Montaigne esteems and recommends; but only those parts -that have a direct bearing on morals and active life. - -“It is a pity that matters should be at such a pass as they are -in our time, that philosophy, even with people of understanding, -should be looked upon as a vain and fanciful name, a thing of no -use and no value, either for opinion or for action. I think that -it is the love of quibbling that has caused things to take this -turn.... Philosophy is that which teaches us to live.”[85] - - -117. EDUCATIONAL METHODS.--An education purely bookish is not to -Montaigne’s taste. He counts less upon books than upon experience -and mingling with men; upon the observation of things, and upon the -natural suggestions of the mind: - -“For learning to judge well and speak well, whatever presents -itself to our eyes serves as a sufficient book. The knavery of -a page, the blunder of a servant, a table witticism,--all such -things are so many new things to think about. And for this purpose -conversation with men is wonderfully helpful, and so is a visit to -foreign lands ... to bring back the customs of those nations, and -their manners, and to whet and sharpen our wits by rubbing them -upon those of others.” - -“ ... The lesson will be given, sometimes by conversation, -sometimes by book.... Let the child examine every man’s talent, -a peasant, a mason, a passer-by. Put into his head an honest -curiosity in everything. Let him observe whatever is curious in -his surroundings,--a fine house, a delicate fountain, an eminent -man, the scene of an ancient battle, the routes of Cæsar, or of -Charlemagne....”[85] - -Things should precede words. On this point Montaigne anticipates -Comenius, Rousseau, and all modern educators. - -“Let our pupil be provided with things; words will follow only too -fast.”[86] - -“The world is given to babbling; I hardly ever saw a man who did -not rather prate too much, than speak too little. Yet the half -of our life goes in that way; we are kept four or five years in -learning words....”[87] - -“This is not saying that it is not a fine and good thing to speak -well; but not so good as it is made out to be. I am vexed that our -life is so much occupied with all this.” - - -118. HOW WE SHOULD READ.--Montaigne has keenly criticised the abuse -of books: “I would not have this boy of ours imprisoned, and made a -slave to his book.... I would not have his spirit cow’d and subdu’d -by applying him to the rack, and tormenting him, as some do, -fourteen or fifteen hours a day, and so make a pack-horse of him. -Neither should I think it good, when, by a solitary and melancholic -complexion, he is discovered to be much addicted to his book, to -nourish that humor in him, for that renders them unfit for civil -conversation, and diverts them from better employments.”[88] - -But while he advises against excess in reading, he has admirably -defined the manner in which we ought to read. Above all, he says, -let us assimilate and appropriate what we read. Let the work of -the reader resemble that of bees, that, on this side and on that, -tap the flowers for their sweet juices, and make them into honey, -which is no longer thyme nor marjoram. In other terms, we should -read with reflection, and with a critical spirit, while mastering -the thoughts of the author by our personal judgment, without ever -becoming slaves to them. - - -119. MONTAIGNE’S ERRORS.--Montaigne’s greatest fault, it must -be confessed, is that he is somewhat heartless. Somewhat of an -egoist and Epicurean, he celebrates only the easy virtues that -are attained “by shady routes through green meadows and fragrant -flowers.” Has he himself ever performed painful duties that demand -effort? To love children, he waits till they are amiable; while -they are small, he disdains them, and keeps them at a distance from -him: - -“I cannot entertain that passion of dandling and caressing an -infant, scarcely born, having as yet neither motion of soul nor -shape of body distinguishable, by which they can render themselves -amiable; and have not suffered them to be nursed near me....”[89] -“Never take, and, still less, never give, to the women of your -household the care of the feeding of your children!” - -Montaigne joined precept to example. He somewhere says unfeelingly: -“My children all died while at nurse.”[90] He goes so far as to -say that a man of letters ought to prefer his writings to his -children: “The births of our intelligence are the children the most -truly our own.”[91] - - -120. INCOMPLETENESS OF HIS VIEWS ON THE EDUCATION OF -WOMEN.--Another mental defect in Montaigne is, that, by reason of -his moderation and conservatism, he remains a little narrow. High -conceptions of human destiny are not to be expected of him; his -manner of conceiving of it is mean and commonplace. This lack of -intellectual breadth is especially manifest in his reflections on -the education of women. Montaigne is of that number, who, through -false gallantry, would keep woman in a state of ignorance on the -pretext that instruction would mar her natural charms. In their -case, he would prohibit even the study of rhetoric, because, he -says, that would “conceal her charms under borrowed charms.” Women -should be content with the advantages which their sex assures to -them. With the knowledge which they naturally have, “they command -with the switch, and rule both the regents and the schools.” -However, he afterwards thinks better of it; but in his concessions -there is more of contempt than in his prohibitions: “If, however, -it displeases them to make us any concessions whatever, and they -are determined, through curiosity, to know something of books, -poetry is an amusement befitting their needs; for it is a wanton, -crafty art, disguised, all for pleasure, all for show, just as they -are.”[92] - -The following passage may also be quoted:-- - -“When I see them tampering with rhetoric, law, logic, and the like, -so improper and unnecessary for their business, I begin to suspect -that the men who inspire them with such things do it that they may -govern them upon that account.”[93] - -It is impossible to express a greater contempt for women. Montaigne -goes so far as to deny her positive qualities of heart. He chances -to say, with reference to Mlle. de Gournay, his adopted daughter: -“The perfection of the most saintly affection has been attained -when it does not exhibit the least trace of sex.” - -To conclude: notwithstanding some grave defects, the pedagogy of -Montaigne is a pedagogy of good sense, and certain parts of it -will always deserve to be admired. The Jansenists, and Locke, -and Rousseau, in different degrees, draw their inspiration from -Montaigne. In his own age, it is true, his ideas were accepted by -scarcely any one save his disciple Charron, who, in his book of -_Wisdom_,[94] has done scarcely more than to arrange in order the -thoughts that are scattered through the _Essays_. But if he had -no influence upon his own age, Montaigne has at least remained, -after three centuries, a sure guide in the matter of intellectual -education. - - - [121. ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.--1. The dominant characteristic of - education during the Renaissance period is the reaction which it - exhibits against certain errors in Middle Age education. - - 2. A second characteristic is a disposition to conciliate or - harmonize principles and methods whose fault is exaggeration. - - 3. Against instruction based almost wholly on authority, there is - a reaction in favor of free inquiry. - - 4. Opposed to an education of the professional or technical type, - there is proposed an education of the general or liberal type. - - 5. From being almost exclusively ethical and religious, education - tends to become secular. - - 6. Didactic, formal instruction out of books, dealing in - second-hand knowledge, is succeeded by informal, intuitive - instruction from natural objects, dealing in knowledge at first - hand. - - 7. The conception that education is a process of manufacture - begins to give place to the conception that it is a process of - growth. - - 8. Teaching whose purpose was information is succeeded by - teaching whose purpose is formation, discipline, or training. - - 9. A discipline that was harsh and cruel is succeeded by a - discipline comparatively mild and humane; and manners that were - rude and coarse, are followed by a finer code of civility.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[71] See especially the following chapters: Book I. chaps. XIV., -XV., XXI., XXII., XXIV.; Book II. chaps. V., VI., VII., VIII. - -[72] The contrast between the general system of education that -culminated with the Reformation, and the system that had its rise -at the same period, is so marked that there is an historical -propriety in calling the first the old education, and the second, -or later, the new education. Recollecting the tendency of the -human mind to pass from one extreme to an opposite extreme, we may -suspect that the final state of educational thought and practice -will represent a mean between these two contrasted systems: it is -inconceivable that the old was wholly wrong, or that the new is -wholly right. (P.) - -[73] Book I. chap. XXIV. - -[74] Rabelais recommends the study of Hebrew, so that the sacred -books may be known in their original form. In some place he says: -“I love much more to hear the Gospel than to hear the life of Saint -Margaret or some other cant.” - -[75] Book II. chap. VIII. - -[76] This pansophic scheme of Rabelais has been revived in later -times by Bentham, in his _Chrestomathia_, and still later by -Spencer, in his _Education_. It seems to have been forgotten that -the division of labor affects education in much the same way as it -affects all other departments of human activity: that there is no -more need of having as a personal possession all the knowledge we -need for guidance, than for owning all the agencies we need for -locomotion or communication. (P.) - -[77] “I was above six years of age before I understood either -_French_ or _Perigordian_ any more than Arabic, and without art, -book, grammar, or precept, whipping, or the experience of a tear, -had by that time learned to speak as pure _Latin_ as my master -himself.” _Essays_, Book I. chap. XXV. In this chapter I have -several times quoted from Cotton’s translation. (London: 1711.) (P.) - -[78] Book I. chap. XXV. - -[79] Book I. chap. XXV. - -[80] See particularly Chap. XXIV. of Book I., _Of Pedantry_; Chap. -XXV. Book I., _Of the Education of Children_; Chap. VIII. Book II., -_Of the Affection of Fathers to their Children_. - -[81] Book I. chap. XXV. - -[82] Book I. chap. XXIV. - -[83] Book I. chap. XXIV. - -[84] Book I. chap. XXV. - -[85] Book I. chap. XXV. - -[86] Has not this extravagant preference for things, as -distinguished from words, become a new superstition in educational -theory? Considering the misuse made of words by Scholasticism, it -was time for Montaigne to summon the attention outwards to sensible -realities; but it is more than doubtful whether there is any valid -ground for the absolute rule of modern pedagogy, “first the idea, -then the term.” In actual experience, there is no invariable -sequence. The really important thing is, that _terms be made -significant_. (P.) - -[87] Book I. chap. XXV. - -[88] Book I. chap. XXV. - -[89] Book II. chap. VIII. - -[90] I am not sure that this remark does not do Montaigne -injustice, especially when we consider the connection in which the -original remark is made: “I am of opinion that what is not to be -done by reason, prudence, and address, is never to be effected by -force. I myself was brought up after that manner; and they tell me -that, in all my first age, I never felt the rod but twice, and then -very easily. I have practised the same method with my children, -who all of them dy’d at nurse; but Leonora, my only daughter, -is arrived to the age of six years and upwards without other -correction for her childish faults than words only, and those very -gentle.” Book II. chap. VIII. (P.) - -[91] Book III. chap. XIII. - -[92] Book III. chap. III. - -[93] Book III. chap. III. - -[94] See particularly Chap. XIV. of Book III. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -PROTESTANTISM AND PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. LUTHER AND COMENIUS. - - ORIGIN OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION; SPIRIT OF THE PROTESTANT REFORM; - CALVIN, MELANCTHON, ZWINGLI; LUTHER (1483-1546); APPEAL ADDRESSED - TO THE MAGISTRATES AND LEGISLATORS OF GERMANY; DOUBLE UTILITY - OF INSTRUCTION; NECESSITY OF A SYSTEM OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION; - CRITICISM OF THE SCHOOLS OF THE PERIOD; ORGANIZATION OF NEW - SCHOOLS; PROGRAMME OF STUDIES; PROGRESS IN METHODS; THE STATES - GENERAL OF ORLEANS (1560); RATICH (1571-1635); COMENIUS - (1592-1671); HIS CHARACTER; BACONIAN INSPIRATION; LIFE OF - COMENIUS; HIS PRINCIPAL WORKS; DIVISION OF INSTRUCTION INTO FOUR - GRADES; ELEMENTARY INITIATION INTO ALL THE STUDIES; THE PEOPLE’S - SCHOOL; SITE OF THE SCHOOL; INTUITIONS OF SENSE; SIMPLIFICATION - OF GRAMMATICAL STUDIES; PEDAGOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF COMENIUS; - ANALYTICAL SUMMARY. - - -122. ORIGIN OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.--With La Salle and the -foundation of the Institute of the Brethren of the Christian -Schools, the historian of education recognizes the Catholic origin -of primary instruction; in the decrees and laws of the French -Revolution, its lay and philosophical origin; but it is to the -Protestant Reformers,--to Luther in the sixteenth century, and to -Comenius in the seventeenth--that must be ascribed the honor of -having first organized schools for the people. In its origin, the -primary school is the child of Protestantism, and its cradle was -the Reformation. - - -123. SPIRIT OF THE PROTESTANT REFORM.--The development of primary -instruction was the logical consequence of the fundamental -principles of the Protestant Reform. As Michel Bréal has said: -“In making man responsible for his own faith, and in placing the -source of that faith in the Holy Scriptures, the Reform contracted -the obligation to put each one in a condition to save himself by -the reading and the understanding of the Bible.... The necessity -of explaining the Catechism, and making comments on it, was for -teachers an obligation to learn how to expound a thought, and to -decompose it into its elements. The study of the mother tongue -and of singing, was associated with the reading of the Bible -(translated into German by Luther) and with religious services.” -The Reform, then, contained, in germ, a complete revolution in -education; it enlisted the interests of religion in the service -of instruction, and associated knowledge with faith. This is the -reason that, for three centuries, the Protestant nations have led -humanity in the matter of primary instruction. - - -124. CALVIN (1509-1564), MELANCTHON (1497-1560), ZWINGLI -(1484-1532).--However, all the Protestant Reformers were far from -exhibiting the same zeal in behalf of primary instruction. Calvin, -absorbed in religious struggles and polemics, was not occupied -with the organization of schools till towards the close of his -life, and even the college that he founded at Geneva, in 1559, was -scarcely more than a school for the study of Latin. Melancthon, who -has been called “the preceptor of Germany,” worked more for high -schools than for schools for the people. He was above all else a -professor of Belles-Lettres; and it was with chagrin that he saw -his courses in the University of Wittenberg deserted by students -when he lectured on the _Olynthiacs_ of Demosthenes. Before Calvin -and Melancthon, the Swiss reformer Zwingli had shown his great -interest in primary teaching, in his little book “upon the manner -of instructing and bringing up boys in a Christian way” (1524). In -this he recommended natural history, arithmetic, and also exercises -in fencing, in order to furnish the country with timely defenders. - - -125. LUTHER (1483-1546).--The German reformer Luther is, of all his -co-religionists, the one who has served the cause of elementary -instruction with the most ardor. He not only addressed a pressing -appeal to the ruling classes in behalf of founding schools for -the people, but, by his influence, methods of instruction were -improved, and the educational spirit was renewed in accordance -with the principles of Protestantism. “Spontaneity,” it has been -said, not without some exaggeration, “free thought, and free -inquiry, are the basis of Protestantism; where it has reigned, -there have disappeared the method of repeating and of learning by -heart without reflection, mechanism, subjection to authority, the -paralysis of the intelligence oppressed by dogmatic instruction, -and science put in tutelage by the beliefs of the Church.”[95] - - -126. APPEAL ADDRESSED TO THE MAGISTRATES AND LEGISLATORS OF -GERMANY.--In 1524, Luther, in a special document addressed to -the public authorities of Germany, forcibly expressed himself -against the neglect into which the interests of instruction had -fallen. This appeal has this characteristic, that the great -reformer, while assuming that the Church is the mother of the -school, seems especially to count on the secular arm, upon the -power of the people, to serve his purposes in the cause of -universal instruction. “Each city,” he said, “is subjected to great -expense every year for the construction of roads, for fortifying -its ramparts, and for buying arms and equipping soldiers. Why -should it not spend an equal sum for the support of one or two -school-masters? The prosperity of a city does not depend solely on -its natural riches, on the solidity of its walls, on the elegance -of its mansions, and on the abundance of arms in its arsenals; -but the safety and strength of a city reside above all in a -good education, which furnishes it with instructed, reasonable, -honorable, and well-trained citizens.”[96] - - -127. DOUBLE UTILITY OF INSTRUCTION.--A remarkable fact about Luther -is, that as a preacher of instruction, he does not speak merely -from the religious point of view. After having recommended schools -as institutions auxiliary to the Church, he makes a resolute -argument from the human point of view. “Were there neither soul, -heaven, nor hell,” he says, “it would still be necessary to have -schools for the sake of affairs here below, as the history of -the Greeks and the Romans plainly teaches. The world has need of -educated men and women, to the end that the men may govern the -country properly, and that the women may properly bring up their -children, care for their domestics, and direct the affairs of their -households.” - - -128. NECESSITY OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.--The objection will perhaps -be made, says Luther, that for the education of children the home -is sufficient, and that the school is useless: “To this I reply: -We clearly see how the boys and girls are educated who remain at -home.” He then shows that they are ignorant and “stupid,” incapable -of taking part in conversation, of giving good advice, and without -any experience of life; while, if they had been educated in the -schools, by teachers who could give instruction in the languages, -in the arts, and in history, they might in a little time gather -up within themselves, as in a mirror, the experience of whatever -has happened since the beginning of the world; and from this -experience, he adds, they would derive the wisdom they need for -self-direction and for giving wise counsel to others. - - -129. CRITICISM OF THE SCHOOLS OF THE PERIOD.--But since there must -be public schools, can we not be content with those which already -exist? Luther replies by proving that parents neglect to send their -children to them, and by denouncing the uselessness of the results -obtained by those who attend them. “We find people,” he says, “who -serve God in strange ways. They fast and wear coarse clothing, but -they pass blindly by the true divine service of the home,--they do -not know how to bring up their children.... Believe me, it is much -more necessary to give attention to your children and to provide -for their education than to purchase indulgencies, to visit foreign -churches, or to make solemn vows.... All people, especially the -Jews, oblige their children to go to school more than Christians -do. This is why the state of Christianity is so low, for all its -force and power are in the rising generation; and if these are -neglected, there will be Christian churches like a garden that has -been neglected in the spring-time.... Every day children are born -and are growing up, and, unfortunately, no one cares for the poor -young people, no one thinks to train them; they are allowed to go -as they will. Was it not lamentable to see a lad study in twenty -years and more only just enough bad Latin to enable him to become a -priest, and to go to mass? And he who attained to this was counted -a very happy being! Right happy the mother who bore such a child! -And he has remained all his life a poor unlettered man. Everywhere -we have seen such teachers and masters, who knew nothing themselves -and could teach nothing that was good and useful; they did not even -know how to learn and to teach. Has anything else been learned up -to this time in the high schools and in the convents except to -become asses and blockheads? ...” - - -130. ORGANIZATION OF THE NEW SCHOOLS.--So Luther resolves on the -organization of new schools. The cost of their maintenance he makes -a charge on the public treasury; he demonstrates to parents the -moral obligation to have their children instructed in them; to -the duty of conscience he adds civil obligation; and, finally, he -gives his thought to the means of recruiting the teaching service. -“Since the greatest evil in every place is the lack of teachers, we -must not wait till they come forward of themselves; we must take -the trouble to educate them and prepare them.” To this end Luther -keeps the best of the pupils, boys and girls, for a longer time in -school; gives them special instructors, and opens libraries for -their use. In his thought he never distinguishes women teachers -from men teachers; he wants schools for girls as well as for boys. -Only, not to burden parents and divert children from their daily -labor, he requires but little time for school duties. “You ask: -Is it possible to get along without our children, and bring them -up like gentlemen? Is it not necessary that they work at home? I -reply: I by no means approve of those schools where a child was -accustomed to pass twenty or thirty years in studying Donatus or -Alexander[97] without learning anything. Another world has dawned, -in which things go differently. My opinion is that we must send the -boys to school one or two hours a day, and have them learn a trade -at home for the rest of the time. It is desirable that these two -occupations march side by side. As it now is, children certainly -spend twice as much time in playing ball, running the streets, and -playing truant. And so the girls can equally well devote nearly the -same time to school, without neglecting their home duties; they -lose more time than this in over-sleeping and in dancing more than -is meet.” - - -131. PROGRAMME OF STUDIES.--Luther gives the first place to the -teaching of religion: “Is it not reasonable that every Christian -should know the Gospel at the age of nine or ten?” - -Then come the languages, not, as might be hoped, the mother tongue, -but the learned languages, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. Luther had -not yet been sufficiently rid of the old spirit to comprehend that -the language of the people ought to be the basis of universal -instruction. He left to Comenius the glory of making the final -separation of the primary school from the Latin school. But yet, -Luther gave excellent advice for the study of languages, which must -be learned, he said, less in the abstract rules of grammar than in -their concrete reality. - -Luther recommends the mathematics, and also the study of nature; -but he has a partiality for history and historians, who are, he -says, “the best people and the best teachers,” on the condition -that they do not tamper with the truth, and that “they do not make -obscure the work of God.” - -Of the liberal arts of the Middle Age, Luther does not make much -account. He rightly says of dialectics, that it is no equivalent -for real knowledge, and that it is simply “an instrument by which -we render to ourselves an account of what we know.” - -Physical exercises are not forgotten in Luther’s pedagogical -regulations. But he attaches an especial importance to singing. -“Unless a schoolmaster know how to sing, I think him of no -account.” “Music,” he says again, “is a half discipline which makes -men more indulgent and more mild.” - - -132. PROGRESS IN METHODS.--At the same time that he extends the -programme of studies, Luther introduces a new spirit into methods. -He wishes more liberty and more joy in the school. - -“Solomon,” he says, “is a truly royal schoolmaster. He does not, -like the monks, forbid the young to go into the world and be -happy. Even as Anselm said: ‘A young man turned aside from the -world is like a young tree made to grow in a vase.’ The monks have -imprisoned young men like birds in their cage. It is dangerous to -isolate the young. It is necessary, on the contrary, to allow young -people to hear, see, and learn all sorts of things, while all the -time observing the restraints and the rules of honor. Enjoyment -and recreation are as necessary for children as food and drink. -The schools till now were veritable prisons and hells, and the -schoolmaster a tyrant.... A child intimidated by bad treatment is -irresolute in all he does. He who has trembled before his parents -will tremble all his life at the sound of a leaf which rustles in -the wind.” - -These quotations will suffice to make appreciated the large and -liberal spirit of Luther, and the range of his thought as an -educator. No one has more extolled the office of the teacher, of -which he said, when comparing it to preaching, it is the work of -all others the noblest, the most useful, and the best; “and yet,” -he added, “I do not know which of these two professions is the -better.” - -Do not let ourselves imagine, however, that Luther at once -exercised a decisive influence on the current education of his day. -A few schools were founded, called writing schools; but the Thirty -Years’ War, and other events, interrupted the movement of which -Luther has the honor of having been the originator. - - -133. THE STATES GENERAL OF ORLEANS (1560).--While in Germany, under -the impulse of Luther, primary schools began to be established, -France remained in the background. Let us note, however, the -desires expressed by the States General of Orleans, in 1560:-- - -“May it please the king,” it was said in the memorial of the -nobility, “to levy a contribution upon the church revenues for the -reasonable support of teachers and men of learning in every city -and village, for the instruction of the needy youth of the country; -and let all parents be required, under penalty of a fine, to send -their children to school, and let them be constrained to observe -this law by the lords and the ordinary magistrates.” - -It was demanded, in addition, that public lectures be given on -the Sacred Scriptures in _intelligible language_, that is, in the -mother tongue. But these demands, so earnest and democratic, of the -Protestant nobility of sixteenth century France, were not regarded. -With the fall of Protestantism, the cause of primary instruction in -France was doomed to a long eclipse. The nobles of the seventeenth -and eighteenth centuries did not think of petitioning again for -the education of the people, and Diderot could truthfully say of -them: “The nobility complain of the farm laborers who know how to -read. Perhaps the chief grievance of the nobility reduces itself -to this: that a peasant who knows how to read is more difficult to -oppress than another.” - - -134. RATICH (1571-1635).--In the first half of the seventeenth -century, Ratich, a German, and Comenius, a Slave, were, with very -different degrees of merit, the heirs of the educational thought of -Luther. - -With something of the charlatan and the demagogue, Ratich devoted -his life to propagating a novel art of teaching, which he called -_didactics_, and to which he attributed marvels. He pretended, by -his _method of languages_, to teach Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, in -six months. But nevertheless, out of many strange performances and -lofty promises, there issue some thoughts of practical value. The -first merit of Ratich was to give the mother tongue, the German -language, the precedence over the ancient languages. An English -educational writer, Mr. R. H. Quick, in his _Essays on Educational -Reformers_ (1874), has thus summed up the essential principles of -the pedagogy of Ratich: 1. Everything should be taught in its own -time and order, and according to the natural method, in passing -from the more easy to the more difficult. 2. Only one thing should -be learned at a time. “We do not cook at the same time in one -pot, soup, meat, fish, milk, and vegetables.” 3. The same thing -should be repeated several times. 4. By means of these frequent -repetitions, the pupil will have nothing to learn by heart. 5. -All school-books should be written on the same plan. 6. The thing -as a whole should be made known before the thing in its details, -and the sequence should be from the general to the special. 7. -In every case we should proceed by induction and experiment. -Ratich especially means by this that we must make an end of mere -authority, and of the testimony of the ancients, and must appeal to -individual reason. 8. Finally, everything should be learned without -coercion. Coercion and the rod are contrary to nature, and disgust -the young with study. The human understanding learns with pleasure -all that it ought to retain. It does not seem that Ratich knew how -to draw from these principles, which, by the way, are not true save -under certain corrections, all the happy results that are contained -in them. He left to Comenius the glory of applying the new spirit -to actual practice. - - -135. COMENIUS (1592-1671).--For a long time unknown and -unappreciated, Comenius has finally received from our -contemporaries the admiration that is due him. Michelet speaks of -him with enthusiasm as “that rare genius, that gentle, fertile, -universal scholar”;[98] and he calls him the first evangelist -of modern pedagogy, Pestalozzi being the second. It is easy to -justify this appreciation. The character of Comenius equals his -intelligence. Through a thousand obstacles he devoted his long -life to the work of popular instruction. With a generous ardor he -consecrated himself to infancy. He wrote twenty works and taught -in twenty cities. Moreover, he was the first to form a definite -conception of what the elementary studies should be. He determined, -nearly three hundred years ago, with an exactness that leaves -nothing to be desired, the division of the different grades of -instruction. He exactly defined some of the essential laws of the -art of teaching. He applied to pedagogy, with remarkable insight, -the principles of modern logic. Finally, as Michelet has said, -he was the Galileo, we would rather say, the Bacon, of modern -education. - - -136. BACONIAN INSPIRATION.--The special aims of pedagogy are -essentially related to the general aims of science. All progress -in science has its corresponding effects on education. When an -innovator has modified the laws for the discovery of truth, other -innovators appear, who modify, in their turn, the rules for -instruction. To a new logic almost necessarily corresponds a new -pedagogy. - -Now Bacon, at the opening of the seventeenth century, had opened -unknown routes to scientific investigation. For the abstract -processes of thought, for the barren comparison of propositions -and words, in which the whole art of the syllogism consisted, the -author of the _Novum Organum_ had substituted the concrete study -of reality, the living and fruitful observation of nature. The -mechanism of deductive reasoning was replaced by the slow and -patient interpretation of facts. It no longer answered to analyze -with docile spirit principles that were assumed, right or wrong, as -absolute truths; nor to become expert in handling the syllogism, -which, like a mill running dry, often produced but little flour. -It was now necessary to open the eyes to the contemplation of the -universe, and by sense intuition, by observation, by experiment, -and by induction, to penetrate its secrets, and determine its laws. -It was necessary to ascend, step by step, from the knowledge of the -simplest things to the discovery of the most general laws; and, -finally, to demand of nature herself to reveal all that the human -intelligence, in its solitary meditations, is powerless to discover. - -Looking at this subject more closely, this revolution in science, -so important from the point of view of speculative inquiry, and -destined to change the aspect of the sciences, also contained in -itself a revolution in education. For this purpose, all that was -needed was to apply to the development of the intelligence and -to the communication of knowledge the rules proposed by Bacon for -the investigation of truth. The laws of scientific induction might -become the laws for the education of the soul. No more setting -out with abstract principles, imposed by authority; but facts -intuitively apprehended, gathered by observation and verified by -experiment; the order of nature faithfully followed; a cautious -progression from the simplest and most elementary ideas to the most -difficult and most complex truths; the knowledge of things instead -of an analysis of words,--such was to be the character of the new -system of instruction. In other terms, it was possible to make -the child follow, in order to lead him to know and to comprehend -the capitalized truths that constitute the basis of elementary -instruction, the same method that Bacon recommended to scholars for -the discovery of unknown truths.[99] - -It is this conversion, or, as we might say, this translation, of -the maxims of the Baconian logic into pedagogical rules, that -Comenius attempted, and this is why he has been called “the father -of the intuitive method.” He was nourished, intellectually, by the -reading of Bacon, whom he resembles, not only in his ideas, but -also in his figurative and often allegorical language. Even the -title of one of his books, _Didactica Magna_, recalls the title of -Bacon’s _Instauratio Magna_. - - -137. THE LIFE OF COMENIUS.--To know Comenius and the part he played -in the seventeenth century, to appreciate this grand educational -character, it would be necessary to begin by relating his life; his -misfortunes; his journeys to England, where Parliament invoked his -aid; to Sweden, where the Chancellor Oxenstiern employed him to -write manuals of instruction; especially his relentless industry, -his courage through exile, and the long persecutions he suffered as -a member of the sect of dissenters, the Moravian Brethren; and the -schools he founded at Fulneck, in Bohemia, at Lissa and at Patak, -in Poland. But it would require too much of our space to follow in -its incidents and catastrophes that troubled life, which, in its -sudden trials, as in the firmness that supported them, recalls the -life of Pestalozzi.[100] - - -138. HIS PRINCIPAL WORKS.--Comenius wrote a large number of books -in Latin, in German, and in Czech; but of these only a few are -worthy to engage the attention of the educator. In his other works -he allows himself to go off on philosophic excursions, and to -indulge in mystic reveries, led by his ardor to find what he called -_pansophia_, wisdom or universal knowledge. In this wilderness -of publications destined to oblivion, we shall notice only three -works, which contain the general principles of the pedagogy of -Comenius, and the applications which he has made of his method:-- - -1. The _Didactica Magna_, the _Great Didactics_ (written in Czech -at about 1630, and rewritten in Latin at about 1640). In this -work Comenius sets forth his principles, his general theories -on education, and also his peculiar views on the practical -organization of schools. It is to be regretted that a French -translation has not yet popularized this important book, that would -be worthy a place beside the _Thoughts_ of Locke and the _Émile_ of -Rousseau.[101] - -2. The _Janua linguarum reserata_, the _Gate of Tongues Unlocked_ -(1631). In the thought of the author, this was a new method of -learning the languages. Comenius, led astray on this point by his -religious prejudices, wished to banish the Latin authors from -the schools, “for the purpose,” he said, “of reforming studies -in the true spirit of Christianity.” Consequently, in order to -replace the classical authors, which he repudiated for this further -reason, that the reading of them is too difficult, and to make -a child study them “is to wish to push out into the vast ocean -a tiny bark that should be allowed only to sport on a little -lake,” he had formed the idea of composing a collection of phrases -distributed into a hundred chapters. These phrases, to the number -of a thousand, at first very simple, and of a single member, then -longer and more complicated, were formed of two thousand words, -chosen from among the most common and the most useful. Moreover, -the hundred chapters of the Janua taught the child, in succession -and in a methodical order, all the things in the universe,--the -elements, the metals, the stars, the animals, the organs of the -body, the arts and trades, etc., etc. In other terms, the -_Janua linguarum_ is a nomenclature of ideas and words designed to -fix the attention of the child upon everything he ought to know -of the world. Divested of the Latin text that accompanies it, the -_Janua_ is a first reading-book, very defective doubtless, but it -gives proof of a determined effort to adapt to the intelligence of -the child the knowledge that he ought to acquire. - -3. The _Orbis sensualium pictus_, the _Illustrated World of -Sensible Objects_, the most popular of the author’s works (1658). -It is the _Janua linguarum_ accompanied with pictures, in lieu -of real objects, representing to the child the things that he -hears spoken of, as fast as he learns their names. The _Orbis -pictus_, the first practical application of the intuitive method, -had an extraordinary success, and has served as a model for the -innumerable illustrated books which for three centuries have -invaded the schools. - -[Illustration: Geometria. - -Die Erdmesskunst. - -(Facsimile of illustration in the _Orbis Pictus_ of Comenius.)] - -[Illustration: (Facsimile of page of text of the _Orbis Pictus_.)] - - -139. THE FOUR GRADES OF INSTRUCTION.--We must not require a man of -the seventeenth century to abjure Latin studies. Comenius prizes -them highly; but at least he is wise enough to put them in their -place, and does not confound them, as Luther did, with elementary -studies. - -Nothing could be more exact, more clearly cut, than the scholastic -organization proposed by Comenius. We shall find in it what -the experience of three centuries has finally sanctioned and -established, the distribution of schools into these grades,--infant -schools, primary schools, secondary schools, and higher schools. - -The first grade of instruction is the _maternal school_, the school -_by the mother’s knee_, _materni gremii_, as Comenius calls it. -The mother is the first teacher. Up to the age of six the child -is taught by her; he is initiated by her into those branches of -knowledge that he will pursue in the primary school. - -The second grade is the _elementary public school_. All the -children, girls and boys, enter here at six, and leave at twelve. -The characteristic of this school is that the instruction there -given is in the mother tongue, and this is why Comenius calls it -the “common” school, _vernacula_, a term given by the Romans to the -language of the people. - -The third grade is represented by the _Latin school_ or -_gymnasium_. Thither are sent the children from twelve to -eighteen years of age for whom has been reserved a more complete -instruction, such as we would now call secondary instruction. - -Finally, to the fourth grade correspond the _academies_, that -is, institutions of higher instruction, opened to young men from -eighteen to twenty-four years of age. - -The child, if he is able, will traverse these four grades in -succession; but, in the thought of Comenius, the studies should be -so arranged in the elementary schools, that in leaving them, the -pupil shall have a general education which makes it unnecessary for -him to go farther, if his condition in life does not destine him to -pursue the courses of the Latin School. - -“We pursue,” says Comenius, “a general education, the teaching to -all men of all the subjects of human concern.... The purpose of the -people’s school shall be that all children of both sexes, from the -tenth to the twelfth or the thirteenth year, may be instructed in -that knowledge which is useful during the whole of life.” - -This was an admirable definition of the purpose of the primary -school. A thing not less remarkable is that Comenius establishes an -elementary school in each village:-- - -“There should be a maternal school in each family; an elementary -school in each district; a gymnasium in each city; an academy in -each kingdom, or even in each considerable province.” - - -140. ELEMENTARY INITIATION INTO ALL THE STUDIES.--One of the most -novel and most original ideas of the great Slavic educator is the -wish that, from the earliest years of his life, the child may -acquire some elementary notions of all the sciences that he is to -study at a later period. From the cradle, the gaze of the infant, -guided by the mother, should be directed to all the objects that -surround him, so that his growing powers of reflection will be -brought into play in working on these sense intuitions. “Thus, -from the moment he begins to speak, the child comes to know -himself, and, by his daily experience, certain general and abstract -expressions; he comes to comprehend the meaning of the words -_something_, _nothing_, _thus_, _otherwise_, _where_, _similar_, -_different_; and what are generalizations and the categories -expressed by these words but the rudiments of metaphysics? In the -domain of physics, the infant can learn to know water, earth, -air, fire, rain, snow, etc., as well as the names and uses of -the parts of his body, or at least of the external members and -organs. He will take his first lesson in optics in learning to -distinguish light, darkness, and the different colors; and in -astronomy, in noticing the sun, the moon, and the stars, and in -observing that these heavenly bodies rise and set every day. In -geography, according to the place where he lives, he will be shown -a mountain, a valley, a plain, a river, a village, a hamlet, a -city, etc. In chronology, he will be taught what an hour is, a -day, a week, a year, summer, winter, yesterday, the day before -yesterday, to-morrow, the day after to-morrow, etc. History, such -as his age will allow him to conceive, will consist in recalling -what has recently passed, in taking account of it, and in noting -the part that this one or that has taken in such or such an affair. -Arithmetic, geometry, statistics, mechanics, will not remain -strangers to him. He will acquire the elements of these sciences in -distinguishing the difference between little and much, in learning -to count up to ten, in observing that three is more than two; that -one added to three makes four; in learning the sense of the words -_great_ and _small_, _long_ and _short_, _wide_ and _narrow_, -_heavy_ and _light_; in drawing lines, curves, circles, etc.; in -seeing goods measured with a yard-stick; in weighing an object in -a balance; in trying to make something or to take it to pieces, as -all children love to do. - -“In this impulse to construct and destroy, there is but the effort -of the little intelligence to succeed in making or building -something for himself; so that, instead of opposing the child in -this, he should be encouraged and guided.” - -“The grammar of the first period will consist in learning to -pronounce the mother tongue correctly. The child may receive -elementary notions even of politics, in observing that certain -persons assemble at the city hall, and that they are called -councillors; and that among these persons there is one called -mayor, etc.”[102] - - -141. THE PEOPLE’S SCHOOL.--Divided into six classes, the people’s -school should prepare the child either for active life or for the -higher courses. Comenius sends here not only the sons of peasants -and workmen, but the sons of the middle class or of the nobility, -who will afterwards enter the Latin school. In other terms, the -study of Latin is postponed till the age of twelve; and up to that -period all children must receive a thorough primary education, -which will comprise, with the mother tongue, arithmetic, geometry, -singing, the salient facts of history, the elements of the -natural sciences, and religion. The latest reforms in secondary -instruction, which, only within a very late period, have postponed -the study of Latin till the sixth year,[103] and which till then -keep the pupil upon the subjects of primary instruction,--what are -they but the distant echo of the thought of Comenius? Let it be -noted, too, that the plan of Comenius gave to its primary school a -complete encyclopædic course of instruction, which was sufficient -for its own ends, but which, while remaining elementary, was a -whole, and not a beginning.[104] - -Surely, the programme of studies devised by Comenius did not fail -in point of insufficiency; we may be allowed, on the contrary, to -pronounce it too extended, too crowded, conformed rather to the -generous dreams of an innovator than to a prudent appreciation of -what is practically possible; and we need not be astonished that, -to lighten in part the heavy burden that is imposed on the teacher, -Comenius had the notion of dividing the school into sections which -assistants, chosen from among the best pupils, should instruct -under the supervision of the master. - - -142. SITE OF THE SCHOOL.--One is not a complete educator -save on the condition of providing for the exterior and -material organization of the school, as well as for its moral -administration. In this respect, Comenius is still deserving of our -encomiums. He requires a yard for recreation, and demands that the -school-house have a gay and cheerful aspect. The question had been -discussed before him by Vives (1492-1540). - -“There should be chosen,” says the Spanish educator, “a healthful -situation, so that the pupils may not one day have to take -their flight, dispersed by the fear of an epidemic. Firm health -is necessary to those who would heartily and profitably apply -themselves to the study of the sciences. And the place selected -should be isolated from the crowd, and especially at a distance -from occupations that are noisy, such as those of smiths, -stone-masons, machinists, wheelwrights, and weavers. However, I -would not have the situation too cheerful and attractive, lest it -might suggest to the scholars the taking of too frequent walks.” - -But these considerations that do honor to Vives and to Comenius, -were scarcely in harmony with the resources then at the disposal of -the friends of instruction. There was scarcely occasion seriously -to consider how school-houses should be constructed and situated, -at a period when the most often there were no school-houses -existing. “In winter,” says Platter, “we slept in the school-room, -and in summer in the open air.”[105] - - -143. SENSE INTUITIONS.--If Comenius has traced with a master hand -the general organization of the primary school, he has no less -merit in the matter of methods. - -When they recommend the observation of sensible things as the first -intellectual exercise, modern educators do but repeat what Comenius -said three centuries ago. - -“In the place of dead books, why should we not open the living -book of nature? ... To instruct the young is not to beat into them -by repetition a mass of words, phrases, sentences, and opinions -gathered out of authors; but it is to open their understanding -through things.... - -“The foundation of all knowledge consists in correctly representing -sensible objects to our senses, so that they can be comprehended -with facility. I hold that this is the basis of all our other -activities, since we could neither act nor speak wisely unless -we adequately comprehended what we were to do and say. Now it -is certain that _there is nothing in the understanding that was -not first in the senses_, and, consequently, it is to lay the -foundation of all wisdom, of all eloquence, and of all good and -prudent conduct, carefully to train the senses to note with -accuracy the differences between natural objects; and as this -point, important as it is, is ordinarily neglected in the schools -of to-day, and as objects are proposed to scholars that they do not -understand because they have not been properly represented to their -senses or to their imagination, it is for this reason, on the one -hand, that the toil of teaching, and on the other, that the pain of -learning, have become so burdensome and so unfruitful.... - -“We must offer to the young, not the shadows of things, but the -things themselves, which impress the senses and the imagination. -Instruction should commence with a real observation of things, and -not with a verbal description of them.” - -We see that Comenius accepts the doctrine of Bacon, even to his -absolute sensationalism. In his pre-occupation with the importance -of instruction through the senses, he goes so far as to ignore that -other source of knowledge and intuitions, the inner consciousness. - - -144. SIMPLIFICATION OF GRAMMATICAL STUDY.--The first result of the -experimental method applied to instruction, is to simplify grammar -and to relieve it from the abuse of abstract rules. “Children,” -says Comenius, “need examples and things which they can see, and -not abstract rules.” - -And in the _Preface_ of the _Janua linguarum_, he dwells upon the -faults of the old method employed for the study of languages. - -“It is a thing self-evident, that the true and proper way of -teaching languages has not been recognized in the schools up to the -present time. The most of those who devoted themselves to the study -of letters grew old in the study of words, and upwards of ten years -was spent in the study of Latin alone; indeed, they even spent -their whole life in the study, with a very slow and very trifling -profit, which did not pay for the trouble devoted to it.”[106] It -is by use and by reading that Comenius would abolish the abuse -of rules. Rules ought to intervene only to aid use and give it -surety. The pupil will thus learn language, either in speaking, or -in reading a book like the _Orbis Pictus_, in which he will find -at the same time all the words of which the language itself is -composed, and examples of all the constructions of its syntax. - - -145. NECESSITY OF DRILL AND PRACTICE.--Another essential point -in the new method, is the importance attributed by Comenius -to practical exercises: “Artisans,” he said, “understand this -matter perfectly well. Not one of them will give an apprentice a -theoretical course on his trade. He is allowed to notice what is -done by his master, and then the tool is put in his hands: it is in -smiting that one becomes a smith.”[107] - -It is no longer the thing to repeat mechanically a lesson learned -by heart. There must be a gradual habituation to action, to -productive work, to personal effort. - - -146. GENERAL BEARING OF THE WORK OF COMENIUS.--How many other new -and judicious ideas we shall have to gather from Comenius! The -methods which we would be tempted to consider as wholly recent, his -imagination had already suggested to him. For example, preceding -the _Orbis Pictus_, we find an alphabet, where to each letter -corresponds the cry of an animal, or else a sound familiar to the -child. Is not this already the very essence of the phononimic -processes[108] brought into fashion in these last years? But what -is of more consequence with Comenius than a few happy discoveries -in practical pedagogy, is the general inspiration of his work. He -gives to education a psychological basis in demanding that the -faculties shall be developed in their natural order: first, the -senses, the memory, the imagination, and lastly the judgment and -the reason. He is mindful of physical exercises, of technical and -practical instruction, without forgetting that in the primary -schools, which he calls the “studios of humanity,” there must be -trained, not only strong and skilful artisans, but virtuous and -religious men, imbued with the principles of order and justice. If -he has stepped from theology to pedagogy, and if he permits himself -sometimes to be borne along by his artless bursts of mysticism, at -least he does not forget the necessities of the real condition, -and of the present life of men. “The child,” he says, “shall learn -only what is to be useful to him in this life or in the other.” -Finally, he does not allow himself to be absorbed in the minute -details of school management. He has higher views,--he is working -for the regeneration of humanity. Like Leibnitz, he would freely -say: “Give me for a few years the direction of education, and I -agree to transform the world!” - - - [147. ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.--1. Decisive changes in human opinion, - political, religious, or scientific, involve corresponding - changes in the purposes and methods of education. - - 2. The Reformation was a breaking with authority in matters - of religion, as the Baconian philosophy was a breaking with - authority in matters of science; and their joint effect on - education was to subject matters of opinion, belief, and - knowledge to the individual reason, experience, and observation. - - 3. In holding each human being responsible for his own salvation, - the Reformation made it necessary for every one to read, and the - logical consequence of this was to make instruction universal; - and as schools were multiplied, the number of teachers must be - increased, and their grade of competence raised. - - 4. The conception that ignorance is an evil, and a constant - menace to spiritual and temporal safety, led to the idea of - compulsory school-attendance. - - 5. In the recoil from the intuitions of the intellect sanctioned - by Socrates, to the intuitions of the senses sanctioned by Bacon, - education passed from an extreme dependence on reflection and - reason, to an extreme dependence on sense and observation; so - that inference has been thrown into discredit, and the verdict - of the senses has been made the test of knowledge. - - 6. In adapting the conception of universal education to the - social conditions of his time, Comenius was led to a gradation of - schools that underlies all modern systems of public instruction.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[95] Dittes, _op. cit._ p. 127. - -[96] Luther’s argument for compulsion should not be omitted: -“It is my opinion that the authorities are bound to force their -subjects to send their children to school.... If they can oblige -their able-bodied subjects to carry the lance and the arquebuse, to -mount the ramparts, and to do complete military service, for a much -better reason may they, and ought they, to force their subjects to -send their children to school, for here it is the question of a -much more terrible war with the devil.” (P.) - -[97] Names for treatises on grammar and philosophy respectively. -Donatus was a celebrated grammarian and rhetorician who taught -at Rome in the middle of the fourth century A.D.; and Alexander, -a celebrated Greek commentator on the writings of Aristotle, who -taught the Peripatetic philosophy at Athens in the end of the -second and the beginning of the third centuries A.D. (P.) - -[98] Michelet, _Nos fils_, p. 175 _et seq._ - -[99] This is, perhaps, the earliest appearance of the conception -that learning should be a process of discovery or of re-discovery. -Condillac (1715-1780) has elaborated this idea in the introduction -to his _Grammaire_, and Spencer (_Education_, p. 122) makes it a -fundamental law of teaching. If this assumed principle were to be -rigorously applied, as, fortunately, it cannot be, progress in -human knowledge would be impossible. Mr. Bain’s comment on this -doctrine (_Education as a Science_, p. 94) is as follows: “This -bold fiction is sometimes put forward as one of the regular arts of -the teacher; but I should prefer to consider it as an extraordinary -device, admissible only on special occasions.” (P.) - -[100] It may not be generally known that Comenius was once -solicited to become the President of Harvard College. The following -is a quotation from Vol. II., p. 14, of Cotton Mather’s _Magnalia_: -“That brave old man, Johannes Amos Commenius, the fame of whose -worth hath been _trumpetted_ as far as more than three languages -(whereof every one is indebted unto his _Janua_) could carry it, -was indeed agreed withal, by our Mr. Winthrop in his travels -through the _low countries_, to come over into New England, and -illuminate this Colledge and _country_, in the quality of a -President, which was now become vacant. But the solicitations of -the Swedish Ambassador diverting him another way, that incomparable -Moravian became not an American.” This was on the resignation of -President Dunster, in 1654. (P.) - -[101] The most complete account ever written of Comenius and his -writings is, “John Amos Comenius,” by S. S. Laurie (Boston: 1885). -It is an invaluable contribution to the philosophy and the history -of education. (P.) - -[102] Buisson’s _Dictionnaire de Pédagogie_, Article COMENIUS. - -[103] In the French Lycées and Colleges the grades are named as -follows, beginning with the lowest: “ninth, eighth, seventh, sixth, -fifth, fourth, third, second, rhetoric, philosophy, preparatory -mathematics, elementary mathematics, special mathematics.” Latin -was formerly begun in an earlier grade. - -[104] The public school of the European type may be represented by -a series of (3) pyramids, the second higher than the first, and -the third higher than the second, each independent and complete in -itself; while the public school of the American type is represented -by a single pyramid in three sections. While in an English, French, -or German town, public education is administered in three separate -establishments, in an American town there is a single graded school -that fulfills the same functions. (P.) - -[105] Platter, a Swiss teacher of the sixteenth century (1499-1582). - -[106] For this quotation, as for all those which we borrow from the -preface of the _Janua linguarum_, a French edition of which (in -three languages: Latin, German, and French) appeared in 1643, we -copy from the authentic text. - -[107] There is a misleading fallacy in all such illustrations. What -analogy is there between the learning of history or geology and -the learning of a trade like carpentry? Should a physician and a -blacksmith be educated on the same plan? In every case knowledge -should precede practice; and the liberal arts are best learned by -first learning their correlative sciences. (P.) - -[108] “A process of instruction which consists in placing beside -the elements of human speech thirty-three onomatopoetic gestures, -which recall to the sight the same ideas that the sounds and the -articulations of the voice recall to the ear.”--GROSSELIN. (P.) - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE TEACHING CONGREGATIONS.--JESUITS AND JANSENISTS. - - THE TEACHING CONGREGATIONS; JESUITS AND JANSENISTS; FOUNDATION - OF THE SOCIETY OF JESUS (1540); DIFFERENT JUDGMENTS ON THE - EDUCATIONAL MERITS OF THE JESUITS; AUTHORITIES TO CONSULT; - PRIMARY INSTRUCTION NEGLECTED; CLASSICAL STUDIES; LATIN AND - THE HUMANITIES; NEGLECT OF HISTORY, OF PHILOSOPHY, AND OF THE - SCIENCES IN GENERAL; DISCIPLINE; EMULATION ENCOURAGED; OFFICIAL - DISCIPLINARIAN; GENERAL SPIRIT OF THE PEDAGOGY OF THE JESUITS; - THE ORATORIANS; THE LITTLE SCHOOLS; STUDY OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE; - NEW SYSTEM OF SPELLING; THE MASTERS AND THE BOOKS OF PORT - ROYAL; DISCIPLINE IN PERSONAL REFLECTION; GENERAL SPIRIT OF THE - INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION AT PORT ROYAL; NICOLE; MORAL PESSIMISM; - EFFECTS ON DISCIPLINE; FAULTS IN THE DISCIPLINE OF PORT ROYAL; - GENERAL JUDGMENT ON PORT ROYAL; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY. - - -148. THE TEACHING CONGREGATIONS.[109]--Up to the French Revolution, -up to the day when the conception of a public and national -education was embodied in the legislative acts of our assembled -rulers, education remained almost exclusively an affair of the -Church. The universities themselves were dependent in part on -religious authority. But especially the great congregations assumed -a monopoly of the work of teaching, the direction and control of -which the State had not yet claimed for her right. - -Primary instruction, it is true, scarcely entered at first into the -settled plans of the religious orders. The only exception to this -statement that can properly be made, is the congregation of the -_Christian Doctrine_, which a humble priest, Cæsar de Bus, founded -at Avignon in 1592, the avowed purpose of which was the religious -education of the children of the company.[110] But, on the other -hand, secondary instruction provoked the greatest educational event -of the sixteenth century, the founding of the company of Jesus, -and this movement was continued and extended in the seventeenth -century, either in the colleges of the Jesuits, ever growing in -number, or in other rival congregations. - - -149. JESUITS AND JANSENISTS.--Among the religious orders that have -consecrated their efforts to the work of teaching, the first place -must be assigned to the Jesuits and the Jansenists. Different in -their statutes, their organization, and their destinies, these -two congregations are still more different in their spirit. They -represent, in fact, two opposite, and, as it were, contrary phases -of human nature and of the Christian spirit. For the Jesuits, -education is reduced to a superficial culture of the brilliant -faculties of the intelligence; while the Jansenists, on the -contrary, aspire to develop the solid faculties, the judgment, -and the reason. In the colleges of the Jesuits, rhetoric is held -in honor; while in the Little Schools of Port Royal, it is rather -logic and the exercise of thought. The shrewd disciples of Loyola -adapt themselves to the times, and are full of compassion for human -weakness; the solitaries of Port Royal are exacting of others and -of themselves. In their suppleness and cheerful optimism, the -Jesuits are almost the Epicureans of Christianity; with their -austere and somewhat sombre doctrine, the Jansenists would rather -be the Stoics. The Jesuits and the Jansenists, those great rivals -of the seventeenth century, are still face to face as enemies at -the present moment. While the inspiration of the Jesuits tries to -maintain the old worn-out exercises, like Latin verse, and the -abuse of the memory, the spirit of the Jansenists animates and -inspires the reformers, who, in the teaching of the classics, break -with tradition and routine, to substitute for exercises aimed at -elegance, and for a superficial instruction, studies of a greater -solidity and an education that is more complete. - -The merit of institutions ought not always to be measured by -their apparent success. The colleges of the Jesuits, during three -centuries, have had a countless number of pupils; the Little -Schools of Port Royal did not live twenty years, and during their -short existence they enrolled at most only some hundreds of pupils. -And yet the methods of the Jansenists have survived the ruin of -their colleges and the dispersion of the teachers who had applied -them. Although the Jesuits have not ceased to rule in appearance, -it is the Jansenists who triumph in reality, and who to-day control -the secondary instruction of France. - - -150. FOUNDATION OF THE SOCIETY OF JESUS.--In organizing the Society -of Jesus, Ignatius Loyola, that compound of the mystic and the -man of the world, purposed to establish, not an order devoted to -monastic contemplation, but a real fighting corps, a Catholic army, -whose double purpose was to conquer new provinces to the faith -through missions, and to preserve the old through the control of -education. Solemnly consecrated by the Pope Paul III., in 1540, -the congregation had a rapid growth. As early as the middle of the -sixteenth century, it had several colleges in France, particularly -those of Billom, Mauriac, Rodez, Tournon, and Pamiers. In 1561 -it secured a footing in Paris, notwithstanding the resistance of -the Parliament, of the university, and of the bishops themselves. -A hundred years later it counted nearly fourteen thousand pupils -in the province of Paris alone. The college of Clermont, in 1651, -enrolled more than two thousand young men. The middle and higher -classes assured to the colleges of the society an ever-increasing -membership. At the end of the seventeenth century, the Jesuits -could inscribe on the roll of honor of their classes a hundred -illustrious names, among others, those of Condé and Luxembourg, -Fléchier and Bossuet, Lamoignon and Séguier, Descartes, Corneille, -and Molière. In 1710 they controlled six hundred and twelve -colleges and a large number of universities. They were the real -masters of education, and they maintained this educational -supremacy till the end of the eighteenth century. - - -151. DIFFERENT JUDGMENTS ON THE EDUCATIONAL MERITS OF THE -JESUITS.--Voltaire said of these teachers: “The Fathers taught me -nothing but Latin and nonsense.” But from the seventeenth century, -opinions are divided, and the encomiums of Bacon and Descartes -must be offset by the severe judgment of Leibnitz. “In the matter -of education,” says this great philosopher, “the Jesuits have -remained below mediocrity.”[111] Directly to the contrary, Bacon -had written: “As to whatever relates to the instruction of the -young, we must consult the schools of the Jesuits, for there can be -nothing that is better done.”[112] - - -152. AUTHORITIES TO CONSULT.--The Jesuits have never written -anything on the principles and objects of education. We must not -demand of them an exposition of general views, or a confession -of their educational faith. But to make amends, they have drawn -up with precision, with almost infinite attention to details, -the rules and regulations of their course of study. Already, in -1559, the _Constitutions_, probably written by Loyola himself, -devoted a whole book to the organization of the colleges of the -society.[113] But in particular, the _Ratio Studiorum_, published -in 1599, contains a complete scholastic programme, which has -remained for three centuries the invariable educational code of -the congregation. Without doubt, the Jesuits, always ready to -make apparent concessions to the spirit of the times, without -sacrificing anything of their own spirit, and without renouncing -their inflexible purpose, have introduced modifications into their -original rules; but the spirit of their educational practice has -remained the same, and, in 1854, Beckx, the actual general of the -order, could still declare that the _Ratio_ is the immutable rule -of Jesuit education. - - -153. PRIMARY INSTRUCTION NEGLECTED.--A permanent and characteristic -feature of the educational policy of the Jesuits is, that, during -the whole course of their history, they have deliberately neglected -and disdained primary instruction. The earth is covered with their -Latin colleges; and wherever they have been able, they have put -their hands on the institutions for university education; but -in no instance have they founded a primary school. Even in their -establishments for secondary instruction, they entrust the lower -classes to teachers who do not belong to their order, and reserve -to themselves the direction of the higher classes. Must we believe, -as they have declared in order to explain this negligence, that -the only reason for their reserve and their indifference is to be -sought for in the insufficiency of their teaching force? No; the -truth is that the Jesuits neither desire nor love the instruction -of the people. To desire and to love this, there must be faith in -conscience and reason; there must be a belief in human equality. -Now the Jesuits distrust the human intelligence, and administer -only the aristocratic education of the ruling classes, whom they -hope to retain under their own control. They wish to train amiable -gentlemen, accomplished men of the world; they have no conception -of training men. Intellectual culture, in their view, is but a -convenience, imposed on certain classes of the nation by their -rank. It is not a good in itself; it may even become an evil. In -certain hands it is a dangerous weapon. The ignorance of a people -is the best safeguard of its faith, and faith is the supreme end. -So we shall not be astonished to read this in the _Constitutions_:-- - -“None of those who are employed in domestic service on account -of the society, ought to learn to read and write, or, if they -already know these arts, to learn more of them. They shall not be -instructed without the consent of the General, for it suffices for -them to serve with all simplicity and humility our Master, Jesus -Christ.” - - -154. CLASSICAL STUDIES: LATIN AND THE HUMANITIES.--It is only in -secondary instruction that the Jesuits have taken position with -marked success. The basis of their teaching is the study of Latin -and Greek. Their purpose is to monopolize classical studies in -order to make them serve for the propagation of the Catholic faith. -To write in Latin is the ideal which they propose to their pupils. -The first consequence of this is the proscription of the mother -tongue. The _Ratio_ forbids the use of French even in conversation; -it permits it only on holidays. Hence, also, the importance -accorded to Latin and Greek composition, to the explication of -authors, and to the study of grammar, rhetoric, and poetry. It is -to be noted, besides, that the Jesuits put scarcely more into the -hands of their pupils than select extracts, expurgated editions. -They wish, in some sort, to efface from the ancient books whatever -marks the epoch and characterizes the time. They detach fine -passages of eloquence and beautiful extracts of poetry; but they -are afraid, it seems, of the authors themselves; they fear lest the -pupil find in them the old human spirit,--the spirit of nature. -Moreover, in the explication of authors, they pay more attention -to words than to things. They direct the pupil’s attention, -not to the thoughts, but to the elegancies of language, to the -elocutionary effect; in a word, to the form, which, at least, has -no religious character, and can in nowise give umbrage to Catholic -orthodoxy. They fear to awaken reflection and individual judgment. -As Macaulay has said, they seem to have found the point up to which -intellectual culture can be pushed without reaching intellectual -emancipation. - - -155. DISDAIN OF HISTORY, OF PHILOSOPHY, AND OF THE SCIENCES IN -GENERAL.--Preoccupied before all else with purely formal studies, -and exclusively devoted to the exercises which give a training in -the use of elegant language, the Jesuits leave real and concrete -studies in entire neglect. History is almost wholly banished from -their programme. It is only with reference to the Greek and Latin -texts that the teacher should make allusion to the matters of -history which are necessary for the understanding of the passage -under examination. No account is made of modern history, nor of -the history of France. “History,” says a Jesuit Father, “is the -destruction of him who studies it.” This systematic omission of -historical studies suffices to put in its true light the artificial -and superficial pedagogy of the Jesuits, admirably defined by -Beckx, who expresses himself thus:-- - -“The gymnasia will remain what they are by nature, a gymnastic -for the intellect, which consists far less in the assimilation of -real matter, in the acquisition of different knowledges, than in a -culture of pure form.” - -The sciences and philosophy are involved in the same disdain as -history. Scientific studies are entirely proscribed in the lower -classes, and the student enters his year in philosophy,[114] -having studied only the ancient languages. Philosophy itself is -reduced to a barren study of words, to subtile discussions, and to -commentaries on Aristotle. Memory and syllogistic reasoning are the -only faculties called into play; no facts, no real inductions, no -care for the observation of nature. In all things the Jesuits are -the enemies of progress. Intolerant of everything new, they would -arrest the progress of the human mind and make it immovable. - - -156. DISCIPLINE.--Extravagant statements have been made relative -to the reforms in discipline introduced by the Jesuits into their -educational establishments. The fact is, that they have caused to -prevail in their colleges more of order and of system than there -was in the establishments of the University. On the other hand, -they have attempted to please their pupils, to gild for them, so -to speak, the bars of the prison which confined them. Theatrical -representations, excursions on holidays, practice in swimming, -riding, and fencing,--nothing was neglected that could render their -residence at school endurable. - -But, on the other hand, the Jesuits have incurred the grave fault -of detaching the child from the family. They wish to have absolute -control of him. The ideal of the perfect scholar is to forget his -parents. Here is what was said by a pupil of the Jesuits, who -afterwards became a member of the Order, J. B. de Schultaus:-- - -“His mother paid him a visit at the College of Trent. He refused -to take her hand, and would not even raise his eyes to hers. The -mother, astonished and grieved, asked her son the cause of such -a cold greeting. ‘I refuse to notice you,’ said the pupil, ‘not -because you are my mother, but because you are a woman.’ And -the biographer adds: ‘This was not excessive precaution; woman -preserves to-day the faults she had at the time of our first -father; it is always she who drives man from Paradise.’ When the -mother of Schultaus died, he did not show the least emotion, having -long ago adopted the Holy Virgin for his true mother.” - - -157. EMULATION ENCOURAGED.--The Jesuits have always considered -emulation as one of the essential elements of discipline. “It is -necessary,” says the _Ratio_, “to encourage an honorable emulation; -it is a great stimulus to study.” Superior on this point, perhaps -on this alone, to the Jansenists, who through mistrust of human -nature feared to excite pride by encouraging emulation, the Jesuits -have always counted upon the self-love of the pupil. The _Ratio_ -multiplies rewards,--solemn distributions of prizes, crosses, -ribbons, decorations, titles borrowed from the Roman Republic, -such as _decurions_ and _prætors_; all means, even the most -puerile, were invented to nourish in pupils an ardor for work, and -to incite them to surpass one another. Let us add that the pupil -was rewarded, not only for his own good conduct, but for the bad -conduct of his comrades if he informed against them. The _decurion_ -or the _prætor_ was charged with the police care of the class, and, -in the absence of the official disciplinarian, he himself chastised -his comrades; in the hands of his teacher, he became a spy and an -informer. Thus a pupil, liable to punishment for having spoken -French contrary to orders, will be relieved from his punishment if -he can prove by witnesses that one of his comrades has committed -the same fault on the same day. - - -158. OFFICIAL DISCIPLINARIAN.--The rod is an element, so to speak, -of the ancient pedagogical régime. It holds a privileged place both -in the colleges and in private education. Louis XIV. officially -transmits to the Duke of Montausier the right to correct his son. -Henry IV. wrote to the governor of Louis XIII.: “I complain because -you did not inform me that you had whipped my son; for I desire -and order you to whip him every time that he shall be guilty of -obstinacy or of anything else that is bad; for I well know that -there is nothing in the world that can do him more good than that. -This I know from the lessons of experience, for when I was of his -age, I was soundly flogged.”[115] - -The Jesuits, notwithstanding their disposition to make discipline -milder, were careful not to renounce a punishment that was in use -even at court. Only, while the Brethren of the Christian Schools, -according to the regulations of La Salle, chastised the guilty -pupil themselves, the Jesuits did not think it becoming the dignity -of the master to apply the correction himself. They reserved to a -laic the duty of handling the rods. An official disciplinarian, -a domestic, a porter, was charged in all the colleges with the -functions of chief executioner. And while the _Ratio Studiorum_ -recommends moderation, certain witnesses prove that the special -disciplinarian did not always carry a discreet hand. Here, for -example, is an account given by Saint Simon:-- - -“The eldest son of the Marquis of Boufflers was fourteen years old. -He was handsome, well formed, was wonderfully successful, and full -of promise. He was a resident pupil of the Jesuits with the two -sons of d’Argenson. I do not know what indiscretion he and they -were guilty of. The Fathers wished to show that they neither feared -nor stood in awe of any one, and they flogged the boy, because, -in fact, they had nothing to fear of the Marquis of Boufflers; -but they were careful not to treat the two others in this way, -though equally culpable, because every day they had to count with -d’Argenson, who was lieutenant of police. The boy Boufflers was -thrown into such mental agony that he fell sick on the same day, -and within four days was dead.... There was a universal and furious -outcry against the Jesuits, but nothing ever came of it.”[116] - - -159. GENERAL SPIRIT OF THE PEDAGOGY OF THE JESUITS.--The general -principles of the doctrine of the Jesuits are completely opposed to -our modern ideas. Blind obedience, the suppression of all liberty -and of all spontaneity, such is the basis of their moral education. - -“To renounce one’s own wishes is more meritorious than to raise -the dead;” “We must be so attached to the Roman Church as to hold -for black an object which she tells us is black, even when it is -really white;” “Our confidence in God should be strong enough to -force us, in the lack of a boat, to cross the ocean on a single -plank;” “If God should appoint for our master an animal deprived -of reason, you should not hesitate to render it obedience, as to a -master and a guide, for this sole reason, that God has ordered it -thus;” “One must allow himself to be governed by divine Providence -acting through the agency of the superiors of the Order, just as if -he were a dead body that could be put into any position whatever, -and treated according to one’s good pleasure; or as if one were a -bâton in the hands of an old man who uses it as he pleases.” - -As to intellectual education, as they understand it, it is wholly -artificial and superficial. To find for the mind occupations that -absorb it, that soothe it like a dream, without wholly awakening -it; to call attention to words, and to niceties of expression, so -as to reduce by so much the opportunity for thinking; to provoke a -certain degree of intellectual activity, prudently arrested at the -place where the reflective reason succeeds an embellished memory; -in a word, to excite the spirit just enough to arouse it from its -inertia and its ignorance, but not enough to endow it with a real -self-activity by a manly display of all its faculties,--such is -the method of the Jesuits. “As to instruction,” says Bersot, “this -is what we find with them: history reduced to facts and tables, -without the lesson derived from them bearing on the knowledge of -the world; even the facts suppressed or altered when they say too -much; philosophy reduced to what is called empirical doctrine, -and what de Maistre called the philosophy of the nothing, without -danger of one’s acquiring a liking for it; physical science reduced -to recreations, without the spirit of research and liberty; -literature reduced to the complaisant explication of the ancient -authors, and ending in innocent witticisms.... With respect to -letters, there are two loves which have nothing in common save -their name; one of them makes men, the other, great boys. It is the -last that we find with the Jesuits; they amuse the soul.” - - -160. THE ORATORIANS.--Between the Jesuits, their adversaries, -and the Jansenists, their friends, the Oratorians occupy an -intermediate place. They break already with the over-mechanical -education, and with the wholly superficial instruction which -Ignatius Loyola had inaugurated. Through some happy innovations -they approach the more elevated and more profound education of Port -Royal. Founded in 1614, by Bérulle, the Order of the Oratory soon -counted quite a large number of colleges of secondary instruction, -and, in particular, in 1638, the famous college of Juilly. While -with the Jesuits it is rare to meet the names of celebrated -professors, several renowned teachers have made illustrious the -Oratory of the seventeenth century. We note the Père Lamy, author -of _Entretiens sur les Sciences_ (1683); the Père Thomassin, -whom the Oratorians call the “incomparable theologian,” and who -published, from 1681 to 1690, a series of _Methods_ for studying -the languages, philosophy, and letters; Mascaron and Massillon, -who taught rhetoric at the Oratory; the Père Lecointe and the Père -Lelong, who taught history there. All these men unite, in general, -some love of liberty to ardor of religious sentiment; they wish -to introduce more air and more light into the cloister and the -school; they have a taste for the facts of history and the truths -of science; finally, they attempt to found an education at once -liberal and Christian, religious without abuse of devotion, elegant -without refinement, solid without excess of erudition, worthy, -finally, to be counted as one of the first practical tentatives of -modern pedagogy. - -The limits of this study forbid our entering into details. Let us -merely note a few essential points. That which distinguishes the -Oratorians, is, first, a sincere and disinterested love of truth. - -“We love the truth,” says the Père Lamy; “the days do not suffice -to consult her as long as we would wish; or, rather, we never grow -weary of the pleasure we find in studying her. There has always -been that love for letters in this House: those who have governed -it have tried to nourish it. When there is found among us some -penetrating and liberally endowed spirit who has a rare genius for -the sciences, he is discharged from all other duties.”[117] - -Nowhere have ancient letters been more loved than at the Oratory. - -“In his leisure hours the Père Thomassin read only the authors of -the humanities;” and yet French was not there sacrificed to Latin. -The use of the Latin language was not obligatory till after the -fourth year, and even then not for the lessons in history, which, -till the end of the courses, had to be given in French. History, so -long neglected even in the colleges of the University, particularly -the history of France, was taught to the pupils of the Oratory. -Geography was not separated from it; and the class-rooms were -furnished with large mural maps. On the other hand, the sciences -had a place in the course of study. A Jesuit father would not have -expressed himself as the Père Lamy has done:-- - -“It is a pleasure to enter the laboratory of a chemist. In the -places where I have happened to be, I did not miss an opportunity -to attend the anatomical lectures that were given, and to witness -the dissection of the principal parts of the human body.... I know -of nothing of greater use than algebra and arithmetic.” - -Finally, philosophy itself,--the Cartesian philosophy, so -mercilessly decried by the Jesuits,--was in vogue at the Oratory. -“If Cartesianism is a pest,” wrote the regents of the College of -Angers, “there are more than two hundred of us who are infected -with it.” ... “They have forbidden the Fathers of the Oratory to -teach the philosophy of Descartes, and, consequently, the blood to -circulate,” wrote Madame de Sévigné, in 1673. - -Let us also furnish proof of the progress and amelioration of the -discipline at the Oratory:-- - -“There are many other ways besides the rod,” says the Père Lamy; -“and, to lead pupils back to their duty, a caress, a threat, -the hope of a reward, or the fear of a humiliation, has greater -efficiency than whips.” - -The ferule, it is true, and whips also, were not forbidden, but -made part of the _legitima pœnarum genera_. But it does not appear -that use was often made of them; either through a spirit of -mildness, or through prudence, and through the fear of exasperating -the child. - -“There is needed,” says the Père Lamy again, “a sort of politics -to govern this little community,--to lead them through their -inclinations; to foresee the effect of rewards and punishments, and -to employ them according to their proper use. There are times of -stubbornness when a child would sooner be killed than yield.” - -What made it easier at the Oratory to maintain the authority of -the master without resorting to violent punishments, is that the -same professor accompanied the pupils through the whole series -of their classes. The Père Thomassin, for example, was, in turn, -professor of grammar, rhetoric, philosophy, mathematics, history, -Italian, and Spanish,--a touching example, it must be allowed, of -an absolute devotion to scholastic labor. But this universality, -somewhat superficial, served neither the real interests of the -masters nor those of their pupils. The great pedagogical law is the -division of labor. - - -161. FOUNDATION OF THE LITTLE SCHOOLS.--From the very organization -of their society, the Jansenists gave evidences of an ardent -solicitude for the education of youth. Their founder, Saint Cyran, -said: “Education is, in a sense, the _one thing necessary_.... -I wish you might read in my heart the affection I feel for -children.... You could not deserve more of God than in working for -the proper bringing up of children.” It was in this disinterested -feeling of charity for the good of the young, in this display of -sincere tenderness for children, that the Jansenists, in 1643, -founded the Little Schools at Port Royal in the Fields, in the -vicinity, and then in Paris.[118] They received into those schools -only a small number of pupils, preoccupied as they were, not with -dominating the world and extending their influence, but with -doing modestly and obscurely the good they could. Persecution did -not long grant them the leisure to continue the work they had -undertaken. By 1660 the enemies of Port Royal had triumphed; the -Jesuits obtained an order from the king closing the schools and -dispersing the teachers. Pursued, imprisoned, expatriated, the -solitaries of Port Royal had but the opportunity to gather up in -memorable documents the results of their educational experience all -too short.[119] - - -162. THE TEACHERS AND THE BOOKS OF PORT ROYAL.--Singular -destiny,--that of those teachers whom a relentless fate permitted -to exercise their functions for only five years, yet who, through -their works, have remained perhaps the best authorized exponents -of French education! The first of these is Nicole, the moralist -and logician, one of the authors of the Port Royal _Logic_, who -taught philosophy and the humanities in the Little Schools, and who -published in 1670, under the title, _The Education of a Prince_, a -series of reflections on education, applicable, as he himself says, -to children of all classes. Another is Lancelot, the grammarian, -the author of the _Methods_ for learning the Latin, Greek, Italian, -and Spanish languages. Then there is Arnauld, the great Arnauld, -the ardent theologian, who worked on the _Logic_, and the _General -Grammar_, and who finally composed the _Regulation of Studies in -the Humanities_. In connection with these celebrated names, we -must mention other Jansenists not so well known, such as De Sacy -and Guyot, both of whom were the authors of a large number of -translations; Coustel, who published the _Rules for the Education -of Children_ (1687); Varet, the author of _Christian Education_ -(1668). Let us add to this list, still incomplete, the _Regimen for -Children_, by Jacqueline Pascal (1657), and we shall have some idea -of the educational activity of Port Royal. - - -163. THE STUDY OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE.--As a general rule, we may -have a good opinion of the teachers who recommend the study of the -mother tongue. In this respect, the solitaries of Port Royal are in -advance of their time. “We first teach to read in Latin,” said the -Abbé Fleury, “because, compared with French, we pronounce it more -as it is written.”[120] A curious reason, which did not satisfy -Fleury himself; for he acknowledged the propriety of putting, as -soon as possible, into the hands of children, the French books -that they can understand. This was what was done at Port Royal. -With their love of exactness and clearness, with their disposition, -wholly Cartesian, to make children study only the things they can -comprehend, the Jansenists saw at once the great absurdity of -choosing Latin works as the first reading-books. “To learn Latin -before learning the mother tongue,” said Comenius, wittily, “is -like wishing to mount a horse before knowing how to walk.” And -again, as Sainte-Beuve says, “It is to compel unfortunate children -to deal with the unintelligible in order to proceed towards -the unknown.” For these unintelligible texts, the Jansenists -substituted, not, it is true, original French works, but at least -good translations of Latin authors. For the first time in France, -the French language was made the subject of serious study. Before -being made to write in Latin, pupils were drilled in writing in -French. They were set to compose little narratives, little letters, -the subjects of which were borrowed from their recollections, by -being asked to relate on the spot what they had retained of what -they had read. - - -164. NEW SYSTEM OF SPELLING.--In their constant preoccupation to -make study easier, the Jansenists reformed the current method of -learning to read. “What makes reading more difficult,” says Arnauld -in Chapter VI. of the _General Grammar_, “is that while each letter -has its own proper name, it is given a different name when it is -found associated with other letters. For example, if the pupil is -made to read the syllable _fry_, he is made to say _ef_, _ar_, -_y_, which invariably confuses him. It is best, therefore, to -teach children to know the letters only by the names of their real -pronunciation, to name them only by their natural sounds.” Port -Royal proposes, then, “to have children pronounce only the vowels -and the diphthongs, and not the consonants, which they need not -pronounce, except in the different combinations which they form -with the same vowels or diphthongs, in syllables and words.” - -This method has become celebrated under the name of the Port Royal -Method; and it appears, from a letter of Jacqueline Pascal, that -the original notion was due to Pascal himself.[121] - - -165. DISCIPLINE IN PERSONAL REFLECTION.--That which profoundly -distinguishes the method of the Jansenists from the method of the -Jesuits, is that at Port Royal the purpose is less to make good -Latinists than to train sound intelligences. The effort is to call -into activity the judgment and personal reflection. As soon as the -child is capable of it, he is made to think and comprehend. In the -lessons of the class-room, not a word is allowed to pass till the -child has understood its meaning. Only those tasks are proposed -to the child which are adapted to his childish intelligence. His -attention is occupied only with the things that are within the -compass of his powers. - -The grammars of Port Royal are written in French, “because it is -ridiculous,” says Nicole, “to teach the principles of a language in -the very language that is to be learned, and that for the present -is unknown.” Lancelot, in his _Methods_, abbreviates and simplifies -grammatical studies:-- - -“I have found out, at last, how useful this maxim of Ramus -is,--_Few precepts and much practice_: and, also, that as soon as -children begin to know these rules somewhat, it is well to make -them observe them in practice.” - -It is by the reading of authors that the grammar of Port Royal -completes the theoretical study of the rules that are rigidly -reduced to their minimum. The professor, with reference to such or -such a passage of an author, will make appropriate oral remarks. -In this way the example, not the dry and uninteresting one of the -grammar, but the living example, expressive, and, drawn from a -writer that is being read with interest, will precede or accompany -the rule, and the particular case will explain the general law. -This is an excellent method, because it accords with the real -movement of the mind, and adapts the sequence of studies to the -progress of the intelligence, and also because, according to the -advice of Descartes, the child in this way proceeds from the known -to the unknown, from the simple to the complex. - - -166. GENERAL SPIRIT OF THE INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION AT PORT -ROYAL.--Without doubt, we need not expect to find among the -solitaries of Port Royal a disinterested devotion to science. In -their view, instruction is but a means of forming the judgment. -“The sciences should be employed,” says Nicole, “only as an -instrument for perfecting the reason.” Historical, literary, and -scientific knowledge has no intrinsic value. The thing required is -simply to employ those subjects for educating just, equitable, and -judicious men. Nicole declares that it would be better absolutely -to ignore the sciences than to become absorbed in the useless -portions of them. Speaking of astronomical researches, and of the -works of those mathematicians who believe that “it is the finest -thing in the world to know whether there is a bridge and an arch -suspended around the planet Saturn,” he concludes that it is -preferable to be ignorant of those things than to be ignorant that -they are vain. - -But, on the other hand, the Jansenists have struck from their -programme of studies everything that is merely sterile verbiage, -exercises of memory or of artificial imagination. Little attention -is given to Latin verse at Port Royal. Version takes precedence of -the theme,[122] and the oral theme often replaces the written. The -pupil is to be taught, “not to be blinded by a vain flash of words -void of sense, not to rest satisfied with mere words or obscure -principles, and never to be satisfied till he has gained a clear -insight into things.” - - -167. PEDAGOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF NICOLE.--In his treatise on the -_Education of a Prince_, Nicole has summarized, under the form -of aphorisms, some of the essential principles of his system of -education. - -Let us first notice this maxim, a true pedagogical axiom: “The -purpose of instruction is to carry forward intelligences to the -farthest point they are capable of attaining.” This is saying that -every child, whether of the nobility or of the people, has the -right to be instructed according to his aptitude and ability. - -Another axiom: We must proportion difficulties to the growing -development of the child’s intelligence. “The greatest minds have -but a limited range of intelligence. In all of them there are -regions of twilight and shadow; but the intelligence of the child -is almost wholly pervaded by shadows; he catches glimpses of but -few rays of light. So everything depends on managing these rays, on -increasing them, and on exposing to them whatever we wish to have -the child comprehend.” - -A corollary to the preceding axiom is, that the first appeal must -be made to the senses. “The intelligence of children always being -very dependent on the senses, we must, as far as possible, address -our instruction to the senses, and cause it to reach the mind, not -only through hearing, but also through seeing.” Consequently, -geography is a study well adapted to early years, provided we -employ books in which the largest cities are pictured. If children -study the history of a country, we must not neglect to show them -the situation of places on the map. Nicole also recommends that -they be shown pictures that represent the machines, the arms, and -the dress of the ancients, and also the portraits of kings and -illustrious men. - - -168. MORAL PESSIMISM.--Man is wicked, human nature is corrupt: such -is the cry of despair that comes to our ears from all the writings -of the Jansenists. - -“The devil,” says Saint Cyran, “already possesses the soul of even -the unborn child.” ... - -And again: “We must always pray for souls, and always be on the -watch, standing guard as in a city menaced by an enemy. On the -outside the devil makes his rounds.” ... - -“As soon as children begin to have reason,” says another Jansenist, -“we observe in them only blindness and weakness. Their minds are -closed to spiritual things, and they cannot comprehend them. But, -on the contrary, their eyes are open to evil; their senses are -susceptible to all sorts of corruption, and they have a natural -inertia that inclines them to it.” - -“You ought,” writes Varet, “to consider your children as wholly -inclined to evil, and carried forward towards it. All their -inclinations are corrupt, and, not being governed by reason, they -will permit them to find pleasure and diversion only in the things -that carry them towards vice.” - - -169. EFFECTS ON DISCIPLINE.--The doctrine of the original -perversity of man may produce contrary results, and direct -the practical conduct of those who accept it in two opposite -directions. They are either inspired with severity toward beings -deeply tainted and vicious, or they are excited to pity and to -tenderness for those fallen creatures who suffer from an incurable -evil. The solitaries of Port Royal obeyed the second tendency. They -were as affectionate and good to the children confided to their -care as, in theory, they were harsh and rigorous towards human -nature. In the presence of their pupils they felt touched with an -infinite tenderness for those poor sick souls, whom they would -willingly cure of their ills, and raise from their fall, at the -cost of any and every sacrifice. - -The conception of the native wickedness of man had still another -result at Port Royal. It increased the zeal of the teachers. It -prompted them to multiply their assiduity and vigilance in order to -keep guard over young souls, and there destroy, whenever possible, -the seeds of evil that sin had sown in them. When one is charged -with the difficult mission of moral education, it is, perhaps, -dangerous to have too much confidence in human nature, and to form -too favorable an opinion of its qualities and dispositions; for -then one is tempted to accord to the child too large a liberty, and -to practise the maxim, “Let it take its own course, let it pass” -(_Laissez faire, laissez passer_). It is better to err on the other -side, in excess of mistrust; for, in this case, knowing the dangers -that menace the child, we watch over him with more attention, -abandon him less to the inspiration of his caprices, and expect -more of education; we demand of effort and labor what we judge -nature incapable of producing by herself. - -Vigilance, patience, mildness,--these are the instruments of -discipline in the schools of Port Royal. There were scarcely any -punishments in the Little Schools. “To speak little, to tolerate -much, to pray still more,”--these are the three things that Saint -Cyran recommended. The threat to send children home to their -parents sufficed to maintain order in a flock somewhat small. In -fact, all whose example would have proved bad were sent away; an -excellent system of elimination when it is practicable. The pious -solitaries endured without complaint, faults in which they saw the -necessary consequences of the original fall. Penetrated, however, -as they were, with the value of human souls, their tenderness for -children was mingled with a certain respect; for they saw in them -the creatures of God, beings called from eternity to a sublime -destiny or to a terrible punishment. - - -170. FAULTS IN THE DISCIPLINE OF PORT ROYAL.--The Jansenists did -not shun the logical though dangerous consequences that were -involved, in germ, in their pessimistic theories of human nature. -They fell into an excess of prudence or of rigidity. They pushed -gravity and dignity to a formalism that was somewhat repulsive. At -Port Royal pupils were forbidden to thee and thou one another. The -solitaries did not like familiarities, faithful in this respect to -the _Imitation of Jesus Christ_, in which it is somewhere said that -it does not become a Christian to be on familiar terms with any -one whatever. The young were thus brought up in habits of mutual -respect, which may have had their good side, but which had the -grave fault of being a little ridiculous in children, since they -forced them to live among themselves as _little gentlemen_, while -at the same time they oppose the development of those intimate -friendships, of those lasting attachments of which all those who -have lived at college know the sweetness and the charm. - -The spirit of asceticism is the general character of all the -Jansenists. Varet declares that balls are places of infamy. Pascal -denies himself every agreeable thought, and what he called an -agreeable thought was to reflect on geometry. Lancelot refuses -to take to the theatre the princes of Conti, of whom he was the -preceptor. - -But perhaps a graver fault at Port Royal was, that through fear -of awakening self-love, the spirit of emulation was purposely -suppressed. It is God alone, it was said, who is to be praised for -the qualities and talents manifested by men. “If God has placed -something of good in the soul of a child, we must praise Him for -it and keep silent.” By this deliberate silence men put themselves -on guard against pride; but if pride is to be feared, is indolence -the less so? And when we purposely avoid stimulating self-love -through the hope of reward, or through a word of praise given in -due season, we run a great risk of not overcoming the indolence -that is natural to the child, and of not obtaining from him any -serious effort. Pascal, the greatest of the friends of Port Royal, -said: “The children of Port Royal, who do not feel that stimulus of -envy and glory, fall into a state of indifference.” - - -171. GENERAL JUDGMENT ON PORT ROYAL.--After all has been said, we -must admire the teachers of Port Royal, who were doubtless deceived -on some points, but who were animated by a powerful feeling -of their duty to educate, and by a perfect charity. Ardor and -sincerity of religious faith; a great respect for the human person; -the practice of piety held in honor, but kept subordinate to the -reality of the inner feeling; devotion advised, but not imposed; -a marked mistrust of nature, corrected by displays of tenderness -and tempered by affection; above all, the profound, unwearied -devotion of Christian souls who give themselves wholly and without -reserve to other souls to raise them up and save them,--this is -what was done by the discipline of Port Royal. But it is rather in -the methods of teaching, and in the administration of classical -studies, that we must look for the incontestable superiority of -the Jansenists. The teachers of the Little Schools were admirable -humanists, not of form, as the Jesuits were, but of judgment. They -represent, it seems to us, in all its beauty and in all its force, -that intellectual education, already divined by Montaigne, which -prepares for life men of sound judgment and of upright conscience. -They founded the teaching of the humanities. “Port Royal,” says -an historian of pedagogy, Burnier, “simplifies study without, -however, relieving it of its wholesome difficulties; it strives -to make it interesting, while it does not convert it into child’s -play; it purposes to confide to the memory only what has first been -apprehended by the intelligence.... It has given to the world ideas -that it has not again let go, and fruitful principles from which we -have but to draw their logical consequences.” - - - [172. ANALYTICAL SUMMARY. 1. In the history of the three great - teaching congregations we have an illustration of the supposed - power of education over the destinies of men. - - 2. To resist the encroachments of Protestantism that followed the - diffusion of instruction among the people, Loyola organized his - teaching corps of Catholic zealots; and this mode of competition - for purposes of moral, sectarian, and political control has - covered the earth, in all Christian countries, with institutions - of learning. - - 3. The tendency towards extremes, and the difficulty of - attaining symmetry and completeness, are seen in the preference - of the Jesuits for form, elegance, and mere discipline, in - their excessive use of emulation; and in the pessimism of the - Jansenists, their distrust of human nature, and their fear of - human pride.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[109] Religious congregations, as known in France, are associations -of persons who, consecrating themselves to the service of God, -make a vow to live in common under the same rule. Many of these -congregations devote themselves to the work of teaching, and -these are of two classes, the authorized and the unauthorized. -For example, the “Brethren of the Christian Schools,” founded -by La Salle, is an _authorized_, and the “Society of Jesus” an -_unauthorized_, congregation. From statistics published in 1878, -it appears that there were then in France, 24 congregations of men -authorized to teach, and controlling 3096 establishments; and 528 -similar congregations of women, controlling 16,478 establishments. -At the same time there were 85 unauthorized congregations of men, -and 260 unauthorized congregations of women, devoted to teaching. -(P.) - -[110] The congregation of the _Doctrinaries_ founded at a later -period establishments of secondary instruction. Maine de Biran, -Laromiguière, and Lakanal were pupils of the _Doctrinaries_. - -[111] _Leibnitii Opera_, Genevæ, 1768, Tome VI. p. 65. - -[112] _Bacon de Augmentis Scientiarum_, Lib. VI. chap. IV. - -[113] See the fourth book of the _Constitutions_. - -[114] See note to § 141. - -[115] Letter to Madame Montglat, Nov. 14, 1607. - -[116] Saint Simon, _Mémoires_, Tome IX. 83. - -[117] _Entretiens sur les Sciences_, p. 197. - -[118] For the Little Schools of Port Royal, see a recent account by -Carré (_Revue Pédagogique_, 1883, Nos. 2 and 8). - -[119] No more pathetic piece of history has ever been written than -that which relates the vindictive and relentless persecution of -the peaceful and pious solitaries of Port Royal: “The house was -razed to the ground, and even the very foundations ploughed up. -The gardens and walks were demolished; and the dead were even torn -from their graves, that not a vestige might be left to mark the -spot where this celebrated institution had stood.”--_Lancelot’s -Tour to La Grande Chartreuse_, p. 243. See also _Narrative of the -Demolition of Port Royal_ (London, 1816). (P.) - -[120] _Du choix et de la méthode des études._ - -[121] See Cousin, _Jacqueline Pascal_, p. 262. - -[122] _Version_: translation from Latin or Greek into French. -_Theme_: translation of French into Latin or Greek. (P.) - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -FÉNELON. - - EDUCATION IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY; FÉNELON (1651-1715); - HOW FÉNELON BECAME A TEACHER; ANALYSIS OF THE TREATISE ON - THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS; CRITICISM OF MONASTIC EDUCATION; - REFUTATION OF THE PREJUDICES RELATIVE TO WOMEN; GOOD OPINION - OF HUMAN NATURE; INSTINCTIVE CURIOSITY; LESSONS ON OBJECTS; - FEEBLENESS OF THE CHILD; INDIRECT INSTRUCTION; ALL ACTIVITY - MUST BE PLEASURABLE; FABLES AND HISTORICAL NARRATIVES; MORAL - AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION; STUDIES PROPER FOR WOMEN; EDUCATION OF - THE DUKE DE BOURGOGNE (1689-1695); HAPPY RESULTS; THE FABLES; - THE DIALOGUES OF THE DEAD; VARIETY OF DISCIPLINARY AGENTS; - DIVERSIFIED INSTRUCTION; THE TELEMACHUS; FÉNELON AND BOSSUET; - SPHERE AND LIMITS OF EDUCATION; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY. - - -173. EDUCATION IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.--Outside of the teaching -congregations, the seventeenth century counts a certain number of -independent educators, isolated thinkers, who have transmitted to -us in durable records the results of their reflection or of their -experience. The most of these belong to the clergy,--they are -royal preceptors. In a monarchical government there is no grander -affair than the education of princes. Some others are philosophers, -whom the general study of human nature has led to reflect on the -principles of education. Without pretending to include everything -within the narrow compass of this elementary history, we would make -known either the fundamental doctrines or the essential methods -which have been concerned in the education of the seventeenth -century, and which, at the same time, have made a preparation for -the educational reforms of the succeeding centuries. - - -174. FÉNELON (1651-1715).--Fénelon holds an important place in -French literature; but it seems that of all the varied aspects of -his genius, the part he played as an educator is the most important -and the most considerable. Fénelon wrote the first classical work -of French pedagogy, and it may be said, considering the great -number of authors who have been inspired by his thoughts, that he -is the head of a school of educators. - - -175. HOW FÉNELON BECAME A TEACHER.--It is well known that the -valuable treatise, _On the Education of Girls_, was written in -1680, at the request of the Duke and the Duchess of Beauvilliers. -These noble friends of Fénelon, besides several boys, had eight -girls to educate. It was to assist, by his advice, in the education -of this little family school, that Fénelon wrote his book which was -not designed at first for the public, and which did not appear till -1687. The young Abbé who, in 1680, was but thirty years old, had -already had experience in educational matters in the management of -the Convent of the _New Catholics_ (1678). This was an institution -whose purpose was to retain young Protestant converts in the -Catholic faith, or even to call them there by mild force. It would -have been better, we confess, for the glory of Fénelon, if he had -gained his experience elsewhere than in that mission of fanaticism, -where he was the auxiliary of the secular arm, the accomplice of -dragoons, and where was prepared the Revocation of the Edict of -Nantes. We would have preferred that the _Education of Girls_ had -not been planned in a house where were violently confined girls -torn from their mothers, and wives stolen from their husbands. But -if the first source of Fénelon’s educational inspiration was not -as pure as one could wish, at least in the book there is nothing -that betrays the spirit of intolerance and violence with which the -author was associated. On the contrary, _The Education of Girls_ -is a work of gentleness and goodness, of a complaisant and amiable -grace, which is pervaded by a spirit of progress. - -Fénelon soon had occasion to apply the principles that he had set -forth in his treatise. August 16, 1689, he was chosen preceptor -of the Duke of Bourgogne,[123] with the Duke of Beauvilliers for -governor, and the Abbé Fleury for sub-preceptor. From 1689 to 1695, -he directed with marvellous success the education of a prince, -“a born terror,” as Saint Simon expressed it, but who, under the -penetrating influence of his master, became an accomplished man, -almost a saint. It was for his royal pupil that he composed, one -after another, a large number of educational works, such as the -_Collection of Fables_, the _Dialogues of the Dead_, the treatise -on _The Existence of God_, and especially the _Telemachus_, one of -the most popular works in French literature. - -In furnishing occasion for the exercise of his educational -activity, events served Fénelon according to his wish. We may -say that his nature predestinated him to the work of education. -With his tender soul, preserving its paternal instincts even in -his celibate condition, with his admirable grace of spirit, with -his various erudition and profound knowledge of antiquity, with -his competence in the studies of grammar and history, attested by -different passages in his _Letter to the Academy_; finally, with -his temperate disposition and his inclinations towards liberalism -in a century of absolute monarchy, he was made to become one of the -guides, one of the masters, of French education. - - -176. ANALYSIS OF THE TREATISE ON THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS.--This -charming masterpiece of Fénelon’s should be read entire. A rapid -analysis would not suffice, as it is difficult to reduce to a -few essential points the flowing thought of our author. With a -facility in expression inclining to laxness, and with a copiousness -of thought somewhat lacking in exactness, Fénelon easily repeats -himself; he returns to thoughts which have already been elaborated, -and does not restrict his easy flowing thought to a rigorous and -methodical plan. We may, however, distinguish three principal parts -in the thirteen chapters composing the work. Chapters I. and II. -are critical, and in these the ordinary faults in the education -of women are brought into sharp outline; then in chapters III. -to VIII. we have general observations, and the statement of the -principles and methods that should be followed and applied in the -education of boys as in the education of girls; and finally, from -chapter IX. to the end of the book, are all the special reflections -which relate exclusively to the merits and demerits, the duties and -the studies, of women. - - -177. CRITICISM ON MONASTIC EDUCATION.--In the opening of the -treatise, as in another little essay[124] that is usually included -in this volume, Fénelon expresses a preference for a liberal and -humane education, where the light of the world penetrates, and -which is not confined to the shadow of a monastery:-- - -“I conclude that it is better for your daughter to be with you -than in the best convent that you could select.... If a convent -is not well governed, she will see vanity honored, which is the -most subtile of all the poisons that can affect a young girl. -She will there hear the world spoken of as a sort of enchanted -place, and nothing makes a more pernicious impression than that -deceptive picture of the world, which is seen at a distance with -admiration, and which exaggerates all its pleasures without showing -its disappointments and its sorrows.... So I would fear a worldly -convent even more than the world itself. If, on the contrary, a -convent conforms to the fervor and regularity of its constitution, -a girl of rank will grow up there in a profound ignorance of the -world.... She leaves the convent like one who had been confined in -the shadows of a deep cavern, and who suddenly returns to the full -light of day. Nothing is more dazzling than this sudden transition, -than this glare to which one has never been accustomed.” - - -178. REFUTATION OF THE PREJUDICES RELATIVE TO THE EDUCATION OF -WOMEN.--It is, then, for mothers that Fénelon writes his book, -still more than for the convents that he does not love. Woman is -destined to play a grand part in domestic life. “Can men hope for -any sweetness in life, if their most select companionship, which -is that of marriage, is turned into bitterness?” Then let us cease -to neglect the education of women, and renounce the prejudices by -which we pretend to justify this neglect. A learned woman, it is -said, is vain and affected! But it is not proposed that women shall -engage in useless studies which would make ridiculous pedants of -them; it is simply a question of teaching them what befits their -position in the household. Woman, it is said again, ordinarily has -a weaker intellect than man! But this is the best of reasons why it -is necessary to strengthen her intelligence. Finally, woman should -be brought up in ignorance of the world! But, replies Fénelon, the -world is not a phantom; “it is the aggregate of all the families”; -and women have duties to fulfill in it which are scarcely less -important than those of men. “Virtue is not less for women than for -men.” - - -179. GOOD OPINION OF HUMAN NATURE.--There are two categories of -Christians: the first dwell particularly on the original fall; -and the others attach themselves by preference to the doctrine of -redemption. For the first, the child is deeply tainted with sin; -his only inclinations are those towards evil; he is a child of -wrath, who must be severely punished. For the others, the child, -redeemed by grace, “has not yet a fixed tendency towards any -object”; his instincts have no need of being thwarted; all they -need is direction. Fénelon follows this last mode of thinking, -which is the correct one. He does not fear self-love, and does -not interdict deserved praise. He counts upon the spontaneity of -nature. He regrets the education of the ancients, who left more -liberty to children. Finally, in his judgments on human nature, he -is influenced by a cheerful and amiable optimism, and sometimes by -an excess of complacency and approbation. - - -180. FEEBLENESS OF THE CHILD.--But if Fénelon believes in the -innocence of the child, he is not the less convinced of its -feebleness. Hence the measures he recommends to those who have in -charge the bringing up of children: “The most important thing in -the first years of infancy is the management of the child’s health. -Through the selection of food and the régime of a simple life, -the body should be supplied with pure blood.... Another thing of -great importance is to allow the organs to strengthen by holding -instruction in abeyance....” The intellectual weakness of the child -comes for the most part from his inability to fix his attention. -“The mind of the child is like a lighted taper in a place exposed -to the wind, whose flame is ever unsteady.” Hence the urgent -necessity of not pressing children beyond measure, of training them -little by little as occasion permits, “of serving and assisting -Nature, without urging her.” - - -181. INSTRUCTIVE CURIOSITY; OBJECT LESSONS.--If the inattention -of the child is a great obstacle to his progress, his natural -curiosity, by way of compensation, is a potent auxiliary. Fénelon -knows the aid that can be derived from this source, and we shall -quote entire the remarkable passage in which he indicates the means -of calling it into exercise through familiar lessons which are -already real lessons on objects:-- - -“Curiosity in children is a natural tendency which comes as the -precursor of instruction. Do not fail to take advantage of it. For -example, in the country they see a mill, and they wish to know what -it is. They should be shown the manner of preparing the food that -is needed for human use. They notice harvesters, and what they are -doing should be explained to them; also, how the wheat is sown, -and how it multiplies in the earth. In the city, they see shops -where different arts are practised, and where different wares are -sold. You should never be annoyed by their questions; these are so -many opportunities offered you by nature for facilitating the work -of instruction. Show that you take pleasure in replying to such -questions, and by this means you will insensibly teach them how all -the things are made that serve human needs, and that give rise to -commercial pursuits.” - - -182. INDIRECT INSTRUCTION.--Even when the child has grown up, and -is more capable of receiving direct instruction, Fénelon does not -depart from his system of mild management and precaution. There are -to be no didactic lessons, but as far as possible the instruction -shall be indirect. This is the great educational method of Fénelon, -and we shall soon see how he applied it to the education of the -Duke of Bourgogne. “The less formal our lessons are, the better.” -However, there is need of discretion and prudence in the choice of -the first ideas, and the first pictures that are to be impressed on -the child’s mind. - -“Into a reservoir so little and so precious only exquisite -things should be poured.” The absence of pedantry is one of the -characteristics of Fénelon. “In rhetoric,” he says, “I will give -no rules at all; it is sufficient to give good models.” As to -grammar, “I will give it no attention, or, at least, but very -little.” Instruction must be insinuated, not imposed. We must -resort to unexpected lessons,--to such as do not appear to be -lessons. Fénelon here anticipates Rousseau, and suggests the system -of pre-arranged scenes and instructive artifices, similar to those -invented for Émile.[125] - - -183. ALL ACTIVITY MUST BE PLEASURABLE.--One of the best qualities -of Fénelon as a teacher is that of wishing that study should be -agreeable; but this quality becomes a fault with him, because he -makes an abuse of attractive instruction. We can but applaud him -when he criticises the harsh and crabbed pedagogy of the Middle -Age, and depicts to us those tiresome and gloomy class-rooms, where -teachers are ever talking to children of words and things of which -they understand nothing. “No liberty,” he says, “no enjoyment, but -always lessons, silence, uncomfortable postures, correction, and -threats.” And so there is nothing more just than this thought: “In -the current education, all the pleasure is put on one side, and -all that is disagreeable on the other; the disagreeable is all -put into study, and all the pleasure is found in the diversions.” -Fénelon would change all this. For study, as for moral discipline, -“pleasure must do all.” - -First, as to study, seek the means of making agreeable to children -whatever you require of them. “We must always place before them a -definite and agreeable aim to sustain them in their work.” “Conceal -their studies under the appearance of liberty and pleasure.” -“Let their range of vision extend itself a little, and their -intelligence acquire more breadth.” “Mingle instruction with play.” -“I have seen,” he says again, “certain children who have learned to -read while playing.” - -For giving direction to the will, as for giving activity to -the intelligence, never subject children to cold and absolute -authority. Do not weary them by an indiscreet exactness. Let wisdom -appear to them only at intervals, and then with a laughing face. -Lead them by reason whenever it is possible for you to do it. Never -assume, save in case of extreme necessity, an austere, imperious -air that makes them tremble. - -“You would close their heart and destroy their confidence, without -which there is no profit to hope for from education. Make yourself -loved by them. Let them feel at ease in your presence, so that they -do not fear to have you see their faults.” - -Such, intellectually and morally, is the amiable discipline dreamed -of by Fénelon. It is evident that the imagination of our author -conducts him a little too far and leads him astray. Fénelon sees -everything on the bright side. In education, such as this too -complacent teacher dreams of it, there is no difficulty, nothing -laborious, no thorns. “All metals there are gold; all flowers -there are roses.” The child is almost exempted from making effort: -he shall not be made to repeat the lesson he has heard, “for fear -of annoying him.” It is necessary that he learn everything while -playing. If he has faults, he must not be told of them, save -with precaution, “for fear of hurting his feelings.” Fénelon is -decidedly too good-natured, too much given to cajolery. In his -effort to shun whatever is repulsive, he comes to exclude whatever -is laborious. He falls into an artless pleasantry when he demands -that the books of his pupil shall be “beautifully bound, with gilt -edges, and fine pictures.” - - -184. FABLES AND HISTORY.--Fénelon’s very decided taste for -agreeable studies, determines him to place in the foremost rank of -the child’s intellectual occupations, fables and history, because -narratives please the infant imagination above everything else. It -is with sacred history especially that he would have the attention -occupied, always selecting from it “that which presents the most -pleasing and the most magnificent pictures.” He properly demands, -moreover, that the teacher “animate his narrative with lively and -familiar tones, and so make all his characters speak.” By this -means we shall hold the attention of children without forcing it; -“for, once more,” he says, “we must be very careful not to impose -on them a law to hear and to remember these narratives.” - - -185. MORAL AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION.--Contrary to Rousseau’s -notions, Fénelon requires that children should early have their -attention turned to moral and religious truths. He would have this -instruction given in the concrete, by means of examples drawn from -experience. We need not fear to speak to them of God as a venerable -old man, with white beard, etc. Whatever of the superstitious -there may be in these conceptions adapted to the infant imagination -will be corrected afterwards by the reason. It is to be noted, -moreover, that a religion of extremes is not what Fénelon desires. -He fears all exaggerations, even that of piety. What he demands is -a tempered devotion, a reasonable Christianity. He is suspicious -of false miracles. “Accustom girls,” he says, “not to accept -thoughtlessly certain unauthorized narrations, and not to practise -certain forms of devotion introduced by an indiscreet zeal.” But -possibly, without intending it, Fénelon himself is preparing the -way for the superstition he combats, when, for the purpose of -indoctrinating the child with the first principles of religion, he -presents to him the notion of God under sensible forms, and speaks -to him of a paradise where all is of gold and precious stones. - - -186. STUDIES PROPER FOR WOMEN.--So far, we have noted in Fénelon’s -work only general precepts applicable to boys and girls alike. But -in the last part of his work, Fénelon treats especially of women’s -own work, of the qualities peculiarly their own, of their duties, -and of the kind of instruction they need in order to fulfill them. - -No one knew better than Fénelon the faults that come to woman -through ignorance,--unrest, unemployed time, inability to apply -herself to solid and serious duties, frivolity, indolence, lawless -imagination, indiscreet curiosity concerning trifles, levity, and -talkativeness, sentimentalism, and, what is remarkable with a -friend of Madame Guyon, a mania for theology: “Women are too much -inclined to speak decisively on religious questions.” - -What does Fénelon propose as a corrective of these mischievous -tendencies? It must be confessed that the plan of instruction which -he proposes is still insufficient, and that it scarcely accords -with the ideal as we conceive it to-day. - -“Keep young girls,” he says, “within the common bounds, and teach -them that there should be for their sex a modesty with respect to -knowledge almost as delicate as that inspired by the horror of -vice.” - -Is not this the same as declaring that knowledge is not intended -for women, and that it is repugnant to their delicate nature? - -When Fénelon tells us that a young girl ought to learn to read -and write correctly (and observe that account is taken only of -the daughters of the nobility and of the wealthy middle classes); -when he adds, _let her also learn grammar_, we can infer from -these puerile prescriptions, that Fénelon does not exact any great -things from women in the way of knowledge. And yet, such as it is, -this programme surpassed, in the time of Fénelon, the received -custom, and constituted a substantial progress. It was to state an -excellent principle, whose consequences should have been more fully -analyzed, to demand that women should learn all that is necessary -for them to know, in order to bring up their children. Fénelon -should also be commended for having recommended to young women -the reading of profane authors. He who had been nourished on such -literature, who was, so to speak, but a Greek turned Christian, who -knew Homer so perfectly as to write the _Telemachus_, could not, -without belying himself, advise against the studies from which he -had derived so much pleasure and profit. He also recognized the -utility of history, ancient and modern. He grants a place to poetry -and eloquence, provided an elimination be made of whatever would be -dangerous to purity of morals. What we comprehend less easily is -that he condemns, as severely as he does, music, which, he says, -“furnishes diversions that are poisonous.” - -But these faults, this mistrust of too high an intellectual -culture, ought not to prevent us from admiring the _Education of -Girls_. Let us be grateful to Fénelon for having resisted, in -part, the prejudices of a period when young women were condemned -by their sex to an almost absolute ignorance; for having declared -that he would follow a course contrary “to that of alarm and of a -superficial culture of the intelligence”; and finally, for having -written a book, all the generous inspirations of which Madame de -Maintenon herself has not caught; and of which we may say, finally, -that almost everything that it contains is excellent, and that it -is defective only in what it does not contain. - - -187. MADAME DE LAMBERT (1647-1733).--Fénelon, as an educator of -women, was the founder of a school. From Rollin to Madame de -Genlis, how many teachers have been inspired by him! But in the -front rank of his pupils we must place Madame de Lambert. In her -_Counsels to her Son_ (1701), and especially in her _Counsels to -her Daughter_ (1728), she has taken up the tradition of Fénelon -with greater breadth and freedom of spirit. “As discreet as he with -respect to works of the imagination, of which she fears that the -reading may inflame the mind;” more severe, even, than he towards -Racine, whose name she seems to hesitate to pronounce; disposed -to exclude her daughter from “plays, representations that move -the passions, music, poetry,--all belonging to the retinue of -pleasure,--in other respects, Madame de Lambert takes precedence -and surpasses her master” (Gréard). She reproaches Molière for -having abandoned women to idleness, pastime, and pleasure. She -loves history, especially the history of France, “which no one is -permitted not to know.” Finally, without entering into the details -of her protests, she makes a powerful plea for the cause of woman’s -education; she already belongs to the eighteenth century. - - -188. EDUCATION OF THE DUKE OF BOURGOGNE.--Singularly enough, -Fénelon did not make an application of his ideas on education -till after he had set them forth in a theoretical treatise. -The education of the Duke of Bourgogne permitted him to make a -practical test of the rules established in the _Education of -Girls_. Nothing is of more interest to the historian of pedagogy -than the study of that princely education into which Fénelon -put all his mind and heart, and which, by its results, at once -brilliant and insufficient, exhibits the merits and the faults of -his plan of education. - - -189. HAPPY RESULTS.--The Duke of Bourgogne with his active -intelligence, and also with his impetuous, indocile character, -and his fits of passion, was just the pupil for the teacher who -relied on _indirect instruction_. It would have been unwise to -indoctrinate with heavy didactic lessons a spirit so impetuous. -Through tact and industry, Fénelon succeeded in captivating the -attention of the prince, and in skillfully insinuating into his -mind knowledges that he would probably have rejected, had they been -presented to it in a scientific and pedantic form. “I have never -seen a child,” says Fénelon, “who so readily understood the finest -things of poetry and eloquence.” Doubtless the happy nature of the -prince contributed a large part towards these results; but the art -of Fénelon had also its share in the final account. - - -190. MORAL LESSONS; THE FABLES.--How shall morals be taught to a -violent and passionate child? Fénelon did not think of preaching -fine sermons to him; but presented to him, under the form of -_Fables_, the moral precepts that he wished to inculcate. The -_Fables_ of Fénelon certainly have not, as a whole, a large -literary value; but, to form a just appreciation of them, we -must recollect that their merit is especially to be seen in the -circumstances attending their composition. Composed from day to -day, they were adapted to the circumstances of the life of the -young prince; they were filled with allusions to his faults and -his virtues, and they conveyed to him, at the favorable moment, -under the veil of a pleasing fiction, the commendation or the -censure that he deserved. “One might,” says the Cardinal de -Bausset, “follow the chronological order in which these pieces -were composed, by comparing them with the progress which age and -instruction must have made in the education of the prince.” The -apologues, even with their very general morals, will always have -their value and place in the education of children. What shall -be said of the fables in which the moral, wholly individual, was -addressed exclusively to the pupil for whom they were written, -either on account of some perversity that he let come to the -surface, or of a rising virtue that had been manifested in his -conduct? It is thus that the fable called _The Capricious_ -presented to the young duke the picture of his fits of passion, -and taught him to correct himself; that of the _Bee and the Fly_ -reminded him that the most brilliant qualities serve no good -purpose without moderation. One day, in a fit of anger, the prince -so far forgot himself as to say to Fénelon, who was reproving him: -“_No, no, Sir! I know who I am, and who you are!_” The next day, -doubtless in response to this explosion of princely self-conceit, -Fénelon had him read the fable entitled _Bacchus and the Faun_: “As -Bacchus could not abide a malicious jeerer always ready to make -sport of his expressions that were not correct and elegant, he said -to him in a fiery and important tone: ‘How dare you jeer the son of -Jupiter?’ The Faun replied without emotion: ‘Alas! how does the son -of Jupiter dare to commit any fault?’” - -Certain fables, of a more elevated tone than the others, are not -designed simply to correct the faults of children; they prepare -the prince for the exercise of government. Thus, the fable of the -_Bees_ disclosed to him the beauties of an industrious State, and -one where order reigns; the _Nile and the Ganges_ taught him love -for the people, “compassion for humanity, harassed and suffering.” -Finally, from each of these fables there issued a serious lesson -under the pleasing exterior of a witticism; and more than once, -in reading them, the prince doubtless felt an emotion of pleasure -or of shame, as he recognized himself in a commendation or in a -reproof addressed to the imaginary personages of the _Fables_. - - -191. HISTORICAL LESSONS; THE DIALOGUES OF THE DEAD.--It is not -alone in moral education, but in intellectual education as well, -that Fénelon resorts to artifice. The ingenious preceptor has -employed fiction in all its forms the better to compass and -dominate the spirit of his pupil. There are the fables for moral -instruction, the dialogues for the study of history, and finally, -the epopée in the _Telemachus_, for the political education of the -heir to the throne of France. - -The _Dialogues of the Dead_ put on the stage men of all countries -and conditions, Charles the Fifth and a monk of Saint-Just, -Aristotle and Descartes, Leonardo da Vinci and Poussin, Cæsar and -Alexander. History proper, literature, philosophy, the arts, were -the subjects of conversations composed, as in the _Fables_, at -different intervals, according to the progress and the needs of -the Duke of Bourgogne. These were attractive pictures that came -from time to time to be introduced into the scheme for the didactic -study of universal history. They should be taken only for what -they were intended to be,--the pleasing complement to a regular -and consecutive course of instruction. Fénelon knew better than -any one else that history is interesting in itself, and that to -make the study of it interesting, it is sufficient to present it to -the childish imagination with clearness, with vivacity, and with -feeling. - - -192. VARIETY OF DISCIPLINARY AGENTS.--The education of the Duke -of Bourgogne is the practical application of Fénelon’s principles -as to the necessity of employing an insinuating gentleness rather -than an authority which dryly commands. There are to be no sermons, -no lectures, but indirect means of moral instruction. The Duke -of Bourgogne was irascible. Instead of reading to him Seneca’s -treatise _On Anger_, this is Fénelon’s device: One morning he has -a cabinet-maker come to his apartments, whom he has instructed for -the purpose. The prince enters, stops, and looks at the tools. “Go -about your business, Sir,” cries the workman, who assumes a most -threatening air, “for I am not responsible for what I may do; when -I am in a passion, I break the arms and legs of those whom I meet.” -We guess the conclusion of the story, and how, by this experimental -method, Fénelon contrives to teach the prince to guard against -anger and its effects. - -When indirect means did not answer, Fénelon employed others. It is -thus that he made frequent appeals to the self-love of his pupil; -he reminded him of what he owed to his name and to the hopes of -France. He had him record his word of honor that he would behave -well: “I promise the Abbé Fénelon, on the word of a prince, that -I will obey him, and that, in case I break my word, I will submit -to any kind of punishment and dishonor. Given at Versailles, this -29th day of November, 1689. Signed: Louis.” At other times Fénelon -appealed to his feelings, and conquered him by his tenderness and -goodness. It is in such moments of tender confidence that the -prince said to him, “I leave the Duke of Bourgogne outside the -door, and with you I am but the little Louis.” Finally, at other -times, Fénelon resorted to the harshest punishments; he sequestered -him, took away his books, and interdicted all conversation. - - -193. DIVERSIFIED INSTRUCTION.--By turns serious and tender, mild -and severe, in his moral discipline, Fénelon was not less versatile -in his methods of instruction. His dominant preoccupation was to -_diversify_ studies--the term is his own. If a given subject of -study was distasteful to his pupil, Fénelon passed to another. -Although the success of his tutorship seems to be a justification -of his course, there is ground for thinking that, as a general -rule, Fénelon’s precept is debatable, and that his example should -not be followed by making an over-use of amusement and agreeable -variety. Fénelon has too often made studies puerile through his -attempts to make them agreeable. - - -194. RESULTS OF THE EDUCATION OF THE DUKE OF BOURGOGNE.--It seems -like a paradox to say that Fénelon was too successful in his -educational apostleship; and yet this is the truth. Under his -hand--“the ablest hand that ever was,” says Saint Simon--the prince -became in all respects the image of his master. He was a bigot to -the extent of being unwilling to attend a royal ball because that -worldly entertainment coincided with the religious celebration of -the Epiphany; he was rather a monk than a king; he was destitute -of all spirit of initiative and liberty, irresolute, absorbed in -his pious erudition and mystic prayers; finally, he was another -Telemachus, who could not do without his Mentor. Fénelon had -monopolized and absorbed the will of his pupil. He had forgotten -that the purpose of education is to form, not a pale copy, an image -of the master, but a man independent and free, capable of sufficing -for himself. - - -195. THE TELEMACHUS.--The _Telemachus_, composed from 1694 to 1698, -was designed for the Duke of Bourgogne; but he was not to read it, -and did not read it, in fact, till after his marriage. Through this -epopée in prose, this romance borrowed from Homer, Fénelon purposed -to continue the moral education of his pupil. But the book abounds -in sermons. “I could have wished,” said Boileau, “that the Abbé had -made his Mentor a little less a preacher, and that the moral of the -book could have been distributed a little more imperceptibly, and -with more art.” At least, they are beautiful and excellent sermons, -aimed against luxury, the spirit of conquest, the consequences -of absolute power, and against ambition and war. Louis XIV. had -probably read the _Telemachus_, and had comprehended the allusions -concealed in the description of the Republic of Salentum, when -he said of Fénelon that he was “the most chimerical spirit in -his kingdom.” Besides the moral lesson intended for princes, the -_Telemachus_ also contains bold reflections on political questions. -For example, note the conception of a system of public instruction, -very new for the time: “Children belong less to their parents than -to the Republic, and ought to be educated by the State. There -should be established public schools in which are taught the fear -of God, love of country, and respect for the laws.” - - -196. BOSSUET AND FÉNELON.--Bossuet, as preceptor of the -Dauphin,[126] was far from having the same success as Fénelon. -Nothing was overlooked, however, in the education of the son of -Louis XIV.; and the _Letter to Pope Innocent XI._ (1679), in which -Bossuet presents his scheme of study, gives proof of high fitness -for educational work. He recommends assiduous labor, no leaves -of absence, and play mingled with study. “A child must play and -enjoy himself,” he says. Emulation excited by the presence of -other children, who came to compete with the prince; a thorough -reading of the Latin authors, explained, not in fragments, as with -the Jesuits, but in complete texts; a certain breadth of spirit, -since the study of the comic poets--of Terence in particular--was -expressly recommended; a familiarity with the Greeks and the -Romans, “especially with the divine Homer”; the grammar learned in -French; history, “the mistress of human life,” studied with ardor, -and presented, first, in its particular facts, in the lessons which -the Dauphin drew up, and then in its general laws, the spirit of -which has been transmitted to us in the _Discourse on Universal -History_; geography learned “while playing and making imaginary -journeys”; philosophy; and finally the sciences, brilliantly -presented,--with such a programme, and under such a master, it -seems that the Dauphin ought to have been a student of the highest -rank; but he remained a mediocre pupil, “absorbed,” to use Saint -Simon’s expression, “in his own fat and gloom.” - -It must certainly be acknowledged that, notwithstanding his -excellent intentions, Bossuet was in part responsible for the fact -that these results were insufficient, or, rather, nil. He did not -know how “to condescend,” as Montaigne says, “to the boyish ways of -his pupil.” In dealing with him he proceeded on too high a plane. -“The austere genius of Bossuet,” says Henry Martin, “did not know -how to become small with the small.” Bossuet lacked in flexibility -and tact, precisely the qualities that characterized Fénelon. -Bossuet, in education, as in everything else, is grandeur, noble -and sublime bearing; Fénelon, as preceptor, is address, insinuating -grace. That which dominates in the one is authority, a majesty -almost icy; that which constitutes the charm of the other is -versatility, a persuasive gentleness, a penetrating tenderness. - -To be just, however, it must be added that the faults were not all -on Bossuet’s side. In that education, stamped with failure, the -pupil was the great culprit, with his ungrateful and rebellious -nature. “My lord has much spirit,” said a courtier, “but he has it -_concealed_.” For one not a courtier, does it not amount to the -same thing to have one’s spirit concealed and to have none at all? - - -197. SPHERE AND LIMITS OF EDUCATION.--It seems that, on one page -of the _Education of Girls_, Fénelon has traced in advance, and by -a sort of divination, the parallels of the two educations of the -Dauphin and of the Duke of Bourgogne respectively. How can we fail -to recognize the anticipated portrait of Fénelon’s future pupil in -this passage, written in 1680? - -“It must be acknowledged, that of all the difficulties in -education, none is comparable to that of bringing up children who -are lacking in sensibility. The naturally quick and sensitive are -capable of terrible mistakes,--passion and presumption do so betray -them! But they have also great resources, and when far gone often -come to themselves. Instruction is a germ concealed within them, -which starts, and sometimes bears fruit, when experience comes to -the aid of knowledge, and the passions lose their power. At least, -we know how to make them attentive, and to awaken their curiosity. -We have the means of interesting them, and of stimulating them -through their sense of honor; but, on the other hand, we can gain -no hold on indolent natures.” - -On the other hand, all that follows applies perfectly to the -Dauphin, the indocile pupil of Bossuet:-- - -“ ... All the thoughts of these are distractions; they are never -where they ought to be; they cannot be touched to the quick even by -corrections; they hear everything and feel nothing. This indolence -makes the pupil negligent, and disgusts him with whatever he does. -Under these conditions, the best planned education runs the risk -of failure.... Many people, who think superficially, conclude -from this poor success that nature does all for the production of -men of merit, and that education has no part in the result; but -the only conclusion to be drawn from the case is, that there are -natures like ungrateful soils, upon which culture has but little -effect.”[127] - -Nothing better can be said, and Fénelon has admirably summed up the -lesson that should be drawn from these two princely illustrations -of the seventeenth century. If the sorry results of Bossuet’s -efforts should inspire the educator with some modesty, and prove to -him that the best grain does not grow in an ingrate soil, is not -the brilliant education of the Duke of Bourgogne, which developed -almost all the virtues in a soul where nature seemed to have -planted the seeds of all the vices, of a nature to increase the -confidence of teachers, and show them what can be done by the art -of a shrewd and able teacher? - - - [198. ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.--1. Education as a plastic art has - never been exhibited in a more favorable light than in this - history of Fénelon’s teaching; and perhaps the resistance that - sometimes sets at defiance the teacher’s art could not be better - illustrated than in the case of Bossuet’s royal pupil. - - 2. These two historical illustrations also exhibit the play of - the two factors that enter into education,--nature and art. - Fénelon’s teaching illustrates the potency of human art in - controlling, modifying, almost re-creating a work of nature. The - Duke of Bourgogne was almost re-made to order. - - 3. Here is also an illustrious example of the attempt to make - education a pastime, to divest it of all constraint, to make - learning run parallel with the pupil’s inclinations. In the - natural recoil from a dry and formal teaching that had to be - enforced against the pupil’s will, it is sometimes forgotten that - a large part of life’s duties lie outside of our inclinations. - - 4. The policy of leading pupils at such a distance that they seem - to themselves to be following their own initiative, is one of the - highest of the teacher’s arts. - - 5. The inculcation of moral lessons through fables, after - Fénelon’s plan, is a practice that modern teaching might - profitably adopt.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[123] Son of Louis XIV., born Aug. 6, 1682; died Feb. 18, 1712. - -[124] See the _Advice_ of Fénelon, Archbishop Cambray, to a lady of -quality on the education of her daughter. - -[125] For an example of this “artifice” carried to the extreme of -absurdity, see Miss Worthington’s translation of the _Émile_, p. -133. (P.) - -[126] Eldest son of Louis XIV., born Nov. 1, 1661; died April 14, -1711. - -[127] _Education of Girls_, Chap. V. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE PHILOSOPHERS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. DESCARTES, -MALEBRANCHE, LOCKE. - - DESCARTES, MALEBRANCHE, LOCKE; DESCARTES (1596-1650); THE - DISCOURSE OF METHOD; CRITICISM OF THE CURRENT EDUCATION; GREAT - PRINCIPLES OF MODERN PEDAGOGY; OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE PEDAGOGY; - MALEBRANCHE (1638-1715); SENSE INSTRUCTION CONDEMNED; INFLUENCE - OF ENVIRONMENT; LOCKE (1632-1704); THE THOUGHTS CONCERNING - EDUCATION; PHYSICAL EDUCATION; THE HARDENING PROCESS; HYGIENIC - PARADOXES; MORAL EDUCATION MORE IMPORTANT THAN INSTRUCTION; SENSE - OF HONOR THE PRINCIPLE OF MORAL DISCIPLINE; CONDEMNATION OF - CORPORAL PUNISHMENT; INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION; UTILITARIAN STUDIES; - PROGRAMME OF STUDIES; ATTRACTIVE STUDIES; SHOULD A TRADE BE - LEARNED? WORKING SCHOOLS; LOCKE AND ROUSSEAU; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY. - - -199. DESCARTES, MALEBRANCHE, AND LOCKE.--Descartes, a spiritualist; -Malebranche, an idealist; Locke, a sensationalist,--such are the -philosophers of the seventeenth century who are related to the -history of pedagogy. And yet the first two have only a remote -connection with it, through their exposition of some of its general -principles. Locke is the only one who has resolutely approached -educational questions in a special treatise that has become a -classic in English pedagogy. - - -200. DESCARTES (1596-1650).--Descartes, the father of modern -philosophy, does not generally figure in the lists drawn up by -the historians of education; and yet, in our opinion, there -is no thinker who has exercised a more decisive influence on -the destinies of education. The author of the _Discourse of -Method_ has, properly speaking, no system of pedagogy, having -never directly treated of educational affairs; but through his -philosophical principles he has changed the direction of human -thought, and has introduced into the study of known truths, as -well as into the search for new truths, a method and a taste for -clearness and precision, which have profited instruction in all of -its departments. - -“We now find,” says Rollin, “in the discourses from the pulpit -and the bar, and in the dissertations on science, an order, an -exactness, a propriety, and a solidity, which were formerly not -so common. Many believe, and not without reason, that we owe this -manner of thinking and writing to the extraordinary progress which -has been made within a a century in the study of philosophy.”[128] - - -201. THE DISCOURSE OF METHOD (1637).--Every system of philosophy -contains in germ a special system of education. From the mere fact -that philosophers define, each in his own way, the nature and the -destiny of man, they come to different conclusions as to the aims -and methods of education. Only a few of them have taken pains to -deduce from their principles the consequences that are involved in -them; but all of them, whether they will or no, are educators. - -Such is the case of Descartes. In writing, in the first part of his -_Discourse of Method_, his _Considerations Touching the Sciences_, -Descartes has written a chapter on practical pedagogy, and through -the general rules of his logic, he has, in effect, founded a new -theory of education. - - -202. CRITICISM OF THE CURRENT EDUCATION.--Descartes has given a -long account of the education which he had received among the -Jesuits, at the college of La Flèche, and this account furnished -him occasion, either to criticize the methods in use, or to -indicate his personal views and his educational preferences. - -“From my infancy letters have been my intellectual nourishment.... -But as soon as I had completed the course of study required for the -doctor’s degree, I found myself embarrassed with so many doubts and -errors that it seemed to me that I had received no other profit -from my efforts at learning than the discovery of my growing -ignorance.” - -In other terms, Descartes ascertained that his studies, though -pursued with ardor for eight years in one of the most celebrated -schools of Europe, had not permitted him to acquire “a clear and -sure knowledge of all that is useful for living.” This was to -condemn the barren teaching and the formal instruction of the -Jesuits. Passing in review the different parts of the instruction, -Descartes first remarks that it was wrong to make an abuse of -the reading of ancient books; for, to hold converse with the men -of other centuries “is about the same as travelling; and when we -spend too much time in travelling, we become strangers in our own -country.” Then he complains that he was not made to know “the true -use of mathematics,” since he had been shown their application only -to the mechanic arts. He nearly condemns rhetoric and poetics, -since eloquence and poetry are “intellectual gifts rather than the -fruits of study.” The ancient languages--and in this he gravely -deceives himself--seem to him useful only for the understanding of -authors. He does not admit that the study of Latin or Greek can -contribute to intellectual development. - -From these reflections there seems to issue the notion of an -instruction more solid, more positive, more directly useful for -the purposes of life, than that which had been brought into -fashion by the Jesuits. However, Descartes does not eliminate the -ordinary studies, as eloquence, “which has incomparable power and -beauty”; poetry, “which has an enchanting tenderness and melody”; -the reading of the classics, which is “a studied conversation with -the most estimable men of past centuries”; history, “which forms -the judgment”; fables, whose “charm arouses the spirit.” But he -would give to all these exercises a more practical turn, a more -utilitarian character, a more positive application. - - -203. GREAT PRINCIPLES OF MODERN PEDAGOGY.--Without intending -it, without any other thought than that of modifying the false -direction of the mind in the search for scientific truth, Descartes -has stated some of the great principles of modern pedagogy. - -The first is the equal aptitude of minds to know and comprehend. -“Good sense,” says Descartes, “is the thing of all else in this -world that is most equally distributed.[129] ... The latent -ability to judge well, to distinguish the true from the false, -is naturally equal among all men.” What is this but saying that -all men are entitled to instruction? In a certain sense, what are -the innumerable primary schools scattered over the surface of the -civilized globe, but the application and the living commentary of -Descartes’ ideas on the equal distribution of good sense and reason -among men? - -But, adds Descartes, “it is not enough to have a sound mind; the -principal thing is to make a good use of it.” In other words, -nature is not sufficient in herself; she needs to be guided and -directed. Method is the essential thing; it has a sovereign -importance. Success will depend less on natural qualities, such -as imagination, memory, quickness of thought, than upon the rules -of intellectual direction imposed on the mind. Education has a -far greater part than nature in the formation and development of -accurate and upright intelligences. - -Another Cartesian principle is the substitution of free inquiry and -reflective conviction for blind beliefs founded upon authority. -Descartes promulgated this famous rule of his method: “The first -precept is, never to receive anything for true that I do not know, -upon evidence, to be such; ... and to comprise no more within my -judgments than what is presented so clearly and distinctly to my -mind that I have no occasion to call it in question.” In this -declaration he has not only reformed science and revolutionized -philosophy, but has banished from the school the old routine, the -mechanical processes and exercises of pure memory, and has made a -demand for rational methods that excite the intelligence, awaken -clear and distinct ideas, and provoke judgment and reflection. Of -course, it is not proposed to make a little Descartes out of every -child, despoiling him of received beliefs in order to construct -personal opinions _de novo_; but the rule of evidence, applied -with moderation and discretion, is none the less an excellent -pedagogical precept, which will never be disallowed by those who -wish to make of the child something more than a mere machine. - - -204. OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE PEDAGOGY.--We have now reached a -place where we may call into notice two different tendencies, -equally legitimate, which we shall find, with exaggerations that -compromise their utility, in the practice of modern teachers. -There are those who wish above all to develop the intelligence; -and there are others who are preoccupied with furnishing the mind -with a stock of positive knowledge. The first conceive instruction -as taking place, as it were, through what is within, through the -development of the internal qualities of precision and measure; the -others are preoccupied only with the instruction that takes place -through what is without, through an extended erudition, through -an accumulation of knowledges. In a word, if I may be allowed -the expression, some affect a subjective pedagogy, and others an -objective pedagogy. Bacon is of the latter number. That which -preoccupies the great English logician above everything else is -the extension of observations and experiments. “To reason without -knowing anything of that which we reason upon,” he says, “is as if -we were to weigh or measure the wind.” Descartes, however, who has -never neglected the study of facts, esteems them less as material -to be accumulated in the mind, than as instruments for training -the mind itself. He would have repudiated those teachers of our -day who seem to think the whole thing is done when there has been -made to pass before the mental vision of the child an interminable -series of object-lessons, without the thought of developing that -intelligence itself. - - -205. MALEBRANCHE (1638-1715).--We must not expect great pedagogical -wisdom from a mystical dreamer and resolute idealist, who has -imagined the vision of all things in God. Besides, Malebranche has -given only a passing attention to things relating to education. -The member of a teaching congregation, the Oratory, he has not -taught; and the whole effort of his mind was spent in the search -for metaphysical truth. Nevertheless, it is interesting to stop -for a moment this visionary who traverses the earth with eyes fixed -on the heavens, and inquire of him what he thinks of the very -practical question, education. - - -206. SENSE INSTRUCTION CONDEMNED.--Malebranche will reply to us, -with the prejudices of a metaphysician of the idealist type, -that the first thing to do is to nourish the child on abstract -truths. In his view, souls have no age, so to speak, and the -infant is already capable of ideal contemplation. Then let sense -instruction be abandoned, “for this is the reason why children -leave metaphysical thoughts, to apply themselves to sensations.” -Is it objected that the child does not seem very well adapted -to meditation on abstract truths? It is not so much the fault -of nature, Malebranche will reply, as of the bad habits he has -contracted. There is a means of remedying this ordinary incapacity -of the child. - -“If we kept children from fear, from desires, and from hope, if -we did not make them suffer pain, if we removed them as far as -possible from their little pleasures, then we might teach them, -from the moment they knew how to speak, the most difficult and -the most abstract things, or at least the concrete mathematics, -mechanics.” - -Does Malebranche hope, then, to suppress, in the life of the child, -pleasure and pain, and triumph over the tendencies which ordinary -education has developed? - -“As an ambitious man who had just lost his fortune and his credit -would not be in a condition to resolve questions in metaphysics -or equations in algebra, so children, on whose brains apples and -sugar-plums make as profound impressions as are made on those of -men of forty years by offices and titles, are not in a condition to -hear the abstract truths that are taught them.” - -Consequently, we must declare war against the senses, and exclude, -for example, all sorts of sensible rewards. Only, by a singular -contradiction, Malebranche upholds material punishments in the -education of children. The only thing of sense he retains is the -rod.[130] - - -207. INFLUENCE OF MATERIAL ENVIRONMENT.--Another contradiction more -worthy of note is, that, notwithstanding his idealism, Malebranche -believes in the influence of physical conditions on the development -of the soul. He does not go so far as to say with the materialists -of our time, that “man is what he eats”; but he accords a certain -amount of influence to nourishment. He speaks cheerfully of wine -and of “those wild spirits who do not willingly submit to the -orders of the will.” He never applied himself to work without -having partaken of coffee. The soul, in his view, is not a force -absolutely independent and isolated, which develops through an -internal activity: “we are bound,” he says, “to everything, and -stand in relations to all that surrounds us.” - -208. LOCKE (1632-1704).--Locke is above all else a psychologist, -an accomplished master in the art of analyzing the origin of -ideas and the elements of the mental life. He is the head of that -school of empirical psychology that rallies around its standard, -Condillac in France, Herbart in Germany, and in Great Britain Hume -and other Scotchmen, and the most of modern philosophers. But -from psychology to pedagogy the transition is easy, and Locke had -to make no great effort to become an authority in education after -having been an accomplished philosopher. - - -209. SOME THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION (1693).--The book which he -published towards the close of his life, under the modest title -_Some Thoughts concerning Education_, was the summing up of a -long experience. A studious pupil at Westminster, he conceived -from his early years, as Descartes did at La Flèche, a keen sense -of repugnance for a purely formal classical instruction, and for -language studies in general, in which, nevertheless, he attained -distinction. A model student at the University of Oxford, he there -became an accomplished humanist, notwithstanding the practical and -positive tendency of his mind that was already drawn towards the -natural sciences and researches in physics and in medicine. Made -Bachelor of Arts in 1656, and Master of Arts in 1658, he passed -directly from the student’s bench to the professor’s chair. He was -successively lecturer and tutor in Greek, but this did not prevent -him later from eliminating Hellenism almost completely from his -scheme of liberal education. Then he became lecturer on rhetoric, -and finally on moral philosophy. When, in 1666, he discontinued his -scholastic life to mingle in political and diplomatic affairs, he -at least carried from his studious residence at Oxford, the germs -of the most of his ideas on education. He sought occasion to make -an application of them in the education of private individuals, -of whom he was the inspirer and counsellor, if not the official -director. In the families of friends and hosts that he frequented, -for example, in that of Lord Shaftesbury, he made a close study -of children; and it is in studying them, and in following with -a sagacious eye the successive steps of their improvement in -disposition and mind, that he succeeded in acquiring that -educational experience which has left a trace on each page of the -_Thoughts concerning Education_. This book, in fact, is the issue -of one of Locke’s experiences as an assistant in the education of -the children of his friends. Towards the year 1684-5, he addressed -to his friend Clarke a series of letters which, retouched and -slightly modified, have become a classical work, simple and -familiar in style, a little disconnected, perhaps, and abounding -in repetitions, but the substance of which is excellent, and the -ideas as remarkable, in general, for their originality as for -their justness. Translated into French in 1695 by P. Coste, and -reprinted several times in the lifetime of their author, the -_Thoughts concerning Education_ have had a universal success. They -have exercised an undoubted influence on the educational writings -of Rousseau and Helvetius. They have received the enthusiastic -praise of Leibnitz, who placed this work above that on the _Human -Understanding_. “I am persuaded,” said H. Marion recently, in his -interesting study on Locke, “that if an edition of the _Thoughts_ -were to be published to-day in a separate volume, it would have a -marked success.”[131] - - -210. ANALYSIS OF THE THOUGHTS CONCERNING EDUCATION.--Without -pretending to give in this place a detailed analysis of Locke’s -book, which deserves to be read entire, and which discusses -exhaustively or calls to notice, one after another, almost all -important educational questions, we shall attempt to make known the -essential principles which are to be drawn from it. These are: 1. -in physical education, the _hardening process_; 2. in intellectual -education, practical utility; 3. in moral education, the principle -of honor, set up as a rule for the free self-government of man. - - -211. PHYSICAL EDUCATION; THE HARDENING PROCESS.--The ideal of -education, according to Locke, is “a sound mind in a sound body.” -A physician like Rabelais, the author of the _Thoughts concerning -Education_ had special competence in questions of physical -education. But a love for the paradoxical, and an excessive -tendency towards the hardening of the body, have marred, on this -point, the reflections of the English philosopher. He has summed up -his precepts on this subject in the following lines:-- - -“The whole is reduced,” he says, “to a small number of rules, easy -to observe; much air, exercise, and sleep; a simple diet, no wine -or strong liquors; little or no medicine at all; garments that are -neither too tight nor too warm; finally, and above all, the habit -of keeping the head and feet cold, of often bathing the feet in -cold water and exposing them to dampness.”[132] But it is necessary -to enter somewhat into details, and to examine closely some of -these ideas. - -Locke is the first educator to write a consecutive and methodical -dissertation on the food, clothing, and sleep of children. It is -he who has stated this principle, afterwards taken up by Rousseau: -“Leave to nature the care of forming the body as she thinks it -ought to be done.” Hence, no close-fitting garments, life in the -open air and in the sun; children brought up like peasants, inured -to heat and cold, playing with head and feet bare. In the matter of -food, Locke forbids sugar, wine, spices, and flesh, up to the age -of three or four. As to fruits, which children often crave with an -inordinate appetite, a fact that is not surprising, he pleasantly -remarks, “since it was for an apple that our first parents lost -paradise,” he makes a singular choice. He authorizes strawberries, -gooseberries, apples, and pears; but he interdicts peaches, plums, -and grapes. To excuse Locke’s prejudice against the grapes, it must -be recollected that he lived in England, a country in which the -vine grows with difficulty, and of which an Italian said, “The only -ripe fruit I have seen in England is a baked apple.” As to meals, -Locke does not think it important to fix them at stated hours. -Fénelon, on the contrary, more judiciously requires that the hour -for repasts be absolutely determined. But this is not the only -instance in which Locke’s wisdom is at fault. What shall be said of -that hygienic fancy which consists in allowing the child “to have -his shoes so thin, that they might leak and let in water, whenever -he comes near it”? - -It is certain that Locke treats children with an unheard-of -severity, all the more surprising in the case of one who had an -infirm and delicate constitution that could be kept in repair -only through precaution and management. I do not know whether the -consequences of the treatment which he proposes, applied to the -letter, might not be disastrous. Madame de Sévigné was more nearly -right when she wrote: “If your son is very robust, a rude education -is good; but if he is delicate, I think that in your attempts to -make him robust, you would kill him.” The body, says Locke, may -be accustomed to everything. We may reply to this by quoting an -anecdote of Peter the Great, who one day took it into his head, -it is said, that it would be best for all the sailors to form the -habit of drinking salt water. Immediately he promulgated an edict -which ordered that all naval cadets should henceforth drink only -sea-water. The boys all died, and there the experiment stopped. - -Still, without subscribing to Locke’s paradoxes, which have found -no one to approve of them except Rousseau, we should recollect that -in his precepts on physical education as a whole, the author of -the _Thoughts_ deserves our commendation for having recommended a -manly course of discipline, and a frugal diet, for having discarded -fashionable conventionalities and drawn near to nature, and for -having condemned the refinements of an indolent mode of life, and -for being inspired by the simple and manly customs of England. - - -212. MORAL EDUCATION.--In the thought of Locke, moral education -takes precedence of instruction properly so called: - -“That which a gentleman ought to desire for his son, besides the -fortune he leaves him is, 1. virtue; 2. prudence; 3. good manners; -4. instruction.” - -Virtue and prudence--that is, moral qualities and practical -qualities--are of first consideration. “Instruction,” says -Locke again, “is but the least part of education.” In the book -of _Thoughts_, where repetitions abound, there is nothing more -frequently repeated than the praise of virtue. - -Doubtless it may be thought that Locke, like Herbert Spencer in our -own day, cherishes prejudices with respect to instruction, and that -he does not take sufficient account of the moralizing influence -exercised over the heart and will by intellectual enlightenment; -but, even with this admission, we must thank Locke for having -protested against the teachers who think they have done all when -they have embellished the memory and developed the intelligence. - -The grand thing in education is certainly to establish good moral -habits, to cultivate noble sentiments, and, finally, to form -virtuous characters. - - -213. HONOR, THE PRINCIPLE OF MORAL DISCIPLINE.--But after having -placed moral education in its proper rank, which is the first, it -remains to inquire what shall be the principles and the methods -of this education. Shall it be the maxim of utility, as Rousseau -requires? Must the child, before acting, inquire what is the -good of this? _Cui bono?_ No; utilitarian in instruction and in -intellectual education, as we have just seen, Locke is not so -in moral education. Shall it be fear, shall it be the authority -of the teacher or of parents, founded on punishments, upon the -slavish feeling of terror? Still less. Locke reproves repressive -discipline, and is not inclined to chastisements. Shall it be -affection, the love of parents, the aggregate of tender sentiments? -Locke scarcely speaks of them. Of too little sensibility himself, -he does not seem to think of all that can be done through the -sensibility of the child. - -Locke, who perhaps is wrong in treating the child too early, as -though he were a man, who does not take sufficient account of all -the feebleness that is in infant nature, appeals from the first -to the sentiment of honor, and to the fear of shame, that is, to -emotions which, I fear, by their very nobleness, are above the -powers of the child. Honor, which is, in fact, but another name for -duty, and the ordinary synonym of virtue,--honor may assuredly be -the guide of an adult and already trained conscience; but is it not -chimerical to hope that the child, from his earliest years, will -be sensible to the esteem or the contempt of those who surround -him? If it were possible to inspire a child with a regard for his -reputation, I grant with Locke that we might henceforth “make -of him whatever we will, and teach him to love all the forms of -virtue”; but the question is to know whether we can succeed in -this, and I doubt it, notwithstanding the assurances of Locke. - -Kant has very justly said:-- - -“It is labor lost to speak of duty to children. They comprehend it -only as a thing whose transgression is followed by the ferule.... -So one ought not to try to call into play with children the feeling -of shame, but to wait for this till the period of youth comes. In -fact, it cannot be developed in them till the idea of honor has -already taken root there.” - -Locke is the dupe of the same illusion, both when he expects of the -child enough moral power so that the sense of honor suffices to -govern him, and when he counts enough on his intellectual forces to -desire to reason with him from the moment he knows how to speak. -For forming good habits in the child, and preparing him for a life -of virtue, there is full need of all the resources that nature and -art put at the disposal of the educator,--sensibility under all -its forms, the calculations of self-interest, the lights of the -intelligence. It is only little by little, and with the progress -of age, that an exalted principle, like the sentiment of honor or -the sentiment of duty, will be able to emerge from out the mobile -humors of the child, and dominate his actions like a sovereign law. -The moral pedagogy of Locke is certainly faulty in that it is not -sufficiently addressed to the heart, and to the potency of loving, -which is already so great in the child. I add, that in his haste -to emancipate the child, to treat him as a reasonable creature, -and to develop in him the principles of self-government, Locke was -wrong in proscribing almost absolutely the fear of punishment. It -is good to respect the liberty and the dignity of the man that is -in the child, but it is not necessary that this respect degenerate -into superstition; and it is not sure that to train firm and robust -wills, it is necessary to have them early affranchised from all -fear and all constraint. - - -214. CONDEMNATION OF CORPORAL PUNISHMENT.--It is undeniable that -Locke has not sufficiently enlarged the bases of his theory of -moral discipline; but if he has rested incomplete in the positive -part of his task, if he has not advised all that should be done, -he has been more successful in the negative part, that which -consists in eliminating all that ought not to be done. The chapters -devoted to punishments in general, and in particular to corporal -punishments, count among the best in the _Thoughts_. Rollin and -Rousseau have often copied from them. It is true that Locke -himself has borrowed the suggestion of them from Montaigne. The -“severe mildness” which is the pedagogical rule of the author -of the _Essays_, is also the rule of Locke. It is in accordance -with this that Locke has brought to bear on the rod the final -judgment of good sense: “The rod is a slavish discipline, which -makes a slavish temper.” He has yielded to the ideas of his time -on only one point, when he admits one exception to the absolute -interdiction of the rod, and tolerates its use in extreme cases -to overcome the obstinate and rebellious resistance of the child. -This is going too far without any doubt; but to do justice to the -boldness of Locke’s views, we must consider how powerful the custom -then was, and still is, in England, in a country where the heads of -institutions think themselves obliged to notify the public, in the -advertisements published in the journals, that the interdiction of -corporal punishment counts among the advantages of their schools. -“It is difficult to conceive the perseverance with which English -teachers cling to the old and degrading customs of corrections by -the rod.... A more astonishing thing is that the scholars seem to -hold to it as much as the teachers.” “In 1818,” relates one of the -former pupils of Charterhouse, “our head master, Doctor Russell, -who had ideas of his own, resolved to abolish corporal punishment -and substitute for it a fine. Everybody resisted the innovation. -The rod seemed to us perfectly consistent with the dignity of a -gentleman; but a fine, for shame! The school rose to the cry: ‘Down -with the fine! Long live the rod!’ The revolt triumphed, and the -rod was solemnly restored. Then we were glad-hearted over the -affair. On the next day after the fine was abolished, we found, on -entering the class-room, a superb forest of birches, and the two -hours of the session were conscientiously employed in making use of -them.”[133][134] - - -215. INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.--In what concerns intellectual -education, Locke manifestly belongs to the school, small in his -time, but more and more numerous to-day, of utilitarian teachers. -He would train, not men of letters, or of science, but practical -men, armed for the battle of life, provided with all the knowledge -they will need in order to keep their accounts, administer their -fortune, satisfy the requirements of their profession, and, -finally, to fulfill their duties as men and citizens. In a word, he -wrote for a nation of tradesmen and citizens. - - -216. UTILITARIAN STUDIES.--An undeniable merit of Locke is that -of having reacted against a purely formal instruction, which -substitutes for the acquisition of positive and real knowledge -a superfluous culture, so to speak, a training in a superficial -rhetoric and an elegant verbiage. Locke disdains and condemns -studies that do not contribute directly to a preparation for -life. Doubtless he goes a little too far in his reaction against -the current formalism and in his predilection for realism. He is -too forgetful of the fact that the old classical studies, if not -useful in the positive sense of the term, and not satisfying the -ordinary needs of existence, have yet a higher utility, in the -sense that they may become, in skillful and discreet hands, an -excellent instrument for intellectual discipline and the education -of the judgment. But Locke spoke to fanatics and pedants, for -whom Latin and Greek were the whole of instruction, and who, -turning letters from their true purpose, wrongly made a knowledge -of the dead languages the sole end, and not, as should be the -case, one of the means of instruction. Locke is by no means a -blind utilitarian, a coarse positivist, who dreams of absolutely -abolishing disinterested studies. He wishes merely to put them in -their place, and to guard against investing them with a sort of -exclusive privilege, and against sacrificing to them other branches -of instruction that are more essential and more immediately useful. - - -217. PROGRAMME OF STUDIES.--As soon as the child knows how to -read and write, he should be taught to draw. Very disdainful of -painting and of the fine arts in general, whose benign and profound -influence on the souls of children his colder nature has not -sufficiently recognized, Locke, by way of compensation, recommends -drawing, because drawing may be practically useful, and he puts it -on almost the same footing as reading and writing. - -These elements once acquired, the child should be drilled in the -mother tongue, first in reading, and afterwards in exercises -in composition, in brief narratives, in familiar letters, etc. -The study of a living language (Locke recommends French to his -countrymen) should immediately follow; and it is only after -this has been acquired that the child shall be put to the study -of Latin. Save the omission of the sciences, Locke’s plan is -singularly like that which for ten years has been in use in the -French lycées. - -As to Latin, which follows the living language, Locke requires that -it shall be learned above all through use, through conversation -if a master can be found who speaks it fluently, but if not, -through the reading of authors. As little of grammar as possible, -no memoriter exercises, no Latin composition, either in prose -or verse, but, as soon as possible, the reading of easy Latin -texts,--these are the recommendations of Locke that have been too -little heeded. The purpose is no longer to learn Latin for the -sake of writing it elegantly; the only purpose truly desirable is -to comprehend the authors who have written in that language. The -obstinate partisans of Latin verse and conversation will not read -without chagrin these earnest protests of Locke against exercises -that have been too much abused, and that impose on the learner the -torment of writing in a language which he handles with difficulty, -upon subjects which he but imperfectly understands. As to Greek, -Locke proscribes it absolutely. He does not disparage the beauty -of a language whose masterpieces, he says, are the original source -of our literature and science; but he reserves the knowledge of -it to the learned, to the lettered, to professional scholars, and -he excludes it from secondary instruction, which ought to be but -the school which trains for active life. Thus relieved, classical -instruction will more easily welcome the studies that are of real -use and of practical application,--geography, which Locke places -in the first rank, because it is “an exercise of the eyes and -memory”; arithmetic, which “is of so general use in all parts of -life and business, that scarce anything can be done without it”; -then what he somewhat ambitiously calls astronomy, and which is in -reality an elementary cosmography; the parts of geometry which are -necessary for “a man of business”; chronology and history, “the -most agreeable and the most instructive of studies”; ethics and -common law, which do not yet have a place in French programmes; -finally, natural philosophy, that is, the physical sciences; and, -to crown all, a manual trade and bookkeeping. - - -218. ATTRACTIVE STUDIES.--Another characteristic of Locke’s -intellectual discipline is, that, utilitarian in its purpose, the -instruction which he organizes shall be attractive in its methods. -After hatred for the pedantry which uselessly spends the powers -of the learner in barren studies, the next strongest antipathy of -Locke is that which is inspired by the rigor of a too didactic -system of instruction, where the methods are repulsive, the -processes painful, and where the teacher appears to his pupils only -as a bugbear and a marplot. - -Although he may go to extremes in this, he is partly right in -wishing to bring into favor processes that are inviting and methods -that are attractive. Without hoping, as he does, without desiring -even, that the pupil may come to make no distinction between study -and other diversions, we are disposed to believe that something may -be done to alleviate for him the first difficulties in learning, to -entice and captivate him without constraining him, and, finally, to -spare him the disgust which cannot fail to be inspired by studies -too severely forced upon him, and which are made the subject of -scourges and scoldings. It is especially for reading and the first -exercises of the child that Locke recommends the use of instructive -plays. “They may be taught to read, without perceiving it to be -anything but a sport, and play themselves into that which others -are whipped for.” - -Children of every age are jealous of their independence and eager -for pleasure. No one before Locke had so clearly recognized the -need of the activity and liberty which are natural to the child, or -so strongly insisted on the necessity of respecting his independent -disposition and his personal tastes. Here again English pedagogy -of the seventeenth century meets its illustrious successor of the -nineteenth. Herbert Spencer has thoroughly demonstrated the fact -that the mind really appropriates only the knowledge that affords -it pleasure and agreeable exercise. Now, there is pleasure and -agreeable excitation wherever there is the development of a normal -activity corresponding to an instinctive taste and proportioned to -the natural powers of the child; and there is no real instruction -save at the expense of a real display of activity.[135] - - -219. SHOULD THERE BE LEARNING BY HEART?--To this question, Should -there be learning by heart? Locke gives a resolute reply in the -negative. The conclusion is absolute and false; but the premises -that he assumes to justify his conclusion are, if possible, falser -still. Locke sets out from this psychological idea, that the memory -is not susceptible of progress. He brings into the discussion his -sensualistic prejudices, his peculiar conception of the soul, which -is but a _tabula rasa_, an empty and inert capacity, and not a -congeries of energies and of living forces that are strengthened by -exercise. He does not believe that the faculties, whatever they may -be, can grow and develop, and this for the good reason, according -to his thinking, that the faculties have no existence. - -But here let him speak for himself:-- - -“I hear it is said that children should be employed in getting -things by heart, to exercise and improve their memories. I would -wish this were said with as much authority and reason as it is with -forwardness of assurance, and that this practice were established -upon good observation more than old custom. For it is evident that -strength of memory is owing to an happy constitution, and not to -any habitual improvement got by exercise. ’Tis true what the mind -is intent upon, and, for fear of letting it slip, often imprints -afresh on itself by frequent reflection, that it is apt to retain, -but still according to its own natural strength of retention. An -impression made on beeswax or lead will not last so long as on -brass or steel. Indeed, if it be renewed often, it may last the -longer; but every new reflecting on it is a new impression, and -’tis from thence one is to reckon, if one would know how long the -mind retains it. But the learning pages of Latin by heart no more -fits the memory for retention of anything else, than the graving of -one sentence in lead makes it the more capable of retaining firmly -any other characters.”[136] - -If Locke were right, education would become wholly impossible; for, -in case of all the faculties, education supposes the existence of -a natural germ which exercise fertilizes and develops. - - -220. A TRADE SHOULD BE LEARNED.--Locke, like Rousseau, but for -other reasons, wishes his pupil to learn a trade: - -“I can not forbear to say, I would have my gentleman _learn -a trade, a manual trade_; nay, two or three, but one more -particularly.”[137] - -Rousseau will say the same: “Recollect that it is not talent that -I require of you; it is a trade, a real trade, a purely mechanical -art, in which the hands work more than the head.” - -But Locke, in having his gentleman learn carpentry or agriculture, -especially designed that this physical labor should lend the -mind a diversion, an occasion for relaxation and repose, and -secure to the body a useful exercise. Rousseau is influenced by -totally different ideas. What he wants is, first, that through an -apprenticeship to a trade, Émile may protect himself against need -in case a revolutionary crisis should deprive him of his wealth. In -the second place, Rousseau obeys his social, we might even say his -socialistic, preoccupations. Work, in his view, is a strict duty, -from which no one can exempt himself. “Rich or poor, every idle -citizen is a knave.” - - -221. WORKING SCHOOLS.--Although Locke is almost exclusively -preoccupied with classical studies and with a gentleman’s -education, nevertheless he has not remained completely a stranger -to questions of primary instruction. In 1697 he addressed to the -English government a remarkable document on the importance of -organizing “working schools” for the children of the poor. All -children over three and under fourteen years of age are to be -collected in homes where they will find labor and food. In this -way Locke thought to contend against immorality and pauperism. He -would find a remedy for the idleness and vagabondage of the child, -and lighten the care of the mother who is absorbed in her work. He -would also, through habits of order and discipline, train up steady -men and industrious workmen. In other terms, he attempted a work -of social regeneration, and the tutor of _gentlemen_ became the -educator of the poor. - - -222. LOCKE AND ROUSSEAU.--In the _Émile_ we shall frequently find -passages inspired by him whom Rousseau calls “the wise Locke.” -Perhaps we shall admire even more the practical qualities and -the good sense of the English educator when we shall have become -acquainted with the chimeras of his French imitator. In the case -of Locke, we have to do, not with an author who wishes to shine, -but with a man of sense and judgment who expresses his opinions, -and who has no other pretense than to understand himself and to -be comprehended by others. To appreciate the _Thoughts_ at their -full value, they should not be read till after having re-read -the _Émile_, which is so much indebted to them. On coming from -the reading of Rousseau, after the brilliant glare and almost -the giddiness occasioned his reader by a writer of genius whose -imagination is ever on the wing, whose passion urges him on, and -who mingles with so many exalted truths, hasty paradoxes, and noisy -declamations, it is like repose and a delicious unbending to the -spirit to go to the study of Locke, and to find a train of thought -always equable, a style simple and dispassionate, an author always -master of himself, always correct, notwithstanding some errors, -and a book, finally, filled, not with flashes and smoke, but with -a light that is agreeable and pure. - - - [223. ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.--1. This study illustrates the fact - that the aims and methods of education are determined by - the types of thought, philosophical, political, religious, - scientific, and social, that happen to be in the ascendent; and - also the tendency of the human mind to adopt extreme views. - - 2. The subjective tendency of human thought is typified by - the Socratic philosophy, and the objective tendency by the - Baconian philosophy; and from these two main sources have issued - two distinctive schools of educators, the formalists and the - realists, the first holding that the main purpose of education - is discipline, training, or formation, and the other, that this - purpose is furnishing instruction or information. This line is - distinctly drawn in the seventeenth century, and the two schools - are typified by Malebranche and Locke. - - 3. The spirit of reaction is exhibited in the opposition to - classical studies, in the effort to convert study into a - diversion, in the use of milder means of discipline, and in the - importance attached to useful studies. In these particulars the - reaction of the sixteenth century is intensified.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[128] Rollin, _Traité des études_, Tome IV. p. 335. - -[129] I am in doubt whether M. Compayré intends to sanction this -doctrine or not. This is an anticipation of one of Jacotot’s -paradoxes: “All human beings are equally capable of learning.” -The verdict of actual teachers is undoubtedly to the effect that -there are manifold differences in the ability of pupils to know, -comprehend, and judge. (P.) - -[130] Is not the antagonism pointed out by Malebranche more -serious than M. Compayré seems to think? If the current of mental -activity sets strongly towards the feelings, emotions, or senses, -it is thereby diverted from the purely intellectual processes, -such as reflection and judgment. The mind of the savage is an -example of what comes from “following the order of nature” in an -extreme training of the senses. On the nature and extent of this -antagonism, the following authorities may be consulted: Hamilton, -_Metaphysics_, p. 336; Mansel, _Metaphysics_, pp. 68, 70, 77; Bain, -_The Senses and the Intellect_, pp. 392-394; Bain, _Education as a -Science_, pp. 17, 29, 37; Spencer, _Principles of Psychology_, pp. -98-99. (P.) - -[131] _John Locke. His Life and his Work._ Paris, 1878. - -[132] _Thoughts_, translation by G. Compayré, p. 57. - -[133] Demogeot et Montucci, _de l’Enseignement secondaire en -Angleterre_, p. 41. - -[134] On the question of corporal punishment in school, is not M. -Compayré too absolute in his assumptions? On what principle does -he base his absolute condemnation of the rod? What is to be done -in those cases of revolt against order and decency that occur from -time to time in most schools? There is no doubt that the very best -teachers can govern without resorting to this hateful expedient; -but what shall be done in extreme cases by the multitude who are -not, and never can be, teachers of this ideal type? Nor does this -question stand alone. Below, it is related to family discipline; -and above, to civil administration. If corporal punishment is -interdicted in the school, should it not be interdicted in the -State? (P.) - -[135] It is usually said that a pupil’s distaste for a study -indicates one of two things, either the mode of presenting the -subject is bad, or it is presented at an unseasonable period of -mental development; but this distaste is quite as likely to be due -to the fact that a certain mode of mental activity has not yet been -established; for until fairly established, its exercise cannot be -pleasurable. The assumption that intellectual appetites already -exist and are waiting to be gratified, or that they will invariably -appear at certain periods of mental development, is by no means a -general law of the mental life. In many cases, these appetites must -be created, and it may often be that the studies employed for this -purpose may not at first be relished. And there are cases where, -under the best of skill, this relish may never come; and still, the -knowledge or the discipline is so necessary that the studies may be -enforced contrary to the pupil’s pleasure. (P.) - -[136] _Thoughts_, edited by R. H. Quick (Cambridge, 1880), pp. -153-4. - -[137] _Thoughts_, p. 177. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.--JACQUELINE -PASCAL AND MADAME DE MAINTENON. - - THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY; MADAME - DE SÉVIGNÉ; THE ABBÉ FLEURY; EDUCATION IN CONVENTS; PORT - ROYAL AND THE REGULATIONS OF JACQUELINE PASCAL; GENERAL - IMPRESSION; SEVERITY AND AFFECTION; GENERAL CHARACTER OF SAINT - CYR; TWO PERIODS IN THE INSTITUTION OF SAINT CYR; DRAMATIC - REPRESENTATIONS; THE REFORM OF 1692; THE PART PLAYED BY MADAME - DE MAINTENON; HER PEDAGOGICAL WRITINGS; INTERIOR ORGANIZATION OF - SAINT CYR; DISTRUST OF READING; THE STUDY OF HISTORY NEGLECTED; - INSTRUCTION INSUFFICIENT; MANUAL LABOR; MORAL EDUCATION; DISCREET - DEVOTION; SIMPLICITY IN ALL THINGS; FÉNELON AND SAINT CYR; - GENERAL JUDGMENT; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY. - - -224. THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.--The -_Education of Girls_ of Fénelon has shown us how far the spirit -of the seventeenth century was able to go in what concerns the -education of women, as exhibited in the most liberal theories -on the subject; but in practice, save in brilliant exceptions, -even the modest and imperfect ideal of Fénelon was far from being -attained. - -Chrysale was not alone of this opinion, when he said in the -_Learned Ladies_:-- - -“It is not very proper, and for several reasons, that a woman -should study and know so many things. To train the minds of her -children in good morals and manners, to superintend her household, -by keeping an eye on her servants, and to control the expenditures -with economy, ought to be her study and philosophy.”[138] It is -true that Molière himself did not sympathize with the prejudices -whose expression he put in the mouth of his comic character, -and that he concludes that a woman “may be enlightened on every -subject” (“Je consens qu’une femme ait des clartés de tout”). But -in real fact and in practice, it is the opinion of Chrysale that -prevailed. Even in the higher classes, woman held herself aloof -from instruction, and from things intellectual. Madame Racine had -never seen played, and had probably never read, the tragedies of -her husband. - - -225. MADAME DE SÉVIGNÉ.--However, the seventeenth century was -not wanting in women of talent or genius, who might have made an -eloquent plea in behalf of their sex; but they were content to -give personal examples of a high order, without any anxiety to be -imitated. Madame de Lafayette made beautiful translations from -Latin; Madame Dacier was a humanist of the first order; and Madame -de Sévigné knew the modern languages as well as the ancient. No one -has better described the advantage of reading. She recommends the -reading of romances in the following terms:-- - -“I found that a young man became generous and brave in seeing -my heroes, and that a girl became genteel and wise in reading -_Cleopatra_. There are occasionally some who take things somewhat -amiss, _but they would perhaps do scarcely any better if they could -not read_.”[139] - -Madame de Sévigné had her daughter read Descartes, and her -granddaughter Pauline, the tragedies of Corneille. - -“For my part,” she said, “if I were to bring up my granddaughter, -I would have her read what is good, but not too simple. I would -reason with her.”[140] - - -226. THE ABBÉ FLEURY.--But Madame de Sévigné and Madame de Grignan -were but brilliant exceptions. If one were to doubt the ignorance -of the women of this period, it would suffice to read this striking -passage from the Abbé Fleury, the assistant of Fénelon in the -education of the Duke of Bourgogne:-- - -“This, doubtless, will be a great paradox, that women ought to -learn anything else than their catechism, sewing, and different -little pieces of work, singing, dancing, and dressing in the -fashion, and to make a fine courtesy. As things now go, this -constitutes all their education.”[141] - -Fleury desires something else for woman. He demands that she -learn to write correctly in French, and that she study logic and -arithmetic. But we need not fear lest the liberalism of a thinker -of the seventeenth century carry him too far. Fleury admits, for -example, that history is absolutely useless to women. - - -227. EDUCATION IN THE CONVENTS.--It is almost exclusively in -convents that young girls then received what passed for an -education. The religious congregations that devoted themselves to -female education were numberless; we note, for example, among the -most celebrated, the Ursulines, founded in 1537; the Association of -the Angelics, established in Italy in 1536; and the Order of Saint -Elizabeth. But, notwithstanding the diversity of names, all the -convents for girls resemble one another. In all of them woman was -educated for heaven, or for a life of devotion. Spiritual exercises -formed the only occupation of the pupils, and study was scarcely -taken into account. - - -228. PORT ROYAL AND THE REGULATIONS OF JACQUELINE PASCAL.--The -best means of penetrating into the inner life of the convents of -the seventeenth century is to read the _Regulations for Children_, -written towards 1657 by Jacqueline Pascal, Sister Saint Euphemia. -The education of girls interested the Jansenists not less than -the education of men; but in this respect, Port Royal is far from -deserving the same encomiums in both cases. - - -229. GENERAL IMPRESSION.--There is nothing so sombre and sad as the -interior of their institution for girls, and nothing so austere as -the rules of Jacqueline Pascal. - -“A strange emotion, even at the distance of centuries, is caused by -the sight of those children keeping silent or speaking in a whisper -from rising till retiring, never walking except between two nuns, -one in front and the other behind, in order to make it impossible, -by slackening their pace on the pretext of some indisposition, for -them to hold any communication; working in such a way as never to -be in companies of two or three; passing from meditation to prayer, -and from prayer to instruction; learning, besides the catechism, -nothing but reading and writing; and, on Sunday, ‘a little -arithmetic, the older from one to two o’clock, and the younger -from two to half past two’; the hands always busy to prevent the -mind from wandering; but without being able to become attached to -their work, which would please God as much the more as it pleased -themselves the less; opposing all their natural inclinations, and -despising the attentions due the body ‘destined to serve as food -for worms’; doing nothing, in a word, except in the spirit of -mortification. Imagine those days of fourteen and sixteen hours, -slowly succeeding one another, and weighing down on the heads of -those poor little sisters, for six or eight years in that dreary -solitude, where there was nothing to bring in the stir of life, -save the sound of the bell announcing a change of exercise or -of penance, and you will comprehend Fénelon’s feeling of sadness -when he speaks of the shadows of that deep cavern in which was -imprisoned and, as it were, buried the youth of girls.”[142] - - -230. SEVERITY AND LOVE.--The severity of the _Regulations_ is such -that the editor, M. de Pontchartrain, also a Jansenist, allows that -it will be impossible to obtain from all children “so complete a -silence and so formal a life”; and requires that the mistresses -shall try to gain their affections. Love must be united with -severity. Jacqueline Pascal does not seem to be entirely of this -opinion, since she declares that only God must be loved. However, -notwithstanding her habitual severity, human tenderness sometimes -asserts its rights in the rules which she established. We feel -that she loves more than she confesses, those young girls whom she -calls “little doves.” On the one hand, the _Regulations_ incite -the pupils to eat of what is placed before them indifferently, -and to begin with what they like the least, through a spirit of -penitence; but, on the other hand, Jacqueline writes: “They must -be exhorted to take sufficient nourishment so as not to allow -themselves to become weakened, and this is why care is taken that -they have eaten enough.” And so there is a touching solicitude that -is almost maternal in this remark: “As soon as they have retired, -each particular bed must be visited, to see whether all proprieties -have been observed, and whether the children are well covered in -winter.” The mystic sister of the ascetic Pascal has moments of -tenderness. “Nevertheless, we must not cease to feel pity for them, -and to accommodate ourselves to them in every way that we can, -but without letting them know that we have thus condescended.” -However, the dominant conception ever reappearing, is the idea that -human nature is evil; that we have to do with rebellious spirits -which must be conquered, and that they deserve no commiseration. - -There is a deal of anxiety to make study agreeable! Jacqueline -directs her pupils to work at the very things that are most -repulsive, because the work that will please God the most is that -which will please them the least. The exterior manifestations of -friendship are forbidden, and possibly friendship itself. “Our -pupils shall shun every sort of familiarity one towards another.” - -Instruction is reduced to the catechism, to the application of the -Christian virtues, to reading, and to writing. Arithmetic is not -taught save on holidays. It seems that memory is the only faculty -that Jacqueline wishes to have developed. “This opens their minds, -gives them occupation, and keeps them from evil thoughts.” Have we -not reason to say that at Port Royal women have less value than -men! What a distance between the solid instruction of Lancelot’s -and Nicole’s pupils and the ignorance of Jacqueline Pascal’s! Even -when the men of Port Royal speak of the education of women, they -have more liberal ideas than those which are applied at their side. -Nicole declares that books are necessary even in convents for -girls, because it is necessary “to sustain prayer by reading.” - - -231. GENERAL CHARACTER OF SAINT CYR.--In leaving Port Royal for -Saint Cyr, we seem, on coming out of a profound night, to perceive -a ray of light. Without doubt, Madame de Maintenon has not yet, as -a teacher, all that breadth of view that could be desired. Her work -is far from being faultless, but the founding of Saint Cyr (1686) -was none the less a considerable innovation. “Saint Cyr,” it has -been said, “is not a convent. It is a great establishment devoted -to the lay education of young women of noble birth; it is a bold -and intelligent secularization of the education of women.” There -is some excess of praise in this statement, and the lay character -of Saint Cyr is very questionable. Lavallée, an admirer, could -write: “The instructions of Madame de Maintenon are doubtless too -religious, too monastic.” Let us grant, however, that Madame de -Maintenon, who, after having founded Saint Cyr, was the director -of it, _extra muros_, and even taught there, at stated times, is -personally the first lay teacher of France. Let us grant, also, -that at least in the beginning, and up to 1692, the women entrusted -with the work of instruction were not nuns in the absolute sense of -the term. They were not bound by solemn and absolute vows. - -But this character relatively laic, and this rupture with monastic -traditions, were not maintained during the whole life of the -institution. - - -232. TWO PERIODS IN THE HISTORY OF SAINT CYR.--Saint Cyr, in -fact, passed, within a few years, through two very different -periods, and Madame de Maintenon followed in succession two almost -opposite currents. For the first years, from 1686 to 1692, the -spirit of the institution is broad and liberal; the education is -brilliant, perhaps too much so; literary exercises and dramatic -representations have an honored place. Saint Cyr is an institution -inclining to worldliness, better fitted to train women of intellect -than good economists and housewives. Madame de Maintenon quickly -saw that she had taken a false route, and, from 1692, she reacted, -not without excess, against the tendencies which she had at first -obeyed. She conceived an extreme distrust of literary studies, and -cut off all she could from the instruction, in order to give her -entire thought to the moral and practical qualities of her pupils. -Saint Cyr became a convent, with a little more liberty, doubtless, -than there was in the other monasteries of the time, but it was a -convent still. - - -233. DRAMATIC REPRESENTATIONS.--It was the notorious success of the -performance of _Andromaque_ and _Esther_ that caused the overthrow -of the original intentions of Madame de Maintenon. _Esther_, in -particular, was the great event of the first years of Saint Cyr. -Racine distributed the parts; Boileau conducted the training in -elocution; and the entire Court, the king at the head, came to -applaud and entertain the pretty actresses, who left nothing -undone to please their spectators. Heads were a little turned -by all this; dissipation crept into the school. The pupils were -no longer willing to sing in church, for fear of spoiling their -voices. Evidently the route was now over a dangerous declivity. The -institution had been turned from its purpose. Matters were in a way -to establish, under another form, another Hôtel de Rambouillet.[143] - - -234. REFORM OF 1692.--At the first, as we have seen, the ladies of -Saint Louis, charged with the direction of Saint Cyr, did not found -a monastic order properly so-called; but, when Madame de Maintenon -resolved to reform the general spirit of the house, she thought it -necessary to transform Saint Cyr into a monastery, and she founded -the Order of Saint Augustine. - -But what she changed in particular was the moral discipline, and -the programme of studies. - -Madame de Maintenon has herself recited, in a memorable -letter,[144] the reasons of that reform which modified so -profoundly the character of Saint Cyr:-- - -“The sorrow I feel for the girls of Saint Cyr,” she said, “can be -cured only by time and by an _entire change_ in the education that -we have given them up to this hour. It is very just that I should -suffer for this, since I have contributed to it more than any one -else.... The whole establishment has been the object of my pride, -and the ground for this feeling has been so real that it has gone -to extremes that I never intended. God knows that I wished to -establish virtue at Saint Cyr, but I have built upon the sand. Not -having, what alone can make a solid foundation, I wished the girls -to be witty, high-spirited, and trained to think; I have succeeded -in this purpose. They have wit, and they use it against us. They -are high-spirited, and are more heady and haughty than would be -becoming in a royal princess. Speaking after the manner of the -world, we have trained their reason, and have made them talkative, -presumptuous, inquisitive, bold ... witty,--such characters as even -we who have trained them cannot abide.... Let us seek a remedy, for -we must not be discouraged.... As many little things form pride, -many little things will destroy it. Our girls have been treated -with too much consideration, have been petted too much, treated -too gently. We must now leave them more to themselves in their -class-rooms, make them observe the daily regulations, and speak -to them of scarcely anything else.... Pray to God, and ask Him to -change their hearts; and that He may give to all of them humility. -There should not be much conversation with them on the subject. -Everything at Saint Cyr is made a matter of discourse. We often -speak of simplicity, and try to define it correctly ... and yet, -in practice, the girls make merry in saying: ‘Through simplicity -I take the best place; through simplicity I am going to commend -myself.’ Our girls must be cured of that jesting turn of mind which -I have given them.... We have wished to shun the pettiness of -certain convents, and God has punished us for this haughty spirit. -There is no house in the world that has more need of humility -within and without than our own. Its situation near the Court; the -air of favor that pervades it; the favors of a great king; the -offices of a person of consideration,--all these snares, so full of -danger, should lead us to take measures directly contrary to those -we have really taken....” - - -235. THE PART PLAYED BY MADAME DE MAINTENON.--Whatever may be the -opinion respecting the tone of the educational work at Saint Cyr, -there cannot be the least doubt as to the admirable zeal of Madame -de Maintenon, and her indefatigable devotion to the success of her -favorite undertaking. The vocation of the teacher was evidently -hers. For more than thirty years, from 1686 to 1717, she did -not cease to visit Saint Cyr every day, sometimes at six in the -morning. She wrote for the directresses and for the pupils counsels -and regulations that fill several volumes. Nothing which concerns -“her children” is a matter of indifference to her. She devotes her -attention to their meals, their sleep, their toilet, as well as to -their character and their instruction:-- - -“The affairs we discuss at Court are bagatelles; those at Saint Cyr -are the more important....” “May that establishment last as long as -France, and France as long as the world. Nothing is dearer to me -than my children of Saint Cyr.” - -It is not tenderness, it is well known, that characterizes the soul -of Madame de Maintenon; but, at Saint Cyr, from being formal and -cold, which is her usual state, she becomes loving and tender:-- - -“Forget nothing that may save the souls of our young girls, that -may fortify their health and preserve their form.” - -One day, as she had come to the school, as her custom was, to -consult with the nuns, a company of girls passed by raising a cloud -of dust. The nuns, fearing that Madame de Maintenon was annoyed -by it, requested them to withdraw. “Pray, let the dear girls be,” -replied Madame de Maintenon; “I love them even to the dust they -raise.” Conversely, as it were, the pupils of Pestalozzi, consulted -on the question of knowing whether they were willing always to be -beaten and clawed by their old master, replied affirmatively: they -loved him even to his claws! - - -236. HER PEDAGOGICAL WRITINGS.--It is only in our day that the -works of Madame de Maintenon have been published in the integrity -of their text, thanks to the labors of Théophile Lavallée. For -the most part, these long and interesting letters are devoted to -education and to Saint Cyr. These are, first, the _Letters and -Conversations on the Education of Girls_.[145] These letters were -written from day to day, and are addressed, sometimes to the ladies -of Saint Cyr, and sometimes to the pupils themselves. “We find in -them,” says Lavallée, “for all circumstances and for all times, the -most solid teaching, masterpieces of good sense, of naturalness, -and of truth, and, finally, instructions relative to education -that approach perfection. The _Conversations_ originated in the -consultations that Madame de Maintenon had during the recreations -or the recitations, either with the ladies or with the young -women, who themselves collected and edited the words of their -governess.” - -After the _Letters and Conversations_ comes the _Counsels to Young -Women who enter Society_,[146] which contain general advice, -conversations or dialogues, and, finally, proverbs, that is, short -dramatic compositions, designed at once to instruct and amuse the -young ladies of Saint Cyr. These essays are not admirable in all -respects; most often they are lacking in imagination; and Madame -de Maintenon, though an imitation of Fénelon, makes a misuse of -indirect instruction, of artifice, and of amusement, in order to -teach some moral commonplaces by insinuation. Here are the titles -of some of these proverbs: _The occasion makes the rogue_; _Women -make and unmake the home_; _There is no situation more embarrassing -than that of holding the handle of the frying-pan_. - -Finally, let us note the third collection, the _Historical and -Instructive Letters addressed to the Ladies of Saint Cyr_.[147] - -It is to be regretted that, out of these numerous volumes, where -repetitions abound, there have not been extracted, in a methodical -manner, a few hundred pages which should contain the substance of -Madame de Maintenon’s thinking on educational questions. - - -237. INTERIOR ORGANIZATION.--The purpose of the founding of Saint -Cyr was to assure to the two hundred and fifty daughters of the -poor nobility, and to the children of officers dead or disabled, an -educational retreat where they would be suitably educated so as to -be prepared for becoming either nuns, if this was their vocation, -or, the more often, good mothers. As M. Gréard has justly observed, -“the very conception of an establishment of this kind, the idea of -making France pay the debt of France, educating the children of -those who had given her their blood, proceeds from a feeling up to -that time unknown.”[148] - -Consequently, children of the tenderest years, from six or seven, -were received at Saint Cyr, there to be cared for till the age of -marriage, till eighteen and twenty. - -The young girls were divided into four classes,--the reds, the -greens, the yellows, and the blues. The blues were the largest, and -they wore the royal colors. Each class was divided into five or six -_bands_ or _families_, of eight or ten pupils each. - -The ladies of Saint Cyr were ordinarily taken from the pupils of -the school. They were forty in number,--the superior, the assistant -who supplied the place of the superior, the mistress of the -novices, the general mistress of the classes, the mistresses of the -classes, etc. - -The capital defect of Saint Cyr is, that, as in the colleges of the -Jesuits, the residence is absolute and the sequestration complete. -From her fifth to her twentieth year the young girl belongs -entirely to Saint Cyr. She scarcely knows her parents. It will be -said, perhaps, that in many cases she has lost them, and that in -some cases she could expect only bad examples from them. But no -matter; the general rule, which interrupted family intercourse to -the extent of almost abolishing it, cannot obtain our approbation. -The girl was permitted to see her parents only three or four times -a year, and even then these interviews would last only for a -half an hour each time, and in the presence of a mistress. There -was permission to write family letters from time to time; but as -though she mistrusted the natural impulses of the heart, and the -free outpouring of filial affection, Madame de Maintenon had taken -care to compose some models of these letters. With more of reason -than of feeling, Madame de Maintenon is not exempt from a certain -coldness of heart. It seems that she would impose on her pupils the -extraordinary habits of her own family. She recollected having been -kissed only twice by her mother, on her forehead, and then only -after a long separation. - - -238. DISTRUST OF READING.--After the reforms of 1692, the -instruction at Saint Cyr became a matter of secondary importance. -Reading, writing, and counting were taught, but scarcely anything -besides. Reading, in general, was viewed with distrust: “Teach -girls to be very sparing as to reading, and always to prefer -manual labor instead.” Books of a secular nature were interdicted; -only works of piety were put in the hands of pupils, such as the -_Introduction to a Devout Life_, by Saint François de Salles, -and the _Confessions_ of Saint Augustine. “Renounce intellectual -culture” is the perpetual injunction of Madame de Maintenon. - -“We must educate citizens for citizenship. It is not the question -of giving them intellectual culture. We must preach family duties -to them, obedience to husband, and care for children.... Reading -does more harm than good to young girls.... Books make witlings and -excite an insatiable curiosity.” - - -239. THE STUDY OF HISTORY NEGLECTED.--To judge of the spirit of -Saint Cyr, from the point of view of intellectual education, it -suffices to note the little importance that was there given to -history. This went so far as to raise the question whether it were -not best to prohibit the study of French history entirely. Madame -de Maintenon consents to have it taught, but only just enough so -that “pupils may not confuse the succession of our kings with the -princes of other countries, and not take a Roman emperor for an -emperor of China or Japan, a king of Spain or of England for a king -of Persia or of Siam.” As to the history of antiquity, it must be -held in mistrust for the very reason--who would believe it?--of -the beautiful examples of virtue that it contains. “I should fear -that those grand examples of generosity and heroism would give -our young girls too much elevation of spirit, and make them vain -and pretentious.” Have we not some right to feel surprised that -Madame de Maintenon is alarmed at the thought of _raising_ the -intelligence of woman? It is true that she doubtless thought of -the romantic exaggerations produced by the reading of the _Cyrus -the Great_ and other writings of Mlle. de Scudéry. Let us add, -besides, to excuse the shortcomings of the programme of Saint Cyr -in the matter of history, that even for boys in the colleges of the -University, the order that introduced the teaching of history into -the classes dates only from 1695. - - -240. INSUFFICIENT INSTRUCTION.--“Our day,” says Lavallée, “would -not accept that education in which instruction properly so-called -was but a secondary matter, and entirely sacrificed to the manner -of training the heart, the reason, and the character; and an -education, too, that, as a whole and in its details, was wholly -religious.” The error of Madame de Maintenon consists essentially -in the wish to develop the moral virtues in souls scarcely -instructed, scarcely enlightened. There was much moral discoursing -at Saint Cyr. If it did not always bear fruit, it was because the -seed fell into intelligences that were but little cultivated. - -“Our young women are not to be made scholarly. Women never know -except by halves, and the little that they know usually makes them -conceited, disdainful, chatty, and disgusted with serious things.” - - -241. MANUAL LABOR.--If intellectual education was neglected at -Saint Cyr, by way of compensation great attention was paid to -manual education. The girls were there taught to sew, to embroider, -to knit, and to make tapestry; and there was also made there all -the linen for the house, the infirmary, and the chapel, and the -dresses and clothing of the ladies and the pupils:-- - -“But no exquisite productions,” says Madame de Maintenon, “nor of -very elaborate design; none of those flimsy edgings in embroidery -or tapestry, which are of no use.” - -With what good grace Madame de Maintenon ever preaches the gospel -of labor, of which she herself gave the example! In the coaches of -the king, she always had some work in hand. At Saint Cyr, the young -women swept the dormitories, put in order the refectory, and dusted -the class-rooms. “They must be put at every kind of service, and -made to work at what is burdensome, in order to make them robust, -healthy, and intelligent.” - -“Manual labor is a moral safeguard, a protection against sin.” - -“Work calms the passions, occupies the mind, and does not leave it -time to think of evil.” - - -242. MORAL EDUCATION.--“The Institute,” said Madame de Maintenon, -“is intended, not for prayer, but for action.” What she wished, -above all else, was to prepare young women for home and family -life. She devoted her thought to the training of wives and mothers. -“What I lack most,” she said, “is sons-in-law!” Hence she was -incessantly preoccupied with moral qualities. One might make a -fine and valuable book of selections out of all the practical -maxims of Madame de Maintenon; as her reflections on talkativeness: -“There is always sin in a multitude of words;” on indolence: “What -can be done in the family of an indolent and fastidious woman?” -on politeness, “which consists, above all else, in giving one’s -thought to others;” on lack of energy, then too common among women -of the world: “The only concern is to eat and to take one’s ease. -Women spend the day in morning-gowns, reclining in easy-chairs, -without any occupation, and without conversation; all is well, -provided one be in a state of repose.” - - -243. DISCREET DEVOTION.--We must not imagine that Saint Cyr was a -house of prayer, a place of overdone devotion. Madame de Maintenon -held to a reasonable Christianity. Piety, such as was recommended -at Saint Cyr, is a piety that is _steadfast_, _judicious_, and -_simple_; that is, conformed to the state in which one ought to -live, and exempt from refinements. - -“The young women are too much at church, considering their -age,” she wrote to Madame de Brinon, the first director of the -institution.... “Consider, I pray you, that this is not to be a -cloister.”[149] - -And later, after the reform had begun, this is what she wrote:-- - -“Let the piety with which our young girls shall be inspired be -cheerful, gentle, and free. Let it consist rather in the innocence -of their lives, and in the simplicity of their occupations, than -in the austerities, the retirements, and the refinements of -devotion.... When a girl comes from a convent, saying that nothing -ought to interfere with vespers, she is laughed at; but when an -educated woman shall say that vespers may be omitted for the sake -of attending her sick husband, everybody will commend her.... When -a girl shall say that a woman does better to educate her children -and instruct her servants than to spend the forenoon in church, -that religion will be heartily accepted, and will make itself -loved and respected.”[150] Excellent advice, perhaps too little -followed! Madame de Maintenon here speaks the language of good -sense, and we are wholly surprised to hear it from the lips of a -politic woman who, not without reason, and for her part in the -Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, has the reputation of being an -intolerant fanatic. - - -244. SIMPLICITY IN ALL THINGS.--The simplicity which she -recommended in religion, Madame de Maintenon demanded in -everything,--in dress and in language: “Young girls,” she says, -“must wear as few ribbons as possible.” - -A class-teacher had given a fine lecture, in which she exhorted -her pupils to make an “eternal divorce” with sin. “Very well said, -doubtless,” remarked Madame de Maintenon; “but, pray, who among our -young ladies knows what divorce is?” - - -245. FÉNELON AND SAINT CYR.--Michelet, speaking of Saint Cyr, which -he does not love, said: “Its cold governess was much more a man -than Fénelon.” The fact is, that the author of the _Education of -Girls_ gives a larger place to sensibility and intelligence. It is -not Madame de Maintenon who said: “As much as possible, tenderness -of heart must be excused in young girls.” It is not at Saint Cyr -that these maxims were practised. “Pray let them have Greek and -Roman histories. They will find in them prodigies of courage and -disinterestedness. Let them not be ignorant of the history of -France, which also has its beauty.... All this serves to give -dignity to the mind, and to lift the soul to noble sentiments.” -Nevertheless, Fénelon’s work was highly esteemed at Saint Cyr. -It appeared in 1687, and Saint Cyr was founded in 1686. A great -number of its precepts were there observed, such as the following: -“Frequent leaves of absence should be avoided;” “Young girls should -not be accustomed to talk much.” - - -246. GENERAL JUDGMENT.--In a word, if the ideal proposed to the -young women of Saint Cyr by Madame de Maintenon cannot satisfy -those who, in our day, conceive “an education broader in its scheme -and more liberal in its spirit,” at least we must do justice -to an institution which was, as its foundress said, “a kind of -college,” a first attempt at enfranchisement in the education of -women. Without demanding of Madame de Maintenon what was not in -her age to give, let us be inspired by her in what concerns the -changeless education in moral virtues, and in the qualities of -discretion, reserve, goodness, and submission. “However severe that -education may appear,” says Lavallée, “I believe it will suggest -better reflections to those who observe the way in which women are -educated to-day, and the results of that education in luxury and -pleasure, not only on the fireside, but still more on society and -political life, and on the future of the men that it is preparing -for France. I believe they will prefer that manly education, so -to speak, which purified private morals and begot public virtues; -and that they will esteem and regret that work of Madame de -Maintenon, which for a century prevented the corruption of the -Court from extending to the provinces, and maintained in the old -country-seats, from which came the greater part of the nobility, -the substantial virtues and the simple manners of the olden time.” - - - [247. ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.--1. The education of women in the - seventeenth century reflects the sentiment of the age as to their - relative position in society, their rights, and their destiny. - Woman was still regarded as the inferior of man, in the lower - classes as a drudge, in the higher as an ornament; in her case, - intellectual culture was regarded as either useless or dangerous; - and the education that was given her was to fit her for a life - of devotion or a life of seclusion from society. - - 2. The rules of Jacqueline Pascal exhibit the effects of an - ascetic belief on education,--human nature is corrupt; all its - likes are to be thwarted, and all its dislikes fostered under - compulsion. - - 3. The education directed by Madame de Maintenon is the beginning - of a rupture with tradition. It was a movement towards the - secularization of woman’s education, and towards the recognition - of her equality with man, with respect to her grade of - intellectual endowments, her intellectual culture, and to her - participation in the duties of real life. - - 4. The type of the higher education was still monastic, both for - men and women. No one was able to conceive that both sexes might - be educated together with mutual advantage.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[138] _Les Femmes Savantes_, Act II. Scene VII., Van Laun’s -translation. - -[139] Letter of Nov. 16, 1689. - -[140] Letter of June 1, 1680. - -[141] _Traité du choix et de la méthode des études_, Chap. XXXVIII. - -[142] Gréard, _Mémoire sur l’enseignement secondaire des filles_, -p. 55. - -[143] “The name generally given to a social circle, which for -more than half a century gathered around Catherine de Vivonne, -marquise de Rambouillet, and her daughter, Julie d’Angennes, -duchess de Montausier, and which exercised a very conspicuous -influence on French language, literature, and civilization.... -Her house soon became the place where all who had genius, wit, -learning, talent, or taste, assembled, and from these reunions -originated the French Academy, the highest authority of French -literature, and the salons, the most prominent feature of French -civilization.”--Johnson’s _Cyclopædia_. - -[144] See the Letter to Madame de Fontaine, general mistress of the -school, Sept. 20, 1691. - -[145] Two volumes, 2d edition, 1861. - -[146] Two volumes, 1857. - -[147] Two volumes, 1860. - -[148] M. Gréard, _Mémoire sur l’enseignement secondaire des -filles_, 1882, p. 59. - -[149] _Lettres historiques_, Tome I. p. 48. - -[150] _Lettres historiques_, Tome I. p. 89. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -ROLLIN. - - THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS; STATUTES OF 1598 AND OF 1600; - ORGANIZATION OF THE DIFFERENT FACULTIES; DECADENCE OF THE - UNIVERSITY OF PARIS IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY; THE RESTORATION - OF STUDIES AND ROLLIN (1661-1741); THE TREATISE ON STUDIES; - DIFFERENT OPINIONS; DIVISION OF THE TREATISE ON STUDIES; GENERAL - REFLECTIONS ON EDUCATION; STUDIES FOR THE FIRST YEARS; THE - EDUCATION OF GIRLS; THE STUDY OF FRENCH; GREEK AND LATIN; ROLLIN - THE HISTORIAN; THE TEACHING OF HISTORY; PHILOSOPHY; SCIENTIFIC - INSTRUCTION; EDUCATIONAL CHARACTER OF ROLLIN’S PEDAGOGY; INTERIOR - DISCIPLINE OF COLLEGES; PUBLIC EDUCATION; THE ROD; PUNISHMENTS IN - GENERAL; CONCLUSION; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY. - - -248. THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS.--Since the thirteenth century, the -University of Paris had been a centre of light and a resort for -students. Ramus could say: “This University is not the university -of one city only, but of the entire world.” But even in the time -of Ramus, in consequence of the civil discords, and by reason -also of the progress in the colleges organized by the Company of -Jesus, the University of Paris declined; she saw the number of her -pupils diminish. She persisted, however, in the full light of the -Renaissance, in following the superannuated regulations which the -Cardinal d’Estouteville had imposed on her in 1452; she fell behind -in the routine of the scholastic methods. A reform was necessary, -and in 1600 it was accomplished by Henry IV. - - -249. STATUTES OF 1600.--The statutes of the new university were -promulgated “by the order and the will of the most Christian and -most invincible king of France and Navarre, Henry IV.” This was the -first time that the State directly intervened in the control of -education, and that secular power was set up in opposition to the -absolute authority of the Church. - -In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries a reform had been made -in the University, by the Popes Innocent III. and Urban V. The -reformer of 1452, the Cardinal d’Estouteville, acted as the legate -of the pontifical power. On the contrary, the statutes of 1600 were -the work of a commission named by the king, and there sat at its -deliberations, by the side of a few ecclesiastics, magistrates, and -even professors. - - -250. ORGANIZATION OF THE DIFFERENT FACULTIES.--The University of -Paris comprised four Faculties: the Faculties of Theology, of -Law, and of Medicine, which corresponded to what we to-day call -superior instruction, and the Faculty of Arts, which was almost the -equivalent of our secondary instruction.[151] - -It would take too long to enumerate in this place the different -innovations introduced by the statutes of 1600. Let us merely say -a word of the Faculty of Arts. - -In the Faculty of Arts the door was finally opened to the classical -authors. In a certain degree the tendencies of the Renaissance -were obeyed. Nevertheless, the methods and the general spirit -were scarcely changed. Catholicism was obligatory, and the French -language remained under ban. Frequent exercises in repetition -and declamation were maintained. The liberal arts were always -considered “the foundation of all the sciences.” Instruction in -philosophy was always reduced to the interpretation of the texts of -Aristotle. As to history, and the sciences in general, no account -whatever was taken of them. - - -251. DECADENCE OF THE UNIVERSITY IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.--The -reform, then, was insufficient, and the results were bad. While the -colleges of the Jesuits attracted pupils in crowds, and while the -Oratorians and the Jansenists reformed secondary instruction, the -colleges of the University[152] remained mediocre and obscure. Save -in rare exceptions, there were no professors of distinction; the -education was formal, in humble imitation of that of the Company -of Jesus; there was an abuse of abstract rules, of grammatical -exercises, of written tasks, and of Latin composition; there was no -disposition to take an advance step; but an obstinate resistance -to the new spirit, which was indicated either by the interdiction -of the philosophy of Descartes, or by the refusal to teach in -the French language; in a word, there was complete isolation in -immovable routine, and in consequence, decadence,--such is a -summary history of the University of Paris up to the last quarter -of the seventeenth century. - - -252. THE RESTORATION OF STUDIES AND ROLLIN (1661-1741).--We must -go forward to the time when Rollin taught, to observe a revival in -the studies of the University. Several distinguished professors, as -his master Hersan, Pourchot, and still others, had prepared the way -for him. There was then, from 1680 to 1700, a real rejuvenescence -of studies, which was initiated in part by Rollin. - -Latin lost a little ground in consequence of a growing recognition -of the rights of the French language and the national literature, -which had just been made illustrious by so many masterpieces. The -spirit of the Jansenist methods penetrated the colleges of the -University. The Cartesian philosophy was taught in them, and a -little more attention was given to the explication of authors, and -a little less to the verbal repetition of lessons. New ideas began -to infiltrate into the old citadel of scholasticism. The question -came to be asked if celibacy was indeed an indispensable condition -of the teaching office. Men began to comprehend that at least -marriage was not a reason for exclusion. Finally, real progress was -made in discipline as well as in methods, and the indubitable proof -of this is the _Treatise on Studies_, by Rollin. - - -253. THE TREATISE ON STUDIES.--Rollin has summed up his educational -experience, an experience of fifty years, in a book which has -become celebrated under the title of _Treatise on Studies_. -The full title of this work was: _De la manière d’enseigner et -d’étudier les belles-lettres par rapport à l’esprit et au cœur_. -The first two volumes appeared in 1726, and the other two in 1728. - -The _Treatise on Studies_ is not like the _Émile_, which was -published twenty years later, a work of venturesome inquiry and -original novelties; but is a faithful exposition of the methods in -use, and a discreet commentary on them. While this treatise belongs -by its date to the eighteenth century, it is the pedagogy of the -seventeenth century, and the traditions of the University under the -reign of Louis XIV. that Rollin has collected, and of which he has -simply wished to be the reporter. In the Latin dedication, which -he addresses to the Rector of the University of Paris, he clearly -defines his intentions and his purpose:-- - -“My first design was to put in writing and define the method of -teaching which has long been in use among you, and which, up to -this time, has been transmitted only by word of mouth, and through -a sort of tradition; and to erect, so far as I am able to do it, a -durable monument of the rules and practice which you have followed -in the instruction of youth, for the purpose of preserving, in all -its integrity, the taste for _belles-lettres_, and to preserve it, -if possible, from the injuries and the alterations of time.” - - -254. DIFFERENT OPINIONS.--Rollin has always had warm admirers. -Voltaire called the _Treatise_ a book “forever useful,” and -whatever may be our reservations on the deficiences, and on the -short and narrow views of certain parts of the pedagogy of Rollin, -we must subscribe to this judgment. But we shall not go so far as -to accept the enthusiastic declarations of Villemain, who complains -that the study of the _Treatise_ is neglected in our time, “as -if new methods had been discovered for training the intelligence -and the heart”; and he adds, “Since the _Treatise on Studies, not -a forward step has been taken_.” This is to undervalue all the -earnest efforts that have been made for two centuries by educators -just as profound as was the ever timid and cautious Rollin. When -we compare the precepts of the _Treatise_ with the reforms which -the spirit of progress has already effected, and particularly with -those which it will effect, we are astonished to hear Nisard say: -“In educational matters, the _Treatise on Studies_ is the unique -book, or better still, the book.” - -To put such a burden of pompous praise on Rollin is to compromise -his real worth; and without ceasing to do justice to his wise -and judicious spirit, we wish to employ more discretion in our -admiration. - - -255. DIVISION OF THE TREATISE ON STUDIES.--Before calling attention -to the most interesting parts of the _Treatise on Studies_, let us -briefly state the object of the eight books of which it is composed. - -The _Treatise_ opens with a _Preliminary Discourse_ which recites -the advantages of instruction. - -The title of the first book is: _Exercises which are proper -for very young children; of the education of girls_. Rollin -acknowledges that he treats only very superficially “this double -subject,” which is foreign to his original plan. In fact, the first -edition of his _Treatise on Studies_ contained but seven books, -and it is only in 1734 that he wrote, “at the urgent requests and -prayers of several persons,” that short essay on the education of -boys and girls which first appeared under the form of a supplement, -and which became the first book of the work only in the subsequent -editions. - -The different subjects proper for training the youth in the public -schools, that is, in the colleges,--such is the object of the six -books which follow: Book II. _Of the learning of the languages_; -that is, the study of Greek and Latin; Book III. _Of poetry_; Book -IV. _Of rhetoric_; Book V. _Of the three kinds of eloquence_; Book -VI. _Of history_; Book VII. _Of philosophy_. - -Book VIII., the last, entitled _Of the interior government of -schools and colleges_, has a particular character. It does not -treat of studies and intellectual exercises, but of discipline and -moral education. It is, on all accounts, the most original and -interesting part of Rollin’s work, and it opens to us the treasures -of his experience. This eighth book has been justly called the -“Memoirs of Rollin.” That which constitutes its merit and its charm -is that the author here at last decides to be himself. He does not -quote the ancients so much; but he speaks in his own name, and -relates what he has done, or what he has seen done. - - -256. GENERAL REFLECTIONS ON EDUCATION.--There is little to be -gathered out of the _Preliminary Discourse_ of Rollin. He is but -slightly successful in general reflections. When he ventures -to philosophize, Rollin easily falls into platitudes. He has a -dissertation to prove that “study gives the mind more breadth and -elevation; and that study gives capacity for business.” - -On the purpose of education, Rollin, who copies the moderns when he -does not translate from the ancients, is content with reproducing -the preamble of the regulations of Henry IV., which assigned to -studies three purposes: learning, morals and manners, and religion. - -“The happiness of kingdoms and peoples, and particularly of a -Christian State, depends on the good education of the youth, where -the purpose is to cultivate and to polish, by the study of the -sciences, the intelligence, still rude, of the young, and thus to -fit them for filling worthily the different vocations to which they -are destined, without which they will be useless to the State; -and finally, to teach them the sincere religious practices which -God requires of them, the inviolable attachment they owe to their -fathers and mothers and to their country, and the respect and -obedience which they are bound to render princes and magistrates.” - - -257. PRIMARY STUDIES.--Rollin is original when he introduces us to -the classes of the great colleges where he has lived; but is much -less so when he speaks to us of little children, whom he has never -seen near at hand. He has never known family life, and scarcely -ever visited public schools; and it is through his recollections of -Quintilian that he speaks to us of children. - -There is, then, but little to note in the few pages that he has -devoted to the studies of the first years, from three to six or -seven. - -One of the most interesting things we find here, perhaps, is the -method which he recommends for learning to read,--“the typographic -cabinet of du Mas.” “It is a novelty,” says the wise Rollin, “and -it is quite common and natural that we should be suspicious of this -word _novelty_.” But after the examination, he decides in favor of -the system in question, which consists in making of instruction in -reading, something analogous to the work of an apprentice who is -learning to print. The pupil has before him a table, and on this -table is placed a set of pigeon-holes, “logettes,” which contain -the letters of the alphabet, printed on cards. The pupil is to -arrange on the table the different letters needed to construct -the words required of him. The reasons that Rollin gives for -recommending this method, successful tests of which he had seen -made, prove that he had taken into account the nature of the child -and his need of activity:-- - -“This method of learning to read, besides several other advantages, -has one which seems to me very considerable,--it is that of being -amusing and agreeable, and of not having the appearance of study. -Nothing is more wearisome or tedious in infancy than severe mental -effort while the body is in a state of repose. With this device, -the mind of the child is not wearied. He need not make a painful -effort at recollection, because the distinction and the name of the -boxes strike his senses. He is not constrained to a posture that is -oppressive by being always tied to the place where he is made to -read. There is free activity for eyes, hands, and feet. The child -looks for his letters, takes them out, arranges them, overturns -them, separates them, and finally replaces them in their boxes. -This movement is very much to his taste, and is exactly adapted to -the active and restless disposition of that age.” - -Rollin seems really to believe that there “is no danger in -beginning with the reading of Latin.” However, “for the schools of -the poor, and for those in the country, it is better,” he says, “to -fall in with the opinion of those who believe that it is necessary -to begin with the reading of French.” - -It may be thought that Rollin puts a little too much into the -first years of the child’s course of study. Before the age of -six or seven he ought to have learned to read, to write, to be -nourished on the _Historical Catechism_ of Fleury, to know some -of the fables of La Fontaine by heart, and to have studied French -grammar, and geography. At least, Rollin requires that “no thought, -no expression, which is within the child’s range,” shall be allowed -to be passed by. He requires that the teacher speak little, and -that he make the child speak much, “which is one of the most -essential duties and one of those that are the least practised.” -He demands, above all else, clearness of statement, and commends -the use of illustrations and pictures in reading books. “They are -very suitable,” he says, “for striking the attention of children, -and for fixing their memory; this is properly the writing of the -ignorant.”[154] - - -258. THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS.--The same reasons explain the -shortcomings of Rollin’s views on the education of women, and the -relative mediocrity of his ideas on the education of children. -Living in solitude and in the celibate state, he had no personal -information on these subjects, and so he goes back to Fénelon for -his ideas on the education of women, and to Quintilian in the case -of children. - -Is the study of Latin fit for girls? Such is the first question -which he raises; but he has the wisdom to answer it in the -negative, save for “nuns, and also for Christian virgins and -widows.” “There is no difference in minds,” Rollin emphatically -says, “that is due to sex.” But he does not extend the consequences -of this excellent principle very far. He is content to require -of women the four rules of arithmetic; orthography, in which he -is not over exacting, for “their ignorance of orthography should -not be imputed to them as a crime, since it is almost universal -in their sex;” ancient history and the history of France, “which -it is disgraceful to every good Frenchman not to know.”[155] As -to reading, Rollin is quite as severe as Madame de Maintenon: -“The reading of comedies and tragedies may be very dangerous for -young ladies.” He sanctions only _Esther_ and _Athalie_. Music -and dancing are allowed, but without enthusiasm and with endless -precautions:-- - -“An almost universal experience shows that the study of music is an -extraordinary dissipation.” - -“I do not know how the custom of having girls learn to sing and -play on instruments at such great expense has become so common.... -I hear it said that as soon as they enter on life’s duties, they -make no farther use of it.” - - -259. THE STUDY OF FRENCH.--Rollin is chiefly preoccupied with -the study of the ancient languages; but he has the merit, -notwithstanding his predilection for exercises in Latin, of having -followed the example of the Jansenists so far as the importance -accorded to the French language is concerned. - -“It is a disgrace,” he says, “that we are ignorant of our own -language; and if we are willing to confess the truth, we will -almost all acknowledge that we have never studied it.” - -Rollin admitted that he was “much more proficient in the study of -Latin than in that of French.” In the opening of his _Treatise_, -which he wrote in French only that he might place himself within -the reach of his young readers and their parents, he excuses -himself for making a trial _in a kind of writing which is almost -new to him_. And in congratulating him on his work, d’Aguesseau -wrote, “You speak French as if it were your native tongue.” Such -was the Rector of the University in France at the commencement of -the eighteenth century. - -Let us think well of him, therefore, for having so overcome his own -habits of mind as to recommend the study of French. He would have -it learned, not only through use, but also “through principles,” -and would have “the genius of the language understood, and all its -beauties studied.” - -Rollin has a high opinion of grammar, but would not encourage a -misuse of it:-- - -“Long-continued lessons on such dry matter might become very -tedious to pupils. Short questions, regularly proposed each day -after the manner of an ordinary conversation, in which they -themselves would be consulted, and in which the teacher would -employ the art of having them tell what he wished to make them -learn, would teach them in the way of amusement, and, by an -insensible progress, continued for several years, they would -acquire a profound knowledge of the language.” - -It is in the _Treatise on Studies_ that we find for the first -time a formal list of classical French authors. Some of these -are now obscure and forgotten, as the _Remarkable Lives_ written -by Marsolier, and the _History of the Academy of Inscriptions -and Belles-Lettres_, by de Boze; but the most of them have held -their place in our programmes, and the judgments of Rollin have -been followed for two centuries, on the _Discourse on Universal -History_, by Bossuet, on the works of Boileau and Racine, and on -the _Logic_ of Port Royal. - -Like all his contemporaries, Rollin particularly recommends Latin -composition to his pupils. However, he has spoken a word for French -composition, which should bear, first, on fables and historical -narratives, then on exercises in epistolary style, and finally, on -common things, descriptions, and short speeches. - - -260. GREEK AND LATIN.--But it is in the teaching of the ancient -languages that Rollin has especially tried the resources of -his pedagogic art. For two centuries, in the colleges of the -University, his recommendations have been followed. In Greek, -he censures the study of themes, and reduces the study of this -language to the understanding of authors. More of a Latinist than -of a Hellenist, of all the arguments he offers to justify the study -of Greek, the best is, that, since the Renaissance, Greek has -always been taught; but, without great success, he admits:-- - -“Parents,” he says, “are but little inclined in favor of Greek. -They also learned Greek, they claim, in their youth, and they -have retained nothing of it; this is the ordinary language which -indicates that one has not forgotten much of it.” - -But Latin, which it does not suffice to learn to read, but which -must be written and spoken, is the object of all Rollin’s care, -who, on this point, gives proof of consummate experience. Like the -teachers of Port Royal, he demands that there shall be no abuse of -themes in the lower classes, and recommends the use of oral themes, -but he holds firmly to version, and to the explication of authors:-- - -“Authors are like a living dictionary, and a speaking grammar, -whereby we learn, through experience, the very force and the true -use of words, of phrases, and of the rules of syntax.” - -This is not the place to analyze the parts of the _Treatise on -Studies_ which relate to poetics and rhetoric, and which are the -code, now somewhat antiquated, of Latin verse and prose. Rollin -brings to bear on this theme great professional sagacity, but -also a spirit of narrowness. He condemns ancient mythology, -and excludes, as dangerous, the French poets, save some rare -exceptions. He claims that the true use of poetry belongs to -religion. He has no conception of the salutary and wholesome -influence which the beauties of poetry and eloquence can exercise -over the spirit. - - -261. ROLLIN THE HISTORIAN.--Rollin has made a reputation as -an historian. Frederick II. compares him to Thucydides, and -Chateaubriand has emphatically called him the “Fénelon of History.” -Montesquieu himself has pleasantly said: “A noble man has enchanted -the public through his works on history; it is heart which speaks -to heart; we feel a secret satisfaction in hearing virtue speak; he -is the bee of France.” - -Modern criticism has dealt justly with these exaggerations. The -thirteen volumes of his _Ancient History_, which Rollin published, -from 1730 to 1738, are scarcely read to-day. His great defect as an -historian is his lack of erudition and of the critical spirit; he -accepts with credulity every fable and every legend. - -We are to recollect, however, that as professor of history--and -in truth he pretended to be only this--Rollin has greater worth -than as an historian. He knew how to introduce into the exposition -of facts great simplicity and great facility. And especially he -attempted to draw from events their moral lesson. “We ought not to -forget,” says a German of our time, “that Rollin has never made -any personal claim to be considered an investigator in historical -study, but that the purpose he had chiefly in view was educational. -As he was the first to introduce the study of history into French -colleges (this is true only of the colleges of the University), he -sought to remedy the complete absence of historical reading adapted -to the needs of the young. This is a great educational feat; for -it is undeniable that his works are of a nature to give to the -young of all nations a real taste for the study of history, and at -the same time a vivid conception of the different epochs, and of -the life of nations.”[156] - - -262. THE TEACHING OF HISTORY.--However, considered simply as a -professor of history, Rollin is far from being irreproachable. -Doubtless it is good to moralize on history, and to make of it, as -he says, “a school of enduring glory and real grandeur.” But is -not historical accuracy necessarily compromised, and is there not -danger of making the subject puerile, when the teacher is guided -exclusively by the idea of moral edification? - -Another graver fault in Rollin is that he systematically omits -the history of France, and with it, all modern history. In this -respect, he falls below the Oratory, Port Royal, Bossuet, Fénelon, -and Madame de Maintenon. It is interesting to observe, moreover, -that Rollin recognizes the utility of the study of national -history, but his excuse for omitting it is the lack of time:-- - -“I do not speak of the history of France.... I do not think it -possible to find time, during the regular course of instruction, to -make a place for this study; but I am far from considering it as of -no importance, and I observe with regret that it is neglected by -many persons to whom, nevertheless, it would be very useful, not -to say necessary. When I say this, it is myself that I criticise -first, for I acknowledge that I have not given sufficient attention -to it, and I am ashamed of being in some sort a stranger in my own -country after having traversed so many others.” - - -263. PHILOSOPHY.--It is moral edification that Rollin seeks in -philosophical studies, as in historical studies. With but little -competence in these matters, he admits that he has applied himself -only very superficially to the study of philosophy. He knows, -however, the value of ethics and logic, which govern the morals -and perfect the mind; of physics, which furnishes us a mass of -interesting knowledge; and finally, of metaphysics, which fortifies -the religious sentiment. The ethics of antiquity seems to him -worthy of attention; it is, in his view, the introduction to -Christian ethics. - - -264. SCIENTIFIC INSTRUCTION.--Rollin has given us a compendium -of astronomy, of physics, and of natural history. Without doubt -his essays have but a moderate value. Rollin’s knowledge is often -inexact, and his general ideas are narrow. He is capable of -believing that “nature entire is made for man.” But yet he deserves -some credit for having comprehended the part that the observation -of the sensible world ought to play in education:-- - -“I call _children’s physics_ a study of nature which requires -scarcely anything but eyes, and which, for this reason, is within -the reach of all sorts of persons, and even of children. It -consists in making ourselves attentive to the objects which nature -presents to us, to consider them with care, and to admire their -different beauties; but without searching into their secret causes, -which comes within the province of the physics of the scientist. - -“I say that even children are capable of this, for they have eyes, -and are not wanting in curiosity. They wish to know; they are -inquisitive. It is only necessary to awaken and nourish in them -the desire to learn and to know, which is natural to all men. This -study, moreover, if it may be so called, far from being painful -and tedious, affords only pleasure and amusement; it may take the -place of recreation, and ordinarily ought not to take place save in -playing. It is inconceivable how much knowledge of things children -might gain, if we knew how to take advantage of all the occasions -which they furnish for the purpose.” - - -265. THE EDUCATIVE CHARACTER OF ROLLIN’S PEDAGOGY.--It should not -be supposed that Rollin’s exclusive purpose was to make Latinists -and literary men. I know very well that he himself has said -that “to form the taste was his principal aim.” Nevertheless, -he has thought of other things,--moral qualities not less than -intellectual endowments. He wished to train at once “the heart -and the intellect.” With him, instruction in all its phases takes -an educative turn. He esteems knowledge only because it leads to -virtue. In the explication of authors, attention should be directed -to the morality of their thoughts, at least as much as to their -literary beauty. The maxims and examples which their writings -contain should be skillfully put in relief, so that these readings -may become moral lessons not less than studies in rhetoric. To sum -up in a word, Rollin follows the tradition of the Jansenists, and -not that of the Company of Jesus. - - -266. CHRISTIANITY OF ROLLIN.--Rollin, though persecuted for -his Jansenist tendencies, was a fervent Christian. “A Roman -probity” did not suffice for him; he desired a Christian virtue. -Consequently, he requires that religious instruction should form a -part of every lesson. A regulation which dates from his rectorship -required that the scholar in each class should learn and recite -each day one or more maxims drawn from the Holy Scriptures. This -custom has been maintained to this day. Rollin knew, moreover, -that the best means of inspiring piety is to preach by example, -and to be pious one’s self:-- - -“To make true Christians,--this is the end and purpose of the -education of children; all the rest but fulfills the purpose of -means.... When a teacher has received this spirit, there is nothing -more to say to him....” - -The religious spirit of Rollin comes to view on each page of his -book:-- - -“It remains for me,” he says, in concluding his preface, “to pray -God, in whose hands we all are, we and our discourses, to deign to -bless my good intentions.” - - -267. INTERIOR DISCIPLINE OF THE COLLEGES.--The part of the -_Treatise on Studies_ which has preserved the most interest, and -which will be studied with the most profit, is certainly that which -treats of _the interior government of schools and colleges_. Here, -though he does not completely divest himself of his method of -borrowings, and references to the authority of others, and though -he is especially under the influence of Locke, whose wise advice -on rewards and punishments he reproduces almost verbatim, Rollin -makes use of a long personal experience. We have charged him with -not knowing the little child. On the other hand, he knows exactly -what scholars a little older are,--children from ten to sixteen -years old. And he not only knows them, but he loves them tenderly. -He gives them this testimony, which affection alone can explain, -that he has always found them reasonable. - - -268. ENUMERATION OF THE QUESTIONS TREATED BY ROLLIN.--To give an -idea of this part of the _Treatise_, the best way is to reproduce -the titles of the thirteen articles composing the chapter entitled -_General Counsels on the Education of the Young_:-- - -I. What end should be proposed in education? II. How to study the -character of children in order to become able to instruct them -properly. III. How at once to gain authority over children. IV. How -to become loved and feared. V. Punishments: 1. Difficulties and -dangers in punishments; 2. Rules to be observed in punishments. -VI. Reprimands: 1. Occasion for reprimanding; 2. Time for making -the reprimand; 3. Manner of reprimanding. VII. Reasoning with -children. Stimulating them with the sense of honor. Making use of -commendation, rewards, and caresses. VIII. How to train children -to be truthful. IX. How to train children to politeness, to -cleanliness, and to exactness. X. How to make study attractive. -XI. How to give rest and recreation to children. XII. How to train -the young to goodness by instruction and example. XIII. Piety, -religion, zeal for the salvation of children. - - -269. PUBLIC EDUCATION.--Rollin does not definitely express himself -on the superiority of public education. He does not dare give -formal advice to parents; but he brings forward the advantages of -the common life of colleges with so much force, that it is very -evident that he prefers it to a private education. Let it be noted, -besides, that he accepts on his own account “the capital maxim of -the ancients, that children belong more to the State than to their -parents.” - - -270. THE ROD.--In the matter of discipline, Rollin leans rather to -the side of mildness. However, he does not dare pronounce himself -absolutely against the use of the rod. That which in particular -causes him to hesitate, which gives him scruples, which prevents -him from expressing a censure which is at the bottom of his heart, -but which never rises to his lips, is that there are certain -texts of the Bible whose interpretation is favorable to the use -of the rod. It is interesting to notice how, in a strait between -his sentiments as a docile Christian and his instincts towards -mildness, the good and timid Rollin tries to find a less rigorous -meaning in the sacred text, and to convince himself that the Bible -does not say what it seems to say. After many hesitations, he -finally comes to the conclusion that corporal chastisements are -permitted, but that they are not to be employed save in extreme and -desperate cases; and this is also the conclusion of Locke. - - -271. PUNISHMENTS IN GENERAL.--But how many wise counsels on -punishments, and on the precautions that must be taken when we -punish or reprimand! One should refrain from punishing a child at -the moment he commits his fault, because this might then exasperate -him and provoke him to new breaches of duty. Let the master be -cool when he punishes, and avoid the anger which discredits -his authority. The whole of this excellent code of scholastic -discipline might be quoted with profit. Rollin is reason and good -sense itself when he guides and instructs the teacher as to his -relations with the pupil. Doubtless the most of these precepts are -not new; but when they come from the mouth of Rollin, there is -something added to them which I cannot describe, but which gives to -the most threadbare advice the authority of personal experience. - - -272. CONCLUSION.--We shall not dwell on the other precepts of -Rollin. The text must be consulted for his reflections on plays, -recreations, the means of making study attractive, and on the -necessity of appealing to the child’s reason betimes, and of -explaining to him why one does this or that. In this last part of -the _Treatise on Studies_ there is a complete infant psychology -which is lacking neither in keenness nor in penetration. In -particular, there is a code of moral discipline which cannot be too -highly commended to educators, and to all those who desire, in the -words of Rollin, “to train at once the heart and the mind” of the -young. Rollin has worked for virtue even more than for science. His -works are less literary productions than works on morals, and the -author himself is the perfect expression of what can be done for -the education of the young by the Christian spirit allied to the -university spirit. - - - [273. ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.--1. The characteristic fact disclosed - by this study is the very slow rate at which progress in - education takes place. There is also an enforcement of the lesson - which has reappeared from time to time, that education follows in - the wake of new and general movements in human thought. - - 2. A more specific fact is the extreme conservatism of - universities, or the tenacity with which they hold to traditions. - The question is suggested whether, after all, the conservative - habit of the university does not best befit its judicial - functions. - - 3. In the elbowing of the classics by history and French, we see - the rise of innovations which have become embodied in the modern - university. - - 4. A new factor in the higher education is the intervention of - the State, as opposed to the historical domination of the Church. - In the reform of the University of Paris the State became an - educator. - - 5. There is evidence of some progress in the historical struggle - towards the conception that woman has equal rights with man in - the benefits of education.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[151] “Formerly secondary schools were schools in which was given -a more advanced instruction then in the primary schools; and they -were distinguished into communal secondary schools, or communal -colleges, and into private secondary schools or institutions.... -To-day, secondary instruction includes the colleges and lycées -in which are taught the ancient languages, modern languages, -history, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and philosophy. Public -instruction is divided into primary, secondary, and superior -instruction.”--LITTRÉ. - -[152] This refers to the University of Paris, which must be -distinguished from the Napoleonic University. “The latter was -founded by a decree of Napoleon I., March 17, 1808. It was first -called the Imperial University, and then the University of France. -It comprises: 1. The faculties;[153] 2. the lycées or colleges of -the State; 3. the communal colleges; 4. the primary schools. All -these are under the direction of a central administration.”--LITTRÉ. - -[153] There are now five Faculties or institutions for special -instruction,--the Faculties of the Sciences, of Letters, of -Medicine, of Law, and of Theology. (P.) - -[154] Save once, Rollin has scarcely made an allusion to primary -instruction proper. We quote this passage on account of its -singularity: “Several years ago there was introduced into most of -the schools for the poor in Paris a method which is very useful -to scholars, and which spares much trouble to the teachers. The -school is divided into several classes. I select only one of -them, that composed of children who already know how to write -syllables; the others must be judged by this one. I suppose that -the subject of the reading lesson is _Dixit Dominus Domino meo: -Sede a dextris meis_. Each child pronounces one syllable, as _Di_. -His competitor, who stands opposite, takes up the next, _xit_, -and so on. The whole class is attentive; for the teacher, without -warning, passes at once from the head of the line to the middle, or -to the foot, and the recitation must continue without interruption. -If a pupil makes a mistake in some syllable, the teacher, without -speaking, raps upon the table with his stick, and the competitor -is obliged to repeat as it should be the syllable that has been -wrongly pronounced. If he fail also, the next, upon a second rap of -the stick, goes back to the same syllable, and so on till it has -been pronounced correctly. More than thirty years ago, I saw with -unusual pleasure this method in successful operation at Orleans, -where it originated through the care and industry of M. Garot, who -presided over the schools of that city.” - -[155] Rollin does not require it, however, of young men. - -[156] Doctor Wolker, quoted by Cadet, in his edition of Rollin, -Paris, 1882. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -CATHOLICISM AND PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.--LA SALLE AND THE BRETHREN OF -THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS. - - STATE OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY; DÉMIA - AND THE INFANT SCHOOLS OF LYONS; CLAUDE JOLY, DIRECTOR OF THE - PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF PARIS; THE BOOK OF THE PARISH SCHOOL; LA - SALLE (1651-1719) AND THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS; LIFE AND CHARACTER - OF LA SALLE; ASCETIC TENDENCIES; FOUNDATION OF THE INSTITUTE OF - THE BRETHREN (1684); THE IDEA OF NORMAL SCHOOLS; THE IDEA OF - GRATUITOUS AND COMPULSORY INSTRUCTION; PROFESSIONAL INSTRUCTION; - CONDUCT OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS; SUCCESSIVE EDITIONS; ABUSE - OF SCHOOL REGULATIONS; DIVISION OF THE CONDUCT; INTERIOR - ORGANIZATION OF THE SCHOOLS; SIMULTANEOUS INSTRUCTION; WHAT - WAS LEARNED IN THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS; METHOD OF TEACHING; - THE CHRISTIAN CIVILITY; CORPORAL CHASTISEMENTS; REPRIMANDS; - PENANCES; THE FERULE; THE ROD; REWARDS; MUTUAL ESPIONAGE; GENERAL - CONCLUSION; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY. - - -274. THE STATE OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN THE SEVENTEENTH -CENTURY.--It does not form a part of our plan to follow from day to -day the small increments of progress and the slow development of -the primary schools of France; but we must confine ourselves to the -essential facts and to the important dates. - -The Catholic Church, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, -did not altogether renounce her interest in popular instruction. -She took measures, without doubt, to evangelize the poor -people, and sometimes “even to teach them how to read and -write.” Nevertheless, up to the organization of the Christian -schools, by La Salle, no serious effort was made. Some religious -foundations establish gratuitous schools in many places,--_charity -schools_,--but no comprehensive purpose directs these -establishments. Conflicts of prerogative among certain independent -colleagues, as that between the writing-masters and the masters -of the infant schools placed under the direct authority of the -precentor, or among the rectors and the tutors (_écolâtres_), that -is, the assistants of the bishops charged with the supervision -of the schools,--such dissensions came still further to defeat -the good intentions of individuals, and to embarrass the feeble -movement that was exerted in favor of popular instruction. For -example, towards 1680, the writing-masters attempted to prevent the -masters of the primary schools[157] from giving writing lessons, at -least, _from giving their pupils any copies except monosyllables_; -and a decree of Parliament is necessary to re-establish the -liberty--and then under certain restrictions--of teaching to write. - -“Christian instruction was neglected, not to say dishonored,” is -the statement of contemporaries. The children who attended the -schools of the poor were subjected to public contempt. They were -obliged to wear on their caps a distinctive badge. In brief, far -from progressing, primary instruction was rather in a state of -decadence. - - -275. DÉMIA AND THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF LYONS.--Among the progressive -men who struggled against this unhappy state of affairs, and who -tried to develop the Catholic schools, we must mention, before -La Salle, Démia, a priest of Lyons, who, in 1666, founded the -Congregation of the Brethren of Saint Charles, for the instruction -of poor children. The Institute of La Salle was not organized -till eighteen years later, in 1684. In 1668, having addressed to -the provosts of the merchants of the city of Lyons a warm appeal, -his _Proposals for the establishment of Christian schools for the -instruction of the poor_, Démia obtained an annual grant of two -hundred livres. In 1675 he was charged by “express command” of -the archbishop of Lyons “with the management and direction of the -schools of that city and diocese,” and drew up a body of school -regulations which was quoted as a model.[158] For the method -of “teaching to read, of learning the catechism, of correcting -children, and similar things,” Démia conformed to the book known -as the _Parish School_ (_École paroissiale_), of which we shall -presently say a word. He took it upon himself to proceed “to the -examination of the religion, the ability, and the good morals, of -the persons who proposed to teach school.” But, what was of greater -moment, he established, for preparing and training them, a sort of -seminary. - -A few quotations will give an idea of Démia’s zeal in the -establishment of Christian schools. - -“This establishment is of such importance and of so great utility, -that there is nothing in our political organization which is -more worthy of the care and the watchfulness of the magistrates, -since on it depend our peace and public tranquillity. The poor, -not having the means of educating their children, leave them -in ignorance of their obligations.... Thus we see, with keen -displeasure, that such an education of the children of the poor -is totally neglected, although it is the most important interest -of the State, of which they comprise the largest part; and, -although it is quite as necessary, and even more so, to maintain -public schools for them, as to support colleges for the children of -families in good circumstances....” - - -276. CLAUDE JOLY.--In 1676, Claude Joly, precentor of Notre Dame, -“collator, director, and judge of the primary schools of the city, -the suburbs, and the outskirts of Paris,” published his _Christian -and Moral Counsels for the Instruction of Children_. There is but -little to gather from this work, where the author is so forgetful -of elementary instruction as to speak only of secondary instruction -and of the education of princes. What most concerns Claude Joly -is to put in force the regulations which forbid the association -of boys and girls in the schools. The separation of the sexes was -for a long time an absolute principle in France. Démia, in article -nine of his regulations, restores the ordinance of the archbishop -of Lyons, “which forbids school-masters to admit girls, and -school-mistresses to admit boys.” Rollin was of the same opinion. -Claude Joly, in the capacity of chief precentor, bluntly claimed -his sovereign rights in the matter of primary instruction:-- - -“We shall contest the power claimed by the rectors of Paris to -control the schools, under the name and pretext of charity, without -the permission of the chief precentor, to whom alone belongs this -power. To him, also, belongs the right of nomination to the schools -of the religious and secular communities. We shall disclose, -besides, the attempts of writers to interfere with the teaching of -orthography, which belongs only to good grammarians, that is, to -the masters of the little schools.” - -We see to what petty questions of prerogative was sacrificed, in -the seventeenth century, the great cause of popular instruction. - - -277. THE BOOK OF THE PARISH SCHOOL.--Under the title, _The Parish -School, or the Manner of Properly Instructing the Children in the -Little Schools_, a priest of the diocese of Paris had written, -in 1655, a school manual, often reprinted,[159] which became the -general standard of the schools during the years that followed, and -which gives an exact idea of what was narrow and poorly defined in -the primary instruction of that period. - -The author of the _Parish School_ does not have a high opinion -of the office of the teacher, which he regards as an employment -_without lustre, without pleasure, and without interest_. He does -not expect great results from instruction, of which he is pleased -to say, that _it is not completely useless_. It is true that -instruction is reduced to a very few things,--reading, writing, and -counting. To this the author adds religion and politeness. - -Let us observe in particular, that the programme of the parish -school also comprises the _principles of the Latin language_. The -primary school of that period was still confounded with the college -of secondary instruction; the ancient languages and rhetoric were -taught in it. In the catalogue of the master’s books, drawn up by -the author of the _Parish School_, we find a Greek grammar. In the -classes, the reading of Latin precedes the reading of French. - -Some good advice in practical pedagogy might be extracted from -the first part of the work, especially on the duties of a -school-master, on the power of example, and on the necessity of -knowing the disposition of pupils. But how many artless assertions -and mischievous precepts, in that school code of the city of Paris, -in the near presence of the grand century! The _Parish School_ -complains that the scholars eat too much bread:-- - -“The children of Paris, as a rule, eat a great deal of bread. This -food stupefies the mind, and very often makes them, at the age of -nine or ten, incapable of learning. _Omnis repletio mala, panis -vero pessima._” A serious matter is that espionage is not only -authorized, but is encouraged and organized:-- - -“The master will select two of the most reliable and intelligent to -be on the lookout for the disorders and the improprieties of the -school and the church. They shall write the names of the offenders, -and of those guilty of improprieties, on pieces of paper or on -tablets, to be given to the master. These officers shall be called -_observers_.” - - -278. LA SALLE (1651-1719) AND THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS.--The reading -of the _Parish School_ prepares us the better to comprehend the -work of La Salle. If one were in any degree tempted to depreciate -the Institute of the Brethren of the Christian Schools, it would -suffice, to counteract this disposition, to contrast the reforms -of La Salle, however insufficient they may be, with the real state -of the schools of that period. To be equitably judged, human -institutions ought to be replaced in their setting and in their -environment. It is easy to-day to formulate charges against the -pedagogy of the Brethren of the Christian Schools. But considered -in their time, and compared with what existed, or rather with what -did _not_ exist, the establishments of La Salle deserve the esteem -and the gratitude of the friends of instruction. They represent the -first systematic effort of the Catholic Church to organize popular -instruction. What the Jesuits did in the matter of secondary -instruction, with immense resources and for pupils who paid them -for their efforts, La Salle attempted in primary instruction, -through a thousand obstacles and for pupils who did not pay. - - -279. LIFE AND CHARACTER OF LA SALLE.--We shall have to criticise -in the most of its principles and in many details of its practice, -the educational institute of La Salle. But that which merits -an admiration without reserve is the professional zeal of the -founder of the order, the dauntless spirit of improvement which -he displayed in the organization of his schools, and in the -recruitment of his teachers; it is also his tenacious zeal which -was discouraged neither by the jealous opposition of corporations, -the writing-masters for example, nor by the inexplicable opposition -of the clergy; and, finally, it is the indefatigable devotion of a -beautiful life consecrated to the cause of instruction, which was -a long series of efforts and sacrifices. - -At an early hour, La Salle had given proofs of the energy of his -character. Weak and sickly, he was obliged to struggle against the -infirmities of his constitution. To overcome sleep, and to prolong -his studious vigils, he sometimes kneeled on sharp stones, and -sometimes he placed in front of him, upon his study-table, a board -fitted with iron points, against which his head would strike as -soon as fatigue made him doze and he leaned forward. Canon of the -chapter of Reims in 1667, ordained priest in 1678, he resigned his -prebendship in 1683, and, voluntarily making himself poor, in order -to approach those whose souls he would save, he renounced his whole -patrimony, to the great disgust of his friends, who treated him as -a madman. - - -280. ASCETIC TENDENCIES.--But it is not a disinterested love of -the people, it is not the thought of their moral regeneration, and -of their intellectual progress, which animated and sustained the -efforts of La Salle. His purpose was above all else religious. He -pushed devotion even to asceticism. In his childhood, while he -still lived at home, he came to have a sense of unrest in the -parlors of his mother; and one evening, as his biographers relate, -while those about him were engaged in music, or were talking on -worldly matters, he threw himself into the arms of one of his -aunts, and said to her, “Madam, relate to me the life of one of -the saints.” He himself was a saint, though the Church did not -think him worthy of this venerable title. In his youth he passed -whole nights in prayer, and slept on boards. All his life he was -severe to himself and also to others, considering abstinence and -privations as the regimen of the Christian. His adversaries, at -different times, imputed this to him as a crime. He was represented -as a hardened man, pushing his ascetic requirements to the extreme -of cruelty. To appease their anger, he removed penances and bodily -inflictions from his institution, but he maintained them for -himself, and continued his life of voluntary suffering. Heroic -virtues, it may be; but it may be added also, an unfortunate -disposition for a teacher of children. We distrust, in advance, -a system of teaching whose beginning was so sad, whose founder -inclosed his life within so narrow an horizon, and which, at first, -was illuminated by no rays of gladness and good humor. - - -281. FOUNDATIONS OF THE INSTITUTE.--The Institute of the Brethren -was founded in 1684, but it was not sanctioned by pontifical -authority and royal power till forty years later, in 1724. - -We shall not recite at full length the vicissitudes of the first -years of the Institute. We simply state that La Salle inaugurated -his work by offering hospitality in his own house to several poor -teachers. In 1679 he opened at Reims a school for boys. In 1684 -he imposed on his disciples vows of _stability_ and _obedience_, -and prescribed their costume. In 1688 he went to Paris in order to -found schools there, and it was here in particular, as he himself -says, that “he saw himself persecuted by the men from whom he -expected help.” In spite of all these difficulties his enterprise -prospered, and when he died, in 1720, the Institute of the Brethren -already counted a large number of establishments for primary -instruction. - - -282. THE IDEA OF NORMAL SCHOOLS.--We know how the teaching force -was then recruited. In Paris, if we may believe Pourchot, the -chief precentor, Claude Joly, was obliged to employ, for the -direction of schools, old-clothes-men, innkeepers, cooks, masons, -wig-makers, puppet-players--the list might be continued. In 1682 -Marie Moreau, a teacher, was sent by Bossuet to keep the school at -Ferté-Gaucher. The rector of the place, in his capacity as tutor -(_écolâtre_), wishing to ascertain her competence, subjected her to -an examination, of which the following is an account:-- - -“1. He asked her if she could read, and she replied that she read -passably well, but not well enough to teach. - -“2. He gave her a pen to mend, and she declared that she could not -do it. - -“3. He handed her a Latin book and requested her to read it, but -she was prevented from making the attempt by sister Remy, who had -just prevented her from exhibiting her writing.”[160] - -Ignorance, and often moral unfitness, was the general character -of the teachers of that period. They often entered upon their -duties without the least preparation. La Salle had too great an -anxiety for the good condition of his schools to accept improvised -teachers. So in 1685 he opened at Reims, under the name of -_Seminary for Schoolmasters_, a real normal school, in which -teachers were to be trained for the rural districts. Only Démia had -preceded him in this work. Later he founded an establishment of -the same kind in Paris, and--a thing worthy of note--he annexed to -this normal school a primary school, in which the teaching was done -by the students in training under the direction of an experienced -teacher. - -In the third part of his _Conduct of Schools_ La Salle has drawn up -the rules for what he calls the _training of new masters_. Here are -the faults that he notices in young teachers:-- - -1. An itching to talk; 2. too great activity, which degenerates -into petulance; 3. indifference; 4. preoccupation and -embarrassment; 5. harshness; 6. spite; 7. partiality; 8. slowness -and negligence; 9. pusillanimity and lack of force; 10. despondency -and fretfulness; 11. familiarity and trifling; 12. distractions and -loss of time; 13. fickleness; 14. giddiness; 15. exclusiveness; 16. -lack of attention to the different characters and dispositions of -children. - - -283. THE IDEA OF GRATUITOUS AND OBLIGATORY INSTRUCTION.--The -Institute of the Brethren of the Christian Schools, say the -statutes of the order in so many words, is a society whose members -make a profession to conduct schools _gratuitously_. “La Salle -thought only of the children of artisans and of the poor, who, -he said, being occupied during the whole day in earning their -own livelihood and that of their families, could not give their -children the instruction they need, and a respectable and Christian -education.” In 1694, the founder of the Institute and his first -twelve disciples went and kneeled at the foot of the altar, and -pledged themselves to “conduct collectively and through organized -effort schools of gratuitous instruction, even when, in order to -do this, they might be obliged to ask alms and to live on bread -alone.” - -But a thing still more remarkable than to have popularized -gratuitous instruction, already realized in many places through -charity schools, is to have formed the conception of obligatory -instruction. La Salle, who did not believe that this was any -encroachment on the liberty of parents, proposes, in this _Conduct -of Schools_, a means for affecting their will:-- - -“If among the poor there are certain ones who are unwilling to take -advantage of the opportunities for instruction, they should be -reported to the rectors. The latter will be able to cure them of -their indifference by threatening to give them no more assistance -till they send their children to school.” - - -284. PROFESSIONAL INSTRUCTION.--Besides primary schools proper, -La Salle, who is truly an innovator, inaugurated the organization -of a technical and professional instruction. At Saint Yon, near -Rouen, he organized a sort of college where was taught “all that -a young man can learn, with the exception of Latin, and whose -purpose was to prepare the student for commercial, industrial, and -administrative occupations.” - - -285. CONDUCT OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS: SUCCESSIVE EDITIONS.--La -Salle took the trouble to draw up for his Institute a very minute -code of rules, with this title: _The Conduct of Schools_. The first -edition bears the date of 1720. It appeared at Avignon a year after -the author’s death.[161] Two other editions have since appeared, in -1811 and in 1870, with some important modifications. The substance -has not been changed, but certain passages relative to discipline, -and to the use of the rod, have been suppressed. - -“With the view to adapt our education to the mildness of the -present state of manners,” says the preface of 1811, “we have -suppressed or modified whatever includes corporal correction, and -have advantageously (_sic_) replaced this, on the one hand, by good -marks, by promises and rewards, and on the other by bad marks, by -deprivations and tasks.” - -On the other hand, some additions have been made. The Institute of -the Brethren had to yield in part to the demands of the times, and -to subtract something from the inflexibility of its government. - -“The Brethren,” it is said in the preface to the edition of 1870, -written by the Frère Philip, “the Brethren have little by little -enlarged the original _Conduct_, in proportion as they have -perfected their methods.... It is plain that a book of this kind -cannot receive a final form. New experiments, progress in methods, -legislative enactments, new needs, etc., require that it receive -divers modifications from time to time.” - - -286. ABUSE OF REGULATIONS.--A feature common to the pedagogy of -the Jesuits, and to that of the Brethren of the Christian Schools, -is, that everything is regulated in advance with extraordinary -exactness. No discretion is left to the teachers. The instruction -is but a rule in action. All novelty is interdicted. - -“It has been necessary,” says the _Preface_ of La Salle, to prepare -this _Conduct_ of the Christian schools, “to the end that there may -be uniformity in all the schools, and in all the places where there -are Brethren of the Institute, and that the methods employed may -always be the same. Man is so subject to slackness, and even to -changeableness, that there must be written rules for him, in order -to keep him within the bounds of his duty, and to prevent him from -introducing something new, or from destroying that which has been -wisely established.” - -Need we be astonished, after this, that the teaching of the -Brethren often became a useless routine? - - -287. DIVISION OF THE CONDUCT.--The _Conduct of the Christian -Schools_ is divided into three parts. The first treats of all the -exercises of the school, and of what is done in it from the time -the pupils enter till they leave. The second describes the means -for establishing and maintaining order; in a word, the discipline. -The third treats of the duties of the inspector of schools, of the -qualities of the teachers, and of the rules to be followed in the -education of the teachers themselves. This may be called, so to -speak, the manual of the normal schools of the Institute. - - -288. INTERIOR ORGANIZATION OF THE SCHOOLS.--That which first -strikes the attention in the Christian Schools, such as La Salle -organized, is the complete silence that reigns in them. Nothing is -better than silence on the part of pupils, when it can be obtained, -but La Salle enjoins silence on teachers as well. The Frère is a -professor who does not talk. - -“He will watch carefully over himself, to speak very rarely, and -very low.” “It would be of but little use for the teacher to try -to make his pupils keep silence if he does not do this himself.” -“When necessity obliges him to speak--and he is careful that this -necessity is rare--he will always speak in a moderate tone.” - -It might be said that La Salle fears a strong and sonorous voice. - -How, then, shall the teacher communicate with his pupils, since he -is almost debarred from the use of speech? La Salle has invented, -to supersede language, a complete system of signs, a sort of -scholastic telegraphy, a long account of which will be found in -several chapters of the _Conduct_. To have prayers repeated, the -teacher will fold his hands; to have the catechism repeated, he -will make the sign of the cross. In other cases he will strike his -breast, will look at the pupil steadily, etc. Besides, he will -employ an instrument of iron named a _signal_, which he will raise -or lower, and handle in a hundred ways, to indicate his wish, or to -announce the beginning or the close of such or such an exercise. - -What is the meaning of this distrust of speech? And what are we to -think of these schools of mutes where teachers and pupils proceed -only by signs? When a scholar asks permission to speak, he will -stand erect in his place, with hands crossed and eyes modestly -lowered. Doubtless, to attempt to excuse these practices, we must -consider the annoyances of a noisy school, and the advantages of a -silent school where everything is done discreetly and noiselessly. -Is there not, however, in these odd regulations, something besides -the desire for order and good conduct,--the revelation of a -complete system of pedagogy which is afraid of life and liberty, -and which, under the pretext of making the school quiet, deadens -the school, and, in the end, reduces teachers and pupils to mere -machines? - - -289. SIMULTANEOUS INSTRUCTION.--By the side of the evil we must -note the good. Up to the time of La Salle, the individual method -was almost alone in use in primary instruction; but he substituted -for this the simultaneous method, that is, teaching given to all -the pupils at the same time. For this purpose, La Salle divided -each school into three divisions: “The division of the weakest, -that of the mediocres, and that of the more intelligent or the more -capable.” - -“All the scholars of the same order will receive the same lesson -together. The instructor will see that all are attentive, and that, -in reading for example, all read in a low voice what the teacher -reads in a loud voice.” - -To aid the instructor, La Salle gives him one or two of the better -pupils of each division, who become his assistants, and whom he -calls _inspectors_. “The more children have taught,” said La Salle, -“the more they will learn.” - -To be just, however, we must recognize, in certain recommendations -of La Salle, some desire to appeal to the judgment and the reason -of the child:-- - -“The teacher will not speak to the scholars during the catechism, -as in preaching, but he will interrogate them almost continually -by questions, direct or indirect, in order to make them comprehend -that which he is teaching them.” - -The Frère Luccard, in his _Life of the Venerable J. B. de La -Salle_,[162] quotes this still more expressive passage, borrowed -from his manuscript _Counsels_:-- - -“Let the teacher be careful not to lend his pupils too much help -in resolving the questions that have been proposed to them. He -ought, on the contrary, to invite them not to be discouraged, but -to seek with ardor what he knows they will be able to find for -themselves. He will convince them that they will the better retain -the knowledge they have acquired by a personal and persevering -effort.” - - -290. WHAT WAS LEARNED IN THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS.--Reading, writing, -orthography, arithmetic, and the catechism,--this is the programme -of La Salle. - -In reading, La Salle, agreeing in this respect with Port Royal, -requires that French books be used in the beginning. - -“The book in which the pupil will begin to learn Latin is the -Psalter; but this lesson will be given only to those who can -readily read in French.” - -La Salle requires that the pupil shall not be exercised in writing -till “he can read perfectly.” He attaches, moreover, an extreme -importance to calligraphy, and it is known that the Brethren have -remained masters in this art. La Salle does not weary in giving -advice on this subject: the pens, the knife for mending them, the -ink, the paper, the tracing-papers and blotters, round letters -and italic letters (a bastard script),--everything is passed in -review.[163] The _Conduct_ also insists “on the manner of teaching -the proper posture of the body” and “on the manner of teaching how -to hold the pen and the paper.” - -“It will be useful and timely in the beginning to give the pupil a -stick of the bigness of a pen, on which there are three notches, -two on the right and one on the left, to mark the places where his -fingers should be put.” - -The exercises in writing are to be followed by exercises in -orthography and in composition:-- - -“The teacher will require the pupils to compose and write for -themselves notes, receipts, bills, etc. He will also require them -to write out what they remember of the catechism, and of the -lectures that they have heard.”[164] - -As to arithmetic, reduced to the four rules, we must commend La -Salle’s attempt to have it learned by reason and not by routine. -Thus, he requires the teacher to interrogate the pupil, in order -to make him the better comprehend and retain the rule, or to -make sure that he is attentive. He “will give him a complete -understanding” of what he teaches; and, finally, he will require -him “to produce a certain number of rules that he has discovered -for himself.” - -Prayers and religious exercises naturally hold a large place in the -schools organized by La Salle:-- - -“There shall always be two or three scholars kneeling, one from -each class, who will tell their beads one after another.” - -“Care will everywhere be taken that the scholars hear the holy mass -every day.” - -“A half hour each day shall be devoted to the catechism.” - - -291. METHOD OF TEACHING.--The Institute of the Brethren has often -been criticised for the mechanical character of its instruction. -The Frère Philip, in the edition of the _Conduct_ published in -1870, implicitly acknowledges the justice of this criticism when he -writes: “Elementary instruction has assumed a particular character -in these last days, _of which we must take account_. Proposing for -its chief end to train the judgment of the pupil, it gives less -importance than heretofore to the culture of the memory; it makes -especial use of methods which call into activity the intelligence, -and lead the child to reflect, to take account of facts, to -withdraw from the domain of words to enter into that of ideas.” Do -not these wise cautions unmistakably betray the existence of an -evil tradition which should be corrected, but which tends to hold -its ground? He who has read the _Conduct_ is not left in doubt that -the general character of the pedagogy of the Christian Schools, at -the first, was a mechanical and routine exercise of the memory, and -the absence of life. - - -292. CHRISTIAN POLITENESS.--Under the title of _Rules of Decorum -and Christian Civility_, La Salle had composed a reading book, -intended for pupils already somewhat advanced, and printed in -Gothic characters.[165] It was not only a manual of politeness, -but was, the _Conduct_ claims, a treatise on ethics, “containing -all the duties of children, both towards God and towards -their parents.” But we would examine the work in vain for the -justification of this remark. In it are discussed only the puerile -details of outward behavior and of worldly bearing. It would, -however, be in bad taste to criticise at this day a book of -another age, whose artlessness makes us smile. La Salle’s purpose -was certainly praiseworthy, though attempting a little too much. -It is said in the _Preface_ that “there is not a single one of -our actions which ought not to be regulated by motives purely -Christian.” Hence an infinite number of minute prescriptions upon -the simplest acts of daily life.[166] - -But here are a few specimens of this pretended elementary ethics:-- - -“It is not proper to talk when one has retired, the bed being made -for rest.” - -“One should try to make no noise and not to snore while asleep; -nor should one often turn from side to side in bed as if he were -restless and did not know on which side to lie.” - -“It is not becoming, when one is in company, to take off one’s -shoes.” - -“It is impolite to play with a stick or a cane, and to use it to -strike the ground or pebbles, etc., etc.” - -How many mistakes in politeness we should make every day of our -lives if the rules of La Salle were infallible! - - -293. CORPORAL CHASTISEMENTS.--The Brethren, within two centuries, -have singularly ameliorated their system of correction. -“_Imperative circumstances_,” said the Frère Philip in 1870, “no -longer permit us to tolerate corporal punishment in our schools.” -Already, in 1811, there was talk of suppressing entirely, or at -least modifying, the use of these punishments. The instruments -of torture were perfected. “We reduce the heavy ferule, the -inconvenience of which has been only too often felt, to a simple -piece of leather, about a foot long and an inch wide, and slit -in two at one end; still we hope that by divine help and by the -mildness of our very dear and dearly beloved colleagues, they will -make use of it only in cases of unavoidable necessity, and only to -give a stroke with it on the hand, without the permission ever to -make any other use of it.” - -But at first, and in the original _Conduct_,[167] corporal -punishment is freely permitted and regulated with exactness. -La Salle distinguished five sorts of corrections,--reprimand, -penances, the ferule, the rod, expulsion from school. - - -294. REPRIMANDS.--Silence, we have seen, is the fundamental rule of -La Salle’s schools: “There must be as little speaking as possible. -Consequently, corrections by word of mouth are very rarely to be -employed.” It even seems, adds the _Conduct_, that “it is much -better not to use them at all”! - -A curious system of discipline, verily, where it is as good as -forbidden to resort to admonitions, to severe reprimands, to an -appeal through speech to the reason and the feelings of the child; -where, consequently, there is no place for the moral authority of -the teacher, but where there is at once invoked the _ultima ratio_ -of constraint and violence, of the ferule and the rod! - - -295. PENANCES.--La Salle recommends penances as well as corporal -corrections. By this term he means punishments like the following: -maintaining a kneeling posture in the school; learning a few pages -of the catechism by heart; “holding his book before his eyes for -the space of half an hour without looking off;” keeping motionless, -with clasped hands and downcast eyes, etc. - - -296. THE FERULE.--We have not to discuss in this place the use -of material means of correction. The Brethren themselves have -repudiated them. Only it is provoking that they bow to what they -call “imperative circumstances,” and not to considerations based on -principles. But it is interesting, were it only from an historical -point of view, to recall the minute prescriptions of the founder of -the Order. - -The _Conduct_ first describes the ferule, “an instrument formed -of two pieces of leather sewed together; it shall be from ten to -twelve inches long, including the handle; the palm shall be oval, -and two inches in diameter; the palm shall be lined on the inside -so as not to be wholly flat, but rounded to fit the hand.” Nothing -is overlooked, we observe; the form of the ferule is officially -defined. But what shocks us still more is the nature of the faults -that provoke the application of the ferule: “1. for not having -attended to the lesson, or for having played; 2. for being tardy -at school; 3. for not having obeyed the first signal.” It is true -that La Salle, always preoccupied with writing, orders the ferule -to be applied only to the left hand; the right hand shall always be -spared. The child, moreover, is not to cry while he receives the -ferule; if he does, he is to be punished and corrected anew. - - -297. THE ROD.--In the penal code of La Salle, the categories of -faults worthy of punishment are sharply defined. The rod shall be -employed for the following faults: 1. refusal to obey; 2. when the -pupil has formed the habit of not giving heed to the lesson; 3. -when he has made blots upon his paper instead of writing; 4. when -he has had a fight with his comrades; 5. when he has neglected his -prayers in church; 6. when he has been wanting in “modesty” at mass -or during the catechism; 7. when he has been absent from school, -from mass, or from the catechism. - -Even supposing that the principle of the rod is admissible, we must -still condemn the wrong use which La Salle makes of it, for faults -manifestly out of proportion to such a chastisement. - -I very well know that the author of the _Conduct_ requires that -corrections shall be rare; but could he be obeyed, when he put into -the hands of his teachers scarcely any other means of discipline? - -But to comprehend to what extent La Salle forgot what is due to the -dignity of the child, and considered him as a machine, without any -regard to the delicacy of his feelings, with no respect for his -person, we must read to the end the strange prescriptions of this -manual of the rod. The precautions that La Salle exacts make still -more evident the impropriety of such punishments:-- - -“When the teacher would punish a scholar with the rod, he will -make the ordinary sign to summon the attention of the school; next -he will indicate by means of the _signal_ the decree which the -pupil has violated, and then show him the place where correction -is ordinarily administered; and he will at once go there, and will -prepare to receive the punishment, standing in such a way as not to -be seen indecently by any one. This practice of having the scholar -prepare himself for receiving the correction, without any need on -the part of the teacher of putting his hand upon him, shall be very -exactly observed. - -“While the scholar is preparing himself to receive the correction, -the teacher shall be making an inward preparation to give it in a -spirit of love, and in a clear view of God. Then he will go from -his desk with dignity and gravity. - -“And when he shall have reached the place where the scholar is” (it -is stated, moreover, that this place should be in one of the most -remote and most obscure parts of the school, where the nakedness of -the victim cannot be seen), “he will speak a few words to him to -prepare him to receive the correction with humility, submission, -and a purpose of amendment; then he will strike three blows as is -usual; to go beyond five blows, there would be needed a special -order of the director. - -“He shall be careful not to put his hand on the scholar. If the -scholar is not ready, he shall return to his desk without saying -a word; and when he returns, he shall give him the most severe -punishment allowed without special permission, that is, five blows. - -“When a teacher shall have thus been obliged to compel a scholar -to receive correction, he shall attempt in some way a little -time afterwards to make him see and acknowledge his fault, and -shall make him come to himself, and give him a strong and sincere -resolution never to allow himself again to fall into such a -revolt.” - -The moment is perhaps not well chosen to preach a sermon and -to violate the rule which forbids the Brethren the use of the -reprimand. - -“After the scholar has been corrected, he will modestly kneel in -the middle of the room before the teacher, with arms crossed, to -thank him for having corrected him, and will then turn towards the -crucifix to thank God for it, and to promise Him at the same time -not again to commit the fault for which he had just been corrected. -This he will do without speaking aloud; after which the teacher -will give him the sign to go to his place.” - -Is it possible to have a higher misconception of human nature, to -trifle more ingeniously with the pride of the child, and with his -most legitimate feelings, and to mingle, in the most repulsive -manner, indiscreet and infamous practices with the exhibition of -religious sentiments? - -“It is absurd,” says Kant, “to require the children whom we punish -to thank us, to kiss our hands, etc. This is to try to make servile -creatures of them.” - -To justify La Salle, some quotations from his works have been -invoked. - -“For the love of God, do not use blows of the hand. Be very careful -never to give children a blow.” - -But it is necessary to know the exact thought of the author of the -_Conduct_, and this explains the following passage:-- - -“No corrections should be employed save those which are in use in -the schools; and so scholars should never be struck with the hand -or the foot.” - -In other words, the teacher should never strike except with the -authorized instruments, and according to the official regulations. - - -298. MUTUAL ESPIONAGE.--We may say without exaggeration that the -_Conduct_ recommends mutual espionage:-- - -“The inspector of schools shall be careful to appoint one of the -most prudent scholars to observe those who make a noise while they -assemble, and this scholar shall then report to the teacher what -has occurred, without allowing the others to know of it.” - - -299. REWARDS.--While La Salle devotes more than forty pages to -corrections, the chapter on rewards comprises two small pages. - -Rewards shall be given “from time to time.” They shall be of three -kinds: rewards for piety, for ability, and for diligence. They -shall consist of books, pictures, plaster casts, crucifix and -virgin, chaplets, engraved texts, etc. - - -300. CONCLUSION.--We have said enough to give an exact idea -of the Institute of the Christian Brethren in its primitive -form. Its faults were certainly grave, and we cannot approve -the general spirit of those establishments for education where -pupils are forbidden “to joke while they are at meals”; to give -anything whatsoever to one another; where children are to enter -the school-room so deliberately and quietly that the noise of -their footsteps is not heard; where teachers are forbidden “to -be familiar” with the pupils, “to allow themselves to descend to -anything common, as it would be to laugh ...” But whatever the -distance which separates those gloomy schools from our modern -ideal,--from the pleasant, active, animated school, such as we -conceive it to-day,--there is none the less obligation to do -justice to La Salle, to pardon him for the practices which were -those of his time, and to admire him for the good qualities that -were peculiarly his own. The criticism that is truly fruitful, is -that which is especially directed to the good, without caviling at -the bad.[168] - - - [301. ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.--1. This study exhibits the zeal of the - Catholic Church in the education of the children of the poor. The - motive was not the spirit of domination, as in the case of the - Jesuits, but a sincere desire to engage in a humane work. - - 2. A proof of the multiplication of schools, and so of the - diffusion of the new educational spirit, is the wretched quality - of those who were allowed to teach. There must be schools even if - they are poor ones. - - 3. The need of competent teachers led to the establishment of the - _Teachers’ Seminary_, the parent of the modern normal school. - The two elements in this professional instruction seem to have - been a knowledge of the subjects to be taught and of methods of - organization and discipline. - - 4. The severe discipline and enforced silence of La Salle’s - schools permit the inference that the school of the period was - the scene of lawlessness and disorder. The reaction went to an - extreme; but considering the times, this excess was a virtue. - - 5. The scarcity of teachers and the abundance of pupils led to - the expedient of mutual and simultaneous instruction. While this - method is absolutely bad, it was relatively good. - - 6. To the benevolent and inventive spirit of La Salle is due the - organization of industrial schools.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[157] _Petites écoles._ This is the term commonly applied to -primary schools at this period. By the Jansenists this term was -used in a more distinctive sense, and for this reason I have -translated it “Little Schools” in Chap. VII. (P.) - -[158] See the _Lectures pédagogiques_. Hachette, 1883, p. 420. - -[159] We have before us the edition of 1722. - -[160] _Histoire d’une école gratuite_, par V. Plessier, p. 15. - -[161] We have before us a copy of this Avignon edition: J. Charles -Chastanier, printer and bookseller, near the College of the Jesuits. - -[162] Two volumes, Paris, 1876. - -[163] The use of the round script was in fashion. La Salle -introduced the bastard hand. - -[164] See Chap. II. of the Second Part. - -[165] We have before us the sixth edition of this work: Rouen, -1729. La Salle had written it towards the year 1703. - -[166] See, for example, the following chapters: upon the nose -and the manner of using the handkerchief and of sneezing (chap. -vii.); upon the back, the shoulders, the arms, and the elbow (chap. -viii.); on the manner in which one ought to behave with respect -to the bones, the sauce, and the fruit (chap. vi., of the second -part); on the manner of behaving while walking in the streets, on -journeys, in carriages, and on horseback (chap. x.). - -[167] See the edition of 1720, from page 140 to page 180. - -[168] The influence of the teaching congregations in general, and -of this one in particular, on public education as administered by -the State, is very strikingly exhibited by Meunier in his _Lutte -du Principe Clérical et du Principe Laïque dans l’Enseignement_ -(Paris: 1861). There is also interesting information concerning La -Salle. See particularly the introductory _Letter_ and Chaps. I. and -II. (P.) - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -ROUSSEAU AND THE ÉMILE. - - THE PEDAGOGY OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY; THE PRECURSORS OF - ROUSSEAU; THE ABBÉ DE SAINT PIERRE; OTHER INSPIRERS OF ROUSSEAU; - PUBLICATION OF THE ÉMILE (1762); ROUSSEAU AS A TEACHER; GENERAL - PRINCIPLES OF THE ÉMILE; ITS ROMANTIC AND UTOPIAN CHARACTER; - DIVISION OF THE WORK; THE FIRST TWO BOOKS; EDUCATION OF THE BODY - AND OF THE SENSES; LET NATURE ACT; THE MOTHER TO NURSE HER OWN - CHILDREN; NEGATIVE EDUCATION; THE CHILD’S RIGHT TO HAPPINESS; THE - THIRD BOOK OF THE ÉMILE; CHOICE IN THE THINGS TO BE TAUGHT; THE - ABBÉ DE SAINT PIERRE AND ROUSSEAU; ÉMILE AT FIFTEEN; EDUCATION OF - THE SENSIBILITIES; THE FOURTH BOOK OF THE ÉMILE; GENESIS OF THE - AFFECTIONS; MORAL EDUCATION; RELIGIOUS EDUCATION; THE PROFESSION - OF FAITH OF THE SAVOYARD VICAR; SOPHIE AND THE EDUCATION OF - WOMEN; GENERAL CONCLUSION; INFLUENCE OF ROUSSEAU; ANALYTICAL - SUMMARY. - - -302. THE PEDAGOGY OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.--The most striking -of the general characteristics of French pedagogy in the -eighteenth century, is that in it the lay spirit comes into -mortal collision with the ecclesiastical spirit. What a contrast -between the clerical preceptors of the seventeenth century and -the philosophical educators of the eighteenth! The Jesuits, -all-powerful under Louis XIV., are to be decried, condemned, and -finally expelled in 1762. The first place in the theory and in -the practice of education, will belong to laymen. Rousseau is to -write the _Émile_. D’Alembert and Diderot will be the educational -advisers of the Empress of Russia. The parliamentarians, La -Chalotais and Rolland, will attempt to substitute for the action -of the Jesuits the action of the State, or, at least, one of the -powers of the State. Finally, with the Revolution, the lay spirit -will succeed in triumphing. - -Again, the pedagogy of the eighteenth century is distinguished by -its critical and reformatory tendencies. The century of Louis XIV. -is, in general, a century of content; the century of Voltaire, a -century of discontent. - -Besides, the philosophical spirit, which associates the theory -of education with the laws of the human spirit, which is not -content to modify routine by a few ameliorations of detail, -which establishes general principles and aspires to an ideal -perfection,--the philosophical spirit, with its excellencies and -with its defects,--will come to the light in the _Émile_, and in -some other writings of the same period. - -Finally, and this last characteristic is but the consequence of the -others, education tends to become national, and at the same time -humane. Preparation for life replaces preparation for death. During -the whole of the eighteenth century, a conception is in process of -elaboration which the men of the Revolution will exhibit in its -true light,--that of an education, public and national, which makes -citizens, which works for country and for real life. - - -303. PRECURSORS OF ROUSSEAU.--The greatest educational event of the -eighteenth century, before the expulsion of the Jesuits and the -events of the French Revolution, is the publication of the _Émile_. -Rousseau is undeniably the first in rank among the founders of -French pedagogy, and his influence will be felt abroad, especially -in Germany. But whatever may be the originality of the author of -the _Émile_, his system is not a stroke of genius for which no -preparation had been made. He had his precursors, and he profited -by their works. A Benedictine, who might have spent his strength -to better advantage, has written a book on the _Plagiarisms of J. -J. Rousseau_.[169] - -We do not propose to treat Rousseau as a plagiarist, for he surely -has inspiration of his own, and his own boldness in invention; -but however much of an innovator he may be, he was inspired by -Montaigne, by Locke, and without speaking of those great masters -whom he often imitated, he had his immediate predecessors, whose -ideas on certain points are in conformity with his own. - - -304. THE ABBÉ DE SAINT PIERRE (1658-1743).--Among the precursors -of Rousseau, a place among the first must be assigned to the -Abbé de Saint Pierre, a dreamy, fantastic spirit, fitted more to -excite curiosity than to deserve admiration, whom Rousseau himself -called “a man of great projects and petty views.” His projects in -fact were great, at least in number. Between “a _project_ to make -sermons more useful, and a _project_ to make roads more passable,” -there came, in his incoherent and varied work, several projects -for perfecting education in general, and the education of girls in -particular. - -The dominant idea of the Abbé de Saint Pierre is his anxiety in -behalf of moral education. In proportion as we advance towards -the era of liberty, we shall notice a growing interest in the -development of the moral virtues. - -The Abbé de Saint Pierre requires of man four essential qualities: -justice, benevolence, the discernment of virtue or judgment, and, -lastly, instruction, which holds but the lowest rank. Virtue is of -more worth than the knowledge of Latin. - -“It cannot be said that a great knowledge of Latin is not an -excellent attainment; but in order to acquire this knowledge, -it is necessary to give to it an amount of time that would be -incomparably better employed in acquiring great skill in the -observation of prudence. Those who direct education make a very -great mistake in employing tenfold too much time in making us -scholarly in the Latin tongue, and in employing tenfold too little -of it in giving us a confirmed use of prudence.”[170] - -But what are the means proposed by the Abbé de Saint Pierre? -All that he has devised for organizing the teaching of the -social virtues is reduced to the requirement of reading edifying -narratives, of playing moral pieces, and of accustoming young -people to do meritorious acts in the daily intercourse of the -school. When the lessons have been recited and the written -exercises corrected, the teacher will say to the pupil: “Do for -me an act of prudence, or of justice, or of benevolence.” This is -easier to say than to do. College life scarcely furnishes occasion -for the application of the social virtues. - -But the Abbé de Saint Pierre should be credited with his good -intentions. He is the first in France to give his thought to this -matter of professional instruction. The mechanic arts, the positive -sciences, the apprenticeship to trades,--these things he places -above the study of languages. Around his college, and even in his -college, there are to be mills, printing offices, agricultural -implements, garden tools, etc. - -Was it not also an idea at once new and wise, to establish a -_continuous department_ of public instruction, a sort of permanent -council, charged with the reformation of methods and with -establishing, as far as possible, uniformity in all the colleges of -the kingdom? - -Finally, we shall commend the Abbé de Saint Pierre for having -persistently urged the necessity of the education of women. -From Fénelon to the Abbé de Saint Pierre, from 1680 to 1730, -great progress was made in this question. We seem already to hear -Condorcet when we read the following passage:-- - -“The purpose should be to instruct girls in the elements of all -the sciences and of all the arts which can enter into ordinary -conversation, and even in several things which relate to the -different employments of men, such as the history of their country, -geography, police regulations, and the principal civil laws, _to -the end that they can listen with pleasure to what men shall say to -them_, ask relevant questions, and easily keep up a conversation -with their husbands on the daily occurrences in their occupations.” - -For the purpose of sooner attaining his end, the Abbé de Saint -Pierre, anticipating the centuries, demanded for women national -establishments, colleges of secondary instruction. He did not -hesitate to cloister young girls in boarding-schools, and in -boarding-schools without vacations; and he entreated the State -to organize public courses for those who, he said, “constitute -one-half of the families in society.” - - -305. OTHER INSPIRERS OF ROUSSEAU.--With the eighteenth century -there begins for modern thought, in education as in everything -else, an era of international relations, of mutual imitation, of -the action and reaction of people on people. The Frenchman of -the seventeenth century had almost absolutely ignored Comenius. -Rousseau knows Locke, and also the Hollander Crousaz,[171] whom, by -the way, he treats rather shabbily, speaking of him as “the pedant -Crousaz.” - -Crousaz, however, had some good ideas. He criticised the old -methods, which make “of the knowledge of Latin and Greek -the principal part of education”; and he preached scientific -instruction and moral education. - -In the _Spectacle of Nature_, which was so popular in its day, the -Abbé Pluche also demanded that the study of the dead languages -should be abridged[172]:-- - -“Experience with the pitiable Latinity which reigns in the colleges -of Germany, Flanders, Holland, and in all places where the habit -of always speaking Latin is current, suffices to make us renounce -this custom which prevents a young man from speaking his own tongue -correctly.” - -The Abbé Pluche demanded that the time saved from Latin be devoted -to the living languages. On the other hand, he insisted on early -education, and on this point he was the complement to his master, -Rollin, who, he said, wrote rather “for the _perfection_ of studies -than for their beginning.” - -Still other writers were able to suggest to Rousseau some of -the ideas which he developed in the _Émile_. Before him, La -Condamine declared that the _Fables_ of La Fontaine are above the -capacity of children.[173] Before him, Bonneval, much interested -in physical education, violently criticised the use of long -clothes, and claimed for children an education of the senses. He -demanded, besides, that in early instruction, the effort of the -teacher should be limited to the keeping of evil impressions from -the childish imagination, and that instruction in the truths of -religion should be held in abeyance. - -We shall discover in the _Émile_ all these ideas in outline revived -and developed with the power and with the brilliancy of genius, -sometimes transformed into boisterous paradoxes, but sometimes, -also, transformed into solid and lasting truths. - - -306. PUBLICATION OF THE ÉMILE (1762).--Rousseau has made striking -statements of nearly all the problems of education, and he has -sometimes resolved them with wisdom, and always with originality. - -Appearing in 1762, at the moment when the Parliament was excluding -the Jesuits from France, the _Émile_ came at the right moment in -that grand overthrow of routine and tradition to disclose new hopes -to humanity, and to announce the advent of philosophic reason in -the art of educating men. But Rousseau, in writing his book, did -not think of the Jesuits, of whom he scarcely speaks; he wrote, -not for the man of the present, but for the future of humanity; -he composed a book endowed with endless vitality, half romance, -half essay, the grandest monument of human thought on the subject -of education. The _Émile_, in fact, is not a work of ephemeral -polemics, nor simply a practical manual of pedagogy, but is a -general system of education, a treatise on psychology and moral -training, a profound analysis of human nature. - - -307. WAS ROUSSEAU PREPARED TO BECOME A TEACHER?--Before entering -upon the study of the _Émile_, it is well to inquire how the -author had been prepared by his character and by his mode of life -to become a teacher. The history of French literature offers -nothing more extraordinary than the life of Jean Jacques Rousseau. -Everything is strange in the destiny of that unfortunate great man. -Rousseau committed great faults, especially in his youth; but at -other moments of his life he is almost a sage, a hero of private -virtues and civic courage. He traversed all adventures and all -trades. Workman, servant, charlatan, preceptor, all in turn; he -lodged in garrets at a sou, and experienced days when he complained -that bread was too dear. Through all these miseries and these -humiliations a soul was in process of formation made up, above all -else, of sensibility and imagination. - -Rousseau’s sensibility was extreme. The child who, unjustly -treated, experienced one of those violent fits of passion which he -has so well described in his _Confessions_, and who writhed a whole -night in his bed, crying “_Carnifex, carnifex!_” was surely not -an ordinary child. “I had no idea of things, but all varieties of -feeling were already known to me. I had conceived nothing; I had -felt everything.” Even a mediocre representation of _Alzire_ made -him beside himself, and he refused witnessing the play of tragedies -for fear of becoming ill. - -The sentiment of nature early inspired him with a passion which -was not to be quenched. His philosophic optimism and his faith in -providence were never forgotten. Other pure and generous emotions -filled his soul. The study of Plutarch had inspired him with a -taste for republican virtues and with an enthusiasm for liberty. -Falsehood caused him a veritable horror. He had the feeling of -equity in a high degree. Later, to the hatred of injustice there -was joined in his heart an implacable resentment against the -oppressors of the people. He had doubtless received the first germ -of this hate when, making the journey afoot from Paris to Lyons, -he entered the cabin of a poor peasant, and there found, as in a -picture, the affecting summary of the miseries of the people. - -At the same time he was an insatiable reader. He nourished himself -on the poets, historians, and philosophers of antiquity, and he -studied the mathematics and astronomy. As some one has said, “That -life of reading and toil, interrupted by so many romantic incidents -and adventurous undertakings, had vivified his imagination as -a regular course of study in the College of Plessis could not -possibly have done.” - -It is in this way that his literary genius was formed, and, in due -order, his genius for pedagogy. We need not seek in the life of -Rousseau any direct preparation for the composition of the _Émile_. -It is true that for a time he had been preceptor, in 1739, in the -family of Mably, but he soon resigned duties in which he was not -successful. A little essay which he composed in 1740[174] does not -yet give proof of any great originality. On the other hand, if he -loved to observe children, he observed, alas, only the children of -others. There is nothing sadder than that page of the _Confessions_ -in which he relates how he often placed himself at the window -to observe the dismission of school, in order to listen to the -conversations of children as a furtive and unseen observer! - -The _Émile_ is thus less the result of a patient induction and -of a real experience than a work of inspiration or a brilliant -improvisation of genius. - - -308. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE ÉMILE.--A certain number of general -principles run through the entire work, and give it a systematic -form and a positive character. - -The first of these is the idea of the innocence and of the -perfect goodness of the child. The _Émile_ opens with this solemn -declaration:-- - -“Everything is good as it comes from the hands of the Author -of nature; everything degenerates in the hands of man.” And in -another place, “Let us assume as an incontestable maxim that the -first movements of nature are always right; there is no original -perversity in the human heart.” - -Without doubt Rousseau was right in opposing the pessimism of -those who see in the child a being thoroughly wicked and degraded -before birth; he is deceived in turn when he affirms that there is -no germ of evil in human nature. - -Society is wicked and corrupt, he says, and it is from society -that all the evil comes; it is from its pernicious influence that -the soul of the child must be preserved! But, we reply, how did -society itself happen to be spoiled and vitiated? It is nothing but -a collection of men; and if the individuals are innocent, how can -the aggregate of individuals be wicked and perverse? But let the -contradictions of Rousseau pass; the important thing to note is -that from his optimism are derived the essential characteristics of -the education which he devises for Émile. This education will be at -once natural and negative:-- - -“Émile,” says Gréard, “is a child of nature, brought up by nature, -according to the rules of nature, for the satisfaction of the needs -of nature. This sophism is not merely inscribed at random on the -frontispiece of the book, but is its very soul; and it is by reason -of this sophistry that, separated from the body of reflections and -maxims that give it so powerful an interest, Rousseau’s plan of -education is but a dangerous chimera.” - -Everything that society has established, Rousseau condemns in a -lump as fictitious and artificial. Conventional usages he despises; -and he places Émile at the school of nature, and brings him up -almost like a savage. - -On the other hand, the education of Émile is negative, at least -till his twelfth year; that is, Rousseau lets nature have her way -till then. For those who think nature evil, education ought to be a -work of compression and of repression. But nature is good; and so -education consists simply in letting her have free course. To guard -the child from the shock of opinions, to form betimes a defence -about his soul, to assure against every exterior influence the -free development of his faculties--such is the end that he proposes -to himself. - -Another general principle of the _Émile_, another truth which -Rousseau’s spirit of paradox quickly transforms into error, is the -idea of the distinction of ages:-- - -“Each age, each state of life, has its proper perfection, and a -sort of maturity which is its own. We have often heard of a man -grown; but let us think of a child grown. That sight will be newer -to us, and perhaps not less agreeable.” - -“We do not know infancy. With the false ideas we have, the further -we go, the more we are astray. The most learned give their -attention to that which it is important for men to know without -considering what children are in a condition to comprehend. They -always look for the man in the child, without thinking of what he -was before he became a man.” - -“Everything is right so far, and from these observations there -proceeds a progressive education, exactly conforming in its -successive requirements to the progress of the faculties. -But Rousseau does not stop in his course, and he goes beyond -progressive education to recommend an education in fragments, so to -speak, which isolates the faculties in order to develop them one -after another, which establishes an absolute line of demarkation -between the different ages, and which ends in distinguishing three -stages of progress in the soul. Rousseau’s error on this point is -in forgetting that the education of the child ought to prepare -for the education of the young man. Instead of considering the -different ages as the several rings of one and the same chain, he -separates them sharply from one another. He does not admit that -marvellous unity of the human soul, which seems so strong in man -only because God has, so to speak, woven its bands into the child -and there fastened them.” (Gréard). - - -309. ROMANTIC CHARACTER OF THE ÉMILE.--A final observation is -necessary before entering into an analysis of the _Émile_; it is -that in this, as in his other works, Rousseau is not averse to -affecting singularities, and with deliberation and effrontery to -break with received opinions. Doubtless we should not go so far -as to say with certain critics that the _Émile_ is rather the -feat of a wit than the serious expression of a grave and serious -thought; but what it is impossible not to grant is that which -Rousseau himself admits in his preface: “One will believe that he -is reading, not so much a book on education as the reveries of a -visionary.” Émile, in fact, is an imaginary being whom Rousseau -places in strange conditions. He does not give him parents, but has -him brought up by a preceptor in the country, far from all society. -Émile is a character in a romance rather than a real man. - - -310. DIVISION OF THE WORK.--Without doubt, there are in the _Émile_ -long passages and digressions that make the reading of it more -agreeable and its analysis more difficult. But, notwithstanding -all this, the author confines himself to a methodical plan, at -least to a chronological order. The different ages of Émile serve -as a principle for the division of the work. The first two books -treat especially of the infant and of the earliest period of life -up to the age of twelve. The only question here discussed is the -education of the body and the exercise of the senses. The third -book corresponds to the period of intellectual education, from the -twelfth to the fifteenth year. In the fourth book, Rousseau studies -moral education, from the fifteenth to the twentieth year. - -Finally, the fifth book, in which the romantic spirit is still -rampant, is devoted to the education of woman. - - -311. THE FIRST TWO BOOKS OF THE ÉMILE.--It would be useless to -search this first part of the _Émile_ for precepts relative to -the education of the mind and the heart. Rousseau has purposely -eliminated from the first twelve years of the child’s life -everything which concerns instruction and moral discipline. At -the age of twelve, Émile will know how to run, jump, and judge of -distances; but he will be perfectly ignorant. The idea would be -that he has studied nothing at all, and “that he has not learned to -distinguish his right hand from his left.” - -The exclusive characteristic of Émile’s education, during this -first period, is, then, the preoccupation with physical development -and with the training of the senses. - -Out of many errors, we shall see displayed some admirable flashes -of good sense, and grand truths inspired by the principle of nature. - - -312. LET NATURE HAVE HER WAY.--What does nature demand? She demands -that the child have liberty of movement, and that nothing interfere -with the nascent activities of his limbs. What do we do, on the -contrary? We put him in swaddling clothes; we imprison him. He -is deformed by his over-tight garments,--the first chains that -are imposed on a being who is destined to have so many others to -bear! On this subject, the bad humor of Rousseau does not tire. -He is prodigal in outbreaks of spirit, often witty, and sometimes -ridiculous. - -“It seems,” he says, “as though we fear that the child may appear -to be alive.” “Man is born, lives, and dies, in a state of slavery; -at his birth he is stitched into swaddling-clothes; at his death he -is nailed in his coffin; and as long as he preserves the human form -he is held captive by our institutions.” - -We shall not dwell on these extravagances of language -which transforms a coffin and a child’s long-clothes into -_institutions_. The protests of Rousseau have contributed towards -a reformation of usages; but, even on this point, with his great -principle that everything must be referred to nature, because -whatever nature does she does well, the author of _Émile_ is on -the point of going astray. No more for the body than for the mind -is nature sufficient in herself; she must have help and watchful -assistance. Strong supports are needed to prevent too active -movements and dangerous strains of the body; just as, later on, -there will be needed a vigorous moral authority to moderate and -curb the passions of the soul. - - -313. THE MOTHER TO NURSE HER OWN CHILDREN.--But there is another -point where it has become trite to praise Rousseau, and where -his teaching should be accepted without reserve. This is when -he strongly protests against the use of hired nurses, and when -he eloquently summons mothers to the duties of nursing their -own children. Where there is no mother, there is no child, says -Rousseau, and he adds, where there is no mother, there is no -family! “Would you recall each one to his first duties? Begin -with the mothers. You will be astonished at the changes you will -produce!” It would be to fall into platitudes to set forth, after -Rousseau, and after so many others, the reasons which recommend -nursing by the mother. We merely observe that Rousseau insists on -this, especially on moral grounds. It is not merely the health of -the child; it is the virtue and the morality of the family; it is -the dignity of the home, that he wishes to defend and preserve. -And, in fact, how many other duties are provided for and made -easier by the performance of a primal duty. - - -314. HARDENING OF THE BODY.--So far, the lessons of nature have -instructed Rousseau. He is still right when he wishes Émile to -grow hardy, to become inured to privations, to become accustomed at -an early hour to pain, and to learn how to suffer; but from being a -stoic, Rousseau soon becomes a cynic. Contempt for pain gives place -to a contempt for proprieties. Émile shall be a barefoot, like -Diogenes. Locke gives his pupil thin shoes; Rousseau, surpassing -him, completely abolishes shoes. He would also like to suppress -all the inventions of civilization. Thus Émile, accustomed to -walk in the dark, will do without candles. “I would rather have -Émile with eyes at the ends of his fingers than in the shop of a -candle-maker.” All this tempts us to laugh; but here are graver -errors. Rousseau objects to vaccination, and proscribes medicine. -Émile is forehanded. He is in duty bound to be well. A physician -will be summoned only when he is in danger of death. Again, -Rousseau forbids the washing of the new-born child in wine, because -wine is a fermented liquor, and nature produces nothing that is -fermented. And so there must be no playthings made by the hand -of man. A twig of a tree or a poppy-head will suffice. Rousseau, -as we see, by reason of his wish to make of his pupil a man of -nature, brings him into singular likeness with the wild man, and -assimilates him almost to the brute. - - -315. NEGATIVE EDUCATION.--It is evident that the first period -of life is that in which the use of negative education is both -the least dangerous and the most acceptable. Ordinarily, Émile’s -preceptor will be but the inactive witness, the passive spectator -of the work done by nature. Had Rousseau gone to the full length -of his system, he ought to have abolished the preceptor himself, -in order to allow the child to make his way all alone. But if the -preceptor is tolerated, it is not to act directly on Émile, it is -not to perform the duties of a professor, in teaching him what -it is important for a child to know; but it is simply to put him -in the way of the discoveries which he ought to make for himself -in the wide domain of nature, and to arrange and to combine, -artificially and laboriously, those complicated scenes which are -intended to replace the lessons of ordinary education. Such, for -example, is the scene of the juggler, where Émile is to acquire at -the same time notions on physics and on ethics. Such, again, is the -conversation with the gardener, Robert, who reveals to him the idea -of property. The preceptor is no longer a teacher, but a mechanic. -The true educator is nature, but nature prepared and skillfully -adjusted to serve the ends that we propose to attain. Rousseau -admits only the teaching of things:-- - -“Do not give your pupil any kind of verbal lesson; he should -receive none save from experience.” “The most important, the most -useful rule in all education, is not to gain time, but to lose it.” - -The preceptor will interfere at most only by a few timid and -guarded words, to aid the child in interpreting the lessons of -nature. “State questions within his comprehension, and leave him -to resolve them for himself. Let him not know anything because -you have told it to him, but because he has comprehended it for -himself.” - -“For the body as for the mind, the child must be left to himself.” - -“Let him run, and frolic, and fall a hundred times a day. So much -the better; for he will learn from this the sooner to help himself -up. The welfare of liberty atones for many bruises.” - -In his horror for what he calls “the teaching and pedantic mania,” -Rousseau goes so far as to proscribe an education in habits:-- - -“The only habit that a child should be allowed to form is to -contract no habit.” - - -316. THE CHILD’S RIGHT TO HAPPINESS.--Rousseau did not tire of -demanding that we should respect the infancy that is in the child, -and take into account his tastes and his aptitudes. With what -eloquence he claims for him the right of being happy! - -“Love childhood. Encourage its sports, its pleasures, and its -instinct for happiness. Who of you has not sometimes regretted that -period when a laugh was always on the lips, and the soul always -in peace? Why will you deny those little innocents the enjoyment -of that brief period which is so soon to escape them, and of that -precious good which they cannot abuse? Why will you fill with -bitterness and sorrow those first years so quickly passing which -will no more return to them than they can return to you? Fathers, -do you know the moment when death awaits your children? Do not lay -up for yourselves regrets by depriving them of the few moments -that nature gives them. As soon as they can feel the pleasure of -existence, try to have them enjoy it, and act in such a way that -at whatever hour God summons them they may not die without having -tasted the sweetness of living.” - - -317. PROSCRIPTION OF INTELLECTUAL EXERCISES.--Rousseau rejects from -the education of Émile all the intellectual exercises ordinarily -employed. He proscribes history on the pretext that Émile cannot -comprehend the relations of events. He takes as an example the -disgust of a child who had been told the anecdote of Alexander and -his physician:-- - -“I found that he had an unusual admiration for the courage, so much -lauded, of Alexander. But do you know in what he saw that courage? -Simply in the fact that he swallowed a drink that had a bad taste.” - -And from this Rousseau concludes that the child’s intelligence is -not sufficiently open to comprehend history, and that he ought not -to learn it. The paradox is evident. Because Émile is sometimes -exposed to the danger of falling into errors of judgment, must he -be denied the opportunity of judging? Similarly, Rousseau does not -permit the study of the languages. Up to the age of twelve, Émile -shall know but one language, because, till then, incapable of -judging and comprehending, he cannot make the comparison between -other languages and his own. Later, from twelve to fifteen, -Rousseau will find still other reasons for excluding the study -of the ancient languages. And it is not only history and the -languages; it is literature in general from which Émile is excluded -by Rousseau. No book shall be put into his hands, not even the -_Fables_ of La Fontaine. It is well known with what resolution -Rousseau criticises _The Crow and the Fox_. - - -318. EDUCATION OF THE SENSES.--The grand preoccupation of Rousseau -is the exercise and development of the senses of his pupil. The -whole theory of object lessons, and even all the exaggerations of -what is now called the intuitive method, are contained in germ in -the _Émile_:-- - -“The first faculties which are formed and perfected in us are the -senses. These, then, are the first which should be cultivated; but -these are the very ones that we forget or that we neglect the most.” - -Rousseau does not consider the senses as wholly formed by nature; -but he makes a special search for the means of forming them and of -perfecting them through education. - -“To call into exercise the senses, is, so to speak, to learn to -feel; for we can neither touch, nor see, nor hear, except as we -have been taught.” - -Only, Rousseau is wrong in sacrificing everything to this -education of the senses. He sharply criticises this favorite maxim -of Locke, “We must reason with children.” Rousseau retards the -education of the judgment and the reason, and declares that “he -would as soon require that a child be five feet high as that he -reason at the age of eight.” - - -319. THE THIRD BOOK OF THE ÉMILE.--From the twelfth to the -fifteenth year is the length of time that Rousseau has devoted -to study and to intellectual development proper. It is necessary -that the robust animal, “the roe-buck,” as he calls Émile, after a -negative and temporizing education of twelve years, become in three -years an enlightened intelligence. As the period is short, Rousseau -disposes of the time for instruction with a miser’s hand. Moreover, -Émile is very poorly prepared for the rapid studies which are to be -imposed on him. Not having acquired in his earlier years the habit -of thinking, having lived a purely physical existence, he will have -great difficulty in bringing to life, within a few months, his -intellectual faculties. - -But without dwelling on the unfavorable conditions of Émile’s -intellectual education, let us see in what it will consist. - - -320. CHOICE IN THE THINGS TO BE TAUGHT.--The principle which guides -Rousseau in the choice of Émile’s studies is no other than the -principle of utility:-- - -“There is a choice in the things which ought to be taught as well -as in the time fit for learning them. Of the knowledges within our -reach, some are false, others are useless, and still others serve -to nourish the pride of him who has them. Only the small number of -those which really contribute to our good are worthy the care of a -wise man, and consequently of a child whom we wish to render such. -It is not a question of knowing what is, but only what is useful.” - - -321. ROUSSEAU AND THE ABBÉ DE SAINT PIERRE.--Among educators, some -wish to teach everything, while others demand a choice, and would -retain only what is necessary. The Abbé de Saint Pierre follows -the first tendency. He would have the scholar learn everything at -college; a little medicine towards the seventh or eighth year, -and in the other classes, arithmetic and blazonry, jurisprudence, -German, Italian, dancing, declamation, politics, ethics, astronomy, -anatomy, chemistry, without counting drawing and the violin, and -twenty other things besides. Rousseau is wiser. He is dismayed at -such an accumulation, at such an obstruction of studies, and so -yields too much to the opposite tendency, and restricts beyond -measure the list of necessary studies. - - -322. ÉMILE’S STUDIES.--These, in fact, are the studies to which -Émile is limited: first, the physical sciences, and, at the head of -the list, astronomy, then geography, geography taught without maps -and by means of travel:-- - -“You are looking for globes, spheres, maps. What machines! Why all -these representations? Why not begin by showing him the object -itself?” - -Here, as in other places, Rousseau prefers what would be best, but -what is impossible, to that which is worth less, but which alone is -practicable. - -But Rousseau does not wish that his pupil, like the pupil of -Rabelais, become an “abyss of knowledge.” - -“When I see a man, enamored of knowledge, allow himself to yield to -its charms, and run from one kind to another without knowing where -to stop, I think I see a child on the sea-shore collecting shells, -beginning by loading himself with them; then, tempted by those he -still sees, throwing them aside, picking them up, until, weighed -down by their number, and no longer knowing which to choose, he -ends by rejecting everything, and returns empty-handed.” - -No account is made of grammar and the ancient languages in the -plan of Émile’s studies. Graver still, history is proscribed. This -rejection of historical studies, moreover, is systematically done. -Rousseau has placed Émile in the country, and has made him an -orphan, the better to isolate him; to teach him history would be to -throw him back into society that he abominates. - - -323. NO BOOKS SAVE ROBINSON CRUSOE.--One of the consequences of an -education that is natural and negative is the suppression of books. -Always going to extremes, Rousseau is not content to criticise the -abuse of books. He determines that up to his fifth year Émile shall -not know what a book is:-- - -“I hate books,” he exclaims; “they teach us merely to speak of -things that we do not know.” - -Besides the fact that this raving is rather ridiculous in the -case of a man who is a writer by profession, it is evident that -Rousseau is roving at random when he condemns the use of books in -instruction. - -One book, however, one single book, has found favor in his sight. -_Robinson Crusoe_ will constitute by itself for a long time -the whole of Émile’s library. We understand without difficulty -Rousseau’s kindly feeling for a work which, under the form of a -romance, is, like the _Émile_, a treatise on natural education. -Émile and Robinson strongly resemble each other, since they are -self-sufficient and dispense with society. - - -324. EXCELLENT PRECEPTS ON METHOD.--At least in the general method -which he commends, Rousseau makes amends for the errors in his plan -of study:-- - -“Do not treat the child to discourses which he cannot understand. -No descriptions, no eloquence, no figures of speech. Be content to -present to him appropriate objects. Let us transform our sensations -into ideas. But let us not jump at once from sensible objects -to intellectual objects. Let us always proceed slowly from one -sensible notion to another. In general, let us never substitute the -sign for the thing, except when it is impossible for us to show the -thing.” - -“I have no love whatever for explanations and talk. Things! things! -I shall never tire of saying that we ascribe too much importance to -words. With our babbling education we make only babblers.” - -But the whole would bear quoting. Almost all of Rousseau’s -recommendations, in the way of method, contain an element of truth, -and need only to be modified in order to become excellent. - - -325. EXCLUSIVE MOTIVES OF ACTION.--A great question in the -education of children is to know to what motive we shall address -ourselves. Here again, Rousseau is exclusive and absolute. Up to -the age of twelve, Émile will have been guided by necessity; he -will have been made dependent on things, not on men. It is through -the possible and the impossible that he will have been conducted, -by treating him, not as a sensible and intelligent being, but as -a force of nature against which other forces are made to act. Not -till the age of twelve must this system be changed. Émile has now -acquired some judgment; and it is upon an intellectual motive that -one ought now to count in regulating his conduct. This motive is -utility. The feeling of emulation cannot be employed in a solitary -education. Finally, at the age of fifteen, it will be possible to -appeal to the heart, to feeling, and to recommend to the young man -the acts we set before him, no longer as necessary or useful, but -as noble, good, and generous. The error of Rousseau is in cutting -up the life of man to his twentieth year into three sharply defined -parts, into three moments, each subordinated to a single governing -principle. The truth is that at every age an appeal must be made to -all the motives that act on our will, that at every age, necessity, -interest, sentiment, and finally, the idea of duty, an idea too -often overlooked by Rousseau, as all else that is derived from -reason,--all these motives can effectively intervene, in different -degrees, in the education of man. - - -326. ÉMILE LEARNS A TRADE.--At the age of fifteen, Émile will -know nothing of history, nothing of humanity, nothing of art and -literature, nothing of God; but he will know a trade, a manual -trade. By this means, he will be sheltered from need in advance, in -case a revolution should strip him of his fortune. - -“We are approaching,” says Rousseau, with an astonishing -perspicacity, “a century of revolutions. Who can give you assurance -of what will then become of you? I hold it to be impossible for the -great monarchies of Europe to last much longer. They have all had -their day of glory, and every State that dazzles is in its decline.” - -We have previously noticed, in studying analogous ideas in the -case of Locke, for what other reasons Rousseau made of Émile an -apprentice to a cabinet-maker or a carpenter. - - -327. ÉMILE AT THE AGE OF FIFTEEN.--Rousseau takes comfort in the -contemplation of his work, and he pauses from time to time in his -analyses and deductions, to trace the portrait of his pupil. This -is how he represents him at the age of fifteen:-- - -“Émile has but little knowledge, but that which he has is really -his own; he knows nothing by halves. In the small number of things -that he knows, and knows well, the most important is that there -are many things which he does not know, but which he can some day -learn; that there are many more things which other men know, but -which he will never know; and that there is an infinity of other -things which no man will ever know. He has a universal mind, not -through actual knowledge, but through the ability to acquire it. He -has a mind that is open, intelligent, prepared for everything, and, -as Montaigne says, if not instructed, at least capable of being -instructed. It is sufficient for me that he knows how to find the -_of what good is it?_ with reference to all that he does, and the -_why?_ of all that he believes. Once more, my object is not at all -to give him knowledge, but to teach him how to acquire it as he may -need it, to make him estimate it at its exact worth, and to make -him love truth above everything else. With this method, progress is -slow; but there are no false steps, and no danger of being obliged -to retrace one’s course.” - -All this is well; but it is necessary to add that even Émile has -faults, great faults. To mention but one of them, but one which -dominates all the others, he sees things only from the point of -view of utility, and he would not hesitate, for example, “to give -the Academy of Sciences for the smallest bit of pastry.” - - -328. EDUCATION OF THE SENSIBILITIES.--It is true that Rousseau -finally decides to make of Émile an affectionate and reasonable -being. “We have formed,” he says, “his body, his senses, his -judgment; it remains to give him a heart.” Rousseau, who proceeds -like a magician, by wave of wand and clever tricks, flatters -himself that within a day’s time Émile is going to become the most -affectionate, the most moral, and the most religious of men. - - -329. THE FOURTH BOOK OF THE ÉMILE.--The development of the -affectionate sentiments, the culture of the moral sentiment, and -that of the religious sentiment, such is the triple subject of -the fourth book,--vast and exalted questions that lend themselves -to eloquence in such a way that the fourth book of the _Émile_ is -perhaps the most brilliant of the whole work. - - -330. GENESIS OF THE AFFECTIONATE SENTIMENTS.--Here Rousseau is -wholly in the land of chimeras. Émile, who lives in isolation, -who has neither family, friends, nor companions, is necessarily -condemned to selfishness, and everything Rousseau can do to warm -his heart will be useless. Do we wish to develop the feelings of -tenderness and affection? Let us begin by placing the child under -family or social influences which alone can furnish his affections -the occasion for development. For fifteen years Rousseau leaves -the heart of Émile unoccupied. What an illusion to think he will -be able to fill it all at once! When we suppress the mother in the -education of a child, all the means that we can invent to excite in -his soul emotions of gentleness and affection are but palliatives. -Rousseau made the mistake of thinking that a child can be taught -to love as he is taught to read and write, and that lessons could -be given to Émile in feeling just as lessons are given to him in -geometry. - - -331. MORAL EDUCATION.--Rousseau is more worthy of being followed -when he demands that the moral notions of right and wrong have -their first source in the feelings of sympathy and social -benevolence, on the supposition that according to his system he can -inspire Émile with such feelings. - -“We enter, finally, the domain of morals,” he says. “If this were -the place for it, I would show how from the first emotions of the -heart arise the first utterances of the conscience, and how, from -the first feelings of love and hate arise the first notions of good -and evil. I would make it appear that _justice_ and _goodness_ are -not merely abstract terms, conceived by the understanding, but real -affections of the soul enlightened by the reason.” - -Yes; let the child be made to make his way gradually towards a -severe morality, sanctioned by the reason, in having him pass -through the gentle emotions of the heart. Nothing can be better. -But this is to be done on one condition: this is, that we shall -not stop on the way, and that the vague inspirations of the -sensibilities shall be succeeded by the exact prescriptions of the -reason. Now Rousseau, as we know, was never willing to admit that -virtue was anything else than an affair of the heart. His ethics is -wholly an ethics of sentiment. - - -332. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION.--We know the reasons which determined -Rousseau to delay till the sixteenth or eighteenth year the -revelation of religion. It is that the child, with his sensitive -imagination, is necessarily an idolater. If we speak to him of God, -he can form but a superstitious idea of him. “Now,” says Rousseau, -pithily, “when the imagination has once seen God, it is very rare -that the understanding conceives him.” In other terms, once plunged -in superstition, the mind of the child can never extricate itself -from it. We must then wait, in the interest of religion itself, -till the child have sufficient maturity of reason and sufficient -power of thought to seize in its truth, divested of every veil of -sense, the idea of God, whose existence is announced to him for the -first time. - -It is difficult to justify Rousseau. First, is it not to be feared -that the child, if he has reached his eighteenth year in ignorance -of God, may find it wholly natural to be ignorant of him still, -and that he reason and dispute at random with his teacher, and -that he doubt instead of believe? And if he allows himself to be -convinced, is it not at least evident that the religious idea, -tardily inculcated, will have no profound hold on his mind? On the -other hand, will the child, with his instinctive curiosity, wait -till his eighteenth year to inquire the cause of the universe? Will -he not form the notion of a God in his own way? - -“One might have read, a few years ago,” says Villemain, “the -account, or rather the psychological confession, of a writer -(Sentenis), a German philosopher, whom his father had submitted -to the experiment advised by the author of _Émile_. Left alone -by the loss of a tenderly loved wife, this father, a learned and -thoughtful man, had taken his infant son to a retired place in -the country; and not allowing him communication with any one, he -had cultivated the child’s intelligence through the sight of the -natural objects placed near him, and by the study of the languages, -almost without books, and in carefully concealing from him all idea -of God. The child had reached his tenth year without having either -read or heard that great name. But then his mind found what had -been denied it. The sun which he saw rise each morning seemed the -all-powerful benefactor of whom he felt the need. He soon formed -the habit of going at dawn to the garden to pay homage to that -god that he had made for himself. His father surprised him one -day, and showed him his error by teaching him that all the fixed -stars are so many suns distributed in space. But such was then the -disappointment and the grief of the child deprived of his worship, -that the father, overcome, acknowledged to him that there was a -God, the Creator of the heavens and the earth.”[175] - - -333. THE SAVOYARD VICAR’S PROFESSION OF FAITH.--Rousseau has at -least attempted to retrieve, by stately language and an impassioned -demonstration of the existence of God, the delay which he has -spontaneously imposed on his pupil. - -The _Savoyard Vicar’s Profession of Faith_ is an eloquent catechism -on natural religion, and the honest expression of a sincere and -profound deism. The religion of nature is evidently the only one -which, in Rousseau’s system, can be taught, and ought to be taught, -to the child, since the child is exactly the pupil of nature. If -Émile wishes to go beyond this, if he needs a positive religion, -this shall be for himself to choose. - - -334. SOPHIE AND THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN.--The weakest part of the -_Émile_ is that which treats of the education of woman. This is -not merely because Rousseau, with his decided leaning towards the -romantic, leads Émile and his companion into odd and extraordinary -adventures, but it is especially because he misconceives the proper -dignity of woman. Sophie, the perfect woman, has been educated -only to complete the happiness of Émile. Her education is wholly -relative to her destiny as a wife. - -“The whole education of women should be relative to men; to please -them, to be useful to them, to make themselves honored and loved by -them, to educate the young, to care for the older, to advise them, -to console them, to make life agreeable and sweet to them,--these -are the duties of women in every age.” - -“Sophie,” says Gréard, “has but virtues of the second order, -virtues of conjugal education.” It has been said that marriage -is a second birth for man, that he rises or falls according to -the choice which he makes. For woman, according to the theory -of Rousseau, it is the true advent into life. According to the -expressive formula of Michelet, who, in a sentence, has given a -marvellous summary of the doctrine, but in attaching to it a sense -which poetizes it, “the husband creates the wife.” Sophie, up to -the day of her marriage, did not exist. She had learned nothing -and read nothing “except a _Barême_ and a _Télémaque_ which -have chanced to fall into her hands.” She has been definitely -admonished, “that were men sensible, every lettered girl will -remain a girl.” It is Émile alone who is to instruct her, and -he will instruct her and mould her into his own ideal, and in -conformity to his individual interest. - -While it was only in his youth that he received the first -principles of the religious feeling, Sophie must be penetrated -with it from infancy, in order that she may early form the habit -of submission. He commands and she obeys, the first duty of the -wife being meekness. If, during her youth, she has freely attended -banquets, amusements, balls, the theatre, it is not so much to be -initiated into the vain pleasures of the world, under the tutelage -of a vigilant mother, as to belong, once married, more fully to her -home and to her husband. She is nothing except as she is by his -side, or as dependent on him, or as acting through him. Strange -and brutal paradox, which Rousseau, it is true, corrects and -repairs in detail, at every moment by the most happy and charming -inconsistencies. - -Sophie, briefly, is an incomplete person whom Rousseau is not -careful enough to educate for herself. - -In her subordinate and inferior position, the cares of the -household occupy the largest place. She cuts and makes her own -dresses:-- - -“What Sophie knows best, and what was taught her with most care, -is the work of her sex. There is no needle-work which she does not -know how to make.” - -It is not forbidden her, but is even recommended that she introduce -a certain coquetry into her employments:-- - -“The work she loves the best is lace-making, because there is no -other that gives her a more agreeable attitude, and in which the -fingers are used with more grace and deftness.” - -She carries daintiness a little too far:-- - -“She does not love cooking; its details have some disgust for her. -She would sooner let the whole dinner go into the fire than to soil -her cuffs.” - -Truly this is fine housewifery! We feel that we have here to do -with a character in a romance who has no need to dine. Sophie would -not have been well received at Saint Cyr, where Madame de Maintenon -so severely scolded the girls who were too fastidious, “fearing -smoke, dust, and disagreeable odors, even to making complaints and -grimaces on their account as though all were lost.” - - -335. GENERAL CONCLUSION.--In order to form a just estimate of the -_Émile_, it is necessary to put aside the impressions left by the -reading of the last pages. We must consider as a whole, and without -taking details into account, that work, which, notwithstanding -all, is very admirable and profound. It is injured by analysis. -To esteem the _Émile_ at its real worth, it must be read entire. -In reading it, in fact, we are warmed by contact with the passion -which Rousseau puts into whatever he writes. We pardon his errors -and chimeras by reason of the grand sentiments and the grand truths -which we meet at every step. We must also take into account the -time when Rousseau lived, and the conditions under which he wrote. -We have not a doubt that had it been written thirty years later, -in the dawn of the Revolution, for a people who were free, or who -desired to be free, the _Émile_ would have been wholly different -from what it is. Had he been working for a republican society, or -for a society that wished to become such, Rousseau would not have -thrown himself, out of hatred for the reality, into the absurdities -of an over-specialized and exceptional education. We can judge of -what he would have done as legislator of public instruction in the -time of the Revolution, by what he wrote in his _Considerations on -the Government of Poland_:-- - -“National education belongs only to people who are free.... It -is education which is to give to men the national mould, and so -to direct their opinions and their tastes that they will become -patriots by inclination, by passion, and by necessity” (we would -only add, by duty). “A child, in opening his eyes, ought to see -his country and nothing but his country. Every true republican, -along with his mother’s milk, will imbibe love of country, that -is, of law and liberty. This love constitutes his whole existence. -He sees but his country, he lives but for her. So soon as he is -alone, he is nothing; so soon as there is no more of country, he is -no more.... While learning to read, I would have a child of Poland -read what relates to his country; at the age of ten, I would have -him know all its productions; at twelve, all its provinces, all its -roads, all its cities; at fifteen, the whole of its history; and -at sixteen, all its laws; and there should not be in all Poland a -notable deed or an illustrious man, of which his memory and his -heart were not full.” - - -336. INFLUENCE OF THE ÉMILE.--That which proves better than any -commentary can the high standing of the _Émile_, is the success -which it has obtained, the influence which it has exerted, both -in France and abroad, and the durable renown attested by so many -works designed, either to contradict it, to correct it, or to -approve it and to disseminate its doctrines. During the twenty-five -years that followed the publication of the _Émile_, there appeared -in the French language twice as many books on education as during -the first sixty years of the century. Rousseau, besides all that -he said personally which was just and new, had the merit of -stimulating minds and of preparing through his impulsion the rich -educational harvest of this last one hundred years. - -To be convinced of this, it suffices to read this judgment of -Kant:-- - -“The first impression which a reader who does not read for vanity -or for killing time derives from the writings of Rousseau, is that -this writer unites to an admirable penetration of genius a noble -inspiration and a soul full of sensibility, such as has never been -met with in any other writer, in any other time, or in any other -country. The impression which immediately follows this, is that of -astonishment caused by the extraordinary and paradoxical thoughts -which he develops.... I ought to read and re-read Rousseau, till -the beauty of his style no more affects me. It is only then that I -can adjust my reason to judge of him.” - - - [337. ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.--1. The study of the _Émile_ exhibits, - in a very striking manner, the contrast between the respective - agencies of art and nature in the work of education, and also the - power of sentiment as a motor to ideas. - - 2. What Monsieur Compayré has happily called Rousseau’s “misuse - of the principle of nature” marks a recoil against the artificial - and fictitious state of society and opinion in France in the - eighteenth century. In politics, in religion, and in philosophy, - there was the domination of authority, and but a small margin - was left for the exercise of freedom, versatility, and individual - initiative; while education was administered rather as a process - of manufacture, than of regulated growth. - - 3. The conception that the child, by his very constitution, - is predetermined, like plants and animals, to a progressive - development quite independent of artificial aid, easily - degenerates into the hypothesis that the typical education is a - process of spontaneous growth. - - 4. The error in this hypothesis is that of exaggeration or of - disproportion. Education is neither a work of nature alone, nor - of art alone, but is a natural process, supplemented, controlled, - and perfected by human art. What education would become when - abandoned wholly to “nature” may be seen in the state of a - perfected fruit which has been allowed to revert to its primitive - or natural condition. - - 5. Man is distinguished from all other creatures by the fact that - he is not the victim of his environment, but is endowed with the - power to control his environment, almost to re-create it, and so - to rise superior to it. This ability gives rise to human art, - which is a coördinate factor with nature in the work of education. - - 6. This convenient fiction of “Nature,” conceived as an - infallible and incomparable guide in education, has introduced - countless errors into educational theory; and Miss E. R. Sill - is amply justified in saying that “probably nine-tenths of the - popular sophistries on the subject of education, would be cleared - away by clarifying the word Nature.”[176] - - 7. In spite of its paradoxes, its exaggerations, its overwrought - sentiment, and florid declamation, the _Émile_, in its general - spirit, is a work of incomparable power and of perennial value.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[169] Dom Joseph Cajet, _Les Plagiats de J. J. R. de Genève sur -l’éducation_, 1768. - -[170] _Œuvres diverses_, Tome I. p. 12. - -[171] _De l’éducation des enfants_, La Haye, 1722; _Pensées libres -sur les instructions publiques des bas collèges_, Amsterdam, 1727. - -[172] _Spectacle de la nature_, Paris, 1732, Vol. VI. _Entretien -sur l’éducation_. - -[173] _Lettre critique sur l’éducation_, Paris, 1751. - -[174] _Projet pour l’éducation de M. de Ste-Marie._ - -[175] Report of Villemain on the work of the Père Girard (1844). - -[176] _Atlantic Monthly_, February, 1883, p. 178. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -THE PHILOSOPHERS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.--CONDILLAC, DIDEROT, -HELVETIUS, AND KANT. - - THE PHILOSOPHERS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY; CONDILLAC - (1715-1780); ABUSE OF THE PHILOSOPHIC SPIRIT; MUST WE REASON - WITH CHILDREN? PRELIMINARY LESSONS; THE ART OF THINKING; OTHER - PARTS OF THE COURSE OF STUDY; PERSONAL REFLECTION; EXCESSES OF - DEVOTION CRITICISED; DIDEROT (1713-1784); HIS PEDAGOGICAL WORKS; - HIS QUALITIES AS AN EDUCATOR; NECESSITY OF INSTRUCTION; IDEA OF - A SYSTEM OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION; CRITICISM OF FRENCH COLLEGES; - PROPOSED REFORMS; PREFERENCE FOR THE SCIENCES; INCOMPLETE - VIEWS ON THE PROVINCE OF LETTERS; OPINION OF MARMONTEL; OTHER - NOVELTIES OF DIDEROT’S PLAN; HELVETIUS (1715-1771); PARADOXES - OF THE TREATISE ON MAN; REFUTATION OF HELVETIUS BY DIDEROT; - INSTRUCTION SECULARIZED; THE ENCYCLOPÆDISTS; KANT (1724-1804); - HIGH CONCEPTION OF EDUCATION; PSYCHOLOGICAL OPTIMISM; RESPECT - FOR THE LIBERTY OF THE CHILD; CULTURE OF THE FACULTIES; STORIES - INTERDICTED; DIFFERENT KINDS OF PUNISHMENT; RELIGIOUS EDUCATION; - ANALYTICAL SUMMARY. - - -338. THE PHILOSOPHERS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.--If there has been -considerable progress made in education in the eighteenth century, -it is due, in great part, to the efforts of the philosophers of -that age. It is no longer alone the men who are actually engaged -in the schools that are preoccupied with education; but nearly all -the illustrious thinkers of the eighteenth century have discussed -these great questions with more or less thoroughness. The subject -is far from being exhausted by the study of Rousseau. Besides the -educational current set in movement by the _Émile_, the other -philosophers of that period, in their isolated and independent -march, left original routes which it remains to follow. From out -their errors and conceptions of systems there emerge some new -outlooks and some definite truths. - - -339. CONDILLAC (1715-1780).--An acute and ingenious psychologist, a -competitor and rival of Locke in philosophy, Condillac is far from -having the same authority in matters pertaining to education; but -still there is profit to be derived from the reading of his _Course -of Study_, which includes not less than thirteen volumes. This -important work is a collection of the lessons which he had composed -for the education of the infant Ferdinand, the grandson of Louis -XV., and heir of the dukedom of Parma, whose preceptor he became in -1757. - - -340. ABUSE OF THE PHILOSOPHIC SPIRIT.--It is certainly a matter -of congratulation that the philosophical spirit is entering more -and more largely into the theories of education, and there would -be only words of commendation for Condillac had he restricted -himself to this excellent declaration, that pedagogy is nothing if -it is not a deduction from psychology. But he does not stop there, -but with an indiscretion that is to be regretted, he arbitrarily -transports into education certain philosophical principles which -it is not proper to apply to the art of educating men, whatever -may be their theoretical truth; thus Condillac, having established -the natural order of the development of the sciences and the arts -in the history of humanity, presumes to impose the same law of -progress upon the child. - -“The method which I have followed does not resemble the usual -manner of teaching; but it is the very way in which men were led to -create the arts and the sciences.”[177] - -In other terms, the child must do over again, on his own account, -“that which the race has done.” He must be compelled to follow, -step by step, in its long gropings, the slow progress made by the -race.[178] - -There is, doubtless, an element of truth in the error of -Condillac. The sciences and the arts began with the observation -of particulars, and thence slowly rose to general principles; and -to-day no one thinks of denying the necessity of proceeding in the -same manner in education, so far as this is possible. It is well -at the first to present facts to the child, and to lead him step -by step, from observation to observation, to the law which governs -them and includes them; but there is a wide distance between the -discreet use of the inductive and experimental method, and the -exaggerations of Condillac. No one should seriously think of -absolutely suppressing the synthetic method of exposition, which, -taking advantage of the work accomplished through the centuries, -teaches at the outset the truths that have been already acquired. -It would be absurd to compel the child painfully to recommence the -toil of the race.[179] - -Graver still, Condillac, led astray by his love for philosophizing, -presumes to initiate the child, from the very beginning of his -studies, into psychological analysis. - -“The first thing to be done is to make the child acquainted with -the faculties of his soul, and to make him feel the need of making -use of them.” - -In other terms, the analysis of the soul shall be the first object -proposed to the reflection of the child. It is not proposed to make -him attentive, but to teach him what attention is. - -How can one seriously think of making of the child a little -psychologist, and of choosing as the first element of his education -the very science that is the most difficult of all, the one which -can be but the coronation of his studies? - - -341. MUST WE REASON WITH CHILDREN?--Rousseau had sharply criticised -the famous maxim of Locke: “We must reason with children.” -Condillac tries to restore it to credit, and for this purpose he -invokes the pretended demonstrations of a superficial and inexact -psychology. - -“It has been proved,” he says, “that the faculty of reasoning -begins as soon as the senses commence to develop; and we have the -early use of our senses only because we early began to reason.” -Strange assertions, which are disproved by the most elementary -observation of the facts in the case. Condillac here allows himself -to be imposed upon by his sensational psychology, the tendency -of which is to efface the peculiar character of the different -intellectual faculties, to derive them all from the senses, and, -consequently, to suppress the distance which separates a simple -sensation from the subtile, reflective, and abstract process which -is called reasoning. It cannot be admitted for a single instant -that the faculties of the understanding are, as he says, “the same -in the child as in the mature man.” There is, doubtless, in the -child a beginning of reasoning, a sort of instinctive logic; but -this infantile reasoning can be applied only to familiar objects, -such as are sensible and concrete. It were absurd to employ it on -general and abstract ideas. - - -342. PRELIMINARY LESSONS.--We shall quote, without comment, the -first subjects of instruction which, under the title of _Leçons -préliminaires_, Condillac proposes to his pupil: 1. the nature -of ideas; 2. the operations of the soul; 3. the habits; 4. the -difference between the soul and the body; 5. the knowledge of God. - -How are we to conceive that Condillac had the pretension to place -these high philosophical speculations within the reach of a child -of seven years who has not yet studied the grammar of his native -language! How much better some fables or historical narratives -would answer his purpose! - -But Condillac does not stop there. When his pupil has a systematic -knowledge of the operations of the soul, when he has comprehended -the genesis of ideas; in a word, when, towards the age of eight or -ten, he is as proficient in philosophy as his master, and almost as -capable of writing the _Treatise on Sensations_, what do you think -he is invited to study? Something which very much resembles the -philosophy of history:-- - -“After having made him reflect on his own infancy, I thought that -the infancy of the world would be the most interesting subject for -him, and the easiest to study.” - - -343. THE ART OF THINKING.--It is only when he judges that the mind -of his pupil is sufficiently prepared by psychological analysis and -by general reflections on the progress of humanity, that Condillac -decides to have him enter upon the ordinary course of study. Here -the spirit of system disappears, and gives place to more judicious -and more practical ideas. Thus Condillac thinks that “the study of -grammar would be more wearisome than useful if it come too early.” -Would that he had applied this principle to psychology! Before -studying grammar, then, Condillac’s pupil reads the poets,--the -French poets, of course,--and preferably the dramatic authors, -Racine especially, whom he reads for the twelfth time. The real -knowledge of the language precedes the abstract study of the -rules. Condillac himself composed a grammar entitled the _Art of -Speaking_. In this he imitates the authors of Port Royal, “who,” he -says, “were the first to write elementary books on an intelligent -plan.” After the _Art of Speaking_ he calls the attention of -his pupil to three other treatises in succession,--the _Art of -Writing_, or rhetoric, the _Art of Reasoning_, or logic, and the -_Art of Thinking_. We shall not attempt an analysis of these works, -which have gone out of date, notwithstanding the value of certain -portions of them. The general characteristic of these treatises -on intellectual education is that the author is pre-occupied with -the relations of ideas more than with the exterior elegancies of -style, with the development of thought more than with the beauties -of language:-- - -“Especially must the intelligence be nourished, even as the body is -nourished. We must present to it knowledge, which is the wholesome -aliment of spirit, opinions and errors being aliment that is -poisonous. It is also necessary that the intelligence be active, -for the thought remains imbecile as long as, passive rather than -active, it moves at random.” - - -344. OTHER PARTS OF THE COURSE OF STUDY.--It seems that Condillac -is in pursuit of but one single purpose,--to make of his pupil a -thinking being. The study of Latin is postponed till the time when -the intelligence, being completely formed, will find in the study -of that language only the difficulty of learning words. Condillac -has but little taste for the study of the ancient languages. He -relegates the study of Latin to the second place, and omits Greek -entirely. But he accords a great importance to historical studies. - -“After having learned to think, the Prince made the study of -history his principal object for six years.” - -Twelve volumes of the _Course of Study_ have transmitted to us -Condillac’s lessons in history. In this he does not take delight, -as Rollin does, in long narrations; but he analyzes, multiplies -his reflections, and abridges facts; he philosophizes more than he -recites the facts of history. - - -345. PERSONAL REFLECTION.--What we have said of Condillac’s _Course -of Study_ suffices to justify the judgment expressed of his -pedagogy by one of his disciples, Gérando, when he wrote: “He who -had so thoroughly studied the manner in which ideas are formed in -the human mind, had but little skill in calling them into being in -the intelligence of his pupil.” - -But we would judge our author unjustly if, after the criticisms we -have made of him, we were not to accord him the praise he deserves, -especially for having comprehended, as he has done, the value of -personal reflection, and the superiority of judgment over memory. A -few quotations will rehabilitate the pedagogy of Condillac in the -minds of our readers. - -Above all else there must be an exercise in personal reflection:-- - -“I grant that the education which cultivates only the memory may -make prodigies, and that it has done so; but these prodigies last -only during the time of infancy.... He who knows only by heart, -knows nothing.... He who has not learned to reflect has not been -instructed, or, what is still worse, has been poorly instructed.” - -“True knowledge is in the reflection, which has acquired it, much -more than in the memory, which holds it in keeping; and the things -which we are capable of recovering are better known than those of -which we have a recollection. It does not suffice, then, to give -a child knowledge. It is necessary that he instruct himself by -seeking knowledge on his own account, and the essential point is -to guide him properly. If he is led in an orderly way, he will -acquire exact ideas, and will seize their succession and relation. -Then, able to call them up for review, he will be able to compare -them with others that are more remote, and to make a final choice -of those which he wishes to study. Reflection can always recover -the things it has known, because it knows how it originally found -them; but the memory does not so recover the things it has learned, -because it does not know how it learns.” - -This is why Condillac places far above the education we receive, -the education that we give ourselves:-- - -“Henceforth, Sir, it remains for you alone to instruct yourself. -Perhaps you imagine you have finished; but it is I who have -finished. You are to begin anew!” - - -346. EXCESSIVE DEVOTION CRITICISED.--What beautiful lessons -Condillac also addresses to his pupil to induce him to enfranchise -himself from ecclesiastical tutelage! Written by an abbot, the -eloquent page we are about to read proves how the lay spirit tended -to pronounce itself in the eighteenth century. - -“You cannot be too pious, Sir; but if your piety is not -enlightened, you will so far forget your duties as to be engrossed -in the little things of devotion. Because prayer is necessary, you -will think you ought always to be praying, not considering that -true devotion consists first of all in fulfilling the duties of -your station in life: it will not be your fault that you do not -live in your heart as in a cloister. Hypocrites will swarm around -you, the monks will issue from their cells. The priests will -abandon the service of the altar in order to be edified with the -sight of your holy works. Blind prince! you will not perceive how -their conduct is in contradiction with their language. You will -not even observe that the men who praise you for always being at -the foot of the altar, themselves forget that it is their own duty -to be there. You will unconsciously take their place and leave to -them your own. You will be continually at prayer, and you will -believe that you assure your salvation. They will cease to pray, -and you will believe that they assure their salvation. Strange -contradiction, which turns aside ministers from the Church to give -bad ministers to the State.”[180] - - -347. DIDEROT (1713-1784).--To him who knows nothing of Diderot save -his works of imagination, often so licentious, it will doubtless be -a surprise to see the name of this fantastic writer inscribed in -the catalogue of educators. But this astonishment will disappear if -we will take the trouble to recollect with what versatility this -mighty spirit could vary the subject of his reflections, and pass -from the gay to the solemn, and especially with what ardor, in -conjunction with D’Alembert, he was the principal founder of the -_Encyclopédie_, and the indefatigable contributor to it. - - -348. HIS PEDAGOGICAL WORKS.--But there is no room for doubt. -Diderot has written at least two treatises that belong to the -history of education: first, about 1773, _The Systematic Refutation -of the Book of Helvetius on Man_, an incisive and eloquent -criticism of the paradoxes and errors of Helvetius; and, in the -second place, about 1776, a complete scheme of education, composed -at the request of Catherine II., under the title, _Plan of a -University_.[181] - - -349. HIS MERITS AS AN EDUCATOR.--Doubtless Diderot did not have -sufficient gravity of character or sufficiently definite ideas -to be a perfect educator; but, by way of compensation, the -natural and acquired qualities of his mind made him worthy of -the confidence placed in him by Catherine II. in entrusting him -with the organization, at least in theory, of the instruction of -the Russian people. First of all, he had the merit of being a -universal thinker, “sufficiently versed in all the sciences to -know their value, and not sufficiently profound in any one to -give it a preference inspired by predilection.” Engaged in the -scientific movement, of which the _Encyclopédie_ was the centre, -he at the same time cherished an enthusiastic passion for letters. -He worshipped Shakespeare and modern poetry, but he was not less -enamored of classical antiquity, and for several years, he says, -“he thought it as much a religious duty to read a song of Homer as -a good priest would to recite his breviary.” - - -350. NECESSITY OF INSTRUCTION.--Diderot, and this is to his -praise, is distinguished from the most of his contemporaries, and -especially from Rousseau, by his ardent faith in the moral efficacy -of instruction:-- - -“Far from corrupting,” he exclaims, “instruction sweetens -character, throws light on duty, makes vice less gross, and either -chokes it or conceals it.... I dare assert that purity of morals -has followed the progress of dress, from the skin of animals to -fabrics of silk.” - -Hence he decides on the necessity of instruction for all:-- - -“From the prime minister to the lowest peasant, it is good for -every one to know how to read, write, and count.” - -And he proposes to all people the example of Germany, with her -strongly organized system of primary instruction. He demands -schools open to all children, “schools of reading, writing, -arithmetic, and religion,” in which will be studied both a moral -and a political catechism. Attendance on these schools shall be -obligatory, and to make compulsion possible, Diderot demands -gratuity. He goes even farther, and would have the child fed at -school, and with his books would have him find bread. - - -351. THE CONCEPTION OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.--Like all who sincerely -desire a strong organization of instruction, Diderot assigns the -direction of it to the State. His ideal of a Russian university -bears a strong resemblance to the French University of 1808. He -would have at its head a politician, a statesman, to whom should be -submitted all the affairs of public instruction. He even went so -far as to entrust to this general master of the university the duty -of presiding over the examinations, of appointing the presidents of -colleges, of excluding bad pupils, and of deposing professors and -tutors. - - -352. CRITICISM OF FRENCH COLLEGES.--Secondary instruction, what -was then called the _Faculty of Arts_, is the principal object -of Diderot’s reflections. He criticises the traditional system -with extreme severity, and his charge, thought sometimes unjust, -deserves to be quoted:-- - -“It is in the Faculty of Arts that there are still taught to-day, -under the name of belles-lettres, two dead languages which are of -use only to a small number of citizens; it is there that they are -studied for six or seven years without being learned; under the -name of rhetoric, the art of speaking is taught before the art -of thinking, and that of speaking elegantly before having ideas; -under the name of logic, the head is filled with the subtilties of -Aristotle, and of his very sublime and very useless theory of the -syllogism, and there is spread over a hundred obscure pages what -might have been clearly stated in four; under the name of ethics, -I do not know what is said, but I know that there is not a word -said either of the qualities of mind or heart; under the name of -metaphysics, there are discussed theses as trifling as they are -knotty, the first elements of scepticism and bigotry, and the germ -of the unfortunate gift of replying to everything; under the name -of physics, there is endless dispute about the elements of matter -and the system of the world; but not a word on natural history, not -a word on real chemistry, very little on the movement and fall of -bodies; very few experiments, less still of anatomy, and nothing of -geography.”[182] - - -353. PROPOSED REFORMS.--After such a spirited criticism, it was -Diderot’s duty to propose earnest and radical reforms; but all of -those which he suggests are not equally commendable. - -Let us first note the idea revived in our day by Auguste Comte and -the school of positivists, of a connection and a subordination of -the sciences, classified in a certain order, according as they -presuppose the science which has preceded, or as they facilitate -the study of the science which follows, and also according to -the measure of their utility.[183] It is according to this last -principle in particular, that Diderot distributes the work of the -school, after having called attention to the fact that the order -of the sciences, as determined by the needs of the school, is not -their logical order:-- - -“The natural connection of one science with the others designates -for it a place, and the principle of utility, more or less general, -determines for it another place.” - -But Diderot forgets that we must take into account, not alone the -principle of utility in the distribution of studies, but that the -essential thing of all others is to adapt the order of studies to -the progress of the child in age and aptitudes. - - -354. PREFERENCES FOR THE SCIENCES.--Although equally enamored -of letters and the sciences, Diderot did not know how to hold -a just balance between a literary and a scientific education. -Anticipating Condorcet and Auguste Comte, he displaces the centre -of instruction, and gives a preponderance to the sciences. Of the -eight classes comprised in his Faculty of Arts, the first five are -devoted to the mathematics, to mechanics, to astronomy, to physics, -and to chemistry. Grammar and the ancient languages are relegated -to the last three years, which nearly correspond to what are called -in our colleges the “second” and “rhetoric.”[184] - -The charge that must be brought against Diderot in this place, is -not merely that he puts an unreasonable restriction on literary -studies, but also that he makes a bad distribution of scientific -studies in placing the mathematics before physics. It is useless -for him to assert that “it is easier to learn geometry than to -learn to read.” He does not convince us of this. It is a grave -error to begin by keeping the child’s attention on numerical -abstractions, by leaving his senses unemployed, by postponing so -long the study of natural history and experimental physics, those -sciences expressly adapted to children, because, as Diderot himself -expresses it, “they involve a continuous exercise of sight, smell, -taste, and memory.” - -To excuse Diderot’s error, it does not suffice to state that his -pupil does not enter the Faculty of Arts till his twelfth year. -Till that period, he will learn only reading, writing, and -orthography. There is ground for thinking that these first years -will be rather poorly employed; but besides this, it is evident -that even at the age of twelve the mind is not sufficiently mature -to be plunged into the cold deductions of mathematics. - - -355. INCOMPLETE VIEWS AS TO THE SCOPE OF LITERARY -STUDIES.--Diderot’s attitude with respect to classical studies is -a matter of surprise. On the one hand, he postpones their study -till the pupil’s nineteenth and twentieth year. On the other, with -what enthusiasm this eloquent scholar speaks of the ancients, -particularly of Homer! - -“Homer is the master to whom I am indebted for whatever merit I -have, if indeed I have any at all. It is difficult to attain to -excellence in taste without a knowledge of the Greek and Latin -languages. I early drew my intellectual nourishment from Homer, -Virgil, Horace, Terence, Anacreon, Plato, and Euripides on the one -hand, and from Moses and the Prophets on the other.” - -How are we to explain this contradiction of an inconsistent and -ungrateful humanist who extols the humanities to the skies, and -at the same time puts such restrictions on the teaching of them -as almost to annihilate them? The reason for this is, that, in -his opinion, the belles-lettres are useful only for the training -of orators and poets, but are not serviceable in the general -development of the mind. Consequently, being fancy studies, so to -speak, they are fit only for a small minority of pupils, and have -no right to the first place in a common education, destined for -men in general. Diderot is not able to discern what, in pedagogy, -is their true title to nobility,--that they are an admirable -instrument of intellectual gymnastics, and the surest and also the -most convenient means of acquiring those qualities of justness, of -precision, and of clearness, which are needed by all conditions of -men, and are applicable to all the special employments of life.[185] - - -356. OPINION OF MARMONTEL.--Diderot seems to reduce the office of -letters to a study of words, and to an exercise of memory. He might -have learned a lesson from one of his contemporaries, Marmontel, -whose intellect, though less brilliant, was sometimes more just, an -advantage which the intelligence gains from early discipline in the -study of the languages:-- - -“The choice and use of words, in translating from one language to -another, and even then some degree of elegance in the construction -of sentences, began to interest me; and this work, which did not -proceed without the analysis of ideas, fortified my memory. I -perceived that it was the idea attached to the word which made it -take root, and reflection soon made me feel that the study of the -languages was also the study of the art of distinguishing shades of -thought, of decomposing it, of forming its texture, and of catching -with precision its spirit and its relations; and that along with -words, an equal number of new ideas were introduced and developed -in the heads of the young,[186] and that in this way the early -classes were a course in elementary philosophy, much more rich, -more extended, and of greater real utility than we think, when we -complain that in our colleges nothing is learned but Latin.”[187] - - -357. OTHER NOVELTIES IN DIDEROT’S PLAN.--Without entering into the -details of the very elaborate organization of Diderot’s _Russian -University_, we shall call attention to some other novelties of his -system:-- - -1. The division of the classes into several series of parallel -courses: first, the series of scientific and literary courses; -then, the series of lectures devoted to religion, to ethics, and to -history; and finally, courses in drawing, music, etc. - -2. The whimsical idea of teaching history in an inverted order, so -to speak, in beginning with the most recent events, and little by -little going back to antiquity. - -3. His extreme estimate of the art of reading: “Let a teacher of -reading be associated with a professor of drawing; there are so -few men, even the most enlightened, who know how to read well, a -gift always so agreeable, and often so necessary.” - -4. A special regard for the study of art and for æsthetic -education, which could not be a matter of indifference to the great -art critic who wrote the _Salons_. - -5. A reform in the system of ushers.[188] Diderot would have for -supervising assistants in colleges, educated men, capable on -occasion of supplying the places of the professors themselves. To -attach them to their duties, he requires that some dignity be given -to their modest and useful functions, and that the usher be a sort -of supernumerary, or “professor in reversion,” who aspires to the -chair of the professor, whose place he supplies from time to time, -and which he may finally attain. - - -358. HELVETIUS (1715-1771).--In undertaking the study of the -thoughts of Helvetius on education, and the rapid analysis of his -_Treatise on Man_, we shall not take leave of Diderot, for the work -of Helvetius has had the good or the bad fortune of being commented -on and criticised by his illustrious contemporary. Thanks to the -_Systematic Refutation of the Book of Helvetius on Man_, which -forms a charming accompaniment of pungent or vigorous reflections -to a dull and languid book, the reading of the monotonous treatise -of Helvetius becomes easy and almost agreeable. - - -359. THE TREATISE ON MAN.--Under this title, a little long, _De -l’homme, de ses facultés intellectuelles et de son éducation_, -Helvetius has composed a large work which he had in contemplation -for fifteen years, and which did not appear till after his -death, in 1772. As a matter of fact, education does not directly -occupy the author’s attention except in the first and the last -chapters (sections I. and X.). With this exception, the whole -book is devoted to long developments of the favorite maxims of -his philosophy: as the intellectual equality of all men, and the -reduction of all the passions to the pursuit of pleasure; or to -platitudes, such as the influence of laws on the happiness of -people, and the evils which result from ignorance. - - -360. POTENCY OF EDUCATION.--When he does not fall into platitudes, -Helvetius goes off into paradoxes that are presumptuous and -systematic. His habitual characteristic is pedantry in what is -false. According to him, for example, education is all-powerful; it -is the sole cause of the difference between minds. The mind of the -child is but an empty capacity, something indeterminate, without -predisposition. The impressions of the senses are the only elements -of the intelligence; so that the acquisitions of the five senses -are the only thing that is of moment; “the senses are all that -there is of man.” It is not possible to push sensationalism further -than this. - -The impressions of the senses are, then, the basis of human nature, -and as these impressions vary with circumstances, Helvetius -arrives at this conclusion, that chance is the great master in the -formation of mind and character. Consequently, he undertakes to -produce at will men of genius, or, at least, men of talent. For -this purpose, it suffices to ascertain, by repeated observations, -the means which chance employs for making great men. These means -once discovered, it remains only to set them at work artificially -and to combine them, in order to produce the same effects. - -“Genius is a product of chance. Rousseau, like a countless number -of illustrious men, may be regarded as one of the masterpieces of -chance.” - - -361. HELVETIUS REFUTED BY DIDEROT.--It is easy to reply to -extravagant statements of this sort. Had Helvetius consulted -teachers and parents, had he observed himself, had he simply -reflected on his two daughters, so unequally endowed though -identically educated, he would doubtless have felt constrained -to acknowledge the limitations of education; he would have -comprehended that it cannot give imagination to minds of sluggish -temperament, nor enthusiasm and sensibility to inert souls, and -that the most marvellously helpful circumstances will not make of -a Helvetius a Montesquieu or a Voltaire. - -But if it is easy to refute Helvetius, it is impossible to -criticise him with more brilliancy and eloquence than Diderot has -done. With what perfection of reason he restores to nature, to -innate and irresistible inclinations, the influence which Helvetius -denies to them in the formation of character! - -“The accidents of Helvetius,” he says, “are like the spark which -sets on fire a cask of wine, and which is extinguished in a bucket -of water.” - -“For thousands of centuries the dew of heaven has fallen on the -rocks without making them fertile. The sown fields await it in -order to become productive, but it is not the dew that scatters the -seed. Accidents themselves no more produce anything, than the pick -of the laborer who delves in the mines of Golconda produces the -diamond that it brings to the surface.” - -Doubtless education has a more radical effect than that which is -attributed to it by La Bruyère when he said that “it touches only -the surface of the soul.” But if it can do much, it cannot do all. -It perfects if it is good; it deadens and it perverts if it is bad; -but it can never be a substitute for lacking aptitude, and can -never replace nature. - - -362. SECULARIZED INSTRUCTION.--In other parts of his system -Helvetius is in accord with Diderot. Like him, he believes the -necessary condition of progress in education is that it be made -secular and entrusted to the civil power. The vices of education -come from the opposition of the two powers, spiritual and temporal, -that assume to direct it. Between the Church and the State -there is an opposition of interests and views. The State would -have the nation become brave, industrious, and enlightened. The -Church demands a blind submission and unlimited credulity. Hence -there is contradiction in pedagogical precepts, diversity in the -means that are employed, and, consequently, an education that is -hesitating, that is pulled in opposite directions, that does not -know definitely where it is going, that misses its way, that gropes -and wastes time. - -But the conclusion of Helvetius is not as we might expect,--the -separation of Church and State in the matter of instruction -and education, such as recent laws have established in France. -No; Helvetius would have the State absorb the Church, and have -religious power and civil power lodged in the same hands and both -belong to those who control the government,--a vexatious confusion -that would end in the oppression of consciences. - -Helvetius, whatever may be thought of him, does not deserve to -claim our attention for any length of time, and we cannot seriously -consider as an authority in pedagogy a writer who, in intellectual -as in moral education, reduces everything to a single principle, -the development and the satisfaction of physical sensibility.[189] - - -363. THE ENCYCLOPÆDISTS.--The vast collection which, under the -name _Encyclopédie_, sums up the science and the philosophy of -the eighteenth century, touches educational questions only in -passing. Properly speaking, the _Encyclopédie_ contains no system -of pedagogy. The principal fragment is the article _Éducation_, -written by the grammarian and Latinist Dumarsais. - -But this piece of work is little worthy of its author, and little -worthy in particular of the _Encyclopédie_. It contains scarcely -anything but vague and trite generalities, and belongs to the -category of those articles for padding which caused Voltaire to -say: “You accept articles worthy of the Journal of Trévoux.” We -shall notice, however, in this article, the importance accorded -to the study of physics, and to the practice of the arts, -even the most common, and the marked purpose to “subordinate” -knowledges and studies, or to distribute them in a logical, or -rather psychological, order; for example, to cause the concrete -always to precede the abstract. But, after having lost himself in -considerations of but little interest on the development of ideas -and sentiments in the human soul, the author, who is decidedly far -below his task, concludes by recommending to young people “the -reading of newspapers.” - -The other pedagogical articles of the _Encyclopédie_ are equally -deficient in striking novelties. If the great work of D’Alembert -and Diderot has contributed something to the progress of education, -it is less through the insufficient efforts which it has directly -attempted in this direction, than through the general influence -which it has exercised on the French mind in extolling the -sciences in their theoretical study as well as in their practical -applications, in diffusing technical knowledge, in glorifying -the industrial arts, and in thus preparing for the coming of -a scientific and positive education in place of an education -exclusively literary and of pure form. - - -364. KANT (1724-1804).--We know the considerable influence -which, for a century, Kant has exercised on the development of -philosophy. Since Descartes, no thinker had to the same degree -excited an interest in the great problems of philosophy, nor more -vigorously obliged the human reason to render an account of itself. -It is then a piece of good fortune for the science of education -that a philosopher of this order has taken up the discussion of -pedagogical questions, and has thrown upon them the light of his -penetrating criticism. The admiration which he felt for Rousseau, -his attentive and impassioned reading of the _Émile_, his own -reflections on the monastic education which he had received at the -Collegium Fredericianum, a sort of small seminary conducted by the -Pietists, the experience which he had had as a preceptor in several -families that entrusted him with their children, and finally, above -all else, his profound studies on human nature and his exalted -moral philosophy, had given him a capital preparation for treating -educational questions. Professor at the University of Königsberg, -he several times resumes the discussion of pedagogical subjects -with a marked predilection for them, and the notes of his lectures, -collected by one of his colleagues, formed the little _Treatise on -Pedagogy_ which we are about to analyze.[190] - - -365. HIGH CONCEPTION OF EDUCATION.--In the opinion of Kant, the -art of educating men, with that of governing them, is the most -difficult and the most important of all. It is by education alone -that humanity can be perfected and regenerated:-- - -“It is pleasant to think that human nature will always be better -and better developed by education, and that at last there will thus -be given it the form which best befits it. - -“To know how far the omnipotence of education can go, it would be -necessary that a being of a superior order should undertake the -bringing up of men.” - -But in order that it may attain this exalted end, education must -be set free from routine and traditional methods. It must bring -up children, not in view of their success in the present state of -human society, but “in view of a better state, possible in the -future, and according to an ideal conception of humanity and of its -complete destination.” - - -366. PSYCHOLOGICAL OPTIMISM.--Kant comes near accepting the opinion -of Rousseau on the original innocence of man and the perfect -goodness of his natural inclinations:-- - -“It is said in medicine that the physician is but the servant of -nature. This is true of the moralist. Ward off the bad influences -from without, and nature can be trusted to find for herself the -best way.”[191] - -Thus Kant does not tire of exalting the service which Rousseau -had rendered pedagogy, in recalling educators to the confidence -and respect that are due to calumniated human nature. Let us add, -however, that the German philosopher is not content to repeat -Rousseau. He corrects him in affirming that man, at his birth, is -neither good nor evil, because he is not naturally a moral being. -He does not become such till he raises his reason to the conception -of duty and law. In other terms, in the infant everything is in -germ. The infant is a being in preparation. The future alone, -the development which he will receive from his education, will -make him good or bad. At the beginning, he has but indeterminate -dispositions, and evil will come, not from a definite inclination -of nature, but solely from the fact that we will not have known how -to direct it,--from the fact, according to Kant’s own expression, -that we will not have “subjected nature to rules.” - - -367. RESPECT FOR THE LIBERTY OF THE CHILD.--The psychological -optimism of Kant inspires him, as it does Rousseau, with the idea -of a negative education, respectful of the liberty of the child:-- - -“In general, it must be noted that the earliest education should -be negative; that is to say, nothing should be added to the -precautions taken by nature, and that the effort should be limited -to the preservation of her work.... It is well to employ at first -but few helps, and to leave children to learn for themselves. Much -of the weakness of man is due, not to the fact that nothing is -taught him, but to the fact that false impressions are communicated -to him.” - -Without going so far as to say with Rousseau that all dependence -with respect to men is contrary to order, Kant took great care -to respect the liberty of the pupil. He complains of parents who -are always talking about “breaking the wills of their sons.” He -maintains, not without reason, that it is not necessary to offer -much resistance to children, if we have not begun by yielding -too readily to their caprices, and by always responding to their -cries. Nothing is more harmful to them than a discipline which -is provoking and degrading. But, in his zeal for human liberty, -the theorist of the autonomy of wills goes a little too far. He -fears, for example, the tyranny of habits. He requires that they -be prevented from being formed, and that children be accustomed to -nothing. He might as well demand the suppression of all education, -since education should be but the acquisition of a body of good -habits. - - -368. STORIES INTERDICTED.--In the education of the intellectual -faculties or talents, which he calls the _physical culture_ of the -soul, as distinguished from _moral culture_, which is the education -of the will, Kant also approaches Rousseau. He proscribes romances -and stories. “Children have an extremely active imagination -which has no need of being developed by stories.” It may be said -in reply, that fables and fictions, at the same time that they -develop the imagination, also direct it and adorn it with their -own proper grace, and may even lend it moral support. Rousseau, -notwithstanding the ardor of his criticisms on the _Fables_ of La -Fontaine, himself admitted the moral value of the apologue. - - -369. CULTURE OF THE FACULTIES.--That which distinguishes Kant -as an educator is that he is pre-occupied with the culture of -the faculties much more than with the acquisition of knowledge. -He passes in review the different intellectual forces, and his -reflections on each of them might be collected as the elements of -an excellent system of educational psychology. He will criticise, -for example, the abuse of memory:-- - -“Men who have nothing but memory,” he says, “are but living -lexicons, and, as it were, the pack-horses of Parnassus.” - -For the culture of the understanding, Kant proposes “at first to -train it passively to some degree,” by requiring of the child -examples which illustrate a rule, or, on the contrary, the rule -which applies to particular examples. - -For the exercise of the reason, he recommends the Socratic method, -and, in general, for the development of all the faculties of the -mind, he thinks that the best way of proceeding is to cause the -pupil to be active:-- - -“The best way to comprehend is to do. What we learn the most -thoroughly is what we learn to some extent by ourselves.” - - -370. DIFFERENT KINDS OF PUNISHMENTS.--Kant has made a subtile -analysis of the different qualities with which punishment may be -invested. He distinguishes from _physical punishment_, _moral -punishment_, which is the better. It consists in humiliating the -pupil, in greeting him coolly, “in encouraging the disposition of -the child to be honored and loved, that auxiliary of morality.” -Physical punishments ought to be employed with precaution, “to the -end that they may not entail servile dispositions.” - -Another distinction is that of _natural_ punishments and -_artificial_ punishments. The first are preferable to the second, -because they are the very consequences of the faults which have -been committed; “indigestion, for example, which a child brings -on himself when he eats too much.” Another advantage of natural -punishment, Kant justly remarks, “is that man submits to it all his -life.”[192] - -Finally, Kant divides punishments into _negative_ and _positive_. -The first are to be used for minor faults, and the others are to be -reserved for the punishment of conduct that is absolutely bad. - -Moreover, whatever punishment may be applied, Kant advises the -teacher to avoid the appearance of feeling malice towards the -pupil:-- - -“The punishments we inflict while exhibiting signs of anger have a -wrong tendency.” - - -371. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION.--At first view, we might be tempted to -think that Kant has adopted the conclusions of Rousseau, and that, -like him, he refuses to take an early occasion to inculcate in the -child’s mind the notion of a Supreme Being:-- - -“Religious ideas always suppose some system of theology. Now, how -are we to teach theology to the young, who, far from knowing the -world, do not yet know themselves? How shall the young who do not -yet know what duty is, be in a condition to comprehend an immediate -duty towards God?” - -To speak of religion to a young man, it would then be logical to -wait till he is in a condition to form a clear and fixed conception -of the nature of God. But it is impossible to do this, says Kant, -because the young man lives in a society where he hears the name -of the Divinity spoken at each moment, and where he takes part -in continual observances of piety. It is better, then, to teach -him at an early hour true religious notions, for fear that he may -borrow from other men notions that are superstitious and false. In -reality, Kant dissents from Rousseau only because, re-establishing -the conditions of real life, he restores Émile to society, no -longer keeping him in a fancied state of isolation. What a broad -and noble way, moreover, of conceiving religious education! The -best way of making clear to the mind of children the idea of God, -is, according to Kant, to seek an analogy in the idea of a human -father. It is necessary, moreover, that the conception of duty -precede the conception of God; that morality precede, and that -theology follow. Without morality, religion is but superstition; -without morality, the pretended religious man is but a courtier, a -suitor for divine favor. - - -372. MORAL CATECHISM.--Those who know to what a height Kant -could raise the theory of morality, will not be surprised at the -importance which he ascribes to the teaching of morals. - -“Our schools,” he says, “are almost entirely lacking in one -thing which, however, would be very useful for training children -in probity,--I mean a catechism on duty. It should contain, in -a popular form, cases concerning the conduct to be observed -in ordinary life, and which would always naturally raise this -question: Is this right or not?” - -He had begun to write a book of this kind under the title _Moral -Catechism_;[193] and he would have desired that an hour a day -of school time be given to its study, “in order to teach pupils -to know and to learn by heart their duty to men,--that power of -God on the earth.” The child, he says again, would there learn -to substitute the fear of his own conscience for that of men and -divine punishment, inward dignity for the opinion of others, the -intrinsic value of actions for the apparent value of words, and, -finally, a serene and cheerful piety for a sad and gloomy devotion. - - - [373. ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.--1. This study exhibits the influence - of philosophical systems on education. New conceptions of human - destiny, new theories with respect to the composition of human - nature, or a new hypothesis concerning man’s place in nature, - determine corresponding changes in educational theory. - - 2. Perhaps the broadest generalization yet reached in educational - theory is the assumption made by Condillac, that the education - of each individual should be a repetition of civilization _in - petto_. With Mr. Spencer this hypothesis becomes a law. - - 3. In theory, the secularization of education has begun. The - Church is to lose one of its historical prerogatives, and the - modern State is to become an educator. - - 4. Helvetius typifies what may be called the _plastic theory_ in - education, or the conception that the teacher, if wise enough, - may ignore all differences in natural endowment. This makes man - the victim of his environment. The truth evidently is that man is - the only creature which can bend circumstances to his will; and - he has such an endowment of power in this direction that he can - virtually recreate his environment and thus rise superior to it. - And farther than this, there are innate differences in endowment - that will persist in spite of all that education can do. - - 5. The culture value of literary studies is justly exhibited in - the quotation from Marmontel, and in particular the disciplinary - value of translation. - - 6. Education for training, discipline, or culture, as - distinguished from an education whose chief aim is to impart - knowledge, receives definite recognition from Kant.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[177] _Discours préliminaire sur la grammaire_, in the _Œuvres -complètes_ of Condillac, Tome VI. p. 264. - -[178] This is also the main principle in Mr. Spencer’s educational -philosophy. “The education of the child must accord both in mode -and arrangement with the education of mankind as considered -historically; or, in other words, the genesis of knowledge in the -individual must follow the same course as the genesis of knowledge -in the race.”--_Education_, p. 122. (P.) - -[179] The general law of human progress is _inheritance -supplemented by individual acquisition_. Using the symbols _i_ -(inheritance) and _a_ (acquisition), the progress of the race -from its origin upwards, through successive generations, may be -exhibited by this series: _i_; _i_ + _a_; _i_ (2_a_) + _a_; _i_ -(3_a_) + _a_; _i_ (4_a_) + _a_. If the factor of inheritance could -be eliminated, as Condillac and Spencer recommend, the series would -take this form: _a_′; _a_″; _a_‴; _a_^{iv}; _a_^v: the successive -increments in acquisition being due to successive increments in -power gained through heredity. But, happily, the law of inheritance -cannot be abrogated, and so philosophers write books in order to -save succeeding generations from the fate of Sisyphus. (P.) - -[180] _Cours d’études_, Tome X. Introduction. - -[181] See _Œuvres complètes_ of Diderot. Edited by Tourneux, -1876-77. Tomes II. and III. - -[182] _Œuvres_, Tome III. p. 459. - -[183] For Comte’s classification of the sciences, see Spencer’s -_Illustrations of Universal Progress_, Chap. III. (P.) - -[184] See note, p. 131. - -[185] This thought will bear extension as in the following -quotation: “The reasoning that I oppose starts from the low and -false assumption that instruction serves only for the practical -use that is made of it; for example, that he who, by his social -position, does not make use of his intellectual culture, has no -need of that culture. Literature, from this point of view, is -useful only to the man of letters, science only to the scientist, -good manners and fine bearing only to men of the world. The poor -man should be ignorant, for education and knowledge are useless -to him. Blasphemy, Gentlemen! The culture of the mind and the -culture of the soul are duties for every man. They are not simple -ornaments; they are things as sacred as religion” (Renan, _Famille -et État_, p. 3). This is a sufficient answer to Mr. Spencer’s -assumption (_Education_, p. 84), that the studies that are best for -guidance are at the same time the best for discipline. See also -Dugald Stewart (_Elements_, p. 12). (P.) - -[186] This thought throws light on a dictum of current pedagogy, -“First, the idea, then the term.” It shows that very often, in -actual experience, the sequence is from term to idea. The relation -between term and idea is the same in kind as that between sentence -and thought. Must we then say, “First the thought, then the -sentence”? Or, “First the thought, then the chapter or the book”? - -The disciplinary value of translation is also well stated. It may -be doubted whether the schools furnish a better “intellectual -gymnastic.” Three high intellectual attainments are involved in -a real translation: 1. The separation of the thought from the -original form of words; 2. The seizing or comprehension of the -thought as a mental possession; and 3. The embodying of the thought -in a new form. A strictly analogous process, of almost equal -value in its place, is that variety of reading in which the pupil -is required to express the thought of the paragraph _in his own -language_. This exercise involves the three processes above stated, -and may be called “the translation of thought from one form into -another, in the same language.” (P.) - -[187] Marmontel, _Mémoires d’un père pour servir à l’instruction de -ses enfants_, Tome I. p. 19. - -[188] _Maître d’étude_: “He who in a lycée, college, or -boarding-school, has oversight of pupils during study hours and -recreations.”--LITTRÉ. - -[189] It is a matter of surprise that in a German _Pedagogical -Library_ the very first French work published is the _Traité de -l’Homme_ of Helvetius. This is giving the place of honor to what is -perhaps of the most ordinary value in French pedagogical literature. - -[190] See the French translation of this tract at the end of the -volume, published by Monsieur Barni, under the title, _Éléments -métaphysiques de la doctrine de la vertu_. Paris, 1855. The work of -Kant appeared in German in 1803. - -[191] Extract from Kant’s _Fragments posthumes_. - -[192] Monsieur Compayré seems to give his sanction to the -“Discipline of Consequences.” I think that Mr. Fitch has correctly -stated its limitations (_Lectures_, p. 117). Kant doubtless -borrowed the idea from Rousseau, who employs it in the government -of his imaginary pupil. (See Miss Worthington’s translation of -the _Émile_, p. 66.) This doctrine is the basis of Mr. Spencer’s -chapter on _Moral Education_. (P.) - -[193] Helvetius, but poorly qualified for teaching moral questions, -had had the idea of a _Catéchisme de probité_. Saint Lambert -published, in 1798, a _Catéchisme universel_. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -THE ORIGIN OF LAY AND NATIONAL INSTRUCTION.--LA CHALOTAIS AND -ROLLAND. - - JESUITS AND PARLIAMENTARIANS; EXPULSION OF THE JESUITS (1764); - GENERAL COMPLAINTS AGAINST THE EDUCATION OF THE JESUITS; EFFORTS - MADE TO REPLACE THEM; LA CHALOTAIS (1701-1785); HIS ESSAY ON - NATIONAL EDUCATION (1763); SECULARIZATION OF EDUCATION; PRACTICAL - END OF INSTRUCTION; NEW SPIRIT IN EDUCATION; INTUITIVE AND - NATURAL INSTRUCTION; STUDIES OF THE EARLIEST PERIOD; CRITICISM OF - NEGATIVE EDUCATION; HISTORY AVENGED OF THE DISDAIN OF ROUSSEAU; - GEOGRAPHY; NATURAL HISTORY; PHYSICAL RECREATIONS; MATHEMATICAL - RECREATIONS; STUDIES OF THE SECOND PERIOD; THE LIVING LANGUAGES; - OTHER STUDIES; THE QUESTION OF BOOKS; ARISTOCRATIC PREJUDICES; - INSTRUCTION WITHIN THE REACH OF ALL; NORMAL SCHOOLS; SPIRIT OF - CENTRALIZATION; TURGOT (1727-1781); ANALYTICAL SUMMARY. - - -374. JESUITS AND PARLIAMENTARIANS.--Of the educators of the -eighteenth century of whom we have been speaking up to the present -time, no one has been called to exercise an immediate and direct -action on the destinies of public education; no one of them had the -power to apply the doctrines which were so dear to him to college -education; so that, so far, we have studied the theory and not the -practice of education in the eighteenth century. - -On the contrary, the members of the French Parliaments, after -having solicited and obtained from the king the expulsion of the -Jesuits, made memorable efforts, from 1762 up to the eve of the -Revolution, to supply the places of the teachers whom they had -driven away, to correct the faults of the ancient education, and to -give effect to the idea, cherished by the most of the great spirits -of that time, of a national education adapted to the needs of civil -society. They were the practical organizers of instruction; they -prepared the foundation of the French University of the nineteenth -century; they resumed, not without lustre, the struggle too often -interrupted, which the Jansenists had sustained against the Jesuits. - - -375. EXPULSION OF THE JESUITS (1764).--The causes of the expulsion -of the Jesuits were doubtless complex, and, above all else, -political. In attacking the Company of Jesus, the Parliaments -desired especially to defend the interests of the State, -compromised by a powerful society which tended to dominate all -Christian nations. But reasons of an educational character had also -some influence on the condemnation pronounced against the Jesuits -by all the Parliaments of France. From all quarters, in the reports -which were drawn up by the municipal or royal officers of all the -cities where the Jesuits had colleges, complaint is made of the -scholastic methods and usages of the Company. Reforms were demanded -which they were incapable of realizing. - -And it is not in France alone that the faults in the education of -the Jesuits were vigorously announced. In the edict of 1759, by -which the king of Portugal expelled the Jesuits from his kingdom, -it was said: “The study of the humanities has declined in the -kingdom, and the Jesuits are evidently the cause of the decadence -into which the Greek and Latin tongues have fallen.” Some years -later, in 1768, the king of Portugal congratulated himself on -having banished “the moral corruption, the superstition, the -fanaticism, and the ignorance, which had been introduced by the -Society of Jesus.” - - -376. GENERAL COMPLAINTS AGAINST THE EDUCATION OF THE JESUITS.--Even -in the middle of the eighteenth century the Jesuits were still -addicted to their old routine, and even their faults were -aggravated with the times. - -At Auxerre, complaint is made that pupils study in their schools -only a few Latin authors, and that they leave them without ever -receiving into their hands a single French author. - -At Moulins, a request is made that at least one hour a week be -devoted to the history of France, which proves that the Society of -Jesus, always enslaved to its immobile formalism, did not grant -even this little concession to the teaching of history. - -At Orleans, the necessity of teaching children the French language -is insisted on. - -At Montbrison, the wish is expressed that pupils be taught a -smattering of geography, especially of their own country. - -At Auxerre, it is proved that in the teaching of philosophy the -time is employed “in copying and learning note-books filled with -vain distinctions and frivolous questions.” - -At Montbrison, the request is made “that the rules of reasoning be -explained in French, and that there be a disuse of debates which -train only disputants and not philosophers.” - -It would be interesting to pursue this study, and to collect -from these reports of 1762,--real memorials of a scholastic -revolution,--all the complaints of public opinion against the -Jesuits. Even in religion, the Company of Jesus is charged with -substituting for the sacred texts, books of devotion composed by -the Fathers. At Poitiers, a demand is made in favor of the Old -and the New Testaments, the study of which was wholly neglected. -From time to time the Jesuits were accused of continually mixing -religious questions with classical studies and of catechising at -every turn. “The masters of the fifth and sixth forms in the -College of Auxerre dogmatize in the themes which they dictate to -the children.” Finally, the Company of Jesus maintained in the -schools the teaching of moral casuistry; it encouraged bigotry -and superstition; it relaxed nothing from the severity of its -discipline, and provoked violent recriminations among some of -its former pupils who had preserved a painful recollection of -corrections received in its colleges.[194] - - -377. EFFORTS MADE TO DISPLACE THE JESUITS.--The Parliaments, -then, did nothing more, so to speak, than register the verdict of -public opinion everywhere excited against the Jesuits. But while -they heartily joined in the general reprobation, they undertook -to determine the laws of the new education. “It is of little use -to destroy,” they said, “if we do not intend to build. The public -good and the honor of the nation require that we should establish -a civil education which shall prepare each new generation for -filling with success the different employments of the State.” It is -not just to say with Michel Bréal, that “once delivered from the -Jesuits, the University installed itself in their establishments -and continued their instruction.” Earnest attempts were made to -reform programmes and methods. La Chalotais, Guyton de Morveau, -Rolland, and still others attempted by their writings, and, when -they could, by their acts, to establish a system of education -which, while inspired by Rollin and the Jansenists, attempted to do -still better. - - -378. LA CHALOTAIS (1701-1785).--Of all the parliamentarians who -distinguished themselves in the campaign undertaken towards the -middle of the eighteenth century against the pedagogy of the -Jesuits, the most celebrated, and the most worthy of being such, -is undoubtedly the solicitor-general of the Parliament of Bretagne, -René de la Chalotais. A man of courage and character, he was -arrested and imprisoned in the citadel of Saint Malo for having -upheld the franchise of the province of Bretagne; and it was in -his prison, in 1765, that he drew up for his defence an eloquent -and impassioned memorial, of which Voltaire said, “Woe to every -sensitive soul that does not feel the quivering of a fever in -reading it!” - - -379. HIS ESSAY ON NATIONAL EDUCATION.--The _Essai_ of La Chalotais -appeared in 1763, one year after the _Émile_. Coming after the -ambitious theories of a philosopher who, scorning polemics and -the dissensions of his time, had written only for humanity and -the future, this was a modest and opportune work, the effort of -a practical man who attempted to respond to the aspirations and -the needs of his time. Translated into several languages, the -_Essai d’éducation nationale_ obtained the enthusiastic approval -of Diderot, and also of Voltaire, who said, “It is a terrible book -against the Jesuits, all the more so because it is written with -moderation.” Grimm carried his admiration so far as to write, “It -would be difficult to present in a hundred and fifty pages more -reflections that are wise, profound, useful, and truly worthy of -a magistrate, of a philosopher, of a statesman.” Too completely -forgotten to-day, this little composition of La Chalotais deserves -to be republished. Notwithstanding some prejudices that mar it, it -is already wholly penetrated with the spirit of the Revolution. - - -380. SECULARIZATION OF EDUCATION.--As a matter of fact, the whole -pedagogy of the eighteenth century is dominated by the idea of the -necessary secularization of instruction. Thorough-going Gallicans -like La Chalotais or Rolland, dauntless free-thinkers like Diderot -or Helvetius, all believe and assert that public instruction is a -civil affair, a “government undertaking,” as Voltaire expressed it. -All wish to substitute lay teachers for religious teachers, and to -open civil schools upon the ruins of monastic schools. - -“Who will be persuaded,” says Rolland in his report of 1708, “that -fathers who feel an emotion that an ecclesiastic never should have -known, will be less capable than he of educating children?” - -La Chalotais also demands these citizen teachers. He objects to -those instructors who, from interest as well as from principle, -give the preference in their affections to the supernatural world -over one’s native land. - -“I do not presume to exclude ecclesiastics,” he said, “but I -protest against the exclusion of laymen. I dare claim for the -nation an education which depends only on the State, because -it belongs essentially to the State; because every State has -an inalienable and indefeasible right to instruct its members; -because, finally, the children of the State ought to be educated -by the members of the State.” This does not mean that La Chalotais -is irreligious; but he desires a national religion which does not -subordinate the interests of the country to a foreign power. What -he wants especially is, that the Church, reserving to herself the -teaching of divine truth, abandon to the State the teaching of -morals, and the control of purely human studies. He is of the same -opinion as his friend Duclos, who said:-- - -“It is certain that in the education which was given at Sparta, the -prime purpose was to train Spartans. It is thus that in every State -the purpose should be to enkindle the spirit of citizenship; and, -in our case, to train Frenchmen, and in order to make Frenchmen, to -labor to make men of them.”[195] - - -381. PRACTICAL PURPOSE OF INSTRUCTION.--The particular charge -brought by La Chalotais against the education of his time, against -that of the University as well as against that of the Jesuits, is, -that it does not prepare children for real life, for life in the -State. “A stranger who should visit our colleges might conclude -that in France we think only of peopling the seminaries, the -cloisters, and the Latin colonies.” How are we to imagine that -the study of a dead language, and a monastic discipline, are the -appointed means for training soldiers, magistrates, and heads of -families? - -“The greatest vice of education, and perhaps the most inevitable, -while it shall be entrusted to persons who have renounced the -world, is the absolute lack of instruction on the moral and -political virtues. Our education does not affect our habits, like -that of the ancients. After having endured all the fatigues and -irksomeness of the college, the young find themselves in the need -of learning in what consist the duties common to all men. They have -learned no principle for judging actions, evils, opinions, customs. -They have everything to learn on matters that are so important. -They are inspired with a devotion which is but an imitation of -religion, and with practices which take the place of virtue, and -are but the shadow of it.” - - -382. INTUITIVE AND NATURAL INSTRUCTION.--A pupil of the sensational -school, a disciple of Locke and of Condillac, La Chalotais is too -much inclined to misconceive, in the development of the individual, -the play of natural activities and innate dispositions. But, by -way of compensation, his predilection for sensationalism leads him -to excellent thoughts on the necessity of beginning with sensible -objects before advancing to intellectual studies, and first of all -to secure an education of the senses. - -“I wish nothing to be taught children except facts which are -attested by the eyes, at the age of seven as at the age of thirty. - -“The principles for instructing children should be those by which -nature herself instructs them. Nature is the best of teachers. - -“Every method which begins with abstract ideas is not made for -children. - -“Let children see many objects; let there be a variety of such, and -let them be shown under many aspects and on various occasions. The -memory and the imagination of children cannot be overcharged with -useful facts and ideas of which they can make use in the course of -their lives.” - -Such are the principles according to which La Chalotais organizes -his plan of studies. - - -383. THE NEW SPIRIT IN EDUCATION.--The purpose, then, is to -replace that monastic and ultramontane education (this is the term -employed by La Chalotais), and also that narrow education, and that -repulsive and austere discipline, “which seems made only to abase -the spirit”; that sterile and insipid teaching, “the most usual -effect of which is to make study hated for life”; those scholastic -studies where young men “contract the habit of disputing and -caviling”; and those ascetic regulations “which set neatness and -health at defiance.” The purpose is to initiate children into our -most common and most ordinary affairs, into what forms the conduct -of life and the basis of civil society. - -“Most young men know neither the world which they inhabit, the -earth which nourishes them, the men who supply their needs, the -animals which serve them, nor the workmen and citizens whom they -employ. They have not even any desire for this kind of knowledge. -No advantage is taken of their natural curiosity for the purpose -of increasing it. They know how to admire neither the wonders of -nature nor the prodigies of the arts.” - -This is equivalent to saying that they should henceforth learn all -that up to this time they had been permitted to be ignorant of. - - -384. STUDIES OF THE FIRST PERIOD.--Education, according to La -Chalotais, should be divided into two periods: the first from five -to ten, the second from ten to seventeen. - -During the first period, we have to do with children who have no -experience because they have seen nothing, who have no power of -attention because they are incapable of any sustained effort, -and no judgment because they have not yet any general ideas; but -who, by way of compensation, have senses, memory, and some power -of reflection. It is necessary, then, to make a careful choice -of the subjects of study which shall be proposed to these tender -intelligences; and La Chalotais decides in favor of history, -geography, natural history, physical and mathematical _recreations_. - -“The exercises proposed for the first period,” he says, “are as -follows: learning to read, write, and draw; dancing and music, -which ought to enter into the education of persons above the -commonalty; historical narratives and the lives of illustrious men -of every country, of every age, and of every profession; geography, -mathematical and physical recreations; the fables of La Fontaine, -which, whatever may be said of them, ought not to be removed from -the hands of children, but all of which they should be made to -learn by heart; and besides this, walks, excursions, merriment, -and recreations; I do not propose even the studies except as -amusements.” - - -385. CRITICISM OF NEGATIVE EDUCATION.--La Chalotais is often right -as against Rousseau. For example, he has abundantly refuted the -utopia of a negative education in which nature is allowed to have -her way, and which considers the toil of the centuries as of no -account. It is good sense itself which speaks in reflections like -these:-- - -“If man is not taught what is good, he will necessarily become -preoccupied with what is bad. The mind and the heart cannot remain -unoccupied.... On the pretext of affording children an experience -which is their own, they are deprived of the assistance of others’ -experience.” - - -386. HISTORY AVENGED OF THE DISDAIN OF ROUSSEAU.--The sophisms of -Rousseau on history are brilliantly refuted. History is within the -comprehension of the youngest. The child who can understand Tom -Thumb and Blue Beard, can understand the history of Romulus and of -Clovis. Moreover, it is to the history of the most recent times -that La Chalotais attaches the greatest importance, and in this -respect he goes beyond his master Rollin:-- - -“I would have composed for the use of the child histories of every -nation, of every century, and particularly of the later centuries, -which should be written with greater detail, and which should -be read before those of the more remote centuries. I would have -written the lives of illustrious men of all classes, conditions, -and professions, of celebrated heroes, scholars, women, and -children.” - - -387. GEOGRAPHY.--La Chalotais does not separate the study of -geography from that of history, and he requires that, without -entering into dry and tedious details, the pupil be made to travel -pleasantly through different countries, and that stress be put “on -what is of chief importance and interest in each country, such as -the most striking facts, the native land of great men, celebrated -battles, and whatever is most notable, either as to manners and -customs, to natural productions, or to arts and commerce.” - - -388. NATURAL HISTORY.--Another study especially adapted to -children, says La Chalotais with reason, is natural history: “The -principal thing is first to show the different objects just as they -appear to the eyes. A representation of them, with a precise and -exact description, is sufficient.” - -“Too great detail must be avoided, and the objects chosen must -be such as are most directly related to us, which are the most -necessary and the most useful.” - -“Preference shall be given to domestic animals over those that are -wild, and to native animals over those of other countries. In the -case of plants, preference shall be given to those that serve for -food and for use in medicine.” - -As far as possible, the object itself should be shown, so that the -idea shall be the more exact and vivid, and the impression the more -durable. - - -389. RECREATIONS IN PHYSICS.--La Chalotais explains that he means -by this phrase observations, experiments, and the simplest facts of -nature. Children should early be made acquainted with thermometers, -barometers, with the microscope, etc. - - -390. RECREATIONS IN MATHEMATICS.--All this is excellent, and La -Chalotais enters resolutely into the domain of modern methods. What -is more debatable is the idea of putting geometry and mathematics -into the programme of children’s studies, under this erroneous -pretext, that “geometry presents nothing but the sensible and the -palpable.” Let us grant, however, that it is easier to conceive -“clear ideas of bodies, lines, and angles that strike the eyes, -than abstract ideas of verbs, declensions, and conjugations, of an -accusative, an ablative, a subjunctive, an infinitive, or of the -omitted _that_.” - - -391. STUDIES OF THE SECOND PERIOD.--La Chalotais postpones the -study of the classical languages till the second period, the tenth -year. The course of study for this second period will comprise: 1. -French and Latin literature, or the humanities; 2. a continuation -of history, geography, mathematics, and natural history; 3. -criticism, logic, and metaphysics; 4. the art of invention; 5. -ethics. - -La Chalotais complains that his contemporaries neglect French -literature, as though we had not admirable models in our national -language. Out of one hundred pupils there are not five who will -find it useful to write in Latin; while there is not one of them -who will have occasion to speak or write in Greek, and to construct -Latin verses. All, on the contrary, ought to know their native -language. Consequently, our author suggests the idea of devoting -the morning session to French, and that of the afternoon to Latin, -so that the pupils who have no need of the ancient languages may -pursue only the courses in French. - - -392. THE LIVING LANGUAGES.--La Chalotais thinks the knowledge -of two living languages to be necessary, “the English for -science, and the German for war.” German literature had not yet -produced its masterpieces, and it is seen that at this period the -utility of German appears especially with reference to military -affairs. However it may be, let us be grateful to him for having -appreciated, as he has done, the living languages. “It is wrong,” -he says, “to treat them nearly as we treat our contemporaries, with -a sort of indifference. Without the Greek and Latin languages there -is no real and solid erudition; and there is no complete erudition -without the others.” - - -393. OTHER STUDIES.--How many judicious or just reflections we have -still to gather from the _Essay on National Education_, as upon -the teaching of the ancient languages, which La Chalotais, however, -is wrong in restricting to too small a number of years; upon the -necessity of presenting to pupils as subjects for composition, not -puerile amplifications, or dissertations on facts or matters of -which they are ignorant, but things which they know, which have -happened to them, “their occupations, their amusements, or their -troubles”; upon logic or criticism, the study of which should not -be deferred till the end of the course, as is still done in our -day; upon philosophy, which is, he says, “the characteristic of -the eighteenth century, as that of the sixteenth was erudition, -and that of the seventeenth was talent!” La Chalotais reserves -the place of honor to ethics, “which is the most important of all -the sciences, and which is, as much as any other, susceptible of -demonstration.” - - -394. THE QUESTION OF BOOKS.--In tracing his programme of studies, -so new in many particulars, La Chalotais took into account the -difficulties that would be encountered in assuring, and, so to -speak, in improvising, the execution of it, at a time when there -existed neither competent teachers nor properly constructed books. -Teachers especially, he said, are difficult to train. But, while -waiting for the recruiting of the teaching force, La Chalotais puts -great dependence on elementary books, which might, he thought, -be composed within two years, if the king would encourage the -publication of them, and if the Academies would put them up for -competition. - -“These books would be the best instruction which the masters could -give, and would take the place of every other method. Whatever -course we may take, we cannot dispense with new books. These books, -once made, would make trained teachers unnecessary, and there -would then be no longer any occasion for discussion as to their -qualities, whether they should be priests, or married, or single. -All would be good, provided they were religious, moral, and knew -how to read; they would soon train themselves while training their -pupils.” - -There is much exaggeration in these words. The book, as we know, -cannot supply the place of teachers. But the language of La -Chalotais was adapted to circumstances as they existed. He spoke in -this way, because, in his impatience to reach his end, he would try -to remedy the educational poverty of his time, and supply the lack -of good teachers by provisional expedients, by means which he found -within his reach. - - -395. ARISTOCRATIC PREJUDICES.--That which we would expunge from -the book of La Chalotais is his opinion on primary instruction. -Blinded by some unexplained distrust of the people, and dominated -by aristocratic tendencies, he complains of the extension of -instruction. He demands that the knowledge of the poor do not -extend beyond their pursuits. He bitterly criticises the thirst for -knowledge which is beginning to pervade the lower classes of the -nation. - -“Even the people can study. Laborers and artisans send their -children to the colleges of the smaller cities.... When these -children have accomplished a summary course of study which has -taught them only to disdain the occupation of their father, they -rush into the cloisters and become ecclesiastics; or they exercise -judicial functions, and often become subjects harmful to society. -The Brethren of the Christian Doctrine (_sic_), who are called -_ignorantins_, have just appeared to complete the general ruin; -they teach people to read and write who ought to learn only to -draw, and to handle the plane and the file, but have no disposition -to do it. They are the rivals or the successors of the Jesuits.” - -A singular force of prejudice was necessary to conceive that the -Brethren of the Christian Schools were instructing the people too -highly. - -Let it be said, however, towards exonerating La Chalotais, that he -perhaps does not so much attack the instruction in itself, as the -bad way in which it is given. What he censures is instruction that -is badly conceived, that which takes people from their own class. -In some other passages of his book we see that he would be disposed -to disseminate the new education among the ranks of the people. - -“It is the State, it is the larger part of the nation, that must -be kept principally in view in education; for twenty millions of -men ought to be held in greater consideration than one million, -and the _peasantry, who are not yet a class_ in France, as -they are in Sweden, _ought not to be neglected in a system of -instruction_. Education is equally solicitous that letters should -be cultivated, and that the fields should be plowed; that all the -sciences and the useful arts should be perfected; that justice -should be administered and that religion should be taught; that -there should be instructed and competent generals, magistrates, -and ecclesiastics, and skillful artists and citizens, all in fit -proportion. It is for the government to make each citizen so -pleased with his condition that he may not be forced to withdraw -from it.” - -Let us quote one sentence more, which is almost the formula that -to-day is so dear to the friends of instruction:-- - -“We do not fear to assert, in general, that in the condition in -which Europe now is, the people that are the most enlightened will -always have the advantage over those who are the less so.” - - -396. GENERAL CONCLUSION.--Notwithstanding the faults which mar -it, the work of La Chalotais is none the less one of the most -remarkable essays of the earlier French pedagogy. “La Chalotais,” -says Gréard, “belongs to the school of Rousseau; but on more than -one point he departs from the plan traced by the master. He escapes -from the allurements of the paradox. Relatively he has the spirit -of moderation. He is a classic without prejudices, an innovator -without temerity.” - -His book is pre-eminently a book of polemics, written with the -ardor of one who is engaged in a fight, and overflowing with a -generous passion. What noble words are the following:-- - -“Let the young man learn what bread a ploughman, a day laborer, or -an artisan eats. He will see in the sequel how they are deprived -of the bread which they earn with so much difficulty, and how one -portion of men live at the expense of the other.” - -In these lines, which breathe a sentiment of profound pity for the -disinherited of this world, we already hear, as it were, the signal -cry announcing the social reclamations of the French Revolution. - - -379. ROLLAND (1734-1794).--La Chalotais, after having criticised -the old methods, proposed new ones; Rolland attempted to put them -in practice. La Chalotais is a polemic and a theorist; Rolland -is an administrator. President of the Parliament of Paris, he -presented to his colleagues, in 1768, a Report which is a real -system of education.[196] But above all, he gave his personal -attention to the administration of the College Louis-le-Grand. An -ardent and impassioned adversary of the Jesuits, he used every -means to put public instruction in a condition to do without them. -“Noble and wise spirit, patient and courageous reason, who, for -twenty years, even during exile and after the dissolution of his -society, did not abandon for a single moment the work he had -undertaken, but brought it, almost perfected, to the very confines -of the Revolution; a heart divested of every ambition, who, chosen -by popular wish, and by the cabinet of the king, as director of -public instruction, obstinately entrenched himself in the peace -of his studious retreat.” This is the judgment of a member of the -University, in the nineteenth century, Dubois, director of the -Normal School. - -No doubt Rolland is not an original educator. “It is in Rollin’s -_Traité des études_,” he says, “that every teacher will find -the true rules for education.” Besides, he borrowed ideas from -La Chalotais, and also from the _Mémoires_ which the University -of Paris drew up in 1763 and 1764 at the request of Parliament; -so that the interest in his work is less, perhaps, in its -personal views than in the indications it furnishes relative -to the situation of the University and its tendency towards -self-reformation. - - -398. INSTRUCTION WITHIN THE REACH OF ALL.--At least on one point -Rolland is superior to La Chalotais; he takes a bold stand for -the necessity of primary instruction, and for the progress and -diffusion of human knowledge. - -“Education cannot be too widely diffused, to the end that there -may be no class of citizens who may not be brought to participate -in its benefits. It is expedient that _each citizen receive the -education_ which is adapted to his needs.”[197] - -It is true that Rolland joins in the wish expressed by the -University, which demanded a reduction in the number of colleges. -But only colleges for the higher studies were in question, -and Rolland thought less of restricting instruction than of -proportioning and adapting it to the needs of the different classes -of society. - -“_Each one ought to have the opportunity to receive the education_ -which is adapted to his needs.... Now each soil,” adds Rolland, -“is not susceptible of the same culture and the same product. -Each mind does not demand the same degree of culture. All men -have neither the same needs nor the same talents; and it is in -proportion to these talents and these needs that public education -ought to be regulated.” - -Rolland shared the prejudices of La Chalotais against “the new -Order founded by La Salle”; but none the less on this account did -he demand instruction for all. - -“The knowledge of reading and writing, which is the key to all the -other sciences, ought to be universally diffused. Without this -the teachings of the clergy are useless, for the memory is rarely -faithful enough; and reading alone can impress in a durable manner -what it is important never to forget.” Would it be granted by every -one to-day, affected by prejudices that are ever re-appearing, that -“the laborer who has received some sort of instruction is but the -more diligent and the more skillful by reason of it”? - - -399. THE NORMAL SCHOOL.--We shall not dwell upon the methods -and schemes of study proposed by Rolland. Save very urgent -recommendations relative to the study of the national history and -of the French language, we shall find nothing very new in them. -What deserve to be pointed out, by way of compensation, are the -important innovations which he wished to introduce into the general -organization of public instruction. - -First there was the idea of a higher normal school, of a seminary -for professors. The University had already expressed the wish that -such an establishment should be founded. To be convinced how much -this pedagogical seminary, conceived as far back as 1763, resembled -our actual Normal School, it suffices to note the following -details. The establishment was to be governed by professors drawn -from the different faculties, according to the different subjects -of instruction. The young men received on competitive examination -were to be divided into three classes, corresponding to the three -grades of admission. Within the establishment they were to take -part in a series of discussions, after a given time to submit to -the tests for graduation, and finally to be placed in the colleges. -Is it not true that there was no important addition to be made to -this scheme? Rolland also required that pedagogics have a place -among the studies of these future professors, and that definite and -systematic instruction be given in this art, so important to the -teachers of youth. - -Rolland does not stop even there. He provides for inspectors, or -_visitors_, who are to examine all the colleges each year. Finally, -he subjects all scholastic establishments to one single authority, -to a council of the government, to which he applies the rather odd -title, the “Bureau of Correspondence.” - - -400. SPIRIT OF CENTRALIZATION.--Whatever opinion may be formed of -absolute centralization, which, in our century, has become the -law of public instruction, and has caused the disappearance of -provincial franchises, it is certain that the parliamentarians of -the eighteenth century were the first to conceive it and desire it, -if not to realize it. Paris, in Rolland’s plan, becomes the centre -of public instruction. The universities distributed through the -provinces are co-ordinated and made dependent on that of Paris. - -“Is it not desirable,” said Rolland, “that the good taste which -everything concurs to produce in the capital, be diffused to the -very extremities of the kingdom; that every Frenchman participate -in the treasures of knowledge which are there accumulating from -day to day; that the young men who have the same country, who -are destined to serve the same prince and to fulfill the same -functions, receive the same lessons and be imbued with the same -maxims; that one part of France be not under the clouds of -ignorance while letters shed the purest light in another; in a -word, that the time come when a young man educated in a province -cannot be distinguished from one who has been trained in the -capital?” And he adds that “the only means for attaining an end so -desirable is to make Paris the centre of public instruction.” - -Besides the gain that will thus accrue to instruction, Rolland sees -this other advantage, that, through uniformity in instruction, -there will be secured a uniformity in manners and in laws. By means -of a uniform education, “the young men of all the provinces will -divest themselves of all their prejudices of birth; they will form -the same ideas of virtue and justice; they will demand uniform -laws, which would have offended their fathers.” - -By this means, finally, there will be developed a national spirit, -a national character, and a national jurisprudence, “the only means -of recreating love of country.” Is it not true that the great -magistrates of the close of the eighteenth century deserve also to -be counted among the founders of French unity? - - -401. TURGOT (1727-1781).--In his _Mémoires_ to the king (1775), -Turgot set forth analogous ideas, and also demanded the formation -of a council of public instruction. He made an eloquent plea for -the establishment of a civil and national education which should be -extended to the country at large. - -“Your kingdom, Sir, is of this world. Without opposing any obstacle -to the instructions whose object is higher, and which already -have their rules and their expounders, I think I can propose to -you nothing of more advantage to your people than to cause to be -given to all your subjects an instruction which shows them the -obligations they owe to society and to your power which protects -them, the duties which those obligations impose on them, and the -interest which they have in fulfilling those duties for the public -good and their own. This moral and social instruction requires -books expressly prepared, by competition, and with great care, and -a schoolmaster in each parish to teach them to children, along -with the art of writing, reading, counting, measuring, and the -principles of mechanics.” - -“The study of the duty of citizenship ought to be the foundation of -all the other studies.” - -“There are methods and establishments for training geometricians, -physicists, and painters, but there are none for training citizens.” - -In a word, La Chalotais, Rolland, Turgot, and some of their -contemporaries, were real precursors of the French Revolution -in the matter of education. At the date of 1762 the scholastic -revolution began, at least so far as secondary instruction is -concerned. The Parliaments of that period conceived the plan of the -University of the nineteenth century, and prepared for the work of -Napoleon I. But they left to the men of the Revolution the honor of -being the first to organize primary instruction. - - - [402. ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.--1. This study exhibits the evils - brought upon a country by an education controlled and - administered by a dominant Church for the attainment of its - own ends; and also the efforts of a nation to save itself from - imminent disaster by making the State the great public educator. - - 2. The right of the State to self-preservation is the vindication - of its right to control and direct public education. The State - thus becomes the patron of the public school; the product it - requires is good citizenship; and for the sake of securing this - product the State endows the school, wholly or in part. - - 3. The situation in France, as described in this study, is - an aggravated case of what may occur whenever education is - administered by a class having special interests and ambitions; - and under some form there must be the intervention of the State - as a means of protecting its own interests. - - 4. When education is administered in the main by the literary - class, there is some danger that the instruction may not be that - which is best adapted to the needs of other classes.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[194] See the pamphlet published in 1764 entitled: _Mémoires -historiques sur l’orbilianisme et les correcteurs des Jésuites_. - -[195] Duclos, _Considérations sur les mœurs de ce siècle_. Ch. II. -_Sur l’éducation et les préjugés_. - -[196] See the _Recueil_ of the works of President Rolland, printed -in 1783, by order of the executive committee of the College -Louis-le-Grand. - -[197] _Recueil_, etc., p. 25. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.--MIRABEAU, TALLEYRAND, CONDORCET. - - CONTRADICTORY JUDGMENTS ON THE WORK OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION; - GENERAL CHARACTER OF THAT WORK; THE STATE OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION; - WHAT WAS TAUGHT IN THE SCHOOLS; DISCIPLINE; THE SITUATION OF - TEACHERS; THE RECRUITMENT OF TEACHERS; WHAT THE SCHOOL ITSELF - WAS; THE PECULIAR WORK OF THE REVOLUTION; THE CAHIERS OF 1789; - MIRABEAU (1749-1791) AND HIS TRAVAIL SUR L’INSTRUCTION PUBLIQUE; - DANGERS OF IGNORANCE; LIBERTY OF TEACHING; THE CONSTITUENT - ASSEMBLY AND THE RAPPORT OF TALLEYRAND; TALLEYRAND (1758-1838); - POLITICAL PRINCIPLES OF UNIVERSAL INSTRUCTION; FOUR GRADES OF - INSTRUCTION; POLITICAL CATECHISM; INDEPENDENT MORALITY; THE - LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY AND THE RAPPORT OF CONDORCET; CONDORCET - (1743-1794); GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON EDUCATION; INSTRUCTION - AND MORALITY; INSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS; LIBERALITY OF CONDORCET; - FIVE GRADES OF INSTRUCTION; PURPOSE AND PROGRAMME OF PRIMARY - INSTRUCTION; IDEA OF COURSES FOR ADULTS; THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN; - PREJUDICES; FINAL JUDGMENT; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY. - - -404. CONTRADICTORY JUDGMENTS ON THE WORK OF THE REVOLUTION.--An -historian of education in France, Théry, opens his chapter on the -Revolution with these contemptuous words, “One does not study -a void, one does not analyze a negation.”[198] A more recent -historian of public instruction during the Revolution, Albert -Duruy, arriving at the work of Condorcet, certainly the most -important undertaking of the pedagogy of the Revolution, does not -hesitate to record this absolute and summary judgment: “We are now -no longer in the real and in the possible; we are travelling in the -land of chimeras; we are soaring in space at heights which admit of -only ideal attainment.”[199] - -How easy it is to say this! To believe these facile judges, one -who would estimate the efforts of the Revolution in the matter of -public instruction would have to choose between a nothing and a -chimera. The men of the Revolution have done nothing, say some; -they are dreamers and idealists, say others. - -These assertions do not bear examination. For every impartial -observer it is certain that the Revolution opened a new era in -education, and the proof of this is to be found in the very -documents that our opponents so triflingly condemn, and the -practical spirit of which they misconceive. - - -405. GENERAL CHARACTER OF THAT WORK.--It is not that the men of -the Revolution were educators in the strict sense of the term. -The science of education is not indebted to them for new methods. -They have not completed the work of Locke, of Rousseau, and of -La Chalotais; but they were the first to attempt a legislative -organization of a vast system of public instruction. It is just to -place them in the front rank of the men who might be called “the -politicians of education.” Doubtless they lacked time for applying -their ideas, but they had at least the merit of having conceived -these ideas, and of having embodied them in legislative acts. The -principles which we proclaim to-day, they formulated. The solutions -which we attempt to put in practice after a century of waiting, -were decreed by them. The reader who will follow the long series of -reports and decrees which constitutes the pedagogical work of the -Revolution will have witnessed the genesis of popular instruction -in France. - - -406. THE STATE OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.--In order to form a proper -appreciation of the merits of the men of the Revolution, it is -first necessary to consider in what a deplorable state they found -primary instruction. What a contrast between that which they hoped -to do and the actual situation in 1789! I very well know that -fancy sketches have been drawn of the old régime. A very showy -enumeration has been made of the number of colleges; but we have -not been told how many of these colleges had no professors, and -how many had no pupils. And so of the schools; they are found -everywhere, but it remains to be shown what was taught in them, and -whether anything was taught in them.[200] - -Party writers who are bound to gainsay the work of the French -Revolution in the matter of education, generally put under -contribution, to serve their political prejudices, the old communal -archives. They cite imaginary statistics which prove, for example, -that in the diocese of Rouen, in 1718, there were 855 schools for -boys, and 306 schools for girls, for a territory of 1159 parishes. - -It is first necessary to verify these statistics, whose accuracy -has not been demonstrated, and whose figures were evidently -obtained only by counting a school wherever the rector of the -parish gave lessons in reading and in the catechism to three or -four children. - -But there are other replies to make to the traducers of the -Revolution who tax their ingenuity to prove that instruction -was flourishing under the old régime, and that the Revolution -destroyed more than it created. With this assumed efflorescence of -schools of which we hear, it is necessary to contrast the results -as shown by authentic statistics of the number of illiterates. In -1790 there was 53 per cent of men and 73 per cent of women who -could not sign their names to their marriage contracts. - -Besides, we must inquire what was taught in these pretended -schools, how many children attended them, and what was the material -and moral condition of the teachers who directed them. - - -407. WHAT WAS TAUGHT IN THE SCHOOLS.--Instruction was reduced to -the catechism, to reading and writing. On this point there can be -no dispute. The official programme of the Brethren of the Christian -Schools did not go beyond this. The ordinance of Louis XIV., dated -in 1698, has been pompously quoted. - -“We would have appointed,” it is there said, “as far as it shall be -possible, masters and mistresses in all the parishes where there -are none, to instruct all children, and _in particular those whose -parents have made profession of the pretended reformed religion_, -in the catechism and the prayers which are necessary; to take them -to mass on every work day; and also to teach reading and writing -_to those who will need this knowledge_.” - -But does not this very text support those who maintain that the -Monarchy and the Church have never encouraged primary instruction -except as required by the necessities of the struggle against -heresy, and that primary instruction under the old régime was -scarcely more than an instrument of religious domination? - -Most often the school was simply a place to which parents sent -their children for temporary care. Writing was not always taught -in it. A school-mistress of Haute-Marne was forbidden to teach -writing “for fear her pupils might employ their knowledge in -writing love-letters.” - - -408. DISCIPLINE.--Corporal punishments were more than ever the -order of the day. The bishop of Montpellier, at the end of the -seventeenth century, forbids, it is true, beating with sticks, -kicks, and raps on the head; but he authorizes the ferule and the -rod, on the condition that the patient be not completely exposed. - - -409. CONDITION OF THE TEACHERS.--That which is graver still is that -the teachers themselves (I speak of lay teachers, who, it is true, -were not numerous) lived in a wretched condition, without material -independence and without moral dignity. In general, there were no -fixed salaries. Wages varied from 40 to 200 francs, arbitrarily -fixed by the vestry-board or by the community, in return for a -great number of services the most various and the least exalted. -The school-masters were far less teachers than sextons, choristers, -beadles, bell-ringers, clock-makers, and even grave-diggers. -“Attendance at marriages and at burials was counted at the rate -of 15 sols and dinner for marriages, and 20 sols for burials.” -And Albert Duruy concludes that in this there were _substantial -advantages_ to the school-masters;[201]--advantages dearly bought -in every case, and repudiated by those who were interested in -them. “The more services we render the community,” said the -teachers of Bourgogne in their complaints in 1789, “the more we -are degraded.”[202] The school-masters were scarcely more than the -domestics of the _curé_. - -In order to live, they were not only obliged to accept these church -services, but they also became shoemakers, tailors, innkeepers, -millers, etc. The teacher of the commune of Angles, in the High -Alps, was a “barbers’ surgeon.” - -Thus there was no assured salary, and consequently no moral -consideration. “In the communes, teachers were regarded as -strangers and not as citizens; like tramps and vagrants, they were -not admitted to the assemblies of the commune.” - - -410. THE RECRUITMENT OF TEACHERS.--Nowhere were there normal -schools for the training of teachers. The schools were entrusted -to the first comer. The bishop granted his approbation, or -permission to teach, after an examination of the most summary kind. -The duties of teaching were the means of subsistence which were -accepted without call and without serious preparation. In Provence, -school-masters attended kinds of “teachers’ fairs” for the purpose -of being hired. In the Alps, teachers were numerous, but only in -winter. They tarried in the plain and in the valleys only during -the inclement season. They returned home for the labors of the -summer. - -Consequently, most of the schools existed only in name. “The -schools,” we are told,[203] “were in vacation for four or five -months.” For a half of the year, the school-masters were free -to follow another trade, or, rather, to devote themselves more -completely to their ordinary trade, which their school duties did -not always interrupt. - - -411. WHAT THE SCHOOL ITSELF WAS.--School-houses were most -frequently merely wretched huts, wooden cots, and narrow -ground-floors, badly lighted, which served at the same time as a -domicile for the school-master and his family, and as a class-room -for pupils. Benches and tables were things rarely seen, and pupils -wrote while standing. - -In a word, the state of primary instruction, when the -States-General opened in 1789, was as follows: schools few in -number and poorly attended; few lay teachers, trained no one -knows how, without thorough instruction, and, as they themselves -said, “degraded” by their inferior position; few or no elementary -books; gratuity only partial; finally, a general indifference -for elementary instruction, which philosophers like Voltaire, -and Rousseau, and Parliamentarians like La Chalotais, themselves -lightly esteemed. - - -412. THE PROPER WORK OF THE REVOLUTION.--I do not say that the -Revolution accomplished all that there was to be attempted in order -to bring instruction up to the needs of the new society; but it -purposed to do this. Every time a liberal ministry has decided -to work for the promotion of instruction, it has revived its -plans; and it is these same plans that by a vigorous effort public -authority has attempted to realize in recent times. - - -413. THE REPORTS OF 1789.--Already, in the reports of 1789, public -opinion vigorously pronounced itself in favor of educational -reforms. “The _cahiers_ of 1789, even those of the clergy and -the nobility, demand the reorganization of public instruction on -a comprehensive plan. The _cahiers_ of the clergy of Rodez and -of Saumur demand ‘that there may be formed a plan of _national -education_ for the young’; those of Lyons, that education be -restricted ‘to a teaching body whose members may not be removable -except for negligence, misconduct, or incapacity; that it may no -longer be conducted according to arbitrary principles, and that all -public instructors be obliged to conform to a uniform plan adopted -by the States-General.’ The _cahiers_ of the nobility of Lyons -insist that ‘a national character’ be impressed on the education -of both sexes. Those of Paris demand ‘that public education be -perfected, and extended to all classes of citizens.’ Those of -Blois, ‘that there be established a council composed of the most -enlightened scholars of the capital and of the provinces and of -the citizens of the different orders, to form a plan of national -education, for the use of all the classes of society, and to edit -elementary treatises.’”[204] - - -414. MIRABEAU (1749-1791).--From the first days of the Revolution, -pedagogical literature abounds, and gives evidence of the -ever-growing interest which public opinion attaches to educational -questions. The Oratorians, of whom La Chalotais said, “that they -were free from the prejudices of the school and of the cloister, -and that they were citizens,” present to the National Assembly -a series of scholastic plans. On its part, the Assembly sets -itself at work; Talleyrand prepares his great report, and Mirabeau -embodies his own reflections in four eloquent discourses. - -Mirabeau’s discourses, published after his death through the good -offices of his friend Cabanis, had the following titles: 1. _Draft -of a Law for the Organization of the Teaching Body_; 2. _Public and -Military Festivals_; 3. _Organization of a National Lycée_; 4. _The -Education of the Heir Presumptive of the Crown_. - - -415. THE DANGERS OF IGNORANCE.--With what brilliancy the -illustrious orator made appear the advantages and the necessity of -instruction! - -“Those who desire that the peasant may not know how to _read or -write_, have doubtless made a patrimony of his ignorance, and -their motives are not difficult to appreciate; but they do not -know that when they have made a wild beast of a man, they expose -themselves to the momentary danger of seeing him transformed into -a savage beast. Without intelligence there is no morality. But -on whom, then, is it important to bestow intelligence, if it is -not upon the rich? Is not the safeguard of their enjoyments the -morality of the people? Through the influence of the laws, through -that of a wise administration, through the efforts to which each -one should be inspired by the hope of ameliorating the condition -of his fellows, exert yourselves, public and private citizens, to -diffuse in all quarters the noble fruits of knowledge. Believe -that in dissipating one single error, in propagating one single -wholesome truth, you will do something for the happiness of the -human race; and whoever you are, do not have the least doubt that -it is only by this means that you can assure your own happiness.” - -But through some inexplicable spirit of timidity, Mirabeau did not -draw from these principles the consequences that they permit. He -does not admit that the State can impose the obligation to attend -school. - -“Society,” he says, “has not the right to prescribe instruction as -a duty.... Public authority has not the right, with respect to the -members of the social body, to go beyond the limits of watchfulness -against injustice and of protection against violence....” -“Society,” he adds, “can exact of each one only the sacrifices -necessary for the maintenance of the liberty and the safety of all.” - -Mirabeau forgets that the obligation to send children to school is -exactly one of those necessary sacrifices which the State has the -right to impose on parents. - -Hostile to obligation, Mirabeau feels no greater partisanship for -gratuity:-- - -“Gratuitous education,” he said, “is paid for by everybody, while -its fruits are immediately gathered by only a small number of -individuals.” - - -416. LIBERTY OF TEACHING.--Like so many other generous spirits, -Mirabeau cherished the dream of the most complete liberty of -teaching.[205] - -“Your single purpose,” he said to the members, “is to give to man -the use of all his faculties, to make him enjoy all his rights, to -develop the corporate life out of all the individual lives freely -developed, and the will of the whole out of all personal wills.” - - -417. DISTRIBUTION OF STUDIES.--In Mirabeau’s plan, public and -national instruction depends, not on the executive power, but on -“the magistrates who truly represent the people, that is to say, -who are elected and often renewed by the people,”--in other terms, -the officers of departments or districts. Establishments for -instruction ought not to form a consolidated body. - -Let us observe, finally, that by the side of the primary schools -Mirabeau established a college of literature for each department, -and at Paris, a single National Lycée, “designed to secure to -a select number of French youth the means of finishing their -education.” In this he established a chair of _method_, which, he -said, ought to be the basis of instruction. - -In conclusion, the work of Mirabeau is but a very imperfect sketch, -and a sort of graduated transition between the old and the new -régime. - -We do not yet find in it the grand ideas which are to impassion -men, and it is the _Rapport_ of Talleyrand which constitutes the -real introduction to the educational work of the Revolution. - - -418. THE CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY AND TALLEYRAND.--The constitution of -Sept. 4, 1791, announced the following provision:-- - -“There shall be created and organized a system of public -instruction, common to all citizens, and gratuitous with respect to -those branches of instruction which are indispensable for all men.” - -It was to put in force the decree of the Constitution that -Talleyrand drew up his _Rapport_ and presented it to the Assembly -at the sessions of September 10 and 11. The entire bill contained -not less than 208 articles. Having reached the term of its -troubled existence, the Assembly did not find the time to discuss -it, and, while regretting “not having established the bases of -the regeneration of education,” it referred the examination of -Talleyrand’s work to the Legislative Assembly. - -The Legislative Assembly showed but little anxiety to accept the -legacy of its predecessor. Another report, that of Condorcet, was -prepared, so that the bill of Talleyrand never had the honor of a -parliamentary discussion. - - -419. TALLEYRAND (1758-1838).--The ex-bishop of Autun, having -become a revolutionist of 1789, before being the chamberlain of -Napoleon I. and the minister of Louis XVIII., scarcely deserves by -his character the esteem of history; he too often gave a striking -example of political versatility. But at least, by his supple -and acute intelligence, and by the abundance of his ideas, he -has always risen to the height of the various tasks that he has -undertaken, and his _Rapport_ is a remarkable work. - - -420. GENERAL PRINCIPLES.--As Montesquieu has said, “the laws of -education ought to be relative to the principles of government.” -It is by this truth that Talleyrand is inspired in the long -considerations that serve as a preamble to his bill. - -What was to be done in the presence of a constitution which, -limiting the powers of the king, called the entire people to -participate in political life? That constitution would have -remained sterile, would have been but a dead letter, if a suitable -education had not come to vivify it by causing it to pass, so to -speak, into the blood of the nation. In what did the new régime -consist? You have separated, said Talleyrand to the members, you -have separated the will of the whole, or the power of making the -laws, from the executive power, which you have reserved to the -king. But that general will must be upright, and, in order to -be upright, it must be enlightened and instructed. After having -given power to the people, you ought to teach them wisdom. Of what -use would it be to enfranchise brutal and unconscious forces, to -turn them over to their own keeping? Instruction is the necessary -counterpoise of liberty. The law, which is henceforth the work of -the people, ought not to be at the mercy of the tumultuous opinions -of an ignorant multitude. - - -421. EDUCATION AS RELATED TO LIBERTY AND EQUALITY.--Talleyrand -is pleased with his thought, and, considering in turn the two -fundamental ideas of the Revolution, the idea of equality and the -idea of liberty, he shows, not without some length of analysis, -that instruction is necessary, on the one hand, to create free -individuals, by giving to them a conscience and a reason, and on -the other, to draw men together by diminishing the inequality of -intelligences. - - -422. RULES FOR PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.--Instruction is due to all. -There must be schools in the villages as in the cities. Instruction -ought to be given by all; there ought to be no privilege in -instruction. Finally, instruction ought to extend to all subjects; -everything shall be taught which can be taught:-- - -“In a well organized society, though no one can attain to universal -knowledge, it should nevertheless be possible to learn everything.” - - -423. POLITICAL EDUCATION.--At the basis of every educational -system there is always a dominant and essential thought. In the -Middle Age--and the Middle Age is continued in the schools of the -Jesuits--it is the idea of salvation, it is the preparation of -the soul for the future life. In the seventeenth century it is the -conception of a perfect justness of spirit joined to uprightness of -heart; such was the ideal of the solitaries of Port Royal. In 1792 -politics became the almost exclusive preoccupation of the educators -of youth. Everything else--religion, accuracy of judgment, nobility -of heart--is relegated to the second place: man is nothing more -than a political animal, brought into the world to know, to love, -and to obey the constitution. - -The _Declaration of the Rights of Man_ became, in the system of -Talleyrand, the catechism of childhood. It is necessary that the -future citizen learn to know, to love, to obey, and finally to -perfect the constitution. We cannot help thinking that Talleyrand -himself showed a marvellous aptitude for loving and obeying the -constitution. Unfortunately this has not always been the case! - - -424. UNIVERSAL MORALITY.--One of the most beautiful pages of -Talleyrand’s work is certainly that in which he recommends the -teaching of universal morality, and claims the autonomy of natural -laws, distinct from all positive religion. - -“We must learn to infuse ourselves with morality, which is the -first need of all constitutions.... Morality must be taught as -a real science, whose principles will be demonstrated to the -reason of all men, and to that of all ages. It is only in this -way that it will resist all trials. It has long been a matter of -lamentation to see men of all nations and of all religions make -it depend exclusively on that multitude of opinions which divide -them. From this have resulted great evils; for abandoning morality -to uncertainty, and often to absurdity, it has necessarily been -compromised; it has been made versatile and unsettled. It is -time to establish it upon its own bases, and to show men that if -baneful divisions separate them, they at least have in morality a -common meeting place where they all ought to take refuge and unite -for protection. It is necessary, then, to detach it in some sort -from everything else, in order to reunite it at once to that which -merits our approval and our homage.... This change is simple and -injures nothing; above all, it is possible. How is it possible not -to see, in fact, that abstraction being made of every system and of -every opinion, and by considering in men only their relations with -other men, they can be taught what is good and just, made to love -it, and made to find happiness in virtuous actions and wretchedness -in those which are not so?” - - -425. FOUR GRADES OF INSTRUCTION.--The organization of instruction, -in Talleyrand’s bill, was “to be combined with that of the -government,” and to be modeled after the division of administrative -functions. The _Rapport_ established four grades of instruction. -There was a school for each _canton_, corresponding to each -primary assembly. Then came intermediate or secondary instruction, -intended, if not for all, at least for the greater number, and -given in the principal town of the district, or _arrondissement_. -In the third place, special schools, scattered over the territory -of the kingdom, in the principal towns of the departments, prepare -young men for the different professions. Finally, the select -intelligences find at Paris, in the National Institute, all that -constitutes the higher instruction. - -The great novelty of this system was the creation of cantonal -schools, open to peasants and to workmen, to those whom, up to this -time, improvidence or the purpose of the great sent off to their -plows or to their planes. - - -426. GRATUITY OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.--Talleyrand did not desire -compulsory education any more than Mirabeau; but, in accordance -with the constitution of 1791, he demands the gratuity of primary -instruction. Society is under obligations to give elementary -instruction, but not intermediate and secondary instruction, and -still less, special and higher instruction. Gratuitous for the -lowest grade, and in case of that elementary knowledge which -constitutes for every civilized man a real moral necessity, -instruction ought not to be free to young men who aspire to a -liberal profession, because they have leisure, and who have leisure -because they have wealth. However, Talleyrand admits exceptions in -the case of talent. By the creation of national scholarships, the -doors of all the schools will be opened to select intelligences -whom the lowness of their condition would condemn to remain obscure -and unappreciated, did not society lend to them a helping hand. - - -427. PROGRAMME OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.--Primary instruction should -comprise the principles of the national language, the elementary -rules of calculation and mensuration; the elements of religion, the -principles of morals, the principles of the constitution; finally, -the development of the physical, intellectual, and moral powers. - - -428. MEANS OF INSTRUCTION.--We shall not insist on the details of -the organization of the different parts of that which Talleyrand -himself called his “immense machine.” Let us notice only the last -part of his work, where he discusses a certain number of general -questions under this arbitrary and unjustifiable title: _Des -moyens d’instruction_. The professors, carefully chosen, shall -be elected by the king. Talleyrand does not determine that they -shall be irremovable, but he requires that their situation shall -be surrounded by all possible guarantees. Prizes, and rewards of -every kind, shall encourage the teachers of youth to redouble -their zeal and to find new methods. Talleyrand counts on dramatic -representations and on national holidays to hasten the progress of -instruction. Finally, let it be added that he entrusts the supreme -direction of public instruction to six commissioners, chosen by the -king and obliged to make an annual report. - - -429. THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN.--Talleyrand, in his proposal, has not -wholly forgotten women, and what he has said of them is just and -sensible. He discusses the question of their political rights, -and, in accord with tradition and good sense, he concludes that -the happiness of women, their own interests, their nature and -their proper destination, ought to forbid them from entering the -political arena. What is particularly fit for them is a domestic -education, which, received in the family, prepares them for living -there. Like Mirabeau, he wishes woman to remain a woman. Her -function, said the great orator, is to perpetuate the species, to -watch with solicitude over the perilous periods of early youth, -and “to enchain to her feet all the energies of the husband by the -irresistible power of her weakness.” Without being as gallant in -his expressions, Talleyrand’s thought is the same. He thought it -necessary, however, in order to respond to certain proprieties, -that the State should establish institutions of public education -destined to replace the convents. - -This desire sets right whatever was unreasonable in this passage of -his proposed law:-- - -“Girls shall not be admitted to the primary schools after the age -of eight. After that age the National Assembly advises parents to -entrust the education of their daughters only to themselves, and -reminds them that this is their first duty.” - - -430. THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY AND CONDORCET.--Of all the -educational undertakings of the Revolution, the most remarkable -is that of Condorcet. His _Rapport_ presented to the Legislative -Assembly, in behalf of the committee on public instruction, April -20 and 21, 1792, reprinted in 1793 by order of the Convention, -did not directly have the honor of a public discussion; but -it contained principles and solutions which are found in the -deliberations and legislative acts of his successors. It remained, -during the whole duration of the Convention, the widely accessible -source whence the legislators of that time, like Romme, Bouquier, -and Lakanal, drew their inspiration. - - -431. CONDORCET (1743-1794).--Condorcet was admirably qualified for -the task which the Legislative Assembly imposed on him, in charging -him with the organization of public instruction. During the first -years of the Revolution he had employed his leisure (he was not -a member of the Constituent Assembly) in writing five _Mémoires_ -on instruction, which appeared in a periodical called the -_Bibliothèque de l’homme public_. The _Rapport_ which he submitted -to the Assembly was a sort of résumé of his long reflections. -Condorcet brought to this work, not the indiscreet imagination of -an improvised educator, but the authority of a competent thinker, -who, if he had no personal experience in teaching, had at least -reflected much on these topics and was conscious of all their -difficulties. Besides, he devoted himself to his work with the -ardor of an enthusiastic nature, and with the serious convictions -of a mind that had carried farther than any one else the religion -of progress and zeal for the public good. - - -432. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS UPON INSTRUCTION.--All the -Revolutionists have sung the praises of instruction, of which they -were the passionate admirers. Condorcet is its reflective partisan. -He did not love it more than the others, but he comprehended it -better, and better stated why it should be loved. He first takes -up the ideas of Talleyrand, and shows that without instruction, -liberty and equality would be chimeras:-- - -“A free constitution which should not be correspondent to the -universal instruction of citizens, would come to destruction after -a few conflicts, and would degenerate into one of those forms of -government which cannot preserve the peace among an ignorant and -corrupt people.” - -Anarchy or despotism, such is the future of peoples who have become -free before having been enlightened. - -As to equality, without falling into the chimeras of an instruction -which should be the same for all, and which should reduce all men -to the same level, Condorcet desires to realize it so far as it is -possible. He desires that the poorest and the humblest shall be -sufficiently instructed to belong to himself, and not to be at the -mercy of the first charlatan who comes along, and also to be able -to fulfill his civil duties, to be an elector, a juror, etc. - - -433. INSTRUCTION AND MORALITY.--The instrument of liberty and -equality, instruction, in the opinion of Condorcet, is, in -addition, the real source of public morality and of human progress. -If it were not correspondent to the advances in knowledge, a free -and impartial constitution would be hostile rather than favorable -to good morals. - -“Instruction alone can give the assurance that the principle of -justice which the equality of rights ordains, shall not be in -contradiction with this other principle, which prescribes that -only those rights shall be accorded to men which they can exercise -without danger to society.” - -But it is moral reasons still more than political motives that make -instruction the condition of virtue. Condorcet has shrewdly seen -that the vices of the people come chiefly from their intellectual -impotency. - -“These vices come,” he says, “from the need of escaping from -_ennui_ in moments of leisure, and in escaping from it through -sensations and not through ideas.” - -These are notable words which should never be lost sight of by the -teachers and moralists of the people. - -To cause gross natures to pass from the life of the senses to the -intellectual life; to make study agreeable to the end that the -higher pleasures of the spirit may struggle successfully against -the appetites for material pleasures; to put the book in the place -of the wine bottle; to substitute the library for the saloon; in -a word, _to replace sensation by idea_,--such is the fundamental -problem of popular education. - - -434. INSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS.--Condorcet was a fanatic on the -subject of progress. Up to the last moment of his life he dreamed -of progress, its conditions, and its laws. Now the most potent -means of hastening progress is to instruct men; and here is the -final reason why instruction is so dear to him. - -These are grand words:-- - -“If the indefinite improvement of our species is, as I believe, a -general law of nature, man ought no longer to regard himself as a -being limited to a transitory and isolated existence, destined to -vanish after an alternative of happiness or of misery for himself, -and of good and evil for those whom chance has placed near him; but -he becomes an active part of the grand whole, and a fellow-laborer -in a work that is eternal. In an existence of a moment, and upon a -point in space, he can, by his works, compass all places, relate -himself to all the centuries, and continue to act long centuries -after his memory has disappeared from the earth.” And further on: -“For a long time I have considered these views as dreams which were -to be realized only in an indefinite future, and for a world where -I should not exist. A happy event has suddenly opened an immense -career to the hopes of the human race; a single instant has put a -century of distance between the man of to-day and him of to-morrow.” - - -435. THE LIBERALITY OF CONDORCET.--Wrongly credited with a despotic -and absolute habit of mind, Condorcet is, on the contrary, full -of scruples and penetrated with respect as regards the liberty -of individual opinions. In fact, he carefully distinguishes -instruction from education. Instruction has to do with positive -and certain knowledge, the truths of fact and of calculation; -education, with political and religious beliefs. Now, if the State -is the natural dispenser of instruction, it ought, on the contrary, -in the matter of education, to forbear, and to declare itself -incompetent. In other words, the State ought not to abuse its power -by imposing by force on its citizens such or such a religious -_Credo_, such or such a political dogma. - -“Public authority cannot establish a body of doctrine which is to -be exclusively taught. No public power ought to have the authority, -or even the permission, to prevent the development of new truths, -or the teaching of theories contrary to its particular policy or to -its momentary interests.” - - -436. FIVE GRADES OF INSTRUCTION.--Condorcet distinguishes five -grades of instruction: 1. Primary schools proper; 2. Secondary -schools, that is, such as we now call higher primary schools; 3. -_Institutes_, or colleges of secondary instruction; 4. _Lycées_, -or institutions of higher instruction; 5. The _National Society of -Sciences and Arts_, which corresponds to our Institute. - -Two things are especially to be noted: first, Condorcet establishes -for the first time higher primary schools, and demands one for -each district, and in addition one for each town of four thousand -inhabitants; then, for primary schools proper, he takes the -population as a basis for their establishment, and requires one for -each four hundred inhabitants.[206] - - -437. PURPOSE AND PLAN OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.--Condorcet has -admirably defined the purpose of primary instruction:-- - -“In the primary schools there is taught that which is necessary for -each individual in order to direct his own conduct and to enjoy the -plenitude of his own rights.” - -The programme comprised reading, writing, some notions on grammar, -the rules of arithmetic, simple methods of measuring a field and a -building with exactness; a simple description of the productions -of the country, of the processes in agriculture and the arts; the -development of the first moral ideas and the rules for conduct -derived from them; finally, such of the principles of social order -as can be put within the comprehension of children. - - -438. THE IDEA OF COURSES FOR ADULTS.--Condorcet was strongly -impressed with the necessity of continuing the instruction of the -workman and of the peasant after withdrawal from school:-- - -“We have observed that instruction ought not to abandon individuals -the moment they leave the schools; that it ought to embrace all -ages; that there is no period of life when it is not useful and -possible to learn, and that this supplementary instruction is so -much the more necessary as that of infancy has been contracted to -the narrowest limits. Here is one of the principal causes of the -ignorance in which the poor classes of society are to-day plunged; -they lacked not nearly so much the possibility of receiving an -elementary instruction as that of preserving its advantages.” - -Consequently, Condorcet proposed, if not courses of instruction for -adults, at least something very like them,--weekly lectures, given -each Sunday by the village teachers, a kind of lay sermons. - -“Each Sunday the teacher shall give a public lecture which citizens -of all ages will attend. In this arrangement we have seen a means -of giving to young people those necessary parts of knowledge, -which, however, did not form a part of their primary education.” - - -439. PROFESSIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION.--But Condorcet does -not think his duty to the people done when he has given them -intellectual emancipation. He is very anxious to give in addition -to the sons of peasants or workmen the means of struggling against -misery, by diffusing more and more among the masses of the -people a technical knowledge of the arts and trades. He deserves -to be counted among the adepts in professional instruction and -in industrial education. He asks that there be placed in the -schools “models of machines or of trades”; and in all grades of -instruction, he recommends with a special solicitude the teaching -of the practical arts. - -We fancy we are doing something new to-day when we establish -school museums. “Each school,” says Condorcet, “shall have a -small library, and a small cabinet in which shall be placed some -meteorological instruments or some specimens of natural history.” - - -440. THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN.--Condorcet may be regarded as one -of the most ardent apostles of the education of women. He wishes -education to be common and equal. He is evidently wrong when he -dreams of a perfect identity of instruction for the two sexes, when -he forgets the particular destination of women, and the special -character of their education. But we have found so many educators -disposed to depreciate the abilities of woman, that we are happy to -find at last one voice that exalts them, even beyond measure. - -Let us recall, however, the excellent reasons which he gives in -support of his thesis on the equality of education. It is necessary -that women should be instructed: 1. in order that they may be -able to bring up their children, of whom they are the natural -instructors; 2. in order that they may be the worthy companions, -the equals of their husbands, that they may feel an interest in -their pursuits, share in their preoccupations, and, finally, -participate in their life, such being the condition of conjugal -happiness; 3. in order, further, by an analogous reason, that they -may not quench, by their ignorance, that inspiration of heart and -mind which previous studies have developed in their husbands, but -that they may nourish this flame by conversation and reading in -common; 4. finally, because this is just,--because the two sexes -have an equal right to instruction. - - -441. RESERVATIONS TO BE MADE.--All is not equally worthy of -commendation in the work of Condorcet. Some faults and some -omissions mar this fine piece of political pedagogy. The faults -are, first, the exaggerated idea of liberty and of equality. -From Condorcet’s ardors for liberty there issues, in his plan for -education, a grave error,--the idea of making of the teaching -body a sort of State within the State, an independent authority, -a fourth power, released from all exterior authority, governing -itself and administering its own affairs, the State intervening -only as treasurer to pay for the services which it neither -regulates nor supervises. The liberal Daunou, while explaining -the system of our author, has criticised it on this point.[207] -“Condorcet,” he said, “the enemy of corporations, has sanctioned -one in his scheme of national instruction; he established, as it -were, an academic church. This is because Condorcet, the enemy of -kings, would add in the balance of public powers one counterbalance -more to that royal power whose monstrous existence, in a free -constitution, is sufficiently attested by the alarms and fears of -all the friends of liberty.” - -The passion for equality led Condorcet into another chimera,--that -of the absolute gratuity of instruction of all grades. - -Finally, in his dreams of infinite perfectibility, Condorcet allows -himself to be carried so far away as to imagine for man, and to -expect from instruction, results that are utterly unattainable. -Instruction, according to him, ought to be so complete “as to cause -the disappearance of every inequality which induces dependence.” - - -442. PREJUDICES OF THE MATHEMATICIAN.--From another point of view, -Condorcet was led astray by his predilection for the sciences. He -so far forgot that he was a member of the French Academy as to obey -only his tendencies, a little too exclusive, as a mathematician -and a member of the Academy of Sciences. By a reaction, natural -enough, against those long centuries in which an abuse was made -of literary culture, Condorcet is too prompt to underrate the -influence of letters in education, and to invest the sciences with -the place of honor. The reasons which he invokes to justify his -preference are not all conclusive. - - -443. OMISSIONS.--The idea of obligatory instruction is still -wanting in the scheme we are examining. We shall be surprised, -perhaps, that Condorcet, who has so clearly proclaimed the -necessity of universal instruction, did not think to impose -obligatory attendance, which is the only means of establishing it. -This is because the early revolutionists, in the ardor of their -enthusiasm, did not suspect the opposition to the accomplishment of -their plans that was to come from the indifference of the greater -number, and from the prejudices of those who, as Condorcet has -eloquently said, “thought they were obeying God while betraying -their country.” It seemed to them that when centres of light -had been made to glow over the whole surface of the country, -citizens would hasten after them, impelled by a natural appetite, -spontaneously thirsting for enlightenment. They were deceived. -These hopes, a little artless, were destined to be disproved by -facts; and it was to triumph over the neglect of some, and the -resistance of others, that the Convention, supplying one of the -rare defects in Condorcet’s plan, decreed, on several occasions, -instruction “imperative and forced,” as was then said. - -On still another point, Condorcet remained inferior to his -successors; in his report there was no mention made of the -organization of normal schools. In this grave and fundamental -question of the education of the teaching body, Condorcet contented -himself with a provisional expedient, which consisted in entrusting -to the professors of the grade immediately higher the care of -preparing teachers for the grade lower. - - -444. FINAL CONCLUSION.--But even with these reservations, the -work of Condorcet deserves scarcely anything but praise. We have -commended its new and exalted conceptions. Its beautiful and exact -arrangement and its masterly style also deserve praise. Condorcet’s -periods are symmetrical in their fullness, and the expression is -precise and vigorous. Doubtless there is some monotony and some -frigidity in that style so concise and strong. But at intervals -there are outbursts of passion. The man whom his contemporaries -compared to “an enraged lamb,” or to a “volcano covered with snow,” -is painted to the life in his writings. His _Rapport_ is like a -beautiful and finished statue of marble, cold to the touch, but -upon which the hand might feel beating in places a vein warm with -life. - - - [445. ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.--1. The more important lessons to be - derived from this study are the following: the necessity of - making instruction universal and of having it administered by the - State; the need of making instruction obligatory, and, in certain - grades, gratuitous; the value of intellectual culture as a moral - safeguard. - - 2. The right of the State to self-preservation carries with it - the right to ordain the establishment of schools for giving a - certain kind and degree of instruction. This constitutes the - first form of compulsion. - - 3. When there is not a voluntary and general attendance on - the schools ordained by the State, it may avail itself of - the supplementary right to make attendance obligatory. This - constitutes the second form of compulsion. - - 4. Gratuity is the logical sequence to compulsion. If the State - may require all children to partake of a certain degree of - instruction, it must make such instruction free. - - 5. Should instruction that is above the compulsory grade be free? - This depends on the question whether the State needs a certain - amount of the higher culture, and whether this required amount - will be secured at the pupils’ own expense. Monsieur Compayré - decides, as against Condorcet (paragraph 441), that the higher - grades of instruction should not be gratuitous. In this country - the prevailing theory is that the higher education should be - endowed by the State. - - 6. The relation of instruction to morality has never been more - justly and pointedly stated than in paragraph 433. This is not - only good sense but sound philosophy.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[198] Théry, _Histoire de l’éducation en France_, Paris, 1861, Tome -II. p. 188. - -[199] Albert Duruy, _L’instruction publique et la Révolution_, p. -80. - -[200] J. Simon, _Dieu, patrie, et liberté_, p. 11. - -[201] Albert Duruy, _op. cit._, p. 16. - -[202] _Doléances_ presented to the States-General by the teachers -of the smaller cities, hamlets, and villages of Bourgogne. - -[203] A. Duruy, _op. cit._, p. 10. - -[204] See the _Dictionnaire de Pédagogie_, Article FRANCE. - -[205] What is meant by “liberty of teaching” will be better -understood from the following quotations from the _Dictionnaire de -Pédagogie_, Première Partie, p. 1575 _et seq._:-- - -“Liberty of teaching, in a country which has proclaimed obligatory -instruction, is the equal right of all to give that instruction, -or the prohibition of every monopoly which would put that -instruction into the hands either of privileged individuals, or of -corporations, or even of the State, to the exclusion of every other -teaching body.” - -“Under the old régime, the education of the masses was committed to -the hands of the Church; the colleges, directed by a body of men -who were all ecclesiastics, gave ‘a vain pretence of an education, -where the memory alone was exercised, and where the reason was -insulted in the forms of reasoning.’” - -“The purpose of the men of the Revolution was, then, above all -else, to emancipate science, and to guarantee the right of free -inquiry; and while rescuing instruction from the tyranny of the -Church, to assure to citizens in general the opportunity to acquire -the knowledge that is essential to man. On the one hand, they would -take precautions against the abuse of power by a government which -had always shown itself hostile to free thought ...; on the other, -in opposition to the old doctrine which condemned the people to -ignorance, they proclaimed the duty of the State to create a system -of _public instruction_, common to all citizens.” - -“It is at this point of view that we must place ourselves in -order to gain a correct notion of the plans that were submitted -to the Constituent Convention and the Legislative Assembly. What -Talleyrand and Condorcet desired was, first, to organize, under the -form of a public service, a system of national education in which -all might participate; and in the second place, to take precautions -against the Church and the royal authority, and so prevent despotic -power from attempting to prevent the development of new truths and -the teaching of theories which it judged contrary to its policy -and interests. For them, liberty of teaching is the demand of -philosophic liberty against ecclesiastical and secular authority.” -(P.) - -[206] Public instruction as now organized in France is of three -grades, as follows:-- - -“Primary instruction, which gives the elements of knowledge, -reading, writing, and arithmetic. Secondary instruction, embracing -the study of the ancient languages, of rhetoric, and the first -elements of the mathematical and physical sciences, and of -philosophy. This is given in the lycées and colleges, as well as -in the smaller seminaries. Superior instruction, designed to teach -in all their completeness letters, the languages, the sciences, -and philosophy. This is given in the Faculties, in the College of -France, and in the larger seminaries.”--LITTRÉ. (P.) - -[207] See the _Rapport_ of Daunou presented to the National -Convention, 27 Vendémiaire, year IV. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -THE CONVENTION.--LEPELLETIER SAINT-FARGEAU, LAKANAL, DAUNOU. - - THE CONVENTION; SUCCESSIVE MEASURES; THE BILL OF LANTHENAS; THE - BILL OF ROMME; THE NATIONAL HOLIDAYS; ELEMENTARY BOOKS; DECREE - OF MAY 30, 1793; LAKANAL (1762-1845); DAUNOU (1761-1840); THE - BILL OF LAKANAL, SIEYÈS, AND DAUNOU; LEPELLETIER SAINT-FARGEAU - (1760-1793); HIS SCHEME OF EDUCATION (JULY 13, 1793); LEPELLETIER - AND CONDORCET; COMPULSORY EDUCATION IN BOARDING-SCHOOLS; THE - CHILD BELONGS TO THE REPUBLIC; SCHOOL OCCUPATIONS; ABSOLUTE - GRATUITY; THE RIGHTS OF THE FAMILY; SAINT-JUST; THE ROMME - LAW; THE BOUQUIER LAW; THE LAKANAL LAW; EDUCATIONAL METHODS; - ELEMENTARY BOOKS; GEOGRAPHY; LETTERS AND SCIENCES; THE FOUNDATION - OF NORMAL SCHOOLS; THE NORMAL SCHOOL OF PARIS; CENTRAL SCHOOLS; - THEIR DEFECTS; POSITIVE AND PRACTICAL SPIRIT; GREAT FOUNDATIONS - OF THE CONVENTION; THE LAW OF OCTOBER 27, 1795; INSUFFICIENCY OF - DAUNOU’S SCHEME; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY. - - -446. THE CONVENTION.--The Constituent Assembly and the Legislative -Assembly had done nothing more than to prepare reports and -projected decrees, without either discussing them or bringing -them to a vote. The Convention went so far as to vote, but it did -not have the time to execute the resolutions, contradictory and -incoherent, which it was forced to adopt, one after another, by the -fluctuation of political currents. - - -447. SUCCESSIVE MEASURES.--Nothing definite in the way of execution -issued from the enthusiastic passion which the Convention exhibited -for the organization of primary instruction. First there was a -triumph of modern ideas in the bill of Lanthenas, the first -article of which was adopted December 12, 1792; and they appeared -again in the bill of Sieyès, Daunou, and Lakanal, presented June -26, 1793, and defeated after an exciting discussion. But the -influence of the Girondists was succeeded by the domination of -the Montagnards[208] whose dictatorial and violent spirit is -indicated: 1. in the bill of Lepelletier, adopted through the -support of Robespierre, August 13, 1793; 2. in the bill projected -and presented by Romme in behalf of the commission of public -instruction, October 20, 1793, and passed on the following day; -3. and lastly in the bill of Bouquier, which, presented December -19, 1793, became the decree of December 26. The reaction which -followed resulted in the legislative acts by which the Convention -finished its educational work. The bill of Sieyès, Daunou, and -Lakanal was reconsidered, and November 17, 1793, it was substituted -for the bill of Bouquier. Finally, when the constitution of 1794 -was substituted for the constitution of 1793, a new law of public -instruction was passed on the report of Daunou, October 27, 1795, -and it is this law which presided over the organization of schools -under the Directory. - -In this confusion, this chaos of bills and counter-bills, it -is difficult to establish any clew that is wholly trustworthy. -We shall restrict ourselves to noting the points that seem -essential.[209] - -Impatient to finish its business, the committee on public -instruction, which the Convention had appointed October 2, -1792, decided to put aside, for the present, the other branches -of public instruction, and proposed for immediate action only -the organization of primary schools, by taking, as a point -of departure, the bill which Condorcet had presented to the -Legislative Assembly. The report of Lanthenas and a proposed decree -were within a few weeks the results of these deliberations; but in -all its parts this result is scarcely more than the reproduction -of Condorcet’s work, and presents nothing original. Let us note, -however, the idea of associating the pupil with his teacher in the -work of instruction:-- - -“Teachers will call to their aid the pupils whose intelligence -shall have made the most rapid progress; and they will thus be -able, _very easily_, to give to four classes of pupils, in the -same session, all the attention needed for their progress. At the -same time, the efforts made by the most competent to teach what -they know to their schoolmates, will be much more instructive to -themselves than the lessons they receive from their masters.” - -Further, let us notice title III. of the proposed decree relative -to the measures to be taken in order to make obligatory the use of -the French language, and to abolish the _patois_, or particular -idioms. The minimum salary of men teachers was fixed at six hundred -francs. The appointment of teachers was entrusted to the heads -of families, who were to elect one from a list prepared by a -“commission of educated persons” appointed by the Councils-General -of the communes and the Directories of departments. - - -448. THE BILL OF LANTHENAS.--The discussion of the bill of -Lanthenas began on December 12, 1792, but only article first was -carried, and the bill itself did not become a law. - -On December 20, another member of the Convention, Romme, -mathematician, deputy from Puy-de-Dôme, read a new report on public -instruction. - - -449. THE BILL OF ROMME.--The bill of Lanthenas aimed at only the -first grade of instruction, but the report of Romme embraced -the four grades of instruction, and was but little more than a -reproduction of Condorcet’s work. But no legislative measure -followed the reading of his bill, and up to the 30th of May, 1793, -there is scarcely anything to be noted, as the educational work of -the Convention, save the bill of Rabaud Saint-Étienne on public -festivals, and the report of Arbogast on elementary books. - - -450. NATIONAL HOLIDAYS.--It is difficult to form an idea of -the importance which the men of this period attributed to the -educational influence of national holidays. At variance on so -many points, they all agree in thinking that the French people -could be instructed and regenerated simply by establishing popular -solemnities. - -“It is a kind of institution,” said Robespierre, “which ought to -be considered as an essential part of public education,--I mean -national holidays.” - -Daunou also persisted in considering national holidays as the most -certain and the most comprehensive means of public instruction. The -decree passed at his request established seven national holidays: -that of the foundation of the Republic, of young men, of husbands, -of thanksgiving, of agriculture, of liberty, of old men. - - -451. ELEMENTARY BOOKS.--An important point in the pedagogy of the -Revolution was the attention given to the composition of elementary -books. On several occasions the Convention put up for competition -these modest works intended to aid parents or teachers in their -task. It was one of the happiest thoughts of that period to desire -that there should be placed in the hands of parents simple methods -and well-arranged books which might teach them how to bring up -their children. The difficulty of this kind of composition was -understood, and so application was made to the most distinguished -writers. Bernardin de Saint Pierre was employed to edit the -_Elements of Morality_. - -December 24, 1792, Arbogast had submitted to the Convention a -proposed decree in which it was said:-- - -“It is only the superior men in a science, or in an art, those who -have sounded all its depths, and have carried it to its farthest -limits, who are capable of composing such elementary treatises as -are desirable.” - - -452. DECREE OF MAY 30, 1793.--The first decree of the Convention -relative to primary schools was passed May 30, 1793. But this -laconic law contained nothing very new. Besides, it was forgotten -in the storm which on the next day, May 31, swept away the -Girondists, and gave to the Montagnards the political supremacy. - - -453. LAKANAL (1762-1845).--After the revolution of May 31, among -the men who, in the committee on public instruction and in the -assembly itself, were occupied with the educational organization -of France, we must assign the first place to Lakanal and Daunou. -On June 26, 1793, three days after the adoption of the new -constitution, Lakanal brought to the tribune the bill which he had -drawn up in conjunction with Daunou and Sieyès. - -Lakanal is one of the purest and most remarkable characters of the -French Revolution.[210] “Lakanal,” said Marat, to whom some one -had denounced him, “works too much to have the time to conspire.” -Industrious and thoughtful, after having taught philosophy with -the “Doctrinaires,” of whom he was the pupil, he became the -first, after Condorcet, of the educators of the Revolution. “His -appearance,” says Paul Bert, “has always particularly attracted -me. It unites gentleness with force, energy with serenity. We feel -that this austere citizen has never known any other passion than -that of well-doing, and has neither desired nor obtained any other -reward than that of having done his duty. He despises violence of -language, and hates that of acts; and so we do not find him, under -the Empire, a baron like Jean-Bon Saint André, a minister like -Fouché, or a senator like a whole herd.” - - -454. DAUNOU (1761-1840).--At an early period in his life, Daunou -had taught philosophy in the colleges of the Oratorians, of whom he -was a member. In 1789 he published in the _Journal Encyclopédique_, -a plan of national education which was approved by the Oratory, -and which he presented to the Constituent Assembly in 1790. In the -Convention he took an active part in the work of the committee on -public instruction, and assisted in the preparation of Lakanal’s -first bill. In the same year he published an _Essay on Public -Instruction_. In the Council of the Five Hundred he was appointed -to make a report on the organization of special schools. Under -the Empire he accepted the management of the national archives. -Under the Restoration he was appointed professor of history in -the College of France. Finally, after 1830, we find him once -more in the Chamber of Deputies, giving proof of unusual energy -and vitality, and presenting in opposition to the minister of -public instruction, de Montalivet, a counter-bill, the principal -aim of which was to lodge with the municipal authorities the -administration of schools, a power which the government wished to -leave in the hands of the inspectors. - - -455. THE BILL OF LAKANAL, SIEYÈS, AND DAUNOU.--These are the -principal provisions of this bill: a school for each thousand -inhabitants; separate schools for girls and boys; the election -of teachers entrusted to a board of inspectors composed of three -members, and located at the government centre of each district; the -general organization of methods, regulations, and school régime -placed in the hands of a central commission sitting with the Corps -Législatif, and placed under its authority; an education which -embraces the whole man, at once intellectual, physical, moral, -and industrial; the first lessons in reading given to boys as to -girls by a woman teacher; arithmetic, geometry, physics, and morals -included in the programme of instruction; visits to hospitals, -prisons, and workshops; finally, liberty granted to private -initiative to found schools. - -“The law can put no veto on the right which all citizens have -to open private courses and schools, free in all grades of -instruction, and to direct them as shall seem to them best.” (Art. -61.) - -This was pushing liberality rather far. - -Another distinctive feature of this bill, which is not without -value, is the respect shown the character and functions of the -teacher. On public occasions the schoolmaster shall wear a medal -with this inscription: _He who instructs is a second father_. -The form is rather pretentious, but the sentiment is good. Other -articles do not merit the same commendation, particularly the one -which established theatres in each canton, in which men and women -would take part in music and dancing. - -The bill of Lakanal, vigorously opposed by a part of the Assembly, -was not adopted. Under the leadership of Robespierre, the -Convention gave preference to the dictatorial and violent measure -of Lepelletier Saint-Fargeau. - - -456. LEPELLETIER SAINT-FARGEAU (1760-1793).--Assassinated in 1793, -Lepelletier Saint-Fargeau left among his papers an educational bill -which Robespierre took up, and which he presented to the Assembly -July 13, 1793, on the occasion of the debate opened on the motion -of Barrère. A month later the bill was passed by the Convention, -but before being carried into operation, the decree was revoked. -The Assembly receded from the accomplishment of a reform in which -some good intentions could not atone for measures that, on the -whole, were mischievous and tyrannical. - - -457. HIS SCHEME OF EDUCATION.--The plan of Lepelletier scarcely -deserves the admiration which Michelet gives it, who salutes -in this work the “_revolution of childhood_,” and who declares -that it is “admirable in spirit, and in no respect chimerical.” -An imitation with but little originality of the institutions of -Lycurgus and the reveries of Plato, the plan of Lepelletier is -scarcely more than an historical curiosity. - - -458. LEPELLETIER AND CONDORCET.--Lepelletier accepted Condorcet’s -plan in all that relates to _secondary schools_, _institutes_, and -_lycées_, that is to say, higher primary instruction, secondary -instruction, and superior instruction. - -“I find,” he said, “in these three courses a plan which seems to me -wisely conceived.” - -But Lepelletier follows only his own fancy in the conception of -those curious boarding-schools, little barracks for childhood, -in which he confined all children by force, wresting them from -their parents, and placing at the expense of the State their moral -training, as well as their material support. - - -459. OBLIGATORY ATTENDANCE IN BOARDING-SCHOOLS.--In education, -Lepelletier represents the doctrine of the Jacobins. In order -to make France republican, he would employ radical and absolute -measures. - -“Let us ordain,” he says, “that all children, girls as well as -boys, girls from five to eleven, and boys from five to twelve, -shall be educated in common, at the expense of the State, and shall -receive, for six or seven years, the same education.” - -In order that there may be complete equality, their food, like -their instruction, shall be the same; even more, their dress shall -be identical. Does Lepelletier then desire, in his craze for -equality, that girls shall be dressed like boys? - - -460. THE CHILD BELONGS TO THE REPUBLIC.--The idea of Lepelletier -is that the child is the property of the State, a chattel of the -Republic. The State must make the child in its own image. - -“In our system,” he says, “the entire being of the child belongs to -us; the material never leaves the mould.” And he adds, “Whatever is -to compose the Republic ought to be cast in the republican mould.” - -Lepelletier imposes on all children, girls and boys, the same -studies,--reading, writing, numbers, natural morality, domestic -economy. This is almost the programme of Condorcet. But he adds -to it manual labor. All children shall be employed in working -the soil. If the college has not at its disposal enough land to -cultivate, the children shall be taken out on the roads, there to -pick up stones or to scatter them. Can we imagine, without smiling, -a system of education, in which our future advocates and writers -are to spend six years in transporting material upon the highways? - - -461. ABSOLUTE GRATUITY.--The colleges in which Lepelletier -sequesters and quarters all the children are to be absolutely -free. Three measures were proposed for covering the expense: 1. -tuition paid by parents in easy circumstances; 2. the labor of the -children; 3. the balance needed furnished by the State. But is -there not just a little of the chimerical in counting much on the -work of children of that age? - - -462. THE RIGHTS OF THE FAMILY.--Lepelletier takes but little -account of the rights of the family. However, notice must be taken -of that idea which Robespierre thought “sublime,”--the creation, at -each college, of a council of heads of families, entrusted with the -oversight of teachers and their children. - - -463. SAINT-JUST.--Saint-Just, in his _Institutions républicaines_, -maintains opinions analogous to those of Lepelletier. He admits -that the child belongs to his mother till the age of five; but from -the age of five till death he belongs to the Republic. Till the age -of sixteen boys are fed at the expense of the State. It is true -that their food is not expensive. It is composed of grapes, fruit, -vegetables, milk-diet, bread, and water. Their dress is of cotton -in all seasons. However, Saint-Just did not subject girls to the -same régime. More liberal on this point than Lepelletier, he would -have them brought up at home. - - -464. THE ROMME LAW (Oct. 30, 1793).--Romme was one of the most -active members of the committee on public instruction. He was -the principal author of the bill which the Convention passed in -October, 1793, the principal articles of which were conceived as -follows:-- - -“Art. 1. There are primary schools distributed throughout the -Republic in proportion to the population. - -“Art. 2. In these schools children receive their earliest physical, -moral, and intellectual education, the best adapted to develop in -them republican manners, love of country, and taste for labor. - -“Art. 3. They learn to speak, read, and write the French language. - -“They are taught the acts of virtue which most honor free men, and -particularly the acts of the French Revolution most fit to give -them elevation of soul, and to make them worthy of liberty and -equality. - -“They acquire some notions of the geography of France. - -“The knowledge of the rights and duties of the man and the citizen -is brought within their comprehension through examples and their -own experience. - -“They are given the first notions of the natural objects that -surround them, and of the natural action of the elements. - -“They have practice in the use of numbers, of the compass, the -level, weights and measures, the lever, the pulley, and in the -measurement of time. - -“They are often allowed to witness what is done in the fields and -in workshops; and they take part in these employments as far as -their age permits.” - -But the bill of Romme was not put in operation. The Convention -presently decided on a revision of the decree it had passed, and -the bill of Bouquier was substituted for the bill of Romme. - - -465. THE BOUQUIER LAW (Dec. 19, 1793).--Bouquier was a man of -letters, deputy from Dordogne, and belonged to the Jacobinic party. -He spoke of his bill as follows:-- - -“It is a simple and natural scheme, and one easy to execute; a -plan which forever proscribes all idea of an academic body, of a -scientific society, of an educational hierarchy; a plan, finally, -whose bases are the same as those of the constitution, liberty, -equality, and simplicity.” - -The Bouquier bill was adopted December 19, and remained in force -till it was superseded by the Lakanal law. - -These are its principal provisions:-- - -“The right to teach is open to all.” “Citizens, men and women, -who would use the liberty to teach, shall be required to produce -a certificate of citizenship and good morals, and to fulfill -certain formalities.” “They shall be designated as _instituteurs_ -and _institutrices_.” They shall be placed “under the immediate -supervision of the municipality, of parents, and of all the -citizens.” “They are forbidden to teach anything contrary to the -laws and to republican morality.” On the other hand, parents are -required to send their children to the primary schools. Parents who -do not obey this order are sentenced, for the first offence, to pay -a fine equal to a fourth of their school tax. In case of a second -offence, the fine is to be doubled and the children to be suspended -for ten years from their rights as citizens. Finally, young people -who, on leaving the primary schools, “do not busy themselves with -the cultivation of the soil, shall be required to learn a trade -useful to society.” - -Enforced school attendance, and what is an entirely different -thing, the obligation of citizens to work, were thus established by -the Bouquier law. - -Let us add that the author of this bill, which, like so many -others, was not executed, had strange notions on the sciences and -on instruction. - -“The speculative sciences,” he says, “detach from society the -individuals who cultivate them.... Free nations have no need of -speculative scholars, whose minds are constantly travelling over -desert paths.” - -Hence, no scientific instruction. The real schools, “the noblest, -the most useful, the most simple, are the meetings of committees. -The Revolution, in establishing national holidays, in creating -popular associations and clubs, has placed in all quarters -inexhaustible sources of instruction. Then let us not go and -substitute for this organization, as simple and sublime as the -people that creates it, an artificial organization, based on -academic statutes which should no longer infect a regenerated -nation.” - - -466. THE LAKANAL LAW (Nov. 17, 1794).--There still remained -something of the spirit of Lepelletier in the Bouquier law, though -the idea of an education in common had been abandoned; but the -Lakanal law openly breaks with the tendencies of Robespierre and -his friends. - -The law which was passed November 17, 1794, upon the report of -Lakanal, reproduced in its spirit and in its principal provisions -the original bill which the influence of Robespierre had defeated. - -The following was the programme of instruction contained in this -law. - -The instructor shall teach:-- - -“1. Reading and writing; 2. the declaration of the rights of man -and the constitution; 3. elementary lessons on republican morals; -4. the elements of the French language both spoken and written; 5. -the rules of simple calculation and of surveying; 6. lessons on -the principal phenomena and the most common productions of nature; -there shall be taught a collection of heroic actions and songs of -triumph.” - -At the same time the bill required that the schools be divided into -two sections, one for the girls and the other for the boys, and -distributed in the proportion of one to each thousand inhabitants. -The teachers, nominated by the people and confirmed by a jury -of instruction, are to receive salaries as follows: men, twelve -hundred francs; women, one thousand francs. - - -467. PEDAGOGICAL METHODS.--Lakanal had given much thought to -pedagogical methods. It is the interior of the school, not less -than its exterior organization, that preoccupied his generous -spirit. Like the most of his contemporaries, a partisan of -Condillac’s doctrine, he believed that the idea could not reach -the understanding except through the mediation of the senses. -Consequently, he recommended the method which consists “in first -appealing to the eyes of pupils, ... in creating the understanding -through the senses, ... in developing morals out of the -sensibility, just as understanding out of sensation.” This is an -excellent method if we add to it a corrective, if we do not forget -to excite the intelligence itself, and to make an appeal to the -interior forces of the soul. - - -468. ELEMENTARY BOOKS.--A few other quotations will suffice -to prove with what acuteness of pedagogic sense Lakanal was -endowed.[211] Very much interested in the composition of works -for popular instruction, he sharply distinguished the elementary -book, which brings knowledge within the reach of children, from -the abridgment, which does no more than condense a long work. “The -abridged,” he said, “is exactly opposed to the elementary.” No -one has better comprehended than he the difficulty of writing a -treatise on morals for the use of children:-- - -“It requires special genius. Simplicity in form and artless -grace should there be mingled with accuracy of ideas; the art of -reasoning ought never to be separated from that of interesting the -imagination; such a work should be conceived by a profound logician -and executed by a man of feeling. There should be found in it, so -to speak, the analytical mind of Condillac and the soul of Fénelon.” - - -469. GEOGRAPHY.--Lakanal has defined with the same exactness the -method to be followed in the teaching of geography. “First let -there be shown,” he says, “in every school, the plan of the -commune in which it is situated, and then let the children see a -map of the canton of which the commune forms a part; then a map of -the department, and then a map of France; after which will come the -map of Europe and of other parts of the world, and lastly a map of -the world.”[212] - - -470. LETTERS AND SCIENCES.--More just than Condorcet, Lakanal did -not wish scientific culture to do prejudice to literary culture:-- - -“For a long time we have neglected the belles-lettres, and some men -who wish to be considered profound regard this study as useless. It -is letters, however, which open the intelligence to the light of -reason, and the heart to impressions of sentiment. They substitute -morality for interest, give pupils polish, exercise their judgment, -make them more sensitive and at the same time more obedient to the -laws, more capable of grand virtues.” - - -471. NECESSITY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS.--Lakanal’s highest title to glory -is that he has associated his name with the foundation of normal -schools. The idea of establishing pedagogical seminaries was not -absolutely new. A number of the friends of instruction, both in -the seventeenth and in the eighteenth century,[213] had seen that -it would be useless to open schools, if good teachers had not been -previously trained; but the Convention has the honor of having for -the first time given practical effect to this vague aspiration. - -Decreed June 2, 1793, the foundation of normal schools was the -object of a report by Lakanal on October 26, 1794. In a style which -was inferior to his ideas, and which would have been more effective -had it been simpler, Lakanal sets forth the necessity of teaching -the teachers themselves before sending them to teach their pupils:-- - -“Are there in France, are there in Europe, are there in the whole -world, two or three hundred men (and we need more than this number) -competent to teach the useful arts and the necessary branches of -knowledge, according to methods which make minds more acute, and -truths more clear,--methods which, while teaching you to know one -thing, teach you to reason upon all things? No, that number of -men, however small it may appear, exists nowhere on the earth. It -is necessary, then, that they be trained. In being the first to -decree normal schools, you have resolved to create in advance a -very large number of teachers, capable of being the executors of a -plan whose purpose is the regeneration of the human understanding, -in a republic of twenty-five millions of men, all of whom democracy -renders equal.” - -The term _normal schools_ (from the Latin word _norma_, a rule) was -not less new than the thing. Lakanal explains that it was designed -by this expression to characterize with exactness the schools which -were to be the type and the standard of all the others. - - -472. THE NORMAL SCHOOL OF PARIS.--To accomplish his purpose, -Lakanal proposed to assemble at Paris, under the direction of -eminent masters, such as Lagrange, Berthollet, and Daubenton, a -considerable number of young men, called from all quarters of the -Republic, and designated “by their talents as by their state of -citizenship.” The masters of this great normal school were to -give their pupils “lessons on the art of teaching morals, ... and -teach them to apply to the teaching of reading and writing, of the -first elements of calculation, of practical geometry, of history -and of French grammar, the methods outlined in the elementary -courses adopted by the National Convention and published by its -orders.” Once instructed “in the art of teaching human knowledge,” -the pupils of the Normal School of Paris were to go and repeat in -all parts of the Republic the “grand lectures” they had heard, and -there form the nucleus of provincial normal schools. And thus, says -Lakanal with exaggeration, “that fountain of enlightenment, so pure -and so abundant, since it will proceed from the foremost men of the -Republic of every class, poured out from reservoir to reservoir, -will diffuse itself from place to place throughout all France, -without losing anything of its purity in its course.” - -October 30, 1794, the Convention adopted the proposals of Lakanal. -The Normal School opened January 20, 1795. Its organization -was defective and impracticable. First, there were too many -pupils,--four hundred young men admitted without competitive tests, -and abandoned to themselves in Paris; professors who were doubtless -illustrious, but whose literary talent or scientific genius did not -perhaps adapt itself sufficiently to the needs of a normal course -of instruction and of a practical pedagogy; lectures insufficient -in number, which lasted for only four months, and which, on the -testimony of Daunou, “were directed rather towards the heights of -science than towards the art of teaching.” Thus the experiment, -which terminated May 6, 1795, did not fulfill the hopes that had -been formed of it: the idea of establishing provincial normal -schools was not carried out. But no matter; a memorable example -had been given, and the fruitful principle of the establishment of -normal schools had made a start in actual practice. - - -473. CENTRAL SCHOOLS.--The _central schools_, designed to replace -the colleges of secondary instruction, were established by decree -of February 25, 1795, on the report of Lakanal. Daunou modified -them in the law of October 25, 1795. They continued, without great -success, till the law of May 1, 1802, which suppressed them. - - -474. DEFECTS OF THE CENTRAL SCHOOLS.--The Central Schools of -Lakanal resembled, trait for trait, the Institutes of Condorcet. -And it must be confessed that here the imitation is not happy. -Lakanal made the mistake of borrowing from Condorcet the plan of -these poorly defined establishments, in which the instruction was -on too vast a scale, and the programmes too crowded, where the -pupil, it seems, was to learn to discuss _de omni re scibili_. -Condorcet went so far as to introduce into his Institutes a -course of lectures on midwifery! The Central Schools, in which -the instruction was a medley of studies indiscreetly presented to -an overdriven auditory, do honor neither to the Convention that -organized them, nor to Condorcet who had traced the first sketch of -them. - - -475. POSITIVE AND PRACTICAL SPIRIT.--However, there was something -correct in the idea which presided over the foundation of the -Central Schools. We find this expressed in the _Essays on -Instruction_, by the mathematician, Lacroix.[214] Lacroix calls -attention to the fact that the progress of the sciences and the -necessity of learning a great number of new things, impose on the -educator the obligation to take some account of space; and, if I -may so speak, of clipping the wings of studies which, like Latin, -had thus far been the unique and exclusive object of instruction. - -In the Central Schools, in fact, the classical languages held -only the second place. Not only were the mathematical sciences, -and those branches of knowledge from which the pupil can derive -the most immediate profit, associated with the classics, but the -preference was given to them. In the minds of those who organized -these schools, the positive and practical idea of success in life -was substituted for the speculative and disinterested idea of -mental development for its own sake. In reality, these two ideas -ought to complete each other, and not to exclude each other. The -ideal of education consists in finding a system which welcomes -both. But in the Central Schools the first point of view absorbed -the second. These establishments resembled the industrial schools -of our day, but with this particular defect, that there was a -determination to include everything in them, and to give a place -to new studies without wholly sacrificing the old. Let there be -created colleges of practical and special instruction; nothing can -be better, for provision would thus be made for the needs of modern -society. But let no one force literary studies and the industrial -arts to live together under the same roof. - - -476. GREAT FOUNDATIONS OF THE CONVENTION.--In the first years of -its existence, the Convention had given its attention only to -primary schools. It seemed as though teaching the illiterate to -read was the one need of society. In the end the Convention rose -above these narrow and exclusive views, and turned its attention -towards secondary instruction and towards superior instruction. It -is particularly by the establishment of several special schools -for superior instruction that the Convention gave proof of its -versatility and intelligence. - -In quick succession it decreed and founded the Polytechnic School, -under the name of the Central School of Public Works (March 11, -1794); the Normal School (October 30, 1794); the School of Mars -(June 1, 1794); the Conservatory of Arts and Trades (September -29, 1794). The next year it organized the Bureau of Longitudes, -and finally the National Institute. What a magnificent effort to -repair the ruins which anarchy had made, or to supply the omissions -which the old régime had patiently suffered! Of these multiplied -creations the greater number remain and still flourish. - - -477. LAW OF OCTOBER 27, 1795.--Those who ask us to see in the -decree of October 27, 1795, “the capital work of the Convention in -the matter of instruction, the synthesis of all its previous labors -and proposals, the most serious effort of the Revolution,”[215] -evidently put forward a paradox. Lakanal and his friends would -certainly have disavowed a law which cancels with a few strokes -of the pen the grand revolutionary principles in the matter of -education,--the gratuity, the obligation, and the universality of -instruction. - -The destinies of public instruction are allied to the fate of -constitutions. To changes of policy there correspond, by an -inevitable recoil, analogous changes in the organization of -instruction. Out of the slightly retrograde constitution of 1793 -there issued the educational legislation of 1794, of which it could -be said that “the spirit of reaction made itself painfully felt in -it.” - -Daunou, who was the principal author of it, doubtless had high -competence in questions of public instruction; but with a secret -connivance of his own temperament he yielded to the tendencies -of the times. He voluntarily condescended to the timidities of a -senile and worn-out Assembly, which, having become impoverished by -a series of suicides, had scarcely any superior minds left within -it. - - -478. INSUFFICIENCY OF DAUNOU’S SCHEME.--Nothing could be more -defective than Daunou’s plan. The number of primary schools was -reduced. It is no longer proposed to proportion them to the -population. Daunou goes back to the cantonal schools of Talleyrand: -“There shall be established in each canton of the Republic one or -more primary schools.” We are far from Condorcet, who required a -school for each group of four hundred souls, and from Lakanal, who -demanded one for each thousand inhabitants. On the other hand, -teachers no longer receive a salary from the State. The State -merely assures to them a place for a class-room and lodging, and -also a garden! “There shall likewise be furnished the teacher the -garden which happens to lie near these premises.” There is no other -remuneration save the annual tuition paid by each pupil to the -teacher. At the same stroke the teacher was made the hireling of -his pupils, and gratuity of instruction was abolished. Only the -indigent pupils, a fourth of the whole number, could be exempted -by the municipal administration from the payment of school fees. -Finally, the programme of studies was reduced to the humblest -proportions: reading, writing, number, and the elements of -republican morality. - -After so many noble and generous ambitions, after so many -enthusiastic declarations in favor of the absolute gratuity -of primary instruction, after so many praiseworthy efforts to -raise the material and moral condition of teachers, and to cause -instruction to circulate to the minutest fibres of the social -tissue, the Convention terminated its work in a mean conception -which thinned out the schools, which impoverished the programmes, -which plunged the teacher anew into a precarious state of -existence, which put him anew at the mercy of his pupils, without, -however, taking care to assure him of patronage, and which, for his -sole compensation in case he had no pupils to instruct, guaranteed -him the right to cultivate a garden, if, indeed, there should be -one in the neighborhood of the school! Had the law of 1795 been in -fact the educational will of the Convention, is it not true, at -least, that it is after the manner of those wills extorted by undue -means, where a man by his final bequests recalls his former acts, -and proves himself faithless to all the aspirations of his life? - -No, it is not from Daunou, but from Talleyrand, from Condorcet, and -from Lakanal that we must seek the real educational thought of the -Revolution. Doubtless the measure of Daunou had over all previous -measures the advantages of being applied, and of not remaining a -dead letter; but the glory of the early Revolutionists should not -be belittled by the fact that circumstances arrested the execution -of their plans, and that a century was necessary in order that -society might attain the ideal which they had conceived. They were -the first to proclaim the right and the duty of each citizen to -be instructed and enlightened. We are ceaselessly urged to admire -the past and to respect the work of our fathers. We do not in the -least object to this, but the Revolution itself also forms a part -of that past, and we regret that the men who so eloquently preach -the worship of traditions and respect for ancestors, are precisely -those who the most harshly disparage the efforts of the Revolution. - - - [479. ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.--1. The educational legislation of the - French Revolution, apparently so inconsiderate, so vacillating, - and so fruitless, betrays the instinctive feeling of a nation - in peril, that the only constitutional means of regeneration is - universal instruction, intellectual and moral. - - 2. Out of the same instinct grew the conception that the - starting-point in educational reform is the instruction and - inspiration of the teaching body. The normal school lies at the - very basis of national safety and prosperity. - - 3. The immediate fruitlessness of the educational legislation - of the Revolution, is another illustration of the general fact - that no reform is operative, which in any considerable degree - antedates the existing state of public opinion. Could there be a - revelation of the ideal education, human society could grow into - it only by slow and almost insensible degrees. While there can - be rational growth only through some degree of anticipation, it - is perhaps best that educators have only that prevision which is - provisional.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[208] A term applied to the most pronounced revolutionists of the -Convention and of the National Assembly. - -[209] It is impossible, within the limits prescribed by the -character and plan of this work, to enter into detail and enumerate -all the decrees and counter-decrees of the Convention on the -subject of public instruction. To see clearly into this chaos and -this confusion, it is necessary to read the excellent article of -Monsieur Guillaume in the _Dictionnaire de Pédagogie_, article -CONVENTION. - -[210] See a recent sketch, _Lakanal_, by Paul Legendre (Paris, -1882), with a Preface by Paul Bert. - -[211] See in the _Revue politique et littéraire_, for Oct. 7, 1882, -an excellent article on Lakanal, by Monsieur Janet. - -[212] If the consensus of philosophic opinion is trustworthy, there -is no basis whatever in psychology for this sequence. On the almost -uniform testimony of psychologists, the organic mental sequence is -from aggregates to parts; so that if the method of presentation is -to be in harmony with the organic mode of the mind’s activities, -the sequence should be as follows: the globe; the eastern -continent; Europe; France; the department; the canton; the commune. -On the mental sequence, see Hamilton’s _Lectures_, Vol. I. pp. 69, -70, 368, 371, 469, 498, 500, 502, 503. (P.) - -[213] Dumonstier, rector of the University of Paris in 1645, La -Salle, and in the eighteenth century, the Abbé Courtalon. - -[214] Essais sur l’enseignement. Paris, 1805. - -[215] Albert Duruy, _op. cit._ p. 137. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -PESTALOZZI. - - GERMAN PEDAGOGY; THE PIETISTS AND FRANCKE (1663-1727); THE - PHILANTHROPISTS AND BASEDOW (1723-1790); THE PEOPLE’S SCHOOLS; - PESTALOZZI (1746-1827); THE EDUCATION OF PESTALOZZI; PESTALOZZI - AS AN AGRICULTURIST; HOW PESTALOZZI BECAME A TEACHER; EDUCATION - OF HIS SON; THE SCHOOL AT NEUHOF (1775-1780); PESTALOZZI - AS A WRITER (1780-1787); LEONARD AND GERTRUDE (1781); NEW - EXPERIMENTS IN AGRICULTURE; OTHER WORKS; THE ORPHAN ASYLUM AT - STANZ (1798-1799); METHODS FOLLOWED AT STANZ; THE SCHOOLS AT - BURGDORF (1799-1801); HOW GERTRUDE TEACHES HER CHILDREN (1801); - PESTALOZZI’S STYLE; ANALYSIS OF THE GERTRUDE; THE INSTITUTE AT - BURGDORF (1801-1804); THE INSTITUTE AT YVERDUN (1805-1825); - TENTATIVES OF PESTALOZZI; ESSENTIAL PRINCIPLES; EDUCATIONAL - PROCESSES; SIMPLIFICATION OF METHODS; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY. - - -480. GERMAN PEDAGOGY.--For two centuries Germany has been the -classical land of pedagogy; and to render an account of all the -efforts put forth in that country in the domain of education it -would be necessary to write several volumes. - -From the opening of the eighteenth century, says Dittes, “a change -for the better takes place. Ideas become facts. The importance of -education is more and more recognized; pedagogy shakes off the -ancient dust of the school and interests itself in actual life; it -is no longer willing to be a collateral function of the Church, but -begins to become an independent art and science. A few theologians -will still render it important service, but in general they will do -this outside the Church, and often in opposition to it.” - -While awaiting the grand and fruitful impulsion of Pestalozzi, the -history of pedagogy ought to mention at least the Pietists, “whose -educational establishments contributed to prepare the way for the -new methods,” and after them, the Philanthropists, of whom Basedow -is the most celebrated representative. - - -481. THE PIETISTS AND FRANCKE (1663-1727).--Francke played nearly -the same part in Germany that La Salle did in France. He founded -two establishments at Halle, the _Pædagogium_ and the _Orphan -Asylum_, which, in 1727, contained more than two thousand pupils. -He belonged to the sect of Pietists, Lutherans who professed an -austere morality, and, in conformity with the principles of his -denomination, he made piety the supreme end of education. - -That which distinguishes and commends Francke, is his talent for -organization. He was right in giving marked attention to the -material condition of schools and to needed supplies of apparatus. -The Pædagogium was installed in 1715 in comfortable quarters, -and there were annexed to it a botanical garden, a museum of -natural history, physical apparatus, a chemical and an anatomical -laboratory, and a shop for the cutting and polishing of glass. - -After him his disciples, Niemeyer, Semler, and Hecker, continued -his work, and, in certain respects, reformed it. They founded -the first _real schools_ of Germany. They kept up the practical -spirit, the professional pedagogy of their master, and assured the -development of those educational establishments which still exist -to-day under the name of the _Institutions_ of Francke. - - -482. THE PHILANTHROPISTS AND BASEDOW (1723-1790).--With Basedow, -a more liberal spirit, borrowed in part from Rousseau, gained -entrance into German pedagogy. Basedow founded at Dessau a school -which received the praise of the philosopher Kant, and of the -clergyman Oberlin. He designated it by a name which reflects his -humanitarian intentions, the _Philanthropinum_. In the methods -which he employed in it he seems always to have had before his eyes -the exclamation of Rousseau: “Things, things! Too many words!” The -intuitive method, or that of _teaching by sight_, was practised in -the school of Dessau. - -The principal work of Basedow, his _Elementary Book_, is scarcely -more than the _Orbis Pictus_ of Comenius reconstructed according -to the principles of Rousseau. At Dessau, the pretence was made of -teaching a language in six months. “Our methods,” says Basedow, -“make studies only one-third as long and thrice as agreeable.” -An abuse was made of mechanical exercises. The children, at -the command of the master: _Imitamini sartorem_,--_Imitamini -sutorem_,--all began to imitate the motions of a tailor who is -sewing, or of a shoemaker who is using his awl. Graver still, -Basedow made such an abuse of _object lessons_ as to represent to -children certain scenes within the sick-chamber, for the purpose of -teaching them their duties and obligations to their mothers.[216] - - -483. SCHOOLS FOR THE PEOPLE.--Great efforts were made in the -eighteenth century, in the Catholic, as well as in the Protestant -countries of Germany, towards the development of popular -instruction. Maria Theresa and Frederick II. considered public -instruction as an affair of the State. Private enterprise was -added to the efforts of the government. In Prussia, a nobleman, -Rochow (1734-1805), founded village schools; and in Austria, two -ecclesiastics, Felbiger (1724-1788) and Kindermann (1740-1801), -contributed by their activity in education to the reform of schools. - -Nevertheless, the results were still very poor, and the public -school, especially the village school, remained in a sorry -condition. - -“Almost everywhere,” says Dittes, “there were employed as -teachers, domestics, corrupt artisans, discharged soldiers, -degraded students, and, in general, persons of questionable -morality and education. Their pay was mean, and their authority -slight. Attendance at school, generally very irregular, was almost -everywhere entirely suspended in summer. Many villages had no -school, and scarcely anywhere was the school attended by all the -children. In many countries, most of the children, especially the -girls, were wholly without instruction. The people, especially the -peasantry, regarded the school as a burden. The clergy, it is true, -always regarded themselves as the proprietors of the school, but -on the whole they did but very little for it, and even arrested -its progress. The nobility was but little favorable, in general, -to intellectual culture for the people.... Instruction remained -mechanical and the discipline rude. It is reported that a Suabian -schoolmaster, who died in 1782, had inflicted during his experience -in teaching 911,527 canings, 124,010 whippings, 10,235 boxes on the -ear, and 1,115,800 thumps on the head. Moreover, he had made boys -kneel 777 times on triangular sticks, had caused the fool’s cap -to be worn 5001[217] times, and the stick to be held in air 1707 -times. He had used something like 3000 words of abuse....” - - -484. PESTALOZZI (1746-1827).--In Switzerland, the situation of -primary instruction was scarcely better. The teachers were gathered -up at hazard; their pay was wretched; in general they had no -lodgings of their own, and they were obliged to hire themselves -out for domestic service among the well-off inhabitants of the -villages, in order to find food and lodging among them. A mean -spirit of caste still dominated instruction, and the poor remained -sunk in ignorance. - -It was in the very midst of this wretched and unpropitious state -of affairs that there appeared, towards the end of the eighteenth -century, the most celebrated of modern educators, a man who, we may -be sure, was not exempt from faults, whose mind had deficiencies -and weaknesses, and whom we have no intention of shielding from -criticism, by covering him with the praises of a superstitious -admiration; but who is pre-eminently great by reason of his -unquenchable love for the people, his ardent self-sacrifice, and -his pedagogic instinct. During the eighty years of his troubled -life, Pestalozzi never ceased to work for children, and to devote -himself to their instruction. War or the ill-will of his countrymen -destroyed his schools to no purpose. Without ever despairing, -he straightway rebuilt them farther away, sometimes succeeding, -through the gift of ardent speech, which never deserted him, in -communicating the inspiration to those about him; gathering up -in all places orphans and vagabonds, like a kidnapper of a new -species; forgetting that he was poor, when he saw an occasion -to be charitable, and that he was ill, when it was necessary to -teach; and, finally, pursuing with an unconquerable energy, through -hindrances and obstacles of every description, his educational -apostleship. “It is death or success!” he wrote. “My zeal to -accomplish the dream of my life would have carried me through air -or through fire, no matter how, to the highest peak of the Alps!” - - -485. THE EDUCATION OF PESTALOZZI.--The life of Pestalozzi is -intimately related to his educational work. To comprehend the -educator, it is first necessary to have become acquainted with the -man. - -Born at Zurich in 1746, Pestalozzi died at Brugg in Argovia in -1827. This unfortunate great man always felt the effects of the -sentimental and unpractical education given him by his mother, who -was left a widow with three children in 1751. He early formed the -habit of feeling and of being touched with emotion, rather than of -reasoning and of reflecting. The laughing-stock of his companions, -who made sport of his awkwardness, the little scholar of Zurich -accustomed himself to live alone and to become a dreamer. Later, -towards 1760, the student of the academy distinguished himself by -his political enthusiasm and his revolutionary daring. At that -early period he had conceived a profound feeling for the miseries -and the needs of the people, and he already proposed as the purpose -of his life the healing of the diseases of society. At the same -time there was developed in him an irresistible taste for a simple, -frugal, and almost ascetic life. To restrain his desires had become -the essential rule of his conduct, and, to put it in practice, -he forced himself to sleep on a plank, and to subsist on bread -and vegetables. Life in the open air had an especial attraction -for him. Each year he spent his vacations in the country at his -grandfather’s, who was a minister at Hœngg. _Omne malum ex urbe_ -was his favorite thought. - - -486. PESTALOZZI AN AGRICULTURIST (1765-1775).--Pestalozzi’s call -to be a teacher manifested itself at first only by some vague -aspirations, of which it would be easy to find the trace in the -short essays of his youth, and in the articles which he contributed -in his twentieth year to a students’ journal published at Zurich. -After having tried his hand unsuccessfully at theology and law, -he became an agriculturist. When he established at Neuhof an -agricultural enterprise, he thought less of enriching himself -than of raising the material condition of the Swiss peasantry by -organizing new industries. But notwithstanding his good intent, -and the assistance of the devoted woman whom he had married in -1769, Anna Schultess, Pestalozzi, more enterprising than skillful, -failed in his industrial establishments. In 1775 he had exhausted -his resources. It is then that he formed an heroic resolution which -typifies his indiscreet generosity. Poor, and scarcely more than -able to support himself, he opened on his farm an asylum for poor -children. - - -487. HOW PESTALOZZI BECAME AN EDUCATOR.--The asylum for poor -children at Neuhof (1775-1780) is, so to speak, the first step -in the pedagogical career of Pestalozzi. The others will be the -orphan asylum at Stanz (1798-1799), the primary schools at Burgdorf -(1799), the institute at Burgdorf (1801-1804), and, finally, the -institute at Yverdun (1805-1825). - -The first question that is raised when we study systems of -education, is, how the authors of those systems became teachers. - -The best, perhaps, are those who became such because of their -great love for humanity, or because of their tender love for -their children. Pestalozzi is of this class. It is because he -has ardently dreamed from his youth of the moral amelioration of -the people; and it is also because he has followed with a tender -solicitude the first steps of his little son Jacob on life’s -journey, that he became a great teacher. - - -488. THE EDUCATION OF HIS SON.--The _Father’s Journal_,[218] -where Pestalozzi noted from day to day the progress of his -child, shows him intent on applying the principles of Rousseau. -At the age of eleven, Jacob, like Émile, did not yet know how to -read or to write. Things before words, the intuition of sensible -objects, few exercises in judgment, respect for the powers of the -child, an equal anxiety to husband his liberty and to secure his -obedience, the constant endeavor to diffuse joy and good humor -over education,--such were the principal traits of the education -which Pestalozzi gave his son, an education which was a real -experiment in pedagogy, from which the pupil perhaps suffered -somewhat, but from which humanity was to derive profit. From this -period Pestalozzi conceived some of the ideas which became the -principles of his method. The father had made the educator. One of -the superiorities of Pestalozzi over Rousseau is, that he loved and -educated his own child. - - -489. THE ASYLUM AT NEUHOF.--Madame de Staël was right in saying -that “we must consider Pestalozzi’s school as limited to childhood. -The education which it gives is designed only for the common -people.” And, in fact, the first and the last establishments of -Pestalozzi were schools for small children. In the last years of -his life, when he was obliged to leave the institute of Yverdun, -he returned to Neuhof, and there had constructed a school for poor -children. - -The school at Neuhof was to be above all else, in Pestalozzi’s -thought, an experiment in moral and material regeneration through -labor, through order, and through instruction. Many exercises -in language, singing, reading of the Bible,--such were the -intellectual occupations. But the greater part of the time was -devoted to agricultural labor, to the cultivation of madder. - -Notwithstanding his admirable devotion, Pestalozzi did not long -succeed in his philanthropic plans. He had to contend against -the prejudices of parents, and the ingratitude of the children. -Very often the little beggars whom he had gathered up waited only -till they had received from him new clothing, and then ran away -and resumed their vagabond life. Besides, he lacked resources. He -became poor, and fell more and more into debt. His friends, who had -aided him on the start, warned him that he would die in a hospital -or in a mad-house. - -“For thirty years,” he says himself, “my life was a desperate -struggle against the most frightful poverty.... More than a -thousand times I was obliged to go without dinner, and at noon, -when even the poorest were seated around a table, I devoured a -morsel of bread upon the highway ...; and all this that I might -minister to the needs of the poor, by the realization of my -principles.” - - -490. PESTALOZZI A WRITER.--After the check to his undertaking at -Neuhof, Pestalozzi renounced for some time all practical activity, -and it was by his writings that he manifested, from 1780 to 1787, -his zeal in education. - -In 1780 appeared the _Evening Hours of a Recluse_, a series of -aphorisms on the rise of a people through education. In this, -Pestalozzi sharply criticised the artificial method of the school, -and insisted on the necessity of developing the soul through _what -is within_,--through interior culture:-- - -“The school everywhere puts the order of words before the order of -free nature.” - -“The home is the basis of the education of humanity.” - -“Man, it is within yourself, it is in the inner sense of your -power, that resides nature’s instrument for your development.” - - -491. LEONARD AND GERTRUDE.--In 1781 Pestalozzi published the -first volume of _Leonard and Gertrude_. He had written it within -the blank spaces of an old account book. This book, the most -celebrated perhaps of all Pestalozzi’s writings, is a sort of -popular romance in which the author brings upon the stage a family -of working-people. Gertrude here represents the ideas of Pestalozzi -on the education of children. The three other volumes (1783, 1785, -1787) relate the regeneration of a village through the concerted -action of legislation, administration, religion, and the school, -and especially the school, “which is the centre whence everything -should proceed.” - -_Leonard and Gertrude_ is the only one of Pestalozzi’s works which -Diesterweg[219] recommends to practical teachers. - -“It was my first word,” says Pestalozzi, “to the heart of the poor -and of the abandoned of the land.” - -In making Gertrude the principal character of his romance, -Pestalozzi wished to emphasize one of his fundamental ideas, which -was to place the instruction and the education of the people in the -hands of mothers. - - -492. NEW EXPERIMENTS IN AGRICULTURE.--From 1787 to 1797 Pestalozzi -returned to farming. It is from this period that date his -relations with Fellenberg, the celebrated founder of _Agricultural -Institutes_, and with the philosopher Fichte, who showed him the -agreement of his ideas with the doctrine of Kant. His name began -to become celebrated, and, in 1792, the Legislative Assembly -proclaimed him a French citizen, in company with Washington and -Klopstock. - -During these years of farm labor, Pestalozzi had meditated -different works which appeared in 1797. - - -493. OTHER WORKS OF PESTALOZZI.--Educational thought pervades -all the literary works of Pestalozzi. Thus his _Fables_, short -compositions in prose, all have a moral and educational tendency. -Also, in his _Researches on the Course of Nature in the Development -of the Human Race_, he sought to justify the preponderant office -which he accorded to nature in the education of man. But Pestalozzi -was not successful in philosophical dissertations. - -“This book,” he says himself, “is to me only another proof of -my lack of ability; it is simply a diversion of my imaginative -faculty, a work relatively weak.... No one,” he adds, “understands -me, and it has been hinted that the whole work has been taken for -nonsense.” - -This judgment is severe, but it is only just. Pestalozzi had an -intuition of truth, but he was incapable of giving a theoretical -demonstration of it. His thought all aglow, and his language all -imagery, did not submit to the concise and methodical exposition of -abstract truths. - - -494. THE ORPHAN ASYLUM AT STANZ (1798-1799).--Up to 1798 Pestalozzi -had scarcely found the occasion to put in practice his principles -and his dreams. The Helvetic Revolution, which he hailed with -enthusiasm as the signal of a social regeneration for his country, -finally gave him the means of making a trial of his theories, -which, by a strange destiny, had been applied by other hands before -having been applied by his own. - -The Helvetic government, whose sentiments were in harmony with the -democratic sentiments of Pestalozzi, offered him the direction of -a normal school. But he declined, in order that he might remain a -teacher. He was about to take charge of a school, the plan of which -he had organized, when events called him to direct an orphan asylum -at Stanz. - - -495. METHODS FOLLOWED AT STANZ.--From six to eight o’clock in the -morning, and from four to eight in the afternoon, Pestalozzi heard -the lessons of his pupils. The rest of the time was devoted to -manual labor. Even during the lesson, the child at Stanz “drew, -wrote, and worked.” To establish order in a school which contained -eighty pupils, Pestalozzi had the idea of resorting to rhythm; -“and it was found,” he says, “that the rhythmical pronunciation -increased the impression produced by the lesson.” Having to do -with pupils absolutely ignorant, he kept them for a long time on -the elements; he practised them on the first elements till they -had mastered them. He simplified the methods, and sought in each -branch of instruction a point of departure adapted to the nascent -faculties of the child. The mode of teaching was simultaneous. -All the pupils repeated in a high tone of voice the words of the -teacher; but the instruction was also mutual:-- - -“Children instructed children; they themselves tried the -experiment; all I did was to suggest it. Here again I obeyed -necessity. Not having a single assistant, I had the idea of putting -one of the most advanced pupils between two others who were less -advanced.” - -Reading was combined with writing. Natural history and geography -were taught to children under the form of conversational lessons. - -But what engrossed Pestalozzi above all else was to develop the -moral sentiments and the interior forces of the conscience. He -wished to make himself loved by his pupils, to awaken among them, -in their daily association, sentiments of fraternal affection, -to excite the conception of each virtue before formulating its -precept, and to give the children moral lessons through the -influence of nature which surrounded them and through the activity -which was imposed on them. - -Pestalozzi’s chimera, in the organization at Stanz, was to -transport into the school the conditions of domestic life--the -desire to be a father to a hundred children. - -“I was convinced that my heart would change the condition of my -children just as promptly as the sun of spring would reanimate the -earth benumbed by the winter.” - -“It was necessary that my children should observe, from dawn to -evening, at every moment of the day, upon my brow and on my lips, -that my affections were fixed on them, that their happiness was my -happiness, and that their pleasures were my pleasures.” - -“I was everything to my children. I was alone with them from -morning till night.... Their hands were in my hands. Their eyes -were fixed on my eyes.” - - -496. RESULTS ACCOMPLISHED.--Without plan, without apparent order; -merely by the action and incessant communication of his ardent soul -with children ignorant and perverted by misery; reduced to his own -resources in a house where he was himself “steward, accountant, -footman, and almost servant all in one,” Pestalozzi obtained -surprising results. - -“I saw at Stanz,” he says, “the power of the human faculties.... -My pupils developed rapidly; it was another race.... The children -very soon felt that there existed in them forces which they did -not know, and in particular they acquired a general sentiment of -order and beauty. They were self-conscious, and the impression of -weariness which habitually reigns in schools vanished like a shadow -from my class-room. They willed, they had power, they persevered, -they succeeded, and they were happy. They were not scholars who -were learning, but children who felt unknown forces awakening -within them, and who understood where these forces could and would -lead them, and this feeling gave elevation to their mind and heart.” - -“It is out of the folly of Stanz,” says Roger de Guimps, “that has -come the primary school of the nineteenth century.” - -While the pupils prospered, the master fell sick of overwork. When -the events of the war closed the orphan asylum, it was quite time -for the health of Pestalozzi. He raised blood and was at the limit -of his strength. - - -497. THE SCHOOLS OF BURGDORF (1799-1802).--As soon as he had -recovered his health, Pestalozzi resumed the course of his -experiments. Not without difficulty he succeeded in having -entrusted to him a small class in a primary school of Burgdorf. He -passed for an ignoramus. - -“It was whispered that I could neither write, nor compute, nor even -read decently.” Pestalozzi does not defend himself against the -charge, but acknowledges his incapacity, and even asserts that it -is to his advantage. - -“My incapacity in these respects was certainly an indispensable -condition for my discovery of the simplest method of teaching.” - -What troubled him most in the school at Burgdorf “was that it was -subjected to rules.” “Never in my life had I borne such a burden. I -was discouraged. I cringed under the routine yoke of the school.” - -Nevertheless, Pestalozzi succeeded admirably in his little school. -Then more advanced pupils were given him, but here his success was -less. He always proceeded without a plan, and he gave himself great -trouble in obtaining results that he might have attained much more -easily with a little more system. Blunders, irregularities, and -whimsicalities were ever compromising the action of his good will. -To be convinced of this, it suffices to read the books which he -published at this period, and in particular the most celebrated, of -which we shall proceed to give a brief analysis. - - -498. HOW GERTRUDE TEACHES HER CHILDREN.--It is under this -title that in 1801 Pestalozzi published an exposition of his -doctrine.[220] “It is the most important and the most profound of -all his pedagogical writings,” says one of his biographers. We -shall not dispute this; but this book also proves how the mind -of Pestalozzi was inferior to his heart, how the writer was of -less worth than the teacher. Composed under the form of letters -addressed to Gessner, the work of Pestalozzi is too often a tissue -of declamations, of rambling thoughts, and of personal grievances. -It is the work of a brain that is in a state of ferment, and of a -heart that is overflowing. The thought is painfully disentangled -from out a thousand repetitions. Why need we be astonished at this -literary incompetence of Pestalozzi when he himself makes the -following confession: “For thirty years I had not read a single -book; I could not longer read them.” - - -499. PESTALOZZI’S STYLE.--The style of Pestalozzi is the very man -himself: desultory, obscure, confused, but with sudden flashes -and brilliant illuminations in which the warmth of his heart -is exhibited. There are also too many comparisons; the imagery -overwhelms the idea. Within a few pages he will compare himself, in -succession, “to a sailor, who, having lost his harpoon, would try -to catch a whale with a hook,” to depict the disproportion between -his resources and his purpose; then to a straw, which even a cat -would not lay hold of, to tell how he was despised; to an owl, to -express his isolation; to a reed, to indicate his feebleness; to a -mouse which fears a cat, to characterize his timidity. - - -500. ANALYSIS OF THE GERTRUDE.--It is not easy to analyze one -of Pestalozzi’s books. To begin with, _How Gertrude teaches her -Children_ is a very bad title, for Gertrude is not once mentioned -in it. This proper name became for Pestalozzi an allegorical term -by which he personifies himself. - -The first three letters are rather autobiographical memoirs than -an exposition of doctrine. Pestalozzi here relates his first -experiments, and makes us acquainted with his assistants at -Burgdorf,--Krüsi, Tobler, and Buss. In the letters which follow, -the author attempts to set forth the general principles of his -method. The seventh treats of language; the eighth, of the -intuition of forms, of writing, and of drawing; the ninth, of the -intuition of numbers and of computation; the tenth and twelfth, of -intuition in general. For Pestalozzi, intuition was, as we know, -direct and experimental perception, either in the domain of sense, -or in the interior regions of the consciousness. Finally, the last -letters are devoted to moral and religious development. - -Without designing to follow, in all its ramblings and in all its -digressions, the mobile thought of Pestalozzi, we shall gather up -some of the general ideas which abound in this overcharged and -badly composed work. - - -501. METHODS SIMPLIFIED.--The purpose of Pestalozzi was indeed, in -one sense, as he was told by one of his friends, to _mechanize_ -instruction. He wished, in fact, to simplify and determine methods -to such a degree that they might be employed by the most ordinary -teacher, and by the most ignorant father and mother. In a word, -he hoped to organize a pedagogical machine so well set up that it -could in a manner run alone. - -“I believe,” he says, “that we must not dream of making progress -in the instruction of the people as long as we have not found the -forms of instruction which make of the teacher, at least so far as -the completion of the elementary studies is concerned, the simple -mechanical instrument of a method which owes its results to the -nature of its processes, and not to the ability of the one who uses -it. I assert that a school-book has no value, save as it can be -employed by a master without instruction as well as by one who has -been taught.” - -This was sheer exaggeration, and was putting too little value on -the personal effort and merit of teachers. On this score, it would -be useless to found normal schools. Pestalozzi, moreover, has given -in his own person a striking contradiction to this singular theory; -for he owed his success in teaching much more to the influence of -his living speech, and to the ardent communication of the passion -by which his heart was animated, than to the methodical processes -which he never succeeded in combining in an efficient manner. - - -502. THE SOCRATIC METHOD.--Pestalozzi recommends the Socratic -method, and he indicates with exactness some of the conditions -necessary for the employment of that method. He first observes that -it requires on the part of the teacher uncommon ability. - -“A superficial and uncultivated intelligence,” he says, “does not -sound the depths whence a Socrates made spring up intelligence and -truth.” - -Besides, the Socratic method can be employed only with pupils who -already have some instruction. It is absolutely impracticable -with children who lack both the point of departure, that is, -preliminary notions, and the means of expressing these notions, -that is, a knowledge of language. And as it is always necessary -that Pestalozzi’s thought should wind up with a figure of speech, -he adds:-- - -“In order that the goshawk and the eagle may plunder eggs from -other birds, it is first necessary that the latter should deposit -eggs in their nests.” - - -503. WORD, FORM, AND NUMBER.--A favorite idea of Pestalozzi, which -remained at Yverdun, as at Burgdorf, the principle of his exercises -in teaching, is that all elementary knowledge can and should be -related to three principles,--_word_, _form_, and _number_. To the -_word_ he attached language, to _form_, writing and drawing, and to -_number_, computation. - -“This was,” he says, “like a ray of light in my researches, like -a _Deus ex machina!_” Nothing justifies such enthusiasm. It would -be very easy to show that Pestalozzi’s classification, besides -that it offers no practical interest, is not justifiable from the -theoretical point of view, first because one of the elements of -his trilogy, the _word_, or language, comprises the other two; -and then because a large part of knowledge, for example, all -physical qualities, does not permit the distinction of which he was -superstitiously fond. - - -504. INTUITIVE EXERCISES.--What is of more value is the importance -which Pestalozzi ascribes to intuition. An incident worthy of note -is that it is not Pestalozzi himself, but one of the children -of his school, who first had the idea of the direct observation -of the objects which serve as the text for the lesson. One day -as, according to his custom, he was giving his pupils a long -description of what they observed in a drawing where a window was -represented, he noticed that one of his little auditors, instead of -looking at the picture, was attentively studying the real window of -the school-room. - -From that moment Pestalozzi put aside all his drawings, and took -the objects themselves for subjects of observation. - -“The child,” he said, “wishes nothing to intervene between nature -and himself.” - -Ramsauer, a pupil at Burgdorf, has described, not without some -inaccuracy perhaps, the intuitive exercises which Pestalozzi -offered to his pupils:-- - -“The exercises in language were the best we had, especially those -which had reference to the wainscoting of the school-room. He -spent whole hours before that wainscoting, very old and torn, -busy in examining the holes and rents, with respect to number, -form, position, and color, and in formulating our observations in -sentences more or less developed. Then Pestalozzi would ask us, -Boys, what do you see? (He never mentioned the girls.) - -_Pupil_: I see a hole in the wainscoting. - -_Pestalozzi_: Very well; repeat after me:-- - - I see a hole in the wainscoting. - I see a large hole in the wainscoting. - Through the hole I see the wall, etc., etc.” - - -505. THE BOOK FOR MOTHERS.--In 1803 Pestalozzi published a work -on elementary instruction, which remained unfinished, entitled -_The Book for Mothers_. This was another _Orbis Pictus_ without -pictures. Pestalozzi’s intention was to introduce the child to a -knowledge of the objects of nature or of art which fall under his -observation. In this he tarried too long over the description of -the organs of the body and of their functions. A French critic, -Dussault, said, with reference to this:-- - -“Pestalozzi gives himself much trouble to teach children that -their nose is in the middle of their face.” In his anxiety to be -simple and elementary, Pestalozzi often succeeds in reality in -making instruction puerile. On the other hand, the Père Girard -complains that the exercises in language which compose _The Book -for Mothers_, “really very well arranged, are also very dry and -monotonous.” - - -506. A SWISS TEACHER IN 1793.--To form a just estimate of the -efforts of Pestalozzi and his assistants, we must take into account -the wretched state of instruction at the period when they attempted -to reform the methods of teaching. Krüsi, Pestalozzi’s first -assistant, one of those who were perhaps the nearest his heart, -has himself related how he became a teacher. He was eighteen, -and till then his only employment had been that of a peddler for -his father. One day, as he was going about his business with a -heavy load of merchandise on his shoulders, he meets on the road -a revenue officer of the State, and they enter into conversation. -“Do you know,” said the officer, “that the teacher of Gais is about -to leave his school? Would you not like to succeed him?--It is -not a question of what I would like; a school-master should have -knowledge, in which I am absolutely lacking.--What a school-master -can and should know with us, you might easily learn at your -age.”--Krüsi reflected, went to work, and copied more than a -hundred times a specimen of writing which he had procured; and he -declares that this was his only preparation. He registered for -examination. The day for the trial arrived. - -“There were but two competitors of us,” he says. “The principal -test consisted in writing the Lord’s Prayer, and to this I gave my -closest attention. I had observed that in German, use was made of -capital letters; but I did not know the rule for their use, and -took them for ornaments. So I distributed mine in a symmetrical -manner, so that some were found even in the middle of words. In -fact, neither of us knew anything. - -“When the examination had been estimated, I was summoned, and -Captain Schœpfer informed me that the examiners had found us both -deficient; that my competitor read the better, but that I excelled -him in writing; ... that, besides, my apartment, being larger -than that of the other candidate, was better fitted for holding a -school, and, finally, that I was elected to the vacant place.” - -Is it not well to be indulgent to teachers whom we meet on the -highway, who scarcely know how to write, and whom a captain -commissions? - - -507. THE INSTITUTE AT BURGDORF (1802).--When Pestalozzi published -the _Gertrude_ and _The Book for Mothers_, he was not simply a -school-master at Burgdorf; he had taken charge of an institute, -that is, of a boarding-school of higher primary instruction. There -also he applied the natural method, “which makes the child proceed -from his own intuitions, and leads him by degrees, and through -his own efforts, to abstract ideas.” The institute succeeded. The -pupils of Burgdorf were distinguished especially by their skill -in drawing and in mental arithmetic. Visitors were struck with -their air of cheerfulness. Singing and gymnastics were held in -honor, and also exercises on natural history, learned in the open -field, and during walks. Mildness and liberty characterized the -internal management. “It is not a school that you have here,” said -a visitor, “but a family!” - - -508. JOURNEY TO PARIS.--It was at this period that Pestalozzi -made a journey to Paris, as a member of the _consulta_ called by -Bonaparte to decide the fate of Switzerland. He hoped to take -advantage of his stay in France to disseminate his pedagogical -ideas. But Bonaparte refused to see him, saying that he had -something else to do besides discussing questions of _a b c_. -Monge, the founder of the Polytechnic School, was more cordial, and -kindly listened to the explanations of the Swiss pedagogue. But -he concluded by saying, “It is too much for us!” More disdainful -still, Talleyrand had said, “It is too much for the people!” - -On the other hand, at the same period, the philosopher Maine -de Biran, then sub-prefect at Bergerac, called a disciple of -Pestalozzi, Barraud, to found schools in the department of -Dordogne, and he encouraged with all his influence the application -of the Pestalozzian method. - - -509. THE INSTITUTE AT YVERDUN (1805-1825).--In 1803 Pestalozzi -was obliged to leave the castle of Burgdorf. The Swiss government -gave him in exchange the convent of München-Buchsee. Pestalozzi -transferred his institute to this place, but only for a little -time. In 1805 he established himself at Yverdun, at the foot of -Lake Neufchâtel, in French Switzerland; and here, with the aid of -several of his colleagues, he developed his methods anew, with -brilliant success at first, but afterwards through all sorts of -vicissitudes, difficulties, and miseries. - -The institute at Yverdun was rather a school of secondary -instruction, devoted to the middle classes, than a primary school -proper. Pupils poured in from all sides. The character of the -studies, however, was poorly defined, and Pestalozzi found himself -somewhat out of his element in his new institution, since he -excelled only in elementary methods and in the education of little -children. - - -510. SUCCESS OF THE INSTITUTE.--Numerous visitors betook themselves -to Yverdun, some through simple love of strolling. The institute -of Yverdun made a part, so to speak, of the curiosities of -Switzerland. People visited Pestalozzi as they went to see a -lake or a glacier. As soon as notice was given of the arrival of -a distinguished personage, Pestalozzi summoned one of his best -masters, Ramsauer or Schmid. - -“Take your best pupils,” he said, “and show the Prince what we are -doing. He has numerous serfs, and when he is convinced, he will -have them instructed.” - -These frequent exhibitions entailed a great loss of time. Disorder -reigned in the instruction. The young masters whom Pestalozzi had -attached to his fortunes were overwhelmed with work, and could not -give sufficient attention to the preparation of their lessons. -Pestalozzi was growing old, and did not succeed in completing his -methods. - - -511. THE TENTATIVES OF PESTALOZZI.--The teaching of Pestalozzi was -in reality but a long groping, an experiment ceaselessly renewed. -Do not require of him articulate ideas, and methods definitely -established. Always on the alert, and always in quest of something -better, his admirable pedagogic instinct never came to full -satisfaction. His merit was that he was always on the search for -truth. His theories almost always followed, rather than preceded, -his experiments. A man of intuition rather than of reasoning, he -acknowledges that he went forward without considering what he -was doing. He had the merit of making many innovations, but he -was wrong in taking counsel of no one but himself, and of his -personal feelings. “We ought to read nothing,” he said; “we ought -to discover everything.” Pestalozzi never knew how to profit by the -experience of others. - -He never arrived at complete precision in the establishment of his -methods. He complained of not being understood, and he was not -in fact. One of his pupils at Yverdun, Vulliemin, thus expresses -himself:-- - -“That which was called, not without pretense, the _method_ -of Pestalozzi was an enigma for us. It was for our teachers -themselves. Each of them interpreted the doctrine of the master -in his own way; but we were still far from the time when these -divergencies engendered discord; when our principal teachers, after -each had given out that he alone had comprehended Pestalozzi, ended -by asserting that Pestalozzi himself was not understood; that he -had not been understood except by Schmid, said Schmid, and by -Niederer, said Niederer.” - - -512. METHODS AT YVERDUN.--The writer whom we have just quoted -gives us valuable information on the methods which were in use at -Yverdun:-- - -“Instruction was addressed to the intelligence rather than to the -memory. Attempt, said Pestalozzi to his colleagues, to _develop_ -the child, and not to _train_ him as one trains a dog.” - -“Language was taught us by the aid of intuition; we learned to see -correctly, and through this very process to form for ourselves a -correct idea of the relations of things. What we had conceived -clearly we had no difficulty in expressing clearly.” - -“The first elements of geography were taught us on the spot.... -Then we reproduced in relief with clay the valley of which we had -just made a study.” - -“We were made to invent geometry by having marked out for us the -end to reach, and by being put on the route. The same course was -followed in arithmetic; our computations were made in the head and -_viva voce_, without the aid of paper.” - - -513. DECADENCE OF THE INSTITUTE.--Yverdun enjoyed an extraordinary -notoriety for some years. But little by little the faults of the -method became apparent. Internal discords and the misunderstanding -of Pestalozzi’s colleagues, of Niederer, “the philosopher of -the method,” and of Schmid, the mathematician, hastened the -decadence of an establishment in which order and discipline had -never reigned. Pestalozzi was content with being the spur of the -institute. He became more and more unfit for practical affairs. -He allowed all liberty to his assistants, and also to his pupils. -At Yverdun the pupils addressed their teachers in familiar style. -The touching fiction of paternity transported into the school, -which was successful with Pestalozzi in his first experience -in teaching, and with a small number of pupils, was no longer -practicable at Yverdun, with a mass of pupils of every age and of -every disposition. - - -514. JUDGMENT OF PÈRE GIRARD.--In 1809 the Père Girard[221] was -commissioned by the Swiss government to inspect the institute. -The result was not favorable, though Girard acknowledges that he -conceived the idea of his own method from studying at first hand -that of Pestalozzi. - -The principal criticism of Girard bears on the abuse of -mathematics, which, under the influence of Schmid, became in fact -more and more the principal occupation of teachers and pupils. - -“I made the remark,” he says, “to my old friend Pestalozzi, -that the mathematics exercised an unjustifiable sway in his -establishment, and that I feared the results of this on the -education that was given. Whereupon he replied to me with spirit, -as was his manner: ‘This is because I wish my children to believe -nothing which cannot be demonstrated as clearly to them as that two -and two make four.’ My reply was in the same strain: ‘In that case, -if I had thirty sons, I would not entrust one of them to you, for -it would be impossible for you to demonstrate to him, as you can -that two and two make four, that I am his father, and that I have -a right to his obedience.’” - -It is evident that Pestalozzi was deviating from his own -inclinations. The general character of his pedagogy is in fact to -avoid abstraction, and in all things to aim at concrete and living -intuition. Even in religion, he deliberately excluded dogmatic -teaching, precise and literal form, and sought only to awaken in -the soul a religious sentiment, sincere and profound. The Père -Girard had remarked to him that the religious instruction of his -pupils was vague and indeterminate, and that their aspirations -lacked the doctrinal form. “The form,” replied Pestalozzi, “I am -still looking for it!” - - -515. THE LAST YEARS OF PESTALOZZI.--Disheartened by the decadence -of his institute, Pestalozzi left Yverdun in 1824, and sought -a retreat at Neuhof, on the farm where he had tried his first -experiments in popular education. It is here that he wrote his -last two works,--_The Swan’s Song_ and _My Destinies_. January 25, -1827, he was taken to Brugg to consult a physician. He died there -February 17; and two days after he was buried at Birr. It is there -that the Canton of Argovia erected a monument to him in 1846, with -the following inscription:-- - -“Here lies Henry Pestalozzi, born at Zurich, January 12, 1746, -died at Brugg, February 17, 1827, savior of the poor at Neuhof, -preacher of the people in _Leonard and Gertrude_, father of orphans -at Stanz, founder of the new people’s school at Burgdorf and at -München-Buchsee, educator of humanity at Yverdun, man, Christian, -citizen: everything for others, nothing for himself. Blessed be his -name.” - - -516. ESSENTIAL PRINCIPLES.--Pestalozzi never took the trouble to -formulate the essential principles of his pedagogy. Incapable of -all labor in abstract reflection, he borrowed from his friends, -on every possible occasion, the logical exposition of his own -methods. In his first letter to Gessner, he is only too happy to -reproduce the observations of the philanthropist Fischer, who -distinguished five essential principles in his system:-- - -1. To give the mind an intensive culture, and not simply extensive: -to form the mind, and not to content one’s self with furnishing it; - -2. To connect all instruction with the study of language; - -3. To furnish the mind for all its operations with fundamental -data, mother ideas; - -4. To simplify the mechanism of instruction and study; - -5. To popularize science. - -On several points, indeed, Pestalozzi calls in question the -translation which Fischer has given of his thought; but, -notwithstanding these reservations, powerless to find a more exact -formula, he accepts as a finality this interpretation of his -doctrine. - -Later, another witness of the life of Pestalozzi, Morf, also -condensed into a few maxims the pedagogy of the great teacher:-- - -1. Intuition is the basis of instruction; - -2. Language ought to be associated with intuition; - -3. The time to learn is not that of judging and of criticising; - -4. In each branch, instruction ought to begin with the simplest -elements, and to progress by degrees while following the -development of the child, that is to say, through a series of steps -psychologically connected; - -5. We should dwell long enough on each part of the instruction for -the pupil to gain a complete mastery of it; - -6. Instruction ought to follow the order of natural development, -and not that of synthetic exposition; - -7. The individuality of the child is sacred; - -8. The principal end of elementary instruction is not to cause the -child to acquire knowledge and talents, but to develop and increase -the forces of his intelligence; - -9. To wisdom there must be joined power; to theoretical knowledge, -practical skill; - -10. The relations between master and pupil ought to be based on -love; - -11. Instruction proper ought to be made subordinate to the higher -purpose of education. - -Each one of these aphorisms would need a long commentary. It is -sufficient, however, to study them in the aggregate, in order to -form an almost exact idea of that truly humane pedagogy which -reposes on psychological principles. - -Krüsi could say of his master: “With respect to the ordinary -knowledge and practices of the school, Pestalozzi was far below -a good village _magister_; but he possessed something infinitely -superior to that which can be given by a course of instruction, -whatever it may be. He knew that which remains concealed from a -great number of teachers,--the human spirit and the laws of its -development and culture, the human heart and the means of vivifying -it and ennobling it.” - - -517. PEDAGOGICAL PROCESSES.--The pedagogy of Pestalozzi is no less -valid in its processes than in its principles. Without presuming -to enumerate everything, we will indicate succinctly some of the -scholastic practices which he employed and recommended:-- - -The child should know how to speak before learning to read. - -For reading, use should be made of movable letters glued on -pasteboard. Before writing, the pupil should draw. The first -exercises in writing should be upon slates. - -In the study of language, the evolution of nature should be -followed, first studying nouns, then qualificatives, and finally -propositions. - -The elements of computation shall be taught by the aid of material -objects taken as units, or at least by means of strokes drawn on a -board. Oral computation shall be the most employed. - -The pupil ought, in order to form an accurate and exact idea of -numbers, to conceive them always as a collection of strokes or of -concrete things, and not as abstract figures. A small table divided -into squares in which points are represented, serves to teach -addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. - -There was neither book nor copy-book in the schools of Burgdorf. - -The children had nothing to learn by heart. They had to repeat all -at once and in accord the instructions of the master. Each lesson -lasted but an hour, and was followed by a short interval devoted to -recreation. - -Manual labor, making paper boxes, working in the garden, -gymnastics, were associated with mental labor. The last hour of -each day was devoted to optional labor. The pupils said, “We are -working for ourselves.” - -A few hours a week were devoted to military exercises. - -Surely everything is not to be commended in the processes which -we have just indicated. It is not necessary, for example, that -the child conceive, when he computes, the content of numbers, -and Pestalozzi sometimes makes an abuse of sense intuition. He -introduces analysis, and an analysis too subtile and too minute, -into studies where nature alone does her work. “My method,” he -said, “is but a refinement of the processes of nature.” He refines -too much. - - -518. PESTALOZZI AND ROUSSEAU.--Pestalozzi has often acknowledged -what he owed to Rousseau. “My chimerical and unpractical spirit was -taken,” he said, “with that chimerical and impracticable book.... -The system of liberty ideally established by Rousseau, excited in -me an infinite longing for a wider and more bounteous sphere of -activity.” - -The great superiority of Pestalozzi over Rousseau, is that he -worked for the people,--that he applied to a great number of -children the principles which Rousseau embodied only in an -individual and privileged education. Émile, after all, is an -aristocrat. He is rich, and of good ancestry; and is endowed with -all the gifts of nature and fortune. Real pupils do not offer, -in general, to the action of teachers, material as docile and -complaisant. Pestalozzi had to do only with children of the common -people, who have everything to learn at school, because they have -found at home, with busy or careless parents, neither encouragement -nor example,--because their early years have been only a long -intellectual slumber. For these benumbed natures, many exercises -are necessary which would properly be regarded as useless if it -were a question of instructing children of another condition. -Before condemning, before ridiculing, the trifling practices of -Pestalozzi, and of teachers of the same school, we should consider -the use to which these processes were applied. The real organizer -of the education of childhood and of the people, Pestalozzi has a -right to the plaudits of all those who are interested in the future -of the masses of the people. - - -519. CONCLUSION.--We should not flatter ourselves that merely by -means of an analysis of Pestalozzi’s methods, we can comprehend -the service of a man who excelled in the warmth of his charity, in -his ardor of devotion and of propagandism, and in I know not what -that makes a grand personality, more than by the clearness and the -exactness of his theories. It is somewhat with Pestalozzi as with -those great actors who carry with them to their tomb a part of the -secret of their art. - -He was especially great in heart and in love. To read some of his -writings, we would sometimes be tempted to say that his intellect -was far inferior to the expectation excited by his name; but what -a splendid revenge he takes in the domain of sentiment! - -He passionately loved the people. He knew their sufferings, and -nothing turned him from his anxiety to cure them. In the presence -of a beautiful landscape, he thought less of the charming scene -that was displayed before his eyes than of the poor people who, -under those splendors of nature, led a life of misery. - -That which assures him an immortal glory is the high purpose that -he set before himself,--his ardor to regenerate humanity through -instruction. Of what consequence is it that the results obtained -were so disproportionate to his efforts, and that he could say, -“The contrast between what I would and what I could is so great -that it cannot be expressed”? Even the French Revolution did -not succeed in the matter of instruction, in making its works -commensurate with its aspirations. - -The love and the admiration of all the friends of instruction are -forever secured to Pestalozzi. He was the most suggestive, the -most stimulating, of modern educators. If it was not given him to -act sufficiently on French pedagogy, he was in Germany the great -inspirer of reform in popular education. While he was despised by -Bonaparte, he obtained, in 1802, from the philosopher Fichte, this -fine compliment, “It is from the institute of Pestalozzi that I -expect the regeneration of the German nation.” - - - [520. ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.--1. _Inveniam viam aut faciam._ To know - the end is to find the way; and to be possessed of an impulse to - reach an end is to make a way. There are thus two categories of - educational reformers. Some see a goal by the light of reason - and reflection, and then lay out a logical route to it which - they may or may not traverse, but which some one will ultimately - traverse. Others are dominated by an intense feeling, and grope - their uncertain way towards a goal whose outline and position are - only dimly discerned through the mists of emotion. With some, - the motive is intellectual, with others, it is emotional; and - in their higher manifestations these endowments are mutually - exclusive. - - 2. Pestalozzi belongs pre-eminently to the emotional reformers. - He felt intensely, but he saw vaguely. His impulses were the - highest and the noblest that can animate the human soul, but - at every stage in his career his success was compromised by - his inability to see things in their normal relations and - proportions. Conscious of his inability to frame a rational - defence of his system, he was glad to borrow philosophic insight - from abroad; but he could not live with colleagues who would test - the logic of his methods. - - 3. Tested by the simplest rules of order, symmetry, and economy, - the schools organized by Pestalozzi were failures; but tested by - the exalted humanity, the heroic devotion, and self-sacrifice of - their founder, and by the new life which, through his example, - was henceforth to animate the teaching profession, his schools - were successful beyond all precedent. Judged by modern standards, - Pestalozzi was a poor teacher, but an unsurpassed educator. - - 4. The conception which the humanitarian warmth of Pestalozzi’s - nature converted into a motive, was that true education is a - growth, the outward evolution of an inward life. The conception - itself was as old as David and Socrates, but it had ceased to - have the power of a living truth. - - 5. The history of human thought shows that there has ever - been a tendency to separate form from content, or letter from - spirit, and as constant a predilection for form or letter, as - distinguished from content or spirit; and the essential work of - reform has consisted in reanimation. This illustrates and defines - Pestalozzi’s mission as an educator. The story of his devotion - and suffering is the most pathetic in the history of education, - and it should be unnecessary to repeat the lesson that was taught - at such cost.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[216] Besides Basedow, there should be mentioned among the -educators who have become noted in Germany under the name of -Philanthropists, Salzman (1744-1811) and Campe (1746-1818). - -[217] What a painstaking soul to be so exact in his accounts! -Doubtless he had an eye to the future publication of his record -as a _maître de fouet_! This account is rather too exact to be -trustworthy. (P.) - -[218] See interesting quotations from the “_Journal d’un père_,” in -the excellent biography of Pestalozzi, by Roger de Guimps. - -[219] See Chap. XIX. - -[220] A second edition appeared in the lifetime of the author, in -1820, with some important modifications. The French translation -published in 1882 by Dr. Darin was made from the first edition. - -[221] See the following chapter. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -THE SUCCESSORS OF PESTALOZZI.--FRŒBEL AND THE PÈRE GIRARD. - - THE PEDAGOGY OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY; FRŒBEL (1782-1852); YOUTH - OF FRŒBEL; DIFFERENT EMPLOYMENTS; CALL TO TEACH; FRŒBEL AND - PESTALOZZI; TREATISE ON THE SPHERICAL; NEW STUDIES; INSTITUTE OF - KEILHAU; THE EDUCATION OF MAN; ANALYSIS OF THAT WORK; LOVE FOR - CHILDREN; UNITY OF EDUCATION; DIFFERENT STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT - OF MAN; NATURALISM OF FRŒBEL; NEW EXPERIMENTS IN TEACHING; - KINDERGARTENS; ORIGIN OF THE KINDERGARTENS; THE GIFTS OF FRŒBEL; - APPEAL TO THE INSTINCTS OF THE CHILD; IMPORTANCE OF SPORTS; - PRINCIPAL NEEDS OF THE CHILD; FAULTS IN FRŒBEL’S METHOD; THE LAST - ESTABLISHMENTS OF FRŒBEL; FRŒBEL AND DIESTERWEG; POPULARITY OF - FRŒBEL; THE PÈRE GIRARD (1765-1850); LIFE OF THE PÈRE GIRARD; - PLAN OF EDUCATION FOR HELVETIA; LAST YEARS OF THE PÈRE GIRARD; - TEACHING OF THE MOTHER TONGUE; GRAMMAR OF IDEAS; DISCREET USE OF - RULES; EDUCATIVE COURSE IN THE MOTHER TONGUE; ANALYSIS OF THAT - WORK; MORAL ARITHMETIC; MORAL GEOGRAPHY; INFLUENCE OF GIRARD; - ANALYTICAL SUMMARY. - - -521. THE PEDAGOGY OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.--Pestalozzi really -belongs to our century by the close of his career, and especially -by the posthumous glory of his name. With Frœbel and the Père -Girard, we enter completely upon the nineteenth century; both, in -different degrees and with characteristics of their own, continue -the work of Pestalozzi. - - -522. FRŒBEL (1782-1852).--It may be said of Frœbel as of -Pestalozzi, that in France at least, he is more praised than -known, more celebrated than studied. We have been tardy in -speaking of him,--it is scarcely twenty years since; but it seems -that our admiration has sought to atone for the slowness of its -manifestation by its vivacity and its ardor. The name of the -founder of _Kindergartens_ has become almost popular, while his -writings have remained almost unknown. - -An impartial and thorough study of Frœbel’s work will abate rather -than encourage this excessive infatuation and this somewhat -artificial enthusiasm. Assuredly, Frœbel had grand qualities as a -teacher; but he lacked a profound classical culture and also the -sense of proportion. Like most of the Germans of this century, -he has ventured on the conceptions of a nebulous philosophy, and -following the steps of Hegel, he has too often deserted the route -of observation and experiment, to strike out into metaphysical -divagations. Frœbel’s imagination magnifies and distorts -everything. He cannot see objects as they are, but lends them a -symbolical meaning, and wanders off into transcendental and obscure -considerations. But his practical work is worth more than his -writings, and he cannot be denied the glory of having been a bold -and happy innovator in the field of early education. - - -523. THE YOUTH OF FRŒBEL.--Frœbel was born in Thuringia in 1782. He -lost his mother almost at birth, and was educated by his father and -his uncle, both village pastors. We recollect that by a contrary -destiny, Pestalozzi was brought up by his mother. From his earliest -years he manifested remarkable traits of character, and also mental -tendencies which were a little singular. He was dreamy and wholly -penetrated with a profound religious sentiment. Thus, the day -when he believed that he was assured by peremptory reasoning that -he was not doomed to eternal flames, was an event in his life. -Ardently enamored of nature, he considers her as the true inspirer -of humanity. This had also been the conception of Rousseau and of -Pestalozzi, but it exhibits itself with much more power in the case -of Frœbel. - -It is difficult to comprehend the exaggeration of his thought when -he says that nature, attentively observed, appears to us as the -symbol of the highest aspirations of human life. - -“Entire nature, even the world of crystals and stones, teaches us -to recognize good and evil, but nowhere in a more living, tranquil, -clear, and evident way than in the world of plants and flowers.” - -Morality, thus understood, is a little vague. We do not deny that -the calm life of the fields contributes to surround us with a -pure atmosphere, and to beget within us wholesome and elevated -aspirations; but one must have a singularly sentimental temperament -to believe that nature can give us “the clearest and the most -obvious” lessons in morals. - - -524. DIFFERENT OCCUPATIONS.--The first part of Frœbel’s life -gives evidence of a certain unsteadiness of mind. Inconstant in -his tastes, he cannot settle on a fixed mode of life. Improvident -and poor, like Pestalozzi, he is in turn forester, intendant, -architect, preceptor; he feels his way up to the day when his -vocation as a teacher is suddenly revealed to him. Moreover, he -studies everything,--law, mineralogy, agriculture, mathematics. - - -525. VOCATION TO TEACH.--It was in 1805, at Frankfort, that Frœbel -began to teach. He was then twenty-three. The teacher Gruner -offered him a position as instructor in the model school which he -directed; Frœbel accepted, but he was of that number who do nothing -artlessly. - -“An accidental circumstance determined my decision. I received news -that my certificates were lost [certificates that he had sent to -an architect to secure a position with him]. I then concluded that -Providence had intended, by this incident, to take from me the -possibility of a return backward.” - -At the end of a few days he wrote to his brother Christopher:-- - -“It is astonishing how my duties please me. From the first lesson -it seemed to me that I had never done anything else, and that I -was born for that very thing. I could no longer make it seem to me -that I had previously thought of following any occupation but this, -and yet I confess that the idea of becoming a teacher had never -occurred to me.” - - -526. FRŒBEL AND PESTALOZZI.--At the school in Frankfort, Frœbel, -still a novice in the art of teaching, attempted scarcely more than -scrupulously to apply the Pestalozzian methods. - -And upon many points Frœbel remained to the end a faithful disciple -of Pestalozzi. Intuition is the fundamental principle of his -method, and we might say that his effort in pedagogy consists -chiefly in organizing into a system the sense intuitions which -Pestalozzi proposed to the child somewhat at random and without -plan. - -Frœbel had had direct relations with Pestalozzi. In 1808 he went to -Yverdun with three of his pupils, and there spent two years, taking -part in the work of the institute, and becoming acquainted with the -methods of the master. He declares that it was a “decisive” epoch -in his life. - -But let us note, in passing, the difference in character between -Pestalozzi and Frœbel. While Pestalozzi is ever ready to accuse -himself with a touching humility, Frœbel regards himself as almost -infallible. He never attributes failure to his own insufficiency, -but lays the blame on destiny or on the ill-will of others. -Pestalozzi is ever forgetting himself, and he is so neglectful as -to be uncouth in his attire. “He never knew how to dress,” say his -biographers; “his distraction made him forget sometimes his cravat, -and at others his garters.” Frœbel, on the contrary, affected an -elegant and theatrical bearing. He studied effect. At certain -periods, as we are told, he wore Hessian boots and a Tyrolese cap -with high plumes. - - -527. THE TREATISE ON SPHERICITY (1811).--It was about 1811 that -the peculiar originality of Frœbel manifested itself, and this -was done, it must be confessed, in an unfortunate way, by the -publication of his _Treatise on Sphericity_. - -Pestalozzi somewhere wrote: “If my life is entitled to any credit, -it is that of having placed the square at the basis of an intuitive -instruction which has never yet been given to a people.”[222] This -language coming from Pestalozzi is certainly calculated to surprise -us; but at least Pestalozzi meant square in the proper sense of -the term, as a geometrical figure, or as a form for drawing. When -Frœbel speaks to us of the sphere, and makes of it the basis of -education, it is a wholly different thing. - -In reading the _Treatise on Sphericity_, we are sometimes tempted -to inquire whether we have to do with a well-balanced mind, or -whether an exuberant imagination has not caused the author to lose -the consciousness of reality. - -According to Frœbel, the sphere is the ideal form:-- - -“The sphere seems like the prototype or the unity of all bodies -and of all forms. Not an angle, not a line, not a plane, not -a surface, is shown in it, and yet it has all points and all -surfaces.” - -Let this pass; but besides this, the sphere has mysterious -relations with spiritual things; it teaches the perfection of the -moral life. - -“To labor conscientiously at the development of the spherical -nature of a being, is to effect the education of a being.” - -An incident borrowed from the life of Frœbel will complete the -picture. He enlisted as a volunteer in 1812, and made the campaigns -of 1812-1813, with Langethal and Middendorf, who were afterward to -be his colleagues. After the war, he returned to Berlin, passing -through the whole of Germany. During the whole journey, he says, “I -was seeking something, but without reaching a definite idea of what -I was in quest of, and nothing could satisfy me. Wholly engrossed -in this thought, I entered one day into a very beautiful garden, -ornamented with plants the most various. I admired them, and yet -none of them brought relief to my inmost feeling. - -“Passing them in review, at a glance, in my soul, I suddenly -discovered that among them there was no lily.... Then I knew what -was lacking in that garden, and what I was looking for. How could -my inmost feeling have manifested itself to me in a more beautiful -way? You seek, I said to myself, tranquil peace of heart, harmony -of life, and purity of soul, in the image of the lily, that -peaceful flower, simple and pure. The garden, with all its varied -flowers, but without the blossoms of the lily, was for me like life -agitated and variegated, but without harmony and without unity.” - - -528. NEW STUDIES.--Frœbel returned to Berlin in 1814, and there -obtained an assistant’s place in the mineralogical museum. He -there studied at leisure the geometrical forms of crystals, and -reflected anew on their symbolical meaning. Perhaps he derived -from these studies the idea of the first gifts which he afterwards -introduced into his _Kindergartens_. It was not till two years -afterwards that he formed the definite resolution to devote -himself to the education of youth (1816). He first established -himself at Griesheim, and then at Keilhau (a league’s distance -from Rudolstadt), where, with five pupils, all his nephews, he -opened a school which he called by a pompous title, and one hardly -justifiable at the beginning, the _General German Institute of -Education_. He succeeded in associating with himself Langethal -and Middendorf. The establishment was administered at first on a -very modest scale, as the resources were slender; but it prospered -little by little, and in 1826 it numbered more than fifty pupils. - - -529. INSTITUTE AT KEILHAU.--The principles of Pestalozzi were -applied at Keilhau. Langethal and Middendorf passed their -apprenticeship in the Pestalozzian method under the direction of -Frœbel. The three professors met in the common hall, and there -were frequently heard as echoes from their discussion the words: -_intuition_, _personal initiative_, _proceeding from the known to -the unknown_. “They are learning the system,” said the children who -heard them. - -At Keilhau, physical, intellectual, and moral education marched -abreast. The master was to attempt to penetrate the individuality -of each child, to the end that he might thence provoke the free -development of that individuality. The government was austere and -the fare frugal. The system of physical hardening was carried to an -extreme. The pupils, winter and summer, wore a blouse and cotton -trousers. A considerable time was devoted to religious exercises. -Frœbel always remained attached to the Lutheran Church, though -his orthodoxy might have seemed open to suspicion, and he always -thought that education ought to be essentially religious. - -“All education that is not founded on religion is sterile.” And he -adds, “All education that is not founded on the Christian religion -is defective and incomplete.”[223] - - -530. THE EDUCATION OF MAN.--It was at Keilhau in 1826, that Frœbel -published his principal work, _The Education of Man_.[224] - -At that date, the idea of _Kindergartens_ had not yet taken form -in his mind; and _The Education of Man_ was not so much the -exposition of the practical applications of Frœbel’s method, as a -nebulous and tumid development of his metaphysical principles. It -is a book little read, and, let it be confessed, partly illegible! -We have ventured to speak of the nonsense written by Pestalozzi. -What shall be said of the mystical dreams of Frœbel? The pedagogy -of the Germans, like their philosophy, has for a century often -lost its way in strange theories which absolutely surpass the -comprehension of the French mind. From a mass of vague and -pretentious speculations on universal nature, there are culled with -difficulty some ideas which are well founded. However, let us try -to gather up the obscure idea of Frœbel, made still more obscure -by the exterior form of the work. In the first edition Frœbel had -omitted to introduce into the text any division into chapters and -paragraphs. The reading of this uninterrupted text could not fail -to be laborious; even with the somewhat artificial divisions which -were subsequently introduced, _The Education of Man_ remains -difficult to read and to analyze. - - -531. ANALYSIS OF THE WORK.--The introduction is the most -interesting part of the work. We might reduce the somewhat confused -ideas which it contains to three essential points, to three general -ideas, of philosophy, of psychology, and of pedagogy. - -The idea of general philosophy is this: “Everything comes solely -from God. In God is the unique principle of all things.” - -It is a vague pantheism which consists in believing that all the -objects of nature are the direct manifestations of the divine -activity. - -“The end, the destiny of each thing, is to publish abroad its -being, the activity of God which operates in it, and the manner -in which this activity is combined with the thing.” From these -premises Frœbel is logically brought to this psychological -statement, that everything is good in man, for it is God who acts -in him. He pushes his optimism so far as to say:-- - -“From his earliest age the child yields himself to justice and -right with a surprising tact, for we rarely see him avoiding them -voluntarily.” - -The pedagogical conclusion is easy to guess: Education shall be -essentially a work of liberty and of spontaneity. It ought to be -indulgent, flexible, supple, and restricted to protecting and -overseeing. - -“The vocation of man, considered as a reasonable intelligence, -is to let his nature act in manifesting the action of God, who -operates in him; to publish God outwardly, to acquire the knowledge -of his real destiny, and to accomplish it in all _liberty_ and -_spontaneity_.” - -These last two words are repeated _ad nauseam_. Frœbel goes so -far as to say that there can be no general form of education to -impose or even to recommend, because account must be taken of the -nature of each child, and the free development of his individuality -provoked by inviting him to action and to personal exertion. The -choice in the manifestation of the exterior form of education ought -to be left to the intelligence of the educator, and there ought to -be almost as many ways of educating men as there are individuals, -with their own natures aspiring to a personal development. - - -532. LOVE FOR CHILDREN.--Frœbel, and this is perhaps his best -quality, loves children tenderly. He speaks of them with touching -accents, but he does not fail to mingle with his affection for them -his habitual symbolism. The child is not for him simply the little -real being that he has under his eyes. He sees him through mystic -veils, so to speak, and, as it were, crowned with an aureole:-- - -“Let the child always appear to us as a living pledge of the -presence, of the goodness, and of the love of God.” - - -533. UNITY OF EDUCATION.--Frœbel is always bitterly complaining of -the fragmentary and scrappy character of the ordinary education. -His dream was to introduce unity into it. In this respect he -separates himself squarely from Rousseau. The different stages of -life form an uninterrupted chain. “Let life be considered as being -but one in all its phases, as forming one complete whole.” - - -534. DIFFERENT STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF MAN.--Frœbel, in _The -Education of Man_, considers in succession the different periods -of life. The first three chapters treat of the _first stages of -development_ in man,--the nurseling, the child, the young boy. We -here find pages full of charm, upon the education of the child by -the mother, and upon the progress of the faculties; but pretentious -considerations and whimsical interpretations too often come to -spoil the psychology of Frœbel. - -“The child,” he says, “scarcely knows whether he loves the flowers -for themselves, for the delight which they give him, ... or for the -vague intuition which they give him of the Creator.” - -Farther on he speaks of introducing the child to colors, and from -this exercise he at once draws moral conclusions: the child loves -colors because he comes by means of them “to the knowledge of an -interior unity.” - - -535. THE NATURALISM OF FRŒBEL.--The elements of education according -to Frœbel are, with religion; the artistic studies, mathematics, -language, and, above all, nature. “Teachers should scarcely let a -week pass without taking to the country a part of their pupils. -They shall not drive them before them like a flock of sheep.... -They shall walk with them as a father among his children, or a -brother among his brothers, in making them observe and admire the -varied richness which nature displays to their eyes at each season -of the year.” - - -536. NEW EXPERIMENTS IN TEACHING.--The institute of Keilhau did -not long prosper. In 1829 it was necessary to close it for lack of -pupils. Frœbel lacked the practical qualities of an administrator. -In 1831 he tried in vain to open a new school at Wartensee in -Switzerland. The attacks of the clerical party obliged him to -abandon his project. After several other attempts he was elected -director of an orphan asylum at Burgdorf; and it was there that -he resolved to devote his pedagogical efforts to the education of -early childhood. - -The little village of Burgdorf had the honor, within a period of -thirty-five years, of offering an asylum to Pestalozzi and to -Frœbel, and of being the scene of their experiments in pedagogy. - - -537. THE KINDERGARTENS.--The master conception of Frœbel, the -creation of the _Kindergarten_, was only slowly developed in his -mind. It was only in 1840 that he invented the term. Of course, -given the imagination of Frœbel, and his tendency to symbolism, -_children’s garden_ ought to be taken in its allegorical sense. The -child is a plant, the school a garden, and Frœbel calls teachers -“gardeners of children.”[225] - -But before giving a name to his school for early childhood, Frœbel -had long cherished the idea of it. In 1835, at Burgdorf, he -attempted to realize it; in 1837, at Blankenburg, near Rudolstadt, -he founded his first infant school. - - -538. ORIGIN OF THE KINDERGARTEN.--Without wishing to belittle the -originality of Frœbel’s creation, it is right to say that it was -suggested to him in part by Comenius. The philosopher Krause had -pointed out to him the importance of the writings of the Slavic -educator. He studied them, and the _Kindergarten_ certainly has -some relations of parenthood with the _schola materni gremii_. -There is, however, one essential difference between the idea of -Comenius and that of Frœbel,--the first confided to the mother the -cares which the second relegates to the teachers of the children’s -gardens. - -It is said that it was from seeing a child playing at ball that -Frœbel conceived the first idea of his system. We know what -importance he attached to the spherical form and to play. The first -principle of his _Kindergarten_ was then that the child ought to -play, and to play at ball. - -But Frœbel enveloped the simplest ideas in prolix and whimsical -theories. If he recommends the ball, it is not for positive -reasons, nor because it is an inoffensive play, very appropriate to -the need of movement which characterizes the child. It is because -the ball is the symbol of unity. The cube, which was to succeed the -ball, represents diversity in unity. It is also because the word -_ball_ is a symbolic word, formed from letters borrowed from the -German words _Bild von all, picture of the whole_. - -Frœbel came to attribute an occult meaning to the different letters -of words. He thought he found in the figures of the year 1836, the -date of his first conception of the _Kindergarten_, the proof that -that year was to open to humanity a new era, and he expressed his -views in an essay entitled: _The Year 1836 requires a Renovation -of Life_. In this we read such things as these: “The word marriage -(German _Ehe_) represents by its two vowels =e=-=e=, life; these -two vowels are united by the consonant _h_, thus symbolizing a -double life which the spirit unites; again, the two halves thus -united are similar and equal each to each: =e=-_h_-=e=.” And -farther on: “What does the word _German_ (_Deutsch_) signify? It -is derived from the word _deuten_ (signifying to manifest), which -designates the act by which self-conscious thought is clearly -manifested outwardly.... To be a German is then to raise one’s self -as an individual and as a whole, by a clear manifestation of one’s -self, to a clear consciousness of self.” - - -539. THE GIFTS OF FRŒBEL.--Under the graceful name of gifts, Frœbel -presents to the child a certain number of objects which are to -serve as material for his exercises. The five gifts are contained -in a box from which they are taken in succession, as the children -are in a condition to receive them. In the original plan of Frœbel, -these gifts were: 1. the ball; 2. the sphere and the cube; 3. the -cube divided into eight equal parts; 4. the cube divided into -eight rectangular parallelopipeds, in the form of building-bricks, -which the child will use as material for little constructions; -5. the cube divided in each of its dimensions, that is, cut into -twenty-seven equal cubes; three of them are subdivided into two -prisms, and three others into four prisms, by means of an oblique -section, single or double.[226] And to these gifts Frœbel added -other objects, such as thin strips of wood and little sticks for -constructing figures; and bits of paper for braiding, folding, -dotting, etc. - -The conception of Frœbel does not rest, as one might think, on -the adaptation of the objects which he chooses in succession, -to the faculties of the child. It is not this at all which -interests him. The order which he has adopted is derived from -another principle. According to him, the form of bodies has an -intimate relation with the general laws of the universe. There is, -consequently, a methodical gradation to be observed, according -to the intrinsic character of the objects themselves, for the -purpose of initiating the child into the laws of the divine thought -symbolized in the sphere, in the cube, in the cylinder, etc. Frœbel -was greatly irritated at those of his scholars who misunderstood -the philosophical import of his “gifts,” and who saw in them only -plays. “If my material for instruction possesses some utility,” -he said, “it does not owe it to its exterior appearance, which -has nothing striking and offers no novelty. It owes it simply -to the way in which I use it, that is, to my method and to the -philosophical law on which it is founded. The _justification of my -system of education is entirely in this law_; according as this law -is rejected or admitted, the system falls or continues with it. All -the rest is but material without any value of its own.” - -It is this “material,” however, which for Frœbel had no value, that -his admirers have above all preserved of his method, without longer -caring for the allegorical sense which he attached to it. - - -540. APPEAL TO THE INSTINCTS OF THE CHILD.--That which makes, -notwithstanding so much that is whimsical, the lasting merit of -Frœbel’s work, that which justifies in part the admiration which -it has excited, is that he organized the _salle d’asile_, the -infant school, and that he realized for it that which Pestalozzi -had attempted for the elementary school. He knew how to make an -appeal to the instincts of the youngest child, to combine a system -of exercises for the training of the hand, for the education of the -senses, to satisfy the need of movement and activity which develops -itself from the first day of life, and, finally, to make of the -child a creator, a little artist always at work. - -For the old education, which he calls “a hot-house education,” and -in which the instruction, premature through language, smothers in -their germs the native powers of the child, in order to excite his -memory and his judgment by artificial means,--for this education -he substitutes a free and cheerful education which cultivates the -faculties of the child by love, and which makes a just estimate of -his instincts. Books are suppressed, and lessons also. The child -freely expands in play. - - -541. THE IMPORTANCE OF PLAY.--With Frœbel, play became an essential -element of education. This ingenious teacher knew how to make -of it an art, an instrument for the development of the infant -faculties. - -“The plays of the child,” he said, “are, as it were, the germ of -the whole life which is to follow, for the whole man develops and -manifests itself in it; in it he reveals his noblest aptitudes -and the deepest elements of his being. The whole life of man has -its source in that epoch of existence, and whether that life is -serene or sad, tranquil or agitated, fruitful or sterile, whether -it brings peace or war, that depends on the care, more or less -judicious, given to the beginnings of existence.” - - -542. PRINCIPAL NEEDS OF THE CHILD.--Gréard, in a remarkable study -on the method of Frœbel, reduces the aspirations of the child to -three essential instincts:-- - -1. The taste for observation:-- - -“All the senses of the child are on the alert; all the objects -which his sight or his hand encounters attract him, interest him, -delight him.” - -2. The need of activity, the taste for construction:-- - -“It is not enough that we show him objects; it is necessary that -he touch them, that he handle them, that he appropriate them to -himself.... He takes delight in constructing; he is naturally -geometrician and artist.” - -3. Finally, the sentiment of personality:-- - -“He wishes to have his own place, his own occupation, his own -teacher.” - -Now Frœbel’s method has precisely for its object the satisfaction -of these different instincts. - -“To place the child before a common table,” says Gréard, “but with -his own chair and a place that belongs to him, so that he feels -that he is the owner of his little domain; to excite at the very -beginning his good will by the promise of an interesting game; -to develop in succession under his very eyes the marvels of the -five gifts: to teach him in the first place, from concrete objects -exposed to his sight, balls of colored worsted and geometrical -solids, to distinguish color, form, material, the different parts -of a body, so as to accustom him to _see_, that is, to seize the -aspects, the figures, the resemblances, the differences, the -relations of things; then to place the objects in his hands, and to -teach him to make with the balls of colored worsted combinations -of colors agreeable to the eye, to arrange, with matches united -by balls of cork, squares, angles, triangles of all sorts, to set -up little cubes in the form of crosses, pyramids, etc.;--then, -either by means of strips of colored paper placed in different -directions, interlaced into one another, braided as a weaver would -make a fabric, or with the crayon, to drill him in reproducing, -in creating, designs representing all the geometrical forms, so -that to the habit of observation is gradually joined that of -invention; finally, while his hand is busy in concert with his -intelligence, and while his need of activity is satisfied, to take -advantage of this awakened and satisfied attention to fix in his -mind by appropriate questions some notions of the properties and -uses of forms, by relating them to some great principle of general -order, simple and fruitful, to mingle the practical lesson with -moral observations, drawn in particular from the incidents of the -school--this, in its natural progress and its normal development, -is the method of Frœbel.” - - -543. DEFECTS IN FRŒBEL’S METHOD.--There is ground for thinking, -notwithstanding all, that Frœbel’s method is a little complicated, -a little artificial, and that it sometimes proceeds in opposition -to the natural disposition of children. Their soul, he said, -cannot in the first period of its development, recognize itself, -apprehend itself, save in the perception of the simplest forms of -the exterior world, presented in a concrete manner. Now nature of -herself does not offer these elementary forms; it is necessary to -know how to extract them from the infinite diversity of things. And -Frœbel found these simple forms in the sphere, the cube, and the -cylinder. - -But these forms, we reply, are but abstractions; it does not -suffice to say that the cube and the sphere are material and -palpable,--they are none the less the product of abstract thought -on this account; nature does not present these simple geometrical -forms; everything in them is complex. Now the nascent thought is -employed at first on real things, on the living and irregular forms -of animals and vegetables; then in this case, the mind proceeds -naturally from the complex to the simple, from the concrete to the -abstract. It seems, on the contrary, that Frœbel begins with the -abstract in order to arrive at the concrete. - -In the school of Frœbel other defects have been developed. An -abuse has been made of the exercises in imitation and invention. -The child has been made to produce marvels of construction which -take too much of his time and demand of him too much effort. It -has been forgotten that these employments should be preparatory -exercises,--means, and not the end of education. - - -544. THE LAST ESTABLISHMENTS OF FRŒBEL.--Towards 1840, the ideas of -Frœbel began to become popular. His methods attracted attention. -Then he wished to transform his school at Blankenburg into a model -establishment. He addressed an appeal to the German nation in -favor of his work, but it was only slightly successful. Obliged in -1844 to close his institute, through lack of resources, he then -travelled through Germany in order to make known his methods. He -did not derive from his journey the profit that he expected from -it, and, discouraged, he returned once more to Keilhau, where he -opened a course in method, or a normal course, for the use of young -women who were preparing themselves for the education of infants. -This association with women, in which Frœbel lived till his death, -exercised a profound influence on the development of his system. -A much greater share of attention was given to the practical -exercises, and the mathematics was put in the background. - -In 1850 he obtained through the intervention of the Baroness von -Marenholtz, one of his most ardent admirers, the lease of the -Castle of Marienthal, and to this he transferred his establishment. -A long period of activity seemed opening before him. He personally -directed the games of the children, and trained the teachers; but -he died suddenly in 1852. - - -545. FRŒBEL AND DIESTERWEG.--However, before his death, Frœbel -was able to witness the growing success of his work. Each day he -received eminent adhesions; for example, that of Diesterweg.[227] -It was through the mediation of the Baroness von Marenholtz that -Frœbel and Diesterweg, the celebrated director of the normal school -of Berlin, became acquainted. Diesterweg was a strong and practical -spirit, who contributed much to the development of instruction in -Prussia. At first he had a contempt for Frœbel, whom he treated -as a charlatan; but on his first conversation with him he changed -his opinion. He was taken to the school-room in which Frœbel was -teaching; but wholly intent on his work, Frœbel did not observe -the presence of the visitor. Diesterweg was impressed by seeing -this old man devoting himself entirely to his little pupils, and -his prejudices disappeared. To a certain extent he became the -propagator of Frœbel’s ideas. He agreed with him on his general -conception of the needs of the child, and of the province of woman -as the earliest educator. - - -546. SUCCESS OF FRŒBEL’S WORK.--Frœbel had other imitators. Like -Pestalozzi, he inspired a large number of minds by his writings, -and through the zeal of Madame von Marenholtz, and of some other -disciples, his practical work prospered. The _Kindergartens_ have -been multiplied in many places, and particularly in Austria. - - -547. THE PÈRE GIRARD (1765-1850).--The Père Girard is the most -eminent educator of modern Switzerland. Less celebrated than -Pestalozzi and Frœbel, he yet has this advantage over them, of -having been better prepared for his profession as an educator. -After having finished a thorough and complete course of classical -study, he for a long time taught the same subjects in the same -school. He acquired experience and wrote his treatises only in an -advanced age, at a time when he was in complete possession of his -ideas. He was in fact seventy-nine years old when he published -his book _On the Systematic Teaching of the Mother Tongue_. It is -a work of mature thought, and sums up a whole lifetime of labor. -Less addicted to system than Frœbel and Pestalozzi, the Père Girard -still carries mere system too far, and makes a misuse of the -principle which consisted in making of all the parts of instruction -the elements of moral education. - - -548. LIFE OF THE PÈRE GIRARD.--Girard was born in Friburg in 1765. -His pedagogic instinct manifested itself at an early hour. While -still very young he aided his mother in instructing his fourteen -brothers and sisters. Like Frœbel, he was passionately fond of -religious questions. One day as he had heard his preceptor say -that there was no salvation outside of the Roman Church, he sought -his mother in tears, and asked her if the Protestant tradesman who -brought her fruit each day would be damned. His mother reassured -him, and he always remained faithful to what he called “the -theology of his mother,”--a tolerant and broad theology which -brought on him the hatred of the Jesuits. - -At the age of sixteen he entered the order of the Gray Friars, -and completed his novitiate at Lucerne. He then taught in several -convents, in particular at Wurtzburg, where he remained four years -(1785-1788). He returned to Friburg in 1789, and for ten years he -devoted himself almost exclusively to his ecclesiastical functions. - -But his vocation as an educator was even then indicated by some -things that he had written. - -In 1798, under the influence of the ideas of Kant, whose -philosophical doctrine he had ardently studied, he published a -_Scheme of Education for all Helvetia_, addressed to the Swiss -minister Stapfer, who was also the patron of Pestalozzi. - -It was only in 1804, that Girard devoted himself entirely to -teaching, the very year in which Frœbel began his work. He was -appointed to direct the primary school at Friburg, which had just -been entrusted to the Gray Friars. Girard received the title of -“prefect of studies,” and for nineteen years, from 1805 to 1823, he -exercised his functions as a teacher in that school. Very small in -the beginning, the school had a remarkable growth. There was added -to it even a school for girls. At first Girard had Gray Friars -for colleagues; but he soon replaced them with lay teachers, who -obeyed him better and devoted themselves more entirely to their -task. The teacher of drawing was a Protestant. - - -549. SUCCESS OF THE SCHOOL AT FRIBURG.--A disciple and an admirer -of Girard, the pastor Naville, has related in his work on _Public -Education_[228] the brilliant results obtained by Girard in his -school at Friburg. - -“He had trained a body of youth the like of which perhaps no city -in the world could furnish. It was not without a profound emotion -that the friends of humanity contemplated a spectacle so new and -so touching. That ignorant and boorish class, full of prejudices, -which everywhere abounds, was no longer met with at Friburg.... -The young there developed graces of an amiable deportment which -were never marred by anything disagreeable in tone, speech, or -manner. If, seeing children approaching you covered with rags, you -approached them thinking that you were about to encounter little -ruffians, you were wholly surprised to have them reply to you with -politeness, with judgment, and with that accent which bespeaks -genteel manners and a careful education.... You will find the -explanation in the school, when you observe the groups where these -same children exercise by turns, as in playing, their judgment -and their conscience. Three or four hours a day employed in this -work gave the young that intelligence, those sentiments, and those -manners which delighted you.” - - -550. THE LAST YEARS OF THE PÈRE GIRARD.--Notwithstanding the -success of his instruction, the Père Girard was obliged to abandon -the charge of his school in 1823. His loss of position was the -result of the intrigues of the Jesuits, whose college had been -re-established in 1818. He left Friburg amid universal regrets, and -retired to Lucerne, where he taught philosophy till 1834. At that -date he returned to his native city and lived a life of seclusion. -It was then that he wrote his pedagogical works. But through his -disciples, and particularly through the pastor Naville, the methods -of the Père Girard were known before he had published anything. - - -551. TEACHING OF THE MOTHER TONGUE.--Let us now examine the general -spirit of the pedagogy of Girard. It is in the theoretical work -which he published in 1844, and which was crowned by the French -Academy in the same year, that we must look for the principles -of his method. It consisted in “choosing a study which may be -considered as one essential part of the instruction common to all -the classes of society, and which nevertheless is fit for calling -into exercise all the intellectual powers.” This study was the -mother tongue, which Girard employed for the moral and religious -development of children. - -Villemain, in his report on the books of Girard, has clearly -defined the purpose of the common school as conceived by the -educator of Friburg:-- - -“Where the period of instruction is necessarily short and its -object limited, a wise choice of method is the thing of first -importance, for upon this choice will depend the education itself. -If that method is purely technical, if its exclusive object is -reading, writing, and the rules of grammar and computation, the -child of the common people will be poorly instructed and will not -be educated at all. A difficult task burdens his memory without -developing his soul. A new process is placed at his disposal, one -workshop more is open to him, so to speak; but the trace left by -that instruction will not be deep, will sometimes even be lost -through lack of application and exercise, and will not have acted -on the moral nature, too often absorbed eventually by a monotonous -devotion to duty or the excessive fatigue of bodily labor. The -only, the real people’s school, is then that in which all the -elements of study serve for the culture of the soul, and in which -the child grows better by the things which he learns and by the -manner in which he learns them.” - - -552. ANALYSIS OF THIS WORK.--The book of Girard is divided into -four parts. The first contains _general considerations_ on the -manner in which the mother teaches her children to speak, upon the -purpose of a course of instruction on the mother tongue, and on the -elements which should compose it. - -The second part is entitled: _The Systematic Teaching of the Mother -Tongue considered solely as the Expression of Thought_. It is -language considered in itself; but Girard desires that the word -should always be united to the thought. It is not necessary that -the teaching of grammar should be reduced to verbal instruction; it -should also serve to develop the thought of pupils. - -In the third part, the _Systematic Teaching of the Mother Tongue -considered as the Means of Intellectual Culture_, Girard considers -everything which can contribute to the development of the faculties. - -In the fourth part, the _Systematic Teaching of Language employed -for the Culture of the Heart_, Girard shows how the teaching of -language may assist in moral education. - -A fifth part, _Use of the Course in the Mother Tongue_, is, so to -speak, the material part of the book, and, as it were, the outline -of the great practical work of Girard, the _Educative[229] Course -in the Mother Tongue_. - - -553. THE GRAMMARIAN, THE LOGICIAN, THE EDUCATOR.--In other terms, -Girard places himself in succession at four different points of -view in the teaching of language:-- - -“Four persons,” he says, “ought to concur in constructing the -course in the mother tongue: the grammarian, the logician, the -educator, and, finally, the man of letters.” - -The task of the grammarian is to furnish the material of the -language and its proper forms. - -The logician will teach us what must be done in order to cultivate -the intelligence of the young. - -The educator will ever be inspired by this grand truth: “Man acts -as he loves, and he loves as he thinks.” He will try to grave in -the souls of children all the beautiful and grand truths which can -awaken and nourish pure and noble affections. - -Finally, the man of letters has also his part in the course in -language, in the sense that pupils, besides being required from the -beginning of their studies to invent propositions and sentences, -will have a little later to compose narratives, letters, dialogues, -etc. - - -554. THE GRAMMAR OF IDEAS.--Elementary instruction should have for -its purpose the development of the mind and the judgment. It is no -longer a question of cultivating the memory alone and of causing -words to be learned. The Père Girard would have grammar made an -exercise in thinking. - -“The grammars in use,” he says, “are intended simply to teach -correctness in speaking and writing. By their aid we are able -finally to avoid a certain number of faults in style and -orthography.... This instruction becomes a pure affair of memory, -and the child becomes accustomed to pronounce sounds to which he -attaches no meaning. The child needs a _grammar of ideas_.... Our -_grammars of words_ are the plague of education.” - -In other terms, grammar should be made above all else an exercise -in thinking, and, as it were, “the logic of childhood.” - - -555. DISCREET USE OF RULES.--The Père Girard does not proscribe -rules. The teaching of language cannot do without them; “but there -is,” he says, “a proper manner of presenting them to children, and -a just medium to hold.” - -In the teaching of grammar we must follow the course which the -grammarians themselves have followed in order to construct their -science: “The rules were established on facts. It is then to -facts that they must be referred in instruction, in order that by -this means children may be taught to do intelligently what they -have hitherto done through blind imitation.... Few rules, many -exercises. Rules are always abstract, dry, and for this very reason -poorly adapted to please children, even when they can comprehend -them. We ought, then, in general, to make a very sparing use of -them.” - -So the Père Girard particularly recommends practical exercises, -oral instruction, the continual use of the blackboard, the active -and animated co-operation of all the members of the class, rapid -interrogation, the Socratic method, the abuse of which, however, he -criticises.[230] - - -556. MORAL ARITHMETIC.[231]--The Père Girard, like almost all the -men who have conceived an original idea, has fallen into the love -of systematizing. He believed that not only language, but all the -branches of study might contribute to moral education. - -“He conceived,” says Naville, “that by means of a selection of -problems adapted to the development of the social affections in the -family, the commune, and the State, one might give to arithmetic -such a wholesome direction that it might be made to contribute, not -only to making the child prudent and economical, but even more to -extend his views beyond the narrow circle of selfishness, and to -cultivate in him beneficent dispositions.”[232] - - -557. MORAL GEOGRAPHY.--It is in the same spirit that he claimed -to find in the study of geography a means of contributing to the -development of the moral nature. - -“According to my honest conviction, every elementary work for -children ought to be a means of education. If it is limited to -giving knowledge, if it is limited to developing the faculties of -the pupil, I can approve the order and the life which the author -has known how to put into his work; but I am not satisfied with -it. I am even offended to find only a teacher of language, of -natural history, of geography, etc., when I expected something much -greater,--an instructor of the young, training the mind in order to -train the heart.... Geography lends itself as marvellously to this -sublime purpose, although in a sphere a little narrower.”[233] - - -558. EDUCATIVE COURSE IN THE MOTHER TONGUE.--Girard is not content -to state his doctrine in his book _On the Systematic Teaching -of the Mother Tongue_; but in the four volumes of his _Educative -Course_ (1844-1846) he has applied his method. Full of new and -radical views, original in the arrangement of material as in -its system of exposition, revolutionary even in its grammatical -terminology, this book is a mine from which we may borrow without -stint, only we shall not advise wholesale adoption: there is matter -to take and to leave.[234] - - -559. ANALYSIS OF THIS WORK.--The title indicates the general -character of the work. In his _Cours éducatif_, Girard does not -separate education from instruction. The purpose is to develop the -moral and religious sentiments of the child, no less than to teach -him his native language. - -The first lessons in grammar ought to be lessons in things. The -child is made to name the objects which he knows,--persons, -animals, things,--and through these he is made to acquire notions -of nouns, common and proper, of gender and number. He is then -induced to find for himself the physical, intellectual, and moral -qualities of objects, and by this means is made familiar with -qualifying adjectives. Care is taken, moreover, while causing each -quality to be named, as farther on while causing each judgment to -be expressed, to ask the child, “Is this right? Is this wrong?” - -The agreement of adjective with noun is learned by practice. The -child is drilled in applying adjectives to the nouns which he has -found, and _vice versa_. - -Once in possession of the essential elements of the proposition, -the child begins the study of the proposition itself, and finally -the study of the verb. Girard makes it a principle always to -have the conjugations made by means of propositions. At first, -however, he employs in simple propositions only the indicative, the -infinitive, the imperative, and the participle; he postpones till -later the study of the conditional and the subjunctive. It is to -be noted, in addition, that he brings forward simultaneously the -simple tenses of all the conjugations. - -The order followed by Girard is wholly different from that of the -ordinary grammars. This is how he explains it:-- - -“In their first part, the grammars set out in a row the nine sorts -of words, and thus give in rapid succession their definitions, -distinctions, and variable forms, which introduces a legion of -terms wholly unknown to the child. The second part of these -grammars takes up these words again in the same order, so as, in -an uninteresting way, to regulate their use in construction,--a -tedious and arid system, which affords the child no interest.” - -Elsewhere, speaking of his own work, he writes:-- - -“My work differs essentially from the grammars which are put in -the hands of children. When we write on language for adults, we -may adhere to definitions, distinctions, rules, and exceptions, -and formulate statements regarding their proper use; but he who -writes for children ought to have the education of the mind and -heart in view, and regulate on that basis the course and form of -instruction. The course ought to be rigorously progressive, and -the pupils ought, from beginning to end, to assist themselves in -constructing a grammar of their own.” - -“So, instead of making generalizations on the noun, adjective, -verb, etc., and of connecting with these parts of speech all that -relates to them, we must apply ourselves to the substance of -language, passing step by step from the simple to the complex, and -teaching children to think, in order to teach them to comprehend -and to speak the language of man. The little details cannot -appear till later, and as occasion requires. From this there -necessarily results a displacement of grammatical material which -has been industriously collected and arranged. Hence, also, a great -parsimony in definitions and abstract distinctions which repel -children.” - - -560. EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCE OF THE PÈRE GIRARD.--The influence -of the Père Girard was not extended simply to Switzerland. It -has radiated abroad. His ideas have been disseminated in Italy, -propagated by the Abbé Lambruschini and by Enrico Mayer. A journal -even has been founded to serve as the organ of the “Girardists” of -the Peninsula. In France, Michel, in the _Journal de l’éducation -pratique_, and Rapet in different works,[235] have commended to -public attention the methods of the Swiss educator. Finally, it -may be remarked that the principles very recently set forth by -the _Conseil supérieur de l’instruction publique_ (1880), on the -teaching of French in the elementary classes of the lycées, are in -great part the echo of the pedagogical doctrine of the Père Girard. - - - [561. ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.--1. In this study we have the third - exposition, in historical order,--Rousseau, Pestalozzi, - Frœbel,--of the doctrine of nature as applied to education. This - doctrine may be summarized as follows:-- - - The existing order of things is conceived as an animated - organism, and is personified under the term Nature. All living - things, such as plants, animals, and men, are products of - the creative power that is immanent in nature, and each is - predetermined to an upward development in the line of growth. - This growth is an unfolding from within outward, and each - individual thing, as a child, has reached the term of its - development when it has grown into the type of its kind. In - the case of the human species, this growth is best when it is - _natural_, and it is natural to the degree in which it takes - place without the deliberate intervention of art. This process - of development is Nature’s work, and its synonym is education. - Education is best when it is most _natural_, that is, when it - suffers least from human interference. The question of the - relative parts to be played by Nature and by Art in education has - given rise to two schools of educators. - - 2. In Frœbel’s application of this doctrine, the original - conception is obscured by three circumstances: 1. his deism; - 2. his mysticism or symbolism; 3. his dependence on artificial - agents, his “gifts,” and his belief in the potency of - abstractions. - - 3. The _Kindergarten_ has introduced many ameliorations into - primary instruction, and its tendency is to make child-life happy - through self-activity. Its shortcomings are that it undervalues - the acquisition of second-hand knowledge, obscures the - distinction between work and play, and indisposes, and perhaps - unfits, the pupil to contend with real difficulties.[236] - - 4. The effect of this new movement in primary instruction - upon educational science has been wholesome. It has induced - a closer study of child nature, has enlisted the sympathies - and affections in support of elementary instruction, and has - profoundly modified the conception of the primary school. - - 5. Whether the _Kindergarten_ is to be maintained apart, as an - institution _sui generis_, or whether it is to lose its identity - by the absorption of its spirit into the primary school, is a - question for the future. Probably the latter result will follow. - - 6. The misuse of a good thought is seen in the attempt of the - Père Girard to give a distinct moral value to every school - exercise. It is the verdict of experience that the moral value - of science is greatest when it is taught simply as science, and - that the direct teaching of ethics should be conducted on an - independent basis.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[222] _Comment Gertrude instruit ses enfants_, translated by Darin, -p. 204. - -[223] See the _Aphorisms_ published by Frœbel in 1821. - -[224] See the French translation by Madame de Crombrugghe, Paris, -1881. Also, the English translation by Josephine Jarvis, New York, -1885. - -[225] Consequently it is wrong to take Frœbel’s expression in the -sense that he wished to establish by the side of each school a -garden, a lawn planted with trees and adorned with flower-beds. See -Gréard, _L’instruction primaire à Paris_, 1877, p. 73. - -[226] The disciples of Frœbel have modified in different manners -his system of gifts. See, for example, the _Jardin d’enfants_, by -Goldammer, French translation by Louis Fournier, 1877. - -[227] See on Diesterweg the article by Pécaut, in the _Dictionnaire -de Pédagogie_. - -[228] _De l’éducation publique._ Paris, 1833, p. 158. Naville -(1784-1846) founded in 1817, at Vernier, near Geneva, an institute -where he applied with success the educative method of the Père -Girard. - -[229] I am aware that this term is not found in the latest Webster, -but I see no other way of expressing the force of the word -_éducatif_, which seems to signify the disciplinary, or rather the -culture, value of a study. (P.) - -[230] See Chap. III. of Book III. paragraph 1st. _Just medium -between two extremes._ - -[231] Here is an example from Père Girard’s arithmetic:-- - -“A father had the habit of going every evening to the dram-shop, -and often left his family at home without bread. During the five -years that he led this life, he spent, the first year, 197 francs, -the second, 204 francs, the third, 212 francs, and the fourth, 129 -francs. How many francs would this unfortunate father have saved if -he had not had a taste for drink?” (P.) - -[232] Naville, _De l’Éducation publique_, p. 411. - -[233] _Explication du plan de Fribourg en Suisse_, 1817. - -[234] See the interesting articles of Lafargue in the _Bulletin -pédagogique de l’enseignement secondaire_, 1882. - -[235] Messieurs Rapet and Michel were associated in the publication -of the _Cours éducatif de la langue maternelle_. - -[236] “Man owes his growth, his energy, chiefly to that striving -of the will, that conflict with difficulty, which we call effort. -Easy, pleasant work does not make robust minds, does not give men -a consciousness of their powers, does not train them to endurance, -to perseverance, to steady force of will, that force without which -all other acquisitions avail nothing.” Dr. Channing. - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -WOMEN AS EDUCATORS. - - WOMEN AS EDUCATORS; MADAME DE GENLIS (1746-1830); PEDAGOGICAL - WORKS; ENCYCLOPÆDIC EDUCATION; IMITATION OF ROUSSEAU; MISS - EDGEWORTH (1767-1849); MISS HAMILTON (1758-1816); MADAME CAMPAN - (1752-1822); COMMENDATION OF HOME EDUCATION; PROGRESS IN - INSTRUCTION; INTEREST IN POPULAR EDUCATION; MADAME DE RÉMUSAT - (1780-1821); OUTLINE OF FEMININE PSYCHOLOGY; THE SERIOUS IN - EDUCATION; PHILOSOPHICAL SPIRIT; MADAME GUIZOT (1773-1827); - LETTERS ON EDUCATION; PSYCHOLOGICAL OPTIMISM; NATURE OF THE - CHILD; PHILOSOPHICAL RATIONALISM; MADAME NECKER DE SAUSSURE - (1765-1841); MADAME NECKER DE SAUSSURE AND MADAME DE STAËL; - PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION AND ROUSSEAU; ORIGINALITY OF MADAME NECKER - DE SAUSSURE; DIVISION OF PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION; DEVELOPMENT OF - THE FACULTIES; CULTURE OF THE IMAGINATION; EDUCATION OF WOMEN; - MADAME PAPE-CARPENTIER (1815-1878); GENERAL CHARACTER OF HER - WORKS; PRINCIPAL WORKS OF MADAME PAPE-CARPENTIER; OBJECT LESSONS; - OTHER WOMEN WHO WERE EDUCATORS; DUPANLOUP AND THE EDUCATION OF - WOMEN; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY. - - -562. WOMEN AS EDUCATORS.--One of the characteristic features of -the pedagogy of the nineteenth century is the constant progress in -the education of women. Woman will be better instructed, and at -the same time she will play a more important part in instruction. -Primary schools for girls did not exist, so to speak, in France, at -the commencement of this century. Fourcroy, who reported the bill -of May 1, 1802, declared that “the law makes no mention of girls.” -But through the efforts of the monarchy of July, and still more -of the liberal laws of the second and of the third Republic, the -primary instruction of girls will become more and more general. -Secondary public instruction will be created for women by the law -of December 20, 1880, and the equality of the two sexes, in respect -of education, will tend more and more to become a reality, through -the influence of governmental action as well as that of private -initiative. - -But not less remarkable is the important part which women, by -their abstract reflections or by their practical efforts, have -taken in the progress of pedagogy. In the history of education, -the nineteenth century will be noted for the great number of -its women who were educators, some who were real philosophers -and distinguished writers, and others, zealous and enthusiastic -teachers. - - -563. MADAME DE GENLIS (1746-1830).--While she does not belong -to the nineteenth century by her pedagogical writings, Madame -de Genlis has certain rights to a foremost place in the list of -the educational women of our time. She had in the highest degree -the pedagogic vocation; only, that vocation became a mania and -was squandered on everything. Madame de Genlis wished to know -everything in order that she might teach everything. “She was more -than a woman author,” says Sainte-Beuve, wittily; “she was a woman -_teacher_; she was born with the sign on her forehead.” - -Young girls of their own accord play _mamma_ with their dolls. From -the age of seven, Madame de Genlis played _teacher_. - -“I had a taste for teaching children, and I became school-mistress -in a curious way.... Little boys from the village came under -the window of my parents’ country-seat to play. I amused myself -in watching them, and I soon took it into my head to give them -lessons.” - -Twenty years later, the village teacher became the governess of the -daughters of the Duchesse de Chartres, and the _governor_ of the -sons of the Duke de Chartres (Philippe-Égalité). - - -564. PEDAGOGICAL WORKS.--The principal work of Madame de Genlis, -_Letters on Education_ (1782), treats of the education of princes -and also of “that of young persons and of men.” In giving it -that other title, _Adèle and Théodore_, the author indicated her -intention of rivaling Rousseau, and of educating a man and a woman -more perfect than Émile and Sophie. - -Although she had a profoundly aristocratic nature, Madame de -Genlis, after the revolution of 1789, seemed for an instant to -follow the liberal current which was sweeping minds along. It was -then that she published the _Counsels on the Education of the -Dauphin_, and some parts of her educational journal, entitled -_Lessons of a Governess_. She never ceased to preach love of the -people to sovereigns, and in justice this must be said to her -credit, that she did not write merely for courtly people. She -protests, and with spirit, “that she is the first author who has -concerned herself with the education of the people. This glory,” -she adds, “is dear to my heart.” In support of these assertions, -Madame de Genlis cites the fourth volume of her _Théâtre -d’éducation_, which is, she says, “solely intended for the children -of tradesmen and artisans; domestics and peasants will there see a -detailed account of their obligations and their duties.” - - -565. ENCYCLOPÆDIC EDUCATION.--It has been said with reason -that Madame de Genlis was the personification of encyclopædic -instruction.[237] - -“Her programme of instruction had no limits. She favors Latin, -without, however, thinking the knowledge of it indispensable. She -gives a large place to the living languages. At Saint Leu, her -pupils garden in German, dine in English, and sup in Italian. At -the same time she invents gymnastic apparatus,--pulleys, baskets, -wooden beds, lead shoes. Nothing takes her at unawares, her -over-facile pen stops at nothing; she is universal. A plan for -a rural school for children in the country is wanted, and she -furnishes it.” - - -566. IMITATION OF ROUSSEAU.--Madame de Genlis never ceased to -criticise Rousseau, and yet, in her educational romances, the -inspiration of Rousseau is everywhere present. How can we fail to -recognize a pupil of Rousseau in the father of Adèle and Théodore, -who leaves Paris in order to devote himself entirely to the -education of his children, to make himself “their governor and -their friend, and finally, to screen the infancy of his son and -daughter from the examples of vice”? And the methods manufactured -by Rousseau, the unforeseen lessons, the indirect means employed -to instruct without having the appearance of doing so,--Madame -de Genlis desires no others. Nothing is more amusing than the -description of the country-seat of the Baron d’Almane, the father -of Adèle and Théodore. It is no longer a country-seat; it is a -school-house. The walls are no longer walls; they are charts of -history and maps of geography. - -“When we would have our children study history according to a -chronological order, we start from my bed-chamber, which represents -sacred history; from there we enter my gallery, where we find -ancient history; we reach the parlor, which contains Roman history, -and we end with the gallery of Monsieur d’Almane (it is the -Baroness who speaks), where is found the history of France.” - -In her pedagogic fairyland, Madame de Genlis does not wish the -child to meet a single object which may not be transformed into -an instrument of instruction. Adèle and Théodore cannot take a -hand-screen without finding a geography lesson represented on it, -and drawn out at full length. Here are pictures worked in tapestry; -they are historical scenes; on the back of them care has been taken -to write an explanation of what they represent. At least, those -five or six movable partitions which are displayed in the apartment -on cold days have no instructive purposes? You are mistaken. There -is painted and written on them the history of England, of Spain, -of Germany, and that of the Moors and the Turks. Even in the -dining-room, mythology encumbers the panels of the room, and “it -usually forms the subject of conversation during the dinner.” In -that castle, bewitched, so to speak, by the elf of history, there -is not a glance that is lost, not a minute without its lesson, not -a corner where one may waste his time in dreaming. History pursues -you like a ghost, like a nightmare, along the corridors, on the -stairs, even on the carpet on which you tread, and on the chairs -upon which you sit. The true way to disgust a child forever with -historical studies is to condemn him to live for eight days in this -house-school of Madame de Genlis. - - -567. MISS EDGEWORTH (1767-1849).--It is with the Scotch philosophy -and the psychological theories of Reid and Dugald Stewart, that -were inspired in different degrees two distinguished women, who -honored English pedagogy at the beginning of this century,--Miss -Edgeworth and Miss Hamilton. - -In her book on _Practical Education_, published in 1798,[238] -Miss Edgeworth does not lose herself in theoretical dissertations. -Her book is a collection of facts, observations, and precepts. -The first chapter treats of toys, and the author justifies this -beginning by saying that in education there is nothing trivial and -minute. It is first by conversations, and then by the use of the -inventive, analytical, and intuitive method, that Miss Edgeworth -proposes to train her pupils; and her reflections on intellectual -education deserve to be considered. In moral education she agrees -with Locke, and seems to place great reliance on the sentiment of -honor, and on the love of reputation. In every case she absolutely -ignores the religious feeling. The characteristic of her system is -that it makes “a total abstraction of religious ideas.” - - -568. MISS HAMILTON (1758-1816).--Miss Hamilton is at once more -philosophical and more Christian than Miss Edgeworth. It is from -the psychologist Hartley that she borrows her essential principle, -which consists in making of the association of ideas the basis of -education. Hartley saw in this the sovereign law of intellectual -development. But, on the other hand, she declares “that she follows -no other guide than the precepts of the Gospel.” - -The principal work of Miss Hamilton, her _Letters on the Elementary -Principles of Education_ (1801),[239] has a more theoretical -character than the book of Miss Edgeworth. With her it is above all -else a question of principles, which, she says, are more necessary -than rules. We find but few reflections on teaching proper. She -borrows the very words of Dugald Stewart to define the object of -education:-- - -“The most essential objects of education are the following: -_first_, to cultivate all the various principles of our nature, -both speculative and active, in such a manner as to bring them -to the greatest perfection of which they are susceptible; and -_secondly_, by watching over the impressions and associations -which the mind receives in early life, to secure it against the -influence of prevailing errors; and, as far as possible, to engage -its prepossessions on the side of truth.”[240] - -To cultivate the intellectual and moral faculties, Miss Hamilton -places her chief dependence, as we have said, on the principle of -the association of ideas. We must break up, or, rather, prevent -from being formed, all false associations, that is, all inaccurate -judgments. Order once re-established among ideas, the will will -be upright, and the conduct well regulated. In other terms, this -was to subordinate, perhaps too completely, the development of the -moral faculties to the culture of the intellectual faculties. - -“It is evident,” says Miss Hamilton, “that all our desires are in -accord with ideas of pleasure, and all our aversions with ideas of -pain.” - -The educator will then try to associate the idea of pleasure with -what is good and useful for the child and for the man. - -Let us also note, in passing, the solicitude of Miss Hamilton for -the education of the people:-- - -“From most of the writers on education it would appear that it is -only to people of rank and fortune that education is a matter of -any importance.... My plan has for its object the cultivation of -the faculties that are common to the whole human race.”[241] - -On this point her thought was the same as that of Miss Edgeworth, -whose father, in 1799, in the Irish Parliament, had caused the -adoption of the first law on primary instruction. - - -569. MADAME CAMPAN (1752-1822).--Twenty-five years’ experience, -either at the court of Louis XV., or in the school at -Saint-Germain, which she founded under the Revolution, or finally -in the institution at Écouen, the direction of which was entrusted -to her by Napoleon I., in 1807,--such are the claims which at -once assure to Madame Campan some authority on pedagogical -questions.[242] Let us add that good sense, a methodical and -prudent mind,--in a word, qualities which were reasonable rather -than brilliant,--directed that long personal experience. - -“First I saw,” she said, “then I reflected, and finally I wrote.” - - -570. EULOGY ON HOME EDUCATION.--From a teacher, from the directress -of a school, we would expect prejudices in favor of public -education in boarding-schools. That which secures our ready -confidence, is that Madame Campan, on the contrary, appreciates -better than any one else the advantages of maternal education:-- - -“To create mothers,” she said, “this is the whole education of -women.” Nothing seems to her superior to a mother governess “who -does not keep late hours, who rises betimes,” who, finally, devotes -herself resolutely to the important duty with which she is charged. - -“There is no boarding-school, however well it may be conducted, -there is no convent, however pious its government may be, which -can give an education comparable to that which a young girl -receives from a mother who is educated, and who finds her sweetest -occupation and her true glory in the education of her daughter.” - -Madame Campan, moreover, reminds mothers who would be the teachers -of their own daughters, of all the obligations which are involved -in such a charge. Too often the mother who jealously keeps her -daughter near her, is not capable of educating her. In this case -there is only the appearance of home education, and as Madame -Campan wittily says, “this is no longer _maternal education_; it is -but _education at home_.” - - -571. PROGRESS IN INSTRUCTION.--Fénelon was Madame Campan’s favorite -author. On the other hand, there was some resemblance between the -rules of the school at Écouen and those of Saint Cyr. The spirit of -the seventeenth century lives again in the educational institutions -of the nineteenth, and Madame Campan continues the work of Madame -de Maintenon. - -However, there is progress in more than one respect, and the -instruction is more solid and more complete. - -“The purpose of education,” wrote Madame Campan to the Emperor, -“ought to be directed: 1. towards the domestic virtues; 2. towards -instruction, to such a degree of perfection in the knowledge of -language, computation, history, writing, and geography, that all -pupils shall be assured of the happiness of being able to instruct -their own daughters.” - -Madame Campan desired, moreover, to extend her work. She demanded -of the Emperor the creation of several public establishments “for -educating the daughters of certain classes of the servants of the -State.” She desired that the government should take under its -supervision private institutions, and contemplated for women as -for men a sort of university “which might replace the convents and -the colleges.” But Napoleon was not the man to enter into these -schemes. The schools of “women-logicians” were scarcely to his -taste, and the teaching congregations, which he restored to their -privileges, the better served his purpose. - - -572. INTEREST IN POPULAR EDUCATION.--One might believe that Madame -Campan, who had begun by being the teacher of the three daughters -of Louis XV., and who associated with scarcely any save the wealthy -or the titled, had never had the taste or the leisure to think of -popular instruction. It is nothing of the sort, as is proved by her -_Counsels to Young Girls, a work intended for Elementary Schools_. - -“There is no ground for fearing that the daughters of the rich -will ever be in want of books to instruct them or of governesses -to direct them. It is not at all so with the children who belong -to the less fortunate classes.... I have seen with my own eyes -how incomplete and neglected is the education of the daughters of -country people.... It is for them that I have penned this little -work.” - -The work itself has not perhaps the tone that could be desired, nor -all the simplicity that the author would have wished to give it; -but we must thank Madame Campan for her intentions, and we count -among her highest claims to the esteem of posterity the effort -which she made in her old age to become, at least in her writings, -a simple school-mistress and a village teacher. - - -573. MADAME DE RÉMUSAT (1780-1821).--Madame de Rémusat has written -only for women of the world. Herself a woman of the world, lady of -the palace of the Empress Josephine, she had no personal experience -in the way of teaching. She had nothing to do with the practice of -education save in supervising the studies of her two sons, one of -whom became a philosopher and an illustrious statesman, Charles -de Rémusat. The noble book of Madame de Rémusat, her _Essay on -the Education of Women_, does not commend itself by reason of -its detailed precepts and scholastic methods, but by its lofty -reflections and general principles.[243] - - -574. SKETCH OF FEMININE PSYCHOLOGY.--Let us first notice different -passages in which the author sketches by a few touches the -psychology of woman, and determines her sphere in life:-- - -“Woman is the companion of man upon the earth, but yet she exists -on her own account; she is _inferior_, but not _subordinate_.” - -The expression here betrays Madame de Rémusat, and it would be -more accurate to say that woman is not inferior to man, that she -is his equal, but that in existing civil and social conditions she -necessarily remains subordinate to him. - -But with what perfect justness the amiable writer characterizes the -peculiar qualities of woman! - -“We lack continuity and depth when we would apply ourselves to -general questions. Endowed with a quick intelligence, we hear -promptly, we even divine and see just as well as men; but too -easily moved to remain impartial, too mobile to be profound, -perceiving is easier for us than observing. Prolonged attention -wearies us; we are, in short, more mild than patient. More -sensitive and more devoted than men, women are ignorant of that -sort of selfishness which an independent being exhibits outwardly -as a consciousness of his own power. To obtain from them any -activity whatever, it is almost always necessary to _interest them -in the happiness of another_. Their very faults are the outgrowths -of their condition. The same cause will excite in man emotions of -pride, and in woman only those of vanity.” - - -575. THE SERIOUS IN EDUCATION.--Madame de Rémusat, still more than -Madame Campan, belongs to the modern school. She desires for woman -an education serious and grave. - -“I see no reason for treating women less seriously than men, for -misrepresenting truth to them under the form of a prejudice, duty -under the appearance of a superstition, in order that they may -accept both the duty and the truth.” - -She does not in the least incline to the opinion of the -over-courteous moralist Joubert, who, with more gallantry than real -respect for women, said: “Nothing too earthly or too material ought -to employ young ladies; only delicate material should busy their -hands.... They resemble the imagination, and like it they should -touch only the surface of things.”[244] - -Madame de Rémusat enters into the spirit of her time, and her -admiration for the age of Louis XIV. does not make her forget what -she owes to the new society, transformed by great political reforms. - -“We are drawing near the time when every Frenchman shall be a -citizen. In her turn, the destiny of woman is comprised in these -two terms: _wife and mother of a citizen_. There is much morality, -and a very severe and touching morality, in the idea which ought to -be attached to that word _citizen_. After religion, I do not know -a more powerful motive than the patriotic spirit for directing the -young towards the good.” - -It is no longer a question, then, of training the woman and the -man for themselves, for their individual destiny. They must be -educated for the public good, for their duties in society. Madame -de Rémusat is not one of those timid and frightened women who -feel a homesickness for the past, whom the present terrifies. -Liberal and courageous, she manfully accepts the new régime; she -proclaims its advantages, and, if she writes like a woman of the -seventeenth century, almost with the perfection of Madame de -Sévigné, her chosen model, she at least thinks like a daughter of -the Revolution. - - -576. PHILOSOPHICAL SPIRIT.--That which is not less remarkable is -the philosophical character of her reflections. She believes in -liberty and in conscience. It is conscience which she purposes -to substitute, as a moral rule, “for despotic and superficial -caprices.” It is no longer by the imperative term, _you must_, but -by the obligatory term, _you ought_, that the mother should lead -and govern her daughter. - -“On every occasion let these words, _I ought_, re-appear in the -conversation of the mother.” - -This is saying that the child ought to be treated as a free -being. The end, and at the same time the most efficient means, of -education, is the wise employment of liberty. While keeping the -oversight of the child, he must be left to take care of himself, -and on many occasions to follow the course that he will. By this -means his will will be developed, and his character strengthened; -and this is an essential point according to Madame de Rémusat. - -“If under Louis XIV.,” she says, “the education of woman’s mind -was grave and often substantial, that of her character remained -imperfect.” - - -577. MADAME GUIZOT (1773-1827).--Madame Guizot first became known -under her maiden name, Pauline de Meulan. In the closing years -of the eighteenth century she had written several romances, and -had contributed to the review of Suard, the _Publiciste_. In 1812 -she married Guizot, the future author of the law of 1833, who had -just founded the _Annals of Education_.[245] From this period, all -her ideas and all her writings were directed almost exclusively -towards ethics and education. She published in succession, -_Children_ (1812), _Raoul and Victor_ (1821), and, finally, her -masterpiece, the _Family Letters on Education_ (1826). - - -578. THE LETTERS ON EDUCATION.--To give at once an idea of -the merit of this book,[246] we shall quote the opinion of -Sainte-Beuve:-- - -“The work of Madame Guizot will survive the _Émile_, marking in -this line the progress of the sound, temperate, and refined reason -of our times, over the venturesome genius of Rousseau, just as in -politics the _Démocratie_ of De Tocqueville is an advance over -the _Contrat Social_. Essential to meditate upon, as advice, in -all education which would prepare strong men for the difficulties -of our modern society, this book also contains, in the way of -exposition, the noblest moral pages, the most sincere and the -most convincing, which, with a few pages from Jouffroy, have been -suggested to the philosophy of our age by the doctrines of a -spiritualistic rationalism.” - - -579. PSYCHOLOGICAL OPTIMISM.--The philosophical spirit is not -lacking in the _Letters on Education_. The whole of Letter XII. is -a plea in behalf of the relative innocence of the child. That which -is bad in the disorderly inclination, says the author, is not the -inclination, but the disorder:-- - -“The inclinations of a sentient being are in themselves what they -ought to be. It has been said that a man could not be virtuous -if he did not conquer his inclinations; hence, his inclinations -are evil. This is an error. No more could the tree produce good -fruit, if, in pruning it, the disorderly flow of the sap were not -arrested. Does this prove that the sap is harmful to the tree?” - -It follows from these principles that discipline ought not to be -severe. - -“Do you not think it strange,” exclaims Madame Guizot, “that for -centuries education has been, so to speak, a systematic hostility -against human nature; that to correct and to punish have been -synonymous; and that we have heard only of dispositions to break, -and natures to overcome, just as though it were a question of -taking away from children the nature which God has given them in -order to give them another such as teachers would have it?” - - -580. NATURE OF THE CHILD.--That which gives a great value to the -work of Madame Guizot is, that besides the general considerations -and the philosophical reflections, we there find a great number -of circumstantial experiences and detailed observations which are -admissible in a sound treatise on pedagogy. Like the psychology of -the child, pedagogy itself, at least in its first chapters, ought -to be conceived and written near a cradle. Madame Guizot forcibly -indicates the importance of the first years, where the future -destiny of the child is determined: “In those imperfect organs, in -that incomplete intelligence, are contained, from the first moment -of existence, the germs of that which is ever more to proceed from -them either for better or for worse. The man will never have, in -the whole course of his life, an impulse which does not belong to -that nature, all the features of which are already foreshadowed -in the infant. The infant will never receive a keen and durable -impression, however slight, an impress of whatever kind, whose -effects are not to influence the life of the man.” - -At the same time that she sees in the infant the rough draft of -the man, Madame Guizot recognizes with a remarkable delicacy -of psychologic sense, that which distinguishes, that which -characterizes, the irreflective and inconsiderate nature of the -child. What is more just than this observation? - -“We often deceive ourselves in attributing to the conduct of -children, because it is analogous to our own, motives similar to -those which guide ourselves.” - -What better observation than the example which Madame Guizot cites -in support of this statement! - -“Louise, by a sudden impulse, drops her toys, throws herself upon -my neck, and cannot cease kissing me. It seems that all my mother’s -heart could not sufficiently respond to the warmth of her caresses; -but by the same playful impulse she leaves me to kiss her doll or -the arm of the chair which she meets on her way.” - - -581. PHILOSOPHIC RATIONALISM.--Madame Guizot pushes rationalism -much farther than Madame de Rémusat, and still farther than Madame -Necker de Saussure. She is first a philosopher, then a Christian. -She more nearly approaches Rousseau. She would first form in the -minds of children the universal idea of God before initiating -them into the particular dogmas of positive religions. She bases -morals on the idea of duty, which is “the only basis of a complete -education.” - -“I would place,” she says, “each act of the child under the -protection of an idea or of a moral sentiment.” - -Recalling the distinction made by Dupont de Nemours between -_paternal commands_ and _military commands_, the first addressing -themselves to the reason, the others to be observed without protest -and with a passive obedience, she does not conceal her preference -for the use of the first, because she would form in the woman, -as in the man, a spirit of reason and of liberty. She absolutely -proscribes personal interest, and hence declares that “rewards have -always seemed to her contrary to the true principle of education.” - -Let us say, lastly, without being able to enter into detail, that -the book of Madame Guizot deserves to be read with care. There -will be found in it a great number of excellent reflections on -instruction which ought to be substantial rather than extensive; -upon the reading of romances, and upon the theatre, which she does -not forbid; upon easy methods, which she condemns; and, finally, on -almost all pedagogical questions.[247] - - -582. MADAME NECKER DE SAUSSURE (1765-1841).--There are in the -history of education privileged moments, periods that are -particularly and happily fruitful. It is thus that within the space -of a few years there appeared in succession the books of Madame -de Rémusat, of Madame Guizot, and, the most important of all, the -_Progressive Education_ of Madame Necker de Saussure.[248] - -A native of Geneva, like Rousseau, Madame Necker de Saussure has -endowed French literature with an educational masterpiece, which -for elevation of view and nobleness of inspiration, can take rank -by the side of the _Émile_. Though she may sometimes be too logical -and too austere, and while in general she is lacking in good humor, -and while she looks upon life only through a veil of sadness, -Madame Necker is an incomparable guide in educational affairs. -She brings to the subject remarkable qualities of perspicacity -and penetration, and a spirit of marked gravity. She takes a -serious view of life, and applies herself to training the noblest -qualities of the human soul. Profoundly religious, she unites a -“philosophical boldness to the submission of faith.” She is, in -some measure, a Christian Rousseau. - - -583. MADAME NECKER DE SAUSSURE AND MADAME DE STAËL.--The first work -of Madame Necker, _Notice of the Character and the Writings of -Madame de Staël_, already gives proof of her interest in education. -The author of the _Progressive Education_ here studies with care -the ideas of her heroine on education and instruction. It is plain -that she has profited by some of the solid reflections in the noble -book on _Germany_, and particularly by this opinion on the gradual -and progressive method of Rousseau and of Pestalozzi:-- - -“Rousseau calls children into activity by degrees. He would have -them do for themselves all that their little powers permit them -to do. He does not in the least force their intelligence; he does -not make them reach the result without passing over the route. -He wishes the faculties to be developed before the sciences are -taught.” - -“What wearies children is to make them jump over intermediate -parts, to make them advance without their really knowing what they -think they have learned. With Pestalozzi there is no trace of these -difficulties. With him, children take delight in their studies, -because even in infancy, they taste the pleasure of grown men, -namely, comprehending and completing that on which they have been -engaged.” - -Moreover, Madame Necker must have recognized her own spirit, her -preference for a severe and painstaking education, in this passage -where Madame de Staël vigorously protested against amusing and easy -methods of instruction:-- - -“The education that takes place through amusement dissipates -thought; labor of some sort is one of the great aids of nature; the -mind of the child ought to accustom itself to the labor of study, -just as our soul to suffering.... You will teach a multitude of -things to your child by means of pictures and cards, but you will -not teach him how to learn.” - - -584. PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION AND ROUSSEAU.--It is undeniable that -Madame Necker owes much to Rousseau; but she is far from always -agreeing with him. - -For Rousseau, man is good; for her, man is bad. The first duty of -the teacher should be to reform him, to raise him from his fall; -the purpose of life is not happiness, as an immoral doctrine -maintains, but it is improvement; the basis of education ought to -be religion. - -Even when she is inspired by Rousseau, Madame Necker is not long -in separating from him. Thus we may believe that she borrows from -him the fundamental idea of her book, the idea of a successive -development of the faculties, to which should correspond a -parallel movement in educational methods. Like the author of the -_Émile_, she follows the awakening of the senses in the infant. -She considers the infant as a being _sui generis_ “who lives only -on sensations and desires.” She sees in the infant a distinct -period of life, an age whose education has its own special rules. -But at that point the resemblances stop; for Madame Necker de -Saussure hastens to add that, from the fifth year, the child is -in possession of all his intellectual faculties. He is no longer -simply a sentient being, a robust animal like Émile; but he is -a complete being, soul and body. Consequently, education should -take account of his double nature. Moral education ought not to be -separated from physical education, and cannot begin too soon. - -“It is a great error to believe that nature proceeds in the -systematic order imagined by Rousseau. With her, we nowhere discern -a commencement; we do not surprise her at creating, and it always -seems that she is developing.” - -So, in education, we must know how to appeal, at the same time -and as soon as possible, to the different motives, instinctive or -reflective, selfish or affectionate, which sway the will. - -Often, in practice, the two thinkers approach each other, and, -even in her protestations against her countryman, Madame Necker -de Saussure preserves something of Rousseau’s spirit. Thus, she -does not desire the negative education which leaves everything to -nature. The teacher ought not to _allow_ the child to do (_laisser -faire_), but _cause_ him to do (_faire faire_). But, at the same -time, she demands that the will be strengthened, so that education -may find in it a point of support; that the character be hardened; -that some degree of independence be accorded to the child; “that -in permissible cases he be allowed to come to his own decision; -and that half-orders, half-obligations, tacit entreaties, and -insinuations, be avoided.” Is not this retaining all that is just -and practical in Rousseau’s theory, namely, the necessity of -associating the special and spontaneous powers of the child with -the work of education? Madame de Saussure adopts a just medium -between the active education which makes a misuse of the master’s -instruction, and the passive education which makes a misuse of the -pupil’s liberty. She would willingly have accepted this precept of -Frœbel, “Let teachers not lose sight of this truth: it is necessary -that always and at the same time they give and take, that they -precede and follow, that they act and let act.” - - -585. ORIGINALITY OF MADAME NECKER.--Though she had reflected much -on the writings of her predecessors, it is nevertheless to her -personal experience and to her original investigations that Madame -Necker owes the best of her thought. She had herself followed the -advice which she gives to mothers, of “observing their children, -and of keeping a journal, in which a record should be made of each -step of progress, and in which all the vicissitudes of physical and -moral health should be noted.” It is a rich psychological fund, and -at the same time a perpetual aspiration after the ideal, which -makes the strength and the beauty of the _Progressive Education_. -With what penetrating insight Madame Necker has pointed out the -difficulty and also the charm of the study of children! - -“It were so delightful to fix the fugitive image of childhood, to -prolong indefinitely the happiness of contemplating their features, -and to be sure of ever finding again those dear creatures whom, -alas, we are always losing as children, even when we still have the -happiness of keeping them!” - -“We must love children in order to know them, and we divine them -less by the intelligence than by the heart.” - -Thanks to the pronounced taste for the study of child nature, the -most just psychological observations are ever mingled, in the -_Progressive Education_, with the precepts of education, and it has -been truly said that “this book is almost a journal of domestic -education which takes the proportions of a theory.” - - -586. DIVISION OF THE PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION.--The _Progressive -Education_ appeared in 1836 and 1838 in three volumes. The first -three books treat of the history of the soul in infancy; the fourth -examines the general principles of teaching, independently of the -age of the pupil; the fifth studies the child of from five to seven -years of age; the sixth takes us to the tenth year; the seventh -shows “the distinctive marks of the character and the intellectual -development of boys, during the years which immediately precede -adolescence.” Finally, the last four books form a complete whole, -and treat of the education of women during the whole course of life. - - -587. DEVELOPMENT OF THE FACULTIES.--We cannot attempt in this place -to analyze a work so rich in ideas as the work of Madame Necker. -Let us limit ourselves to indicating the essential points in her -system of education. First, it is the preoccupation of training the -will, a faculty which is too much neglected by teachers, but which, -nevertheless, is the endowment which dominates life. Madame Necker -treats this subject in a masterly way in a chapter to which she -prefixes these words as a superscription:-- - -“Obedience to law constrains the will without enfeebling it, while -obedience to man injures it or enervates it. - -“It is, above all, to place the interior education of the soul -above superficial and formal instruction. - -“To instruct a child is to construct him within; it is to make him -become a man.” - - -588. CULTURE OF THE IMAGINATION.--Whatever importance she -attaches to the active powers, Madame Necker does not neglect the -contemplative faculties. The imagination, next to the will, is the -faculty of the soul which has most often engrossed her attention. - -“She has made it appear,” says a distinguished writer, “that this -irresistible power, when we believe it to have been conquered, -takes the most diverse forms; that it disguises its power and -arouses with a secret fire the most miserable passions. If -you refuse it space and liberty, it slinks away in the depths -of selfishness, and under vulgar features it becomes avarice, -cowardice, and vanity.” - -“So it is necessary to see with what tender anxiety Madame Necker -watches its first movements in the soul of the child; with what -intelligent care she seeks to make of it from entrance upon life, -the companion of truth; how she surrounds it with everything which -can establish it within the circle of the good. The studies which -extend our intellectual horizon, the spectacle of nature in her -marvelous diversities, the emotions of the arts,--nothing seems -to her superfluous or dangerous for directing the imagination in -the way that is good. She fears to see it escape, through the lack -of pleasures that are intense enough, in the direction of other -routes.”[249] - -In other terms, it is not proposed to repress the imagination, -still less to destroy it; but merely to guide it gently, to -associate it with reason and virtue, to awaken it to a taste for -the good, and to an admiration for nature. - -“Show him a beautiful sunset, in order that nothing which can -enchant him may pass unnoticed.” - - -589. THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN.--In her special studies on the -education of women, Madame Necker, who in other parts of her -work sometimes makes an improper use of vague declarations of -principles, without entering sufficiently into the details of -practical processes, has had the double merit of assigning to -the destiny of women an elevated ideal, and of determining with -precision the means of attaining it. She complains that we too -often adhere to Rousseau’s programme, that of an education which -relates exclusively to the conjugal duties of the woman. She -recommends that the marriage of young girls be delayed, so that -they may have time to become “enlightened spirits and intelligent -creatures”; so that they may acquire, not “an assortment of all -petty knowledges,” but a solid instruction, which prepares them -for the duties of society and of maternity, which make of them the -first teachers of their children, which, in a word, starts them -on the way towards that personal perfection which they will never -completely attain except by the efforts of their whole life.[250] - - -590. MADAME PAPE-CARPENTIER (1815-1878).--With Madame -Pape-Carpentier, we leave the region of theories to enter the -domain of facts; we have to do with a practical teacher. In 1846, -after several trials at teaching at La Flèche, her native city, and -at Mans, she published her _Counsels on the Management of Infant -Schools_. In 1847 she founded at Paris a _Mothers’ Normal School_, -which the next year, under the ministry of Carnot, became a public -establishment, and which, in 1852, under the ministry of Fortoul, -took the distinctive title _Practical Courses on Infant Schools_. -It is there that during twenty-seven years Madame Pape-Carpentier -applied her methods and trained a large number of pupils, more -than fifteen hundred, who have propagated in France and abroad -her teaching and her ideas. In 1847 she was removed from the -management of her normal school through intrigues; but her loss of -position was not of long duration. A little later she was appointed -inspector-general of infant schools. - - -591. GENERAL CHARACTER OF HER WORKS.--Madame Pape-Carpentier may -be considered as a pupil of Pestalozzi and of Frœbel. She was -specially occupied with elementary education, and carried into -her work a spirit of great simplicity. We must not demand of her -ambitious generalities nor views on abstract metaphysics; but she -excels in practical wisdom, and speaks the language of childhood to -perfection. - - -592. PRINCIPAL WORKS OF MADAME PAPE-CARPENTIER.--Among the -important works of Madame Pape-Carpentier we shall recommend the -following in particular:-- - -1. _Advice on the Management of Infant Schools_ (1845). In her -preface the author excuses herself for undertaking “a subject of -such gravity.” But she goes on to say that “no instruction has yet -been given the teacher on the education of the poor child,” and -she asks the privilege of speaking in the name of her personal -experience. This book, often reprinted, has become _Enseignement -pratique dans les salles d’asile_.[251] - -2. _Narratives and Lessons on Objects_ (1858). This is a collection -of little stories, “simple as childhood,” which were tested before -children before being written, and in which Madame Pape-Carpentier -attempts to teach them things which are good: “I mean,” she says, -“things really, seriously good.” - -3. _Pedagogical Discussions held at the Sorbonne_ (1867). During -the Universal Exposition of 1867, Monsieur Duruy had assembled -at Paris a certain number of teachers before whom pedagogical -discussions were held. Madame Pape-Carpentier took upon herself the -special task of explaining to them how the methods of the infant -school might be introduced into the primary school. - -4. _Reading and Work for Children and Mothers_ (1873). Here Madame -Pape-Carpentier is especially intent on popularizing the methods -of Frœbel; she suggests ingenious exercises which can be applied -to children to give them skill in the use of their fingers, and to -inspire them with a taste for order and symmetry. - -5. _Complete Course of Education_ (1874). This book, which would -have been the general statement of the pedagogical principles of -the author, was left incomplete. Only three volumes have appeared. -A few quotations will make known their spirit. - -“To co-operate with nature in her work, to extend it, to correct -her when she goes wrong,--such is the task of the educator. In all -grades of education, nature must be respected. - -“The child should live in the midst of fresh and soothing -impressions; the objects which surround him in the school should be -graceful and cheerful. - -“Socrates has admirably said, ‘The duty of education is to give the -idea birth rather than to communicate it.’” - -6. _Note on the Education of the Senses, and some Pedagogical -Appliances_ (1878). Madame Pape-Carpentier is very much interested -in the education of the senses, because, she says, “every child -born into the world is a workman in prospect, a future apprentice -to an occupation still unknown.” It is then necessary to perfect at -an early hour the natural tools he will need in order to fulfill -his task. The education of the senses will have its place some day -or other in the official programmes, and, for this sense-training, -instruments are just as necessary as books are for the culture of -the intellect. - - -593. LESSONS ON OBJECTS.--“The object-lesson is the new continent -on which Madame Pape-Carpentier has planted her standard.” -She herself wrote a number of works which contain models of -object-lessons; she has stated the theory of them, notably in her -discussions of 1867. It is even permissible to think that she has -made a wrong use of them. With her, the object-lesson becomes a -universal process which she applies to all subjects, to chemistry, -to physics, to grammar, to geography, and to ethics. - -However it may be, this is the course to follow according to her: -it is necessary to conform to the order in which the perceptions of -the intelligence succeed each other. The child’s attention is first -struck by color. Then he will distinguish the form of the object, -and would know its use, its material, and mode of production. It is -according to this natural development of the child’s curiosity that -the object-lesson should proceed. - -Moreover, it can be given with reference to everything. Madame -Pape-Carpentier admits what she calls “occasional lessons”; but she -also thinks that object-lessons can be given according to a plan, -a fixed programme. - -Madame Pape-Carpentier deserves, then, to be heard as an -experienced adviser in whatever relates to elementary instruction; -but that which we must admire in her still more than her -professional skill and her pedagogical knowledge, is an elevated -conception of the teacher’s work, and a lofty inspiration coming -from her devotion to children and her love for them. - -“To educate children properly,” she said, “ought to be for the -teacher only the second part of his undertaking; the first, and the -most difficult, is to perfect himself.” - -“What we are able to do for children is measured by the love we -bear them.” - - -594. OTHER WOMEN WHO WERE EDUCATORS.--If the education of women -has received an important development in our day, it is due, then, -in great part to the women who have shown what they were worth and -what they could do, either as teachers or as educators. And yet -the history whose principal features we have just traced remains -very incomplete. By the side of the celebrated women whose works we -have studied, we should mention Mademoiselle Sauvan, who, in 1811, -founded at Chaillot an educational establishment which she did not -leave till about 1830, to take the intellectual and moral direction -of the girls’ schools of Paris;[252] Madame de Maisonneuve, author -of an _Essay on the Instruction of Women_,[253] in which she sums -up the results of a long experience acquired in the management of -a private boarding-school. - -But men have also contributed by their theoretical objections, or -by their practical efforts, to the progress of the education of -women. It would be of interest, for example, to study the courses -in secondary instruction of Lourmand (1834), and the _Courses in -Maternal Education_, of Lévi Alvarès (1820). “Monsieur Lévi,” -says Gréard, “makes the mother tongue and history the basis of -instruction. He himself sums up his methods in this formula of -progressive education: Facts, comparison of facts, moral or -philosophical consequence of facts; that is, seeing, comparing, -judging. This is the very order of nature.” Let us mention also the -work of Aimé Martin, _The Education of Mothers_,[254] which for -several years enjoyed an extraordinary reputation that it would be -rather difficult to justify. - - -595. DUPANLOUP AND THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN.--A bishop of the -nineteenth century, Dupanloup, has assumed to rival Fénelon in the -delicate question of the education of women. Different works, and -in particular the one which he esteemed most, his _Letters on the -Education of Girls_, published after his death in 1879, give proof -of the interest which he took in these questions. These letters are -for the most part real letters which were addressed to women of the -time. Notwithstanding the variety and the freedom of the epistolary -form, the work may be divided into three parts: 1. the principles -of education; 2. the education of young women; 3. free and personal -study in the world. Dupanloup should be thanked for having summoned -woman to a true intellectual culture, and for not consenting to -have her faculties remain “smothered and useless.” Through the -revelations of the confessional and the spiritual direction of -a great number of women, Dupanloup knew exactly what a void an -incomplete education of the mind and heart leaves in the soul. He -is indeed willing to acknowledge that piety is not enough, and with -a certain breadth of spirit which drew upon him the censure of the -ultramontane press, he recommends the serious studies to women. -His counsels, however, are addressed only to women of the middle -classes, to those who, he says, “occupy the third story of houses -in Paris.” His book is rather a reminiscence of the seventeenth -century, of its manners and its habits of thinking, than a living -work of to-day, adapted to the needs of modern society. - - - [596. ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.--1. The formal discussion of woman’s - education by women marks an important epoch in the history of - education. Had the education of men been wholly, or even chiefly, - discussed by women, it cannot be doubted that it would have been - more or less partial and imperfect. - - 2. The formal discussion of infant education by women is scarcely - less important; for nothing less than maternal instinct and - affection can divine the nature and the needs of the child. - - 3. This study calls attention to the need of making the - education of women serious instead of ornamental. Plato based - his recommendation of the equal education of men and women - on equality of civil functions. In modern thought it is the - conception of equal rights and of equal abilities that tends to - prescribe the same course of intellectual training for both sexes. - - 4. The educational work of the two Englishwomen, Miss Edgeworth - and Miss Hamilton, can be studied with great profit. The first - excels in practical wisdom, and the second in philosophic insight. - - 5. _The Progressive Education_ of Madame Necker is a classic - which fairly ranks with the _Émile_ of Rousseau, and the - _Education_ of Herbert Spencer.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[237] Gréard, _Mémoire sur l’enseignement secondaire des filles_, -p. 78. - -[238] French translation by Pictet, 1801. - -[239] French translation by Chéron, 2 vols., Paris, 1804. - -[240] Stewart, _Elements_, p. 11. - -[241] _Letters_, Vol. I. p. 11. - -[242] See the two volumes published in 1824 by Barrière, on the -_Éducation, par Madame Campan_, followed by the _Conseils aux -jeunes filles_. - -[243] The work of Madame de Rémusat was published in 1824, after -the author’s death, under the direction of Charles de Rémusat. - -[244] Joubert, _Pensées_. - -[245] The _Annales de l’éducation_ appeared from 1811 to 1814. It -is an interesting collection to consult. In it Guizot published -among other pedagogical works, his studies on the ideas of Rabelais -and Montaigne, afterwards reprinted in the volume, _Études Morales_. - -[246] _Éducation domestique ou Lettres de famille sur l’éducation._ -2 vols. Paris, 1826. - -[247] See in the _Revue pédagogique_, 1883, No. 6, an interesting -study on Madame Guizot, by Bernard Perez. - -[248] _L’Éducation progressive ou Étude du cours de la nature -humaine._ 3 vols. 1836-1838. - -[249] Preface to the fifth edition of the _Progressive Education_. -Paris. Garnier. - -[250] We must include in the educational school of Madame Necker de -Saussure one of her countrymen, the celebrated Vinet (1799-1847), -who, in his excellent book, _L’Éducation, la famille et la société_ -(Paris, 1855), has vigorously discussed certain educational -questions. - -[251] See the sixth edition, Paris, Hachette, 1877. - -[252] See the work entitled _Mademoiselle Sauvan, première -inspectrice des écoles de Paris, sa vie, son œuvre_, par E. Gossot. -Paris, 1880. - -[253] _Essai sur l’instruction des femmes._ Tours, 1841. - -[254] The first edition is dated 1834. The ninth was published in -1873. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI. - -THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF EDUCATION IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. - - THE PEDAGOGY OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY; VOTES OF THE - COUNCILS-GENERAL (1801); FOURCROY AND THE LAW OF 1802; FOUNDATION - OF THE UNIVERSITY (1806); ORGANIZATION OF THE IMPERIAL - UNIVERSITY; INTENTIONS OF THE DYNASTY; PRIMARY INSTRUCTION - NEGLECTED; ORIGIN OF MUTUAL INSTRUCTION; BELL AND LANCASTER; - SUCCESS OF MUTUAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE; MORAL ADVANTAGES; - ECONOMICAL ADVANTAGES; ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOLS ON THE MUTUAL - SYSTEM; VICES OF THIS SYSTEM; STATE OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION; - GUIZOT AND THE LAW OF 1833; HIGHER PRIMARY SCHOOLS; CIRCULAR OF - GUIZOT; PROGRESS IN POPULAR INSTRUCTION; PROGRAMMES OF PRIMARY - INSTRUCTION; THE THEORISTS OF EDUCATION; JACOTOT (1770-1840); THE - PARADOXES OF JACOTOT; ALL IS IN ALL; THE SAINT-SIMONIANS AND THE - PHALANSTERIANS; FOURIER (1772-1837); AUGUSTE COMTE (1798-1857) - AND THE POSITIVISTS; DUPANLOUP (1802-1878); ANALYSIS OF THE - TREATISE ON EDUCATION; ERRORS AND PREJUDICES; THE SPIRITUALISTIC - SCHOOL AND THE UNIVERSITY MEN; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY. - - -597. THE PEDAGOGY OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.--An effort more -and more marked to organize education in accordance with the -data of psychology and on a scientific basis, and to co-ordinate -pedagogical methods in accordance with a rational plan; a manifest -tendency to take the control of education from the hands of the -Church in order to restore it to the State and to lay society; a -larger part accorded the family in the management of children; a -faith more and more sanguine in the efficacy of instruction, and -an ever-growing purpose to have every member of the human family -participate in its benefits,--such are some of the characteristics -of the pedagogy of the nineteenth century. Education tends more and -more to become a social problem; it is to be an affair of universal -interest. It is no longer to be merely a question of regulating -select studies for the use of a few who are the favorites of -birth and fortune; but science must be placed within the reach of -all, and through the simplification of methods and the universal -distribution of knowledge, it must be adapted to the democratic -spirit of the new society. - -We have no intention to follow in this place, in all its details, -and in the diversity of its currents, this educational movement of -a century which has not yet said its last word; but we must limit -ourselves to calling attention to the points which seem to us -essential. - - -598. LAWS OF THE COUNCILS-GENERAL OF 1801.--Notwithstanding the -efforts of the Revolution, public instruction in France, during -the first part of the nineteenth century, was far from being -flourishing. There was urgent need of introducing reforms. The -Councils-General were summoned in 1801 to give their advice on the -organization of studies. That which is very noticeable in the State -papers of the Councils-General of 1801, is that the departmental -assemblies agree in demanding the establishment of a National -University. The Councils-General complain that the professors, -being no longer united by the ties of solidarity, as were the -members of the religious teaching congregations of the old régime, -march at random, without unity, without concerted direction. -They solicit, then, a uniform organization of instruction. They -even conceive the idea of an official instruction administered -exclusively by the State. - - -599. FOURCROY[255] AND THE LAW OF 1802.--We have not the space to -dwell long on the bill of Fourcroy, which became the law of 1802, -although this measure, it has been said, was amended twenty-three -times before being submitted to the Corps Législatif and to the -Tribunate. - -Fourcroy did not sufficiently recognize the rights of the State. -Doubtless he did not go so far as to assert, with Adam Smith, that -education should be abandoned entirely to private enterprise; but -he thinks that the task of organizing the primary schools must be -left to the communes. In his opinion, that which prevented the -success of these schools was the attempt to impose too great a -uniformity on them. He demands that the teachers be chosen by the -mayors, or by the municipal councillors, who alone are cognizant -of the local interests. The primary school is the need of all. -Then let it be the affair of all. Fourcroy was mistaken. Primary -instruction became a reality in France only on the day when the -State vigorously put its hand on it. - -On certain points, however, the law of 1802 prepared the way for -the approaching creation of Napoleon; for example, in giving to the -First Consul the appointment of the professors of the colleges, -and in placing the primary schools under the supervision of the -prefects. - - -600. FOUNDATION OF THE UNIVERSITY (1806).--The law of May 11, -1806, completed by the decrees of March 17, 1808, and of 1811, -established the University, that is, a teaching corporation, unique -and entirely dependent on the State:-- - -“There shall be constituted a body charged exclusively with -instruction and public education throughout the whole extent of the -Empire.” - -Instruction thus became a function of the State, on the same basis -as the administration of justice or the organization of the army. - -At the same time that it lost all autonomy, all independence, the -University gained the formidable privilege of being alone charged -with the national instruction. - -“No one can open a school or teach publicly, without being a member -of the Imperial University and without having been graduated from -one of its Faculties.” “No school can be established outside of the -University, and without the authorization of its head.” - -We know what protestations were excited, even on the start, by -the establishment of this University monopoly. “It was not enough -to enchain parents; it was still necessary to dispose of the -children. Mothers have been seen hastening from the extremities -of the Empire, coming to reclaim, in an agony of tears, the -sons whom the government had carried off from them.” Thus spoke -Chateaubriand, before lavishing his adulations on the restorer of -altars, and he added, with an extravagance of imagination which -recoils on itself, “Children were placed in schools where they -were taught at the sound of the drum, irreligion, debauchery, and -contempt for the domestic virtues!” Joseph de Maistre was more -just: “Fontanes,”[256] he said, “has large views and excellent -intentions. The plan of his University is grand and comprehensive. -It is a noble body. The soul will come to it when it can. Celibacy, -subordination, devotion of the whole life without religious motive, -are required. Will they be obtained?”[257] - - -601. ORGANIZATION OF THE IMPERIAL UNIVERSITY.--The Imperial -University comprised, like the present University, Colleges, -Lycées, and Faculties. The Colleges furnished secondary -instruction, like the Lycées, but less complete. There were a -Faculty of Letters and a Faculty of Sciences for each academic -centre; but these Faculties were very poorly equipped, with their -endowment of from five to ten thousand francs at most, and with -their few professors. The professors of the neighboring Lycée -(professors of rhetoric and mathematics) formed a part of the -establishment, and each Faculty included at most but two or three -other chairs. - -Latin and mathematics formed the basis of the instruction in the -Lycées. The Revolution had not come in vain, since that which it -had vigorously demanded was now realized; the sciences and the -classical languages were put on a footing of equality. - - -602. DYNASTIC PREPOSSESSIONS.--That which absorbed the attention -of the founder of the Imperial University was less the schemes of -study than the general principles on which the rising generations -were to be nourished. In this respect the thought of the Emperor is -not obscure. He does not dissemble it. God and the Emperor are the -two words which must be graven into the depths of the soul. - -“All the schools of the Imperial University will make as the basis -of their instruction: 1. the precepts of the Catholic religion; 2. -fidelity to the Emperor, to the imperial monarchy, the depository -of the happiness of the people, and to the Napoleonic dynasty, -the _conservator of the unity of France_, and of all the ideas -proclaimed by the Constitution.” - -“Napoleon,” as Guizot says, “attempted to convert into an -instrument of despotism an institution which tended to be only a -centre of light.” - - -603. PRIMARY INSTRUCTION NEGLECTED.--Primary instruction never -occupied the attention of Napoleon I. The decree of 1805 contented -itself with promising measures intended to assure the recruitment -of teachers, especially the creation of one or more normal classes -within the colleges and lycées. Moreover, the Grand Master -was to encourage and to license the Brethren of the Christian -Schools, while supervising their establishments. Finally, the -right to establish schools was left to families or to religious -corporations, the budget of the Empire containing no item of -appropriation for the cause of popular instruction. - -The Restoration was scarcely more generous towards the instruction -of the people. By the ordinance of February 29, 1815, it granted -_fifty thousand francs_ as encouragement to the primary schools. -Was this derisive liberality any better than complete silence and -neglect? A more important measure was the establishment of cantonal -committees charged with the supervision of primary schools. -These committees were placed, sometimes under the direction of -the rector, and at others under the authority of the bishop, at -the pleasure of the vicissitudes of politics. Certificates of -qualification were delivered to the members of the authorized -congregations, on the simple presentation of their letters of -permission. We can imagine what a body of teachers could be assured -by such a mode of recruitment. - -In anticipation of the monarchy of July, which in its liberal -dispositions was to appear more regardful of popular education, -private initiative signalized itself under the Restoration by -the foundation of the _Society for Elementary Instruction_, and -also by the encouragement it gave to the first attempts at mutual -instruction. - - -604. ORIGIN OF MUTUAL INSTRUCTION.--Two Englishmen, Bell and -Lancaster, have claimed the honor of having invented mutual -instruction. The fact is, neither of them invented it; they simply -gave it currency. It is in France, if not in India, that we must -look for the real origin of mutual instruction. We have seen that -Madame de Maintenon, Rollin, La Salle, and Pestalozzi, practised -it, and to a certain extent gave it currency. In the eighteenth -century Herbault had employed it in the hospital of La Pitié -(1747), the Chevalier Paulet at Vincennes (1774), and, finally, the -Abbé Gaultier,[258] also a Frenchman, had introduced the use of it -into London, in 1792, some years before Bell brought it from India. - - -605. BELL (1753-1832) AND LANCASTER (1778-1838).--Bell and -Lancaster are none the less the first authorized propagators of the -mutual method, or, as the English say, of the _monitorial system_. -Bell had used it at Madras, in imitation of the Hindoo teachers, -and in 1798 he introduced it into England. But at the same period, -a young English teacher, Lancaster, applied the same methods -with success, and, so far as it appears, through a suggestion -absolutely personal and original. Lancaster was a Quaker, and Bell -a Churchman, so that public opinion in England was divided between -the two rivals. The truth is that they had applied at the same time -a system which was known before their day, and which must naturally -have been suggested to all teachers who have too large a number -of children to instruct, as a result of the inadequacy of their -resources and the lack of a teaching force sufficiently large. - - -606. SUCCESS OF MUTUAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE.--Mutual instruction, -which was maintained in certain schools of Paris till 1867, for -a long time enjoyed an extraordinary credit in France. Under the -Restoration, its success was so great that it became the fashion, -and even a craze. Patronized by the most eminent men of that day, -by Royer-Collard, by Laisné, by the Duke Decazes, by the Duke -Pasquier, mutual instruction became the flag of the liberal party -in the matter of instruction. Political passions became involved -in it. The new system came into competition with the traditional -instruction of the Brethren of the Christian Schools, and was -fought and denounced as immoral by all the partisans of routine. -“Mutual instruction was charged with destroying the foundation -of social order by delegating to children a power which ought -to belong only to men.... Men held for or against simultaneous -instruction, its rival, as if it were a question of an article of -the Charter.”[259] - - -607. MORAL ADVANTAGES.--The friends of mutual instruction, in -order to justify their enthusiasm, made the most of moral reasons. -What can be more touching, they said, than to see children -communicating to one another the little that they know? What an -excellent lesson of charity and of mutual aid! The Gospel has -said, _Love one another_. Was it not giving to the divine precept -a happy translation to add, _Instruct one another_! An attempt was -made, moreover, to introduce mutuality into discipline and into -the repression of school faults. The school, on certain solemn -occasions, was converted into a court for trying criminals. “All -this was done very seriously, and it was also very seriously felt -that these practices, passing from a class of children to a class -of adults, would contribute to introduce into society the habits of -a true and useful fraternity.” - - -608. ECONOMICAL ADVANTAGES.--To tell the truth, mutual instruction -was above all else “a useful expedient,” according to Rollin’s -expression. At a period when teachers were scarce, when the budget -of public instruction did not exist, it was natural that an -economic system which dispensed with teachers, and which reduced -to almost nothing the cost of instruction, should be hailed with -enthusiasm. Let us add that there was also an economy in books, -since “there was need of only one book, which pupils never used, -and which would thus last for several years.” - -Jomard calculated that there were 3,000,000 children to instruct, -and that, according to the ordinary system, this would require the -expenditure of more than 45,000,000 francs.[260] - -Now, according to the calculations of the Comte de Laborde,[261] -1000 pupils being able to be educated by one single teacher, by -the system of mutual instruction, more easily than 30 could have -been by the old system, a sum of 10,000 francs granted annually -by the State would suffice to educate in twelve years the entire -generation of poor children.[262] - - -609. ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOLS ON THE MUTUAL PLAN.--Bell defined -mutual instruction as “the method by means of which a whole school -may instruct itself, under the supervision of one single master.” - -Here is the picture of a mutual school, as described by Gréard:-- - -“That was a striking spectacle at the first glance,--those long -and vast structures which contained a whole school, such as the -older generations of our teachers recollect still to have seen at -the Halle aux Draps. In the middle of the room, throughout its -entire length, were rows of tables having from five to twenty -places each, having at one end, at the right, the desk of the -monitor, and the board having models of writing, itself surmounted -by a standard or telegraph which served to secure, by means of -directions easy to read, regularity of movements; at the side of -the room, and all along the walls, there were rows of semi-circles, -about which were arranged groups of children; on the walls, on a -line with the eye, there was a blackboard on which were performed -the exercises in computation, and from which were suspended the -charts for reading and grammar; right at his side, within reach of -his hand, was the stick with which the teacher was provided for -conducting the lesson; finally, at the lower part of the room, -on a wide and high platform, accessible by steps and surrounded -by a balustrade, was the chair of the master, who, employing in -succession, according to fixed rules, voice, _bâton_, or whistle, -surveyed the tables and groups, distributing commendation or -reproof, and directing, in a word, like a captain on the deck of -his vessel, the whole machinery of instruction.” - -In respect of systematic movements and exterior order, nothing -is more charming than the appearance of a school conducted on -the mutual plan. It remains to inquire what were the educational -results of the system, and whether the fashion which brought it -into favor was justified by real advantages. - - -610. VICES OF MUTUAL INSTRUCTION.--The monitor was the mainspring -of the mutual method. But what was the monitor? A child, more -intelligent, doubtless, than his comrades, but too little -instructed to be equal to his task. The mutual school did not open -till ten o’clock. From eight to ten there was a class for the -monitors. There they learned in haste what they were, for the rest -of the day, to teach to the other children. The purpose of the -master being to form good instruments as quickly as possible, they -were fitted up for their trade by the most expeditious methods. - -“What sort of teachers could such a preparation produce? To teach -is to learn twice, it has been truly said; but on the condition -of having reflected on that which has been learned and upon that -which is to be taught. To convey light into the intelligence of -another, it is first necessary to have produced the light within -one’s self, a thing which supposes the enlightened, penetrating, -and persevering action of a mind relatively mature and trained. -From the class where they have just been sitting as pupils, the -monitors--masters improvised as by the wave of a wand,--passed to -the classes of children whom they were to indoctrinate” (Gréard). - -The instruction, consequently, became purely mechanical. The -monitor faithfully repeated what he had been taught. Everything was -reduced to mechanical processes. - -Let us observe, besides, that from the moral point of view, the -mutual system left much to be desired. The monitors, we are told, -did not escape the intoxications of pride. Even in the family they -became petty tyrants. Parents complained of their dictatorial -habits and their tone of authority. - -However it may be, mutual instruction has rendered undeniable -services, thanks to the zeal of such teachers as Mademoiselle -Sauvan and Monsieur Sarazin; but its reputation went on diminishing -in proportion as the State became more and more disposed to make -sacrifices, and as it was possible to multiply the services of -teachers.[263] - - -611. THE STATE OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.--Under the title, _Exhibit -of Primary Instruction in France_, a member of the University, P. -Lorain, published in 1837 a _résumé_ of the inquiry, which, by the -orders of Guizot, had been made in 1833 throughout the whole extent -of France, by the labors of more than 400 inspectors. Here are some -of the sad results of this inquiry: all the teachers did not know -how to write; a large number employed the mechanism of the three -fundamental rules without being able to give any theoretical reason -for these operations. “The ignorance was general.” - -As under the old régime, the teacher practiced all the trades; he -was day-laborer, shoemaker, innkeeper. - -“He had his wife supply his place while he went hunting in the -fields.” - -The functions of the teacher, poorly rewarded, exposed to the risk -of a very slender tuition, enjoyed no consideration. - -“The teacher was often regarded in the community on the same -footing as a mendicant, and between the herdsman and himself, the -preference was for the herdsman.” - -Consequently, the situation of school-master was the most often -sought after by men who were infirm, crippled, unfit for any other -kind of work. - -“From the teacher without arms, to the epileptic, how many -infirmities to pass through!” - - -612. GUIZOT AND THE LAW OF JUNE 28, 1833.--Primary instruction, -so often decreed by the Revolution, was not really organized in -France till by the law of June 28, 1833, the honor of which is due -in particular to Guizot, then minister of public instruction.[264] - -Primary instruction was divided into two grades,--elementary and -higher. Henceforth there was to be a school for each commune, or at -least for each group of two or three communes. The State reserved -the right of appointing teachers, and of determining their salary, -which, it is true, in certain places, did not exceed two hundred -francs. Poor children were to be received without pay. - - -613. HIGHER PRIMARY SCHOOLS.--One of the most praiseworthy purposes -of the legislator of 1833 was the establishment of higher primary -instruction. - -“_Higher_ primary instruction,” he said, “necessarily includes, in -addition to all the branches of elementary primary instruction, -the elements of geometry, and its common applications, especially -linear drawing and surveying, information on the physical sciences -and natural history, applicable to the uses of life, singing, the -elements of history and geography, and particularly of the history -and geography of France. According to the needs and the resources -of localities, the instruction shall receive such developments as -shall be deemed proper.” - -A higher primary school was to be established in the chief towns -of the department and in all the communes which had a population -of more than six thousand souls. The law was executed in part. In -1841, one hundred and sixty-one schools were founded. But little -by little, the indifference of the government, and, above all, the -vanity of parents who preferred for their children worthless Latin -studies to a good and thorough primary instruction, discouraged -these first efforts. - -The legislator of 1833 had good reason for thinking that a good -vest was worth more than a poor coat. His mistake was in thinking -that people would be persuaded to abandon the coat in order to -take the vest.[265] The higher schools were almost everywhere -annexed to the colleges of secondary instruction. To suppress their -independence and their own distinctive features was to destroy -them. The final blow was given them by the law of 1850, which -abstained from pronouncing their name, and which condemned them by -its silence. - - -614. CIRCULAR OF GUIZOT.--In transmitting to teachers the law of -June 28, 1833, Guizot had it followed by a celebrated circular, -which eloquently stated the proper office of the teacher, his -duties and his rights. Here are some passages from it: - -“Do not make a mistake here, Sir. While the career of primary -instruction may be without renown, its duties interest the whole -of society, and it is an occupation which shares the importance -attached to public functions.... Universal primary instruction -is henceforth to be one of the guarantees of order and social -stability.” - -The circular next examines the material advantages which the new -law assured to teachers, and it continues thus:-- - -“However, Sir, as I well know, the foresight of the law and -the resources at the disposal of public authority, will never -succeed in rendering the humble profession of a communal teacher -as attractive as it is useful. Society could not reward him who -devotes himself to this service for all that he does for it. There -is no fortune to gain; there is scarcely any reputation to acquire -in the difficult duties which he performs. Destined to see his life -spent in a monotonous occupation, sometimes even to encounter about -him the injustice and the ingratitude of ignorance, he would often -grow disheartened, and would perhaps succumb did he not draw his -strength and his courage from other sources than from the prospect -of an interest immediate and purely personal. It is necessary -that a profound sense of the moral importance of his work sustain -and animate him, and that the austere pleasure of having served -men and secretly contributed to the public good, become the noble -reward which his conscience alone can give. It is his glory to aim -at nothing beyond his obscure and laborious condition, to spend -himself in sacrifices scarcely counted by those who profit by them, -and, in a word, to work for men and to look for his reward only -from God.” - - -615. PROGRESS OF POPULAR INSTRUCTION.--It would be an interesting -history to relate in detail the progress of popular education -in France from the law of 1833 to our day. The public bills of -the Republic of 1848, the liberal propositions of Carnot and of -Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire, the recoil of the law of March 15, 1850, -the _statu quo_ of the first years of the Second Empire, then -towards the end the praiseworthy efforts and tentatives of Duruy, -and, finally, under the Third Republic, the definite and triumphant -organization,--all this is sufficiently known and too recent to -justify us in dwelling on it here. - -For successfully introducing anew into the laws the principles of -gratuity, obligation, and secularization, as proclaimed by the -French Revolution, not less than a century was necessary. And in -particular, the better spirits allowed themselves to be convinced -of the need of obligatory instruction only by slow degrees. -However, in 1833, Cousin, who reported the law of Guizot to the -Chamber of Peers, expressed himself as follows:-- - -“A law which should make of primary instruction a legal obligation -seems to me to be no more above the powers of the legislator than -the law on the national guard, and that which you have just made -on a forced appropriation for the public good. If reasons of -public utility justify the legislator in appropriating private -property, why do not reasons of a much higher utility justify him -in doing less,--in requiring that children receive the instruction -indispensable to every human creature, to the end that he may not -become dangerous to himself or to society as a whole?” - -Cousin added that the commission of which he was the chairman would -not have receded from measures wisely combined to make instruction -obligatory, had it not been afraid of provoking difficulties, and, -in this way, of postponing a law that was awaited with impatience. -The evident necessity of instructing the people, the interests of -society, the interests of families and individuals,--all these -considerations have insensibly overcome the scruples or the -illusions of a false liberality, and it is no longer necessary, -to-day, to repeat the eloquent pleas of Carnot in his bill of 1848, -of Duruy, and of Jules Simon. - -In 1873 Guizot expressed himself as follows:-- - -“The liberty of conscience and that of families are facts and -rights which, in this question, ought to be scrupulously respected -and guaranteed; but, under the condition of this respect and of -these guarantees, it may happen that the state of society and the -state of minds may render legal obligation, in respect of primary -instruction, legitimate, salutary, and necessary. _This is the -condition of things to-day._ The movement in favor of obligatory -instruction is sincere, serious, national. Powerful examples -authorize and encourage it. In Germany, in Switzerland, in Denmark, -in most of the American States, primary instruction has this -character, and civilization has reaped excellent fruits from it. -France and its government have reason to welcome this principle.” - - -616. PROGRAMMES OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.--At the same time that -primary instruction made progress by its ever-growing extension, -and by the participation in it of a greater number of individuals, -its programmes were also extended, and it is interesting to compare -in this respect the different laws which have regulated the matter -of instruction in our century. - -The law of 1833 said: “Elementary primary instruction necessarily -comprises moral and religious instruction, reading, writing, the -elements of the French language and of computation, the legal -system of weights and measures.” - -The bill presented, June 30, 1848, by Carnot, minister of public -instruction, expresses itself thus:-- - -“Primary instruction comprises: 1. reading, writing, the elements -of the French language, the elements of computation, the metric -system, the measure of distances, elementary notions of the -phenomena of nature, and the principal facts of agriculture and -of industry, linear drawing, singing, elementary notions on the -history and geography of France; 2. a knowledge of the duties and -the rights of man and citizen, the development of the sentiments -of liberty, equality, and fraternity; 3. the elementary rules of -hygiene, and useful exercises in physical development.” - -“The religious instruction is given by the ministers of the -different communions.” - -According to the bill of Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire (April 10, 1849), -elementary instruction for boys, necessarily comprised “moral, -religious, and civic instruction, reading, writing, the elements of -the French language, the elements of computation, the legal system -of weights and measures, linear drawing, elementary notions of -agriculture and of hygiene, singing and gymnastic exercises. - -“According to the needs and resources of localities, elementary -primary instruction shall receive the developments which shall be -thought proper, and shall comprise, in particular, notions on the -history and geography of France.” - -Finally, the law of March 15, 1850, is worded thus:-- - -“Art. 23. Primary instruction comprises moral and religious -instruction, reading, writing, the elements of the French language, -computation, and the legal system of weights and measures. It may -comprise in addition, arithmetic applied to practical operations, -the elements of history and geography, notions of the physical -sciences and of natural history applicable to the ordinary purposes -of life, elementary instruction on agriculture, trade, and hygiene, -surveying, leveling, linear drawing, singing and gymnastics.” - -Progress has especially consisted, since 1850, in rendering -obligatory that which was simply optional. History, for example, -did not become a subject of instruction till 1867. - - -617. THE THEORISTS OF EDUCATION.--Along with the progress of -primary instruction, the historian of the pedagogy of the -nineteenth century would have also to follow the development of -secondary instruction and of superior instruction. He would have to -write the history of the University, reforming the methods of its -lycées and its colleges, and ever enlarging in a noble spirit of -liberty the studies of its faculties. But we should depart from the -limits of our plan, were we to undertake this order of inquiries, -and were we to enter into details which pertain to contemporary -history. - -That which should engage our attention is the theoretical -reflections of the different thinkers who, in our century, have -discussed the principles and the laws of education, of those at -least who have become celebrated for their novel views. - - -618. JACOTOT (1770-1840).--Jacotot, who has maintained scarcely any -celebrity in France except for the singularity of his paradoxes, -is perhaps of all French educators of the nineteenth century -the one who has received most attention abroad, particularly in -Germany. “Jacotot,” says Doctor Dittes, “has incited a lasting -improvement in the public instruction of Germany. The reform -which he introduced into the teaching of reading is important. He -started with an entire sentence, which was pronounced, explained, -and learned by heart by the children, and afterward analyzed into -its constituent parts.”[266] On the other hand, a French critic, -Bernard Perez, has drawn the following portrait of Jacotot:-- - -“He was the best and the most lovable of men. He had the firmness, -patience, honesty, and candor of superior minds, an inexhaustible -goodness and a universal charity which make him close all his -letters with this formula, ‘I especially commend to you the poor.’ -This ardent philanthropy, as well as his enthusiasm and his zeal -for instruction, pervades even his writings, though full of -inequalities and verbal eccentricities.”[267] - - -619. PARADOXES OF JACOTOT.--In his principal work, _Universal -Instruction_,[268] Jacotot has set forth his principles, which are -so many paradoxes, “All intelligences are equal”; “Every man can -teach, and even teach that which he himself does not know”; “One -can instruct himself all alone”; “All is in all.” - -Doubtless at the basis of Jacotot’s paradoxes there is an element -of truth; for example, the very just idea that the best teaching -is that which encourages young minds to think for themselves. -Doubtless also he qualified the exaggeration of his statement when -he said that the inequality of wills at once destroys the equality -of intelligences. But the violent and unreasonable form which he -gave to his ideas has compromised them in public opinion. That -which is true and fruitful in his system has been forgotten, and we -recall only the whimsical formulas in which he delighted. - - -620. ALL IS IN ALL.--The most famous of Jacotot’s paradoxes is the -formula, “All is in all.” The whole of Latin is in a page of Latin; -the whole of music is in a piece of music; the whole of arithmetic, -in a rule of computation. - -In practice, Jacotot made his pupils learn the first six books of -the _Telemachus_. Upon this text, once learned, and recited twice -a week, there were constructed all sorts of exercises, and these -sufficed for the complete knowledge of the French language. In the -same way the _Epitome Historiæ Sacræ_, put in the hands of pupils, -and learned in two months, was almost the sole instrument for the -study of Latin. In fact, and aside from evident exaggerations, -Jacotot rightly thought that it is necessary, as he said, “to learn -something well, and to connect with this all the rest.” - - -621. THE FOLLOWERS OF SAINT SIMON AND OF FOURIER.--There is -little of practical value to be gathered from the writings of the -celebrated utopists, who, at the opening of this century, became -known by their plans of social organization. It is the chimerical -which characterizes their systems. Cabet demanded among other -absurdities that all ancient books be burned, and that no new -books be written except by command of the State. Besides, he would -have the school-code established by the children themselves.[269] - -Victor Considerant suppressed, not books, but discipline and -authority. “The child,” he said, “shall no longer be disobedient, -because he shall no longer be commanded.”[270] - -Saint Simon, in 1816, communicated to the _Society for Elementary -Instruction_, a brief essay which gave proof of his interest in -education. For him and his disciples, education is “the aggregate -of efforts to be employed in order to adapt each new generation to -the social order to which it is called by the march of humanity.” -This was to mark the contrast between modern tendencies which -aspire above all else to an earthly and a social end, with ancient -tendencies which were subservient to supernatural ideas. Æsthetic -sentiments, scientific methods, industrial activity,--such is -the triple development which special and professional education -should consider. But above this the Saint-Simonians place moral -education, too much neglected, as they think, which should consist -particularly in developing in the young the sympathetic and -affectionate faculties. The Saint-Simonians placed but little -dependence on science and abstract principles for assuring among -men the reign of morality. Sentiment, in their view, is the -true moral principle, and education, consequently, ought to be -essentially the education of the heart. - - -622. FOURIER (1772-1837).--Fourier, like Saint Simon, had -educational pretensions. There is nothing more curious than his -treatise on _Natural Education_. In it there is only here and -there a flash of good sense mingled with a multitude of grotesque -fancies. - -Fourier renews the utopias of Plato, and confides infants to public -nurses. He is more reasonable when, in spite of his declamations -on the excellence of nature, he is really willing to recognize in -children a diversity of characters, and divides “the nurslings and -the babies” into three classes,--“the benign, the malign, and the -devilkins.” - -We must also commend Fourier for his efforts to encourage -industrial activity. There is perhaps a valuable hint in those -walks which he recommends children to take through manufactories -and shops, so that at the sight of such or such a tool, their -particular vocation may be suggested to them! - -The instincts of the child are sacred in the eyes of Fourier, even -the worst, their inclination to destroy, for example, or their -contempt for the rights of property. Far from opposing them, he -turns them to account and utilizes them, by employing destructive -and slovenly children in occupations in accord with their tastes; -for example, in the pursuit of reptiles, and in the cleansing of -sewers. - -But it is useless to enter into longer details. The education of -the Fourierites is neither a discipline nor a rule of life; it -is simply a system of complaisant adherence, and even of ardent -provocation, to the instincts which the child inherits from nature. -It is no longer a question either of directing or of training; it -is simply necessary to emancipate and to excite. - - -623. AUGUSTE COMTE (1798-1857) AND THE POSITIVISTS.--The positivist -school, and its illustrious founder, Auguste Comte, could not -omit, in their encyclopædic works, a question so important as that -of education. The author of the _Course in Positive Philosophy_ -had even announced a special treatise on pedagogy, “a great -subject,” he said, “which has not yet been undertaken in a manner -sufficiently systematic.”[271] The promise was not kept, but from -different passages in the writings of Auguste Comte it is possible -to reconstruct, in its principal features, the education which -would be derived from his system. - -Comte took for his guide the natural and specific evolution of -humanity. - -“Individual education can be adequately estimated only according to -its necessary conformity with collective evolution.” - -As positivism represents, in the view of Comte, the supreme degree -of the evolution of humanity, the new education ought to be -_positive_. - -“Right-minded men universally recognize the necessity of replacing -our European education, a system essentially theological, -metaphysical, and literary, by a _positive_ education, conformed -to the spirit of our epoch, and adapted to the needs of modern -civilization.” - -The teaching of science, then, shall be the basis of education; -but this teaching will bear its fruits only on one condition, -and this is, that at last we renounce “the exclusive specialty, -the too pronounced isolation, which still characterizes our -manner of conceiving and cultivating the sciences.” The precise -purpose of the _Course in Positive Philosophy_ was to remedy the -deleterious influence of a too great specialization of research, -by establishing the relations and the hierarchy of the sciences. -Comte made of mathematics the point of departure in scientific -instruction. This was the very reverse of the modern tendency, -which consists in beginning with the concrete and physical studies. - -Auguste Comte, in his project for social reform, demanded universal -instruction, and he bitterly complains of the indifference of the -ruling classes for the instruction of the poor. - -“Nothing is more profoundly characteristic of the existing anarchy -than the shameful indifference with which the higher classes of -to-day habitually regard the total absence of popular education, -the exaggerated prolongation of which, however, threatens to exert -on their approaching destiny a frightful reaction.” - -Comte does not go so far, however, as to dream of an identical -education for all men, an integral education, as it has been -called. He admits degrees in instruction, “which,” he says, “will -allow varieties of extension in a system constantly similar and -identical.” - - -624. DUPANLOUP (1803-1878).--Of all the ecclesiastical writers of -our century, he who has the most ardently studied the problems of -education is certainly Bishop Dupanloup. Important works give proof -of the educational zeal of the eloquent prelate. But they were -composed with more spirit than wisdom, and they betray the zeal of -the Christian apologist more than the inspiration of an impartial -love for the truth. Extravagances of language and exaggerations of -thought too often prevent the reader from feeling, as he ought, the -moral and religious inspiration out of which proceeded those books -of ardent and profound faith, but of faith more than of charity. -Notwithstanding their length and their vast proportions, these -books are pamphlets, works of combat. One should be on his guard -against taking them for scientific treatises. Serenity is lacking -in them, and from the very first, we feel ourselves enveloped in an -atmosphere of trouble and storm. - - -625. ANALYSIS OF THE TREATISE ON EDUCATION.--However, the three -volumes of the _Education_ will be read with profit. The first -volume treats of education in general, and contains three books. In -the first book the author determines the character of education, -which has for its purpose to _cultivate_ the faculties, to -_exercise_ them, to _develop_ them, to _strengthen_ them, and, -finally, to _polish_ them. In the following books the author -studies the nature of the child, of whom he sometimes speaks with -a touching tenderness; and examines the means of education, which -are “religion, instruction, discipline, and physical culture.” -Discipline consists in supporting, preventing, and repressing. -Discipline is to education “that which the bark is to the tree -which it surrounds. It is the bark which holds the sap, and forces -it to ascend to the heart of the tree.” - -The general title of the second volume is, _On Authority and -Respect in Education_. Authority and respect, in the eyes of the -author, are the two fundamental things. From this point of view, he -studies what he calls the _personnel_ of education; that is, God, -the parents, the teacher, the child, and the schoolmate. - -The third volume, entitled _Educational Men_, treats of -the qualities befitting the head master of an educational -establishment, and of his different colleagues.[272] - - -626. ERRORS AND PREJUDICES.--Although he wrote a beautiful chapter -entitled, _Of the Respect due the Dignity of the Child and the -Liberty of his Nature_, Dupanloup is still more struck with the -faults than with the virtues of childhood. He shudders in thinking -of his thoughtlessness, of his curiosity, of his sensuality, and -especially of his pride. So he distrusts commendation and rewards. - -“In praising your pupils,” he says to the teacher, “do you not fear -to excite their pride? The pride of scholars is a terrible evil; -it begins in the ‘third,’ develops in the ‘second,’ blossoms in -‘rhetoric,’ and becomes established in ‘philosophy.’”[273] - -To this mistrust of human nature is joined a singular pessimism -with respect to the functions of the teacher. - -“There is found,” he says, “in this service, grave troubles. -Sometimes, if we are worthy of this service, if we sacrifice -ourselves to it, we can find consolations in it, but pleasure, -never!” - -The verdict is severe and absolute, but it recoils in part on him -who pronounces it. How not mistrust an educator who declares that -there is no sweetness mingled with the fatigues of teaching, and -who condemns the teachers of youth to a life of complete sacrifice -and bitterness? - -The greatest fault in the educational spirit of Dupanloup is that -he does not cross the narrow limits of an education in small -seminaries. Dupanloup wrote only for the middle classes. He had no -interest in popular education; he does not love the lay teacher; he -detests the University. Finally, he is the man who inspired the law -of May 15, 1850. - - -627. THE SPIRITUALISTIC SCHOOL AND UNIVERSITY MEN.--The -philosophers of the French spiritualistic school have not in -general paid great attention to the theory of education. The most -illustrious of them, Cousin (1792-1868), at the same time that -he aided in organizing University instruction, carefully studied -educational institutions abroad, especially in his two works, -_Public Instruction in Holland_ (1837), and _Public Instruction in -Germany_ (1840). The works of Jules Simon have the same practical -character, but with a marked tendency to treat by preference -the questions of primary instruction. The _School_ (1864) is a -manifesto in favor of gratuity and obligation. - -The University men, on their part, have, in this century, acted -rather than speculated. They have been intent rather on making -good pupils than on composing theories. There would, however, -be valuable truths to cull from the works of Cournot,[274] of -Bersot,[275] and especially of Michel Bréal.[276] - - - [628. ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.--1. One of the main characteristics of - the educational thought of this century is doubtless the effort - to deduce the rules of practice from certain first principles. - The principles of instruction are to be found, for the most part, - in the science of psychology, and the principles of education, in - part, in social science and even in jurisprudence. - - 2. The purpose of Napoleon to secure the perpetuity of his - dynasty through the influence of his Imperial University, is a - striking proof of the belief in the potency of ideas, and of - the belief in the potency of popular instruction as a means of - national strength. - - 3. The history of mutual instruction exhibits three important - facts: 1. the effect of agitation in arousing public interest - in educational questions; 2. the manner in which peculiar - circumstances suggest an expedient which can be justified on no - absolute grounds; 3. the danger of converting such an expedient - into a “system” for universal adoption. - - 4. Comenius, Pestalozzi, and Jacotot, attempted to make - instruction universal by simplifying its processes to such a - degree that every mother might be a teacher and every household - a school. - - 5. In Comte we see the re-appearance of Condillac’s doctrine, - that the historic education of the race is the type of individual - education. The same hypothesis will re-appear in Mr. Spencer’s - _Education_.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[255] Fourcroy (1755-1809), a celebrated chemist, was -director-general of public instruction in 1801. He prepared, in the -following years, the decrees relative to the establishment of the -University. - -[256] Fontanes (1757-1821), first Grand Master of the University. - -[257] _Mémoire politique_ of Joseph de Maistre, Paris, 1858, p. 30. - -[258] The Abbé Gaultier (1746-1818), author of a large number of -works on elementary instruction, and almost a reformer in his -way. He employed _teaching by sight_, and recommended varied -exercises, such as games where he introduced _counters_, tickets, -interrogations in the form of _lotteries_. - -[259] See Gréard, _L’enseignement primaire à Paris de 1867 -à 1877_. A memoir published in 1877, pp. 75-90. See also an -interesting study full of personal recollections of E. Deschamps, -_L’enseignement mutual_. Toulouse, 1883. - -[260] Jomard (1777-1862), member of the Society for Elementary -Instruction, author of _Tableaux des écoles élémentaires_. - -[261] The Comte de Laborde (1771-1842), author of a _plan -d’éducation pour les enfants_. - -[262] Among the other propagators of mutual instruction, mention -should be made of the Abbé Gaultier, Larochefoucauld-Liancourt, De -Lasteyrie, etc. - -[263] Two noted attempts to extend and popularize the monitorial -system are exhibited in the following works: Pillans, -_The Rationale of Discipline_ (Edinburgh, 1852); Bentham, -_Chrestomathia_ (London, 1816). - -[264] It is at the same period, in 1832, that Gérando published his -_Cours normal des instituteurs_. - -[265] Cournot, _Des institutions d’instruction publique_, p. 315. - -[266] Dittes, _op. cit._ p. 272. - -[267] See _Jacotot et sa méthode d’émancipation intellectuelle_, by -Bernard Perez. Paris, 1883. - -[268] _Enseignement universel._ Paris, 1823. - -[269] Cabet, _Voyage en Icarie_. Paris, 1842. - -[270] Considerant, _Théorie d’éducation rationnelle et attrayante -du dix-neuvième siècle_. Paris, 1844. - -[271] _Cours de philosophie positive_, second edition, 1864. Vol. -VI. p. 771. - -[272] The principal educational works of Dupanloup are _Éducation_, -1851, three volumes; _De la haute éducation intellectuelle_, 1855, -three volumes; _Lettres sur l’éducation des filles_, 1879, one -volume. - -[273] See note to page 131. - -[274] Cournot published in 1864 a remarkable book under this title: -_Des institutions d’instruction publique_. - -[275] See the _Essais de philosophie et de morale_, by E. Bersot, -and also _Études et discours_ (1879). - -[276] See especially the well-known book of Bréal, _Quelques mots -sur l’instruction publique en France_. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII. - -THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION.--HERBERT SPENCER AND ALEXANDER BAIN. - - THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION; THE GERMAN PHILOSOPHERS; THE ENGLISH - PHILOSOPHERS; HERBERT SPENCER’S EDUCATION; PLAN OF THE WORK; - DEFINITION OF EDUCATION; HUMAN DESTINY; UTILITARIAN TENDENCIES; - DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF ACTIVITIES; CRITICISM OF MR. SPENCER’S - CLASSIFICATION; EFFECTS ON EDUCATION; SCIENCE IS THE BASIS - OF EDUCATION; SCIENCE FOR HEALTH AND INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITY; - SCIENCE FOR FAMILY LIFE; SCIENCE FOR ÆSTHETIC ACTIVITY; - EXAGGERATIONS AND PREJUDICES; INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION; LAWS OF - MENTAL EVOLUTION; PERSONAL EDUCATION; MORAL EDUCATION; SYSTEM - OF NATURAL PUNISHMENTS; DIFFICULTIES IN APPLICATION; RETURN TO - NATURE; PHYSICAL EDUCATION; GENERAL JUDGMENT; MR. BAIN AND THE - SCIENCE OF EDUCATION; GENERAL IMPRESSIONS; DIVISIONS OF THE BOOK; - PSYCHOLOGICAL ORDER AND LOGICAL ORDER; MODERN EDUCATION; ERRORS - IN THEORY; UTILITARIAN TENDENCIES; FINAL JUDGMENT; AMERICAN - EDUCATORS; CHANNING; HORACE MANN; CONCLUSION; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY. - - -629. THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION.--To-day, thanks to important works, -the science of education is no longer an empty term, an object of -vague aspirations for philosophers, of easy ridicule for wits. -Doubtless it is far from being definitely established; but it -no longer conceals its name and its pretensions; it defines its -purpose and its methods; and manifests its youthful vitality in all -directions. - -Up to the present period, philosophers had scarcely thought of -organizing pedagogy, of constructing it on a rational basis. On -the other hand, the practice of education is still less advanced -than the conceptions of philosophers. Here we the more often follow -a thoughtless routine, or the vague inspirations of instinct. -The methods in use are not co-ordinated. They present a curious -mixture of old traditions and modern surcharges. It is this lack of -definiteness, of co-ordination of ideas, and the spectacle of these -contradictions, which caused Richter[277] to say: “The education -of the day resembles the Harlequin of the Italian comedy who comes -on the stage with a bundle of papers under each arm. ‘What do you -carry under your right arm?’ he is asked. ‘Orders,’ he replies. -‘And under your left arm?’ ‘Counter-orders!’” - -Quite a number of the philosophers of the nineteenth century have -attempted to remedy this incoherence, and, by appealing to the -scientific spirit, to regulate educational processes that have -fallen into excesses of empiricism or of routine. It is these -attempts which we are summarily to recite. - - -630. THE GERMAN PHILOSOPHERS.--Since Kant, and by his example, the -most of German philosophers have associated the theory of education -with their speculations on human nature. - -Fichte (1762-1814), in his _Discourse to the German Nation_, -proclaimed the necessity of a national education to secure the -regeneration of his country and its restoration to its former -standing. The advocate of a public and common education, because he -would fight against the selfishness which family life encourages, -he contributed by his eloquent appeals to restore the intellectual -and moral grandeur, and consequently, the material grandeur, of -Germany. - -Schleiermacher (1768-1834) wrote a _Doctrine of Education_, which -was not published till 1849. In this he develops, among other -ideas, this proposition, that religious education does not belong -to the school, but that it is the affair of the family and the -Church. - -Herbart (1776-1841) has composed a series of pedagogical writings -which assign him a special place in the list of educational -philosophers. Let us call attention, in particular, to his _General -Pedagogy_ (1806), and the _Outline of my Lessons on Pedagogy_ -(1840). That which distinguishes Herbart is his attempt to reduce -to a system all the rules of pedagogy by giving them for a basis -his own psychological theory. He inaugurated a new method in -psychology, which does not seem, however, to have given the results -that were expected from it,--the mathematical method. For him, -psychology is only the mechanism of the mind, and by means of -mathematical formula calculation may be applied to measure the -force of ideas. The soul does not possess innate faculties; it is -developed progressively. - -But it would require long efforts to enter into the secrets of -Herbart’s original thought. Let it suffice to say, that nurtured -from an early period on the ideas of Pestalozzi, whose friend he -was, he has founded a real school of pedagogy. - -Beneke (1798-1854) is the author of a _Doctrine of Education -and Instruction_, which is, in the opinion of Doctor Dittes, a -masterpiece of psychological pedagogy. Beneke agrees with Herbart -on a great number of points. His pedagogical methods have been -popularized by J. G. Dressler, director of the normal school at -Bauzen, who died in 1860.[278] - -Charles Schmidt, who died in 1864, wrote a large number of works on -pedagogy, in which he is inspired by the phrenology of Gall and his -fantastical hypotheses. Doubtless this inspiration is not happy, -and the works of Schmidt are more valuable for their details, -for their special reflections, than for their general doctrine. -But from his undertaking there issues at least this truth, that -the science of education should have for its basis, not only -psychology, but physiology also, the science of the whole man, body -and mind. - -There is no country where pedagogy has received a more -philosophical and a higher development than in Germany. Even the -great poets, Lessing, Herder, Gœthe, and Schiller, have contributed -through certain grand ideas to the construction of a science of -education. - - -631. THE ENGLISH PHILOSOPHERS.--English philosophy, with its -experimental and practical character, and with its positive and -utilitarian tendencies, was naturally called to exercise a great -influence on pedagogy. There are more truths to gather from the -thinkers who, in different degrees, have followed Locke and Bain, -and who have preserved a taste for prudent observation and careful -experiments, than from the German idealists, enamored of hypothesis -and systematic constructions. - -Without doubt this explains the considerable success which the -recent books of Herbert Spencer and Alexander Bain have obtained -even in France. - - -632. THE BOOK OF HERBERT SPENCER.--If it were sufficient to -define with exactness the end to be attained, and to discover the -true method for constructing the science, Herbert Spencer’s book -on _Education, Intellectual, Moral, and Physical_,[279] would -be a satisfactory treatise; but it is one thing to comprehend -that psychology is the only solid basis of a complete and exact -pedagogy, and another thing to determine the real laws of -psychology. - -“Education will not be definitely systematized,” says Mr. Spencer, -“till the day when science shall be in possession of a rational -psychology.” - -This day has not yet come, and Herbert Spencer, who is the first -to recognize the fact, modestly presents his work only as an -essay. But if it does not yet contain a perfect and fully worked -out theory of education, the essay of the English philosopher is -at least a vigorous effort, and a notable step towards a rational -pedagogy, towards the science of education, which, as Virchow -expresses it, “ought forever to proscribe the gropings of an -ignorant education whose experiments are ever to be gone over anew.” - - -633. PLAN OF THE WORK.--Every system of education supposes at the -same time an ethics,--I mean a certain conception of life and of -human destiny, and a psychology,--that is, a knowledge more or -less exact of our faculties and of the laws which preside over -their development. There are, in fact, in education, two essential -questions: 1. What are the subjects of study and instruction, -proper to create the qualities, the aggregate of which constitutes -the type of the well-educated man? 2. By what methods shall we -teach the child rapidly and well that which it is proper for him -to learn? There are, in other terms, the question of end and the -question of means. Ethics is necessary to resolve the first, and -psychology, to illustrate the second. - -It is in accordance with this plan that Mr. Spencer has arranged -the different parts of his work. The first chapter, entitled _What -Knowledge is of Most Worth?_ is in substance but a series of -reflections on the final purpose, on the different forms, of human -activity, and, consequently, on the relative importance, on the -rank, which should be assigned to the studies which go to compose -a complete education. - -In the three other chapters, _Intellectual_, _Moral_, and _Physical -Education_, the author examines the methods which are deemed -the best for instructing the intelligence, perfecting the moral -character, and fortifying the body. - - -634. DEFINITION OF EDUCATION.--Herbert Spencer begins with a -definition of education:-- - -“Education,” he says, “is all that we do for ourselves, and all -that others do for us, for the purpose of bringing us nearer the -perfection of our nature.... The ideal of education would be to -furnish man with a complete preparation for life as a whole.... -Do not attempt to give an exclusive development of one order of -knowledge at the expense of the rest, however important it may -be. Let us distribute our attention over the whole, and justly -proportion our efforts to their relative value.... In general, -the object of education ought to be to acquire as completely as -possible the knowledge that is best adapted to develop individual -and social life under all its aspects, and to do no more than -glance at the subjects which contribute the least to this -development.”[280] - -This definition is wrong in being a little pretentious and in not -adapting itself to all the forms of education. It is true, perhaps, -if it is a question of the ideal to be attained in a complete -instruction, accessible to a few privileged men, but it could not -be applied to popular education. It soars too high above human -conditions and social realities. - - -635. HUMAN DESTINY.--The conception of human destiny, as Mr. -Spencer outlines it in the opening of his book, has very marked -utilitarian tendencies. His first complaint against the current -education is that it sacrifices the useful to the agreeable; that -as matters now go, everything which pertains to mental adornment -and display has precedence over the knowledge which might increase -our well-being and assure our happiness. As in the history of -dress, with savages for example, it is proved that the ornamental -in dress precedes the useful; so in instruction, ornamental studies -are preferred to useful studies. This is especially the case with -women, who have a decided preference for the qualities of pure -decoration.[281] - -In his rather vigorous reaction against the luxuries which in -classical instruction would wrongly substitute themselves for more -necessary studies, Mr. Spencer goes so far as to say:-- - -“Just as the Orinoco Indian paints and tattooes himself, so the -child in this country learns Latin because it forms a part of the -education of a gentleman.” - -However, we do not construe this literally. Mr. Spencer does not -go so far as to suppress the disinterested studies which are as -much the more necessary as they seem to be the more superfluous. He -merely demands that instruction be not reduced to a training in the -trivial elegancies of a dead language, or to a study of trifles in -history, such as the dates of battles, and the birth and death of -princes. - - -636. UTILITARIAN TENDENCIES.--Utility, that is, the influence -on happiness,--such is the true criterion by which are to be -estimated, admitted or excluded, and finally classified, the -subjects proposed for the study of man as the elements of his -education. It is understood, however, that happiness is to be -considered in its widest and highest sense. Happiness does -not consist in the satisfaction of such or such a privileged -inclination. It consists in being all that it is possible to -be,--in complete living. To prepare us for a complete life,--such -is the function of education. - - -637. DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF ACTIVITY.--Complete life supposes -different kinds of activity, which ought to be subordinated one to -another according to their importance and dignity. The following -statement shows how Mr. Spencer proposes to classify these -different categories of activities according to an ascending scale -of progress:-- - -1. In the first rank is placed the activity which ministers simply -to self-preservation. It would be of no consequence to be an -eminent scholar, or a citizen and a patriot, or a devoted father; -or rather, all this would be impossible, if one did not first know -how to assure his safety and his life. - -2. Then comes the series of activities which tend _indirectly_ -to the same end of physical well-being, by the acquisition and -production of the material goods necessary for existence, that is, -industry and the different occupations. - -3. In the third place, man employs his activities in the service of -his family,--he has children to support and to bring up. - -4. Social and political life is the fourth object of his efforts. -This supposes, as a previous condition, the accomplishment of -family duties, just as family life itself supposes the normal -development of the individual life. - -5. Finally, human existence is consummated and crowned, so to -speak, in the exercise of the activities which, in a single word, -we might call æsthetic, and which, taking advantage of the leisure -left from care and business, will find satisfaction in the culture -of letters and the arts. - - -638. CRITICISM OF THIS CLASSIFICATION.--What exceptions can be -taken to this exact and methodical table of the different elements -of an existence complete, normal, and consequently human? Is -it necessary to remark that the happiness thus understood does -not differ from what we call virtue? None of the five elements -distinguished by Mr. Spencer can be safely omitted. The first -could not be neglected without endangering the material reality of -life; nor the last, without impairing its moral dignity. In some -degree they are mutually necessary, in this sense, that the lower, -or selfish activities, are the conditions which make possible the -other parts of human duty; and that the higher, or disinterested -activities, become, as it were, the justification of the toil we -endure in order to exist and to satisfy material necessities. - -We have, however, one grave reserve to make. Mr. Spencer is wrong -in putting into the last category of activities that which is the -crown of the others, all that which concerns the moral development -of the individual. Between the second and the third class of -activities we ask to interpolate another form of activity,--that -which constitutes the individual moral life, that which, in every -man, even the humblest and the poorest, calls into exercise the -conscience, the reason, and the will. Mr. Spencer’s system is -decidedly too aristocratic. It seems to reserve the moral life for -men of leisure. In a democratic society, which believes in equality -and which would not have this an empty term, there are efforts -which must be made for the moral development of the human being in -all conditions, and it would be wrong to reduce personal activity -to the care of health and material well-being. - - -639. EFFECTS ON EDUCATION.--It is now easy to comprehend the duties -of education. Conforming its efforts to nature, distributing its -lessons according to the exact division of human functions, it -will seek the branches of knowledge the most fit for making of the -pupil, first, a sound and healthy man, then a toiler, a workman,--a -man, in a word, capable of earning his livelihood; then it will -train him for the family and the State, by endowing him with all -the domestic and civic virtues; finally, it will open to him the -brilliant domain of art under all its forms. - - -640. SCIENCE IS THE BASIS OF EDUCATION.--When we have once divided -human life into a certain number of superimposed stages which -education should teach us to ascend one after another, it becomes -necessary to know what are the facts and the branches of knowledge -which correspond to each one of these different steps. To this -question Mr. Spencer replies that in all the grades of human -development that which is pre-eminently necessary, that which is -the basis of education, is science. - - -641. SCIENCE FOR HEALTH AND INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITY.--It is in -the first part of education, that which has for its object -self-preservation, that science is the least useful. So far, -education may be in great part negative, because nature has taken -it upon herself to lead us to our destination. The child cries at -the sight of a stranger, and throws himself into the arms of his -mother when he feels the slightest sorrow. However, in proportion -to his growth, man has more and more need of science, and he could -not do without physiology and hygiene. By this means will he shun -all those little acts of imprudence, all those physical faults, -which shorten life, or pave the way for infirmities in old age. By -this means he will diminish the interval, which is so considerable, -between the length of life as it might be and the brevity of life -as it is. Evident truths, but too often unheeded! - -“How many scholars,” exclaims Mr. Spencer, “who would blush -if caught saying Iphigénia instead of Iphigenía, show not the -slightest shame in confessing that they do not know where the -Eustachian tubes are, and what are the actions of the spinal cord!” - -With respect to the activities which might be called lucrative, and -to the kind of instruction which they require, Mr. Spencer still -shows the utility of science. He knows how great a disposition -there is in modern society to promote professional or industrial -instruction; but he thinks, not without reason, that we do not -proceed as we should in order to be completely successful in this -direction. All the sciences, mathematics through its applications -to the arts, mechanics through its connection with industries -where machines play so great a part, physics and chemistry through -the knowledge they furnish on matter and its properties, even -the social sciences by reason of the relations of commerce with -politics,--all the sciences, in a word, contribute to develop the -skill and the prudence of the man who is employed in any trade or -occupation whatever. - - -642. SCIENCE FOR FAMILY LIFE.--A point in which the originality of -Mr. Spencer’s thought is distinctly marked, and which he develops -with an eloquent earnestness, is the necessity of enlightening -parents, and particularly mothers, upon their obligations and -duties, and of putting them in a condition to direct the education -of their children by teaching them the natural laws of body and -mind: “Is it not monstrous,” he says, “that the fate of a new -generation should be left to the chances of unreasoning custom, -impulse, fancy,--joined with the suggestions of ignorant nurses -and the prejudiced counsel of grandmothers.... In the actual state -of things the best instruction, even among the favored by fortune, -is scarcely more than an instruction of celibates.” We are ever -saying that the vocation of woman is to bring up her children, -and yet we teach her nothing of that which she ought to know in -order to fulfill worthily this great task. Ignorant as she is of -the laws of life and of the phenomena of the soul, knowing nothing -of the nature of the moral emotions or of physical disorders, her -intervention in the education of the child is often more disastrous -than her absolute inaction would be. - - -643. SCIENCE IN ÆSTHETIC EDUCATION.--Mr. Spencer next shows that -social and political activity also has need of being enlightened -by science. One is a citizen only on the condition of knowing the -history of his country. - -That which it is more difficult to grant Mr. Spencer, is that -æsthetic education, in its turn, is based on science. Is there not -some exaggeration, for example, in asserting that poor musical -compositions are poor because they are lacking in truth? and that -they are lacking in truth “because they are lacking in science”? -Does one become a man of letters and an artist as one becomes a -geometrician? To cultivate with success those arts which are as the -flower of civilization, is there not required, besides talent and -natural gifts, a long practice, a slow initiation, something, in -a word, more delicate than the attention which suffices for being -instructed in science? - - -644. EXAGGERATIONS AND PREJUDICES.--We believe as thoroughly as -any one can in the efficiency and in the educational virtues -of science, and we would willingly make it, as Mr. Spencer -does, the basis of education. We must be on our guard, however, -against cultivating this religion of science until it becomes a -superstition. Our author is not completely exempt from this danger. - -That science develops the intellectual qualities, such as judgment, -memory, reasoning, we admit; that it develops them better than -the study of the languages, let even this be granted! But it is -impossible for us not to protest when Mr. Spencer represents -science as endowed with the same efficacy for inspiring moral -qualities, such as perseverance, sincerity, activity, resignation -to the will of nature, piety even, and religion. Science appears -to us an infallible means of animating and exciting the different -energies of the soul; but will it also have the quality of -disciplining them? Thanks to science, man will know that which -it is proper to do, if he wishes to be a workman, a parent, or a -citizen, but on this express condition, that he _wills_; and this -education of the will, is it still science which shall be charged -with it? We may be allowed to doubt it. - -Mr. Spencer himself now seems to share this doubt, if we may trust -one of his recent works.[282] “Faith in books and in nature,” it is -there said, “is one of the superstitions of our times.” We deceive -ourselves, says the author, when we establish a connection between -the intelligence and the will, for conduct is determined not by -knowledge but by emotion. - -“He who would hope to teach geometry by giving lessons in Latin, -would scarcely be more unreasonable than those who count on -producing better sentiments by means of a discipline of the -intellectual faculties.” - -To tell the truth, Mr. Spencer has here fallen into another -extreme, and he seems to us at one time to have granted too much, -and at another too little, to the influence of instruction on -morality. - - -645. INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.--So far we have examined along with -Mr. Spencer only the nature of the objects and of the knowledge -which befit the education of man. It remains to inquire how the -mind can assimilate this knowledge. Pedagogy has not only to draw -up in theory a brilliant programme of necessary studies, but it -also searches out the means and the methods to be employed, in -order that these studies may be presented to the mind, and may have -the greater chance of being thus presented with profit. - -In this somewhat more practical part of his work, Mr. Spencer -thinks that pedagogy should be guided by the idea of evolution; -that is, of the progressive course of a being who makes himself, -who creates himself little by little, and who develops in -succession, according to fixed laws, powers originally enveloped -in the germs that he has received from nature, or that have been -transmitted to him by heredity. - - -646. LAWS OF INTELLECTUAL EVOLUTION.--In other terms, Mr. -Spencer shows that the precepts of pedagogy cannot be definitely -deduced until the laws of mental evolution have been accurately -established, and he attempts to determine some of these laws. - -He proves that the mind passes naturally from the simple to the -complex, from the indefinite to the definite, from the concrete to -the abstract, from the empirical to the rational; that the genesis -of the individual is the same as the genesis of the race; that the -intelligence assimilates by preference that which it discovers for -itself; finally, that all culture which profits the pupil is, at -the same time, an exercise which stimulates him and delights him. - -From this there result these practical consequences: that it -is necessary first to present to the child simple subjects of -study, individual things, sensible objects, for the purpose of -starting him gradually on his way towards complex truths, abstract -generalities, conceptions of the reason; that nothing can be -exacted of the child’s intelligence but vague and incomplete -notions which the travail of the mind will gradually clarify -and elaborate; that education ought to be _in petto_, for each -individual, a repetition and a copy of the general march of -civilization and of the progress of humanity; that it is necessary -to count more on the personal effort of the pupil than upon the -action of the teacher; that, finally, it is necessary to find the -methods which interest, and even those which amuse. Hence the -educator, instead of opposing nature, instead of disconcerting her -in her course and in the insensible steps of her real development, -will restrict himself to following her step by step, and education -will be no longer a force which obstructs, which represses, -which smothers; but, on the contrary, a force which sustains and -stimulates by associating with itself the work of the spontaneous -powers of the soul. - - -647. SELF-EDUCATION.--Mr. Spencer attaches great importance -to that maxim which recommends us to encourage above all else -self-education:-- - -“In education the process of self-development should be encouraged -to the fullest extent. Children should be led to make their own -investigations, and to draw their own inferences. They should be -_told_ as little as possible, and induced to _discover_ as much as -possible. Humanity has progressed solely by self-instruction; and -that to achieve the best results, each mind must progress somewhat -after the same fashion, is continually proved by the marked -success of self-made men. Those who have been brought up under -the ordinary school-drill, and have carried away with them the -idea that education is practicable only in that style, will think -it hopeless to make children their own teachers. If, however, they -will call to mind that the all-important knowledge of surrounding -objects which a child gets in its early years is not without -help,--if they will remember that the child is self-taught in the -use of its mother tongue,--if they will estimate the amount of -that experience of life, that out-of-school wisdom which every boy -gathers for himself,--if they will mark the unusual intelligence -of the uncared-for London _gamin_, as shown in all the directions -in which his faculties have been tasked,--if further, they will -think how many minds have struggled up unaided, not only through -the mysteries of our irrationally-planned _curriculum_, but -through hosts of other obstacles besides; they will find it a not -unreasonable conclusion, that if the subjects be put before him in -right order and right form, any pupil of ordinary capacity will -surmount his successive difficulties with but little assistance.” - - -648. MORAL EDUCATION.--Moral education, without furnishing -occasion for as complete a theory as intellectual education, has, -nevertheless, suggested to Mr. Spencer some important reflections. - -Mr. Spencer expressly declares that he does not accept the dogma -of Lord Palmerston, or what would be called in France the dogma of -Rousseau, namely, that all children are born good. He would incline -the rather toward the contrary opinion, which, “though untenable,” -he says, “seems to us less wide of the truth”! Doubtless, we must -not expect too much moral goodness of children; but it may be -found that Mr. Spencer exaggerates a little, and draws too dark -a portrait of the child when he says, “The child resembles the -savage; his physical features, like his moral instincts, recall the -savage.” Taken literally, such pessimism would lead logically to an -over-severe moral discipline, wholly repressive and restraining. -Such, however, is not the conclusion of Mr. Spencer, who recommends -a course of tolerance and mildness, a system of relative letting -alone which we might almost think dictated by the optimism of -Rousseau. He censures the brutal discipline of the English schools. -Finally, he would have the child treated, not as an incorrigible -rebel who is obedient only to force, but as a reasonable being -capable of readily comprehending the reasons and the advantages -of obedience, from the simple fact that he takes into account the -connection of cause and effect. - - -649. SYSTEM OF NATURAL PUNISHMENTS.--The true moral discipline, -according to Mr. Spencer, is that which puts the child in a state -of dependence on nature, who teaches him to detest his faults -by reason of the natural consequences which they involve. It is -necessary to renounce artificial punishments, which are almost -always irritating and taken amiss, and to have recourse, as a -rule, only to the privations and the inconveniencies which are the -necessary consequences, and, as it were, the inevitable reactions, -of the acts which have been committed. - -A boy, for example, puts his room in disorder. In this case, the -method of natural punishment requires that he himself shall repair -the mischief; and in this way he will soon correct himself of a -turbulence from which he will be the first to suffer. - -A little girl, through indolence, or through tarrying too long over -her toilet, has made herself late for a walk. Let her be punished -by not waiting for her, by leaving her at home. This is the best -means of curing her in the future of her indolence and coquetry. - -The system which tends thus to substitute the lessons of nature -for artificial penalties, certainly offers great advantages. It -subjects the child, not to the authority of a passing teacher, or -of parents who will one day die, but to a law whose action neither -ceases nor ever relents. Artificial punishments often provoke -the resistance of the child because he does not comprehend their -meaning, and because, proceeding from the human will, they can be -taxed with injustice and caprice. Could one as easily refuse to -bow before the impersonal force of nature,--a force which exactly -adjusts the punishment to the fault,[283] which accepts no excuse, -against which there is no appeal, and which, without threats, -without anger, rigorously and silently executes the law? - - -650. DIFFICULTIES IN APPLICATION.--Mr. Spencer’s principle is -excellent, but the opportunities for applying it are far less -frequent than our philosopher believes. The child, in most cases, -is too little reflective, too little reasonable, to comprehend, and -especially to heed, the suggestions of personal interest. - -Let us add that this principle is wholly negative, that it -furnishes at most only the means of shunning evil; that even in -according to it an efficacy it does not have, it would still be -necessary to reproach it with narrowing moral culture by reducing -it to the rather mean solicitude for simple utility; finally, -that it exercises no influence on the development of the positive -virtues, on the disinterested education of morality in what is -noble and exalted. - -Finally, the system of natural punishments would incur the danger -of often being cruel, and of causing the child an irreparable -injury. Let pass the pin-cushion, the boiling water, and the -candle-flame,--examples which Mr. Spencer proposes; but what shall -we say of the bar of red-hot iron which he lets the child pick up? -What shall be said, above all, of the grave consequences entailed -by the faults of a young man left to himself? - -“Would it not be,” says Gréard justly, “to condemn the child to -a régime so severe as to be an injustice, to count solely on the -effects of natural reactions and inevitable consequences, for the -purpose of disciplining his will? The penalty which they provoke -is the most often enormous as compared with the fault which has -produced them, and man himself demands for his conduct other -sanctions than those of a harsh reality. He desires that we judge -the intention as well as the fact; that he be commended for his -efforts; that in the first instance extreme measures be not taken -against him; that the blow fall on him if needs be, but without -crushing him, and while extending to him a hand to help him -up.”[284] - - -651. RETURN TO NATURE.--However it may be, Mr. Spencer is to -be commended for having shown that for moral education as for -intellectual education, the method which approaches nature the -nearest is also the best. The return to nature which was the -characteristic of Rousseau’s theories and of Pestalozzi’s practice, -is also the dominant trait of Mr. Spencer’s pedagogy. - -If we look closely into the matter, this decided purpose to follow -nature implicates something besides the superficial condemnation -of methods introduced by art and human device. It supposes a -fundamental belief,--the belief in the beneficent purpose of -natural instincts. To have confidence in nature, to fall back on -the spontaneous forces of the soul, because we discern behind -them or in them a higher providence or an internal foresight, is -a belief generally useful and suggestive for conducting human -affairs, but particularly necessary for directing the education -of man. It is not without some surprise that we discover this -belief at the basis of Mr. Spencer’s pedagogy, as though, by a -contradiction which is not new, the evolutionist philosophy, -which seems to exclude final causes from the conception of the -universe, had been practically constrained to bow before them, and -to proclaim, at least in the matter of education, the salutary -efficacy of the theory which admits them. - -Thus, in speaking of physical education, Mr. Spencer remarks that -the sensations are the natural guides, which it would be dangerous -not to follow. - -“Happily, that all-important part of education which goes to secure -direct self-preservation, is in great part already provided for. -Too momentous to be left to our own blundering, Nature takes it -into her own hands.” - -Speaking in another place of the instincts which induce the child -to move himself and to seek in physical exercise the basis of -physical well-being, he declares that to oppose these instincts -would be to go counter to the means “_divinely_ arranged” for -assuring the development of the body. - - -652. PHYSICAL EDUCATION.--The chapter devoted by Mr. Spencer to -physical education, is such as might be expected from a thinker -who is wholly exempt from idealistic prejudices and who does not -hesitate to write:-- - -“The history of the world shows that the well-fed races have been -the energetic and dominant races.” - -It is necessary first and above all to establish physical force in -man, and to create within him “a robust animal.” - -“The actual education of children is defective in several -particulars: in an insufficiency of food, in an insufficiency of -clothing, in an insufficiency of exercise, and in an excess of -mental application.” - -Mr. Spencer complains that modern education has become wholly -intellectual, and that it neglects the body. He reminds us that -“the preservation of health is one of our duties,” and that there -exists a thing which might be called “physical morality.” - -Here, as everywhere, Mr. Spencer demands that we follow the -indications of nature. He explains on physiological grounds the -apparently inordinate appetite which children show for certain -foods,--sugar, for example. He urgently entreats that preference -shall be given to play and to free and spontaneous exercise, over -gymnastics. - - -653. GENERAL JUDGMENT.--That which, in our opinion, attests the -truth of the pedagogical laws which we have just discussed, is -that they are in agreement with the general opinions of the great -modern reformers in education. It is thus that Spencer’s ideas are -in close harmony with those which Pestalozzi had employed at Stanz. -The success which he obtained there, as Mr. Spencer has remarked, -depended on two things: first, on the attention which he used in -determining what kind of instruction the children had need of, and -next, on the pains he took to associate the new knowledge with that -which they already possessed. - -Mr. Spencer’s essay, then, deserves the attention of educators. -There is scarcely a book in which a keen scent for details comes -more agreeably to animate a fund of solid arguments, and from -which it is more useful to extract the substance. However, it -must not be read save with precaution. The brilliant English -thinker sometimes fails in justness and measure, and his bold -generalizations need to be tested with care. - - -654. ALEXANDER BAIN AND EDUCATION AS A SCIENCE.--Less brilliant -than the work of Mr. Spencer, the book of Mr. Bain, _Education -as a Science_, recommends itself by merits of studied analysis -and scholarly minuteness. Others surpass Mr. Bain in brilliancy -of imagination, in originality and in enthusiasm; but no one -equals him in richness of details, in acuteness and abundance of -observations. After the more venturesome have taken the lead and -have published the original sketch, Mr. Bain appears and writes -the methodical and complete manual. His own work resembles that -of a conscientious guard who marches in the rear of a victorious -army, and by a wise organization makes sure the positions conquered -by the march of an impetuous commander-in-chief. His book, in -other terms, is but the studious and thorough development of Mr. -Spencer’s principles. - - -655. GENERAL IMPRESSION.--It is impossible in an analysis to -bring out the merit of a book which is especially valuable for -the multiplicity of the questions which the author discusses -in it, and for the infinite variety of the solutions which he -proposes. There are landscapes which discourage the painter, -because, notwithstanding their beauty, they are too vast, too full -of details, to admit of being crowded into a frame. We may say -the same of Mr. Bain’s book. One must have studied it himself in -order to form an estimate of its value. Professors of all classes -will here find pages of well-considered counsels, and judicious -reflections upon educational methods. The nature of studies, the -sequence of subjects, the gradation of difficulties, the choice -of exercises, the comparison of oral instruction with text-book -instruction, modes of discipline,--nothing escapes a thinker who is -not a mere theorist or an amateur educator, but a professional man, -a competent teacher, an experienced professor. - -Indeed, no one should allow himself to be deceived by this fine -phrase, _Education as a Science_, which might disconcert and turn -aside whole classes of readers, such as those who, in works on -education, especially desire a guide for practice. On the contrary, -they will have every reason to commend a book which passes very -quickly from generalities to applications, and which is above all -else a manual of practical and technical pedagogy. The study of it -will be profitable not merely to professors who are teaching the -higher branches of literature and science, but even to the humblest -instructors, and even--for Mr. Bain overlooks no detail--to -teachers of reading and writing. - - -656. DIVISION OF THE WORK.--_Education as a Science_ comprises -three parts: 1. psychological data; 2. methods; 3. modern education. - -The author first inquires in what order the faculties are -developed, and what effect this order should have on the -distribution of studies. This is the psychological part. Then -follows a discussion of what Mr. Bain calls the logical order, that -is, of the relations which exist between the studies themselves -and their different parts. This is the “analytical problem” of -education.[285] - -These preliminaries being established, Mr. Bain enters upon the -principal theme,--the methods of instruction. He discusses one -after another the first elements of reading, object-lessons, -“which, more than any other means of instruction, require to be -practised with care, for without this, an admirable process might, -in unskillful hands, be nothing more than a thing of seductive -appearance, but without value”; then methods relating to history, -geography, the sciences, and the languages. - -Finally, in his third book, Mr. Bain exhibits a new plan of study, -with particular reference to secondary instruction. - - -657. PSYCHOLOGICAL ORDER AND LOGICAL ORDER.--In his reflections on -the development of the mind and upon the distribution of studies, -Mr. Bain is inspired by the principles which have guided Mr. -Spencer. - -“Observation precedes reflection. The concrete comes before the -abstract.” - -In education, then, the sequence should be from the simple to the -complex, from the particular to the general, from the indefinite to -the definite, from the empirical to the rational, from analysis to -synthesis, from the outline to details; finally, from the material -to the immaterial. - -Such would be the ideal order in education; but Mr. Bain remarks -that in practice all sorts of obstacles come to disturb this -rigorous sequence. - - -658. MODERN EDUCATION.--The plan of secondary studies which Mr. -Bain recommends to the reformers of teaching is the result and the -_résumé_ of all these observations. - -Intellectual education, common to all young people who receive a -liberal instruction, would henceforth comprise three essential -parts: 1. the sciences; 2. the humanities; 3. rhetoric and the -national literature. We see at once what is to be understood by -this last item; but the two others have need of some explanations. - -The sciences are divided into two groups: those which are to be -mastered,--arithmetic, geometry, algebra, physics, chemistry, -biology, psychology; and the natural sciences, which should be -studied only superficially because they would overwhelm the memory -under the weight of too large a number of facts. Geography, which, -one does not know why, is included in the sciences, while history -is attached to the humanities, will complete the programme of -scientific studies. - -As to the humanities, Mr. Bain preserves scarcely more than -the name while suppressing the thing; for in the curtailed and -disfigured domain which he persists in calling by this name, -he cuts off precisely that which has always been considered as -constituting its essence,--the study of the dead languages. He -excludes from it even the living languages, and that which he -still decorates with the fine title of humanities, is still -science,--moral science, it is true,--“history and sociology with -political economy and jurisprudence.” - -A course in universal literature, but, be it understood, without -original texts, _might_ afterwards be added to this pretended -teaching of the humanities. - -Two or three hours a week would be devoted parallelly, during the -whole course of study, which would last six years, to each of the -three departments of instruction which Mr. Bain thinks equally -important. - -As to the real humanities, dead or living languages, they should no -longer be included in education save as optional and extra studies, -on the same basis as the accomplishments. And, appealing to the -future, Mr. Bain even predicts that “a day will come when it will -be found that this is still granting them too large a place in -education.” - -Mr. Bain, then, gives all his preferences to scientific studies, -and his book might properly be entitled, not only _Education as a -Science_, but also _Science in Education_. - - -659. THEORETICAL ERRORS.--Mr. Bain reproaches letters with giving -the mind the habit of servility. By what singular revulsion of -thought can the liberal studies _par excellence_ be represented -as a school of intellectual servitude? It is rather to scientific -instruction that we may properly return the accusation of enslaving -the spirit. By their inexorable evidence and by their very -exactness, do not the sciences sometimes smother the originality -and the free flight of the imagination? - -This defect, however, does not cut them off from a right to a -place, and to a large place, in the programme of intellectual -education. Let us accept with favor their alliance, let us admit -them to a certain degree of fellowship, but do not let us tolerate -their encroachments. In a word, the object of the sciences is -either pure abstractions or material realities. He who studies -mathematics and physics first acquires real knowledge of high -value; and, on the other hand, he strengthens his mind through -the habits engendered by the rigorous methods which the sciences -employ. We cheerfully grant to Mr. Bain that the sciences are at -the same time admirable sources of useful truths and valuable -instruments of mental discipline. By cultivating them we gain not -only the positive knowledge which they teach respecting the world, -but also the power, rigor, and exactness which they impose on their -adepts. - - -660. INSUFFICIENCY OF THE SCIENCES.--But the question is to know -whether the sciences, so useful and so necessary for enriching and -disciplining the mind, are also the best agents for training it. -The educator is not in the situation of the farmer who has only -two things to do,--to plow and sow the field which he cultivates. -The work of education is vast in another direction. It has to do -with developing the aptitudes or latent energies, that which the -philosophy of the day hardly allows us longer to call faculties, -but that which they re-establish under another name, that of the -unconscious forces of the soul; it has to do, not with laboring on -a soil almost entirely prepared by nature, but in great part with -creating the soil itself. Now, the sciences are indeed the seed -which it will be proper by and by to sow on the field, but they are -not the substance which nourishes and fertilizes it. - - -661. SENSUALISTIC TENDENCIES.--If we go to the bottom of Mr. Bain’s -thought and doctrine on the mind, we shall find the secret of his -ardent preference for the teaching of the sciences. His errors in -practical pedagogy proceed from theoretical errors on human nature. - -For him, as for Locke, there are not, properly speaking, -intellectual forces independent of the facts which succeed one -another in the consciousness. Consequently, there is not an -education of the faculties. Memory or imagination, considered as a -distinct power, as an aptitude more or less happy, is but a word. -It is nothing apart from the recollections or the images which are -successively graven in the mind. For Mr. Bain, as for Locke, the -best education is that which places items of knowledge side by side -in the mind, which accumulates facts there, but not that which -seeks to enkindle in the soul a flame of intelligence. - -That which also warps the theoretical views of Mr. Bain is that -he accords no independence, no individual life, to the mind; and -that for him, back of the facts of consciousness, there come to -view, without any intermedium, the cerebral organs. Now the brain -is developed of itself; it acquires fatally, with the progress -of years, more weight and more volume; it passes from the age of -concrete things to the age of abstractions. Hence a reduction, -an inevitable contraction, of the sphere of education. There is -nothing more to do than to let nature have her way, and to fill the -vase which she charges herself with constructing. - - -662. UTILITARIAN TENDENCIES.--Finally, to conclude this indication -of the general ideas which dominate and which mar the pedagogy of -Mr. Bain, let us observe that a positive and practical utility, a -vulgar utility, mingles too many of its inspirations with it. The -criterion of utility is sometimes applied to it with an artless -extravagance. Thus, in the languages, only those words should be -learned which occur the most often, and in the sciences, only the -parts which are of the most frequent use. Even in moral education, -as it is conceived by the English philosopher, are to be found, as -we might expect, these utilitarian and narrow views. - -Would one believe, for example, that Mr. Bain makes the fear of the -penal code the mainspring of the teaching of virtue?[286] Here, -at least, we must acknowledge that science is insufficient. “To -pretend, for example, that physiology can teach us moderation in -the sexual appetite is to attribute to it a result which no science -has yet been able to give.” But must we count any more, as Mr. Bain -would have us, for example, on social influences and on personal -experience? In this truly experimental education in virtue, ethics -would be learned just as the mother tongue is learned, by use, by -the imitation of others; and moral instruction, properly so called, -would be a sort of grammar which is to rectify vicious practices. - - -663. FINAL JUDGMENT.--But our criticisms on the general tendencies -of Mr. Bain’s pedagogy subtract nothing from our admiration of -the sterling qualities of his _Education as a Science_. Doubtless -there would also be errors of detail to notice, or some particular -methods to discuss; for example, that of never doing more than -one thing at a time, or the propriety of first teaching to -children the history of their country. Mr. Bain forgets that -mythological history and sacred history, by their legendary and -fabulous character, offer a particular attraction to the childish -imagination, and are better adapted than history proper to infant -minds. But, aside from the portions which are debatable, how -many wise observations to gather on the different processes of -instruction, on the transition from the concrete to the abstract, -on the discretion which must be employed in object-lessons, the -use of which so easily degenerates into abuse! Even through its -absolute theories, _Education as a Science_ will render great -services; for, to illustrate the march of thought, nothing is so -valuable as opinions which are exclusive and sincere. It were even -desirable, if one did not fear to experiment on human souls, _in -anima sublimi_, that according to Mr. Bain’s plan, the experiment -should be tried of an education exclusively scientific. - - -664. AMERICAN EDUCATORS. CHANNING (1780-1842).--The general -fault of English pedagogy is its aristocratic character. For Mr. -Spencer and Mr. Bain, as for Locke, it is simply a question of -the education of a _gentleman_. It is in America, in the writings -of Channing and Horace Mann, that we must seek the elements of a -theory of democratic education, and of popular instruction.[287] - -Channing, a Unitarian minister, associated religious sentiment and -philosophic reason, and desired that in theology itself everything -should issue in the supremacy of the human judgment. The most -interesting of his writings are the public lectures which he -gave in Boston in 1838, and the object of which is the education -one gives himself, and the elevation of the working classes. We -lack the space to give an analysis of these lectures, but a few -quotations will make known the general spirit of the American -reformer:-- - -“I am not discouraged by the objection that the laborer, if -encouraged to give time and strength to the elevation of his mind, -will starve himself and impoverish the country, when I consider the -energy, and the efficiency of Mind.” - -“The highest force in the universe is Mind. This created -the heavens and earth. This has changed the wilderness into -fruitfulness, and linked distant countries in a beneficent ministry -to one another’s wants. It is not to brute force, to physical -strength, so much as to art, to skill, to intellectual and moral -energy, that men owe their mastery over the world. It is mind -which has conquered matter. To fear, then, that by calling forth -a people’s mind, we shall impoverish and starve them, is to be -frightened at a shadow.” - -“It is chiefly through books that we enjoy intercourse with -superior minds, and these invaluable means of communication are -in the reach of all. In the best books, great men talk to us, -give us their most precious thoughts, and pour their souls into -ours. God be thanked for books. They are the voices of the distant -and the dead, and make us heirs of the spiritual life of past -ages. Books are the true levellers. They give to all, who will -faithfully use them, the society, the spiritual presence, of the -best and greatest of our race. No matter how poor I am; no matter -though the prosperous of my own time will not enter my obscure -dwelling; if the sacred writers will enter and take up their abode -under my roof, if Milton will cross my threshold to sing to me of -Paradise, and Shakespeare to open to me the worlds of imagination -and the workings of the human heart, and Franklin to enrich me with -his practical wisdom, I shall not pine for want of intellectual -companionship, and I may become a cultivated man though excluded -from what is called the best society in the place where I live.” - - -665. HORACE MANN (1796-1859).--Horace Mann is not a philosopher who -discusses education, but a politician who reformed and developed -the education of his country. Secretary of the Massachusetts Board -of Education, he opened schools, founded libraries, and pronounced -a great number of discourses, the best known of which is _The -Necessity of Education in a Republican Government_. - -“When, then,” he often said, “will men give their thought to -infancy? We watch the seed which we confide to the earth, but we do -not concern ourselves with the human soul till the sun of youth has -set. Were it in my power, I would scatter books over all the earth -as men sow wheat on the plowed fields.” - -Speaking to Americans, to working people, and to tradesmen, he made -apparent the positive advantages of instruction:-- - -“If to-morrow some one were to tell you that a coal mine had been -discovered which would pay ten per cent, you would all rush to -it; and yet there are men whom you let grovel in ignorance when -you might realize from forty to fifty per cent on them. You are -ever giving your thought to capital and to machines; but the first -machine is man, and the first capital, man, and you neglect him.” - -But he also interested himself in the moral effects of education, -especially in a democratic society, where each citizen is a -sovereign:-- - -“The education which has already been given a people makes it -necessary to give them more. By instructing them, new powers have -been awakened in them, and this intellectual and moral energy -must be regulated. In this case we have not to do with mechanical -forces, which, once put in action, accomplish their purpose and -then stop. No; these are spiritual forces endowed with a principle -of life and of progress which nothing can quench.” - - -666. CONCLUSION.--The labors of Mr. Spencer and Mr. Bain, the -works of Channing and Mann, and others still, will contribute, we -hope, to prepare the definite solutions demanded by our times in -the matter of education. These solutions are important for the -security and the greatness of our country. More than ever it is -necessary that education become something else than an affair of -inspiration, abandoned to caprice and hazard, but that it be a -work of reflection. It is said that the future is uncertain, that -events are leading French society no one knows where, and that -our destinies are at the mercy of the most unforeseen storms. We -do not believe this, since it is within our power that it shall -be otherwise. There is a means, in fact, of assuring the future -of peoples, and this is to give them an intellectual and moral -education which purifies the soul and strengthens character. Do -not let us look for regeneration and progress from a sudden and -miraculous transformation; do not let us demand them even of the -immediate efficiency of such or such a political institution. -Everything here below is accomplished according to the laws of a -slow progression, by trifling and successive modifications. Just as -for the child there is no abridgment which allows us to suppress -the slow steps of the insensible growth which each year brings -forward, so for nations there is no other process than the action, -slow but sure, of a wise and vigorous education, for causing them -to pass from vice to virtue, from abasement to grandeur. - -The partisans of evolution sometimes seem to announce to us the -near apparition of a race superior to our own, called to supplant -us, as we shall have supplanted the inferior races. One day or -another we shall be liable, it seems, to meet “at the angle of a -rock” the successor of the human race. We count but little on such -promises, and the coming of this hypothetical race of men, suddenly -evoked by a wave of the magic wand of natural selection, leaves us -very incredulous. - -Happily, we know another means, a much surer process, for causing -to appear, not a strange race, until now unknown, but generations -of more worth than our own, which are superior to it in physical -force, as in qualities of mind or virtues of character. This means -is to establish, through reflection and reason, an education -better adapted to our destination; an education broader and more -complete, at once more severe and more liberal, since it will at -the same time exact more toil and permit more scope; in which the -child will learn to count more on himself; in which his indolence -will no longer be encouraged by accustoming him inopportunely to -invoke supernatural aid; in which instruction will no longer be -a formulary recited as lip-service, but an inner and profound -acquisition of the soul, in which the fear of the conscience -will be substituted for the other rules of conduct, and in which -thought and free reflection will no longer be distrusted; finally, -an education more scientific and more rational, because it will -neglect nothing which can develop a human soul and bring it into -likeness with its ideal. Now that education to which the future -belongs, notwithstanding the obstacles which the spirit of the past -will still stir up against it,--that education is not possible, -its laws cannot be established, its methods cannot be practised, -except on one condition; this is, that the psychology of the child -be written, and well written, and that reflection draw from this -psychology all the consequences which it permits. - - - [667. COMMENT ON MR. SPENCER’S EDUCATION.--Monsieur Compayré - might have emphasized his cautions. Read with caution, and with - a purpose to weigh the truth, Mr. Spencer’s _Education_ is - inspiring and wholesome; but it may be doubted whether there - has been written, since the _Émile_, a book on education which - is so well fitted to deceive an unwary reader by its rhetoric - and philosophic plausibility. The air of breadth and candor - with which the writer sets out is eminently prepossessing, and - the reader is almost obliged to assume that he is being led to - foregone conclusions. The first chapter, in particular, is a - piece of literary art, in which there is such a deft handling - of sentiment and pathos as to unfit the susceptible reader for - exercising his own critical judgment. - - In this place I can only indicate in the briefest manner what - seem to be the fundamental errors contained in the book:-- - - 1. Mr. Spencer does not distinguish between the _immediate_ and - the _mediate_ practical value of knowledges. We may admit with - him that science is of inestimable value to the human race; but - it does not follow by any means that every person must be versed - in science. As we need not own everything that is essential to - our comfort, so we need not have as a personal possession all the - knowledge that we need for guidance. - - 2. It is a very low conception of education that would limit its - function to adapting a man merely to that state in life into - which he chances to be born. The Bushman, the Red Indian, and - the accountant, are unfortunate illustrations of the province of - education. Often the highest function of education is to lift a - man out of his ancestral state. - - 3. That the value of a subject for guidance is the same as its - value for discipline, is true under only one assumption,--that - the Bushman is always to remain a Bushman, and the Red Indian - always a Red Indian, as by the new philosophy of course they - should. Practical teachers very well know that, as a rule, the - studies that are the most valuable for practical use are the - least valuable for discipline. Mr. Spencer quotes no better proof - of his assumption than “the beautiful economy of Nature.” - - 4. Mr. Spencer’s proposed education is sordid in its - utilitarianism. He is preoccupied with man as an instrument - rather than with a human being aspiring towards the highest type - of his kind. A liberal education should be preoccupied first with - the training of the man, then with the training of the instrument. - - 5. Mr. Spencer’s restatement of Condillac’s and Comte’s doctrine, - that individual education should be a repetition of civilization - _in petto_, is at best but a specious generalization. The - doctrine cannot be applied to practice, in any considerable - degree, if we would, and should not be, if we could, for it - ignores one essential factor in progress,--inheritance. - - 6. The part assigned to “Nature” in the work of education is so - overstrained as to be unnatural and absurd. Physical science has - long since discarded this myth of Nature personified. It is only - in educational science that this fiction is still employed to eke - out an argument. - - 7. The doctrine of consequences which underlies Mr. Spencer’s - system of moral education is applicable to but a limited number - of cases, or, if applied with thoroughness, is inhuman. Not even - all the fit would survive if they were not shielded from the - consequences of their acts by human sympathy and oversight.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[277] J. P. Richter, better known under the name Jean Paul -(1763-1825), the author of a spirited and scholarly book, _Levana, -or the Doctrine of Education_, 1803. - -[278] See _The Elements of Psychology, on the Principles of Beneke_ -(London, 1871). - -[279] The first French translation appeared in 1878. - -[280] In this, as in several other instances, Monsieur Compayré -gives a summary of the author’s thought rather than an exact -quotation. (P.) - -[281] As, historically, ornament precedes dress, on Mr. Spencer’s -main principle, it need not be till late in life that women dress -sensibly. Or ought not the genesis of dress in the individual to -follow the same order as the genesis of dress in the race? (P.) - -[282] _Introduction to Social Science_, p. 390. - -[283] So far as experience can testify, this is a pure assumption. -The most trifling injuries are often the most painful, and the most -serious the most painless. (P.) - -[284] See the _Esprit de discipline dans l’éducation_, a memoir of -Gréard, published in the _Revue Pédagogique_, 1883, No. 11. - -[285] By the “analytical problem” of education, Mr. Bain means the -determining of the education value of subjects. See _Education as -a Science_, Chapter V. (P.) - -[286] We might dwell on Mr. Bain’s observations relative to -punishments. Here is what Gréard says of them: “Mr. Bain, with -infinite good sense and disciplinary tact, is much less concerned -with applying the rule than with the conditions according to which -it should be applied. On this point he enters into details full of -scruples. He does not hesitate to call to his aid the knowledge of -the masters of penal jurisprudence, and his recommendations, added -to those of Bentham, comprise not less than thirty articles.” - -[287] There should be added to these the works of Swiss, Italian, -and French educators, particularly of Siciliani, and the original -and eminently suggestive studies of Bernard Perez. - - - - -APPENDIX. - - -A. - - -SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS OF THE HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY. - -The two aims to be kept in view in the teaching of this subject -are _culture_ and _guidance_. The purpose should be to extend the -intellectual horizon of the teacher, or, to use Plato’s phrase, to -make him “the spectator of all time and all existence”; and, in the -second place, to furnish the teacher with a clew which will safely -conduct him through the mazes of systems, methods, and doctrines. -There is no other profession that has derived so little profit -from capitalized experiences; and there is no profession in which -culture and breadth are more necessary. - -For securing the ends here proposed, it is recommended that a plan -somewhat like the following be pursued in the use of this volume:-- - -1. If there are three recitations a week, assign one chapter -for each of the first two recitations, _to be carefully and -thoughtfully read_, and require each pupil to select one special -topic to present and discuss when he is called upon in the -recitation; and for the _third_ recitation in each week, require -each pupil to select a topic from any part of the book which has -thus far been studied. The purpose of this plan is to bring before -the class, in sharp outline, the salient points of the subject; -and, at the same time, to create a sense of the organic unity of -the theme as a comprehensive whole. When there are more than three -recitations a week, only a part of a chapter need be assigned for -an advance lesson. - -2. When the first survey of the subject has been made in the way -just suggested, a _review_ may be conducted as follows:-- - -(1.) _Biographical._ Following a chronological order, divide the -whole treatise into as many sections as there are recitations to be -devoted to this purpose, and require each pupil to make a careful -study of some educator, as Socrates, Montaigne, or Pestalozzi, and -to present this theme when called upon in recitation. When there -is opportunity, encourage pupils to amplify their themes with -information derived from other sources. - -(2.) _Topical._ Require each pupil to select some doctrine, system, -or method, and to show, in a systematic way, its origin, progress, -and termination. In this review, encourage the critical spirit, and -make the recitation to consist, in part, of a free discussion of -principles and doctrines. The value of this subject for _guidance_ -will appear in this part of the study. - -(3.) _By Chapters._ Require each pupil to prepare a summary of some -chapter in the book, emphasizing the more important truths that -are taught in it, and showing the tendency or drift of educational -thought. The _culture_ value of the subject will appear in this -part of the study. By this mode of treatment, the subject can be -compassed, with good results, in twenty weeks. - -3. Where no more than twelve or fourteen weeks can be given to this -subject, it is recommended that the following chapters be selected: -I., II., III., IV., V., VI., VII., X., XII., XIII., XVIII., XIX., -XX., XXI., XXII. - -For use in _Teachers’ Meetings_ held by superintendents, the -following chapters are suggested: II., III., V., VI., VII., X., -XIII., XVIII., XX., XXII. - -For use in _Teachers’ Reading Circles_, either of the above -selections will serve a good purpose. - - -B. - -A SELECT LIST OF WORKS SUPPLEMENTARY TO “COMPAYRÉ’S HISTORY OF -PEDAGOGY.” - - 1. The Cyclopædia of Education. New York. - 2. Buisson. Dictionnaire de Pédagogie. Parts 1-156. Paris. - 3. Lindner. Handbuch der Erziehungskunde. Wien and Leipzig. - 4. K. Schmidt. Die Geschichte der Pädagogik. Cöthen. - 5. G. Compayré. Histoire Critique des Doctrines de l’Éducation - en France. Paris. - 6. Barnard. German Teachers and Educational Reformers. - 7. Barnard. French Teachers, Schools, and Pedagogy. - 8. Barnard. English Teachers, Educators, and Promoters of - Education. - 9. Barnard. American Teachers, Educators, and Benefactors of - Education. - 10. Barnard. Pestalozzi and Swiss Pedagogy. - 11. Biber. Pestalozzi and his Plan of Education. London. - 12. Donaldson. Lectures on the History of Education. Edinburgh. - 13. Krüsi. Pestalozzi: his Life, Work, and Influence. Cincinnati. - 14. Lorenz. Life of Alcuin. London. - 15. Mrs. Mann. Life of Horace Mann. Boston. - 16. Meiklejohn. Dr. Andrew Bell. London. - 17. Morley, J. Rousseau. London. - 18. Mullinger. The Schools of Charles the Great. London. - 19. Quick. Essays on Educational Reformers. Cincinnati. - 20. Shuttleworth. Four Periods of Public Education. London. - 21. Arnold. Higher Schools and Universities of Germany. - London. - 22. Hart. German Universities. New York. - 23. De Guimps. Histoire de Pestalozzi. Lausanne. - 24. De Guimps. La Philosophie et la Pratique de l’Éducation. - Paris. - 25. Meunier. Lutte du Principe Clérical et du Principe Laïque - dans l’Enseignement. Paris. - 26. Gaufrés. Claude Baduel et la Réforme des Études au XVI^e - Siècle. Paris. - 27. Bentham. Chrestomathia. London. - 28. Drane. Christian Schools and Scholars. London. - 29. Ascham. The Scholemaster. Notes by Mayor. London. - 30. Locke. Thoughts concerning Education. Notes by Quick. - Cambridge. - 31. Laurie. John Amos Comenius. Boston. - 32. Lancelot. Narrative of a Tour to La Grande Chartreuse. - London. - 33. Schimmelpenninck. Narrative of the Demolition of Port Royal. - London. - 34. Hamilton, Elizabeth. Letters on the Elementary Principles - of Education. London. - 35. Spencer. Education: Intellectual, Moral, and Physical. N. Y. - 36. Rousseau, Émile. Extracts. Boston. - 37. Blackie. Four Phases of Morals. N. Y. - 38. Aristotle. The Politics and Economics. London. - 39. Craik. The State in its Relation to Education. London. - 40. Cousin. Report on the State of Public Instruction in Prussia. - 41. Gill. Systems of Education. Boston. - 42. Souquet. Les Ecrivains Pédagogues du XVI^e Siècle. Paris. - 43. Mann. Lectures on Education. Boston. - 44. Quintilian. Institutes of Oratory. London. - 45. Plato. The Republic and the Laws. London. - 46. Xenophon. The Memorabilia of Socrates. N. Y. - 47. Plutarch. Morals. Boston. - 48. MacAlister. Montaigne on Education. Boston. - 49. Pestalozzi. Leonard and Gertrude. Boston. - 50. Necker de Saussure. Éducation Progressive. Paris. - 51. Cochin. Pestalozzi: sa Vie, ses Œuvres, ses Méthodes. - Paris. - 52. Compayré. Cours de Pédagogie. Paris. - 53. Milton. Tractate on Education. Cambridge. - 54. Fénelon. Fables. Paris. - 55. Fénelon. The Education of a Daughter. Dublin. - 56. Martin. Les Doctrines Pédagogiques des Grecs. Paris. - 57. Jacotot. Enseignement Universel. Paris. - 58. Adams. The Free School System of the United States. - London. - 59. Conrad. The German Universities for the last Fifty Years. - Glasgow. - 60. Capes. University Life in Ancient Athens. N. Y. - 61. Mahaffy. Old Greek Education. - 62. Chassiotis. L’Instruction Publique chez les Grecs. Paris. - 63. Spiers. School System of the Talmud. London. - 64. Simon. L’Éducation et l’Instruction des Enfants chez les - Anciens Juifs. Paris. - 65. Edgeworth. Practical Education. N. Y. - - NOTE.--For other supplementary works, and for a more complete - description of the books in the above list, consult the - Bibliography of G. Stanley Hall (Boston: D. C. Heath & Co.). - - - - -INDEX. - - - Abelard, 75. - - Academy, 22; French, 219, 301, 386. - - Achilles, 46. - - Activity, 57, 72, 92, 93, 171, 191, 207, 461, 476; - categories of, 542; - the divine, 454; - industrial, 544. - - Adalberic, 68. - - Adaptation, 27, 31, 79, 90, 92, 158, 200, 294, 323, 329, 354, 461, - 530, 553. - - _Adèle_ and _Théodore_, of Madame de Genlis, 480. - - Age, for public instruction, 11, 14, 15, 19, 31, 32, 34, 38, 49, 50, - 55, 287, 323, 347, 348. - - Agricola, Rudolph, 87. - - Agriculture, 420. - - Ahriman, 14. - - Aix-la-Chapelle, Council of, 73. - - Alcuin, 72. - - Alexander, 11, 36, 294. - - _Alexander_, 118. - - Alfred the Great, 73. - - _All is in All_, 527. - - Amusements, 33, 94, 96, 98, 118, 119, 146, 161, 248, 294, 306, 348, - 458, 460. - - Amyot, 53, 54. - - Analysis, 22, 23, 32, 42, 96, 188, 284, 314, 558. - - Anselm, Saint, 76, 77, 119. - - Antiquity, education in, 1-16, 18, 37, 320. - - Arabic, 102. - - Arabs, 77. - - Arbogast, 393, 394. - - Argovia, 418, 438. - - Argument, 19, 52, 74, 80, 145. - - Aristophanes, 20, 87. - - Aristotle, 10, 11, 22, 42, 46, 52, 59, 66, 74, 321; - plan of education, 36-41; - of music, 20, 39. - - Arithmetic, 76, 80, 98, 114, 129, 205, 268, 269, 441; - moral, 471. - - Arnauld, 154; - _General Grammar_, 155. - - Art, 30, 31, 60, 116, 179, 309, 310, 327, 546; - of education, 22, 39, 60, 85, 91, 122, 310, 476; - industrial, 331, 351, 384, 528, 545; - of creating thought, 23, 91, 156, 157, 315, 316, 471. - - Artisans, 15, 28, 40, 98, 118, 134, 135, 209, 300, 565. - - Arts, Faculty of, 233, 234, 321, 341, 512; - the Seven Liberal, 75, 119. - - Asceticism, 4, 63, 65, 66, 160, 161, 259, 260. - - Assembly, Constituent, 371, 372, 390, 395; - Legislative, 371, 373, 390; - National, 369, 391. - - Assistant, 10, 131, 267, 327, 424. - - Astronomy, 6, 11, 32, 71, 74, 76, 98, 129, 157, 205. - - Athens, education at, 17, 40, 43. - - _Atlantic Monthly_, 310. - - d’Aubigné, 53. - - Augustine, Saint, 47, 64, 68, 71, 219, 225. - - Augustus, 46, 47. - - Aurelius, Marcus, 53, 58. - - Austria, 465. - - Authority, 15, 74, 81, 110, 122, 136, 172, 191, 264, 309, 518, 528, - 532; - basis of, 13, 32, 74, 149, 161. - - Auxerre, 342. - - Avignon, 139, 263. - - - Bacon, 32, 123, 124, 133, 136, 192, 211. - - Bain, 124, 194, 538, 556-563; - errors of, 559-563. - - Barraud, 434. - - Barrère, 397. - - Barrière, 485. - - Basedow, 414. - - Basil, Saint, 64. - - Bausset, Cardinal de, 178. - - Bauzen, 537. - - Beauty, 30, 31, 84, 98, 546. - - Beauvilliers, 165, 166. - - Beckx, 142, 145. - - Belief, 74, 143, 191, 304, 381. - - Bell, Andrew, 6, 513-517. - - _Belles-lettres_, 113, 150, 152, 236, 321, 322, 324, 404. - - Benedict, Saint, 69. - - Benedictines, 68, 76, 279. - - Bentham, _Chrestomathia_, 100, 519, 562. - - Berlin, 451, 464. - - Bernardin de Saint Pierre, 394. - - Bersot, 149, 534. - - Bert, Paul, 395. - - Berthollet, 405. - - Burgdorf, 419, 426, 433, 456, 457. - - Bérulle, 150. - - Bias, 32. - - Bible, 7, 65, 81, 86, 99, 113, 120, 248, 304, 324, 342, 420. - - Billom, College of, 141. - - Bills, Educational, 390-411, 509-512, 519-525. - - Birr, 438. - - Blackie, _Four Phases of Morals_, 21. - - Blankenburg, 457, 463. - - Boarding-schools, 282, 327, 397, 433, 485. - - Body, 28, 29, 33, 38, 65, 94, 196-199, 292-315; - exercises for, 18, 19, 28, 94, 135, 289-292. - - Bœotia, 53. - - Bohemia, 125. - - Boileau, 182, 219, 243. - - Bonneval, 283. - - _Book for Mothers_, Pestalozzi’s, 431. - - Books, 70, 86, 105, 132, 240, 298, 369, 393, 528; - use of, 106, 107, 218, 298, 352, 429, 441, 516, 564. - - Bossuet, 141, 182-185, 243. - - Boufflers, Marquis de, 148. - - Bouquier, 379, 391, 400; - Law of, 400, 401. - - Bourgogne, 366; - Duke of, 166, 177-182. - - Boys, education of, 6, 8, 34, 48, 54, 94, 114, 284-302, 398. - - Boze, de, 243. - - Brahmins, 4, 5. - - Bréal, Michel, 113, 343, 534. - - Bretagne, 344. - - Brethren of Saint Charles, 255. - - Brethren of the Christian Schools, 112, 138, 147, 253-277, 353, 365, - 513, 515. - - Brinon, Madame de, 228. - - Browning, 54. - - Brugg, 418, 438. - - Buddha, 4. - - Buisson, _Dictionnaire de Pédagogie_, 13, 130, 369. - - “Bureau of Correspondence,” 358. - - Burnier, 163. - - Burnouf, _Histoire du Bouddhisme_, 5. - - Buss, 428. - - - Cabanis, 369. - - Cabet, 527. - - Cabinet, school, 385. - - _Cabinet of du Mas_, 239. - - Cadet, 246. - - Cæsar, 51, 106. - - Cæsar de Bus, 139. - - Cajet, Dom Joseph, 280. - - Calvin, 113. - - Cambridge, University of, 77. - - Campan, Madame, 485-487. - - Campe, 415. - - Campus Martius, 44. - - Carnot, 501, 521, 524. - - Carré, 153. - - Carthage, 105. - - Caste, 2, 14, 15, 16, 28, 33, 42, 143, 256, 564. - - Casuistry, 65, 67, 343. - - Catechism, 44, 81, 113, 272, 321, 338, 364. - - Catherine II., of Russia, 320. - - Catholicism, 139, 253-277. - - Cavern, Plato’s, 32. - - Centralization, 358, 361, 386, 395, 396, 512; - opposed, 372. - - Central Schools, 407. - - Ceremonies, 12, 30, 36, 146, 199, 287, 393. - - Chaillot, 504. - - Chaldee, 95. - - Chance, 328, 329. - - Channing, 59, 476, 563-565. - - Character, 490, 497. - - Charicles, 25. - - Charity, 37, 61, 281; - condemned, 29, 153. - - Charlemagne, 71-73, 106. - - Charles the Bold, 68, 73. - - Charron, _Wisdom_, 110. - - Chastanier, 263. - - Chateaubriand, 245, 511. - - Chevalier de la Tour-Landry, 79. - - Child, 38, 39, 46, 79, 169, 195, 196; - age for study, 11, 39, 49, 287; - development of, 31, 38, 50, 195, 455, 456, 498; - education of, 46, 48, 80, 86, 103, 107, 122, 129, 153, 169, 237, - 240, 284-304, 318, 420, 442, 501-504, 520-525; - etiquette, 88, 89, 199, 270; - inclination of, 3, 33, 79, 159, 169, 207, 257, 291, 333, 334, 346, - 454, 460, 492, 547, 549; - indulgence of, 50, 172, 173, 206, 551; - moral protection of, 39, 49, 50, 78, 88, 173, 248, 470-475; - punishment of, 6, 7, 12, 33, 76, 77, 78, 102, 271-276, 551; - the property of the State, 27, 397, 398. - - Chinese, 11-13; - civil service of, 16. - - _Chriæ_, 51. - - Christian Doctrine, The Order of the, 139. - - Christianity, 8, 61, 116, 174, 228, 248, 304. - - _Christian Marriage_, of Erasmus, 90. - - Christians, The Early, 61-67. - - Chrysale, 212, 213. - - Chrysippus, 48, 51. - - Church, The, 68, 69, 81, 139, 233, 319, 330, 365, 371, 413. - - Cicero, 46, 47, 70, 95, 101. - - _Ciceromania_, 85. - - _Circular_ of Guizot, 521. - - Citharist, 20. - - _Civil Government_, 360, 374, 400, 489. - - Clarke, 196. - - Classes, 267, 501. - - Cleanliness, 65, 90, 93, 94. - - Clergy, 103, 164. - - Clermont, 141. - - Cloister, 66, 69, 217, 346. - - Co-education, 128, 231, 256, 369, 378, 398. - - Colleges, 85, 141, 233, 234, 237, 249, 321, 382, 512. - - _Colloquy of the Abbé_, of Erasmus, 90. - - Comedy, 30, 39. - - Comenius, 106, 112, 118, 121-136, 155, 282, 415, 457. - - Communication, 13, 53, 106; - lack of, 70, 161, 217, 266; - of knowledge, 41, 53, 71, 113, 131, 147, 565. - - Compayré, 190, 194, 203, 309, 336, 389, 568. - - Compulsion, 120, 136, 182, 255, 263, 321, 370, 387, 397, 398, 400, - 523, 533. - - Comte, 322, 323, 529-531. - - Condé, 141. - - Condillac, 124, 194, 312-319, 346, 403, 534; - _Grammaire_, 124. - - Condorcet, 282, 323, 379-389, 392, 397, 407. - - _Conduct of Schools_, La Salle’s, 262-276. - - Confucius, 12. - - _Conjugal Precepts_, Plutarch’s, 55. - - Conscience, 24, 57, 58, 61, 105, 163, 200, 201, 303, 330, 424, 522, - 543. - - Considerant, Victor, 528. - - Constituent Assembly, 372, 390, 395. - - Construction, 459, 461, 499. - - Convention, The, 390-411. - - Convents, 62-70, 214-218, 378, 485. - - Conversation, 106, 205, 299; - with Aristodemus, 26; - Art of, 22, 106, 107; - of Buddha and Purna, 4, 5. - - _Conversations_, of Madame de Maintenon, 222-229. - - Cordova, 77. - - Coriolanus, 45. - - Corneille, 141, 213. - - Cornelia, 45. - - Corporal punishment, 6, 7, 8, 12, 33, 51, 76, 77, 78, 102, 147, 148, - 152, 160, 202, 203, 251, 271-276, 336, 551. - - Coste, P., 196. - - Cotton, _Montaigne_, 102. - - Council of Carthage, 64. - - Council of public instruction, 359, 369, 392, 396. - - Councils-General, 392, 509. - - _Counsels to her Daughter_, of Madame de Lambert, 176. - - Courage, 15, 18, 36, 294, 522. - - Cournot, 534. - - _Course of Study_, Condillac’s, 214-219. - - Courses for adults, 383, 384. - - Courses of study, 321, 326, 348, 365, 377, 383, 398, 402, 472, 486, - 520-525, 559. - - Courtalon, 404. - - Cousin, 156, 523, 533. - - Coustel, _Education of Children_, 154. - - Critias, 25. - - Crousaz, 282. - - Culture, 8, 31, 41, 47, 55, 60, 69, 111, 158, 325, 388, 543, 565; - Athenian, 18, 30, 31, 43; - Chinese, 13; - Egyptian, 14; - of the imagination, 499, 500; - of the Middle Age, 69; - self, 57, 59, 87, 301, 383, 421, 439, 476, 504, 549, 564; - studies, 40, 60, 157, 324-326, 335, 339. - - Curiosity, 106, 130, 170, 184, 247, 347, 503. - - _Cyropædia_, Xenophon’s, 14, 34, 35, 36. - - Czech, 125, 126. - - - Dacier, Madame, 213. - - D’Alembert, 278, 319, 331. - - Dancing, 118, 161, 181, 214, 306, 396. - - Darin, 427. - - Daubenton, 405. - - Daunou, 386, 391, 395, 410, 411. - - Dauphin, The, 182-185. - - David, 66. - - Decazes, 515. - - Deism, 99, 304, 305, 454, 476. - - De Lasteyrie, 516. - - Démia, 254-258. - - Demogeot, 203. - - Demosthenes, 114. - - _De Ratione Studii_, of Erasmus, 88. - - De Sacy, 154. - - Descartes, 141, 152, 157, 187-192, 213, 234. - - Deschamps, 515. - - Dessau, 415. - - Destiny, of man, 62, 109, 135, 136, 163, 188, 239, 454, 492, 539, - 542, 567; - of woman, 500. - - De Tocqueville, 491. - - Development, 13, 23, 31, 38, 49, 91, 93, 111, 129, 158, 208, 288, - 313, 381, 412, 421, 423, 436, 439, 455, 476, 495, 503, 542; - precocious, 50, 240. - - Deventer, 86. - - Devotion, 214-217, 228, 269, 305, 318, 442. - - Dialectics, 32, 42, 45, 52, 75, 76, 118. - - Dialogue, 22, 24. - - _Dialogues of the Dead_, Fénelon’s, 166, 179. - - _Dictionnaire de Pédagogie_, 11, 13, 130, 369, 371, 391, 464. - - _Didactica Magna_, 124, 126. - - Didactics, 22, 50, 53, 66, 78, 97, 121, 206. - - Diderot, 121, 278, 319-327, 344. - - Diesterweg, 422, 464, 465. - - Dignity, of mother, 291, 384; - of persons, 18, 35, 57, 62, 78, 162, 201, 207, 273, 304, 338. - - Diogenes, 292. - - Diogenes Laërtius, 37. - - Discipline, 6, 7, 11, 20, 33, 36, 38, 41, 44, 50, 51, 76, 77, 81, 88, - 101, 102, 111, 119, 145-148, 159-162, 180, 199, 203, 238, - 249-252, 263-266, 270-276, 336, 366, 416, 551; - of consequences, 336, 551. - - _Discourse on Method_, of Descartes, 188. - - Discovery, 124, 157, 435, 549. - - Dittes, _Histoire de l’éducation_, 3, 6, 13, 114, 413, 416, 526, 537. - - Division of labor, 131, 152, 266, 354, 569. - - Doctors, of the Church, 63, 67, 68, 74, 75. - - _Doctrinaries_, The, 139, 395. - - Domitian, 47, 53. - - _Donatus_, 118. - - Dordogne, 400, 434. - - Drama, 219, 223, 242, 316, 378. - - Drane, Augusta F., _Christian Schools and Scholars_, 72. - - Drawing, 39, 130, 204, 326. - - Dressler, 537. - - Dualism, 14; - Socratic, 23, 24. - - Dubois, 356. - - Duclos, 345. - - Dumarsais, 331. - - Dumonstier, 404. - - Dupanloup, 505, 531, 532. - - Dupont de Nemours, 493. - - Duruy, 362, 366, 409, 502, 522, 523. - - Dussault, 431. - - Duty, 200, 333, 337, 338, 490, 493; - of teacher, 50, 199, 257, 291. - - - _Economics_, 34, 55. - - Economy, 36, 398; - in education, 516; - of nature, 3, 31, 286, 290, 553. - - Écouen, 485. - - Edgworth, Miss, 482. - - Education, 30-33, 41, 42, 48, 80, 565; - in antiquity, 1-16; - Athenian, 18, 28, 43; - by the Church, 63, 69, 81, 143, 233, 277; - definition of, 33, 37, 103, 540; - domestic, 7, 8, 35, 48, 54, 55, 127, 227, 378, 422, 485, 498; - extent of, 31, 34, 51, 100, 104, 128, 158, 184, 185, 563, 567; - formal, 12, 145-147, 347; - among the Greeks, 17-42; - higher, 6, 28, 31, 55, 75, 80, 113, 128, 233, 512; - intellectual, 29, 31, 39, 41, 110, 156, 157, 203, 468-475, 496, - 548; - moral, 39, 41, 48, 59, 99, 136, 159-162, 177-182, 199-203, 245-252, - 280, 380, 381, 465, 550, 567; - national, 340-389, 523, 530, 536, 564-568; - negative, 287-310, 334, 348, 497, 542-555; - the new, 93, 123, 192, 208, 210, 284-310, 343, 347, 456, 460, 542; - obligatory, 8, 13, 16, 42, 115, 120, 136, 182, 255, 263, 321, 370, - 371, 387, 400, 409, 411, 523; - the old, 92, 144, 192, 283, 364, 460, 547; - physical, 19, 29, 38, 41, 43, 70, 93, 119, 135, 196-199, 283, 496, - 554, 555; - power of, 6, 80, 163, 181, 186, 328, 329, 333, 544, 565; - public, 8, 13, 27, 37, 49, 113-136, 182, 209, 250, 279, 484, 565; - purpose of, 98, 104, 136, 158, 181, 238, 316, 318, 346, 347, 383, - 454, 483, 496, 531, 536, 564, 567; - Roman, 43-60; - science of, 22, 48, 53, 59, 535-571; - scientific, 28, 32, 40, 91, 151, 157, 535-555; - self, 57, 59, 87, 299, 383, 421, 439, 476, 504, 549, 564; - Spartan, 18, 34, 37, 43; - systematic, 2, 38, 41, 91, 128, 288, 525, 531, 547; - treatises on, 9, 14, 27, 33, 34, 35, 37, 40, 47, 54, 55, 56, 58, - 64, 80, 88, 92, 100, 103, 110, 126, 154, 166, 195, 223, 235, - 319, 421, 422, 431, 438, 480, 501-503; - universal, 8, 13, 16, 62, 100, 115, 118, 129, 136, 297, 374, 411, - 468, 480, 481, 510, 526-531, 534, 565; - a universal right, 16, 33, 37, 55, 158, 325, 356, 484, 530; - of women, 34, 55, 109, 110, 115, 116, 128, 168, 174-176, 212-231, - 241, 282, 305, 307, 378, 385, 478-507. - - _Education_, Spencer’s, 3, 100, 124, 507, 534, 538-555. - - _Education as a Science_, Bain’s, 124, 194, 556-563. - - _Education of Girls_, Fénelon’s, 165-169, 174-177, 184, 212, 229. - - _Education of Man_, Frœbel’s, 453-456. - - _Education of a Prince_, Nicole’s, 154. - - _Education of Women_, of Madame de Rémusat, 487-490. - - Egypt, 14. - - Elocution, 21, 51, 52, 107. - - _Émile_, The, 27, 98, 126, 210, 235, 278-310. - - Emotions, 42, 66, 206, 207, 285, 303, 550, 551. - - Emulation, 67, 146, 162, 183, 299. - - _Encyclopédie_, The, 319. - - Encyclopædists, 337, 480. - - England, 72, 564. - - _Entretiens sur les Sciences_, Lamy’s, 150, 151. - - Environment, 3, 39, 58, 70, 194, 258, 310, 339. - - Epicureans, 52, 108, 141. - - Equality, 61, 190, 328, 374, 380, 400, 565; - of sex, 241, 256, 384, 479, 506. - - Erasmus, 85-91, 94; - works of, 86, 385. - - Espionage, 147, 258, 276. - - _Esther_, 219, 242. - - Estouteville, Cardinal d’, 232. - - Ethics, 24, 37, 39, 42, 50, 57, 76, 206, 247, 270, 292, 322, 326, - 351, 470, 477, 491, 539. - - Ethnology, 2. - - Etiquette, 88, 94, 161, 199, 227, 270; - of ladies, 90, 227. - - _Eudemon_ of Rabelais, 92-100. - - _Euthydemus_, The, 24. - - Evil, 14, 31, 65, 66, 159, 169; - cause of, 4, 14, 159, 217, 287, 333, 381, 492; - how overcome, 56, 66, 160, 217, 333, 381, 565. - - Evolution, 530. - - Examinations, 16; - of teachers, 255, 261, 321, 358, 367, 432, 513. - - Example, 53. - - Exclusiveness, 12, 14, 40, 54, 70, 143, 217, 224, 352, 540. - - Excursions, 97, 98, 348, 456. - - _Existence of God_, Fénelon’s, 166. - - Experience, 10, 32, 53, 92, 93, 97, 106, 136, 485. - - Explanation, 11, 133, 156, 299. - - Expulsion, 271. - - - Fables, 190, 240, 244, 295, 315, 335, 348, 494. - - _Fables_, Fénelon’s, 166, 173, 177-180, 186. - - Faculties, The, 233, 321, 383, 511-513. - - _Faire faire_, 497. - - Faith, 74, 113, 143, 304, 381. - - Family, 7, 12, 35, 36, 37, 45, 54, 60, 128, 129, 291, 378, 509, 534, - 542, 545; - sacrificed, 27, 146, 224, 397, 398, 399. - - Farrar, Archdeacon, 14. - - Fathers, The early, 63, 67, 68. - - Fathers, 90, 103, 108, 109, 345, 424, 545. - - Faults, in education, 40, 46, 67, 68, 69, 74, 92, 108, 109, 116, 133, - 143, 145, 149, 161, 167, 168, 171, 181, 189, 201, 226, 270-276, - 292, 302-307, 322, 329, 341, 342, 432, 437, 462, 463, 470, 518, - 534, 552, 568; - of Greek pedagogy, 40; - of women, 488, 489. - - Fear, 200, 201. - - Feelings, 33, 180, 275, 295, 300, 444. - - Felbiger, 416. - - Fellenberg, _Agricultural Institutes_, 422. - - Fencing, 70, 98, 114. - - Fénelon, 78, 164-186, 198, 212, 214, 229, 241, 282, 403, 486. - - Ferrier, _Greek Philosophy_, 21. - - Ferule, 102, 272. - - Fichte, 422, 443; - _Discourse to the German Nation_, 536. - - Firmness, 33, 101, 274. - - Fischer, 439. - - Fitch, 336. - - Fléchier, 141. - - Fleury, The Abbé, 74, 75, 154, 166, 214, 240. - - Fontaine, Madame de, 220. - - Fontanes, 511. - - Form, 430. - - Formalism, 12, 36, 74, 91, 145, 211, 263, 342, 445. - - Fortoul, 501. - - Fourcroy, 478, 510. - - Fourier, 527, 529. - - Fournier, 459. - - France, 72, 218-224; - College of, 85. - - Francke, 414. - - Frankfort, 448. - - Freedom, 40, 61, 101, 166, 310, 565; - annihilated, 3, 4, 74, 92, 403; - of intelligence, 72, 77, 91, 191, 394, 564. - - French, 102, 154, 234, 242, 342, 357, 392. - - French Revolution, The, 71, 308, 360, 362-389, 522. - - Friburg, 465, 467. - - Frœbel, 446-465, 501. - - Fronto, 58. - - Frugality, 14, 15, 36, 65, 169, 197, 199, 229, 258, 418, 452. - - Fulneck, 125. - - Fustel de Coulanges, 61. - - - Gall, 538. - - Gamala, Joshua Ben, 9. - - Gamaliel, 11. - - _Gargantua_ of Rabelais, 91-100. - - Garnier, 500. - - Garot, 240. - - _Gaudentius, Letter to_, 64. - - Gaultier, The Abbé, 514, 516. - - Genesis, of knowledge, 313, 558. - - Geneva, College of, 113. - - Genlis, Madame de, 176, 479-482. - - Geography, 24, 80, 129, 151, 159, 183, 205, 240, 297, 322, 342, 349, - 400, 403, 436, 481; - moral, 472. - - Geometry, 11, 31, 47, 51, 76, 80, 98, 129, 205, 436. - - Gérando, 520. - - German, 351. - - Germany, 114, 279, 283, 413, 524, 526. - - _Germany_ of Madame de Staël, 495. - - Gerson, 77, 78. - - Gessner, 427. - - “Gifts” of Frœbel, 452, 458, 459, 476. - - Girard, The Père, 431, 437, 446, 465-475. - - Girls, destiny of, 500; - education of, 5, 8, 11, 35, 64, 65, 66, 79, 80, 90, 109, 110, 117, - 128, 168, 174, 175, 212-231, 237, 241, 305, 306, 307, 384, 398, - 399, 478-507. - - Girondists, 391. - - God, 61, 63, 99, 174, 182, 286, 288, 454, 522; - belief in, 26, 27, 173, 304, 337; - duty to, 30, 66, 149, 182, 216, 217, 220, 270, 304, 512; - knowledge of, 315, 337; - omnipresence of, 3, 192, 454. - - Gœthe, 538. - - Goldammer, 459. - - Golden rule, example of, 5, 78. - - _Gonzagas, Prince of_, 79. - - Good, The, 30, 31, 286. - - Goodwin, _Plutarch’s Morals_, 54. - - _Gorgias_, The, 24. - - Gossot, 504. - - Gournay, Mademoiselle, 110. - - Government, 238, 264, 270-276. - - Gracchus, 45. - - Grades, 127, 128, 137, 224, 233, 234, 267, 288, 323, 348, 376, 382, - 393, 496, 548, 559. - - Grammar, 19, 20, 24, 39, 47, 51, 71, 90, 130, 133, 144, 154, 155, - 171, 183, 243, 316, 323, 470-475. - - Grammarian, 20, 51, 103, 470. - - Gratuity, 120, 254, 262, 321, 367, 370, 372, 376, 386, 388, 398, 522, - 523, 533, 566. - - Gray Friars, 466. - - Gréard, 216, 223, 287, 288, 306, 354, 457, 461, 480, 505, 515, 516, - 518, 553, 562. - - Greek, the study of, 48, 71, 86, 95, 102, 105, 121, 143, 144, 183, - 189, 205, 237, 244, 257, 283, 317, 321, 324-326, 351, 352, 481, - 512, 547, 559. - - Greek pedagogy, 11, 17-42. - - Gregory the Great, Saint, 68. - - Griesheim, 452. - - Grignan, Madame de, 214. - - Grimm, 344. - - Groot, Gerard, 86. - - Grosselin, 135. - - Grote, _History of Greece_, 21. - - Gruner, 448. - - Guienne, College of, 101, 102. - - Guidance, as object of instruction, 16, 49, 57, 201, 291, 293, 318. - - Guillaume, 391. - - Guizot, 490, 512, 519-522; - Madame, 490-494. - - Guyon, Madame, 174. - - Guyot, 154. - - Guyton de Morveau, 343. - - Gymnasium, 128, 145; - Greek, 19. - - Gymnastics, 19, 28, 29, 39, 44, 79, 94, 135, 195-199, 292, 433; - intellectual, 324, 326; - interdicted, 66. - - - Habits, 293, 315, 334. - - Halle, 414. - - Halle aux Draps, _mutual school_, 517. - - Hamilton, 194, 404. - - Hamilton, Miss, 482-484. - - Hannibal, 105. - - Happiness, 3, 294, 328. - - “Hardening process,” 196-198, 291, 292, 452. - - Harmony, 20, 29, 31, 39, 41, 52, 79, 110, 451. - - Hartley, 483. - - Harvard College, 125. - - Health, 29, 39, 65, 79, 94, 169, 222, 542. - - Heart, 12, 56, 66, 110, 303, 443, 469, 471-475, 498. - - Hebrew, 95, 99, 118, 121. - - Hebrews, 7-11. - - Hecker, 414. - - Hegel, 447. - - Heidelberg, University of, 77. - - Helvetius, 196, 319, 327-330, 344. - - Henry IV., of France, 53, 147, 232, 233. - - Herbart, 194, 537. - - Herbault, 514. - - Herder, 538. - - Heredity, 313. - - Herodotus, 32. - - Hersan, 235. - - Hindoos, 2-4. - - History, 12, 32, 33, 36, 47, 53, 76, 80, 91, 105, 116, 118, 129, 144, - 145, 151, 173, 175, 179, 190, 206; - of education, 85, 126. - - Holidays, 393. - - Holiness, 63, 68, 100, 214-217, 228. - - Holland, 86, 282, 283. - - Holland, Philemon, _Plutarch’s Morals_, 54. - - Homer, 20, 64, 320, 324. - - Honor, 196, 199, 200, 302. - - Horace, 45, 59, 87, 324. - - _How Gertrude teaches her Children_, Pestalozzi’s, 427. - - Huc, 13. - - Humanist, 91, 100, 163, 195, 213, 324. - - Humanities, The, 73, 80, 91, 144, 151, 324, 325, 326, 351, 558-561. - - _Humanities_, Arnauld’s, 154. - - _Human Understanding_, Locke’s, 196. - - Hume, 194. - - Hygiene, 39, 79, 84, 94, 197, 292, 544. - - - Ideal, 66, 104, 151, 279; - Chinese, 12, 13; - of the Fathers, 66; - Greek, 41; - Hebrew, 7; - Hindoo, 3-5; - Roman, 44, 57; - Persian, 14, 15. - - Idealists, 193, 363. - - Ideas, 315, 381; - birth of, 23, 325, 326, 381, 439, 471, 503; - grammar of, 471; - innate, 439; - religious, 3, 42, 62; - made significant, 107, 133, 157, 293. - - Identity, loss of, 3. - - Ignorance, 13, 18, 29, 68, 70, 72, 116, 143, 225, 226, 300, 364, 369, - 519; - learned, 92, 104, 107, 117, 189; - Socratic, 22, 24. - - Imagination, 42, 97, 98, 133, 135, 174, 176, 191, 285, 347, 403, 499, - 500. - - Imitation, 12, 49, 50, 84, 144, 462, 467. - - _Imitation_, Gerson’s, 77, 78. - - Immobility, 16, 18, 145, 342. - - Impressions, 208, 295, 328, 334, 461, 484, 492, 503. - - India, education in, 6, 514. - - Individuality, 3, 15, 37, 57, 84, 85, 123, 136, 158, 207, 310, 313, - 338, 381, 439, 452, 461, 489, 549; - loss of, 4, 27, 29, 57, 63, 98, 145, 146, 274, 346. - - Induction, 26, 27, 36, 96, 107, 121, 123, 133, 157, 295, 313, 548. - - Indulgence, 50; - of teachers, 90, 146. - - Inertness, intellectual, 2, 29, 44, 68, 70, 92, 144, 228, 329, 518. - - Instinct, 24, 31, 93, 133, 290, 460, 529, 536. - - Institute of the Brethren, 112, 138, 153-163, 252-277. - - Institutes, 382. - - _Institutes of Oratory_, 48, 60, 89. - - Instruction, 13, 39, 46, 79, 199, 280, 379; - Christian, 62, 269; - domestic, 7, 27, 45, 46, 55, 127, 129, 227, 378, 384, 485; - ecclesiastical, 63, 69, 81, 139, 167, 218, 233, 345; - gratuitous, 69, 73, 78, 120, 254, 262, 263, 321, 367, 370, 376, - 386, 398, 409, 523, 566; - indirect, 170, 177-182, 184, 185, 223, 287-310, 481; - mutual, 6, 53, 131, 267, 392, 424, 513-519, 534; - national, 340-389, 523, 565; - need of, 70, 71, 115, 116, 320, 356, 369, 523, 566; - popular, 8, 130, 415, 438, 480, 487, 522; - primary, 13, 20, 40, 55, 81, 86, 112-136, 139, 142, 153, 177, 209, - 239, 240, 253-277, 321, 353, 356, 360, 364, 384, 417, 433, - 455-465, 468-475, 506, 524, 525; - public, 8, 9, 11, 20, 27, 38, 46, 49, 73, 78, 114, 128, 182, 209, - 321, 330, 522-525; - religious, 98, 111, 113, 115, 118, 257, 303, 336, 346, 380, 438, - 452, 466, 554; - secondary, 86, 113, 128, 139, 143, 205, 233, 282; - self, 57, 87, 136, 156, 318, 383, 421, 439, 476, 504, 549, 564; - sense, 193, 283, 403; - simultaneous, 51, 152, 240, 266, 277, 424, 515; - technical, 193, 206, 263, 281, 331, 376, 384, 408, 414, 419, 545. - - Intelligence, 38, 58, 71, 72, 80, 93, 101, 191, 192, 296, 316, 320, - 354, 370, 436, 440, 455, 498; - disregard for, 44, 68, 70, 92, 143, 171, 403; - works of, 26, 27, 109, 156, 157, 394, 564. - - Interpretation, 15, 158, 293. - - Intuition, 129, 132, 133, 290-310, 403, 415, 423, 428, 438, 449, 452, - 548-555. - - Irony, Socratic, 23. - - Israelites, 6-11. - - Italy, 84, 475. - - - Jacotot, 190, 526, 527. - - Janet, 403. - - Jansenists, 110, 153-163, 234. - - _Janua linguarum reserata_, of Comenius, 126, 127, 134. - - Jealousy, 12, 25, 153, 259. - - Jena, Prussians at, 8. - - Jerome, Saint, 64, 71. - - Jeromites, 86. - - Jesuits, 85, 139-150, 189, 232, 234, 258, 279, 340-344, 468; - of the East, 12. - - Jewess, education of, 8, 11. - - Jews, 8-11, 16. - - John of Wessel, 86, 87. - - Joly, Claude, 256, 261. - - Jomard, 516. - - Josephine, The Empress, 467. - - Joubert, 489. - - Jouffroy, 62, 491. - - Judgment, 100, 104, 156, 163, 191, 281, 295, 296, 460, 467, 470. - - Juilly, College of, 150. - - Justice, 15, 30, 40, 280, 281, 303. - - Juvenal, 59. - - - Kant, 200, 309, 332-338, 415, 422, 536. - - Keilhau, 452, 464. - - Khung-tsze, 12, 13. - - _Kindergartens_, 447, 452, 457-465, 476, 477. - - Kindermann, 416. - - Klopstock, 422. - - Knowledge, 15, 53, 80, 101, 104, 113, 192, 370, 547; - clearness of, 53; - of facts, 75, 129, 290; - a means, 41, 57, 91, 104; - of nature, 91, 96, 129, 295, 440; - source of, 58, 134, 313, 548; - before practice, 32, 57, 71, 135; - value, 60; - for women, 168, 175, 252, 282, 307, 384, 488, 495, 500, 505. - - Königsberg, University of, 332. - - Krause, 457. - - Krüsi, 428, 432. - - - Labor, 476, 495; - manual, 206, 209, 226, 227, 263, 300, 398, 399, 424, 441, 566. - - Laborde, Comte de, 516. - - La Bruyère, 329. - - La Chalotais, 278, 343-355, 363. - - La Condamine, 283. - - Lacroix, 407. - - _Læta, Letter to_, 64-67. - - Lafargue, 473. - - Lafayette, Madame de, 213. - - La Flèche, 501; - College of, 189. - - La Fontaine, 240, 283, 295, 335. - - Lagrange, 405. - - Laisné, 515. - - _Laissez faire_, 160, 208, 293. - - Lakanal, 139, 379, 394; - Law of, 402-408. - - Lambert, Madame de, 176. - - Lambruschini, The Abbé, 475. - - Lamoignon, 141. - - Lamy, The Père, 150. - - Lancaster, 513, 514. - - Lancelot, 153, 154, 156, 217. - - Langethal, 451, 452. - - Language, 2, 70, 82, 116, 118, 126, 134, 189, 323-326, 428, 431, 441, - 481, 547; - native, 48, 70, 113, 118, 121, 126, 155, 183, 268, 357, 400, - 469-471. - - Lanthenas, 391, 392. - - Lâo-tsze, 12, 13. - - La Pitié, 514. - - Larochefoucauld-Liancourt, 516. - - Laromiguière, 139. - - La Salle, 112, 147, 254-277, 357, 404, 414, 514. - - Lateran Council, 69. - - Latin, the study of, 48, 70, 71, 90, 91, 95, 101, 102, 105, 118, 121, - 131, 140, 144, 154, 183, 189, 205, 237, 244, 257, 281, 317, - 324, 326, 481, 512, 547. - - Laurie, S. S., _Comenius_, 126. - - Lavallée, 218, 222, 226, 230. - - Laws, 44, 45, 46, 182, 333, 499; - educational, 399-402, 484, 509; - Plato’s, 30, 33, 34. - - Lay teachers, 340-345, 466, 508, 533. - - Lecointe, The Père, 150. - - Legendre, 394. - - Legislative Assembly, 371, 373, 379, 390, 422. - - Leibnitz, 136, 141, 196. - - Leisure, 87, 377, 381, 543. - - Lelong, The Père, 150. - - _Leonard and Gertrude_, Pestalozzi’s, 421. - - Lepelletier Saint-Fargeau, 391, 397. - - Lessing, 538. - - _Letters to Lucilius_, 52. - - _Letters to Pope Innocent XI._, Bossuet’s, 182, 183. - - Lévi Alvarès, 505. - - Lewes, George Henry, 41. - - L’Hôpital, 53. - - _Liberal Education of Children_, of Erasmus, 88. - - Liberty, 62, 70, 72, 93, 119, 151, 172, 201, 207, 263, 285, 294, 308, - 374, 400, 420, 436, 441, 454, 490, 493, 499, 565; - of teaching, 371-396, 401, 511, 513. - - Life, family, 60, 424, 500, 546; - monastic, 66, 146; - practical, 44, 53, 60, 92, 93, 105, 115, 204, 279, 296, 408, 529, - 541, 562; - public, 32, 115, 130, 279, 360, 374, 400, 489; - stages of, 455, 456, 542. - - Lissa, 125. - - Literature, 11, 30, 78, 100, 166, 179, 295, 351, 404, 558, 565; - classical, 73, 80, 86, 95, 189, 324-326, 351, 481, 547, 559; - Greek, 11, 48, 80, 84, 559; - Latin, 46, 59, 84, 324-326; - profane, 64, 86, 87, 175, 219. - - Little Schools of Port Royal, 140, 153, 254. - - Littré, 69, 233, 234, 383. - - _Lives_, Plutarch’s, 53. - - Locke, 49, 110, 126, 187, 194-210, 249, 280, 296, 346, 363, 538, 561. - - Logic, 6, 24, 31, 52, 75, 76, 315, 316, 321, 351, 470, 558. - - _Logic_, Port Royal, 154, 243. - - Lorain, P., 519. - - Lorenz, _Life of Alcuin_, 72. - - Louis XIV., 147, 182, 236, 279, 365, 489. - - Louis-le-Grand, College of, 355. - - Louis the Pious, 68, 73. - - Lourmand, 505. - - Love, 31, 37, 66, 89, 162, 216, 302, 440, 443, 455, 504, 515; - of country, 8, 44, 182, 308, 399, 489. - - Loyola, 140, 163; - _Constitutions_, 142. - - Lubbock, Sir John, 2. - - Luccard, 267. - - Lucerne, 466, 468. - - Lupus of Ferrières, 68, 70. - - Luther, 86, 113-120. - - Luxembourg, 141. - - Luxury, effect of, 36, 50, 182. - - Lycée, 131, 205, 327, 372, 382, 512. - - Lyceum, 22, 40. - - Lycurgus, 34, 56, 397. - - Lyons, 254, 255, 285, 368. - - - Macaulay, 144. - - Madras, 514. - - _Magdala_, 90. - - Magistrates, 25, 28, 31, 71, 72. - - Maieutics, 23, 42, 72, 156, 326, 381, 439, 471, 503. - - Maine de Biran, 139, 434. - - Maintenon, Madame de, 176, 218-231, 307, 486, 514. - - Maisonneuve, Madame de, 504. - - Maistre, Joseph de, 149, 511. - - Malebranche, 187, 192-194, 211. - - Man, 61, 62, 104; - conception of, 4, 188, 499, 539; - the perfect, 7, 30, 31, 57, 58, 59, 62, 98, 104, 172, 278, 386, - 451, 483, 500, 540. - - Mann, Horace, 566, 567. - - Manners, 29, 59, 65, 81, 88, 89, 94, 111, 199, 270; - of Chinese, 12; - of Greeks, 21. - - Mansel, 194. - - Marat, 394. - - Marcellus, 105. - - Marenholtz, Baroness von, 464, 465. - - Maria Theresa, 415. - - Marienthal, 464. - - Marion, H., 196. - - Marmontel, 325, 326, 339. - - Marriages, 38, 55, 384, 500. - - Marsolier, 243. - - Martin, Aimé, 505. - - Martin, Alexander, _Les Doctrines Pédagogiques des Grecs_, 18. - - Martin, Henry, 183. - - Mascaron, 150. - - Massillon, 150. - - Mathematics, 6, 24, 31, 68, 76, 98, 118, 189, 193, 323, 386, 437, - 530; - for women, 56. - - Mather, Cotton, 125. - - Maturity, 10, 40, 288. - - Mauriac, College of, 141. - - Mayer, Enrico, 475. - - Mean, The, 93, 150, 151. - - _Meditations_, Marcus Aurelius, 58. - - Melancthon, 113. - - Melmoth, _Pliny_, 21. - - _Memorabilia_, The, 24, 25, 26, 32. - - _Memoriter_, 11, 16, 49, 92, 105, 121, 133, 205, 207. - - Memory, 16, 42, 49, 58, 72, 81, 88, 92, 105, 135, 191, 208, 317, 335, - 371, 460. - - Method, 15, 20, 22, 42, 49, 53, 59, 72, 88, 90, 119, 126, 132, 269, - 298, 372, 468, 536, 539, 557; - attractive, 33, 90, 97, 98, 101, 119, 206, 415, 494, 495, 541; - Chinese, 13; - dialectic, 32, 42, 74, 76; - didactic, 22, 72, 97, 111; - _educative_, 467, 469; - intuitive, 127, 132, 295-310, 312, 346, 402-404, 415-445, 452, - 461-463; - among the Jews, 11; - Port Royal, 156, 162, 235; - of reading, 49, 107, 240, 241, 502; - repulsive, 33, 119, 494, 495; - Socratic, 22-27, 72, 211, 335, 429, 471; - synthetic, 313, 469. - - _Methods_, Lancelot’s, 154. - - Meunier, 277. - - Michel, 475. - - Michelet, 122, 306, 392. - - Middendorf, 451, 452. - - Middle Age, The, 67-81, 110, 171; - ignorance in, 68, 70. - - Mildness, 10, 33, 56, 89, 160, 250, 251, 433; - severe, 101, 161, 202, 216, 264, 452, 492. - - Milton, 54. - - Mind, 95, 157, 470, 537, 564; - not _tabula rasa_, 58, 208. - - Mirabeau, 369-372. - - Moderation, 11, 33, 82, 109, 170. - - Modesty, 21, 34, 58, 92, 153, 162. - - Molière, 141, 176, 213. - - Monasteries, 69, 71, 167. - - Monge, 433. - - Monitors, 131, 147, 258, 276, 514-519. - - Montagnards, 391, 394. - - Montaigne, 85, 101-110, 183, 202, 280, 301, 490; - of Greek education, 18, 19, 29, 35. - - Montaigu, College of, 87. - - Montalivet, 395. - - Montausier, 147, 219. - - Montbrison, 342. - - Monteil, 76. - - Montesquieu, 20, 245, 329, 373. - - Montpellier, 366. - - Morality, 100, 105, 135, 370, 375; - good conduct, 15, 41, 57; - Platonic, 30, 31, 34; - utilitarian, 12, 302-305, 554. - - Morals, 5, 8, 14, 39, 42, 48, 50-60, 105, 177, 186, 227, 252, 269, - 320, 337, 370, 375, 380, 384, 471-475, 547, 565. - - Moravian Brethren, 125. - - Moreau, Marie, 261. - - Mothers, 39, 44, 48, 55, 90, 108, 127, 129, 534; - duties of, 291, 384, 422, 456, 457, 469, 485, 486, 500, 546. - - Mother-tongue, 121, 144, 155, 204, 243, 465-471. - - Motives, 300, 493. - - Moulins, 342. - - München-Buchsee, 434. - - Museum, 384, 414, 452. - - Music, 18, 20, 28, 31, 51, 52, 76, 98, 119, 326, 396; - interdicted, 65, 175. - - Mutual instruction, 131, 267, 392, 424, 513-519, 534. - - Mysticism, 63, 125, 135, 193, 458, 476; - criticism of, 94, 447, 453. - - Mythology, 20, 563. - - - Naples, University of, 77. - - Napoleon I., 360, 433, 443, 485, 486, 510-513. - - National Assembly, 369. - - _National Education_, of La Chalotais, 344-355. - - National holidays, 393. - - Native tongue, 48, 85, 89, 119, 121, 144, 155, 204, 243, 351. - - Natural history, 11, 40, 96, 97, 114, 322, 350, 424, 433. - - Nature, 24, 31, 32, 48, 93, 170, 290, 309, 310, 448, 456, 475, 476, - 553; - no commencement in, 496; - economy of, 3, 286, 423, 448, 496; - following, 2, 36, 290, 312, 347, 349, 401, 433, 503, 529, 561; - human, 46, 48, 159, 169, 217, 286, 333, 454, 491, 532, 536, 550; - morality in, 448; - return to, 553; - study of, 91, 93, 96, 118, 121, 132, 133, 290. - - Naville, 74, 467. - - Necker de Saussure, Madame, 493-500. - - Neufchâtel, 434. - - Neuhof, 419, 420. - - New Education, The, 93, 123, 133, 190, 208, 284-310, 343, 347, 456, - 460, 542. - - Newspapers, 331. - - Nicole, 65, 154-159, 217; - _Logic_, 154; - _Education of a Prince_, 154. - - Niederer, 436. - - Niemeyer, 414. - - Nirvâna, 5. - - Nisard, 237. - - Normal Schools, 255, 259, 261, 262, 357, 367, 387, 404, 405, 406, - 412, 423, 429, 464, 501. - - North, Sir Thomas, _Plutarch_, 54. - - _Novum Organum_, 123. - - Number, 428, 430, 441; - of pupils, 10. - - - Oberlin, 415. - - Object-lessons, 97, 98, 111, 133, 170, 192, 247, 293, 295, 400, 415, - 430, 473, 502, 503, 558, 563. - - Obligation. _See_ Compulsion, Education, State. - - Observation, 75, 96, 97, 98, 123, 133, 136, 192, 293, 461, 558. - - Old Education, The, 92, 116, 144, 192, 283, 364, 460, 547. - - Olynthiacs, 113. - - Optimism, 169, 201, 285, 333, 454, 491, 551. - - Oratorians, 150-153, 192, 369, 395. - - Oratory, 47, 52. - - Oratory, The, 150. - - _Orbis sensualium pictus_, of Comenius, 127, 134, 135, 415. - - _Order of Study_, of Erasmus, 88. - - Organization, 414, 456; - of Christian education, 62, 115, 259; - of instruction, 363, 368, 510; - of schools, 9, 27, 37, 69, 71, 77, 117, 127, 128, 265, 396; - of the State, 27, 35. - - Orleans, 103, 120, 342. - - Ormuzd, 14. - - _Orphan Asylum_, Francke’s, 414. - - Ovid, 87. - - Oxenstiern, 125. - - Oxford, University of, 77, 195. - - - _Pacatula_, 64. - - Padua, University of, 78. - - _Pædagogium_, 414. - - Painting, 18, 98, 204. - - Palatine school, 72. - - Palestra, 19. - - Pamiers, College of, 141. - - Pansophia, 100, 125, 129, 297, 374, 411, 468, 480, 531, 565. - - _Pantagruel_, 96. - - Pantheism, 453; - of Hindoos, 2-4. - - Pape-Carpentier, Madame, 501-504. - - Papinian, 95. - - Paris, 358, 433; - Normal School at, 405, 406; - University of, 75, 79, 141, 232, 233-235, 356, 404. - - _Parish School_, The, 257, 258. - - Parliaments, French, 340, 343. - - Pascal, 156, 162. - - Pascal, Jacqueline, 154, 214-217; - _Regulations for Children_, 154, 215, 216. - - Pasquier, 69, 515. - - Patak, 125. - - Patience, 10, 58, 79, 160, 251, 521. - - Paul III., Pope, 141. - - _Paula_, 64-67. - - Paulet, 514. - - Pauline de Meulan, Madame Guizot, 490-494. - - Pécaut, 464. - - Pedagogics, 358, 372. - - Pedagogue, 19, 45, 46, 102, 292. - - Pedagogy, 46, 52, 53, 73, 83, 85, 91, 103, 121, 165, 190, 278, 311, - 358, 454; - English, 187, 207, 535-570; - German, 413; - of the Jansenists, 158; - of the Jesuits, 148; - modern, 190, 192, 278, 456, 558. - - Pedants, 74, 92, 105, 146, 168, 204, 328. - - Penances, 260, 272. - - People, The, 14, 16, 21, 33, 55, 78, 113, 114, 130, 209, 253, 308, - 320, 372, 380, 415, 420, 441, 480, 484, 565; - exclusion of, 15, 28, 40, 54, 70, 80, 143, 352, 540. - - Perez, 494, 526, 564. - - Perfection, 7, 14, 33, 59, 63, 99, 104, 172, 278, 386, 451, 483, 500, - 540. - - Pericles, 22, 40, 46. - - Perigordian, 102. - - Persia, 14; - education by the State, 16, 35, 36. - - Personality, 451. - - Pessimism, 159-162, 532, 533, 555. - - Pestalozzi, 122, 125, 413-445, 448, 501, 514, 537, 553, 555. - - Peter the Great, 198. - - Philanthropists, 414. - - Philip of Macedon, 11. - - Philosophers, 21, 22, 45, 55, 57, 311, 479. - - Philosophy, 28, 47, 51, 52, 74, 77, 99, 103, 105, 129, 145, 151, 152, - 179, 183, 234, 237, 247, 315, 326, 342, 351, 454, 538; - definition, 106; - of education, 126, 136, 158, 163, 188, 279, 310, 459, 497, 535-570; - Greek, 11, 30, 40, 211; - for magistrates, 28. - - Phœnix, 46. - - Physics, 52, 129, 206, 247, 292, 322, 323, 350, 396. - - Piccolomini, Æneas Sylvius, 79, 80. - - Pictet, 482. - - Pietists, 414. - - Pillans, 519. - - _Plan of a University_, Diderot’s, 320. - - Plato, 11, 22, 24, 27, 42, 46, 52, 56, 59, 91, 95, 324, 397, 529; - aim of, 34; - caste in, 28; - of the drama, 30, 56; - of music, 20, 31. - - Platter, Thomas, 132. - - Play, 458, 460, 461. - - Pleasures, 294, 328. - - Plessier, 261. - - Plessis, College of, 286. - - Pliny, _Letters_, 21, 59. - - Pluche, The Abbé, 283. - - Plutarch, 45, 53-58, 285; - education of women, 34, 35, 55; - training of children, 54, 89. - - Poetry, 30, 56, 87. - - Poitiers, 342. - - Poland, 125, 308. - - Politeness, 29, 88, 89, 161, 227, 270, 467. - - Politics, 32, 37, 42, 130, 360, 374, 489, 542; - Aristotle’s, 37, 40; - Plato’s, 28; - versatility in, 373. - - Polybius, 47. - - _Ponocrates_ of Rabelais, 93-100. - - Pontchartrain, de, 217. - - Port Royal, 152-163, 215-217; - demolition of, 153. - - Portugal, The King of, 341. - - Positivists, 529-531. - - Pourchot, 235, 261. - - Practice, 105, 134, 135, 156, 355, 471; - of education, 85. - - Prague, University of, 77. - - Praise, 49, 50, 67, 146, 162, 169, 532. - - Precision, 188, 240, 264, 325. - - Priests, 116; - as educators, 5, 6, 15, 140-163. - - Principles, 17, 454; - of education, 33, 37, 46, 83, 121, 135, 158, 190, 191, 309, 313, - 346, 430, 439-441, 483, 522, 526, 534, 566-570. - - Professors, 21, 22, 75, 233, 358, 377, 512. - - Progress, 381; - popular instruction, 8, 12, 38, 112-136, 363, 479. - - _Progressive Education_, of Madame Necker, 494-500. - - Pronunciation, 11, 51. - - Protestantism, 112-136. - - Protestants, 85. - - Proverbs, 7. - - Prudence, 100, 104, 105, 108, 161, 199, 280, 281, 545. - - Psychology, 24, 42, 46, 50, 135, 194, 251, 284, 312, 314, 335, 439, - 454, 488, 492, 497, 508, 534, 537, 539, 558. - - Public schools, 117, 130, 254, 415. - - Punishment, 152, 160, 180, 200, 249-252, 270-276, 336, 551-553; - corporal, 6, 21, 51, 102, 122, 147, 148, 194, 201-203, 271-275. - - Purity, 30, 48, 66, 451. - - Purna, 4, 5. - - Pythagoras, 52. - - - _Quadrivium_, 75, 76. - - Questioning, The art of, 22, 23, 25, 42, 72, 170, 267. - - Quick, R. H., 208; - _Educational Reformers_, 121. - - Quintilian, 46, 47-52, 89, 239, 241; - of indulgence, 50. - - - Rabaud Saint-Étienne, 393. - - Rabbins, 10, 11. - - Rabelais, 91-100, 197, 297, 490. - - Racine, 176, 213, 219, 243, 316. - - Rambouillet, Hôtel de, 219. - - Ramsauer, 431, 434. - - Ramus, 85, 156, 232. - - Rapet, 475. - - Ratich, 121. - - Rationalism, philosophic, 490, 493. - - _Ratio Studiorum_, of the Jesuits, 142. - - Reading, 11, 49, 51, 67, 69, 75, 86, 90, 107, 156, 204, 225, 239, - 268, 326, 424, 440. - - Realism, 91, 204, 211, 308, 309. - - Reason, 31, 32, 38, 42, 57, 100, 104, 108, 122, 135, 136, 174, 190, - 284, 314, 333, 335, 444, 454, 491, 493. - - Reasoning, 23, 74, 82, 123, 165, 191, 267, 296, 316, 403. - - Recreation, 87, 93, 94, 119, 146, 248, 251, 294, 393, 441, 458, 460, - 461; - mathematical, 348, 350; - physical, 350, 396. - - Recruitment of teachers, 367, 513. - - Redolfi, 3. - - Refinement, conventional, 12, 36, 89, 143, 227. - - Reflection, 191, 208, 317, 318, 444, 558. - - Reform, 4, 36, 73, 83, 220, 235, 279, 322, 381, 416, 496. - - Reformation, The, 80, 84, 93, 99, 113-136. - - _Refutation of Helvetius on Man_, Diderot’s, 319. - - Reid, 482. - - Reims, 259, 260. - - Religion, 4, 5, 8, 30, 42, 44, 58, 62, 73, 98, 99, 118, 228, 303, - 305, 326, 337, 375, 381, 453, 489, 554. - - Rémusat, Madame de, 487-490. - - Renaissance, 71, 80, 81, 83-111, 234. - - Renan, 325; - _Vie de Jésus_, 11; - education of women, 34. - - Repetition, 11, 121, 135, 173. - - _Republic_, Plato’s, 27-33. - - Respect, for teacher, 6, 10, 181, 184, 200, 532. - - Rewards, 67, 147, 194, 249, 250, 276, 352, 493, 522, 532. - - Rhetoric, 6, 18, 21, 47, 48, 51, 71, 85, 109, 144, 171, 189, 316, - 321. - - Rhythm, 20. - - Richter, 536. - - _Rights of Man_, Talleyrand’s, 375. - - Robespierre, 391, 393, 397, 402. - - _Robinson Crusoe_, 298. - - Rochefoucault, 103. - - Rochow, 415. - - Rod, The, 6, 7, 51, 76, 102, 147, 148, 202, 273. - - Rodez, 141, 368. - - Roger de Guimps, 419, 425. - - Rolland, 279, 343, 355-359; - Law of, 399, 400. - - Rollin, 50, 188, 202, 232-252, 283, 317, 349, 357, 514. - - Roman Law, 44. - - Rome, 43-60. - - Romme, 379, 391, 393, 399; - Law of, 399, 400. - - Rouen, 263, 270, 364. - - Rousseau, 27, 36, 38, 97, 98, 110, 126, 171, 196, 197, 198, 202, 209, - 210, 278-310, 332-337, 348, 363, 368, 415, 426, 442, 448, 481, - 496, 553. - - Routine, 3, 12, 74, 92, 140, 191, 232, 235, 265, 333, 536. - - Royer-Collard, 515. - - Rudolstadt, 452, 457. - - Rules, 134, 156, 264, 471. - - Russell, Doctor, 202. - - - Sacrifices, 4, 30, 259, 260, 417. - - Saint Cyr, 218-231, 307, 486. - - Saint Cyran, 153, 160. - - Sainte-Beuve, 155, 479, 491. - - Saint François de Salles, 225. - - Saint Gall, 68. - - Saint-Germain, 485. - - Saint-Hilaire, Barthélemy, 522, 524. - - Saint-Just, 399. - - Saint Leu, 481. - - Saint Malo, 344. - - Saint Pierre, The Abbé, 280-282, 297. - - Saint Pierre, Bernardin de, 394. - - Saint Simon, 148, 166, 181, 183, 527, 528. - - Saint Yon, 263. - - Salamanca, 77. - - Salary, of teachers, 366, 367, 392, 402, 410, 417, 519, 520. - - Salian hymns, 44. - - Salzman, 415. - - Sauvan, Mademoiselle, 504, 518. - - Savages, education of, 1, 13, 292, 541. - - _Savoyard Vicar’s Profession of Faith_, Rousseau’s, 305. - - Sarazin, 518. - - Schiller, 538. - - Schleiermacher, 537. - - Schmid, 434, 436. - - Schmidt, Charles, 538. - - Scholasticism, 71, 74; - criticism of, 92, 107, 116, 149, 235. - - School-house, 131, 132, 367. - - Schools, 113, 116, 117, 401, 422; - adornment of, 103, 131; - at Athens, 19, 20, 21; - _central_, 407, 408; - in China, 13; - claustral, 69, 75, 76, 116, 282, 345; - etymology of the word, 87; - European type of, 131; - infant, 457-465, 501-504; - in India, 6, 514; - Jewish, 9; - Latin, 119, 128, 130, 131, 144, 346; - of the Middle Age, 69, 77, 78; - Palatine, 72; - primary, 120, 128, 190, 234, 254-277, 365, 383, 426, 477, 510, - 520-525; - public, 114, 128, 135, 415; - real, 414; - at Rome, 45, 52; - secular, 114, 130, 233, 254, 278, 297, 318, 338, 509, 522. - - Schœpfer, Captain, 433. - - Schultaus, 146. - - Schultess, Anna, 419. - - Science, 40, 51, 76, 77, 96, 97, 100, 105, 151, 183, 247, 281, 297, - 323, 386, 404, 431, 512, 558, 559; - of education, 22, 33, 37-41, 42, 54, 85, 95, 104, 363, 409, - 435-470; - neglect of, 74, 86, 91, 145, 401. - - Scipio, 105. - - Scudéry, Mademoiselle de, 226. - - Sculpture, 98. - - Secularization, 114, 130, 233, 254, 278, 297, 318, 319, 338, 340-344, - 509, 522. - - Séguier, 141. - - Self-abasement, 4, 65, 161, 221, 260. - - Self-consciousness, 4, 24, 42, 57, 133, 158, 317, 318, 428, 458. - - Self-control, 57, 58, 152, 196, 499. - - Selfishness, 4, 108, 300, 302, 499, 536, 542. - - Self-renunciation, 4, 5, 63, 148, 149, 215, 259, 346. - - Seminary for Schoolmasters, 261, 277, 357, 367, 387, 404. - - Semler, 414. - - Seneca, 52, 53, 59, 91. - - Sensationalism, 133, 187, 193, 208, 295, 328, 346, 381, 403, 554, - 561. - - Senses, 132, 133, 135, 158, 193, 194, 283-310; - education of, 295, 314, 328, 449, 496, 503, 542-555. - - Sensibilities, 285, 330; - training of, 2, 38, 133, 193, 200, 201, 301, 329, 330, 403, 503, - 554. - - Sentenis, 304. - - Sentiments, 302-305. - - Sequence of studies, 157, 323, 403, 404, 452, 463, 474, 548, 558. - - Seven Liberal Arts, The, 75, 76, 119. - - Sévigné, Madame de, 152, 198, 213, 489. - - Sexes, equality of, 241, 256, 384, 479, 488; - separation of, 8, 34, 256, 378, 396, 402, 466. - - Shaftesbury, Lord, 195. - - Shakespeare, 54, 320. - - Siciliani, 564. - - Sidonius, Apollinaris, 68. - - Sieyès, 391-396. - - Signal, 266, 273. - - Silence, 265, 266. - - Sill, Miss E. R., 310. - - Simon, J., 7, 364, 523, 533. - - Simplicity, 121, 157, 158, 221, 228, 229, 403, 439, 474. - - Singing, 51, 119, 214, 420, 433. - - Site, for schools, 6, 20, 131, 132. - - Slaves, 39, 40; - as teachers, 45. - - Smith, Adam, 510. - - Society, 3, 54, 61, 70, 98, 287, 298, 489, 500, 509, 523; - unity of, 18, 37, 73, 98, 115, 125, 282, 359, 515, 566. - - Socrates, 22, 42, 52. - - Socratic method, 22-27, 32, 211, 429, 471. - - Solomon, 9, 99, 119. - - Solon, 19, 21. - - _Sophie_, 305-307. - - Sophists, 21. - - Soul, 3, 38, 315, 451; - culture of, 58, 84, 193, 469, 546; - development of, 18, 19, 28, 29, 33, 38, 57, 91, 99, 136, 192, 288, - 329, 468, 495-500, 565. - - Spain, 77, 132. - - Sparta, 17, 345. - - Specialists, 103, 209, 300, 325. - - Spelling, 155. - - Spencer, Herbert, 29, 66, 100, 194, 207, 313, 322, 325, 507, 538-555; - of caste, 3; - prejudices of, 546, 547, 552, 553-555. - - _Sphericity_, of Frœbel, 450, 451, 459. - - Spirit, 12, 13, 92, 101, 325, 547; - of Christianity, 61, 62; - national, 359, 401, 489, 490, 523, 565; - of Protestantism, 113, 120. - - Spiritual life, 18, 38, 57, 208, 279, 316. - - Spiritualistic School, 523, 533. - - Spontaneity, 4, 24, 208; - in education, 17, 31, 33, 57, 101, 114, 130, 284-309, 452, 454, - 497, 547; - suppressed, 12, 114, 143, 271. - - Staël, Madame de, 420, 495. - - Stanz, 419, 423. - - Stapfer, 466. - - State, The, 12, 27, 54, 61, 330, 341; - duty to educate, 13, 16, 27, 38, 42, 50, 81, 115, 233, 235, 238, - 250, 252, 255, 277, 282, 321, 345, 353, 360, 363-389, 398, 415, - 509, 520-525, 565; - physical education by, 19, 29. - - States-General, 120, 366, 368. - - Stewart, Dugald, 325, 482, 484. - - Stoics, 52, 58, 141, 292. - - Strasburg, College of, 85. - - Studies, 20, 31, 34, 49, 51, 76, 88, 105, 118, 119, 296, 402, 539, - 558; - Baconian, 32, 123; - classical, 143, 162, 163, 204, 211, 252, 283, 317, 321, 324-326, - 351, 352, 481, 512, 547; - disciplinary, 40, 60, 80, 98, 118, 203, 204, 211, 296-298, 539, - 562; - diversity of, 129, 181, 448; - gradation of, 38, 80, 88, 90, 122, 130, 131, 204, 233, 267, 495, - 520, 525, 558, 559; - Jewish, 11; - painful, 33, 171, 207, 217, 252, 346, 476, 495; - pleasurable, 33, 49, 79, 171, 181, 206, 240, 348, 457-465, 495, - 541, 549; - sequence of, 157, 323, 403, 452, 463, 474, 548, 558; - simultaneous, 51, 152, 240, 266, 267, 424, 515; - utilitarian, 40, 60, 80, 98, 118, 203, 211, 296-298, 539, 562; - educational value of, 60, 105, 204, 323-326, 339, 388, 469, 557, - 558; - for women, 174, 384, 486, 495, 500, 505. - - Sturm, 85. - - Sweden, 125, 353. - - Switzerland, 465, 524. - - Summaries, 15, 41, 59, 81, 110, 136, 163, 185, 210, 230, 252, 277, - 310, 338, 360, 388, 411, 444, 475, 506, 534, 568. - - Supervision, 359, 369, 392, 396, 399, 401, 486, 510. - - Syllogism, 74, 80, 85, 149. - - Symmetry, 31, 38, 39, 82, 84, 93, 163, 394, 396, 444, 458, 547. - - Synthesis, 313. - - - _Tabula rasa_, 58, 208. - - Talent, 3, 42, 57, 93, 158, 286, 328; - encouragement of, 377. - - Talleyrand, 369, 372-379, 434. - - Talmud, 10, 11. - - Teachers, 13, 50, 53, 69, 117, 251, 257, 265, 266, 292, 365, 367, - 392, 470, 479, 500, 513, 522, 527; - Aristotle, 36, 41; - faults of, 262; - respect for, 6, 10, 100, 120, 396, 504, 521, 522, 532; - as tradesmen, 367, 519; - training of, 405, 504; - virtues of, 10, 50, 251, 255, 455, 532; - women as, 44, 384, 458, 478-507. - - “Teachers’ fairs,” 367. - - Teaching, 41, 46, 49, 53, 79, 88, 90, 114, 122, 226, 246, 267, 269, - 352, 426, 427; - of geography, 403, 404; - of history, 326, 349; - of objects, 97, 132, 293. - - Teaching Congregations, The, 138-163, 192, 253, 486, 509. - - _Telemachus_, Fénelon’s, 166, 175, 182, 306. - - Temperance, 14, 15, 18, 35, 36, 194, 197, 292, 381. - - Tennis, 94, 104. - - Terence, 87, 183, 324. - - Term, 106, 107, 133, 326. - - Tertullian, 64. - - Text-books, 132, 173, 352, 360, 368, 393, 403, 429, 441; - uniformity in, 121. - - _Theme_, 158, 244. - - Themistocles, 20. - - Theology, 69, 74, 77, 174, 234, 337. - - Theory, 17, 60, 74, 134; - of education, 85, 340, 509, 525-570. - - Theresa, Saint, 64. - - Théry, 362. - - Things, 85, 97, 106, 107, 132, 133, 293, 415. - - Thomassin, The Père, 150, 152. - - Thought, 3, 57, 74, 97, 107, 157, 316, 469; - life of, 41, 63, 193, 325, 326, 381, 468, 475, 565. - - _Thoughts_, Locke’s, 195-208. - - Thucydides, 33, 43, 245. - - Thuringia, 447. - - Tobler, 428. - - Tournon, College of, 141. - - Trades, 118, 119, 206, 209, 263, 300, 384, 400, 401, 519. - - Tradition, 13, 143, 333. - - Tragedy, 30, 285. - - Training, 41, 111; - of children, 54, 129; - mental, 18, 19, 20, 24, 58, 95, 157, 203, 324-326, 381, 468-475, - 496, 548; - physical, 18, 19, 39, 41, 79, 80, 94, 197, 283, 496, 554, 555; - of the senses, 38, 96, 97, 133, 193, 208, 283, 289-308, 503; - of will, 499, 547. - - Translation, value of, 327, 330. - - _Treatise on Pedagogy_, Kant’s, 332-338. - - _Treatise on Studies_, Rollin’s, 235. - - _Trivium_, 75, 76. - - Truth, 24, 151, 193, 301. - - Turgot, 359. - - Tutor, 69, 327, 518. - - _Twelve Tables_, 44. - - - Uniformity, 264, 281. - - Unity, 18, 450; - of education, 455; - in teaching, 129, 152, 288, 359, 509. - - _Universal Instruction_, Jacotot’s, 526, 527. - - Universals, 32, 453, 527. - - University, 22, 75, 77, 128, 252; - Diderot’s, 326, 327; - for women, 486. - - University of France, 233, 243, 321, 341, 343, 356, 360, 509-512, - 533. - - Unselfishness, 10, 78, 136, 522. - - Utility, 40, 44, 60, 115, 136, 189, 196, 200, 201, 296-310, 408, 529, - 538, 541, 562; - of culture, 324-326, 381, 523. - - Ursulines, 214. - - - Values, educational, 60, 323-326, 339, 388, 469, 557. - - Van Laun, 213. - - Varet, 154, 159; - _Christian Education_, 154. - - Varro, 47. - - Vaughan and Davies, _Republic_, 31. - - Venice, 79. - - Vernier, 467. - - _Version_, 158, 244. - - Veturia, 45. - - Vice, cause of, 50, 116, 381; - how overcome, 56, 118, 160, 185, 381. - - Vienna, University of, 77. - - Villemain, 236, 304, 468. - - Vincennes, 514. - - Vinet, 500. - - Virchow, 539. - - Virgil, 64, 87, 97, 324. - - Virtue, 26, 30, 35, 39, 104, 199, 200, 230, 381; - moral, 280; - passive, 5, 55, 80, 226; - Roman, 44, 52. - - Vittorino da Feltre, 78. - - Vives, 91, 132. - - Vivonne, Catherine de, 219. - - Voltaire, 86, 141, 236, 279, 329, 331, 344, 345, 368. - - Vulliemin, 435. - - - Warriors, 15, 28, 31, 70. - - Wartensee, 456. - - Washington, 422. - - Watson, _Quintilian_, 50. - - Wessel, John of, 87. - - Wittenberg, University of, 113. - - Whipping, 6, 7, 51, 76, 102, 147, 148. - - Will, 13, 61, 194, 201, 334, 372, 476, 484, 543, 547, 552, 553. - - Wine, 194, 292, 381. - - Wisdom, 15, 41, 48, 57; - the highest, 3, 57, 104, 106, 135, 295, 381. - - Wolker, Doctor, 246. - - Women, 5, 16, 34, 44, 48, 60, 90, 488, 506; - education of, 5, 15, 16, 27, 34, 35, 48, 55, 56, 79, 80, 90, 91, - 109, 110, 115, 117, 128, 168, 174-176, 212-231, 252, 282, - 305-307, 328, 384, 464; - unsexed, 27, 506. - - Words, 85, 106, 107, 132, 134, 144, 325, 326, 415, 430. - - Wordsworth, 54. - - Works, of Comenius, 125-127; - of Diderot, 319; - of Erasmus, 87-90; - of Fénelon, 166; - of Madame de Genlis, 480; - of Madame de Maintenon, 222; - of Madame Pape-Carpentier, 501-503; - of Pestalozzi, 421, 422, 431, 438; - of Plutarch, 53-58. - - Worthington, Miss, 171, 336. - - Writing, 6, 11, 49, 67, 86, 88, 90, 204, 268; - schools, 120, 254. - - Wurtzburg, 466. - - - Xenophon, 14, 34, 35, 36, 55. - - - Yverdun, 419, 420, 434, 449. - - - Zurich, 418. - - Zwingli, 113, 114. - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE - - Footnote[85] is referenced twice, from §116 and §117. - - Footnote[153] has no anchor in the text, but is referenced from the - previous Footnote[152]. - - Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been - corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within - the text and consultation of external sources. - - Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, - and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. - - Pg xi: ‘of history of pedagogy’ replaced by ‘of a history of - pedagogy’. - §40 Footnote[40]: ‘I thiuk it may’ replaced by ‘I think it may’. - §42: ‘teaching intrument was’ replaced by ‘teaching instrument was’. - §125: Missing -- inserted before ‘The German reformer’. - §233 Footnote[143]: the citation ‘--Johnson’s _Cyclopædia_.’ has been - joined to the quotation, for consistency with other citations. - §520: ‘that true edution’ replaced by ‘that true education’. - §560 Footnote [235]: ‘Monsieurs Rapet and’ replaced by ‘Messieurs - Rapet and’. - §560: ‘Conseil supérieure’ replaced by ‘Conseil supérieur’. - §594 Footnote [252]: ‘Madamoiselle Sauvan’ replaced by ‘Mademoiselle - Sauvan’. - §621: ‘Victor Consedérant’ replaced by ‘Victor Considerant’. - §621 Footnote [270]: ‘Consedérant’ replaced by ‘Considerant’. - - Appendix B. - #5: ‘Historie Critique’ replaced by ‘Histoire Critique’. - #25: ‘et de Principe’ replaced by ‘et du Principe’. - - Index. - Entry ‘Encyclopedists’ replaced by ‘Encyclopædists’. - Entry ‘Königberg’ replaced by ‘Königsberg’. - Entry ‘Sazarin’ replaced by ‘Sarazin’. - Entry ‘Studies’: ‘Bacon of’ replaced by ‘Baconian’. - Entry ‘Symmetry’: ‘896’ replaced by ‘396’. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The History of Pedagogy, by Gabriel Compayré - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY *** - -***** This file should be named 62376-0.txt or 62376-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/3/7/62376/ - -Produced by Turgut Dincer, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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- text-align: center; -} - - -/* Footnotes */ -.footnotes {border: dashed 1px; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 3em; - padding-bottom: 1em;} - -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 90%;} -.footnote p {text-indent: 0em;} -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: none; -} - - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote { - background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size: 90%; - padding: 0.5em; - margin-top: 5em; - margin-bottom: 5em; -} - -.transnote p {text-indent: 0em;} - -/* custom cover.jpg */ -.customcover {visibility: hidden; display: none;} -@media handheld { - .customcover {visibility: visible; display: block;} -} - - </style> - </head> - -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of Pedagogy, by Gabriel Compayré - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The History of Pedagogy - -Author: Gabriel Compayré - -Translator: William Harold Payne - -Release Date: June 12, 2020 [EBook #62376] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY *** - - - - -Produced by Turgut Dincer, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="transnote"> -<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong></p> - -<p>Footnote anchors are denoted by <span class="fnanchor">[number]</span>, and the footnotes have been -placed at the end of each chapter.</p> - -<p class="customcover">The cover image was created by the transcriber -and is placed in the public domain.</p> - -<p>Some minor changes to the text are noted at the <a href="#TN">end of the book.</a></p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> - -<h1> -<span class="fs60">THE</span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap">History of Pedagogy</span>.</h1> - - -<p class="pfs70">BY</p> - -<p class="pfs120">GABRIEL COMPAYRÉ,</p> - -<p class="pfs70 smcap">Deputy, Doctor of Letters, and Professor in the Normal School<br /> -of Fontenay-aux-Roses.</p> - -<p class="p4 pfs80"><em>TRANSLATED, WITH AN INTRODUCTION,<br /> -NOTES, AND AN INDEX</em>,</p> - -<p class="p3 pfs60">BY</p> - -<p class="p1 pfs120 lsp2">W. H. PAYNE, A.M.,</p> - -<p class="pfs70 smcap">Chancellor of the University of Nashville, and President of the<br /> -State Normal College; late Professor of the Science and the<br /> -Art of Teaching in the University of Michigan.</p> - -<p class="p3" /> -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/sep.jpg" width="70" alt="" /></div> - - -<p class="p3 pfs100 lsp">BOSTON:</p> -<p class="pfs90 lsp">D. C. HEATH & COMPANY.</p> -<p class="pfs100 lsp">1889.</p> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p class="p10" /> - -<p class="pfs80 smcap">Copyright, Sept. 30, 1885,</p> - -<p class="pfs80 smcap">By W. H. PAYNE.</p> - -<p class="p10" /> -<hr class="r30a" /> -<p class="pfs80 smcap">J. S. Cushing & Co., Printers, Boston.</p> -<p class="p2" /> - - -<hr class="chap pg-brk" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/sep.jpg" width="70" alt="" /></div> - -<div class="fs90"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr fs60">PAGE</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl smcap" colspan="3">Translator’s Preface</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_v">v-vii</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl smcap" colspan="3">Introduction</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_ix">ix-xxii</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap">Chapter</td><td class="tdr">I.</td><td class="tdl">—Education in Antiquity</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_1">1-16</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap">Chapter</td><td class="tdr">II.</td><td class="tdl">—Education among the Greeks</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_17">17-42</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap">Chapter</td><td class="tdr">III.</td><td class="tdl">—Education at Rome</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_43">43-60</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap">Chapter</td><td class="tdr">IV.</td><td class="tdl">—The Early Christians and the Middle Age</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_61">61-82</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap">Chapter</td><td class="tdr">V.</td><td class="tdl">—The Renaissance and the Theories of Education in the Sixteenth Century.—Erasmus, Rabelais, and Montaigne</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_83">83-111</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap">Chapter</td><td class="tdr">VI.</td><td class="tdl">—Protestantism and Primary Instruction.—Luther and Comenius</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_112">112-137</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap">Chapter</td><td class="tdr">VII.</td><td class="tdl">—The Teaching Congregations.—Jesuits and Jansenists</td><td class="tdrb nowrap"><a href="#Page_138"> 138-163</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap">Chapter</td><td class="tdr">VIII.</td><td class="tdl">—Fénelon</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_164">164-186</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap">Chapter</td><td class="tdr">IX.</td><td class="tdl">—The Philosophers of the Seventeenth Century.—Descartes, Malebranche, and Locke</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_187">187-211</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap">Chapter</td><td class="tdr">X.</td><td class="tdl">—The Education of Women in the Seventeenth Century.—Jacqueline Pascal and Madame de Maintenon</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_212">212-231</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap">Chapter</td><td class="tdr">XI.</td><td class="tdl">—Rollin</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_232">232-252</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap">Chapter</td><td class="tdr">XII.</td><td class="tdl">—Catholicism and Primary Instruction.—La Salle and the Brethren of the Christian Schools</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_253">253-278</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap">Chapter</td><td class="tdr"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span> - XIII.</td><td class="tdl">—Rousseau and the <em>Émile</em></td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_278">278-310</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap">Chapter</td><td class="tdr">XIV.</td><td class="tdl">—The Philosophers of the Eighteenth Century.—Condillac, Diderot, Helvetius, and Kant</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_311">311-339</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap">Chapter</td><td class="tdr">XV.</td><td class="tdl">—The Origin of Lay and National Education.—La Chalotais and Rolland</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_340">340-361</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap">Chapter</td><td class="tdr">XVI.</td><td class="tdl">—The Revolution.—Mirabeau, Talleyrand, and Condorcet</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_362">362-389</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap">Chapter</td><td class="tdr">XVII.</td><td class="tdl">—The Convention.—Lepelletier Saint-Fargeau, Lakanal, and Daunou</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_390">390-412</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap">Chapter</td><td class="tdr">XVIII.</td><td class="tdl">—Pestalozzi</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_413">413-445</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap">Chapter</td><td class="tdr">XIX.</td><td class="tdl">—The Successors of Pestalozzi.—Frœbel and the Père Girard</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_446">446-477</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap">Chapter</td><td class="tdr">XX.</td><td class="tdl">—Women as Educators</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_478">478-507</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap">Chapter</td><td class="tdr">XXI.</td><td class="tdl">—The Theory and Practice of Education in the Nineteenth Century</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_508">508-534</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr smcap">Chapter</td><td class="tdr">XXII.</td><td class="tdl">—The Science of Education.—Herbert Spencer, Alexander Bain, Channing, and Horace Mann</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_535">535-570</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl smcap" colspan="3">Appendix</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_571">571-575</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl smcap" colspan="3">Index</td><td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_577">577-598</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="TRANSLATORS_PREFACE" id="TRANSLATORS_PREFACE"></a>TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE.</h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/sep.jpg" width="70" alt="" /></div> - - <div class="front"> -<p class="drop-capy1">The two considerations that have chiefly influenced me in -making this translation are the following:—</p> - -<p>1. Of the three phases of educational study, the practical, -the theoretical, and the historical, the last, as proved -by the number of works written on the subject, has received -but very little attention from English and American teachers; -and yet, if we allow that a teacher should first of all -be a man of culture, and that an invaluable factor in his -professional education is a knowledge of what has hitherto -been done within his field of activity, there are the best of -reasons why the claims of this study should be urged upon -the teaching profession. For giving breadth of view, -judicial candor, and steadiness of purpose, nothing more -helpful can be commended to the teacher than a critical -survey of the manifold experiments and experiences in -educational practice. The acutest thinkers of all the ages -have worked at the solution of the educational problem, and -the educating art has been practised under every variety of -conditions, civil, social, religious, philosophic, and ethnic. -Is it not time for us to review these experiments, as the -very best condition for advancing surely and steadily?</p> - -<p>2. The almost complete neglect of this study among us -has been due, in great measure, to the fact that there have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span> -been no books on the subject at all adapted to the ends to -be attained. A dry, scrappy, and incomplete narration of -facts can end only in bewilderment and in blunting the taste -for this species of inquiry. The desirable thing has been -a book that is comprehensive without being tedious, whose -treatment is articulate and clear, and that is pervaded by a -critical insight at once catholic and accurate. Some years -ago I read with the keenest admiration, the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Histoire Critique -des Doctrines de l’Éducation en France depuis le Seizième -Siècle</cite>, by Gabriel Compayré (Paris, 1879); and it seemed -to me a model, in matter and method, for a general history -of education. Within a recent period Monsieur Compayré -has transformed this <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Histoire Critique</cite> into such a general -history of education, under the title <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Histoire de la Pédagogie</cite>. -In this book all the characteristics of the earlier work have -been preserved, and it represents to my own mind very -nearly the ideal of the treatise that is needed by the teaching -profession of this country.</p> - -<p>The reader will observe the distinction made by Monsieur -Compayré between <em>Pedagogy</em> and <em>Education</em>. Though our -nomenclature does not sanction this distinction, and though -I prefer to give to the term <em>Pedagogy</em> a different connotation, -I have felt bound on moral grounds to preserve Monsieur -Compayré’s use of these terms wherever the context -would sanction it.</p> - -<p>It seems mere squeamishness to object to the use of the -word <em>Pedagogy</em> on account of historical associations. The -fact that this term is in reputable use in German, French,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span> -and Italian educational literature, is a sufficient guaranty -that we may use it without danger. With us, the term -<em>Pedagogics</em> seems to be employed as a synonym for <em>Pedagogy</em>. -It would seem to me better to follow continental -usage, and restrict the term <em>Pedagogy</em> to the art or practice -of education, and <em>Pedagogics</em> to the correlative science.</p> - -<p>I feel under special obligations to Monsieur Compayré, -and to his publisher, Monsieur Paul Delaplane, for their -courteous permission to publish this translation. I am also -greatly indebted to my friend, Mr. C. E. Lowrey, Ph.D., for -material aid in important details of my work.</p> - -<p class="right fs90">W. H. PAYNE.</p> - -<p class="smcap fs70">University of Michigan,</p> -<p class="pad4 fs70">Jan. 4, 1886.</p> - -<hr class="r10a" /> - -<p>The issue of a second edition has permitted a careful -revision of the translation and the correction of several -verbal errors. In subsequent editions, no effort will be -spared by the translator and his publishers to make this -volume worthy of the favor with which it has been received -by the educational public.</p> - -<p class="right fs90">W. H. P.</p> -<p class="smcap fs70">Aug. 1, 1886.</p> - </div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span><br /> - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION.</h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/sep.jpg" width="70" alt="" /></div> - - <div class="front"> -<p><span class="smcap">What a Complete History of Education would be.</span>—In -writing an elementary history of pedagogy, I do not -pretend to write a history of education. Pedagogy and -education, like logic and science, or like rhetoric and -eloquence, are different though analogous things.</p> - -<p>What would a complete history of education not -include? It would embrace, in its vast developments, -the entire record of the intellectual and moral culture -of mankind at all periods and in all countries. It would -be a <em>résumé</em> of the life of humanity in its diverse manifestations, -literary and scientific, religious and political. -It would determine the causes, so numerous and so diverse, -which act upon the characters of men, and which, modifying -a common endowment, produce beings as different -as are a contemporary of Pericles and a modern European, -a Frenchman of the middle ages and a Frenchman -subsequent to the Revolution.</p> - -<p>In fact, there is not only an education, properly so called, -that which is given in schools and which proceeds from -the direct action of teachers, but there is a natural education, -which we receive without our knowledge or will,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span> -through the influence of the social environment in which -we live. There are what a philosopher of the day has -ingeniously called the <em>occult coadjutors</em> of education,—climate, -race, manners, social condition, political institutions, -religious beliefs. If a man of the nineteenth century -is very unlike a man of the seventeenth century, it -is not merely because the first was educated in a Lycée -of the University and the other in a college of the -Jesuits; it is also because in the atmosphere in which -they have been enveloped they have contracted different -habits of mind and heart; it is because they have -grown up under different laws, under a different social -and political <em>régime</em>; because they have been nurtured -by a different philosophy and a different religion. Upon -that delicate and variable composition known as the human -soul, how many forces which we do not suspect have left -their imprint! How many unobserved and latent causes -are involved in our virtues and in our faults! The conscious -and determined influence of the teacher is not, -perhaps, the most potent. In conjunction with him are -at work, obscurely but effectively, innumerable agents, -besides personal effort and what is produced by the original -energy of the individual.</p> - -<p>We see what a history of education would be: a sort -of philosophy of history, to which nothing would be foreign, -and which would scrutinize in its most varied and -most trifling causes, as well as in its most profound sources, -the moral life of humanity.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">What an Elementary History of Pedagogy should -be.</span>—Wholly different is the limited and modest purpose -<ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'of history of pedagogy'">of a history of pedagogy</ins>, which proposes merely to set -forth the doctrines and the methods of educators properly -so called. In this more limited sense, education is reduced -to the premeditated action which the will of one man -exercises over other men in order to instruct them and -train them. It is the reflective auxiliary of the natural -development of the human soul. To what can be done -by nature and by the blind and fatal influences which -sport with human destiny, education adds the concurrence -of art, that is, of the reason, attentive and self-possessed, -which voluntarily and consciously applies to the training -of the soul principles whose truth has been recognized, -and methods whose efficiency has been tested by experience.</p> - -<p>Even thus limited, the history of pedagogy still presents -to our inquiry a vast field to be explored. There is scarcely -a subject that has provoked to the same degree as education -the best efforts of human thinking. Note the catalogue -of educational works published in French, which -Buisson has recently prepared.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Though incomplete, this -list contains not less than two thousand titles; and probably -educational activity has been more fruitful, and has -been given a still greater extension in Germany than in -France. This activity is due to the fact, first of all, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span> -educational questions, brought into fresh notice with each -generation, exercise over the minds of men an irresistible -and perennial attraction; and also to the fact that parenthood -inspires a taste for such inquiries, and, a thing that -is not always fortunate, leads to the assumption of some -competence in such matters; and finally to the very nature -of educational problems, which are not to be solved by -abstract and independent reasoning, after the fashion of -mathematical problems, but which, vitally related to the -nature and the destiny of man, change and vary with the -fluctuations of the psychological and the moral doctrines -of which they are but the consequences. To different -systems of psychology correspond different systems of -education. An idealist, like Malebranche, will not reason -upon education after the manner of a sensationalist like -Locke. In the same way there is in every system of morals -the germ of a characteristic and original system of education. -A mystic, like Gerson, will not assign to education -the same end as a practical and positive writer like Herbert -Spencer. Hence a very great diversity in systems, or at -least an infinite variety in the shades of educational opinion.</p> - -<p>Still farther, educational activity may manifest itself in -different ways, either in doctrines and theories or in -methods and practical applications. The historian of pedagogy -has not merely to make known the general conceptions -which the philosophers of education have in turn -submitted to the approbation of men. If he wishes to -make his work complete, he must give a detailed account<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span> -of what has been accomplished, and make an actual study -of the educational establishments which have been founded -at different periods by those who have organized instruction.</p> - -<p>Pedagogy is a complex affair, and there are many ways -of writing its history. One of these which has been too -little considered, and which would surely be neither the -least interesting nor the least fruitful, would consist in -studying, not the great writers on education and their -doctrines, not the great teachers and their methods, but -pupils themselves. If it were possible to relate in minute -detail, supposing that history would furnish us the necessary -information on this point, the manner in which a great -or a good man has been educated; if an analysis could be -made of the different influences which have been involved -in the formation of talent or in the development of virtue -in the case of remarkable individuals; if it were possible, -in a word, to reproduce through exact and personal biographies -the toil, the slow elaboration whence have issued at -different periods solidity of character, rectitude of purpose, -and minds endowed with judicial fairness; the result would -be a useful and eminently practical work, something analogous -to what a history of logic would be, in which there -should be set forth not the abstract rules and the formal -laws for the search after truth, but the successful experiments -and the brilliant discoveries which have little by -little constituted the patrimony of science. This perhaps -would be the best of logics because it is real and in action; -and also the best of treatises on pedagogy, since there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span> -might be learned from it, not general truths, which are -often of difficult application and of uncertain utility, but -practical means and living methods whose happy and efficient -applications would be seen in actual use.</p> - -<p>We have just traced the imaginary plan of a history of -pedagogy rather than the exact outline of the series of -lessons which this book contains. However, we have -approached this ideal as nearly as we have been able, by -attempting to group about the principal philosophical and -moral ideas the systems of education which they have -inspired; by endeavoring to retain whatever is essential; -by adding to the first rapid sketches studied and elaborate -portraits; by ever mingling with the expositions of doctrines -and the analysis of important works the study of -practical methods and the examination of actual institutions; -and, finally, by penetrating the thought of the -great educators, to learn from them how they became such, -and by following them, as they have united practice with -theory, in the particular systems of education which they -have directed with success.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1" /> -<p><span class="smcap">Division of the History of Pedagogy.</span>—The abundance -and the variety of pedagogical questions, the great -number of thinkers who have written upon education, in -a word, the complexity of the subject, might inspire the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[xv]</a></span> -historian of pedagogy with the idea of dividing his work, -and of distributing his studies into several series. For -example, it would be possible to write the history of education -in general by itself, and then the history of instruction, -which is but an element of education. As education itself -comprises three parts, physical education, intellectual education, -and moral education, there would be an opportunity -for three series of distinct studies on these different -subjects. But these divisions would present grave inconveniences. -In general, the opinions of an educator are -not susceptible of division; there is a connection between -his manner of regarding the matter of instruction and the -solution he gives to educational questions proper. One -mode of thinking pervades his theories or his practice in -the matter of moral discipline, and his ideas on intellectual -education. It is, then, necessary to consider each of the -different systems of education as a whole.</p> - -<p>Perhaps a better order of division would be that which, -without regard to chronological order, should distinguish -all pedagogical doctrines and applications into a certain -number of schools, and connect all educators with certain -general tendencies: as the ascetic tendency, that of the -fathers of the church, for example, and of the middle -ages; the utilitarian tendency of Locke, and of a great -number of moderns; the pessimism of Port Royal, the -optimism of Fénelon; the literary school of the humanists -of the Renaissance, and the scientific school of Diderot -and of Condorcet. Such a mode of procedure would have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</a></span> -its interest, because in the manifestations of educational -thought so apparently different it would sharply distinguish -certain uniform principles which reappear at all -periods of history; but this would be rather a philosophy -of the history of education than a simple history of -pedagogy.</p> - -<p>The best we can do, then, is to follow the chronological -order and to study in turn the educators of antiquity, -those of the middle ages, of the Renaissance, and of -modern times. We shall interrogate in succession those -who have become eminent as teachers and educators, and -ask of each how he has solved for himself the various -portions of the problems of education. Besides being -more simple and more natural, this order has the advantage -of showing us the progress of education as it has -gradually risen from instinct to reflection, from nature to -art, and after long periods of groping and many halts, -ascending from humble beginnings to a complete and definite -organization. This plan also exhibits to us the beautiful -spectacle of a humanity in a state of ceaseless growth. -At first, instruction comprised but few subjects, at the -same time that only a select few participated in it. Then -there was a simultaneous though gradual extension of the -domain of knowledge which must be acquired, of the -moral qualities demanded by the struggle for existence, -and of the number of men who are called to be instructed -and educated,—the ideal being, as Comenius has said, -that all may learn and that everything may be taught.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[xvii]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1" /> -<p><span class="smcap">Utility of the History of Pedagogy.</span>—The history of -pedagogy is henceforth to form a part of the course of -study for the primary normal schools of France. It has -been included in the prescribed list of subjects for the third -year, under this title: <cite>History of Pedagogy,—Principal -educators and their doctrines; Analysis of the most important -works.</cite><a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p> - -<p>Is argument necessary to justify the place which has -been assigned to this study? In the first place, the history -of pedagogy possesses great interest from the fact that -it is closely connected with the general history of thought -and also with the philosophic explication of human actions. -Certainly, pedagogical doctrines are neither fortuitous -opinions nor events without significance. On the one hand, -they have their causes and their principles in moral, religious, -and political beliefs, of which they are the faithful -image; on the other, they are instrumental in the training -of mind and in the formation of manners. Back of -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ratio Studiorum</i> of the Jesuits, back of the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Émile</i> -of Rousseau, there distinctly appears a complete religion, -a complete philosophy. In the classical studies organized -by the humanists of the Renaissance we see the -dawn of that literary brilliancy which distinguished the -century of Louis XIV., and so in the scientific studies -preached a hundred years ago by Diderot and by Condorcet -there was a preparation for the positive spirit of our time. -The education of the people is at once the consequence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[xviii]</a></span> -of all that it believes and the source of all that it is -destined to be.</p> - -<p>But there are other reasons which recommend the study -of educators and the reading of their works. The history -of pedagogy is a necessary introduction to pedagogy -itself. It should be studied, not for purposes of erudition -or for mere curiosity, but with a practical purpose -for the sake of finding in it the permanent truths which -are the essentials of a definite theory of education. -The desirable thing just now is not perhaps so much -to find new ideas, as properly to comprehend those which -are already current; to choose from among them, and, -a choice once having been made, to make a resolute effort -to apply them to use. When we consider with impartiality -all that has been conceived or practised previous -to the nineteenth century, or when we see clearly what -our predecessors have left us to do in the way of consequences -to deduce, of incomplete or obscure ideas to -generalize or to illustrate, and especially of opposing -tendencies to reconcile, we may well inquire what they -have really left us to discover.</p> - -<p>It is profitable to study even the chimeras and the -educational errors of our predecessors. In fact, these -are so many marked experiments which contribute to the -progress of our methods by warning us of the rocks -which we should shun. A thorough analysis of the -paradoxes of Rousseau, and of the absurd consequences -to which the abuse of the principle of nature leads us,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[xix]</a></span> -is no less instructive than meditation on the wisest -precepts of Montaigne or of Port Royal.</p> - -<p>In truth, for him who has an exact knowledge of the -educators of past centuries, the work of constructing a -system of education is more than half done. It remains -only to co-ordinate the scattered truths which have been -collected from their works by assimilating them through -personal reflection, and by making them fruitful through -psychological analysis and moral faith.</p> - -<p>Let it be observed that as studied by the men who -first conceived and practised them, pedagogical methods -present themselves to our examination with a sharpness -of outline that is surprising. Innovators lend to whatever -they invent a personal emphasis, something life-like -and occasionally extravagant; but it is exactly this which -permits us the better to comprehend their thought, and -the more completely to discover its truth or its falsity.</p> - -<p>However, it is not alone the intellectual advantage -which recommends the history of pedagogy; it is also -the moral stimulus which will be derived from the study. -For the sake of encouraging to noble efforts the men -and women who are our teachers, is it of no moment -to present to them the names of Comenius, Rollin, and -Pestalozzi as men who have attained such high excellence -in their profession? Will not the teacher who each day -resumes his heavy burden be revived and sustained? -Will he not enter his class-room, where so many difficulties -and toils await him, a better and a stronger man<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">[xx]</a></span> -if his imagination teems with articulate memories of those -who, in the past, have opened for him the way, and -shown him by their example how to walk in it? By -the marvellous agency of electricity we are now able to -transport material and mechanical power, and to cause -its transfer across space without regard to distance. But -by reading and by meditation we are able to do something -analogous to this in the moral world; we are able -to borrow from the ancients, across the centuries, something -of the moral energy that inspired them, and to -make live again in our own hearts some of their virtues -of devotion and faith. Doubtless a brief history of -pedagogy could not, from this point of view, serve as -a substitute for the actual reading of the authors in -question; but it is a preparation for this work and -inspires a taste for it.</p> - -<p>We are warranted in saying, then, that the utility of -the history of pedagogy blends with the utility of pedagogy -itself. To-day it is no longer necessary for us to -offer any proof on this point. Pedagogy, long neglected -even in our country, has regained its standing; nay -more, it has become the fashion. “France is becoming -addicted to pedagogy” was a remark recently made by -one of the men who, of our day, will have contributed -most to excite and also to direct the taste for pedagogical -studies.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> The words <em>pedagogue</em>, <em>pedagogy</em>, have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">[xxi]</a></span> -encountered dangers in the history of our language. -Littré tells us that the word <em>pedagogue</em> “is most often -used in a bad sense.” On the other hand, we shall -see, if we consult his dictionary, that several years ago -the sense of the word <em>pedagogy</em> was not yet fixed, -since it is there defined as “the moral education of -children.” To-day, not only in language, but in facts and -in institutions, the fate of pedagogy is settled. Of course -we must neither underrate it nor attribute to it a sovereign -and omnipotent efficiency that it does not have. We -might freely say of pedagogy what Sainte-Beuve said -of logic: The best is that which does not argue in its -own favor; which is not enamoured of itself, but which -modestly recognizes the limits of its power. The best -is that which we make for ourselves, not that which we -learn from books.</p> - -<p>Even with this reserve, the teaching of pedagogy is -destined to render important services to the cause of -education, and education, let us be assured, is in the -way of acquiring a fresh importance day by day. This -is due to the fact, first, that under a liberal government, -and in a republican society, it is more and -more necessary that the citizens shall be instructed and -enlightened. Liberty is a dangerous thing unless it has -instruction for a counterpoise. Moreover, we must recollect -that in our day, among those <em>occult coadjutors</em> of -which we have spoken, and which at all times add their -action to that of education proper, some have lost their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">[xxii]</a></span> -influence, while others, so far from co-operating in this -movement, oppose it and compromise it. On the one -hand, religion has seen her influence curtailed. She is -no longer, as she once was, the tutelary power under -whose shadow the rising generations peacefully matured. -It is necessary that education, through the progress of -the reason and through the reflective development of -morality, should compensate for the waning influence of -religion.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, social conditions, the very progress -of civil and political liberty, the growing independence -accorded the child in the family, the multiplication of -books, good and bad, all these collateral agents of education -are not always compliant and useful aids. They -would prove the accomplices of a moral decadence did -not our teachers make an effort as much more vigorous -to affect the will and the heart, as well as the mind, -in order to establish character, and thus assure the recuperation -of our country.</p> - </div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii">[xxiii]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk fs120"><a name="A_SKETCH" id="A_SKETCH"></a>A SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF GABRIEL -COMPAYRÉ.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/sep.jpg" width="70" alt="" /></div> - - <div class="front"> -<p>Gabriel Compayré was born Jan. 2, 1843, at Albi, a -city of Southern France, containing about fifteen thousand -inhabitants, and the capital of the province of Tarn. His -early education was received from his father, a man of -sterling character, and the author of a book entitled, <cite>Historical -Studies Concerning the Albigenses</cite>.</p> - -<p>He passed from his father’s care to the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">collège</i> of Castres, -then to the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">lycée</i> of Toulouse, and finally to the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">lycée Louis-le-Grand</i> -at Paris. His fellow-pupils recall with pleasure -his triumphs at these institutions of learning. His brilliant -intellectual powers, his vivid imagination, his well-stored -memory, and his unwearied industry, marked him as destined -to render signal services to his race.</p> - -<p>He entered the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">École Normale Supérieure</i> in 1862. His -tastes led him to philosophical studies; indeed, he had -already manifested a strong tendency to moral and intellectual -science. Yet his intensely practical nature could -not long remain satisfied with metaphysical subtleties where -he found no sure foot-hold. He became a warm advocate -of experimental methods, and of the Baconian philosophy. -He set himself to a study of man as he appears in society<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiv" id="Page_xxiv">[xxiv]</a></span> -and in the family; to the analysis of his emotions and his -acts, and to the deduction, from these analyses, of those -rules which ought to preside over his conduct and his intellectual -and moral development.</p> - -<p>He graduated from the normal school in 1865, and was -immediately appointed professor of philosophy at the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">lycée</i> -of Pau. A lecture upon Rousseau, which he delivered here, -brought upon him the severe condemnation of the ultramontane -party, and involved him in a controversy which -has continued to the present time.</p> - -<p>In 1868, having been made a fellow of the University, he -was sent to the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">lycée</i> of Poitiers. At this place he manifested -his sympathy for the common people by a course of -lectures to workmen on moral subjects. About this time -he received honorable mention from the Academy for an -eloquent eulogy upon Rousseau, in which he carefully portrayed -the influence of Rousseau upon the government of -his country and upon methods of school instruction, giving -him full credit for the reform in both.</p> - -<p>From this time forward Compayré’s life has been filled -with labors and with honors. In addition to his professional -duties and philosophical writings, he has made -careful study of the social and political questions of his -country.</p> - -<p>Promoted from one post of honor to another, on the -14th of July, 1880, he was appointed Chevalier of the -Legion of Honor.</p> - -<p>In 1874 he presented his theme for his doctor’s degree -upon the <cite>Philosophy of David Hume</cite>, a work of the highest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxv" id="Page_xxv">[xxv]</a></span> -philosophical thought and language, which received a prize -from the Academy.</p> - -<p>Between 1874 and 1880 his lectures were largely devoted -to the subjects most closely connected with modern thought. -<cite>A Study of Darwinism</cite>, <cite>The Psychology of a Child</cite>, <cite>Educational -Principles</cite>, are subjects that indicate the sweep of -his investigations. The brilliancy of his style, the liberality -of his opinions, and the extent of his learning have -exposed him to bitter attacks from those who envy his -powers and disbelieve his doctrines; yet his popularity has -continually increased, and the young professor has become -a great power in the party of the republic, to whose cause -he early devoted himself.</p> - -<p>The works which he published during this period were -numerous. He translated with great care, adding valuable -matter of his own: Bain’s <cite>Inductive and Deductive -Logic</cite>, Huxley’s <cite>Hume, His Life and Philosophy</cite>, and -Locke’s <cite>Thoughts on Education</cite>. His most considerable -work is his <cite>History of the Doctrine of Education in France -since the Sixteenth Century</cite>, a work of two volumes, published -in 1879, which reached its fourth edition in France -in 1883, has been translated entire into German, and -from which numerous extracts have been made for the -educational journals of England and America. If we add -to these labors his work upon the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue Philosophique</cite>, -and the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dictionnaire de Pédagogie</cite>, we shall understand -why he was called to Paris in 1881, by the Minister of -Public Instruction, to aid in founding the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">École Normale -Supérieure des Institutrices, de Fontenay-aux-Roses</i>. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxvi" id="Page_xxvi">[xxvi]</a></span> -successfully arranged the course of instruction for this -school. In the same year he assisted in the organization -of a new school at Sèvres, which prepares young teachers -for the course of instruction in the normal schools.</p> - -<p>In 1880 he published his <cite>Manual of Civil and Moral -Instruction</cite>, in two courses, or parts. This book has had -a remarkable career. In less than three years more than -three hundred thousand copies of the first part, and over -five hundred thousand of the second part, were sold.</p> - -<p>In 1882, in conjunction with a friend, M. A. Delplan, -an author of merit, he published his <cite>Civil and Moral Lectures</cite>. -In 1883 he published a <cite>Course of Civil Instruction</cite> -for normal schools.</p> - -<p>Compayré entered political life in 1881, having been -elected deputy from the arrondissement of Lavaur in Tarn. -He occupies a distinguished position among the men of -to-day; his character, his talents, his popularity, and his -devotion to the cause of civil and intellectual freedom, -give him the assurance of a place no less important among -the men of the future.</p> - -<p>In his personal appearance Compayré combines the -scholar and the man of the world. His dark hair, parted -in the middle, is combed back from a forehead very high -and very broad. His eye is bright and piercing, and his -face, clean shaven except upon the upper lip, bears the -impress of both his ingenuousness and his indomitable -perseverance.</p> - </div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> See the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dictionnaire de Pédagogie</cite>, by F. Buisson, Article <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Bibliographie</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The book now offered to the public was taught before it was written. -It is the result of the lectures given for three years past, either at the -higher normal school of Fontenay-aux-Roses, or in the normal courses for -men at Sèvres and at Saint Cloud.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Resolution of Aug. 3, 1881.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> See the Article of M. Pécaut in the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue Pédagogique</cite>, No. 2, 1882.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Furnished by Mr. Geo. E. Gay, Principal of the Malden High School.</p></div></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p class="p6" /> - -<p class="pfs150">THE HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY.</p> -<p class="p6" /> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<p class="pfs100">THE</p> -<p class="p1 pfs135 lsp2">HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/sep.jpg" width="70" alt="" /></div> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER I.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">EDUCATION IN ANTIQUITY.</span></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS; EDUCATION AMONG THE HINDOOS; -POLITICAL CASTE AND RELIGIOUS PANTHEISM; EFFECTS ON EDUCATION; -BUDDHISTIC REFORM; CONVERSATION OF BUDDHA AND -PURNA; EDUCATIONAL USAGES; EDUCATION AMONG THE ISRAELITES; -PRIMITIVE PERIOD; RELIGIOUS AND NATIONAL EDUCATION; -PROGRESS OF POPULAR INSTRUCTION; ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOLS; -RESPECT FOR TEACHERS; METHODS AND DISCIPLINE; EXCLUSIVE -AND JEALOUS SPIRIT; EDUCATION AMONG THE CHINESE; FORMALISM; -LÂO-TSZE AND KHUNG-TSZE (CONFUCIUS); EDUCATION AMONG -OTHER PEOPLE OF THE EAST; THE EGYPTIANS AND THE PERSIANS; -ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.</p></div> - -<hr class="r15a" /> - -<p class="p1">1. <span class="smcap">Preliminary Considerations.</span>—A German historian of -philosophy begins his work by asking this question: “Was -Adam a philosopher?” In the same way certain historians -of pedagogy begin by learned researches upon the education -of savages. We shall not carry our investigations so far -back. Doubtless from the day when a human family began -its existence, from the day when a father and a mother began -to love their children, education had an existence. But there -is very little practical interest in studying these obscure beginnings -of pedagogy. It is a matter of erudition and curi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>osity.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> -Besides the difficulty of gathering up the faint traces -of primitive education, there would be but little profit in -painfully following the slow gropings of primeval man. In -truth, the history of pedagogy dates but from the period -relatively recent, when human thought, in the matter of education, -substituted reflection for instinct, art for blind nature. -So we shall hasten to begin the study of pedagogy among -the classical peoples, the Greeks and the Romans, after having -thrown a rapid glance over some Eastern nations considered -either in their birthplace and remote origin, or in their -more recent development.</p> - - -<p class="p1">2. <span class="smcap">The Pedagogy of the Hindoos.</span>—It would not be -worth our while to enter into details respecting a civilization -so different from our own as that of the Hindoos. But we -should not forget that we are in part the descendants of that -people, and that we belong to the same ethnic group, and -that the European languages are derived from theirs.</p> - - -<p class="p1">3. <span class="smcap">Political Caste and Religious Pantheism.</span>—The -spirit of caste, from the social point of view, and pantheism, -from the religious point of view, are the characteristics of -Hindoo society. The Indian castes constituted hereditary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> -classes where social rank and special vocation were determined, -not by free choice, but by the accident of birth. The -consequence of this was an endless routine, with no care -either for the individuality, or the personal talents, or the -inclination of children, and without the possibility of rising -by personal effort above one’s rank in life.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> On the other -hand, religious ideas came to restrict, within the limits where -it was already imprisoned, the activity of the young Hindoo. -God is everywhere present; he manifests himself in all the -phenomena of heaven and earth, in the sun and in the stars, -in the Himalayas and in the Ganges; he penetrates and animates -everything; the things of sense are but the changing -and ephemeral vestments of the unchangeable being. “With -this pantheistic conception of the world and of life, the -thought and the will of the Hindoo perished in the mystic -contemplation of the soul. To become master of one’s inclinations; -to abandon every terrestrial thought; after this -life to lose one’s identity, and to be annihilated by absorption -in the divine nature; to prepare one’s self by macerations -and expiations for complete submersion in the original -principle of all being,—this is the highest wisdom, the true -happiness of the Hindoo, the ideal of all serious education.”<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">4. <span class="smcap">Effects on Education.</span>—It is easy to predict what -education would become under the weight of these double -chains, social and religious. While the ideal in our modern -societies is more and more to enfranchise the individual, and -to create for him personal freedom and self-consciousness, -the effort of the Hindoo Brahmins consisted above all in -crushing out all spontaneity, in abolishing individual predilections, -by preaching the doctrine of absolute self-renunciation, -of voluntary abasement, and of contempt for life. -Man was thus born doubly a slave,—by his social condition, -which predestinated him to the routine apprenticeship of his -ancestral caste, and by his mysterious dependence on the -divine being who absorbed in himself all real activity, and -left to human beings only the deceptive and frail appearance -of it.</p> - - -<p class="p1">5. <span class="smcap">Buddhist Reform.</span>—The Buddhist reform, which so -profoundly affected Brahmanism at about the sixth century -<span class="fs70">B.C.</span>, did not sensibly modify, from the educational point of -view, the ideas of the Hindoos. Buddha also taught that -the cause of evil resides in the passions of men, and that in -order to attain moral peace, there is no other means to be -employed than that of self-abnegation and of the renouncement -of everything selfish and personal.</p> - - -<p class="p1">6. <span class="smcap">Conversation of Buddha and Purna.</span>—One of the -traditions which permit us the better to appreciate the original -character, at once affecting and ingenuous, of Indian -thought, is the conversation of Buddha with his disciple -Purna about a journey the latter was going to undertake to -the barbarians for the purpose of teaching them the new -religion:—</p> - -<p>“They are men,” said Buddha, “who are fiery in temper, -passionate, cruel, furious, insolent. If they openly address<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> -you in words which are malicious and coarse, and become -angry with you, what will you think?”</p> - -<p>“If they address me to my face in coarse and insolent -terms, this is what I shall think: they are certainly good -men who openly address me in malicious terms, but they will -neither strike me with their hands nor stone me.”</p> - -<p>“But should they strike you with their hands and stone -you, what will you think?”</p> - -<p>“I shall think that they are good men, gentle men, who -strike me with their hands and stone me, but do not beat me -with a club nor with a sword.”</p> - -<p>“But if they beat you with a club and with a sword?”</p> - -<p>“They are good men, gentle men, who beat me with a -club and with a sword, but they do not completely kill me.”</p> - -<p>“But if they were really to kill you?”</p> - -<p>“They are good men, gentle men, who deliver me with so -little pain from this body encumbered with defilements.”</p> - -<p>“Very good, Purna! You may live in the country of -those barbarians. Go, Purna! Being liberated, liberate; -being consoled, console; having reached Nirvâna thus made -perfect, cause others to go there.”<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p> - -<p>Whatever there is to admire in such a strange system of -morals should not blind us to the vices which resulted from -its practical consequences: such as the abuse of passive -resignation, the complete absence of the idea of right and of -justice, and no active virtues.</p> - - -<p class="p1">7. <span class="smcap">Effects on Education.</span>—Little is known of the -actual state of educational practice among the Hindoos. It -may be said, however, that the Brahmins, the priests, had -the exclusive charge of education. Woman, in absolute -subjection to man, had no share whatever in instruction.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p> - -<p>As to boys, it seems that in India there were always -schools for their benefit; schools which were held in the -open country under the shade of trees, or, in case of bad -weather, under sheds. Mutual instruction has been practised -in India from the remotest antiquity; it is from here, -in fact, that Andrew Bell, at the close of the eighteenth -century, borrowed the idea of this mode of instruction. -Exercises in writing were performed first upon the sand with -a stick, then upon palm leaves with an iron style, and -finally upon the dry leaves of the plane-tree with ink. In -discipline there was a resort to corporal punishment; besides -the rod the teacher employed other original means of correction; -for example, he threw cold water on the offender. -The teacher, moreover, was treated with a religious respect; -the child must respect him as he would Buddha himself.</p> - -<p>The higher studies were reserved for the priestly class, -who, long before the Christian era, successfully cultivated -rhetoric and logic, astronomy and the mathematics.</p> - - -<p class="p1">8. <span class="smcap">Education among the Israelites.</span>—“If ever a people -has demonstrated the power of education, it is the people -of Israel.”<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> In fact, what a singular spectacle is offered us -by that people, which, dispossessed of its own country for -eighteen hundred years, has been dispersed among the -nations without losing its identity, and has maintained its -existence without a country, without a government, and -without a ruler, preserving with perennial energy its habits, -its manners, and its faith! Without losing sight of the part -of that extraordinary vitality of the Jewish people, which is -due to the natural endowments of the race, its tenacity of -temperament, and its wonderful activity of intelligence, it is -just to attribute another part of it to the sound education,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> -at once religious and national, which the ancient Hebrews -have transmitted by tradition to their descendants.</p> - - -<p class="p1">9. <span class="smcap">Education, Religious and National, during the -Primitive Period.</span>—The chief characteristic of the education -of the Hebrews in the earliest period of their history is -that it was essentially domestic. During the whole Biblical -period there is no trace of public schools, at least for young -children. Family life is the origin of that primitive society -where the notion of the state is almost unknown, and where -God is the real king.</p> - -<p>The child was to become the faithful servant of Jehovah. -To this end it was not needful that he should be learned. -It was only necessary that he should learn through language -and the instructive example of his parents the moral precepts -and the religious beliefs of the nation. It has been very -justly said<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> that “among all nations the direction impressed -on education depends on the idea which they form of the -perfect man. Among the Romans it is the brave soldier, -inured to fatigue, and readily yielding to discipline; among -the Athenians it is the man who unites in himself the happy -harmony of moral and physical perfection; among the -Hebrews the perfect man is the pious, virtuous man, who is -capable of attaining the ideal traced by God himself in these -terms: ‘Ye shall be holy, for I the Lord your God am -holy!’”<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p> - -<p>The discipline was harsh, as is proved by many passages -in the Bible: “He that spareth his rod, hateth his son,” say -the Proverbs; “but he that loveth him chasteneth him -betimes.”<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> “Withhold not correction from the child, for if<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> -thou beatest him with the rod, he shall not die. Thou shalt -beat him with the rod, and shalt deliver his soul from hell.”<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> -And still more significant: “Chasten thy son while there is -hope, and let not thy soul spare for his crying.”<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> - -<p>Only boys, it seems, learned to read and write. As to -girls, they were taught to spin, to weave, to prepare food for -the table, to superintend the work of the household, and -also to sing and to dance.</p> - -<p>In a word, intellectual culture was but an incident in the -primitive education of the Hebrews; the great thing, in their -eyes, was moral and religious instruction, and education in -love of country. Fathers taught their children the nation’s -history, and the great events that had marked the destiny -of the people of God. That series of events celebrated -by the great feasts which were often renewed, and in which -the children participated, served at once to fill their hearts -with gratitude to God and with love for their country.</p> - - -<p class="p1">10. <span class="smcap">Progress of Popular Instruction.</span>—It is not easy -to conceive to what extent the zeal for instruction was developed -among the ancient Jews in the years that followed the -advent of Christianity. From being domestic, as it had been -up to that time, Jewish education became public. Besides, -it was no longer sufficient to indoctrinate children with good -principles and wholesome moral habits; they must also be -instructed. From the first centuries of the Christian era, -the Israelites approached our modern ideal, with respect to -making education obligatory and universal. Like every -brave nation that has been vanquished, whose energy has -survived defeat, like the Prussians after Jena, or the -French after 1870, the Jews sought to defend themselves -against the effects of conquest by a great intellectual effort,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> -and to regain their lost ground by the development of popular -instruction.</p> - - -<p class="p1">11. <span class="smcap">Organization of Schools.</span>—In the year 64, the -high priest, Joshua Ben Gamala, imposed on each town, -under pain of excommunication, the obligation to support a -school. If the town is cut in two by a river, and there is -no means of transit by a safe bridge, a school must be established -on each side. Even to-day we are far from having -realized, as regards the number of schools and of teachers, -this rule stated in the Talmud: If the number of children -does not exceed twenty-five, the school shall be conducted -by a single teacher; for more than twenty-five, the town -shall employ an assistant; if the number exceeds forty, -there shall be two masters.</p> - - -<p class="p1">12. <span class="smcap">Respect for Teachers.</span>—In that ancient time, what -an exalted and noble conception men had of teachers, -“those true guardians of the city”! Even then, how exacting -were the requirements made of them! But, on the other -hand, how they were esteemed and respected! The Rabbins -required that the schoolmaster should be married; they -mistrusted teachers who were not at the same time heads of -families. Is it possible to enforce the advantages of maturity -and experience more delicately than in this beautiful -language? “He who learns of a young master is like a man -who eats green grapes, and drinks wine fresh from the -press; but he who has a master of mature years is like a -man who eats ripe and delicious grapes, and drinks old -wine.” Mildness, patience, and unselfishness were recommended -as the ruling virtues of the teacher. “If your -teacher and your father,” says the Talmud, “have need of -your assistance, help your teacher before helping your -father, for the latter has given you only the life of this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> -world, while the former has secured for you the life of the -world to come.”<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">13. <span class="smcap">Method and Discipline.</span>—The child entered school -at the age of six. “If a child below the age of six is -brought to your school,” says the Talmud, “you need not -receive him”; and to indicate that after that age it is proper -to regain the lost time, the Talmud adds, “After the age of -six, receive the child, and <em>load him like an ox</em>.” On the -contrary, other authorities of the same period, more judicious -and far-seeing, recommend moderation in tasks, and say -that it is necessary to treat “the young according to their -strength, and the grown-up according to theirs.”</p> - -<p>There was taught in the Jewish schools, along with reading -and writing,<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> a little of natural history, and a great deal of -geometry and astronomy. Naturally, the Bible was the first -book put in the hands of children. The master interspersed -moral lessons with the teaching of reading. He made a -special effort to secure a correct pronunciation, and multiplied -his explanations in order to make sure of being understood, -repeating his comments even to the <em>four-hundredth -time</em> if it were necessary. It seems that the methods were -suggestive and attractive, and the discipline relatively mild. -There were but few marks of the proverbial severity of the -ancient times. “Children,” says the Talmud, “should be -punished with one hand, and caressed with two.” The -Christian spirit, the spirit of him who had said “suffer the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> -little children to come unto me,” had affected the Jews themselves. -However, corporal punishment was tolerated to a -certain extent, but, strange to say, only for children above -the age of eleven. In case of disobedience, a pupil above -that age might be deprived of food, and even struck with a -strap of shoe-leather.</p> - - -<p class="p1">14. <span class="smcap">Exclusive and Jealous Spirit.</span>—Some reservation -must accompany the encomiums justly due Jewish education. -With respect to the rest of the human race, the Jewish spirit -was mean, narrow, and malevolent. The Israelites of this -day have retained something of these jealous and exclusive -tendencies. At the beginning of the Christian era, the fierce -and haughty patriotism of the Jews led them to proscribe -whatever was of Gentile origin, whatever had not the -sanction of the national tradition. Nothing of Greek or -Roman culture penetrated this closed world.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> The Jewish -doctors covered with the same contempt him who raises -hogs and him who teaches his son Greek science.</p> - - -<p class="p1">15. <span class="smcap">Education among the Chinese.</span>—We have attempted -to throw into relief the educational practices of -two Eastern nations to which the civilization of the -West is most intimately related. A few words will suffice -for the other primitive societies whose history is too -little known, and whose civilization is too remote from -our own, to make their plans of education anything more -than an object of curiosity.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p> - -<p>China has been civilized from time immemorial, and at -every period of her long history she has preserved her -national characteristics. For more than three thousand -years an absolute uniformity has characterized this immobile -people. Everything is regulated by tradition. Education -is mechanical and formal. The preoccupation of -teachers is to cause their pupils to acquire a mechanical -ability, a regular and sure routine. They care more for -appearances, for a decorous manner of conduct, than for -a searching and profound morality. Life is but a ceremonial, -minutely determined and punctually followed. -There is no liberty, no glow of spontaneity. Their art -is characterized by conventional refinement and by a -prettiness that seems mean; there is nothing of the grand -and imposing. By their formalism, the Chinese educators -are the Jesuits of the East.</p> - - -<p class="p1">16. <span class="smcap">Lâo-tsze and Khung-tsze.</span>—Towards the sixth century -<span class="fs70">B.C.</span> two reformers appeared in China, Lâo-tsze and -Khung-tsze. The first represents the spirit of emancipation, -of progress, of the pursuit of the ideal, of protest -against routine. He failed. The second, on the contrary, -who became celebrated under the name of Confucius, and -to whom tradition ascribes more than three thousand -personal disciples, secured the triumph of his ideas of -practical, utilitarian morality, founded upon the authority -of the State and that of the family, as well as upon the -interest of the individual.</p> - -<p>A quotation from Lâo-tsze will prove that human -thought, in the sixth century <span class="fs70">B.C.</span>, had reached a high -mark in China:—</p> - -<p>“Certain bad rulers would have us believe that the -heart and the spirit of man should be left empty, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> -that instead his stomach should be filled; that his bones -should be strengthened rather than the power of his will; -that we should always desire to have the people remain -in a state of ignorance, for then their demands would -be few. It is difficult, they say, to govern a people that -are too wise.</p> - -<p>“These doctrines are directly opposed to what is due -to humanity. Those in authority should come to the aid -of the people by means of oral and written instruction; -so far from oppressing them and treating them as slaves, -they should do them good in every possible way.”</p> - -<p>In other words, it is by enlightening the people, and -by an honest devotion to their interests, that one becomes -worthy to govern them.</p> - -<p>If the Chinese have not fully profited by these wise and -exalted counsels, it appears that at least they have attempted -to make instruction general. Hue, a Chinese -missionary, boldly declares that China is the country of -all countries where primary instruction is most widely diffused. -To the same effect, a German writer affirms that -in China there is not a village so miserable, nor a hamlet -so unpretending, as not to be provided with a school -of some kind.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> In a country of tradition, like China, -we can infer what once existed from what exists to-day. -But that instruction which is so widely diffused is wholly -superficial and tends merely to an exterior culture. As -Dittes says, the educational method of the Chinese consists, -not in <em>developing</em>, but in <em>communicating</em>.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">17. <span class="smcap">Education among the Other Nations of the -East.</span>—Of all the oriental nations, Egypt is the one in -which intellectual culture seems to have reached the highest -point, but only among men of a privileged class. -Here, as in India, the priestly class monopolized the -learning of the day; it jealously guarded the depository -of mysterious knowledge which it communicated only to -the kings. The common people, divided into working -classes, which were destined from father to son to the -same social status, learned scarcely more than was necessary -in order to practise their hereditary trades and -to be initiated into the religious beliefs.</p> - -<p>In the more military but less theocratic nation, the -Persian, efforts were made in favor of a general education. -The religious dualism which distinguished Ormuzd, -the principle of good, from Ahriman, the principle of -evil, and which promised the victory to the former, made -it the duty of each man to contribute to this final victory -by devoting himself to a life of virtue. Hence arose -noble efforts to attain physical and moral perfection. The -education of the Persians in temperance and frugality has -excited the admiration of certain Greek writers, especially -Xenophon, and there will be found in his <cite>Cyropædia</cite> a thrilling -picture of the brave and noble manners of the ancient -Persians.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span></p> - -<p>On the whole, the history of pedagogy among the people of -the East offers us but few examples to follow. That which, -in different degrees, characterizes primitive education is that -it is the privilege of certain classes; that woman is most generally -excluded from its benefits; that in respect of the common -people it is scarcely more than the question of an -apprenticeship to a trade, or of the art of war, or of a -preparation for the future life; that no appeal is made to -the free energy of individuals, but that the great masses of -the people in antiquity have generally lived under the harassing -oppression of religious conceptions, of fixed traditions, -and of political despotism.</p> - - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>[18. <span class="smcap">Analytical Summary.</span>—Speaking generally, the education -of the primitive nations of the East had the following -characteristics:—</p> - -<p>1. It was administered by the hieratic class. This was -due to the fact that the priests were the only men of learning, -and consequently the only men who could teach.</p> - -<p>2. The knowledge communicated was in the main religious, -ethical, and prudential, and the final purpose of instruction -was good conduct.</p> - -<p>3. As the matter of instruction was knowledge bearing -the sanction of authority, the learner was debarred from free -inquiry, and the general tendency was towards immobility.</p> - -<p>4. As the knowledge of the day was embodied in language, -the process of learning consisted in the interpretation -of speech, and so involved a large and constant use of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> -memory; and this literal memorizing of the principles and -rules of conduct promoted stability of character.</p> - -<p>5. As the purpose of instruction was guidance, there was -no appearance of the conception that one main purpose of -education is discipline or culture.</p> - -<p>6. The conception of education as a means of national -regeneration had a distinct appearance among the Jews; and -among this people we find one form of compulsion,—the -obligation placed on towns to support schools.</p> - -<p>7. In Persia, the State appears for the first time as a distinct -agency in promoting education.</p> - -<p>8. In China, from time immemorial, scholarship has been -made the condition for obtaining places in the civil service, -and in consequence education has been made subordinate to -examinations.</p> - -<p>9. Save to a limited extent among the Jews, woman was -debarred from the privileges of education.</p> - -<p>10. In the main, education was administered so as to -perpetuate class distinctions. There was no appearance of -the conception that education is a universal right and a -universal good.]</p></div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> A knowledge of the mental and moral condition of savages serves the -invaluable purpose of showing what education has accomplished for the -human race. There would be much less grumbling at the tax-gatherer if -men could clearly conceive the condition of societies where no taxes are -levied. To know what education has actually done we need to know the -condition of societies unaffected by systematic education. Such a book as -Lubbock’s <cite>Origin of Civilization</cite> is a helpful introduction to the history of -education. Whoever reads such a book carefully will be confronted with -this problem: How is it that intellectual inertness, amounting almost to -stupidity, is frequently the concomitant of an acute and persistent sense-training? -Besides, savage tribes are historical illustrations of what has -been produced on a large scale by “following Nature.” (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> There is an argument for caste in the modern fiction of a “beautiful -economy of Nature,” which plants human beings in society as it does trees -in the earth, and thus makes education consist in the action of environment -upon man and in the reaction of man upon his environment. To support -existence, man needs certain endowments; but the force of circumstances -creates these very endowments. One man is predestined to be a Red -Indian, another a Bushman, and still another an accountant; and in each -case the function of education is to adapt the man to the place where -Nature has fixed him. This modern justification of caste is adroitly -worked out by Mr. Spencer in the first chapter of his <cite>Education</cite>. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Dittes, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Histoire de l’éducation et de l’instruction</cite>, translated by Redolfi, -1880, p. 38.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Burnouf, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Introduction à l’histoire du Bouddhisme</cite>, p. 252.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Dittes, p. 49.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’éducation et l’instruction chez les anciens Juifs</cite>, by J. Simon, Paris, -1879, p. 16.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Levit. xix. 2.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Prov. xiii. 24.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Prov. xxiii. 13, 14.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Prov. xix. 18.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> On similar grounds, Alexander declared that he owed more to Aristotle -his teacher, than to Philip his father. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> What were the methods followed in teaching reading and writing? -We are told by Renan in his <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Vie de Jésus</cite> that “Jesus doubtless learned to -read and write according to the method of the East, which consists in -putting into the hands of the child a book which he repeats in concert with -his comrades till he knows it by heart.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> This statement needs qualifying. “In nearly all the families of high -rank,” says the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dictionnaire de Pédagogie</cite> (1<sup>ere</sup> Partie, Article <span class="smcap">Juifs</span>), “the -daughters spoke Greek. The Rabbins did not look with any favor upon -the study of profane philosophy; but notwithstanding their protests, there -were many devoted readers of Plato and Aristotle. It is said that among -the pupils of the celebrated Gamaliel there were five hundred who studied -the philosophy and the literature of Greece.” (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> For a series of interesting documents on the actual state of education -in China, consult the article <span class="smcap">Chine</span>, in Buisson’s <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dictionnaire de Pédagogie</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Dittes, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 32.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> On a recent occasion Archdeacon Farrar referred to Persian education -as follows: “We boast of our educational ideal. Is it nearly -as high in some essentials as that even of some ancient and heathen -nations long centuries before Christ came? The ancient Persians were -worshippers of fire and of the sun; most of their children would have -been probably unable to pass the most elementary examination in -physiology, but assuredly the Persian ideal might be worthy of our -study. At the age of fourteen—the age when we turn our children -adrift from school, and do nothing more for them—the Persians gave -their young nobles the four best masters whom they could find to -teach their boys wisdom, justice, temperance, and courage—wisdom -including worship, justice including the duty of unswerving truthfulness -through life, temperance including mastery over sensual temptations, -courage including a free mind opposed to all things coupled -with guilt.” (P.)</p></div></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER II.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">EDUCATION AMONG THE GREEKS.</span></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>GREEK PEDAGOGY; ATHENIAN AND SPARTAN EDUCATION; THE SCHOOLS -OF ATHENS; SCHOOLS OF GRAMMAR; SCHOOLS OF GYMNASTICS; THE -PALESTRA; SCHOOLS OF MUSIC; THE SCHOOLS OF RHETORIC AND OF -PHILOSOPHY; SOCRATES AND THE SOCRATIC METHOD; SOCRATIC -IRONY; MAIEUTICS, OR THE ART OF GIVING BIRTH TO IDEAS; -EXAMPLES OF IRONY AND OF MAIEUTICS BORROWED FROM THE -MEMORABILIA OF XENOPHON; PLATO AND THE REPUBLIC; THE EDUCATION -OF WARRIORS AND MAGISTRATES; MUSIC AND GYMNASTICS; -RELIGION AND ART IN EDUCATION; THE BEAUTIFUL AND THE GOOD; -HIGH INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION; THE LAWS; DEFINITION OF EDUCATION; -DETAILED PRECEPTS; XENOPHON; THE ECONOMICS AND THE -EDUCATION OF WOMAN; THE CYROPÆDIA; PROTESTS OF XENOPHON -AGAINST THE DEGENERATE MANNERS OF THE GREEKS; ARISTOTLE; -GENERAL CHARACTER OF HIS PLAN OF EDUCATION; PUBLIC EDUCATION; -PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN NATURE; PHYSICAL -EDUCATION; INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL EDUCATION; DEFECTS IN -THE PEDAGOGY OF ARISTOTLE, AND IN GREEK PEDAGOGY IN GENERAL; -ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.</p></div> - -<hr class="r15a" /> - -<p class="p1">19. <span class="smcap">Greek Pedagogy.</span>—Upon that privileged soil of -Greece, in that brilliant Athens abounding in artists, poets, -historians, and philosophers, in that rude Sparta celebrated -for its discipline and manly virtues, education was rather the -spontaneous fruit of nature, the natural product of diverse -manners, characters, and races, than the premeditated result -of a reflective movement of the human will. Greece, however, -had its pedagogy, because it had its legislators and its -philosophers, the first directing education in its practical -details, the second making theoretical inquiries into the -essential principles underlying the development of the human<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> -soul. In respect of education, as of everything else, the -higher spiritual life of modern nations has been developed -under the influence of Grecian antiquity.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">20. <span class="smcap">Athenian and Spartan Education.</span>—In the spectacle -presented to us by ancient Greece, the first fact that -strikes us by its contrast with the immobility and unity of -the primitive societies of the East, is a freer unfolding of the -human faculties, and consequently a diversity in tendencies -and manners. Doubtless, in the Greek republics, the individual -is always subordinate to the State. Even in Athens, -little regard is paid to the essential dignity of the human -person. But the Athenian State differs profoundly from the -Spartan, and consequently the individual life is differently -understood and differently directed in these two great cities. -At Athens, while not neglecting the body, the chief preoccupation -is the training of the mind; intellectual culture is -pushed to an extreme, even to over-refinement; there is -such a taste for fine speaking that it develops an abuse of -language and reasoning which merits the disreputable name -of sophistry. At Sparta, mind is sacrificed to body; physical -strength and military skill are the qualities most desired; -the sole care is the training of athletes and soldiers. Sobriety -and courage are the results of this one-sided education, but -so are ignorance and brutality. Montaigne has thrown into -relief, not without some partiality for Sparta, these two contrasted -plans of education.</p> - -<p>“Men went to the other cities of Greece,” he says, “to -find rhetoricians, painters, and musicians, but to Lacedæmon -for legislators, magistrates, and captains; at Athens -fine speaking was taught; but here, brave acting; there, one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> -learned to unravel a sophistical argument and to abate the -imposture of insidiously twisted words; here, to extricate -one’s self from the enticements of pleasure and to overcome -the menaces of fortune and death by a manly courage. The -Athenians busied themselves with words, but the Spartans -with things; with the former, there was a continual activity of -the tongue; with the latter, a continual activity of the soul.”<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p> - -<p>The last remark is not just. The daily exercises of the -young Spartans,—jumping, running, wrestling, playing with -lances and at quoits,—could not be regarded as intellectual -occupations. On the other hand, in learning to talk, the -young Athenians learned also to feel and to think.</p> - - -<p class="p1">21. <span class="smcap">The Schools of Athens.</span>—The Athenian legislator, -Solon, had placed physical and intellectual training upon the -same footing. Children, he said, ought, above everything -else, to learn “to swim and to read.” It seems that the -education of the body was the chief preoccupation of the -Athenian republic. While the organization of schools for -grammar and music was left to private enterprise, the State -took a part in the direction of the gymnasia. The director -of the gymnasium, or the gymnasiarch, was elected each -year by the assembly of the people. Nevertheless, Athenian -education became more and more a course in literary training, -especially towards the sixth century <span class="fs70">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>The Athenian child remained in the charge of a nurse and -an attendant up to his sixth or seventh year. At the age of -seven, a pedagogue, that is, a “conductor of children,” -usually a slave, was charged with the oversight of the child. -Conducted by his pedagogue, the pupil attended by turns the -school for grammar, the <em>palestra</em>,<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> or school for gymnastics,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> -and the school for music. The grammarian, who sometimes -gave his lessons in the open air, in the streets and on the -public squares, taught reading, writing, and mythology. -Homer was the boy’s reading-book. Instruction in gymnastics -was given in connection with instruction in grammar. -It was begun in the palestra and continued in the gymnasium. -Instruction in music succeeded the training in grammar and -gymnastics. The music-master, or <em>citharist</em>, first taught his -pupils to sing, and then to play upon the stringed instruments, -the lyre and the cithara. We know what value the -Athenians attributed to music. Plato and Aristotle agree in -thinking that the rhythm and harmony of music inspire the -soul with the love of order, with harmoniousness, regularity, -and a soothing of the passions. We must recollect, moreover, -that music held a large place in the actual life of the -Greeks. The laws were promulgated in song. It was necessary -to sing in order to fulfil one’s religious duties. It was -held that the education of Themistocles had been neglected -because he had not learned music. “We must regard the -Greeks,” says Montesquieu, “as a race of athletes and -fighters. Now those exercises, so proper to make men hardy -and fierce, had need of being tempered by others which could -soften the manners. Music, which affected the soul through -the organs of the body, was exactly adapted to this purpose.”<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p> - -<p>In the elementary schools of Athens, at least at the first, -the current discipline was severe. Aristophanes, bewailing -the degeneracy of his time, recalls in these terms the good -order that reigned in the olden school:<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a>—</p> - -<p>“I will relate what was the ancient education in the happy -time when I taught (it is Justice who speaks) and when -modesty was the rule. Then the boys came out of each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> -street with bare heads and feet, and, regardless of rain and -snow, went together in the most perfect order towards the -school for music. There they were seated quietly and -modestly. They were not permitted to cross their legs, and -they learned some good songs. The master sang the song -for them slowly and with gravity. If some one took a notion -to sing with soft and studied inflections, he was severely -flogged.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">22. <span class="smcap">The Schools of Rhetoric and Philosophy.</span>—Grammar, -gymnastics, and music proper, represented the -elementary instruction of the young Athenian. But this -instruction was reserved for citizens in easy circumstances. -The poor, according to the intentions of Solon, were to -learn only <em>reading</em>, <em>swimming</em>, and a trade. The privilege -of instruction became still more exclusive in the case of the -schools of rhetoric and philosophy frequented by those of -adult years.</p> - -<p>It would be beside our purpose to speak in this place of -the courses in literature, or to make known the methods of -those teachers of rhetoric who taught eloquence to all who -presented themselves for instruction, either in the public -squares or in the gymnasia. The sophists, those itinerant -philosophers who went from city to city offering courses at -high rates of tuition, and teaching the art of speaking on -every subject, and of making a plea for error and injustice -just as skilfully as for justice and truth, at the same time -made illustrious and disgraceful the teaching of eloquence.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> -The philosophers were more worthy of their task. Socrates,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> -Plato, and Aristotle were illustrious professors of ethics. -Socrates had no regular school, but he grouped about him -distinguished young men and initiated them into learning -and virtue. The <em>Academy</em> of Plato and the <em>Lyceum</em> of Aristotle -were great schools of philosophy, real private universities, -each directed by a single man. The teaching given -in these schools has traversed the ages, and has been preserved -in imperishable books. Moreover, those illustrious -spirits of Greece have transmitted to us either methods or -general ideas which the history of pedagogy should reverently -collect, as the first serious efforts of human reflection on the -art of education.</p> - - -<p class="p1">23. <span class="smcap">Socrates: the Socratic Method.</span>—Socrates spent -his life in teaching, and in teaching according to an original -method, which has preserved his name. He had the genius -of interrogation. To question all whom he met, either at the -gymnasium or in the streets; to question the sophists in order -to convince them of their errors and to confound their -arrogance, and presumptuous young men in order to teach -them the truth of which they were ignorant; to question -great and small, statesmen and masons, now Pericles and -now a shopkeeper; to question always and everywhere in -order to compel every one to form clear ideas; such was the -constant occupation and passion of his life. When he -allowed himself to dream of the future life, he said smilingly -that he hoped to continue in the Elysian Fields the habits of -the Athenian Agora, and still to interrogate the shades of -the mighty dead. With Socrates, conversation became an -art, and the dialogue a method. He scarcely ever employed -the didactic form, or that of direct teaching. He addressed -himself to his interlocutor, urged him to set forth his ideas, -harassed him with questions often somewhat subtile, skilfully -led him to recognize the truth which he himself had in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> -mind, or the rather permitted him to go off on a false route -in order finally to discover to him his error and to sport with -his confusion; and all this with an art of wonderful analysis, -with a subtilty of reasoning pushed almost to an extreme, -and also with a great simplicity of language, and with -examples borrowed from common life, such as we are accustomed -to call intuitive examples.</p> - - -<p class="p1">24. <span class="smcap">The Socratic Irony.</span>—To form an intelligible account -of the Socratic method, it is necessary to distinguish -its two essential phases. Socrates followed a double method -and sought a double end.</p> - -<p>In the first case, he wished to make war against error and -to refute false opinions. Then he resorted to what has been -called the Socratic <em>irony</em>.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> He raised a question as one -who simply desired to be instructed. If there was the -statement of an error in the reply of the respondent, Socrates -made no objection to it, but pretended to espouse the -ideas and sentiments of his interlocutor. Then, by questions -which were adroit and sometimes insidious, he forced him to -develop his opinions, and to display, so to speak, the whole -extent of his folly, and the next instant slyly brought him -face to face with the consequences, which were so absurd and -contradictory that he ended in losing confidence, in becoming -involved in his conclusions, and finally in making confession -of his errors.</p> - - -<p class="p1">25. <span class="smcap">Maieutics, or the Art of giving Birth to Ideas.</span>—Analogous -processes constituted the other part of the Socratic -method, that which he himself called <em>maieutics</em>, or the -art of giving birth to ideas.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p> - -<p>Socrates was convinced that the human mind in its normal -condition discovers certain truths through its own energies, -provided one knows how to lead it and stimulate it; and so -he here appealed to the spontaneity of his auditor, to his -innate powers, and thus gently led him on his way by easy -transitions to the opinion which he wished to make him -admit. However, he applied this method only to the search -for truths which could either be suggested by the intuitions -of reason and common sense, or determined by a natural -induction, that is, psychological, ethical, and religious truths.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">26. <span class="smcap">Examples of Irony and Maieutics.</span>—We can best -give an exact idea of the Socratic method by means of examples. -These examples are to be found in the writings of -the disciples of Socrates, as in the <cite>Dialogues</cite> of Plato, such -as the <cite>Gorgias</cite>, the <cite>Euthydemus</cite>, etc., and still better in the -<cite>Memorabilia</cite> of Xenophon, where the thought of the master -and his manner of teaching are more faithfully reproduced -than in the bold and original compositions of Plato. While -recognizing the insufficiency of these extracts, we shall here -make two quotations, in which is displayed either his incisive, -critical spirit, or his suggestive and fruitful method: “The -thirty tyrants had put many of the most distinguished citizens -to death, and had encouraged others to acts of injustice. -‘It would surprise me,’ said Socrates one day, ‘if the keeper -of a flock, who had killed one part of it and had made the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> -other part poor, would not confess that he was a bad herdsman; -but it would surprise me still more if a man standing -at the head of his fellow-citizens should destroy a part of -them and corrupt the rest, and were not to blush at his conduct -and confess himself a bad magistrate.’ This remark -having come to the ears of the Thirty, Critias and Charicles -sent for Socrates, showed him the law, and forbade him to -hold conversation with the young.</p> - -<p>“Socrates inquired of them if he might be permitted to ask -questions touching what might seem obscure to him in this -prohibition. Upon their granting this permission: ‘I am -prepared,’ he said, ‘to obey the laws, but that I may not -violate them through ignorance, I would have you clearly inform -me whether you interdict the art of speaking because it -belongs to the number of things which are good, or because -it belongs to the number of things which are bad. In the -first case, one ought henceforth to abstain from speaking -what is good; in the second, it is clear that the effort should -be to speak what is right.’</p> - -<p>“Thereupon Charicles became angry, and said: ‘Since -you do not understand us, we will give you something easier -to comprehend: we forbid you absolutely to hold conversation -with the young.’ ‘In order that it may be clearly seen,’ -said Socrates, ‘whether I depart from what is enjoined, tell -me at what age a youth becomes a man.’ ‘At the time -when he is eligible to the senate, for he has not acquired -prudence till then; so do not speak to young men who are -below the age of thirty.’</p> - -<p>“‘But if I wish to buy something of a merchant who is -below the age of thirty, may I ask him at what price he sells -it?’</p> - -<p>“‘Certainly you may ask such a question; but you are -accustomed to raise inquiries about multitudes of things<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> -which are perfectly well known to you; it is this which is -forbidden.’</p> - -<p>“‘So I must not reply to a young man who asks me where -Charicles lives, or where Critias is.’ ‘You may reply to such -questions,’ said Charicles. ‘But recollect, Socrates,’ added -Critias, ‘you must let alone the shoemakers, and smiths, and -other artisans, for I think they must already be very much -worn out by being so often in your mouth.’</p> - -<p>“‘I must, therefore,’ said Socrates, ‘forego the illustrations -I draw from these occupations relative to justice, piety, -and all the virtues.’”<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p> - -<p>In the final passage of this cutting dialogue, observe the -elevation of tone and the gravity of thought. So Socrates -had marvellous skill in allying enthusiasm with irony.</p> - -<p>Here is an extract in which Socrates applies the maieutic -art to the establishment of a moral truth, the belief in God:</p> - -<p>“I will mention a conversation he once had in my presence -with Aristodemus, surnamed the Little, concerning the -gods. He knew that Aristodemus neither sacrificed to the -gods, nor consulted the oracles, but ridiculed those who took -part in these religious observances. ‘Tell me, Aristodemus,’ -said he, ‘are there men whose talents you admire?’ ‘There -are,’ he replied. ‘Then tell us their names,’ said Socrates. -‘In epic poetry I especially admire Homer; in dithyrambic, -Melanippides; in tragedy, Sophocles; in statuary, Polycletus; -in painting, Zeuxis.’ ‘But what artists do you think -most worthy of admiration, those who form images destitute -of sense and movement, or those who produce animated -beings, endowed with the faculty of thinking and acting?’ -‘Those who form animated beings, for these are the work of -intelligence and not of chance.’ ‘And which do you regard<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> -as the creation of intelligence, and which the product of -chance, those works whose purpose cannot be recognized, -or those whose utility is manifest?’ ‘It is reasonable to -attribute to an intelligence the works which have some useful -purpose.’”<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p> - -<p>Socrates then points out to Aristodemus how admirably -the different organs of the human body are adapted to the -functions of life and to the use of man. And so proceeding -from example to example, from induction to induction, -always keeping the mind of his auditor alert by the questions -he raises, and the answers that he suggests, forcing him to -do his share of the work, and giving him an equal share in -the train of reasoning, he finally brings him to the goal -which is to make him recognize the existence of God.</p> - - -<p class="p1">27. <span class="smcap">The Republic of Plato.</span>—“Would you form,” -said J. J. Rousseau, “an idea of public education? read -the <cite>Republic</cite> of Plato. It is the finest treatise on education -ever written.” For truth’s sake we must discount the enthusiasm -of Rousseau. The <cite>Republic</cite> doubtless contains -some elements of a wise and practical scheme of education; -but, on the whole, it is but an ideal creation, a compound of -paradoxes and chimeras. In Plato’s ideal commonwealth, the -individual and the family itself are sacrificed to the State. -Woman becomes so much like man as to be subjected to -the same gymnastic exercises; she too must be a soldier as -he is. Children know neither father nor mother. From the -day of their birth they are given in charge of common nurses, -veritable public functionaries. In that common fold, “care -shall be taken that no mother recognize her offspring.” We -may guess that in making this pompous eulogy of the <cite>Republic</cite>, -the paradoxical author of the <cite>Émile</cite> hoped to prepare<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> -the reader for giving a complaisant welcome to his own -dreams.</p> - - -<p class="p1">28. <span class="smcap">The Education of Warriors and Magistrates.</span>—Plato, -by some unexplained recollection of the social constitution -of the Hindoos, established three castes in his ideal -State,—laborers and artisans, warriors, and magistrates. -There was no education for laborers and artisans; it was -sufficient for men of this caste to learn a trade. In politics, -Plato is an aristocrat; he feels a disdain for the people, -“that robust and indocile animal.” It should be observed, -however, that the barriers which he set up between these -three social orders are not insuperable. If a child of the -inferior class gives evidence of exceptional qualities, he must -be admitted to the superior class; and so if the son of a -warrior or of a magistrate is notably incompetent and unworthy -of his rank, he must suffer forfeiture, and become -artisan or laborer.</p> - -<p>As to the education which he designs for the warriors and -the magistrates, Plato is minutely careful in regulating it. -The education of the warriors comprises two parts,—music -and gymnastics. The education of the magistrates consists -of a training in philosophy of a high grade; they are initiated -into all the sciences and into metaphysics. Plato’s -statesmen must be, not priests, as in the East, but scholars -and philosophers.</p> - - -<p class="p1">29. <span class="smcap">Music and Gymnastics.</span>—Although Plato attaches a -high value to gymnastics, he gives precedence to music. -Before forming the body, Plato, the idealist, would form -the soul, because it is the soul, according to him, which, by -its own virtue, gives to the body all the perfection of which -it is capable. Even in physical exercises, the purpose should -be to give increased vigor to the soul: “In the training of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> -the body, our young men shall aim, above everything else, -at augmenting moral power.” Note this striking picture of -the man who trains only his body: “Let a man apply himself -to gymnastics, and become trained, and eat much, and -wholly neglect music and philosophy, and at first his body -will become strengthened; but if he does nothing else, and -holds no converse with the Muses, though his soul have some -natural inclination to learn, yet if it remains uncultivated -by acquiring knowledge, by inquiry, by discourse, in a word, -by some department of music, that is, by intellectual education, -it will insensibly become weak, deaf, and blind. Like -a wild beast, such a man will live in ignorance and rudeness, -with neither grace nor politeness.” However, Plato is far -from despising health and physical strength. On the contrary, -it is a reproach to him that he has imposed on the -citizens of his Republic the obligation of being physically -sound, and of having excluded from it all those whose infirmities -and feeble constitution condemn them to “drag -out a dying life.” The right to live, in Plato’s city, as in -the most of ancient societies, belonged only to men of robust -health. The weak, the ailing, the wretched, all who are of -infirm constitution,—Plato does not go so far as ordering -such to be killed, but, what amounts almost to the same -thing,—“they shall be exposed,” that is, left to die. The -good of the State demands that every man be sacrificed -whose health renders him unfit for civil duties. This cruel -and implacable doctrine shocks us in the case of him whom -Montaigne calls the divine Plato, and shocks us even more -when we discover it among contemporary philosophers, whom -the inspirations of Christian charity or the feeling of human -fraternity should have preserved from such rank heartlessness. -Is it not Herbert Spencer who blames modern societies -for nourishing the diseased and assisting the infirm?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">30. <span class="smcap">Religion and Art in Education.</span>—Plato had -formed a high ideal of the function of art in education, but -this did not prevent him from being severe against certain -forms of art, particularly comedy and tragedy, and poetry -in general. He would have the poets expelled from the city -and conducted to the frontier, though paying them homage -with perfumes which will continue to be shed upon their -heads, and with flowers with which they will ever be crowned. -He admits no other poetry than that which reproduces the -manners and discourse of a good man, and celebrates the -brave deeds of the gods, or chants their glory. As a severe -moralist and worshipper of the divine goodness, he condemns -the poets of his time, either because they attribute to the -divinity the vices and passions of men, or because they invest -the imagination with base fears as they speak of Cocytus -and the Styx, and portray a frightful hell and gods always -mad with desire to persecute the human race. Elsewhere, -in the <cite>Laws</cite>, Plato explains his conception of religion. He -says that the religious books placed in the hands of children -should be selected with as much care as the milk of a nurse. -God is an infinite goodness who watches over men, and he -should be honored, not by sacrifices and vain ceremonies, -but by lives of justice and virtue.</p> - -<p>For making men moral, Plato counts more upon art than -upon religious feeling. To love letters, to hold converse -with the Muses, to cultivate music and dancing, such, in the -opinion of the noble spirits of Athens, is the natural route -towards moral perfection. In their view, moral education -is above all an education in art. The soul rises to the good -through the beautiful. “Beautiful and good” (καλὸς καὶ ἀγαθός) -are two words constantly associated in the speech of -the Greeks. Even to-day we have much to learn from -reflections like these: “We ought,” says Plato, “to seek<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> -out artists who by the power of genius can trace out the -nature of the fair and the graceful, that our young men, -dwelling, as it were, in a healthful region, may drink in good -from every quarter, whence any emanation from noble works -may strike upon their eye or their ear, like a gale wafting -health from salubrious lands, and win them imperceptibly -from their earliest years into resemblance, love, and harmony -with the true beauty of reason.</p> - -<p>“Is it not, then, on these accounts that we attach such -supreme importance to a musical education, because rhythm -and harmony sink most deeply into the recesses of the soul, -bringing gracefulness in their train, and making a man -graceful if he be rightly nurtured; but if not, the reverse? -and also because he that has been duly nurtured therein will -have the keenest eye for defects, whether in the failures of -art, or in the misgrowths of nature; and feeling a most just -disdain for them, will commend beautiful objects, and gladly -receive them into his soul, and feed upon them, and grow to be -noble and good; whereas he will rightly censure and hate all -repulsive objects, even in his childhood, before he is able to -be reasoned with; and when reason comes, he will welcome -her most cordially who can recognize her by the instinct -of relationship, and because he has been thus nurtured?”<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">31. <span class="smcap">High Intellectual Education.</span>—In the <cite>Republic</cite> -of Plato the intellectual education of the warrior class -remains exclusively literary and æsthetic. In addition to -this, the education of the ruling class is to be scientific and -philosophic. The future magistrate, after having received -the ordinary instruction up to the age of twenty, is to be -initiated into the abstract sciences, mathematics, geometry,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> -and astronomy. To this scientific education, which is to -continue for ten years, there will succeed for five years the -study of dialectics,<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> or philosophy, which develops the highest -faculty of man, the reason, and teaches him to discover, -through and beyond the fleeting appearances of the world of -sense, the eternal verities and the essence of things. But -Plato prolongs the education of his magistrates still further. -After having given them the nurture of reason and intellectual -insight, he sends them back to the cavern<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> at the age of -thirty-five, that is, calls them back to public life, and makes -them pass through all kinds of civil and military employments, -until finally, at the age of fifty, in possession of all -the endowments assured by consummate experience superadded -to profound knowledge, they are fitted to be charged -with the burdens of office. In the <cite>Republic</cite> of Plato statesmen -are not improvised. And yet in this elaborate system -of instruction Plato omits two subjects of great importance. -On the one hand, he entirely omits the physical and natural -sciences, because, in his mystic idealism, things of sense are -delusive and unreal images, and so did not appear to him -worthy of arresting the attention of the mind; and on the -other, though coming after Herodotus, and though a contemporary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> -of Thucydides, he makes no mention of history, -doubtless through a contempt for tradition and the past.</p> - - -<p class="p1">32. <span class="smcap">The Laws.</span>—In the <cite>Laws</cite>, the work of his old age, -Plato disavows in part the chimeras of the <cite>Republic</cite>, and -qualifies the radicalism of that earlier work. The philosopher -descends to the earth and really condescends to the -actual state of humanity. He renounces the distinction of -social castes, and his very practical and very minute precepts -are applied without distinction to children of all classes.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p> - -<p>First note this excellent definition of the end of education: -“A good education is that which gives to the body and to -the soul all the beauty and all the perfection of which they -are capable.” As to methods, it seems that Plato hesitates -between the doctrine of effort and the doctrine of attractive -toil. In fact, he says on the one hand that education is a -very skilful discipline which, <em>by way of amusement</em>,<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> leads the -mind of the child to love that which is to make it finished. -On the other hand, he protests against the weakness of those -parents who seek to spare their children every trouble and -every pain. “I am persuaded,” he says, “that the inclination -to humor the likings of children is the surest of all ways -to spoil them. We should not make too much haste in our -search after what is pleasurable, especially as we shall never -be wholly exempt from what is painful.”</p> - -<p>Let us add this definition of a good education: “I call -education the virtue which is shown by children when the -feelings of joy or of sorrow, of love or of hate, which arise -in their souls, are made conformable to order.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p> - -<p>With the statement of these principles, Plato enters into -details. For children up to the age of six, he recommends -the use of swaddling-clothes. The habit of rocking, the -natural plays which children find out for themselves, the -separation of the sexes; swimming, the bow, and the javelin, -for boys; wrestling for giving bodily vigor, and dancing, for -graceful movement; reading and writing reserved till the -tenth year and learned for three years.</p> - -<p>It would require too much time to follow the philosopher -to the end. In the rules he proposes, he makes a near -approach to the practices followed by the Athenians of his -day. The <cite>Republic</cite> was a work of pure imagination. The -<cite>Laws</cite> are scarcely more than a commentary on the actual -state of practice. But here we still find what was nearest -the soul of Plato, the constant search for a higher morality.</p> - - -<p class="p1">33. <span class="smcap">Xenophon.</span>—As an educator, Xenophon obeyed two -different influences. His master, Socrates, was his good -genius. That graceful and charming book, the <cite>Economics</cite>, -was written under the benign and tempered inspiration of the -great Athenian sage. But Xenophon also had his evil genius,—the -immoderate enthusiasm which he felt for Sparta, -her institutions and her laws. The first book of the <cite>Cyropædia</cite>, -which relates the rules of Persian education, is an unfortunate -imitation of the laws of Lycurgus.</p> - - -<p class="p1">34. <span class="smcap">The Economics, and the Education of Woman.</span>—All -should read the <cite>Economics</cite>, that charming sketch of the -education of woman. We may say of this little work what -Renan has said of the writings of Plutarch on the same subject: -“Where shall we find a more charming ideal of family -life? What good nature! What sweetness of manners! -What chaste and lovable simplicity!” Before her marriage, -the Athenian maiden has learned only to spin wool, to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> -discreet, and to ask no questions,—virtues purely negative. -Xenophon assigns to her husband the duty of training her -mind and of teaching her the positive duties of family life,—order, -economy, kindness to slaves, and tender care of -children. As a matter of fact, the Athenian woman was -still held in a position of inferiority. Shut up in her own -apartments, it was an exception that she learned to read and -write; it was very rare that she was instructed in the arts -and sciences. The idea of human dignity and of the value -of the human person had not yet appeared. Man had value -only in proportion to the services which he could render the -State, or commonwealth, and woman formed no part of the -commonwealth. Xenophon has the merit of rising above -the prejudices of his time, and of approaching the ideal of -the modern family, in calling woman to participate more intimately -in the affairs of the house and in the occupations of -the husband.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">35. <span class="smcap">The Cyropædia.</span>—The <cite>Cyropædia</cite> is not worthy of -the same commendation. Under the pretext of describing -the organization of the Persian State, Xenophon here traces, -after his manner, the plan of an education absolutely uniform -and exclusively military. There is no domestic education, -no individual liberty, no interest in letters and arts. When -the period of infancy is over, the young Persian is made -subject to military duty, and must not leave the encampment, -even at night. The state is but a camp, and human -existence a perpetual military parade. Montaigne praises -Xenophon for having said that the Persians taught their -children virtue “as other nations do letters.” But it is -difficult to form an estimate of the methods which were followed -in these schools of justice and temperance, and we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> -may be allowed to suspect the efficiency of the means proposed -by Xenophon; for example, that which consisted in -transforming the petty quarrels of the scholars into regular -trials which were followed by sentences, acquittals, or convictions. -The author of the <cite>Cyropædia</cite> is on surer ground -when, recollecting his own studies, he recommends the study -of history to those who would become just. He teaches -temperance by practice rather than by precept; his pupils -have only bread for their food, only cresses for seasoning, -and only water for their drink.</p> - -<p>Whatever may be the faults and the fancies of the <cite>Cyropædia</cite>, -we must recollect, as a partial excuse for them, that -the purpose of the writer in tracing this picture of a simple, -frugal, and courageous life, was to induce a reaction against -the excesses of the fashionable and formal life of the -Athenians. As Rousseau, in the middle of the eighteenth -century, protested against the license and the artificial -manners of his time by advising an imaginary return to -nature, so Xenophon, a contemporary of the sophists, held -forth the sturdy virtues of the Persians in opposition to the -degenerate manners of the Greeks and the refinements of an -advanced civilization.</p> - - -<p class="p1">36. <span class="smcap">Aristotle: General Character of his Plan of -Education.</span>—By his vast attainments, by his encyclopædic -knowledge, by the experimental nature of his researches, and -by the positive and practical tendencies of his genius, -Aristotle was enabled to excel Plato in clearness of insight -into pedagogical questions. He had another advantage over -Plato in having known and enjoyed the delights of family -life, and in having loved and trained his own children, of -whom he said, “parents love their children as a part of -themselves.” Let us add, finally, that he was a practical -teacher, since he was the preceptor of Alexander from 343<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> -to 340 <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> Such opportunities, superadded to the force of -the most mighty genius the world has ever seen, give promise -of a competent and clear-sighted educator. Unfortunately, -we have lost the treatise, <cite>On Education</cite> (περὶ παιδείας), which -on the authority of Diogenes Laërtius, Aristotle is said to -have composed; and to form some conception of his ideas -on education, we have at our disposal only some imperfect -sketches, some portions, and those in an imperfect state, -of his treatises on ethics and politics.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p> - -<p>Whoever labors to give stability to the family, and to -tighten its bond of union, labors also for the promotion of -education. Even in this respect, education is under great -obligations to Aristotle. In him the communism of Plato -finds an able critic. That feeling of affection which we of -to-day would call charity or fraternity, he declared to be the -guaranty and the foundation of social life. Now, communism -weakens this feeling by diluting it, just as a little honey -dropped into a large quantity of water thereby loses all its -sweetness. “There are two things which materially contribute -to the rise of interest and attachment in the hearts of -men,—property and the feeling of affection.” It was thus -in the name of good sense, and in opposition to the distempered -fancies of Plato, that Aristotle vindicated the -rights of the family and the individual.</p> - - -<p class="p1">37. <span class="smcap">Public Education.</span>—But Aristotle does not go so far -as his premises would seem to lead him, and relinquish to -parents the care of educating their children. In accordance -with the general tendencies of antiquity, he declares himself -the partisan of an education that is public and common. -He commends the Spartans for having ordained that “education -should be the same for all.” “As there is one end<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> -in view in every city,” he says, “it is evident that education -ought to be one and the same in all, and that this should be -a common care, and not of each individual.... It is the -duty of the legislator to regulate this interest for all the -citizens.” There must, therefore, be the intervention of -the State, not from the day of birth, as Plato would have it, -for the nursing of infants, but only at the age of seven, for -instructing and training them in the habits of virtue.</p> - -<p>What, then, should be the training of the child, and upon -what subjects would Aristotle direct his studies?</p> - - -<p class="p1">38. <span class="smcap">The Progressive Development of Human Nature.</span>—An -essential and incontrovertible distinction is taken by -the Greek philosopher as his starting-point. There are, he -says, three moments, three stages, in human development: -first, there is the physical life of the body; then, instinct and -sensibility, or the irrational part of the soul; and finally, the -intelligence, or the reason. From this, Aristotle concludes -that the course of discipline and study should be graduated -according to these three degrees of life. “The first care -should necessarily be given to the body rather than to the -mind; and then to that part of the spiritual nature which is -the seat of the desires.” But he adds this important observation, -which is a refutation of Rousseau in advance: “In the -care which we give to the sensibilities, we must not leave out -of account the intelligence; and in our care of the body, we -must not forget the soul.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">39. <span class="smcap">Physical Education.</span>—The son of a physician of the -Macedonian court, and well versed in the natural sciences, -Aristotle is very happy in his treatment of physical education. -It begins before the child is born, even before it has -been conceived. Consequently he enjoins a legal regulation -of marriages, interdicts unions that are too early or too late,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> -indicates the climatic conditions most favorable for marriage, -and gives mothers wise counsels on matters of hygiene, recommending -them to nurse their own children, and prescribing -cold baths. Such, in outline, is a plan which a modern -hygienist would not disavow.</p> - - - <div><a name="Para_40" id="Para_40"></a></div> -<p class="p1">40. <span class="smcap">Intellectual and Moral Education.</span>—It was the -opinion of Aristotle that intellectual education should not -begin before the age of five. But, in accordance with the -principle stated above, this period of waiting should not be -the occasion of loss to the intelligence of the child; even his -play should be a preparation for the work to which he will -apply himself at a later period. On the other hand, Aristotle -strongly insists on the necessity of shielding the child from -all pernicious influences, such as those which come from -association with slaves, or from immoral plays.</p> - -<p>In accord with all his contemporaries, Aristotle includes -grammar, gymnastics, and music, among the elements of -instruction. To these he adds drawing. But he is chiefly -preoccupied with music, by reason of the moral influence -which he attributes to it. He shared the prepossession -which caused the Greeks to say, that to relax or to reform -the manners of a people, it suffices to add a string to the -lyre or to take one from it.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p> - -<p>Aristotle was strongly preoccupied with moral education. -Like Plato, he insists on the greatest care in forming the -moral habits of early life. In his different writings on ethics -he has discussed different human virtues in a spirit at once -wise, practical, and liberal. No one has better sung the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> -praises of justice, of which he says, “Neither the evening -nor the morning star inspires as much respect as justice.”</p> - -<p>It would do Aristotle injustice to seek for a complete -expression of his thoughts on education in the incomplete -and curtailed statements of theory which are found in his -<cite>Politics</cite>. In connection with these, we should recall the admirable -instruction which he himself gave in the Lyceum, and -which embraced almost all the sciences in its vast programme. -He excluded from it only the sciences and the arts which -have a mechanical and utilitarian character. Enslaved on -this point to the prejudices of antiquity, he regarded as -servile and unworthy of a free man whatever has a direct -bearing on the practical and material utilities of life. He -recommended to his hearers only studies of the intellectual -type, those whose sole purpose is to elevate the mind and to -fill it with noble thoughts.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">41. <span class="smcap">Faults in the Pedagogy of Aristotle, and in -Greek Pedagogy in General.</span>—It must be said in conclusion, -that whatever admiration we may feel for the pedagogy -of Aristotle, it was wrong, like that of all the Greek -writers, in being but an aristocratic system of education. -The education of which Plato and Aristotle dreamed was -restricted to a small minority, and was even made possible -only because the majority was excluded from it. The -slaves, charged with the duty of providing for the sustenance -of their superiors, and of creating for them the leisure -claimed by Aristotle, had no more participation in education -than in liberty or in property. In the century of Pericles,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> -at the most glorious period of the Athenian republic, let us -not forget that there were at Athens nearly four hundred -thousand slaves to do the bidding of twenty thousand free -citizens. To indulge in an easy admiration for Greek pedagogy, -we must detach it from its setting, and consider it in -itself, apart from the narrow plan on which the Greek states -were constructed, and apart from that social <em>régime</em> which -assured the education of some, only by perpetuating the -oppression of the many.</p> - - -<div class="blockquotx"> - - <div><a name="Para_42" id="Para_42"></a></div> -<p>[42. <span class="smcap">Analytical Summary.</span>—1. A leading conception in -Greek education is that of symmetry, or harmony; the ideal -man, in Plato’s phrase, must be “harmoniously constituted”; -all opposing tendencies must be reconciled; and while the -physical, the intellectual, and the moral must each be made -the subject of systematic training, there must be no disproportionate -development in either direction.</p> - -<p>2. The preoccupation of the Greek teacher was discipline -or culture, rather than the communication of useful knowledge; -and the final aim was a life of contemplation, rather -than a life of action; ethical rather than practical; “good -conduct” rather than mastery over what is material.</p> - -<p>3. Physical training received great emphasis, not as an -end in itself, but as a means towards mental and spiritual -health; and knowledge was valued chiefly as the means for -attaining moral excellence.</p> - -<p>4. The staple of instruction was <em>wisdom</em>, <em>i.e.</em>, ethical and -prudential knowledge, which was the basis of right action; -and teaching, especially according to the Socratic conception -of it, consisted in causing the pupil’s mind to react on the -materials supplied by his own mind. Socrates, says Lewes, -“believed that in each man lay the germs of wisdom. He -believed that no science could be <em>taught</em>; only <em>drawn out</em>.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p> - -<p>5. The great <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'teaching intrument was'">teaching instrument was</ins> dialectic, <em>i.e.</em>, discussion, -resolution, or analysis. Its use assumed that the -subject-matter of instruction was already in the pupil’s possession, -and that the highest office of the teacher was to -liberate the thought which had been formed by the active -energies of the pupil’s own mind. This is the maieutic art -of Socrates.</p> - -<p>6. The mode of mental activity which was chiefly brought -into requisition was the reason; in a secondary degree the -imagination and the emotions; and in a still lower degree, -the memory.</p> - -<p>7. The large place assigned to music by Plato and Aristotle -shows that the culture of the emotions was an important -element in Greek education. Æsthetic training was -not only an end in itself, but was regarded as the basis of -moral and religious culture.</p> - -<p>8. In the writings of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, we -see the first attempt to formulate a body of educational -doctrine; we have the germs of a science of education based -on psychology, ethics, and politics.</p> - -<p>9. In the <cite>Republic</cite>, we see the theory of compulsion in -both its phases: the State must provide an education suitable -for State needs; and the young must accept this education -because the State has ordained it. For the first time in -the history of thought, the State appears distinctly and -avowedly as an educator.</p> - -<p>10. Practically, education was administered on the basis -of caste; though in the construction of his ideal State, Plato -made it possible for talent, industry, and worth, to find their -proper level.]</p></div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Upon this subject consult the excellent study of Alexander Martin, entitled -<cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les Doctrines Pédagogiques des Grecs</cite>. Paris, 1881.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Montaigne, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Essais</cite>, I. <span class="fs70">I.</span> chap. <span class="fs70">XXIV.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> The <em>palestra</em> was the school of gymnastics for children; the <em>gymnasium</em> -was set apart for adults and grown men.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Montesquieu, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Esprit des lois</cite>, I. <span class="fs70">IV.</span> chap. <span class="fs70">VIII.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Aristophanes, <cite>Clouds</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> The reputation of the sophists has been considerably raised by Mr. -Grote (<cite>History of Greece</cite>, vol. VIII.). For an entertaining account of a -sophist of a later age, see Pliny’s <cite>Letters</cite>, Melmoth’s translation, Book II., -Letter <span class="fs70">III.</span> See also Blackie’s <cite>Four Phases of Morals</cite>, and Ferrier’s <cite>Greek -Philosophy</cite>. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> The primitive meaning of the Greek word εἰρωνεία, irony, is interrogation. -Socrates gave a jeering, ironical turn to his questions, and in consequence -this word lost its primary meaning, and took the one which we -give it at this time.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> The Socratic method for the discovery of truth can be employed only -in those cases where the pupil has the crude materials of the new knowledge -actually in store. Psychology, logic, ethics, mathematics, and perhaps -grammar and rhetoric, fall within the sphere of the Socratic method; -but to apply this method of instruction to geography, history, geology, and, -in general, to subjects where the material is inaccessible, is palpably absurd. -The Socratic dialogue, in its negative phase, is aimed at presumption, arrogance, -and pretentious ignorance; but it is sometimes misused to badger -and bewilder an honest and docile pupil. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> <cite>Memorabilia</cite>, I. <span class="fs70">II.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> <cite>Memorabilia</cite>, I. <span class="fs70">IV.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> <cite>Republic</cite>, 401, 402. I have quoted from the version of Vaughan and -Davies. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Dialectic, as used in the <cite>Republic</cite>, is neither philosophy nor logic. -I doubt whether it can be considered a subject of instruction at all. It -is rather a method or an exercise, the purpose of which is to subject -received opinions, formulated knowledge, current beliefs, etc., to a sifting -or analysis for the purpose of distinguishing the real from the apparent, -the true from the false. The Socratic dialogues are examples of the dialectic -method. Dialectic might be defined as the <em>method of thought proper</em> or the -<em>discursive reason in act</em>. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> See the allegory of the cavern, <cite>Republic</cite>, Book <span class="fs70">VII.</span> ‘In Plato’s -scheme of education, knowing is to precede doing,’ thus following Socrates -(<cite>Memorabilia</cite>, IV. chap. <span class="fs70">II.</span>) and Bias (Γνῶθι καὶ τότε πράττε), and -anticipating Bacon (“studies perfect nature, and are perfected by experience”). -(P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> See especially Book <span class="fs70">VII.</span> of the <cite>Laws</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Compare also this quotation: “A free mind ought to learn nothing as -a slave. The lesson that is made to enter the mind by force, will not -remain there. Then use no violence towards children; the rather, cause -them to learn while playing.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> See particularly Chaps. <span class="fs70">VII.</span> and <span class="fs70">VIII.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> See especially the <cite>Politics</cite>, Books <span class="fs70">IV.</span>, <span class="fs70">V.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> It seems impossible to comprehend the almost sovereign power which -the Greeks ascribed to music, unless we conceive that the Greek was endowed -with peculiar and extreme sensitiveness. Perhaps there is special -significance in the story of Orpheus and his lyre. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> -<ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'I thiuk it may'">I think it may</ins> be doubted whether the disfavor shown by Plato and -Aristotle to practical studies was merely a mean prejudice. Preoccupied -as they were with the disciplinary value of studies, they may have seen -that the culture aim and the utilitarian aim are in some sort antagonistic. -(P.)</p></div></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER III.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">EDUCATION AT ROME.</span></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>TWO PERIODS IN ROMAN EDUCATION; EDUCATION OF THE PRIMITIVE -ROMANS; PHYSICAL AND MILITARY EDUCATION; ROME AT SCHOOL IN -GREECE; WHY THE ROMANS HAD NO GREAT EDUCATORS; VARRO; -CICERO; QUINTILIAN; THE INSTITUTES OF ORATORY; GENERAL -PLAN OF EDUCATION; THE CHILD’S FIRST EDUCATION; READING AND -WRITING; PUBLIC EDUCATION; THE DUTIES OF TEACHERS; GRAMMAR -AND RHETORIC; THE SIMULTANEOUS STUDY OF THE SCIENCES; -SCHOOLS FOR PHILOSOPHY; SENECA; PLUTARCH; THE LIVES OF -ILLUSTRIOUS MEN; THE TREATISE ON THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN; -A CHARMING PICTURE OF FAMILY LIFE; THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN; -THE FUNCTION OF POETRY IN EDUCATION; THE TEACHING OF -MORALS; MARCUS AURELIUS AND PERSONAL EDUCATION; CONCLUSION; -ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.</p></div> - -<hr class="r15a" /> - -<p class="p1">43. <span class="smcap">Two Periods in Roman Education.</span>—In Greece, as -we have seen, there were two essentially different systems of -education in use: at Sparta, a one-sided education, wholly -military, with no regard for intellectual culture; at Athens, -a complete education, which brought into happy harmony -the training of the body and the development of the mind, -and by means of which, as Thucydides observed, “men -philosophized without becoming effeminate.”</p> - -<p>Rome, in the long course of her history, followed these -two systems in succession. Under the Republic, down to -the conquest of Greece, preference was given to education -after the Spartan type; while under the emperors, Athenian -education was dominant, with a very marked tendency to -give the first place to an education in literature and oratory.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">44. <span class="smcap">The Education of the Early Romans.</span>—The first -schools were not opened at Rome till towards the end of the -third century <span class="fs70">B.C.</span> Till then, the Romans had no teachers -save their parents and nature. Education was almost exclusively -physical and moral, or rather, military and religious. -On the one hand, there were the gymnastic exercises on the -Campus Martius, and on the other, the recitation of the -Salian hymns, a sort of catechism containing the names of -the gods and goddesses. Besides this, there was the study -of the Twelve Tables, that is, of the Roman Law. Men the -most robust, the most courageous, the best disciplined, and -the most patriotic that ever lived, were the fruit of this -natural education. Rome was the great school of the civic and -military virtues. The Romans did not imitate the Athenians -in a disinterested pursuit of a perfect physical and intellectual -development. Rome worked for practical ends; she was -guided only by considerations of utility; she had no regard -for ideals; her purpose was simply the education of soldiers -and citizens who should be obedient and devoted. She did -not know man in the abstract; she knew only the Roman -citizen.</p> - -<p>These high qualities of the early Romans were marred by -a sort of brutal insensibility and a contempt for the graces -of intellect and heart; and leaving out of account the circumstances -of environment and race, their practical virtues -may be ascribed to three or four principal causes. First -among these was a firm family discipline. The authority -of the father was absolute, and answering to this excessive -power, there was blind obedience. Another cause was the -position of the mother in the family. At Rome, woman was -held in higher esteem than at Athens. She became almost -the equal of man. She was the guardian of the family circle -and the teacher of her children. The very name <em>matron</em><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> -inspires respect. Coriolanus, who took up arms against his -country, could not withstand the tears of his mother Veturia. -The noble Cornelia was the teacher of her sons, the Gracchi, -whom she was accustomed to call “her fairest jewels.” -Besides, the influence of religion was made to supplement -the active efforts of the family. The Roman lived surrounded -by deities. When a child was weaned, tradition -would have it that one goddess taught him to eat, and another -to drink. Later on, four goddesses guided his first steps and -held his two hands. All these superstitions imposed regularity -and exactness on the most ordinary acts of daily -life. Men breathed, as it were, a divine atmosphere. -Finally, the young Roman learned to read in the laws of the -Twelve Tables, that is, in the civil code of his country. He -was thus accustomed from infancy to consider the law as -something natural, inviolable, and sacred.</p> - - -<p class="p1">45. <span class="smcap">Rome at School in Greece.</span>—The primitive state of -manners did not last. Under Greek influence, Roman simplicity -suffered a change, and, as Horace says, Greece, in -being conquered, conquered in turn her rude victor. The -taste for letters and arts was introduced at Rome towards -the close of the third century <span class="fs70">B.C.</span>, and transformed the -austere and rude education of the primitive era. The -Romans, in their turn, acquired a liking for fine phrases and -subtile dialectics. Schools were opened, and the rhetoricians -and philosophers took up the business of education. Parents -no longer charged themselves with the instruction of their -children. Following the fashion at Athens, they entrusted -them to slaves, without troubling themselves about the faults -or even the vices of these common <em>pedagogues</em>.</p> - -<p>“For if any of their servants,” says Plutarch, “be better -than the rest, they dispose some of them to follow husbandry, -some to navigation, some to merchandise, some to be stew<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>ards -in their houses, and some, lastly, to put out their money -to use for them. But if they find any slave that is a drunkard -or a glutton, and unfit for any other business, to him -they assign the government of their children; whereas, a -good pedagogue ought to be such a one in his disposition as -Phœnix, tutor to Achilles, was.”<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">46. <span class="smcap">Why Rome had no Great Educators.</span>—In the age -of Augustus, when Latin literature was in all its glory, we -are astonished not to find, as in the century of Pericles, some -great thinker like Plato or Aristotle, who presents general -views on education, and makes himself famous by a remarkable -work on pedagogy. This is due to the fact that the -Romans never formed a taste for disinterested science and -speculative inquiry. They reached distinction only in the -practical sciences; in the law, for example, in which they -excelled. Now pedagogy, while in one sense a practical -science, nevertheless reposes upon philosophical principles, -upon a knowledge of human nature, and upon a theoretical -conception of human destiny,—questions which had no living -interest for the Roman mind, and which even Cicero has -noticed only in passing, in the course of his translation of -Plato, made with his usual magnificence of literary style.</p> - -<p>It is to be noted, moreover, that the Romans seem never -to have considered education as a national undertaking, as an -affair of the State. The Law of the Twelve Tables is silent -upon the education of children. Up to the time of Quintilian -there were at Rome no public schools, no professional -teachers. In the age of Augustus each teacher had his own -method. “Our ancestors,” says Cicero, “did not wish that -children should be educated by fixed rules, determined by -the laws, publicly promulgated and made uniform for all.”<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> -And he does not seem to disapprove of this neglect, even -while noting the fact that Polybius saw in this an important -defect in Roman institutions.</p> - - -<p class="p1">47. <span class="smcap">Cicero.</span>—In all Cicero’s works we find scarcely a -line relative to education. And yet the great orator exclaims: -“What better, what greater service can we of to-day -render the Republic than to instruct and train the young?”<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> -But he was content with writing fine discourses on philosophy -for his country, abounding more in eloquence than in -originality.</p> - - -<p class="p1">48. <span class="smcap">Varro.</span>—A less celebrated writer, Varro, seems to -have had some pedagogic instinct. He wrote real educational -works on grammar, rhetoric, history, and geometry. -Most of these have been lost; but if we may trust his contemporaries, -they were instrumental in the education of several -generations.</p> - - -<p class="p1">49. <span class="smcap">Quintilian (35-95 <span class="fs70">A.D.</span>).</span>—After the age of Augustus, -education became more and more an affair of oratory. -The chief effort in the way of education was a preparation -for a career in the Forum. But from these vulgar rhetoricians, -occupied with the exterior artifices of style, these -“traffickers in words,” as Saint Augustine called them, we -must distinguish a rhetorician of a higher order, who does -not separate rhetoric from a general culture of the intelligence. -This is Quintilian, the author of the <cite>Institutes of Oratory</cite>.</p> - -<p>Appointed at the age of twenty-six to a chair of eloquence, -the first that was established by the Roman state, and called -at a later period by the Emperor Domitian to direct the -education of his grand-nephews, Quintilian was practically -acquainted with both public and private instruction.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">50. <span class="smcap">The Institutes of Oratory.</span>—This work, under the -form of a treatise on rhetoric, is in parts a real treatise on -education. The author, in fact, begins the training of the -future orator from the cradle; he gives counsel to its nurse, -and “not blushing to descend to petty details,” he follows -step by step the education of his pupil. Let us add, that in -the noble ideal which he conceives, eloquence never being -considered apart from wisdom, Quintilian was led by his -very subject to treat of moral education.</p> - - -<p class="p1">51. <span class="smcap">His General Plan of Education.</span>—The first book -entire is devoted to education in general, and its teachings -might be applied indifferently to all children, whether destined -or not to the practice of oratory.</p> - -<p>“Has a son been born to you? From the first conceive -the highest hopes of him.” Thus Quintilian begins. He -thinks that we cannot have too high an opinion of human -nature, nor propose for it too high a purpose. Minds that -rebel against all instruction are unnatural. Most often it is -the training which is at fault; it is not nature that is to -blame.</p> - - -<p class="p1">52. <span class="smcap">The Early Education of the Child.</span>—The child’s -nurses should be virtuous and prudent. Quintilian does not -demand that they shall be learned, as the stoic Chrysippus -would have them; but he requires that their language shall -be irreproachable. The first impressions of the child are very -durable: “New vases preserve the taste of the first liquor -that is put into them; and wool, once colored, never regains -its primitive whiteness.”</p> - -<p>By an illusion analogous to that of the literary men of the -sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, who would have the little -French boy first learn Latin, Quintilian teaches his pupil -Greek before making him study his native tongue.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p> - -<p>Studies, moreover, should begin betimes: “Turn to account -the child’s first years, especially as the elements of -learning demand only memory, and the memory of children -is very tenacious.”</p> - -<p>We seem to be listening to a modern teacher when Quintilian -recommends the avoidance of whatever might ruffle the -spirits of the child. “Let study be to him a play; ask him -questions; commend him when he does well; and sometimes -let him enjoy the consciousness of his little gains in wisdom.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">53. <span class="smcap">Reading and Writing.</span>—The passage relative to -reading deserves to be quoted in full. It is wrong, says -Quintilian, to teach children the names of the letters, and -their respective places in the alphabet, before they know their -shapes. He recommends the use of letters in ivory, which -children take pleasure in handling, seeing, and naming.</p> - -<p>As to writing, Quintilian recommends, for the purpose of -strengthening the child’s hand, and of preventing it from -making false movements, that he should practise on wooden -tablets on which the letters have been traced by cutting.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> -Later on, the copies shall contain, “not senseless maxims, -but moral truths.” The Roman teacher did not counsel -haste in any case. “We can scarcely believe,” he says, -“how progress in reading is retarded by attempting to go -too fast.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">54. <span class="smcap">Public Education.</span>—Quintilian has made an unsurpassed -plea for public education and its advantages, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> -Rollin has reproduced almost entire.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> From this we shall -quote only the following passage, which proves how far the -contemporaries of Quintilian had already departed from the -manly habits of the early ages; and the truth which is herein -expressed will always be applicable to parents who are inclined -to be over-indulgent: “Would that we ourselves did -not corrupt the morals of our children! We enervate their -very infancy with luxuries. That delicacy of education, -which we call fondness, weakens all the powers, both of -body and mind.... We form the palate of our children before -we form their pronunciation. They grow up in sedan -chairs; if they touch the ground, they hang by the hands of -attendants supporting them on each side. We are delighted -if they utter anything immodest. Expressions which would -hot be tolerated even from effeminate youths, we hear from -them with a smile and a kiss. Need we be astonished at this -behavior? We ourselves have taught them.”<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">55. <span class="smcap">Duties of Teachers.</span>—There was at Rome, in the -first century of the Christian era, a high conception of the -duties of a teacher: “His first care should be to ascertain -with all possible thoroughness the mind and the character of -the child.” Judicious reflections on the memory, on the -faculty of imitation, and on the dangers of precocious mental -development, are proofs of the fine psychological discernment -of Quintilian. His insight is no less accurate when he -sketches the rules for moral discipline. “Fear,” he says, -“restrains some and unmans others.... For my part, I -prefer a pupil who is sensitive to praise, whom glory animates, -and from whom defeat draws tears.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p> - -<p>Quintilian expresses himself decidedly against the use of -the rod, “although custom authorizes it,” he says, “and -Chrysippus does not disapprove of it.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">56. <span class="smcap">Grammar and Rhetoric.</span>—Like his contemporaries, -Quintilian distinguishes studies into two grades,—Grammar -and Rhetoric. “As soon as the child is able to read and -write, he must be placed in the hands of the grammarian.” -Grammar was divided into two parts,—the art of speaking -correctly and the explication of the poets. Exercises in -composition, development lessons called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Chriæ</i>, and narratives, -accompanied the theoretical study of the rules of -grammar.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> It is to be observed that Quintilian gives a high -place to etymological studies, and that he attaches great importance -to reading aloud. “That the child may read well, -let him have a good understanding of what he reads.... -When he reads the poets, let him shun affected modulations. -It is with reference to this manner of reading that Cæsar, -still a young man, made this excellent observation: ‘If you -are singing, you sing poorly; if you are reading, why do you -sing?’”</p> - - -<p class="p1">57. <span class="smcap">The Simultaneous Study of the Sciences.</span>—Quintilian -is very far from confining his pupil within the narrow -circle of grammatical study. Persuaded that the child is -capable of learning several things at the same time, he would -have him taught geometry, music, and philosophy simultaneously:—</p> - -<p>“Must he learn grammar alone, and then geometry, and -in the meanwhile forget what he first learned? As well advise -a farmer not to cultivate, at the same time, his fields, his -vines, his olive trees, and his orchards, and not to give his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> -thought simultaneously to his meadows, his cattle, his gardens, -and his bees.”<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p> - -<p>Of course Quintilian considers the different studies which -he sets before his pupil only as the instruments for an education -in oratory. Philosophy, which comprises dialectics or -logic, physics or the science of nature, and lastly morals, -furnish the orator with ideas, and teach him the art of distributing -them into a consecutive line of argument. And so -geometry, a near relative of dialectics, disciplines the mind, -and teaches it to distinguish the true from the false. Lastly, -music is an excellent preparation for eloquence; it cultivates -the sense of harmony and a taste for number and measure.</p> - - -<p class="p1">58. <span class="smcap">The Schools of Philosophy.</span>—By the side of the -schools of rhetoric, in which the art of speech was cultivated, -imperial Rome saw flourish in great numbers schools of -philosophy, whose purpose was the formation of morals. It -was through no lack of moral sermonizing that there was a -degeneration in the virtues of the Romans. All the schools of -Greece, especially the Stoics and the Epicureans, and also -the schools of Pythagoras, of Socrates, of Plato, and of -Aristotle, had their representatives at Rome; but their obscure -names have scarcely survived.</p> - - -<p class="p1">59. <span class="smcap">Seneca.</span>—Among these philosophers and these moralists -of the first century of the Christian era, Seneca has the -distinction of standing in the front rank. It is true that he -was not the founder of a school, but by his numerous -writings he succeeded in maintaining among his contemporaries -at least some vestiges of the ancient virtues. His -<cite>Letters to Lucilius</cite>, letters abounding in real intellectual -and moral insight, also contain some pedagogical precepts.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> -Seneca attempts to direct school instruction to practical ends, -in following out the thought of this famous precept: “We -should learn, not for the sake of the school, but for the purposes -of life” (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Non scholæ, sed vitæ discimus</i>). Moreover, -he criticises confused and ill-directed reading that does not -enrich the understanding, and concludes by recommending -the profound study of a single book (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">timeo hominem unius -libri</i>). In another letter he remarks that the best means for -giving clearness to one’s own ideas is to communicate them -to others; the best way of being taught is to teach (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">docendo -discimus</i>). Let us quote this other maxim so often repeated: -“The end is attained sooner by example than by precept” -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">longum iter per præcepta, breve per exempla</i>).</p> - - -<p class="p1">60. <span class="smcap">Plutarch (50-138 <span class="fs70">A.D.</span>).</span>—In the last period of Roman -civilization two names deserve to arrest the attention of the -educator,—Plutarch and Marcus Aurelius. Although he -was born in Bœotia, and wrote in Greek, Plutarch belongs -to the Roman world. He lived at Rome at several different -times, and there opened a school in the reign of Domitian, -where he lectured on philosophy, literature, and history. -Numerous works have transmitted to us the substance of that -instruction which had such an extraordinary success.</p> - - -<p class="p1">61. <span class="smcap">The Lives of Illustrious Men.</span>—Translated in the -fifteenth century by Amyot, the <cite>Parallel Lives</cite> of Plutarch -were for our fathers a true code of morals founded on history. -How many of our great men, or how many of our -men of worth, have drawn from this book, at least in part, -the material which has nurtured their virtues! L’Hôpital -and d’Aubigné enriched their lives from this source. Henry -IV. said of this book: “It has been to me as my conscience, -and has whispered in my ear many virtuous suggestions and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> -excellent maxims for my own conduct and for the management -of my affairs.”<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">62. <span class="smcap">The Essay on the Training of Children.</span>—The -celebrated essay entitled <cite>Of the Training of Children</cite>,<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> is the -first treatise, especially devoted to education, that antiquity -has bequeathed to us. Its authenticity has been called in -question by German critics; but this is of little moment, since -these critics are the first to recognize the fact that the author -of this essay, whoever he might have been, was intimately -acquainted with Plutarch, and has given us a sufficiently -exact summary of the ideas which are more fully developed -in others of his works.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p> - -<p>We shall not give an analysis of this work, which, however, -abounds in interesting reflections on the primary period -of education. We shall simply note the fundamental thought -of the essay, its salient and original characteristic, which is -its warm appreciation of the family. In society, as Plutarch -conceives it, the State no longer exercises absolute sovereignty. -Upon the ruins of the antique commonwealth -Plutarch builds the family. It is to the family that he -addresses himself in order to assure the education of -children.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> On this point he is not in accord with Quintilian.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> -What he recommends is an education that is domestic and -individual. He scarcely admits the need of public schools -save for the higher instruction. At a certain age a young -man, already trained by the watchful care of a preceptor -under the supervision of his parents, shall go abroad to hear -the lectures of the moralists and the philosophers, and to read -the poets.</p> - - -<p class="p1">63. <span class="smcap">The Education of Women.</span>—One of the consequences -of the exalted function which Plutarch ascribes to -the family is that by this single act he raises the material and -moral condition of woman. In his essay entitled <cite>Conjugal -Precepts</cite>, which recalls the <cite>Economics</cite> of Xenophon, he -restores to the wife her place in the household. He associates -her with the husband in the material support of the -family, as well as in the education of the children. The -mother is to nurse her offspring. “Providence,” he naively -says, “hath also wisely ordered that women should have two -breasts, that so, if any of them should happen to bear twins, -they might have two several springs of nourishment ready for -them.”<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> The mother shall also take part in the instruction -of her children, and so she must herself be educated. Plutarch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> -proposes for her the highest studies, such as mathematics -and philosophy. But he counts much more upon her -natural qualities, than upon the science that she may -acquire. “With women,” he says, “tenderness of heart is -enhanced by a pleasing countenance, by sweetness of speech, -by an affectionate grace, and by a high degree of sensitiveness.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">64. <span class="smcap">The Function of Poetry in Education.</span>—In the -essay entitled <cite>How a Young Man Ought to Hear Poems</cite>, -Plutarch has given his opinion as to the extent to which -poetry should be made an element in education. More just -than Plato, he does not condemn the reading of the poets. -He simply demands that this reading should be done with -discretion, by choosing those who, in their compositions, -mingle moral inspiration with poetic inspiration. “Lycurgus,” -he says, “did not act like a man of sound reason in -the course which he took to reform his people that were -much inclined to drunkenness, by traveling up and down to -destroy all the vines in the country; whereas he should have -ordered that every vine should have a well of water near it, -that (as Plato saith) the drunken deity might be reduced to -temperance by a sober one.”<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">65. <span class="smcap">The Teaching of Morals.</span>—Plutarch is above all -else a moralist. If he adds nothing in the way of theory to -the lofty doctrines of the Greek philosophers from whom he -catches his inspiration, at least he enters more profoundly -into the study of practical methods which insure the efficacy -of fine precepts and exalted doctrines. “That contemplation -which is dissociated from practice,” he says, “is of no -utility.” He would have young men come from lectures on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> -morals, not only better instructed, but more virtuous. Of -what consequence are beautiful maxims unless they are -embodied in action? The young man, then, shall early -accustom himself to self-government, to reflection upon his -own conduct, and to taking counsel of his own reason. -Moreover, Plutarch gives him a director of conscience, a -philosopher, whom he will go to consult in his doubts, and -to whom he will entrust the keeping of his soul. But that -which is of most consequence in his eyes is personal effort, -reflection always on the alert, and that inward effort which -causes our soul to assimilate the moral lessons which we have -received, and which causes them to enter into the very structure -and fibre of our personality.</p> - -<p>“As it would be with a man who, going to his neighbor’s -to borrow fire, and finding there a great and bright fire, -should sit down to warm himself and forget to go home; so -is it with the one who comes to another to learn, if he does -not think himself obliged to kindle his own fire within, and -influence his own mind, but continues sitting by his master -as if he were enchanted, delighted by hearing.”<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p> - -<p>So are those who are not striving to have a personal -morality, but who, incapable of self-direction, are always in -need of the tutorship of another.</p> - -<p>The great preoccupation of Plutarch—and by this trait he -has a legitimate place among the great educators of the -world—was to awaken, to excite, the interior forces of the -conscience, and to stimulate the intelligence to a high state -of activity. When he wrote this famous maxim, “The soul -is not a vase to be filled, but is rather a hearth which is to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> -made to glow,”<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> he was not thinking alone of moral education, -but also of a false intellectual education which, instead -of training the mind, is content with accumulating in the -memory a mass of indigested materials.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">66. <span class="smcap">Marcus Aurelius.</span>—The wisest of the Roman emperors, -the author of the book entitled <cite>To Myself</cite>, better -known as <cite>Meditations</cite>, Marcus Aurelius deserves mention -in the history of pedagogy. He is perhaps the most perfect -representative of Stoic morality, which is itself the highest -expression of ancient morality. He is the most finished type -of what can be effected in the way of soul-culture by the influence -of home-training and the personal effort of the conscience. -His teacher of rhetoric was the celebrated Fronto, -of whose character we may judge from this one characteristic: -“I toiled hard yesterday,” he wrote to his pupil; “I composed -a few figures of speech, with which I am pleased.” On the -other hand, Marcus Aurelius found examples for imitation in -his own family. “My uncle,” he says reverently, “taught -me patience.... From my father I inherited modesty.... -To my mother I owe my feelings of piety.” Notwithstanding -the modesty that led him to attribute to others the whole of -his moral worth, it is especially to himself, to a persistent -effort of his own will, and to a ceaseless examination of his -own conscience, that he is indebted for becoming the most -virtuous of men, and the wisest and purest, next to Socrates, -of the moralists of antiquity. His <cite>Meditations</cite> show us in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> -action that self-education which in our time has suggested -such beautiful reflections to Channing.</p> - - -<p class="p1">67. <span class="smcap">Conclusion.</span>—Finally, it must be admitted that -Roman literature is poor in material for educational study. -Some passages, scattered here and there in the classical -authors, nevertheless prove that they were not absolutely -strangers to pedagogical questions.</p> - -<p>Thus Horace professed independence of mind; he declares -that he is not obliged to swear by the “words of any master.”<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> -On the other hand, Juvenal defined the ideal purpose -of life and of education when he said that the desirable thing -above all others is “a sound mind in a sound body.”<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> -Finally, Pliny the Younger, in three words, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">multum, non -multa</i>, “much, not many things,” fixes one essential point in -educational method, and recommends the thorough study of -one single subject in preference to a superficial study which -extends over too many subjects.</p> - -<p>While by their taste, their accuracy of thought, and the -perfection of their style, the Latin writers are worthy of -being placed by the side of the Greeks as proficients in education -of the literary type, they at the same time deserve to -be regarded as reputable guides in moral education. At -Rome, as at Athens, that which formed the basis of instruction -was the search after virtue. That which preoccupied -Cicero as well as Plato, Seneca as well as Aristotle, was not -so much the extension of knowledge and the development of -instruction as the progress of manners and the moral perfection -of man.</p> - - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>[68. <span class="smcap">Analytical Summary.</span>—1. In contrast with Greek -education, the chief characteristic of which was intellectual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> -discipline or culture, Roman education may be called <em>practical</em>. -Greece and Rome have thus furnished the world with -two distinct types of education, and their modern representatives -are seen in our classical and scientific courses respectively.</p> - -<p>2. The disinclination of the Roman mind to speculative -inquiry, was a bar to the production of any contributions to -the theory of education.</p> - -<p>3. In the <cite>Institutes</cite> of Quintilian we see the first attempt to -expound the art of teaching; and in the <cite>Morals</cite> of Plutarch -we have the first formal treatise on the education of children.</p> - -<p>4. In the later period of Roman education, we see a higher -appreciation of woman, and a nobler conception of the -family life.</p> - -<p>5. In common with all the systems of education thus far -studied, Roman education is essentially literary, ethical, and -prudential, as distinguished from an education in science. -The conception of the money value of knowledge had not yet -appeared.]</p></div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Plutarch, <cite>Morals</cite>, vol. I. p. 9.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Cicero, <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Republica</cite>, <span class="fs70">IV.</span> 115.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Cicero, <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Divinatione</cite>, <span class="fs70">II.</span> 2.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> In principle, this is the same as the system of writing commended by -Locke: “Get a plate graved with the Characters of such a Hand as you like -best ... let several sheets of good Writing-paper be printed off with red -Ink, which he has nothing to do but go over with a good Pen fill’d with -black Ink, which will quickly bring his Hand to the Formation of those -Characters, being first shewed where to begin, and how to form every -Letter.” (<cite>On Education</cite>, § 160.) (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> “Quintilian has treated this question with great breadth and eloquence.” -(<cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Traité des Études</cite>, Liv. IV. Art. 2.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Quintilian, <cite>Institutes of Oratory</cite>, Watson’s Translation, Book I. -chap. <span class="fs70">II.</span> 6, 7.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> <cite>Institutes</cite>, Book I. chap. <span class="fs70">IX.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> <cite>Institutes</cite>, Book I. chap. <span class="fs70">XII.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Equally great has been Plutarch’s influence on English thought and -life. Sir Thomas North’s translation of Amyot’s version appeared in 1579, -and furnished Shakespeare with the materials for his <cite>Coriolanus</cite>, <cite>Julius -Cæsar</cite>, and <cite>Antony and Cleopatra</cite>. Milton, Wordsworth, and Browning -are also debtors to the <cite>Parallel Lives</cite>. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> “Comment il faut nourrir les enfants,” in the translation by Amyot. -“Of the Training of Children,” in Goodwin’s edition of the <cite>Morals</cite> (Vol. I.).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> The references that follow are to Plutarch’s <cite>Morals</cite>. The first translation -into English was by Philemon Holland, in 1603. The American -edition in five volumes (Boston, 1871) is worthy of all commendation. -The references I make are to this edition. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Of course Plutarch, like all the writers of antiquity, writes only in behalf -of free-born children in good circumstances. “He abandons,” as he -himself admits, “the education of the poor and the lowly.” -</p> -<p> -Plutarch seems to aim at what appears to him to be <em>practicable</em>. That -he was liberal in his opinions must be evident, I think, from this extract: -“It is my desire that all children whatsoever may partake of the benefits -of education alike; but if yet any persons, by reason of the narrowness of -their estates, cannot make use of my precepts, let them not blame me that -give them, but Fortune, which disableth them from making the advantage -by them they otherwise might. Though even poor men must use their -utmost endeavor to give their children the best education; or, if they can -not, they must bestow upon them the best that their abilities will reach.” -(<cite>Morals</cite>, vol. I. pp. 19, 20.) (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> <cite>Of the Training of Children</cite>, § 6.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> <cite>Morals</cite>, vol. II. p. 44.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> <cite>Morals</cite>, I. p. 463. This language directly follows the quotation given -in the note (1) at the close of this paragraph. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> The exact reading is as follows: “For the mind requires not like an -earthen vessel to be filled up; convenient fuel and aliment only will influence -it with a desire of knowledge and ardent love of truth.” (<cite>Morals</cite>, I. -p. 463.) This makes the author’s meaning more apparent. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> This does not mean that Plutarch sets a low value on memory, for he -says: “Above all things, we must exercise the memory of children, for it -is the treasury of knowledge.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> “<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nullius addictus jurare in verba magistri</i>.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> “<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Orandum est ut sit mens sana in corpore sano</i>.” (Sat. x. 356.)</p> -</div></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER IV.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">THE EARLY CHRISTIANS AND THE MIDDLE AGE.</span></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>THE NEW SPIRIT OF CHRISTIANITY; THE POVERTY OF THE EARLY -CHRISTIAN CENTURIES IN RESPECT OF EDUCATION; THE FATHERS -OF THE CHURCH; SAINT JEROME AND THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS; -PHYSICAL ASCETICISM; INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL ASCETICISM; PERMANENT -TRUTHS; INTELLECTUAL FEEBLENESS OF THE MIDDLE AGE; -CAUSES OF THE IGNORANCE OF THE MIDDLE AGE; THE THREE RENASCENCES; -CHARLEMAGNE; ALCUIN; THE SUCCESSORS OF CHARLEMAGNE; -SCHOLASTICISM; ABELARD; THE SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS; -METHODS AND DISCIPLINE; THE UNIVERSITIES; GERSON; VITTORINO -DA FELTRE; OTHER TEACHERS AT THE CLOSE OF THE MIDDLE AGE; -RECAPITULATION; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.</p></div> - -<hr class="r15a" /> - -<p class="p1">69. <span class="smcap">The New Spirit of Christianity.</span>—By its dogmas, -by the conception of the equality of all human creatures, by -its spirit of charity, Christianity introduced new elements -into the conscience, and seemed called to give a powerful -impetus to the moral education of men. The doctrine of -Christ was at first a reaction of free will and of personal -dignity against the despotism of the State. “A full half of -man henceforth escaped the action of the State. Christianity -taught that man no longer belonged to society except in -part; that he was under allegiance to it by his body and his -material interests; that being subject to a tyrant, he must -submit; that as a citizen of a republic, he ought to give his -life for it; but that in respect of his soul, he was free, and -owed allegiance only to God.”<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> Henceforth it was not simply -a question of training citizens for the service of the State;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> -but the conception of a disinterested development of the -human person made its appearance in the world. On the -other hand, in proclaiming that all men had the same destiny, -and that they were all equal in the sight of God, Christianity -raised the poor and the disinherited from their condition of -misery, and promised them all the same instruction. To the -idea of liberty was added that of equality; and equal justice -for all, and participation in the same rights, were contained -in germ in the doctrine of Christianity.</p> - - -<p class="p1">70. <span class="smcap">Poverty of the First Christian Centuries in Respect -of Education.</span>—Nevertheless, the germs contained -in the doctrines of the new religion did not bear fruit at -once. It is easy to analyze the causes which led to the poverty -of educational thought during the first centuries of the -Christian era.</p> - -<p>In the first place, the Christian instruction was addressed -to barbarous peoples who could not at once rise to a high -intellectual and moral culture. According to the celebrated -comparison of Jouffroy, the invasion of the barbarians into -the midst of ancient society was like an armful of green -wood thrown upon a blazing fire; at first there could issue -from it only a mass of smoke.</p> - -<p>Moreover, we must take into account the fact that the -early Christians, in order to establish their faith, had to -struggle against difficulties which were ever being renewed. -The first centuries were a period of struggle, of conquest, -and of organization, which left but little opportunity for the -disinterested study of education. In their contests with the -ancient world, the early Christians came to include in a common -hatred classical literature and pagan religion. Could -they receive with sympathy the literary and scientific inheritance -of a society whose morals they repudiated, and whose -beliefs they were bent on destroying?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span></p> - -<p>On the other hand, the social condition of the men who -first attached themselves to the new religion turned them -aside from the studies which are a preparation for real life. -Obliged to conceal themselves, to betake themselves to the -desert, true Pariahs of the pagan world, they lived a life of -contemplation; they were naturally led to conceive an ascetic -and monastic existence as the ideal of education.</p> - -<p>Moreover, by its mystical tendencies, Christianity at the -first could not be a good school for a practical and humane -system of education. The Christian was detached from the -commonwealth of man, only to enter into the commonwealth -of God. He must break with a corrupt and perverse world. -By privations, and by the renunciation of every pleasure, he -must react against the immorality of Græco-Roman society. -Man must aspire to imitate God; and God is absolute holiness, -the very negation of all the conditions of earthly life,—supreme -perfection. The very disproportion between such an -ideal and human weakness as an actual fact must have betrayed -the early Christians into leading a mystical life which -was but a preparation for death. And the consequence of -these doctrines was to make of the Church the exclusive -mistress of education and instruction. Individual initiative, -if called into play, on the one hand, by the fundamental doctrines -of Christianity, was stifled, on the other, under the -domination of the Church.</p> - - -<p class="p1">71. <span class="smcap">The Fathers of the Church.</span>—Of the celebrated -doctors who, by their erudition and eloquence, if not by -their taste, made illustrious the beginning of Christianity, -some were jealous mystics and sectaries, in whose eyes philosophical -curiosity was a sin, and the love of letters a heresy; -and others were Christians of a conciliatory temperament, -who, in a certain measure, allied religious faith and literary -culture.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p> - -<p>Tertullian rejected all pagan education. He saw in classical -culture only a robbery from God; a road to the false and -arrogant wisdom of the ancient philosophers. Even Saint -Augustine, who in his youth could not read the fourth book -of the Æneid without shedding tears, and who had been devotedly -fond of ancient poetry and eloquence, renounced, after -his conversion, his literary tastes as well as the mad passions -of his early manhood. It was by his influence that the -Council of Carthage forbade the bishops to read the pagan -authors.</p> - -<p>This was not the course of Saint Basil, who demands, on -the contrary, that the young Christian shall be conversant -with the orators, poets, and historians of antiquity; who -thinks that the poems of Homer inspire a love for virtue; -and who desires, finally, that full use should be made of the -treasures of ancient wisdom in the training of the young.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> -Nor was this the thought of Saint Jerome, who said he -would be none the less a Ciceronian in becoming a Christian.</p> - - -<p class="p1">72. <span class="smcap">Saint Jerome and the Education of Girls.</span>—The -letters of Saint Jerome on the education of girls form the -most valuable educational document of the first centuries of -Christianity.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> They have excited high admiration. Erasmus -knew them by heart, and Saint Theresa read selections -from them every day. It is impossible, to-day, while admiring -certain parts of them, not to condemn the general spirit -which pervades them,—a narrow spirit, distrustful of the -world, which pushes the religious sentiment even to mysticism, -and disdain for human affairs to asceticism.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">73. <span class="smcap">Physical Asceticism.</span>—It is no longer the question -of giving power to the body, and thus of making of it the -robust instrument of a cultured spirit, as the Greeks would -have it. The body is an enemy that must be subdued by -fasting, by abstinence, and by mortifications of the flesh.</p> - -<p>“Do not allow Paula to eat in public, that is, do not let -her take part in family entertainments, for fear that she -may desire the meats that may be served there. Let her -learn not to use wine, for it is the source of all impurity. -Let her food be vegetables, and only rarely of fish; and -let her eat so as always to be hungry.”</p> - -<p>Contempt for the body is carried so far that cleanliness is -almost interdicted.</p> - -<p>“For myself, I entirely forbid a young girl to bathe.”</p> - -<p>It is true that, alarmed at the consequences of such austerity, -Saint Jerome, by way of exception, permits children -the use of the bath, of wine, and of meat, but only “when -necessity requires it, and lest the feet may fail them before -having walked.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">74. <span class="smcap">Intellectual and Moral Asceticism.</span>—For the -mind, as well as for the body, we may say of Saint Jerome -what Nicole wrote to a nun of his time: “You feed your -pupils on bread and water.” The Bible is the only book -recommended, and this is little; but it is the Bible entire, -which is too much. <cite>The Song of Songs</cite>, with its sensual -imagery, would be strange reading for a young girl. The -arts, like letters, find no favor with the mysticism of Saint -Jerome.</p> - -<p>“Never let Paula listen to musical instruments; let her -even be ignorant of the uses served by the flute and the -harp.”</p> - -<p>As for the flute, which the Greek philosophers also did -not like, let it be so; but what shall we say of this condem<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>nation -of the harp, the instrument of David and the angels, -and of religious music itself! How far we are, in common -with Saint Jerome, from that complete life, from that harmonious -development of all the faculties, which modern educators, -Herbert Spencer, for example, present to us with -reason as the ideal of education! Saint Jerome goes so far -as to proscribe walking:—</p> - -<p>“Do not let Paula be found in the ways of the world -(emphatic paraphrase for <em>streets</em>), in the gatherings and in -the company of her kindred; let her be found only in -retirement.”</p> - -<p>The ideal of Saint Jerome is a monastic and cloistered life, -even in the world. But that which is graver still, that which -is the fatal law of mysticism, is that Saint Jerome, after -having proscribed letters, arts, and necessary and legitimate -pleasures, even brings his condemnation to bear on the most -honorable sentiments of the heart. The heart is human -also, and everything human is evil and full of danger:</p> - -<p>“Do not allow Paula to feel more affection for one of her -companions than for others; do not allow her to speak with -such a one in an undertone.” And as he held in suspicion -even the affections of the family, the Doctor of the Church -concludes thus:—</p> - -<p>“Let her be educated in a cloister, where she will not -know the world, where she will live as an angel, having a -body but not knowing it, and where, in a word, you will be -spared the care of watching over her.... If you will send us -Paula, I will charge myself with being her master and nurse; -I will give her my tenderest care; my old age will not prevent -me from untying her tongue, and I shall be more renowned -than the philosopher Aristotle, since I shall instruct, -not a mortal and perishable king, but an immortal spouse of -the Heavenly King.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">75. <span class="smcap">Permanent Truths.</span>—The pious exaggerations of -Saint Jerome only throw into sharper relief the justice and -the excellence of some of his practical suggestions,—upon -the teaching of reading, for example, or upon the necessity -of emulation:—</p> - -<p>“Put into the hands of Paula letters in wood or in ivory, -and teach her the names of them. She will thus learn while -playing. But it will not suffice to have her merely memorize -the names of the letters, and call them in succession as they -stand in the alphabet. You should often mix them, putting -the last first, and the first in the middle.</p> - -<p>“Induce her to construct words by offering her a prize, -or by giving her, as a reward, what ordinarily pleases children -of her age.... Let her have companions, so that the -commendation she may receive may excite in her the feeling -of emulation. Do not chide her for the difficulty she may -have in learning. On the contrary, encourage her by commendation, -and proceed in such a way that she shall be -equally sensible to the pleasure of having done well, and to -the pain of not having been successful.... Especially take -care that she do not conceive a dislike for study that might -follow her into a more advanced age.”<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">76. <span class="smcap">Intellectual Feebleness of the Middle Age.</span>—If -the early doctors of the Church occasionally expressed -some sympathy for profane letters, it is because, in their -youth, before having received baptism, they had themselves -attended the pagan schools. But these schools once closed, -Christianity did not open others, and, after the fourth century, -a profound night enveloped humanity. The labor of -the Greeks and the Romans was as though it never had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> -been. The past no longer existed. Humanity began anew. -In the fifth century, Apollinaris Sidonius declares that -“the young no longer study, that teachers no longer have -pupils, and that learning languishes and dies.” Later, Lupus -of Ferrières, the favorite of Louis the Pious and Charles the -Bald, writes that the study of letters had almost ceased. In -the early part of the eleventh century, the Bishop of Laon, -Adalberic, asserts that “there is more than one bishop who -cannot count the letters of the alphabet on his fingers.” In -1291, of all the monks in the convent of Saint Gall, there -was not one who could read and write. It was so difficult -to find notaries public, that acts had to be passed verbally. -The barons took pride in their ignorance. Even after the -efforts of the twelfth century, instruction remained a luxury -for the common people; it was the privilege of the ecclesiastics, -and even they did not carry it very far. The Benedictines -confess that the mathematics were studied only for the -purpose of calculating the date of Easter.</p> - - -<p class="p1">77. <span class="smcap">Causes of the Ignorance of the Middle Age.</span>—What -were the permanent causes of that situation which -lasted for ten centuries? The Catholic Church has sometimes -been held responsible for this. Doubtless the Christian -doctors did not always profess a very warm sympathy -for intellectual culture. Saint Augustine had said: “It is -the ignorant who gain possession of heaven (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">indocti cœlum -rapiunt</i>).” Saint Gregory the Great, a pope of the sixth -century, declared that he would blush to have the holy word -conform to the rules of grammar. Too many Christians, in -a word, confounded ignorance with holiness. Doubtless, -towards the seventh century, the darkness still hung thick -over the Christian Church. Barbarians invaded the Episcopate, -and carried with them their rude manners. Doubtless,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> -also, during the feudal period the priest often became -soldier, and remained ignorant. It would, however, be unjust -to bring a constructive charge against the Church of the -Middle Age, and to represent it as systematically hostile to -instruction. Directly to the contrary, it is the clergy who, -in the midst of the general barbarism, preserved some vestiges -of the ancient culture. The only schools of that period -are the episcopal and claustral schools, the first annexed to -the bishops’ palaces, the second to the monasteries. The -religious orders voluntarily associated manual labor with -mental labor. As far back as 530, Saint Benedict founded -the convent of Monte Cassino, and drew up statutes which -made reading and intellectual labor a part of the daily life -of the monks.</p> - -<p>In 1179, the third Lateran Council promulgated the following -decree:—</p> - -<p>“The Church of God, being obliged like a good and tender -mother to provide for the bodily and spiritual wants of -the poor, desirous to procure for poor children the opportunity -for learning to read, and for making advancement in -study, orders that each cathedral shall have a teacher charged -with the gratuitous instruction of the clergy of that church, -and also of the indigent scholars, and that he be assigned a -benefice, which, sufficient for his subsistence, may thus open -the door of the school to the studious youth. A tutor<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> shall -be installed in the other churches and in the monasteries -where formerly there were funds set apart for this purpose.”</p> - -<p>It is not, then, to the Church that we must ascribe the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> -general intellectual torpor of the Middle Age. Other causes -explain that long slumber of the human mind. The first is -the social condition of the people. Security and leisure, the -indispensable conditions for study, were completely lacking -to people always at war, overwhelmed in succession by the -barbarians, the Normans, the English, and by the endless -struggles of feudal times. The gentlemen of the time -aspired only to ride, to hunt, and to figure in tournaments -and feats of arms. Physical education was above all else -befitting men whose favorite vocation, both by habit and -necessity, was war. On the other hand, the enslaved people -did not suspect the utility of instruction. In order to -comprehend the need of study, that great liberator, one -must already have tasted liberty. In a society where the -need of instruction had not yet been felt, who could have -taken the initiative in the work of instructing the people?</p> - -<p>Let us add that the Middle Age presented still other conditions -unfavorable for the propagation of instruction, in -particular, the lack of national languages, those necessary -vehicles of education. The vernacular languages are the instruments -of intellectual emancipation. Among a people -where a dead language is supreme, a language of the learned, -accessible only to the select few, the lower classes necessarily -remain buried in ignorance. Moreover, Latin books themselves -were rare. Lupus of Ferrières was obliged to write -to Rome, and to address himself to the Pope in person, in -order to procure for his use a work of Cicero’s. Without -books, without schools, without any of the indispensable -implements of intellectual labor, what could be done for the -mental life? It took refuge in certain monasteries; erudition -flourished only in narrow circles, with a privileged few, -and the rest of the nation remained buried in an obscure -night.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">78. <span class="smcap">The Three Renascences.</span>—It has been truly said -that there were three Renascences: the first, which owed its -beginning to Charlemagne, and whose brilliancy did not last; -the second, that of the twelfth century, the issue of which -was Scholasticism; and the third, the great Renaissance of -the sixteenth century, which still lasts, and which the French -Revolution has completed.</p> - - -<p class="p1">79. <span class="smcap">Charlemagne.</span>—Charlemagne undoubtedly formed the -purpose of diffusing instruction about him. He ardently -sought it for himself, drilled himself in writing, and learned -Latin and Greek, rhetoric and astronomy. He would have -communicated to all who were about him the same ardor for -study. “Ah! that I had twelve clerics,” he exclaimed, “as -perfectly instructed as were Jerome and Augustine!” It -was naturally upon the clergy that he counted, to make of -them the instruments of his plans; but, as one of his -capitularies of 788 shows, there was need that the clergy -themselves should be reminded of the need of instruction: -“We have thought it useful that, in the bishops’ residences, -and in the monasteries, care be taken not only to live according -to the rules of our holy religion, but, in addition, to teach -the knowledge of letters to those who are capable of learning -them by the aid of our Lord. Although it avails more to -practise the law than to know it, it must be known before it -can be practised. Several monasteries having sent us -manuscripts, we have observed that, in the most of them, -the sentiments were good, but the language bad. We -exhort you, then, not only not to neglect the study of letters, -but to devote yourselves to them with all your power.”</p> - -<p>On the other hand, the nobles did not make any great -effort to justify their social rank by the degree of their -knowledge. One day, as Charlemagne entered a school,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> -displeased with the indolence and the ignorance of the young -barons who attended it, he addressed them in these severe -terms: “Do you count upon your birth, and do you feel a -pride in it? Take notice that you shall have neither government -nor bishoprics, if you are not better instructed than -others.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">80. <span class="smcap">Alcuin (735-804).</span>—Charlemagne was seconded in -his efforts by Alcuin of England, of whom it might be said, -that he was the first minister of public instruction in France. -It is he who founded the Palatine school, a sort of imperial -and itinerant academy which followed the court on its -travels. It was a model school, where Alcuin had for his -pupils the four sons and two daughters of Charlemagne, and -Charlemagne himself, always eager to be instructed.</p> - -<p>Alcuin’s method was not without originality, but it is a -great mistake to say that it resembles the method of Socrates. -Alcuin doubtless proceeds by interrogation; but here it is -the pupil who interrogates, and the teacher who responds.</p> - -<p>“What is speech? asks Pepin, the eldest son of Charlemagne. -It is the interpreter of the soul, replies Alcuin. -What is life? It is an enjoyment for some, but for the -wretched it is a sorrow, a waiting for death. What is -sleep? The image of death. What is writing? It is the -guardian of history. What is the body? The tenement -of the soul. What is day? A summons to labor.”<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p> - -<p>All this is either commonplace or artificial. The sententious -replies of Alcuin may be fine maxims, fit for embellishing -the memory; but in this procedure of the mere scholar, -affected by the over-refinements of his time, there is nothing -which can call into activity the intelligence of the pupil.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p> - -<p>Nevertheless the name of Alcuin marks an era in the -history of education. His was the first attempt to form an -alliance between classical literature and Christian inspiration,—to -create a “Christian Athens,” according to the emphatic -phrase of Alcuin himself.</p> - - -<p class="p1">81. <span class="smcap">The Successors of Charlemagne.</span>—It had been the -ambition of Charlemagne to reign over a civilized society, -rather than over a barbarous people. Convinced that the -only basis of political unity is a unity of ideas and of morals, -he thought to find the basis of that moral unity in religion, -and religion itself he purposed to establish upon a more -widely diffused system of instruction. But these ideas were -too advanced for the time, and their execution too difficult -for the circumstances then existing. A new decadence followed -the era of Charlemagne. The clergy did not respond -to the hopes which the great emperor had placed on them. -As far back as 817, the Council of Aix-la-Chapelle decided -that henceforth no more day-pupils should be received into -the conventual schools, for the reason that too large a number -of pupils would make impossible the maintenance of the -monastic discipline. No one of Charlemagne’s successors -seems to have taken up the thought of the great emperor; -no one of them was preoccupied with the problems of education. -It is upon despotic authority, and not upon the intellectual -progress of their subjects, that those unintelligent -rulers wished to found their power. Under Louis the Pious -and Charles the Bald there were constructed more castles -than schools.</p> - -<p>The kings of France were far from imitating the Anglo-Saxon -king, Alfred the Great (849-901), to whom tradition -ascribes these two sayings: “The English ought always to -be free, as free as their own thoughts”; “Free-born sons -should know how to read and write.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">82. <span class="smcap">Scholasticism.</span>—It was not till the twelfth century -that the human mind was awakened. That was the age of -Scholasticism, the essential character of which was the study -of reasoning, and the practice of dialectics, or syllogistic -reasoning. The syllogism, which reaches necessary conclusions -from given premises, was the natural instrument of -an age of faith, when men wished simply to demonstrate -immutable dogmas, without ever making an innovation on -established beliefs. It has often been observed that the art -of reasoning is the science of a people still in the early stage -of its progress; we might almost say of a barbarous people. -A subtile dialectic is in perfect keeping with manners still -rude, and with a limited state of knowledge. It is only an -intellectual machine. It was not then a question of -original thinking. All that was necessary was simply to -reason upon conceptions already acquired, and the sacred -depository of these was kept in charge by Theology. Consequently, -there was no independent science. Philosophy, -according to the language of the times, was but the humble -servant of Theology. The dialectics of the doctors of the -Middle Age was but a subtile commentary on the sacred -books and on the doctrines of Aristotle.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> It seems, says -Locke, to see the inertness of the Middle Age, that God was -pleased to make of man a two-footed animal, while leaving -to Aristotle the task of making him a thinking being. From -his point of view, an able educator of the seventeenth century, -the Abbé Fleury, pronounces this severe judgment on -the scholastic method:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span></p> - -<p>“This way of philosophizing on words and thoughts, without -examining the things themselves, was certainly an easy -way of getting along without a knowledge of facts, which -can be acquired only by reading” (Fleury should have added -<em>and by observation</em>); “and it was an easy way of dazzling -the ignorant laics by peculiar terms and vain subtilties.”</p> - -<p>But Scholasticism had its hour of glory, its erudite doctors, -its eloquent professors, chief among whom was Abelard.</p> - - -<p class="p1">83. <span class="smcap">Abelard (1079-1142).</span>—A genuine professor of -higher instruction, Abelard, by the prestige of his eloquence, -gathered around him at Paris thousands of students. Human -speech, the living words of the teacher, had then an -authority, an importance, which it has lost in part since -books, everywhere distributed, have, to a certain extent, -superseded oral instruction. At a time when printing did -not exist, when manuscript copies were rare, a teacher who -combined knowledge with the gift of speech was a phenomenon -of incomparable interest, and students flocked from all -parts of Europe to take advantage of his lectures. Abelard -is the most brilliant representative of the scholastic pedagogy, -with an original and personal tendency towards the emancipation -of the mind. “It is ridiculous,” he said, “to preach -to others what we can neither make them understand, nor -understand ourselves.” With more boldness than Saint -Anselm, he applied dialectics to theology, and attempted to -reason out the grounds of his faith.</p> - - -<p class="p1">84. <span class="smcap">The Seven Liberal Arts.</span>—The seven liberal arts -constituted what may be called the secondary instruction of -the Middle Age, such as was given in the claustral or conventual -schools, and later, in the universities. The liberal -arts were distributed into two courses of study, known as the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trivium</i> and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadrivium</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trivium</i> comprised grammar -(Latin grammar, of course), dialectics, or logic, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> -rhetoric; and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadrivium</i>, music, arithmetic, geometry, -and astronomy. It is important to note the fact that this -programme contains only abstract and <em>formal</em> studies,—no -real and concrete studies. The sciences which teach us to -know man and the world, such as history, ethics, the physical -and natural sciences, were omitted and unknown, save perhaps -in a few convents of the Benedictines. Nothing which -can truly educate man, and develop his faculties as a whole, -enlists the attention of the Middle Age. From a course of -study thus limited there might come skillful reasoners and -men formidable in argument, but never fully developed men.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">85. <span class="smcap">Methods and Discipline.</span>—The methods employed -in the ecclesiastical schools of the Middle Age were in accord -with the spirit of the times, when men were not concerned -about liberty and intellectual freedom; and when they thought -more about the teaching of dogmas than about the training -of the intelligence. The teachers recited or read their -lectures, and the pupils learned by heart. The discipline -was harsh. Corrupt human nature was distrusted. In 1363, -pupils were forbidden the use of benches and chairs, on the -pretext that such high seats were an encouragement to pride. -For securing obedience, corporal chastisements were used -and abused. The rod is in fashion in the fifteenth as it was -in the fourteenth century.</p> - -<p>“There is no other difference,” says an historian, “except -that the rods in the fifteenth century are twice as long as -those in the fourteenth.”<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> Let us note, however, the protest -of Saint Anselm, a protest that pointed out the evil -rather than cured it. “Day and night,” said an abbot to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> -Saint Anselm, “we do not cease to chastise the children -confided to our care, and they grow worse and worse.” -Anselm replied, “Indeed! You do not cease to chastise -them! And when they are grown up, what will they become? -Idiotic and stupid. A fine education that, which makes -brutes of men! ... If you were to plant a tree in your -garden, and were to enclose it on all sides so that it could -not extend its branches, what would you find when, at the end -of several years, you set it free from its bands? A tree -whose branches would be bent and crooked; and would it -not be your fault, in having so unreasonably confined it?”</p> - - -<p class="p1">86. <span class="smcap">The Universities.</span>—Save claustral and cathedral -schools, to which must be added some parish schools, the -earliest example of our village schools, the sole educational -establishment of the Middle Age was what is called the <em>University</em>. -Towards the thirteenth and fourteenth century we -see multiplying in the great cities of Europe those centres of -study, those collections of students which recall from afar -the schools of Plato and Aristotle. Of such establishments -were the university which opened at Paris for the teaching -of theology and philosophy (1200); the universities of -Naples (1224), of Prague (1345), of Vienna (1365), of -Heidelberg (1386), etc.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> Without being completely affranchised -from sacerdotal control, these universities were a first -expansion of free science. As far back as the ninth century, -the Arabs had given an example to the rest of Europe by -founding at Salamanca, at Cordova, and in other cities of -Spain, schools where all the sciences were cultivated.</p> - - -<p class="p1">87. <span class="smcap">Gerson (1363-1429).</span>—With the gentle Gerson, the -supposed author of the <cite>Imitation</cite>, it seems that the dreary dialectics<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> -disappear to let the heart speak and make way for -feeling. The Chancellor of the University of Paris is distinguished -from the men of his time by his love for the people. -He wrote in the common tongue little elementary treatises -for the use and within the comprehension of the <em>plain people</em>. -His Latin work, entitled <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">De parvulis ad Christum trahendis</cite> -(“Little children whom we must lead to Christ”), gives -evidence of a large spirit of sweetness and goodness. It -abounds in subtile and delicate observations. For example, -Gerson demands of teachers patience and tenderness: -“Little children,” he says, “are more easily managed by -caresses than by fear.” For these frail creatures he dreads -the contagion of example. “No living being is more in -danger than the child of allowing himself to be corrupted by -another child.” In his eyes, the little child is a delicate -plant that must be carefully protected against every evil influence, -and, in particular, against pernicious literature, such -as the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Roman de la Rose</cite>. Gerson condemns corporal punishment, -and requires that teachers shall have for their pupils -the affection of a father:—</p> - -<p>“Above all else, let the teacher make an effort to be a -father to his pupils. Let him never be angry with them. -Let him always be simple in his instruction, and relate to his -pupils that which is wholesome and agreeable.” Tender-hearted -and exalted spirit, Gerson is a precursor of Fenelon.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">88. <span class="smcap">Vittorino da Feltre (1379-1446).</span>—It is a pleasure -to place beside Gerson one of his Italian contemporaries, -the celebrated Vittorino da Feltre, a professor in the University -of Padua. It was as preceptor to the sons of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> -Prince of Gonzagas, and as founder of an educational establishment -at Venice, that Vittorino found occasion to show -his aptitude for educational work. With him, education -again became what it was in Greece,—the harmonious development -of mind and body. Gymnastic exercises, such as -swimming, riding, fencing, restored to honor; attention to -the exterior qualities of fine bearing; an interesting and -agreeable method of instruction; a constant effort to discover -the character and aptitudes of children; a conscientious -preparation for each lesson; assiduous watchfulness over the -work of pupils; such are the principal features of the pedagogy -of Vittorino da Feltre, a system of teaching evidently -in advance of his time, and one which deserves a longer -study.</p> - - -<p class="p1">89. <span class="smcap">Other Teachers at the Close of the Middle Age.</span>—Were -we writing a work of erudition, there would be -other thinkers to point out in the last years of the Middle -Age, in that uncertain and, so to speak, twilight period -which serves as a transition from the night of the Middle -Age to the full day of the Renaissance. Among others, let -us notice the Chevalier de la Tour-Landry and Æneas Sylvius -Piccolomini.</p> - -<p>The Chevalier de la Tour-Landry, in the work which he -wrote for the education of his daughters (1372), scarcely rises -above the spirit of his time. Woman, as he thinks, is made -to pray and to go to church. The model which he sets before -his daughters is a countess, who “each day wished to -hear three masses.” He recommends fasting three times a -week in order “the better to subdue the flesh,” and to prevent -it “from diverting itself too much.” There is neither -responsibility nor proper dignity for the wife, who owes -obedience to her husband, her lord, and “should do his will,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> -whether wrong or right; if wrong, she is absolved from -blame, as the blame falls on her lord.”</p> - -<p>Æneas Sylvius, the future Pope Pius II., in his tract on -<cite>The Education of Children</cite> (1451), is already a man of the -Renaissance, since he recommends with enthusiasm the reading -and study of most of the classical authors. However, -he traces a programme of studies relatively liberal. By the -side of the humanities he places the sciences of geometry -and arithmetic, “which are necessary,” he says, “for training -the mind and assuring rapidity of conceptions”; and -also history and geography. He had himself composed historical -narratives accompanied by maps. The distrusts of -an overstrained devotion were no longer felt by a teacher -who wrote, “There is nothing in the world more precious -or more beautiful than an enlightened intelligence.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">90. <span class="smcap">Recapitulation.</span>—It is thus that the Middle Age in -drawing to a close came nearer and nearer, in the way of -continuous progress, to the decisive emancipation which the -Renaissance and the Reformation were soon to perpetuate. -But the Middle Age, in itself, whatever effort may be put -forth at this day to rehabilitate it, and to discover in it -the golden age of modern societies, remains an ill-starred -epoch. A few virtues, negative for the most part, virtues -of obedience and consecration, cannot atone for the real -faults of those rude and barbarous centuries. A higher -education reserved to ecclesiastics and men of noble rank; -an instruction which consisted in verbal legerdemain, which -developed only the mechanism of reasoning, and made of -the intelligence a prisoner of the formal syllogism; agreeably -to the barbarism of primitive times, a fantastic pedantry -which lost itself in superficial discussions and in verbal -distinctions; popular education almost null, and restricted to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> -the teaching of the catechism in Latin; finally, a Church, -absolute and sovereign, which determined for all, great and -small, the limits of thought, of belief, and of action; such -was, from our own point of view, the condition of the Middle -Age. It was time for the coming of the Renaissance to -affranchise the human mind, to excite and to reveal to itself -the unconscious need of instruction, and by the fruitful -alliance of the Christian spirit and profane letters, to prepare -for the coming of modern education.</p> - - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>[91. <span class="smcap">Analytical Summary.</span>—1. The fundamental characteristic -of Middle Age education was the domination of -religious conceptions. The training was for the life to come, -rather than for this life; it was almost exclusively religious -and moral; was based on authority; and included the whole -human race.</p> - -<p class="p1">2. This alliance of church and school, while giving an -exclusive aim to education, also gave it a spirit of intense -seriousness and earnestness. The survivals of this historical -alliance are church and parish schools, and a disposition -of the modern Church to dispute the right of the State to -educate.</p> - -<p>3. The supreme importance attached to the Scriptures -made education literary; made instruction dogmatic and -arbitrary; exalted words over things; inculcated a taste for -abstract and formal reasoning; made learning a process of -memorizing; and stifled the spirit of free inquiry.</p> - -<p>4. The inclusion of the whole world in one Christian -Commonwealth, led to the intellectual enfranchisement of -woman and to the rise of primary education proper.</p> - -<p>5. The general tendency was towards harshness in discipline, -coarseness in habits and manners, and a contempt for -the amenities of life.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></p> - -<p>6. Scholasticism erred by exaggeration; but its general -effect was to develop the power of deductive reasoning, to -teach the use of language as the instrument of thought, and -to make apparent the need of nice discriminations in the use -of words.</p> - -<p>7. The great intellectual lesson taught is the extreme -difficulty of attaining compass, symmetry, and moderation.]</p></div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> Fustel de Coulanges, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Cité antique</cite>, p. 476.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> See the Homily of Saint Basil <cite>On the Utility which the young can derive -from the reading of profane authors</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> <cite>Letter to Læta on the education of her daughter Paula</cite> (403). <cite>Letter -to Gaudentius on the education of the little Pacatula.</cite> The letter to Gaudentius -is far inferior to the other by reason of the perpetual digressions -into which the author permits himself to be drawn.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> For writing, Saint Jerome, like Quintilian, recommends that children -first practise on tablets of wood on which letters have been engraved.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Écolâtre.</i> The history of this word, as given by Littré, is instructive. -“There was no cathedral church (sixteenth century) in which a sum was -not appropriated for the salary of one who taught the ordinary subjects, -and another for one who had leisure for teaching Theology. The first was -called <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">escolastre</i> (<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">écolâtre</i>), the second <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">theologal</i>.” Pasquier. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> For other examples, see the <cite>Life of Alcuin</cite>, by Lorenz; and for Middle -Age education in general, consult <cite>Christian Schools and Scholars</cite>, by -Augusta Theodosia Drane. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> The following quotation illustrates this servile dependence on authority: -</p> -<p> -“At the time when the discovery of spots on the sun first began to circulate, -a student called the attention of his old professor to the rumor, and -received the following reply: ‘There can be no spots on the sun, for I have -read Aristotle twice from beginning to end, and he says the sun is incorruptible. -Clean your lenses, and if the spots are not in the telescope, they -must be in your eyes!’” Naville, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Logique de l’Hypothèse</cite>. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> This is no exception to the rule that the education of an age is the exponent -of its real or supposed needs. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Monteil, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Histoire des Français des divers états</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Cambridge (1109), Oxford (1140).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> In the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Traité de la visite des diocèses</cite>, in 1400, he directed the bishops to -inquire whether each parish had a school, and, in case there were none, to -establish one.</p></div></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER V.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">THE RENAISSANCE AND THE THEORIES OF EDUCATION -IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.</span></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EDUCATION OF THE SIXTEENTH -CENTURY; CAUSES OF THE RENAISSANCE IN EDUCATION; THE -THEORY AND THE PRACTICE OF EDUCATION IN THE SIXTEENTH -CENTURY; ERASMUS (1467-1536); EDUCATION OF ERASMUS; THE -JEROMITES; PEDAGOGICAL WORKS OF ERASMUS; JUVENILE -ETIQUETTE; EARLY EDUCATION; THE INSTRUCTION OF WOMEN; -RABELAIS (1483-1553); CRITICISM OF THE OLD EDUCATION; GARGANTUA -AND EUDEMON; THE NEW EDUCATION; PHYSICAL EDUCATION; -INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION; THE PHYSICAL AND NATURAL -SCIENCES; OBJECT LESSONS; ATTRACTIVE METHODS; RELIGIOUS -EDUCATION; MORAL EDUCATION; MONTAIGNE (1533-1592) AND -RABELAIS; THE PERSONAL EDUCATION OF MONTAIGNE; EDUCATION -SHOULD BE GENERAL; THE PURPOSE OF INSTRUCTION; -EDUCATION OF THE JUDGMENT; EDUCATIONAL METHODS; STUDIES -RECOMMENDED; MONTAIGNE’S ERRORS; INCOMPLETENESS OF HIS -VIEWS ON THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.</p></div> - -<hr class="r15a" /> - -<p class="p1">92. <span class="smcap">General Characteristics of the Education of -the Sixteenth Century.</span>—Modern education begins with -the Renaissance. The educational methods that we then -begin to discern will doubtless not be developed and -perfected till a later period; the new doctrines will pass -into practice only gradually, and with the general progress -of the times. But from the sixteenth century education -is in possession of its essential principles. The education -of the Middle Age, over-rigid and repressive, which -condemned the body to a régime too severe, and the -mind to a discipline too narrow, is to be succeeded,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> -at least in theory, by an education broader and more -liberal; which will give due attention to hygiene and -physical exercises; which will enfranchise the intelligence, -hitherto the prisoner of the syllogism; which will call into -play the moral forces, instead of repressing them; which -will substitute real studies for the verbal subtilties of dialectics; -which will give the preference to things over words; -which, finally, instead of developing but a single faculty, the -reason, and instead of reducing man to a sort of dialectic -automaton, will seek to develop the whole man, mind and -body, taste and knowledge, heart and will.</p> - - -<p class="p1">93. <span class="smcap">Causes of the Renaissance in Education.</span>—The -men of the sixteenth century having renewed with classical -antiquity an intercourse that had been too long interrupted, -it was natural that they should propose to the young the -study of the Greeks and the Romans. What is called -secondary instruction really dates from the sixteenth century. -The crude works of the Middle Age are succeeded by -the elegant compositions of Athens and Rome, henceforth -made accessible to all through the art of printing; and, with -the reading of the ancient authors, there reappear through the -fruitful effect of imitation, their qualities of correctness in -thought, of literary taste, and of elegance in form. In -France, as in Italy, the national tongues, moulded, and, -as it were, consecrated by writers of genius, become the -instruments of an intellectual propaganda. Artistic taste, -revived by the rich products of a race of incomparable artists, -gives an extension to the horizon of life, and creates a new -class of emotions. Finally, the Protestant Reform develops -individual thought and free inquiry, and at the same time, -by its success, it imposes still greater efforts on the Catholic -Church.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></p> - -<p>This is not saying that everything is faultless in the educational -efforts of the sixteenth century. First, as is natural -for innovators, the thought of the teachers of this period is -marked by enthusiasm rather than by precision. They are -more zealous in pointing out the end to be attained, than -exact in determining the means to be employed. Besides, -some of them are content to emancipate the mind, but forget -to give it proper direction. Finally, others make a wrong -use of the ancients; they are too much preoccupied with the -form and the purity of language; they fall into <em>Ciceromania</em>, -and it is not their fault if a new superstition, that of rhetoric, -does not succeed the old superstition, that of the syllogism.</p> - - -<p class="p1">94. <span class="smcap">The Theory and the Practice of Education in -the Sixteenth Century.</span>—In the history of education in the -sixteenth century, we must, moreover, carefully distinguish -the theory from the practice. The theory of education is -already boldly put forward, and is in advance of its age; -while the practice is still dragging itself painfully along on -the beaten road, notwithstanding some successful attempts -at improvement.</p> - -<p>The theory we must look for in the works of Erasmus, -Rabelais, and Montaigne, of whom it may be said, that before -pretending to surpass them, even at this day, we should -rather attempt to overtake them, and to equal them in the -most of their pedagogical precepts.</p> - -<p>The practice is, first, the development of the study of the -humanities, particularly in the early colleges of the Jesuits, -and, before the Jesuits, in certain Protestant colleges, particularly -in the college at Strasburg, so brilliantly administered -by the celebrated Sturm (1507-1589). Then it is the revival -of higher instruction, denoted particularly by the foundation -of the College of France (1530), and by the brilliant lec<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>tures -of Ramus. Finally, it is the progress, we might -almost say the birth, of primary instruction, through the -efforts of the Protestant reformers, and especially of Luther.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, the educational thought of the sixteenth -century is in advance of educational practice; theories -greatly anticipate applications, and constitute almost all that -is deserving of special note.</p> - - -<p class="p1">95. <span class="smcap">Erasmus (1467-1536).</span>—By his numerous writings, -translations, grammars, dictionaries, and original works, -Erasmus diffused about him his own passionate fondness for -classical literature, and communicated this taste to his contemporaries. -Without having a direct influence on education, -since he scarcely taught himself, he encouraged the study of -the ancients by his example, and by his active propagandism. -The scholar who said, “When I have money, I will -first buy Greek books and then clothes,” deserves to be -placed in the first rank among the creators of secondary -instruction.</p> - - -<p class="p1">96. <span class="smcap">The Education of Erasmus: the Jeromites.</span>—Erasmus -was educated by the monks, as Voltaire was by the -Jesuits, a circumstance that has cost these liberal thinkers -none of their independent disposition, and none of their -satirical spirit. At the age of twelve, Erasmus entered the -college of Deventer, in Holland. This college was conducted -by the Jeromites, or <em>Brethren of the Common Life</em>. -Founded in 1340 by Gerard Groot, the association of the -Jeromites undertook, among other occupations, the instruction -of children. Very mystical, and very ascetic at first, -the disciples of Gerard Groot restricted themselves to teaching -the Bible, to reading, and writing. They proscribed, as -useless to piety, letters and the sciences. But in the -fifteenth century, under the influence of John of Wessel and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> -Rudolph Agricola, the Jeromites became transformed; they -were the precursors of the Renaissance, and the promoters -of the alliance between profane letters and Christianity. -“We may read Ovid once,” said John of Wessel, “but we -ought to read Virgil, Horace, and Terence, with more attention.” -Horace and Terence were precisely the favorite -authors of Erasmus, who learned them by heart at Deventer. -Agricola, of whom Erasmus speaks only with enthusiasm, -was also the zealous propagator of the great works -of antiquity, and, at the same time, the severe critic of the -state of educational practice of the time when the school -was too much like a prison.</p> - -<p>“If there is anything which has a contradictory name,” -he said, “it is the school. The Greeks called it σχολὴ, which -means <em>leisure</em>, <em>recreation</em>; and the Latins, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludus</i>, that is, -<em>play</em>. But there is nothing farther removed from recreation -and play. Aristophanes called it φροντιστήριον, that is, -<em>place of care</em>, <em>of torment</em>, and this is surely the designation -which best befits it.”</p> - -<p>Erasmus then had for his first teachers enlightened men, -who, notwithstanding their monastic condition, both knew -and loved antiquity. But, as a matter of fact, Erasmus -was his own teacher. By personal effort he put himself at -the school of the ancients. He was all his life a student. -Now he was a foundation scholar at the college of Montaigu, -in Paris, and now preceptor to gentlemen of wealth. He -was always in pursuit of learning, going over the whole of -Europe, that he might find in each cultivated city new opportunities -for self-instruction.</p> - - -<p class="p1">97. <span class="smcap">Pedagogical Works of Erasmus.</span>—Most of the -works written by Erasmus relate to instruction. Some of -them are fairly to be classed as text-books, elementary -treatises on practical education, as, for example, his books<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> -<cite>On the Manner of writing Letters</cite>, <cite>Upon Rules of Etiquette -for the Young</cite>, etc. We may also notice his <cite>Adages</cite>, a vast -repertory of proverbs and maxims borrowed from antiquity; -his <cite>Colloquies</cite>, a collection of dialogues for the use of the -young, though the author here treats of many things which -a pupil should never hear spoken of. Another category -should include works of a more theoretical character, in -which Erasmus sets forth his ideas on education. In the -essay <cite>On the Order of Study</cite> (<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">de Ratione Studii</cite>), he seeks out -the rules for instruction in literature, for the study of grammar, -for the cultivation of the memory, and for the explication -of the Greek and Latin authors. Another treatise, -entitled <cite>Of the First Liberal Education of Children</cite> (<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">De pueris -statim ac liberaliter instituendis</cite>), is still more important, and -covers the whole field of education. Erasmus here studies -the character of the child, the question of knowing whether -the first years of child-life can be turned to good account, -and the measures that are to be taken with early life. He -also recommends methods that are attractive, and heartily -condemns the barbarous discipline which reigned in the -schools of his time.</p> - - -<p class="p1">98. <span class="smcap">Juvenile Etiquette.</span>—Erasmus is one of the first -educators who comprehended the importance of politeness. -In an age still uncouth, where the manners of even the cultivated -classes tolerated usages that the most ignorant rustic -of to-day would scorn, it was good to call the attention to -outward appearances and the duties of politeness. Erasmus -knew perfectly well that politeness has a moral side, -that it is not a matter of pure convention, but that it proceeds -from the inner disposition of a well-ordered soul. So -he assigns it an important place in education:</p> - -<p>“The duty of instructing the young,” he says, “includes -several elements, the first and also the chief of which is,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> -that the tender mind of the child should be instructed in -piety; the second, that he love and learn the liberal arts; -the third, that he be taught tact in the conduct of social -life; and the fourth, that from his earliest age he accustom -himself to good behavior, based on moral principles.”</p> - -<p>We need not be astonished, however, to find that the -civility of Erasmus is still imperfect, now too free, now too -exacting, and always ingenuous. “It is a religious duty,” -he says, “to salute him who sneezes.” “Morally speaking, -it is not a proper thing to throw the head back while drinking, -after the manner of storks, in order to drain the last -drop from the glass.” “If one let bread fall on the ground, -he should kiss it after having picked it up.” On the other -hand, Erasmus seems to allow that the nose may be wiped -with the fingers, but he forbids the use of the cap or the -sleeve for this purpose. He requires that the face shall be -bathed with pure water in the morning; “but,” he adds, -“to repeat this afterwards is nonsense.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">99. <span class="smcap">Early Education.</span>—Like Quintilian, by whom he is -often inspired, Erasmus does not scorn to enter the primary -school, and to shape the first exercises for intellectual culture. -Upon many points, the thought of the sixteenth century -scholar is but an echo of the <cite>Institutes of Oratory</cite>, or -of the educational essays of Plutarch. Some of his maxims -deserve to be reproduced: “We learn with great willingness -from those whom we love;” “Parents themselves cannot -properly bring up their children if they make themselves -only to be feared;” “There are children who would be -killed sooner than made better by blows: by mildness and -kind admonitions, one may make of them whatever he -will;” “Children will learn to speak their native tongue -without any weariness, by usage and practice;” “Drill in -reading and writing is a little bit tiresome, and the teacher<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> -will ingeniously palliate the tedium by the artifice of an -attractive method;” “The ancients moulded toothsome -dainties into the forms of the letters, and thus, as it were, -made children swallow the alphabet;” “In the matter of -grammatical rules, instruction should at the first be limited -to the most simple;” “As the body in infant years is nourished -by little portions distributed at intervals, so should -the mind of the child be nurtured by items of knowledge -adapted to its weakness, and distributed little by little.”</p> - -<p>From out these quotations there appears a method of -instruction that is kindly, lovable, and full of tenderness for -the young. Erasmus claims for them the nourishing care -and caresses of the mother, the familiarity and goodness of -the father, cleanliness, and even elegance in the school, and -finally, the mildness and indulgence of the teacher.</p> - - -<p class="p1">100. <span class="smcap">The Instruction of Women.</span>—The scholars of -the Renaissance did not exclude women from all participation -in the literary treasures that a recovered antiquity had -disclosed to themselves. Erasmus admits them to an equal -share.</p> - -<p>In the <cite>Colloquy of the Abbé and the Educated Woman</cite>, -Magdala claims for herself the right to learn Latin, “so that -she may hold converse each day with so many authors who -are so eloquent, so instructive, so wise, and such good counsellors.” -In the book called <cite>Christian Marriage</cite>, Erasmus -banters young ladies who learn only to make a bow, to hold -the hands crossed, to bite their lips when they laugh, to eat -and drink as little as possible at table, after having taken -ample portions in private. More ambitious for the wife, -Erasmus recommends her to pursue the studies which will -assist her in educating her own children, and in taking part -in the intellectual life of her husband.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p> - -<p>Vives, a contemporary of Erasmus (1492-1540), a Spanish -teacher, expressed analogous ideas in his books on the -education of women, in which he recommends young women -to read Plato and Seneca.</p> - -<p>To sum up, the pedagogy of Erasmus is not without value; -but with him, education ran the risk of remaining exclusively -Greek and Latin. A humanist above everything else, he -granted but very small place to the sciences, and to history, -which it sufficed to skim over, as he said; and, what reveals -his inmost nature, he recommended the study of the physical -sciences for this reason in particular, that the writer will find -in the knowledge of nature an abundant source of metaphors, -images, and comparisons.</p> - - -<p class="p1">101. <span class="smcap">Rabelais (1483-1553).</span>—Wholly different is the -spirit of Rabelais, who, under a fanciful and original form, -has sketched a complete system of education. Some pages -of marked gravity in the midst of the epic vagabondage of -his burlesque work, give him the right to appear in the first -rank among those who have reformed the art of training and -developing the human soul.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p> - -<p>The pedagogy of Rabelais is the first appearance of what -may be called <em>realism</em> in instruction, in distinction from the -scholastic <em>formalism</em>. The author of <cite>Gargantua</cite> turns the -mind of the young man towards objects truly worthy of occupying -his attention. He catches a glimpse of the future -reserved to scientific education, and to the study of nature. -He invites the mind, not to the labored subtilties and complicated -tricks which scholasticism had brought into fashion, -but to manly efforts, and to a wide unfolding of human -nature.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">102. <span class="smcap">Criticism of the Old Education: Gargantua and -Eudemon.</span>—In the manners of the sixteenth century, the -keen satire of Rabelais found many opportunities for disporting -itself; and his book may be regarded as a collection -of pamphlets. But there is nothing that he has pursued -with more sarcasms than the education of his day.</p> - -<p>At the outset, Gargantua is educated according to the -scholastic methods. He works for twenty years with all his -might, and learns so perfectly the books that he studies that -he can recite them by heart, backwards and forwards, “and -yet his father discovered that all this profited him nothing; -and what is worse, that it made him a madcap, a ninny, -dreamy, and infatuated.”</p> - -<p>To that unintelligent and artificial training which surcharges -the memory, which holds the pupil for long years -over insipid books, which robs the mind of all independent -activity, which dulls rather than sharpens the intelligence,—to -all this Rabelais opposes a natural education, which appeals -to experience and to facts, which trains the young man, not -only for the discussions of the schools, but for real life, and -for intercourse with the world, and which, finally, enriches -the intelligence and adorns the memory without stifling the -native graces and the free activities of the spirit.</p> - -<p>Eudemon, who, in Rabelais’ romance, represents the pupil -trained by the new methods, knows how to think with accuracy -and speak with facility; his bearing is without boldness, -but with confidence. When introduced to Gargantua, -he turns towards him, “cap in hand, with open countenance, -ruddy lips, steady eyes, and with modesty becoming a -youth”; he salutes him elegantly and graciously. To all -the pleasant things which Eudemon says to him, Gargantua -finds nothing to say in reply: “His countenance appeared -as though he had taken to crying immoderately; he hid his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> -face in his cap, and not a single word could be drawn from -him.”</p> - -<p>In these two pupils, so different in manner, Rabelais has -personified two contrasted methods of education: that which, -by mechanical exercises of memory, enfeebles and dulls -the intelligence; and that which, with larger grants of -liberty, develops keen intelligences, and frank and open -characters.</p> - - -<p class="p1">103. <span class="smcap">The New Education.</span>—Let us now notice with -some detail how Rabelais conceives this new education.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> -After having thrown into sharp relief the faults contracted -by Gargantua in the school of his first teachers, he -entrusts him to a preceptor, Ponocrates, who is charged with -correcting his faults, and with re-moulding him; he is to -employ his own principles in the government of his pupil.</p> - -<p>Ponocrates proceeds slowly at first; he considers that -“nature does not endure sudden changes without great -violence.” He studies and observes his pupil; he wishes to -judge of his natural disposition. Then he sets himself to -work; he undertakes a general recasting of the character and -spirit of Gargantua, while directing, at the same time, his -physical, intellectual, and moral education.</p> - - -<p class="p1">104. <span class="smcap">Physical Education.</span>—Hygiene and gymnastics, -cleanliness which protects the body, and exercise which -strengthens it,—these two essential parts of physical education<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> -receive equal attention from Rabelais. Erasmus -thought it was nonsense (“<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">ne rime à rien</i>”) to wash more -than once a day. Gargantua, on the contrary, after eating, -bathes his hands and his eyes in fresh water. Rabelais does -not forget that he has been a physician; he omits no detail -relative to the care of the body, even the most repugnant. -He is far from believing, with the mystics of the Middle -Age, that it is permissible to lodge knowledge in a sordid -body, and that a foul or neglected exterior is not unbefitting -virtuous souls. The first preceptors of Gargantua said that -it sufficed to comb one’s hair “with the four fingers and the -thumb; and that whoever combed, washed, and cleansed -himself otherwise, was losing his time in this world.” With -Ponocrates, Gargantua reforms his habits, and tries to resemble -Eudemon, “whose hair was so neatly combed, who -was so well dressed, of such fine appearance, and was so -modest in his bearing, that he much more resembled a little -angel than a man.”</p> - -<p>Rabelais attaches equal importance to gymnastics, to walking, -and to active life in the open air. He does not allow -Gargantua to grow pale over his books, and to protract his -study into the night. After the morning’s lessons, he takes -him out to play. Tennis and ball follow the application to -books: “He exercises his body just as vigorously as he had -before exercised his mind.” And so, after the study of the -afternoon till the supper hour, Gargantua devotes his time -to physical exercises. Riding, wrestling, swimming, every -species of physical recreation, gymnastics under all its forms,—there -is nothing which Gargantua does not do to give agility -to his limbs and to strengthen his muscles. Here, as in -other places, Rabelais stretches a point, and purposely resorts -to exaggeration in order to make his thought better comprehended. -It would require days of several times twenty-four<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> -hours, in order that a real man could find the time to do all -that the author of Gargantua requires of his giant. In contrast -with the long asceticism of the Middle Age, he proposes -a real revelry of gymnastics for the colossal body of his hero. -We will not forget that here, as in all the other parts of -Rabelais’ work, fiction is ever mingled with fact. Rabelais -wrote for giants, and it is natural that he should demand -gigantesque efforts of them. In order to comprehend the -exact thought of the author, it is necessary to reduce his -fantastic exaggerations to human proportions.</p> - - -<p class="p1">105. <span class="smcap">Intellectual Education.</span>—For the mind, as for -the body, Rabelais requires prodigies of activity. Gargantua -rises at four in the morning, and the greater part of the long -day is filled with study. For the indolent contemplations of -the Middle Age, Rabelais substitutes an incessant effort and -an intense activity of the mind. Gargantua first studies the -ancient languages, and the first place is given to Greek, -which Rabelais rescues from the long discredit into which it -had fallen in the Middle Age, as is proved by the vulgar -adage, “<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Græcum est, non legitur</i>.”</p> - -<p>“Now, all disciplines are restored, and the languages reinstated,—Greek -(without which it is a shame for a person -to call himself learned), Hebrew, Chaldean, Latin. There -are very elegant and correct editions in use, which have been -invented in my age by divine inspiration, as, on the other -hand, artillery was invented by diabolic suggestion. The -whole world is full of wise men, of learned teachers, and of -very large libraries, and it is my opinion that neither in the -time of Plato nor in that of Cicero, nor in that of Papinian, -were there such opportunities for study as we see to-day.”</p> - -<p>Like all his contemporaries, Rabelais is an enthusiast in -classical learning; but he is distinguished from them by a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> -very decided taste for the sciences, and in particular for the -natural sciences.</p> - - -<p class="p1">106. <span class="smcap">The Physical and Natural Sciences.</span>—The Middle -Age had completely neglected the study of nature. The -art of observing was ignored by those subtile dialecticians, -who would know nothing of the physical world except through -the theories of Aristotle or the dogmas of the sacred books; -who attached no value to the study of the material universe, -the transient and despised abode of immortal souls; and -who, moreover, flattered themselves that they could discover -at the end of their syllogisms all that was necessary to know -about it. Rabelais is certainly the first, in point of time, of -that grand school of educators who place the sciences in the -first rank among the studies worthy of human thought.</p> - -<p>The scholar of the Middle Age knew nothing of the -world. Gargantua requires of his son that he shall know it -under all its aspects:</p> - -<p>“As to the knowledge of the facts of nature,” he writes -to Pantagruel, “I would have you devote yourself to them -with great care, so that there shall be neither sea, river, nor -fountain, whose fish you do not know. All the birds of the -air, all the trees, shrubs, and fruits of the forests, all the -grasses of the earth, all the metals concealed in the depths -of the abysses, the precious stones of the entire East and -South,—none of these should be unknown to you. By frequent -dissections, acquire a knowledge of the other world, -which is man. In a word, I point out a new world of -knowledge.”</p> - -<p>Nothing is omitted, it is observed, from what constitutes -the science of the universe or the knowledge of man.</p> - -<p>It is further to be noticed, that Rabelais wishes his pupil -not only to know, but to love and experience nature. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> -recommends his pupils to go and read the <cite>Georgics</cite> of Virgil -in the midst of meadows and woods. The precursor of -Rousseau on this point as upon some others, he thinks there -is a gain in spiritual health by refreshing the imagination and -giving repose to the spirit, through the contemplation of the -beauties of nature.</p> - -<p>Ponocrates, in order to afford Gargantua distraction from -his extreme attention to study, recommended once each -month some very clear and serene day, on which they set out -at an early hour from the city, and went to Chantilly, or -Boulogne, or Montrouge, or Pont Charenton, or Vannes, or -Saint Cloud. And there they passed the whole day in playing, -singing, dancing, frolicking in some fine meadow, -hunting for sparrows, collecting pebbles, fishing for frogs -and crabs.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">107. <span class="smcap">Object Lessons.</span>—In the scheme of studies planned -by Rabelais, the mind of the pupil is always on the alert, -even at table. There, instruction takes place while talking. -The conversation bears upon the food, upon the objects -which attract the attention of Gargantua, upon the nature -and properties of water, wine, bread, and salt. Every sensible -object becomes material for questions and explanations. -Gargantua often takes walks across fields, and he studies -botany in the open country, “passing through meadows or -other grassy places, observing trees and plants, comparing -them with ancient books where they are described, ... and -taking handfuls of them home.” There are but few didactic -lessons; intuitive instruction, given in the presence of the -objects themselves, such is the method of Rabelais. It is -in the same spirit that he sends his pupil to visit the stores -of the silversmiths, the founderies, the alchemists’ laboratories,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> -and shops of all kinds,—real scientific excursions, -such as are in vogue to-day. Rabelais would form a complete -man, skilled in art and industry, and also capable, like -the <cite>Émile</cite> of Rousseau, of devoting himself to manual labor. -When the weather is rainy, and walking impracticable, Gargantua -employs his time in splitting and sawing wood, and -in threshing grain in the barn.</p> - - -<p class="p1">108. <span class="smcap">Attractive Methods.</span>—By a reaction against the -irksome routine of the Middle Age, Rabelais would have -his pupil study while playing, and even learn mathematics -“through recreation and amusement.” It is in handling -playing-cards that Gargantua is taught thousands of “new -inventions which relate to the science of numbers.” The -same course is followed in geometry and astronomy. The -accomplishments are not neglected, especially fencing. Gargantua -is an enormous man, who is to be developed in all -directions. The fine arts, music, painting, and sculpture, are -not strangers to him. The hero of Rabelais represents, not -so much an individual man, as a collective being who personifies -the whole of society, with all the variety of its new -aspirations, and with all the intensity of its multiplied needs. -While the Middle Age, through a narrow spirit, left in inaction -certain natural tendencies, Rabelais calls them all into -life, without choice, it is true, and without discrimination, -with the whole ardor of an emancipated imagination.</p> - - -<p class="p1">109. <span class="smcap">Religious Education.</span>—In respect of religion as of -everything else, Rabelais is the adversary of an education -wholly exterior and of pure form. He ridicules his Gargantua, -who, before his intellectual conversion, when he was -still at the school of “his preceptors, the sophists,” goes to -church, after a hearty dinner, to hear twenty-six or thirty -masses. What he substitutes for this exterior devotion, for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> -this abuse of superficial practices, is a real feeling of piety, -and the direct reading of the sacred texts: “It is while -Gargantua was being dressed that there was read to him a -page of Divine Scripture.”<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> Still more, it is the intimate and -personal adoration “of the great psalmodist of the universe,” -excited by the study of the works of God. Gargantua and -his master, Ponocrates, have scarcely risen when they observe -the state of the heavens, and admire the celestial vault. In -the evening they devote themselves to the same contemplation. -After his meals, as before going to sleep, Gargantua -offers prayers to God, to adore Him, to confirm his faith, to -glorify Him for His boundless goodness, to thank Him for -all the time past, and to recommend himself to Him for the -time to come. The religious feeling of Rabelais proceeds at -the same time, both from the sentiment which provoked the -Protestant Reformation, of which he came near being an -adherent, and from tendencies still more modern,—those, for -example, which animate the deistic philosophy of Rousseau.</p> - - -<p class="p1">110. <span class="smcap">Moral Education.</span>—Those who know Rabelais only -by reputation, or through some of his innumerable drolleries, -will perhaps be astonished that the jovial author can be -counted a teacher of morals. It is impossible, however, to -misunderstand the sincere and lofty inspiration of such passages -as this:</p> - -<p>“Because, according to the wise Solomon, wisdom does -not enter into a malevolent soul, and knowledge without conscience -is but the ruin of the soul; it becomes you to serve, to -love, and to fear God, and to place on Him all your thoughts,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> -all your hopes.... Be suspicious of the errors of the world. -Apply not your heart to vanity, for this life is transitory; -but the word of God endures forever. Be useful to all your -neighbors, and love them as yourself. Revere your teachers, -flee the company of men whom you would not resemble; and -the grace which God has given you receive not in vain. And -when you think you have all the knowledge that can be acquired -by this means, return to me, so that I may see you, -and give you my benediction before I die.”<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">111. <span class="smcap">Montaigne (1533-1592) and Rabelais.</span>—Between -Erasmus, the learned humanist, exclusively devoted to belles-lettres, -and Rabelais, the bold innovator, who extends as far -as possible the limits of the intelligence, and who causes the -entire encyclopædia of human knowledge to enter the brain -of his pupil at the risk of splitting it open, Montaigne -occupies an intermediate place, with his circumspect and -conservative tendencies, with his discreet and moderate pedagogy, -the enemy of all excesses. It seemed that Rabelais -would develop all the faculties equally, and place all -studies, letters, and sciences upon the same footing. Montaigne -demands a choice. Between the different faculties he -attempts particularly to train the judgment; among the different -knowledges, he recommends by preference those which -form sound and sensible minds. Rabelais overdrives mind -and body. He dreams of an extravagant course of instruction -where every science shall be studied exhaustively.<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> -Montaigne simply demands that “one taste the upper -crust of the sciences”; that one skim over them without -going into them deeply, “in French fashion.” In his view, -a well-made head is worth more than a head well filled. It -is not so much to accumulate, to amass, knowledge, as to -assimilate as much of it as a prudent intelligence can digest -without fatigue. In a word, while Rabelais sits down, so to -speak, at the banquet of knowledge with an avidity which -recalls the gluttony of the Pantagruelian repasts, Montaigne -is a delicate connoisseur, who would only satisfy with discretion -a regulated appetite.</p> - - -<p class="p1">112. <span class="smcap">The Personal Education of Montaigne.</span>—One -often becomes teacher through recollection of his personal -education. This is what happened to Montaigne. His pedagogy -is at once an imitation of the methods which a father -full of solicitude had himself applied to him, and a protest -against the defects and the vices of the college of Guienne, -which he entered at the age of six years. The home -education of Montaigne affords the interesting spectacle of -a child who develops freely. My spirit, he himself says, was -trained with all gentleness and freedom, without severity or -constraint. His father, skilful in his tender care, had him -awakened each morning at the sound of musical instruments, -so as to spare him those brusque alarms that are bad preparations -for toil. In a word, he applied to him that tempered -discipline, at once indulgent and firm, equally removed -from complacency and harshness, which Montaigne has -christened with the name of <em>severe mildness</em>. Another characteristic -of Montaigne’s education is, that he learned Latin -as one learns his native tongue. His father had surrounded -him with domestics and teachers who conversed with him -only in Latin. The result of this was, that at the age of six -he was so proficient in the language of Cicero, that the best<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> -Latinists of the time feared to address him (<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">craignissent à -l’accoster</i>). On the other hand, he knew no more of French -than he did of Arabic.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> It is evident that Montaigne’s father -had taken a false route, but at least Montaigne derived a just -conception from this experience, namely, that the methods -ordinarily pursued in the study of the dead languages are too -slow and too mechanical; that an abuse is made of rules, -and that sufficient attention is not given to practice: “No -doubt but <em>Greek</em> and <em>Latin</em> are very great ornaments, and -of very great use, but we buy them too dear.”<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p> - -<p>At the college of Guienne, where he passed seven years, -Montaigne learned to detest corporal chastisements and the -hard discipline of the scholars of his day: “ ... Instead of -tempting and alluring children to letters by apt and gentle -ways, our pedants do in truth present nothing before them -but rods and ferules, horror and cruelty. Away with this -violence! away with this compulsion! than which, I certainly -believe, nothing more dulls and degenerates a well-descended -nature.... The strict government of most of our colleges -has evermore displeased me.... ’Tis the true house of -correction of imprisoned youth.... Do but come in when -they are about their lesson, and you shall hear nothing but -the outcries of boys under execution, with the thundering -noise of their <em>Pedagogues</em>, drunk with fury, to make up the -consort. A pretty way this! to tempt these tender and -timorous souls to love their book, with a furious countenance, -and a rod in hand. A cursed and pernicious way of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> -proceeding.... How much more decent would it be to see -their classes strewed with green leaves and fine flowers, than -with bloody stumps of birch and willows? Were it left to -my ordering, I should paint the school with the pictures of -Joy and Gladness, Flora and the Graces ... that where -their profit is, they might have their pleasure too.”<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">113. <span class="smcap">Importance of a General rather than a Special -Education.</span>—If Montaigne, in different chapters of his -essays,<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> has given passing attention to pedagogical questions, -it is not only through a recollection of his own years of apprenticeship, -but also because of his judgment as a philosopher, -that “the greatest and most important task of human -understanding is in those matters which concern the nurture -and instruction of children.”</p> - -<p>For him, education is the art of forming men, and not -specialists. This he explains in his original manner under -the form of an anecdote:</p> - -<p>“Going to Orleans one day, I met in that plain this side -Clery, two pedants who were going towards Bordeaux, -about fifty paces distant from one another. Still further -back of them, I saw a troop of horse, and at their head a -gentleman who was the late Count de la Rochefoucault. One -of my company inquired of the foremost of these dominies, -who that gentleman was who was following him. He had -not observed the train that was following after, and thought -that the question related to his companion; and so he -replied pleasantly, ‘He is not a gentleman, but a grammarian, -and I am a logician.’ Now, as we are here concerned in the -training, not of a grammarian, or of a logician, but of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> -complete gentleman, we will let those who will abuse their -leisure; but we have business of another nature.”<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></p> - -<p>It is true that Montaigne says gentleman, and not simply -man; but in reality his thought is the same as that of Rousseau -and of all those who require a general education of the -human soul.</p> - - -<p class="p1">114. <span class="smcap">The Purpose of Instruction.</span>—From what has now -been said, it is easy to comprehend that, in the opinion of -Montaigne, letters and other studies are but the means or -instrument, and not the aim and end of instruction. The -author of the <cite>Essays</cite> does not yield to the literary craze, -which, in the sixteenth century, took certain scholars captive, -and made the ideal of education to consist of a knowledge of -the ancient languages. It is of little consequence to him -that a pupil has learned to write in Latin; what he does -require, is that he become better and more prudent, and have -a sounder judgment. “If his soul be not put into better -rhythm, if the judgment be not better settled, I would rather -have him spend his time at tennis.”<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">115. <span class="smcap">Education of the Judgment.</span>—Montaigne has -expressed his dominant thought on education in a hundred -different ways. He is preoccupied with the training of the -judgment, and on this point we might quote whole pages:</p> - -<p>“ ... According to the fashion in which we are instructed, -it is not singular that neither scholars nor masters become -more able, although they become more wise. In fact, our -parents devote their care and expense to furnishing our heads -with knowledge; but to judgment and virtue no additions -are made. Say of a passer-by to people, ‘O what a learned -man!’ and of another, ‘O what a good man goes there!’ -and they will not fail to turn their eyes and attention towards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> -the former. There should be a third to cry, ‘O the blockheads!’ -Men are quick to inquire, ‘Does he know Greek -or Latin? Does he write in verse or in prose?’ But -whether he has become better or more prudent, which is the -principal thing, this receives not the least notice; whereas -we ought to inquire who is the better learned, rather than -who is the more learned?”</p> - -<p>“We labor only at filling the memory, and leave the understanding -and the conscience void. Just as birds sometimes -go in quest of grain, and bring it in their bills without tasting -it themselves, to make of it mouthfuls for their young; so -our pedants go rummaging in books for knowledge, only to -hold it at their tongues’ end, and then distribute it to their -pupils.”<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></p> - - - <div><a name="Para_116" id="Para_116"></a></div> -<p class="p1">116. <span class="smcap">Studies Recommended.</span>—The practical and utilitarian -mind of Montaigne dictates to him his programme of -studies. With him it is not a question of plunging into the -depths of the sciences; disinterested studies are not his -affair. If Rabelais proposed to develop the speculative -faculties, Montaigne, on the contrary, is preoccupied with -the practical faculties, and he makes everything subordinate -to morals. For example, he would have history learned, not -for the sake of knowing the facts, but of appreciating them. -It is not so necessary to imprint in the memory of the child -“the date of the fall of Carthage as the character of Hannibal -and Scipio, nor so much where Marcellus died as why it -was unworthy of his duty that he died there.”<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p> - -<p>And so in philosophy, it is not the general knowledge of -man and nature that Montaigne esteems and recommends; -but only those parts that have a direct bearing on morals and -active life.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span></p> - -<p>“It is a pity that matters should be at such a pass as they -are in our time, that philosophy, even with people of understanding, -should be looked upon as a vain and fanciful name, -a thing of no use and no value, either for opinion or for -action. I think that it is the love of quibbling that has -caused things to take this turn.... Philosophy is that -which teaches us to live.”<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p> - - - <div><a name="Para_117" id="Para_117"></a></div> -<p class="p1">117. <span class="smcap">Educational Methods.</span>—An education purely -bookish is not to Montaigne’s taste. He counts less upon -books than upon experience and mingling with men; upon -the observation of things, and upon the natural suggestions -of the mind:</p> - -<p>“For learning to judge well and speak well, whatever -presents itself to our eyes serves as a sufficient book. The -knavery of a page, the blunder of a servant, a table witticism,—all -such things are so many new things to think -about. And for this purpose conversation with men is -wonderfully helpful, and so is a visit to foreign lands ... -to bring back the customs of those nations, and their manners, -and to whet and sharpen our wits by rubbing them upon -those of others.”</p> - -<p>“ ... The lesson will be given, sometimes by conversation, -sometimes by book.... Let the child examine every -man’s talent, a peasant, a mason, a passer-by. Put into his -head an honest curiosity in everything. Let him observe -whatever is curious in his surroundings,—a fine house, a -delicate fountain, an eminent man, the scene of an ancient -battle, the routes of Cæsar, or of Charlemagne....”<a name="FNanchor_85a_85a" id="FNanchor_85a_85a"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p> - -<p>Things should precede words. On this point Montaigne -anticipates Comenius, Rousseau, and all modern educators.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p> - -<p>“Let our pupil be provided with things; words will -follow only too fast.”<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p> - -<p>“The world is given to babbling; I hardly ever saw a man -who did not rather prate too much, than speak too little. -Yet the half of our life goes in that way; we are kept four or -five years in learning words....”<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p> - -<p>“This is not saying that it is not a fine and good thing to -speak well; but not so good as it is made out to be. I am -vexed that our life is so much occupied with all this.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">118. <span class="smcap">How we should read.</span>—Montaigne has keenly criticised -the abuse of books: “I would not have this boy of -ours imprisoned, and made a slave to his book.... I would -not have his spirit cow’d and subdu’d by applying him to the -rack, and tormenting him, as some do, fourteen or fifteen -hours a day, and so make a pack-horse of him. Neither -should I think it good, when, by a solitary and melancholic -complexion, he is discovered to be much addicted to his -book, to nourish that humor in him, for that renders them -unfit for civil conversation, and diverts them from better -employments.”<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></p> - -<p>But while he advises against excess in reading, he has -admirably defined the manner in which we ought to read. -Above all, he says, let us assimilate and appropriate what -we read. Let the work of the reader resemble that of bees, -that, on this side and on that, tap the flowers for their sweet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> -juices, and make them into honey, which is no longer thyme -nor marjoram. In other terms, we should read with reflection, -and with a critical spirit, while mastering the thoughts -of the author by our personal judgment, without ever becoming -slaves to them.</p> - - -<p class="p1">119. <span class="smcap">Montaigne’s Errors.</span>—Montaigne’s greatest fault, it -must be confessed, is that he is somewhat heartless. Somewhat -of an egoist and Epicurean, he celebrates only the -easy virtues that are attained “by shady routes through -green meadows and fragrant flowers.” Has he himself ever -performed painful duties that demand effort? To love children, -he waits till they are amiable; while they are small, he -disdains them, and keeps them at a distance from him:</p> - -<p>“I cannot entertain that passion of dandling and caressing -an infant, scarcely born, having as yet neither motion of -soul nor shape of body distinguishable, by which they can -render themselves amiable; and have not suffered them to -be nursed near me....”<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> “Never take, and, still less, -never give, to the women of your household the care of the -feeding of your children!”</p> - -<p>Montaigne joined precept to example. He somewhere says -unfeelingly: “My children all died while at nurse.”<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> He -goes so far as to say that a man of letters ought to prefer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> -his writings to his children: “The births of our intelligence -are the children the most truly our own.”<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">120. <span class="smcap">Incompleteness of his Views on the Education -of Women.</span>—Another mental defect in Montaigne is, that, -by reason of his moderation and conservatism, he remains a -little narrow. High conceptions of human destiny are not -to be expected of him; his manner of conceiving of it is -mean and commonplace. This lack of intellectual breadth -is especially manifest in his reflections on the education of -women. Montaigne is of that number, who, through false -gallantry, would keep woman in a state of ignorance on the -pretext that instruction would mar her natural charms. -In their case, he would prohibit even the study of rhetoric, -because, he says, that would “conceal her charms under -borrowed charms.” Women should be content with the -advantages which their sex assures to them. With the -knowledge which they naturally have, “they command -with the switch, and rule both the regents and the schools.” -However, he afterwards thinks better of it; but in his concessions -there is more of contempt than in his prohibitions: -“If, however, it displeases them to make us any concessions -whatever, and they are determined, through curiosity, to -know something of books, poetry is an amusement befitting -their needs; for it is a wanton, crafty art, disguised, all for -pleasure, all for show, just as they are.”<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></p> - -<p>The following passage may also be quoted:—</p> - -<p>“When I see them tampering with rhetoric, law, logic, -and the like, so improper and unnecessary for their business, -I begin to suspect that the men who inspire them with -such things do it that they may govern them upon that -account.”<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span></p> - -<p>It is impossible to express a greater contempt for women. -Montaigne goes so far as to deny her positive qualities of -heart. He chances to say, with reference to Mlle. de -Gournay, his adopted daughter: “The perfection of the -most saintly affection has been attained when it does not -exhibit the least trace of sex.”</p> - -<p>To conclude: notwithstanding some grave defects, the -pedagogy of Montaigne is a pedagogy of good sense, and -certain parts of it will always deserve to be admired. The -Jansenists, and Locke, and Rousseau, in different degrees, -draw their inspiration from Montaigne. In his own age, it -is true, his ideas were accepted by scarcely any one save his -disciple Charron, who, in his book of <cite>Wisdom</cite>,<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> has done -scarcely more than to arrange in order the thoughts that are -scattered through the <cite>Essays</cite>. But if he had no influence -upon his own age, Montaigne has at least remained, after -three centuries, a sure guide in the matter of intellectual -education.</p> - - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>[121. <span class="smcap">Analytical Summary.</span>—1. The dominant characteristic -of education during the Renaissance period is the -reaction which it exhibits against certain errors in Middle -Age education.</p> - -<p>2. A second characteristic is a disposition to conciliate or -harmonize principles and methods whose fault is exaggeration.</p> - -<p>3. Against instruction based almost wholly on authority, -there is a reaction in favor of free inquiry.</p> - -<p>4. Opposed to an education of the professional or technical -type, there is proposed an education of the general or liberal -type.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p> - -<p>5. From being almost exclusively ethical and religious, -education tends to become secular.</p> - -<p>6. Didactic, formal instruction out of books, dealing in -second-hand knowledge, is succeeded by informal, intuitive -instruction from natural objects, dealing in knowledge at first -hand.</p> - -<p>7. The conception that education is a process of manufacture -begins to give place to the conception that it is a -process of growth.</p> - -<p>8. Teaching whose purpose was information is succeeded -by teaching whose purpose is formation, discipline, or -training.</p> - -<p>9. A discipline that was harsh and cruel is succeeded by -a discipline comparatively mild and humane; and manners -that were rude and coarse, are followed by a finer code of -civility.]</p></div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> See especially the following chapters: Book I. chaps. <span class="fs70">XIV.</span>, <span class="fs70">XV.</span>, <span class="fs70">XXI.</span>, -<span class="fs70">XXII.</span>, <span class="fs70">XXIV.</span>; Book II. chaps. <span class="fs70">V.</span>, <span class="fs70">VI.</span>, <span class="fs70">VII.</span>, <span class="fs70">VIII.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> The contrast between the general system of education that culminated -with the Reformation, and the system that had its rise at the same -period, is so marked that there is an historical propriety in calling the first -the old education, and the second, or later, the new education. Recollecting -the tendency of the human mind to pass from one extreme to an -opposite extreme, we may suspect that the final state of educational -thought and practice will represent a mean between these two contrasted -systems: it is inconceivable that the old was wholly wrong, or that the -new is wholly right. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Book I. chap. <span class="fs70">XXIV.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Rabelais recommends the study of Hebrew, so that the sacred books -may be known in their original form. In some place he says: “I love much -more to hear the Gospel than to hear the life of Saint Margaret or some -other cant.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Book II. chap. <span class="fs70">VIII.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> This pansophic scheme of Rabelais has been revived in later times by -Bentham, in his <cite>Chrestomathia</cite>, and still later by Spencer, in his <cite>Education</cite>. -It seems to have been forgotten that the division of labor affects -education in much the same way as it affects all other departments of -human activity: that there is no more need of having as a personal possession -all the knowledge we need for guidance, than for owning all the -agencies we need for locomotion or communication. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> “I was above six years of age before I understood either <em>French</em> or -<em>Perigordian</em> any more than Arabic, and without art, book, grammar, or -precept, whipping, or the experience of a tear, had by that time learned to -speak as pure <em>Latin</em> as my master himself.” <cite>Essays</cite>, Book I. chap. <span class="fs70">XXV.</span> -In this chapter I have several times quoted from Cotton’s translation. -(London: 1711.) (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Book I. chap. <span class="fs70">XXV.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> Book I. chap. <span class="fs70">XXV.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> See particularly Chap. <span class="fs70">XXIV.</span> of Book I., <cite>Of Pedantry</cite>; Chap. <span class="fs70">XXV.</span> -Book I., <cite>Of the Education of Children</cite>; Chap. <span class="fs70">VIII.</span> Book II., <cite>Of the Affection -of Fathers to their Children</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Book I. chap. <span class="fs70">XXV.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> Book I. chap. <span class="fs70">XXIV.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Book I. chap. <span class="fs70">XXIV.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> Book I. chap. <span class="fs70">XXV.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Book I. chap. <span class="fs70">XXV.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> Has not this extravagant preference for things, as distinguished from -words, become a new superstition in educational theory? Considering the -misuse made of words by Scholasticism, it was time for Montaigne to summon -the attention outwards to sensible realities; but it is more than doubtful -whether there is any valid ground for the absolute rule of modern pedagogy, -“first the idea, then the term.” In actual experience, there is no invariable -sequence. The really important thing is, that <em>terms be made significant</em>. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Book I. chap. <span class="fs70">XXV.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> Book I. chap. <span class="fs70">XXV.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Book II. chap. <span class="fs70">VIII.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> I am not sure that this remark does not do Montaigne injustice, especially -when we consider the connection in which the original remark is made: -“I am of opinion that what is not to be done by reason, prudence, and -address, is never to be effected by force. I myself was brought up after -that manner; and they tell me that, in all my first age, I never felt the rod -but twice, and then very easily. I have practised the same method with my -children, who all of them dy’d at nurse; but Leonora, my only daughter, is -arrived to the age of six years and upwards without other correction for -her childish faults than words only, and those very gentle.” Book II. -chap. <span class="fs70">VIII.</span> (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> Book III. chap. <span class="fs70">XIII.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> Book III. chap. <span class="fs70">III.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> Book III. chap. <span class="fs70">III.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> See particularly Chap. <span class="fs70">XIV.</span> of Book III.</p> -</div></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER VI.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">PROTESTANTISM AND PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. -LUTHER AND COMENIUS.</span></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>ORIGIN OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION; SPIRIT OF THE PROTESTANT REFORM; -CALVIN, MELANCTHON, ZWINGLI; LUTHER (1483-1546); -APPEAL ADDRESSED TO THE MAGISTRATES AND LEGISLATORS -OF GERMANY; DOUBLE UTILITY OF INSTRUCTION; NECESSITY OF -A SYSTEM OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION; CRITICISM OF THE SCHOOLS -OF THE PERIOD; ORGANIZATION OF NEW SCHOOLS; PROGRAMME -OF STUDIES; PROGRESS IN METHODS; THE STATES GENERAL OF -ORLEANS (1560); RATICH (1571-1635); COMENIUS (1592-1671); HIS -CHARACTER; BACONIAN INSPIRATION; LIFE OF COMENIUS; HIS -PRINCIPAL WORKS; DIVISION OF INSTRUCTION INTO FOUR GRADES; -ELEMENTARY INITIATION INTO ALL THE STUDIES; THE PEOPLE’S -SCHOOL; SITE OF THE SCHOOL; INTUITIONS OF SENSE; SIMPLIFICATION -OF GRAMMATICAL STUDIES; PEDAGOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF -COMENIUS; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.</p></div> - -<hr class="r15a" /> - -<p class="p1">122. <span class="smcap">Origin of Primary Instruction.</span>—With La Salle -and the foundation of the Institute of the Brethren of the -Christian Schools, the historian of education recognizes the -Catholic origin of primary instruction; in the decrees and -laws of the French Revolution, its lay and philosophical -origin; but it is to the Protestant Reformers,—to Luther -in the sixteenth century, and to Comenius in the seventeenth—that -must be ascribed the honor of having first organized -schools for the people. In its origin, the primary school is -the child of Protestantism, and its cradle was the Reformation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">123. <span class="smcap">Spirit of the Protestant Reform.</span>—The development -of primary instruction was the logical consequence of -the fundamental principles of the Protestant Reform. As -Michel Bréal has said: “In making man responsible for his -own faith, and in placing the source of that faith in the Holy -Scriptures, the Reform contracted the obligation to put each -one in a condition to save himself by the reading and the -understanding of the Bible.... The necessity of explaining -the Catechism, and making comments on it, was for -teachers an obligation to learn how to expound a thought, -and to decompose it into its elements. The study of the -mother tongue and of singing, was associated with the reading -of the Bible (translated into German by Luther) and with -religious services.” The Reform, then, contained, in germ, -a complete revolution in education; it enlisted the interests -of religion in the service of instruction, and associated -knowledge with faith. This is the reason that, for three -centuries, the Protestant nations have led humanity in the -matter of primary instruction.</p> - - -<p class="p1">124. <span class="smcap">Calvin (1509-1564), Melancthon (1497-1560), -Zwingli (1484-1532).</span>—However, all the Protestant Reformers -were far from exhibiting the same zeal in behalf of -primary instruction. Calvin, absorbed in religious struggles -and polemics, was not occupied with the organization of -schools till towards the close of his life, and even the college -that he founded at Geneva, in 1559, was scarcely more than -a school for the study of Latin. Melancthon, who has been -called “the preceptor of Germany,” worked more for high -schools than for schools for the people. He was above all -else a professor of Belles-Lettres; and it was with chagrin -that he saw his courses in the University of Wittenberg deserted -by students when he lectured on the <em>Olynthiacs</em> of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> -Demosthenes. Before Calvin and Melancthon, the Swiss -reformer Zwingli had shown his great interest in primary -teaching, in his little book “upon the manner of instructing -and bringing up boys in a Christian way” (1524). In this -he recommended natural history, arithmetic, and also exercises -in fencing, in order to furnish the country with timely -defenders.</p> - - - <div><a name="Para_125" id="Para_125"></a></div> -<p class="p1">125. <span class="smcap">Luther (1483-1546).</span><ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: '—' was missing">—</ins>The German reformer Luther -is, of all his co-religionists, the one who has served the cause -of elementary instruction with the most ardor. He not only -addressed a pressing appeal to the ruling classes in behalf of -founding schools for the people, but, by his influence, methods -of instruction were improved, and the educational spirit -was renewed in accordance with the principles of Protestantism. -“Spontaneity,” it has been said, not without some -exaggeration, “free thought, and free inquiry, are the basis -of Protestantism; where it has reigned, there have disappeared -the method of repeating and of learning by heart -without reflection, mechanism, subjection to authority, the -paralysis of the intelligence oppressed by dogmatic instruction, -and science put in tutelage by the beliefs of the -Church.”<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">126. <span class="smcap">Appeal addressed to the Magistrates and Legislators -of Germany.</span>—In 1524, Luther, in a special document -addressed to the public authorities of Germany, forcibly -expressed himself against the neglect into which the interests -of instruction had fallen. This appeal has this characteristic, -that the great reformer, while assuming that the Church is -the mother of the school, seems especially to count on the -secular arm, upon the power of the people, to serve his purposes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> -in the cause of universal instruction. “Each city,” -he said, “is subjected to great expense every year for the -construction of roads, for fortifying its ramparts, and for -buying arms and equipping soldiers. Why should it not -spend an equal sum for the support of one or two school-masters? -The prosperity of a city does not depend solely -on its natural riches, on the solidity of its walls, on the elegance -of its mansions, and on the abundance of arms in its -arsenals; but the safety and strength of a city reside above -all in a good education, which furnishes it with instructed, -reasonable, honorable, and well-trained citizens.”<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">127. <span class="smcap">Double Utility of Instruction.</span>—A remarkable -fact about Luther is, that as a preacher of instruction, he does -not speak merely from the religious point of view. After -having recommended schools as institutions auxiliary to the -Church, he makes a resolute argument from the human point -of view. “Were there neither soul, heaven, nor hell,” he -says, “it would still be necessary to have schools for the sake -of affairs here below, as the history of the Greeks and the -Romans plainly teaches. The world has need of educated -men and women, to the end that the men may govern the -country properly, and that the women may properly bring up -their children, care for their domestics, and direct the affairs -of their households.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">128. <span class="smcap">Necessity of Public Instruction.</span>—The objection -will perhaps be made, says Luther, that for the education of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> -children the home is sufficient, and that the school is useless: -“To this I reply: We clearly see how the boys and girls are -educated who remain at home.” He then shows that they -are ignorant and “stupid,” incapable of taking part in conversation, -of giving good advice, and without any experience of -life; while, if they had been educated in the schools, by -teachers who could give instruction in the languages, in the -arts, and in history, they might in a little time gather up -within themselves, as in a mirror, the experience of whatever -has happened since the beginning of the world; and -from this experience, he adds, they would derive the wisdom -they need for self-direction and for giving wise counsel to -others.</p> - - -<p class="p1">129. <span class="smcap">Criticism of the Schools of the Period.</span>—But -since there must be public schools, can we not be content -with those which already exist? Luther replies by proving -that parents neglect to send their children to them, and by -denouncing the uselessness of the results obtained by those -who attend them. “We find people,” he says, “who serve -God in strange ways. They fast and wear coarse clothing, -but they pass blindly by the true divine service of the home,—they -do not know how to bring up their children.... -Believe me, it is much more necessary to give attention to -your children and to provide for their education than to purchase -indulgencies, to visit foreign churches, or to make solemn -vows.... All people, especially the Jews, oblige their -children to go to school more than Christians do. This is -why the state of Christianity is so low, for all its force and -power are in the rising generation; and if these are neglected, -there will be Christian churches like a garden that has -been neglected in the spring-time.... Every day children -are born and are growing up, and, unfortunately, no one -cares for the poor young people, no one thinks to train them;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> -they are allowed to go as they will. Was it not lamentable -to see a lad study in twenty years and more only just enough -bad Latin to enable him to become a priest, and to go to -mass? And he who attained to this was counted a very -happy being! Right happy the mother who bore such a -child! And he has remained all his life a poor unlettered -man. Everywhere we have seen such teachers and masters, -who knew nothing themselves and could teach nothing that -was good and useful; they did not even know how to learn -and to teach. Has anything else been learned up to this -time in the high schools and in the convents except to -become asses and blockheads? ...”</p> - - -<p class="p1">130. <span class="smcap">Organization of the New Schools.</span>—So Luther -resolves on the organization of new schools. The cost of -their maintenance he makes a charge on the public treasury; -he demonstrates to parents the moral obligation to have their -children instructed in them; to the duty of conscience he -adds civil obligation; and, finally, he gives his thought to -the means of recruiting the teaching service. “Since the -greatest evil in every place is the lack of teachers, we must -not wait till they come forward of themselves; we must take -the trouble to educate them and prepare them.” To this end -Luther keeps the best of the pupils, boys and girls, for a -longer time in school; gives them special instructors, and -opens libraries for their use. In his thought he never distinguishes -women teachers from men teachers; he wants -schools for girls as well as for boys. Only, not to burden -parents and divert children from their daily labor, he requires -but little time for school duties. “You ask: Is it -possible to get along without our children, and bring them up -like gentlemen? Is it not necessary that they work at -home? I reply: I by no means approve of those schools -where a child was accustomed to pass twenty or thirty years<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> -in studying Donatus or Alexander<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> without learning anything. -Another world has dawned, in which things go -differently. My opinion is that we must send the boys to -school one or two hours a day, and have them learn a trade -at home for the rest of the time. It is desirable that these -two occupations march side by side. As it now is, children -certainly spend twice as much time in playing ball, running -the streets, and playing truant. And so the girls can -equally well devote nearly the same time to school, without -neglecting their home duties; they lose more time than this -in over-sleeping and in dancing more than is meet.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">131. <span class="smcap">Programme of Studies.</span>—Luther gives the first -place to the teaching of religion: “Is it not reasonable that -every Christian should know the Gospel at the age of nine -or ten?”</p> - -<p>Then come the languages, not, as might be hoped, the -mother tongue, but the learned languages, Latin, Greek, and -Hebrew. Luther had not yet been sufficiently rid of the old -spirit to comprehend that the language of the people ought -to be the basis of universal instruction. He left to Comenius -the glory of making the final separation of the primary -school from the Latin school. But yet, Luther gave excellent -advice for the study of languages, which must be -learned, he said, less in the abstract rules of grammar than -in their concrete reality.</p> - -<p>Luther recommends the mathematics, and also the study -of nature; but he has a partiality for history and historians,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> -who are, he says, “the best people and the best teachers,” -on the condition that they do not tamper with the truth, and -that “they do not make obscure the work of God.”</p> - -<p>Of the liberal arts of the Middle Age, Luther does not -make much account. He rightly says of dialectics, that it is -no equivalent for real knowledge, and that it is simply “an -instrument by which we render to ourselves an account of -what we know.”</p> - -<p>Physical exercises are not forgotten in Luther’s pedagogical -regulations. But he attaches an especial importance -to singing. “Unless a schoolmaster know how to sing, I -think him of no account.” “Music,” he says again, “is a -half discipline which makes men more indulgent and more -mild.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">132. <span class="smcap">Progress in Methods.</span>—At the same time that he -extends the programme of studies, Luther introduces a new -spirit into methods. He wishes more liberty and more joy -in the school.</p> - -<p>“Solomon,” he says, “is a truly royal schoolmaster. He -does not, like the monks, forbid the young to go into the -world and be happy. Even as Anselm said: ‘A young man -turned aside from the world is like a young tree made to -grow in a vase.’ The monks have imprisoned young men -like birds in their cage. It is dangerous to isolate the young. -It is necessary, on the contrary, to allow young people to -hear, see, and learn all sorts of things, while all the time -observing the restraints and the rules of honor. Enjoyment -and recreation are as necessary for children as food and -drink. The schools till now were veritable prisons and hells, -and the schoolmaster a tyrant.... A child intimidated by -bad treatment is irresolute in all he does. He who has trembled -before his parents will tremble all his life at the sound -of a leaf which rustles in the wind.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span></p> - -<p>These quotations will suffice to make appreciated the large -and liberal spirit of Luther, and the range of his thought as -an educator. No one has more extolled the office of the -teacher, of which he said, when comparing it to preaching, -it is the work of all others the noblest, the most useful, and -the best; “and yet,” he added, “I do not know which of -these two professions is the better.”</p> - -<p>Do not let ourselves imagine, however, that Luther at once -exercised a decisive influence on the current education of his -day. A few schools were founded, called writing schools; -but the Thirty Years’ War, and other events, interrupted the -movement of which Luther has the honor of having been the -originator.</p> - - -<p class="p1">133. <span class="smcap">The States General of Orleans (1560).</span>—While -in Germany, under the impulse of Luther, primary schools -began to be established, France remained in the background. -Let us note, however, the desires expressed by the States -General of Orleans, in 1560:—</p> - -<p>“May it please the king,” it was said in the memorial of -the nobility, “to levy a contribution upon the church revenues -for the reasonable support of teachers and men of -learning in every city and village, for the instruction of -the needy youth of the country; and let all parents be -required, under penalty of a fine, to send their children -to school, and let them be constrained to observe this law by -the lords and the ordinary magistrates.”</p> - -<p>It was demanded, in addition, that public lectures be -given on the Sacred Scriptures in <em>intelligible language</em>, that is, -in the mother tongue. But these demands, so earnest and -democratic, of the Protestant nobility of sixteenth century -France, were not regarded. With the fall of Protestantism, -the cause of primary instruction in France was doomed to a -long eclipse. The nobles of the seventeenth and eighteenth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> -centuries did not think of petitioning again for the education -of the people, and Diderot could truthfully say of them: -“The nobility complain of the farm laborers who know how -to read. Perhaps the chief grievance of the nobility reduces -itself to this: that a peasant who knows how to read is more -difficult to oppress than another.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">134. <span class="smcap">Ratich (1571-1635).</span>—In the first half of the -seventeenth century, Ratich, a German, and Comenius, a -Slave, were, with very different degrees of merit, the heirs -of the educational thought of Luther.</p> - -<p>With something of the charlatan and the demagogue, -Ratich devoted his life to propagating a novel art of teaching, -which he called <em>didactics</em>, and to which he attributed marvels. -He pretended, by his <em>method of languages</em>, to teach Hebrew, -Greek, and Latin, in six months. But nevertheless, out of -many strange performances and lofty promises, there issue -some thoughts of practical value. The first merit of Ratich -was to give the mother tongue, the German language, the -precedence over the ancient languages. An English educational -writer, Mr. R. H. Quick, in his <cite>Essays on Educational -Reformers</cite> (1874), has thus summed up the essential principles -of the pedagogy of Ratich: 1. Everything should be -taught in its own time and order, and according to the natural -method, in passing from the more easy to the more difficult. -2. Only one thing should be learned at a time. “We do not -cook at the same time in one pot, soup, meat, fish, milk, and -vegetables.” 3. The same thing should be repeated several -times. 4. By means of these frequent repetitions, the pupil -will have nothing to learn by heart. 5. All school-books -should be written on the same plan. 6. The thing as a whole -should be made known before the thing in its details, and -the sequence should be from the general to the special. -7. In every case we should proceed by induction and experi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>ment. -Ratich especially means by this that we must make -an end of mere authority, and of the testimony of the -ancients, and must appeal to individual reason. 8. Finally, -everything should be learned without coercion. Coercion and -the rod are contrary to nature, and disgust the young with -study. The human understanding learns with pleasure all -that it ought to retain. It does not seem that Ratich knew -how to draw from these principles, which, by the way, are -not true save under certain corrections, all the happy results -that are contained in them. He left to Comenius the glory -of applying the new spirit to actual practice.</p> - - -<p class="p1">135. <span class="smcap">Comenius (1592-1671).</span>—For a long time unknown -and unappreciated, Comenius has finally received from our -contemporaries the admiration that is due him. Michelet -speaks of him with enthusiasm as “that rare genius, that -gentle, fertile, universal scholar”;<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> and he calls him the -first evangelist of modern pedagogy, Pestalozzi being the -second. It is easy to justify this appreciation. The character -of Comenius equals his intelligence. Through a thousand -obstacles he devoted his long life to the work of popular -instruction. With a generous ardor he consecrated himself -to infancy. He wrote twenty works and taught in twenty -cities. Moreover, he was the first to form a definite conception -of what the elementary studies should be. He determined, -nearly three hundred years ago, with an exactness -that leaves nothing to be desired, the division of the different -grades of instruction. He exactly defined some of -the essential laws of the art of teaching. He applied to -pedagogy, with remarkable insight, the principles of modern -logic. Finally, as Michelet has said, he was the Galileo, we -would rather say, the Bacon, of modern education.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">136. <span class="smcap">Baconian Inspiration.</span>—The special aims of pedagogy -are essentially related to the general aims of science. -All progress in science has its corresponding effects on education. -When an innovator has modified the laws for the -discovery of truth, other innovators appear, who modify, in -their turn, the rules for instruction. To a new logic almost -necessarily corresponds a new pedagogy.</p> - -<p>Now Bacon, at the opening of the seventeenth century, -had opened unknown routes to scientific investigation. For -the abstract processes of thought, for the barren comparison -of propositions and words, in which the whole art of the -syllogism consisted, the author of the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Novum Organum</cite> had -substituted the concrete study of reality, the living and -fruitful observation of nature. The mechanism of deductive -reasoning was replaced by the slow and patient interpretation -of facts. It no longer answered to analyze with -docile spirit principles that were assumed, right or wrong, as -absolute truths; nor to become expert in handling the syllogism, -which, like a mill running dry, often produced but -little flour. It was now necessary to open the eyes to the -contemplation of the universe, and by sense intuition, by -observation, by experiment, and by induction, to penetrate -its secrets, and determine its laws. It was necessary to -ascend, step by step, from the knowledge of the simplest -things to the discovery of the most general laws; and, -finally, to demand of nature herself to reveal all that the -human intelligence, in its solitary meditations, is powerless -to discover.</p> - -<p>Looking at this subject more closely, this revolution in -science, so important from the point of view of speculative -inquiry, and destined to change the aspect of the sciences, -also contained in itself a revolution in education. For this -purpose, all that was needed was to apply to the develop<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>ment -of the intelligence and to the communication of knowledge -the rules proposed by Bacon for the investigation of -truth. The laws of scientific induction might become the -laws for the education of the soul. No more setting out -with abstract principles, imposed by authority; but facts -intuitively apprehended, gathered by observation and verified -by experiment; the order of nature faithfully followed; -a cautious progression from the simplest and most elementary -ideas to the most difficult and most complex truths; -the knowledge of things instead of an analysis of words,—such -was to be the character of the new system of instruction. -In other terms, it was possible to make the child follow, -in order to lead him to know and to comprehend the -capitalized truths that constitute the basis of elementary -instruction, the same method that Bacon recommended to -scholars for the discovery of unknown truths.<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a></p> - -<p>It is this conversion, or, as we might say, this translation, -of the maxims of the Baconian logic into pedagogical rules, -that Comenius attempted, and this is why he has been called -“the father of the intuitive method.” He was nourished, -intellectually, by the reading of Bacon, whom he resembles, -not only in his ideas, but also in his figurative and often -allegorical language. Even the title of one of his books, -<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Didactica Magna</cite>, recalls the title of Bacon’s <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Instauratio -Magna</cite>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">137. <span class="smcap">The Life of Comenius.</span>—To know Comenius and -the part he played in the seventeenth century, to appreciate -this grand educational character, it would be necessary to -begin by relating his life; his misfortunes; his journeys to -England, where Parliament invoked his aid; to Sweden, -where the Chancellor Oxenstiern employed him to write -manuals of instruction; especially his relentless industry, his -courage through exile, and the long persecutions he suffered -as a member of the sect of dissenters, the Moravian Brethren; -and the schools he founded at Fulneck, in Bohemia, at -Lissa and at Patak, in Poland. But it would require too -much of our space to follow in its incidents and catastrophes -that troubled life, which, in its sudden trials, as in the -firmness that supported them, recalls the life of Pestalozzi.<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">138. <span class="smcap">His Principal Works.</span>—Comenius wrote a large -number of books in Latin, in German, and in Czech; but -of these only a few are worthy to engage the attention of -the educator. In his other works he allows himself to go off -on philosophic excursions, and to indulge in mystic reveries, -led by his ardor to find what he called <em>pansophia</em>, wisdom or -universal knowledge. In this wilderness of publications -destined to oblivion, we shall notice only three works, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> -contain the general principles of the pedagogy of Comenius, -and the applications which he has made of his method:—</p> - -<p class="p1">1. The <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Didactica Magna</cite>, the <cite>Great Didactics</cite> (written in -Czech at about 1630, and rewritten in Latin at about -1640). In this work Comenius sets forth his principles, -his general theories on education, and also his peculiar -views on the practical organization of schools. It is to be -regretted that a French translation has not yet popularized -this important book, that would be worthy a place beside the -<cite>Thoughts</cite> of Locke and the <cite>Émile</cite> of Rousseau.<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a></p> - -<p class="p1">2. The <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Janua linguarum reserata</cite>, the <cite>Gate of Tongues -Unlocked</cite> (1631). In the thought of the author, this was -a new method of learning the languages. Comenius, led -astray on this point by his religious prejudices, wished to -banish the Latin authors from the schools, “for the purpose,” -he said, “of reforming studies in the true spirit of -Christianity.” Consequently, in order to replace the classical -authors, which he repudiated for this further reason, -that the reading of them is too difficult, and to make a child -study them “is to wish to push out into the vast ocean a -tiny bark that should be allowed only to sport on a little -lake,” he had formed the idea of composing a collection of -phrases distributed into a hundred chapters. These phrases, -to the number of a thousand, at first very simple, and of a -single member, then longer and more complicated, were -formed of two thousand words, chosen from among the most -common and the most useful. Moreover, the hundred chapters -of the Janua taught the child, in succession and in a methodical -order, all the things in the universe,—the elements, the -metals, the stars, the animals, the organs of the body, the arts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> -and trades, etc., etc. In other terms, the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Janua linguarum</cite> -is a nomenclature of ideas and words designed to fix the attention -of the child upon everything he ought to know of the -world. Divested of the Latin text that accompanies it, the -<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Janua</cite> is a first reading-book, very defective doubtless, but -it gives proof of a determined effort to adapt to the intelligence -of the child the knowledge that he ought to acquire.</p> - -<p class="p1">3. The <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Orbis sensualium pictus</cite>, the <cite>Illustrated World of -Sensible Objects</cite>, the most popular of the author’s works -(1658). It is the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Janua linguarum</cite> accompanied with pictures, -in lieu of real objects, representing to the child the -things that he hears spoken of, as fast as he learns their -names. The <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Orbis pictus</cite>, the first practical application of -the intuitive method, had an extraordinary success, and has -served as a model for the innumerable illustrated books -which for three centuries have invaded the schools.</p> - - <div class="bbox pg-brk"> -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/orbus-a.jpg" width="425" alt="" /> - </div></div> -<div class="caption"> -Geometria.<br /> -Die Erdmesskunst.<br /> -<span class="fs70">(<b>Facsimile of illustration in the <em>Orbis Pictus</em> of Comenius.</b>)</span> -</div> - - <div class="bbox pg-brk"> -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/orbus-b.jpg" width="450" alt="" /> - </div></div> -<div class="caption"> -<span class="fs70">(Facsimile of page of text of the <em>Orbis Pictus</em>.)</span> -</div> - -<p class="p1">139. <span class="smcap">The Four Grades of Instruction.</span>—We must not -require a man of the seventeenth century to abjure Latin -studies. Comenius prizes them highly; but at least he is -wise enough to put them in their place, and does not confound -them, as Luther did, with elementary studies.</p> - -<p>Nothing could be more exact, more clearly cut, than the -scholastic organization proposed by Comenius. We shall -find in it what the experience of three centuries has finally -sanctioned and established, the distribution of schools into -these grades,—infant schools, primary schools, secondary -schools, and higher schools.</p> - -<p>The first grade of instruction is the <em>maternal school</em>, the -school <em>by the mother’s knee</em>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">materni gremii</i>, as Comenius -calls it. The mother is the first teacher. Up to the age of -six the child is taught by her; he is initiated by her into -those branches of knowledge that he will pursue in the primary -school.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></p> - -<p>The second grade is the <em>elementary public school</em>. All the -children, girls and boys, enter here at six, and leave at -twelve. The characteristic of this school is that the instruction -there given is in the mother tongue, and this is why -Comenius calls it the “common” school, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vernacula</i>, a term -given by the Romans to the language of the people.</p> - -<p>The third grade is represented by the <em>Latin school</em> or <em>gymnasium</em>. -Thither are sent the children from twelve to -eighteen years of age for whom has been reserved a more -complete instruction, such as we would now call secondary -instruction.</p> - -<p>Finally, to the fourth grade correspond the <em>academies</em>, that -is, institutions of higher instruction, opened to young men -from eighteen to twenty-four years of age.</p> - -<p>The child, if he is able, will traverse these four grades in -succession; but, in the thought of Comenius, the studies -should be so arranged in the elementary schools, that in -leaving them, the pupil shall have a general education which -makes it unnecessary for him to go farther, if his condition -in life does not destine him to pursue the courses of the Latin -School.</p> - -<p>“We pursue,” says Comenius, “a general education, the -teaching to all men of all the subjects of human concern.... -The purpose of the people’s school shall be that all -children of both sexes, from the tenth to the twelfth or the -thirteenth year, may be instructed in that knowledge which -is useful during the whole of life.”</p> - -<p>This was an admirable definition of the purpose of the -primary school. A thing not less remarkable is that Comenius -establishes an elementary school in each village:—</p> - -<p>“There should be a maternal school in each family; an -elementary school in each district; a gymnasium in each -city; an academy in each kingdom, or even in each considerable -province.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">140. <span class="smcap">Elementary Initiation into All the Studies.</span>—One -of the most novel and most original ideas of the great -Slavic educator is the wish that, from the earliest years of -his life, the child may acquire some elementary notions of all -the sciences that he is to study at a later period. From the -cradle, the gaze of the infant, guided by the mother, should -be directed to all the objects that surround him, so that his -growing powers of reflection will be brought into play in -working on these sense intuitions. “Thus, from the moment -he begins to speak, the child comes to know himself, and, -by his daily experience, certain general and abstract expressions; -he comes to comprehend the meaning of the words -<em>something</em>, <em>nothing</em>, <em>thus</em>, <em>otherwise</em>, <em>where</em>, <em>similar</em>, <em>different</em>; -and what are generalizations and the categories expressed by -these words but the rudiments of metaphysics? In the domain -of physics, the infant can learn to know water, earth, -air, fire, rain, snow, etc., as well as the names and uses of the -parts of his body, or at least of the external members and -organs. He will take his first lesson in optics in learning to -distinguish light, darkness, and the different colors; and in -astronomy, in noticing the sun, the moon, and the stars, and -in observing that these heavenly bodies rise and set every -day. In geography, according to the place where he lives, -he will be shown a mountain, a valley, a plain, a river, a -village, a hamlet, a city, etc. In chronology, he will be -taught what an hour is, a day, a week, a year, summer, winter, -yesterday, the day before yesterday, to-morrow, the day -after to-morrow, etc. History, such as his age will allow him -to conceive, will consist in recalling what has recently passed, -in taking account of it, and in noting the part that this one or -that has taken in such or such an affair. Arithmetic, geometry, -statistics, mechanics, will not remain strangers to him. -He will acquire the elements of these sciences in distinguishing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> -the difference between little and much, in learning to count up -to ten, in observing that three is more than two; that one -added to three makes four; in learning the sense of the -words <em>great</em> and <em>small</em>, <em>long</em> and <em>short</em>, <em>wide</em> and <em>narrow</em>, -<em>heavy</em> and <em>light</em>; in drawing lines, curves, circles, etc.; in -seeing goods measured with a yard-stick; in weighing an -object in a balance; in trying to make something or to take it -to pieces, as all children love to do.</p> - -<p>“In this impulse to construct and destroy, there is but the -effort of the little intelligence to succeed in making or building -something for himself; so that, instead of opposing the -child in this, he should be encouraged and guided.”</p> - -<p>“The grammar of the first period will consist in learning -to pronounce the mother tongue correctly. The child may -receive elementary notions even of politics, in observing -that certain persons assemble at the city hall, and that they -are called councillors; and that among these persons there -is one called mayor, etc.”<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">141. <span class="smcap">The People’s School.</span>—Divided into six classes, -the people’s school should prepare the child either for active -life or for the higher courses. Comenius sends here not -only the sons of peasants and workmen, but the sons of the -middle class or of the nobility, who will afterwards enter -the Latin school. In other terms, the study of Latin is -postponed till the age of twelve; and up to that period all -children must receive a thorough primary education, which -will comprise, with the mother tongue, arithmetic, geometry, -singing, the salient facts of history, the elements of the natural -sciences, and religion. The latest reforms in secondary -instruction, which, only within a very late period, have postponed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> -the study of Latin till the sixth year,<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> and which till -then keep the pupil upon the subjects of primary instruction,—what -are they but the distant echo of the thought of Comenius? -Let it be noted, too, that the plan of Comenius gave -to its primary school a complete encyclopædic course of -instruction, which was sufficient for its own ends, but which, -while remaining elementary, was a whole, and not a beginning.<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></p> - -<p>Surely, the programme of studies devised by Comenius -did not fail in point of insufficiency; we may be allowed, on -the contrary, to pronounce it too extended, too crowded, -conformed rather to the generous dreams of an innovator than -to a prudent appreciation of what is practically possible; -and we need not be astonished that, to lighten in part the -heavy burden that is imposed on the teacher, Comenius had -the notion of dividing the school into sections which assistants, -chosen from among the best pupils, should instruct -under the supervision of the master.</p> - - -<p class="p1">142. <span class="smcap">Site of the School.</span>—One is not a complete -educator save on the condition of providing for the exterior -and material organization of the school, as well as for its -moral administration. In this respect, Comenius is still -deserving of our encomiums. He requires a yard for recreation,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> -and demands that the school-house have a gay and -cheerful aspect. The question had been discussed before -him by Vives (1492-1540).</p> - -<p>“There should be chosen,” says the Spanish educator, -“a healthful situation, so that the pupils may not one day -have to take their flight, dispersed by the fear of an epidemic. -Firm health is necessary to those who would heartily -and profitably apply themselves to the study of the sciences. -And the place selected should be isolated from the crowd, -and especially at a distance from occupations that are -noisy, such as those of smiths, stone-masons, machinists, -wheelwrights, and weavers. However, I would not have the -situation too cheerful and attractive, lest it might suggest to -the scholars the taking of too frequent walks.”</p> - -<p>But these considerations that do honor to Vives and to -Comenius, were scarcely in harmony with the resources then -at the disposal of the friends of instruction. There was -scarcely occasion seriously to consider how school-houses -should be constructed and situated, at a period when the -most often there were no school-houses existing. “In winter,” -says Platter, “we slept in the school-room, and in -summer in the open air.”<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">143. <span class="smcap">Sense Intuitions.</span>—If Comenius has traced with a -master hand the general organization of the primary school, -he has no less merit in the matter of methods.</p> - -<p>When they recommend the observation of sensible things -as the first intellectual exercise, modern educators do but -repeat what Comenius said three centuries ago.</p> - -<p>“In the place of dead books, why should we not open the -living book of nature? ... To instruct the young is not to -beat into them by repetition a mass of words, phrases, sentences,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> -and opinions gathered out of authors; but it is to -open their understanding through things....</p> - -<p>“The foundation of all knowledge consists in correctly representing -sensible objects to our senses, so that they can be -comprehended with facility. I hold that this is the basis of all -our other activities, since we could neither act nor speak wisely -unless we adequately comprehended what we were to do and -say. Now it is certain that <em>there is nothing in the understanding -that was not first in the senses</em>, and, consequently, -it is to lay the foundation of all wisdom, of all eloquence, -and of all good and prudent conduct, carefully to train the -senses to note with accuracy the differences between natural -objects; and as this point, important as it is, is ordinarily -neglected in the schools of to-day, and as objects are proposed -to scholars that they do not understand because they -have not been properly represented to their senses or to their -imagination, it is for this reason, on the one hand, that the -toil of teaching, and on the other, that the pain of learning, -have become so burdensome and so unfruitful....</p> - -<p>“We must offer to the young, not the shadows of things, -but the things themselves, which impress the senses and -the imagination. Instruction should commence with a real -observation of things, and not with a verbal description of -them.”</p> - -<p>We see that Comenius accepts the doctrine of Bacon, -even to his absolute sensationalism. In his pre-occupation -with the importance of instruction through the senses, he -goes so far as to ignore that other source of knowledge and -intuitions, the inner consciousness.</p> - - -<p class="p1">144. <span class="smcap">Simplification of Grammatical Study.</span>—The first -result of the experimental method applied to instruction, is -to simplify grammar and to relieve it from the abuse of ab<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>stract -rules. “Children,” says Comenius, “need examples -and things which they can see, and not abstract rules.”</p> - -<p>And in the <em>Preface</em> of the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Janua linguarum</cite>, he dwells -upon the faults of the old method employed for the study -of languages.</p> - -<p>“It is a thing self-evident, that the true and proper way of -teaching languages has not been recognized in the schools -up to the present time. The most of those who devoted -themselves to the study of letters grew old in the study of -words, and upwards of ten years was spent in the study of -Latin alone; indeed, they even spent their whole life in the -study, with a very slow and very trifling profit, which did not -pay for the trouble devoted to it.”<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> It is by use and by reading -that Comenius would abolish the abuse of rules. Rules -ought to intervene only to aid use and give it surety. The -pupil will thus learn language, either in speaking, or in reading -a book like the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Orbis Pictus</cite>, in which he will find at the -same time all the words of which the language itself is composed, -and examples of all the constructions of its syntax.</p> - - -<p class="p1">145. <span class="smcap">Necessity of Drill and Practice.</span>—Another -essential point in the new method, is the importance attributed -by Comenius to practical exercises: “Artisans,” he -said, “understand this matter perfectly well. Not one of -them will give an apprentice a theoretical course on his trade. -He is allowed to notice what is done by his master, and then -the tool is put in his hands: it is in smiting that one becomes -a smith.”<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span></p> - -<p>It is no longer the thing to repeat mechanically a lesson -learned by heart. There must be a gradual habituation to -action, to productive work, to personal effort.</p> - - -<p class="p1">146. <span class="smcap">General Bearing of the Work of Comenius.</span>—How -many other new and judicious ideas we shall have to -gather from Comenius! The methods which we would be -tempted to consider as wholly recent, his imagination had -already suggested to him. For example, preceding the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Orbis -Pictus</cite>, we find an alphabet, where to each letter corresponds -the cry of an animal, or else a sound familiar to the child. -Is not this already the very essence of the phononimic processes<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> -brought into fashion in these last years? But what -is of more consequence with Comenius than a few happy discoveries -in practical pedagogy, is the general inspiration of -his work. He gives to education a psychological basis in -demanding that the faculties shall be developed in their natural -order: first, the senses, the memory, the imagination, and -lastly the judgment and the reason. He is mindful of physical -exercises, of technical and practical instruction, without -forgetting that in the primary schools, which he calls the -“studios of humanity,” there must be trained, not only strong -and skilful artisans, but virtuous and religious men, imbued -with the principles of order and justice. If he has stepped -from theology to pedagogy, and if he permits himself sometimes -to be borne along by his artless bursts of mysticism, at -least he does not forget the necessities of the real condition,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> -and of the present life of men. “The child,” he says, “shall -learn only what is to be useful to him in this life or in the -other.” Finally, he does not allow himself to be absorbed in -the minute details of school management. He has higher -views,—he is working for the regeneration of humanity. -Like Leibnitz, he would freely say: “Give me for a few -years the direction of education, and I agree to transform the -world!”</p> - - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>[147. <span class="smcap">Analytical Summary.</span>—1. Decisive changes in -human opinion, political, religious, or scientific, involve corresponding -changes in the purposes and methods of education.</p> - -<p>2. The Reformation was a breaking with authority in matters -of religion, as the Baconian philosophy was a breaking -with authority in matters of science; and their joint effect on -education was to subject matters of opinion, belief, and -knowledge to the individual reason, experience, and observation.</p> - -<p>3. In holding each human being responsible for his own -salvation, the Reformation made it necessary for every one -to read, and the logical consequence of this was to make -instruction universal; and as schools were multiplied, the -number of teachers must be increased, and their grade of -competence raised.</p> - -<p>4. The conception that ignorance is an evil, and a constant -menace to spiritual and temporal safety, led to the idea of -compulsory school-attendance.</p> - -<p>5. In the recoil from the intuitions of the intellect sanctioned -by Socrates, to the intuitions of the senses sanctioned -by Bacon, education passed from an extreme dependence on -reflection and reason, to an extreme dependence on sense and -observation; so that inference has been thrown into dis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>credit, -and the verdict of the senses has been made the test -of knowledge.</p> - -<p>6. In adapting the conception of universal education to -the social conditions of his time, Comenius was led to a gradation -of schools that underlies all modern systems of public -instruction.]</p></div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> Dittes, <em>op. cit.</em> p. 127.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> Luther’s argument for compulsion should not be omitted: “It is my -opinion that the authorities are bound to force their subjects to send their -children to school.... If they can oblige their able-bodied subjects to -carry the lance and the arquebuse, to mount the ramparts, and to do complete -military service, for a much better reason may they, and ought they, -to force their subjects to send their children to school, for here it is the -question of a much more terrible war with the devil.” (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Names for treatises on grammar and philosophy respectively. Donatus -was a celebrated grammarian and rhetorician who taught at Rome in the -middle of the fourth century <span class="fs70">A.D.</span>; and Alexander, a celebrated Greek commentator -on the writings of Aristotle, who taught the Peripatetic philosophy -at Athens in the end of the second and the beginning of the third centuries -<span class="fs70">A.D.</span> (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Michelet, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Nos fils</cite>, p. 175 <em>et seq.</em></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> This is, perhaps, the earliest appearance of the conception that learning -should be a process of discovery or of re-discovery. Condillac (1715-1780) -has elaborated this idea in the introduction to his <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Grammaire</cite>, and -Spencer (<cite>Education</cite>, p. 122) makes it a fundamental law of teaching. If -this assumed principle were to be rigorously applied, as, fortunately, it -cannot be, progress in human knowledge would be impossible. Mr. Bain’s -comment on this doctrine (<cite>Education as a Science</cite>, p. 94) is as follows: -“This bold fiction is sometimes put forward as one of the regular arts of -the teacher; but I should prefer to consider it as an extraordinary device, -admissible only on special occasions.” (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> It may not be generally known that Comenius was once solicited to -become the President of Harvard College. The following is a quotation -from Vol. II., p. 14, of Cotton Mather’s <cite>Magnalia</cite>: “That brave old man, -Johannes Amos Commenius, the fame of whose worth hath been <em>trumpetted</em> -as far as more than three languages (whereof every one is indebted unto -his <em>Janua</em>) could carry it, was indeed agreed withal, by our Mr. Winthrop -in his travels through the <em>low countries</em>, to come over into New England, -and illuminate this Colledge and <em>country</em>, in the quality of a President, -which was now become vacant. But the solicitations of the Swedish Ambassador -diverting him another way, that incomparable Moravian became -not an American.” This was on the resignation of President Dunster, in -1654. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> The most complete account ever written of Comenius and his writings -is, “John Amos Comenius,” by S. S. Laurie (Boston: 1885). It is an invaluable -contribution to the philosophy and the history of education. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> Buisson’s <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dictionnaire de Pédagogie</cite>, Article <span class="smcap">Comenius</span>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> In the French Lycées and Colleges the grades are named as follows, beginning -with the lowest: “ninth, eighth, seventh, sixth, fifth, fourth, third, -second, rhetoric, philosophy, preparatory mathematics, elementary mathematics, -special mathematics.” Latin was formerly begun in an earlier -grade.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> The public school of the European type may be represented by a series -of (3) pyramids, the second higher than the first, and the third higher than -the second, each independent and complete in itself; while the public school -of the American type is represented by a single pyramid in three sections. -While in an English, French, or German town, public education is administered -in three separate establishments, in an American town there is a -single graded school that fulfills the same functions. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Platter, a Swiss teacher of the sixteenth century (1499-1582).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> For this quotation, as for all those which we borrow from the preface -of the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Janua linguarum</cite>, a French edition of which (in three languages: -Latin, German, and French) appeared in 1643, we copy from the authentic -text.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> There is a misleading fallacy in all such illustrations. What analogy is -there between the learning of history or geology and the learning of a trade -like carpentry? Should a physician and a blacksmith be educated on the -same plan? In every case knowledge should precede practice; and the -liberal arts are best learned by first learning their correlative sciences. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> “A process of instruction which consists in placing beside the elements -of human speech thirty-three onomatopoetic gestures, which recall to the -sight the same ideas that the sounds and the articulations of the voice recall -to the ear.”—<span class="smcap">Grosselin.</span> (P.)</p> -</div></div> - - - - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER VII.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">THE TEACHING CONGREGATIONS.—JESUITS AND -JANSENISTS.</span></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>THE TEACHING CONGREGATIONS; JESUITS AND JANSENISTS; FOUNDATION -OF THE SOCIETY OF JESUS (1540); DIFFERENT JUDGMENTS -ON THE EDUCATIONAL MERITS OF THE JESUITS; AUTHORITIES TO -CONSULT; PRIMARY INSTRUCTION NEGLECTED; CLASSICAL STUDIES; -LATIN AND THE HUMANITIES; NEGLECT OF HISTORY, OF PHILOSOPHY, -AND OF THE SCIENCES IN GENERAL; DISCIPLINE; EMULATION -ENCOURAGED; OFFICIAL DISCIPLINARIAN; GENERAL SPIRIT -OF THE PEDAGOGY OF THE JESUITS; THE ORATORIANS; THE -LITTLE SCHOOLS; STUDY OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE; NEW SYSTEM -OF SPELLING; THE MASTERS AND THE BOOKS OF PORT ROYAL; -DISCIPLINE IN PERSONAL REFLECTION; GENERAL SPIRIT OF THE -INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION AT PORT ROYAL; NICOLE; MORAL -PESSIMISM; EFFECTS ON DISCIPLINE; FAULTS IN THE DISCIPLINE -OF PORT ROYAL; GENERAL JUDGMENT ON PORT ROYAL; ANALYTICAL -SUMMARY.</p></div> - -<hr class="r15a" /> - -<p class="p1">148. <span class="smcap">The Teaching Congregations.</span><a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a>—Up to the French -Revolution, up to the day when the conception of a public -and national education was embodied in the legislative acts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> -of our assembled rulers, education remained almost exclusively -an affair of the Church. The universities themselves -were dependent in part on religious authority. But especially -the great congregations assumed a monopoly of the work of -teaching, the direction and control of which the State had -not yet claimed for her right.</p> - -<p>Primary instruction, it is true, scarcely entered at first into -the settled plans of the religious orders. The only exception -to this statement that can properly be made, is the congregation -of the <em>Christian Doctrine</em>, which a humble priest, Cæsar -de Bus, founded at Avignon in 1592, the avowed purpose of -which was the religious education of the children of the company.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> -But, on the other hand, secondary instruction provoked -the greatest educational event of the sixteenth century, -the founding of the company of Jesus, and this movement -was continued and extended in the seventeenth century, -either in the colleges of the Jesuits, ever growing in number, -or in other rival congregations.</p> - - -<p class="p1">149. <span class="smcap">Jesuits and Jansenists.</span>—Among the religious -orders that have consecrated their efforts to the work of -teaching, the first place must be assigned to the Jesuits and -the Jansenists. Different in their statutes, their organization, -and their destinies, these two congregations are still -more different in their spirit. They represent, in fact, two -opposite, and, as it were, contrary phases of human nature -and of the Christian spirit. For the Jesuits, education is -reduced to a superficial culture of the brilliant faculties of -the intelligence; while the Jansenists, on the contrary, aspire -to develop the solid faculties, the judgment, and the reason.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> -In the colleges of the Jesuits, rhetoric is held in honor; -while in the Little Schools of Port Royal, it is rather logic -and the exercise of thought. The shrewd disciples of Loyola -adapt themselves to the times, and are full of compassion for -human weakness; the solitaries of Port Royal are exacting -of others and of themselves. In their suppleness and cheerful -optimism, the Jesuits are almost the Epicureans of Christianity; -with their austere and somewhat sombre doctrine, -the Jansenists would rather be the Stoics. The Jesuits and -the Jansenists, those great rivals of the seventeenth century, -are still face to face as enemies at the present moment. -While the inspiration of the Jesuits tries to maintain the old -worn-out exercises, like Latin verse, and the abuse of the -memory, the spirit of the Jansenists animates and inspires -the reformers, who, in the teaching of the classics, break -with tradition and routine, to substitute for exercises aimed -at elegance, and for a superficial instruction, studies of a -greater solidity and an education that is more complete.</p> - -<p>The merit of institutions ought not always to be measured -by their apparent success. The colleges of the Jesuits, during -three centuries, have had a countless number of pupils; -the Little Schools of Port Royal did not live twenty years, -and during their short existence they enrolled at most only -some hundreds of pupils. And yet the methods of the -Jansenists have survived the ruin of their colleges and the -dispersion of the teachers who had applied them. Although -the Jesuits have not ceased to rule in appearance, it is the -Jansenists who triumph in reality, and who to-day control -the secondary instruction of France.</p> - - -<p class="p1">150. <span class="smcap">Foundation of the Society of Jesus.</span>—In organizing -the Society of Jesus, Ignatius Loyola, that compound of -the mystic and the man of the world, purposed to establish,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> -not an order devoted to monastic contemplation, but a real -fighting corps, a Catholic army, whose double purpose was to -conquer new provinces to the faith through missions, and to -preserve the old through the control of education. Solemnly -consecrated by the Pope Paul III., in 1540, the congregation -had a rapid growth. As early as the middle of the sixteenth -century, it had several colleges in France, particularly those -of Billom, Mauriac, Rodez, Tournon, and Pamiers. In 1561 -it secured a footing in Paris, notwithstanding the resistance -of the Parliament, of the university, and of the bishops themselves. -A hundred years later it counted nearly fourteen -thousand pupils in the province of Paris alone. The college -of Clermont, in 1651, enrolled more than two thousand young -men. The middle and higher classes assured to the colleges -of the society an ever-increasing membership. At the end -of the seventeenth century, the Jesuits could inscribe on the -roll of honor of their classes a hundred illustrious names, -among others, those of Condé and Luxembourg, Fléchier and -Bossuet, Lamoignon and Séguier, Descartes, Corneille, and -Molière. In 1710 they controlled six hundred and twelve -colleges and a large number of universities. They were the -real masters of education, and they maintained this educational -supremacy till the end of the eighteenth century.</p> - - -<p class="p1">151. <span class="smcap">Different Judgments on the Educational Merits -of the Jesuits.</span>—Voltaire said of these teachers: “The -Fathers taught me nothing but Latin and nonsense.” But -from the seventeenth century, opinions are divided, and the -encomiums of Bacon and Descartes must be offset by the -severe judgment of Leibnitz. “In the matter of education,” -says this great philosopher, “the Jesuits have remained -below mediocrity.”<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> Directly to the contrary, Bacon had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> -written: “As to whatever relates to the instruction of the -young, we must consult the schools of the Jesuits, for there -can be nothing that is better done.”<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">152. <span class="smcap">Authorities to Consult.</span>—The Jesuits have never -written anything on the principles and objects of education. -We must not demand of them an exposition of general -views, or a confession of their educational faith. But to -make amends, they have drawn up with precision, with -almost infinite attention to details, the rules and regulations -of their course of study. Already, in 1559, the <cite>Constitutions</cite>, -probably written by Loyola himself, devoted a whole -book to the organization of the colleges of the society.<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> But -in particular, the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ratio Studiorum</cite>, published in 1599, contains -a complete scholastic programme, which has remained -for three centuries the invariable educational code of the -congregation. Without doubt, the Jesuits, always ready to -make apparent concessions to the spirit of the times, without -sacrificing anything of their own spirit, and without -renouncing their inflexible purpose, have introduced modifications -into their original rules; but the spirit of their educational -practice has remained the same, and, in 1854, -Beckx, the actual general of the order, could still declare -that the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ratio</cite> is the immutable rule of Jesuit education.</p> - - -<p class="p1">153. <span class="smcap">Primary Instruction Neglected.</span>—A permanent -and characteristic feature of the educational policy of the -Jesuits is, that, during the whole course of their history, -they have deliberately neglected and disdained primary instruction. -The earth is covered with their Latin colleges; -and wherever they have been able, they have put their hands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> -on the institutions for university education; but in no instance -have they founded a primary school. Even in their -establishments for secondary instruction, they entrust the -lower classes to teachers who do not belong to their order, -and reserve to themselves the direction of the higher classes. -Must we believe, as they have declared in order to explain -this negligence, that the only reason for their reserve and -their indifference is to be sought for in the insufficiency of -their teaching force? No; the truth is that the Jesuits -neither desire nor love the instruction of the people. To -desire and to love this, there must be faith in conscience and -reason; there must be a belief in human equality. Now -the Jesuits distrust the human intelligence, and administer -only the aristocratic education of the ruling classes, whom -they hope to retain under their own control. They wish to -train amiable gentlemen, accomplished men of the world; -they have no conception of training men. Intellectual culture, -in their view, is but a convenience, imposed on certain -classes of the nation by their rank. It is not a good in -itself; it may even become an evil. In certain hands it is -a dangerous weapon. The ignorance of a people is the best -safeguard of its faith, and faith is the supreme end. So we -shall not be astonished to read this in the <cite>Constitutions</cite>:—</p> - -<p>“None of those who are employed in domestic service on -account of the society, ought to learn to read and write, or, -if they already know these arts, to learn more of them. -They shall not be instructed without the consent of the -General, for it suffices for them to serve with all simplicity -and humility our Master, Jesus Christ.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">154. <span class="smcap">Classical Studies: Latin and the Humanities.</span>—It -is only in secondary instruction that the Jesuits have -taken position with marked success. The basis of their -teaching is the study of Latin and Greek. Their purpose is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> -to monopolize classical studies in order to make them serve -for the propagation of the Catholic faith. To write in Latin -is the ideal which they propose to their pupils. The first -consequence of this is the proscription of the mother tongue. -The <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ratio</cite> forbids the use of French even in conversation; -it permits it only on holidays. Hence, also, the importance -accorded to Latin and Greek composition, to the explication -of authors, and to the study of grammar, rhetoric, and -poetry. It is to be noted, besides, that the Jesuits put -scarcely more into the hands of their pupils than select -extracts, expurgated editions. They wish, in some sort, to -efface from the ancient books whatever marks the epoch and -characterizes the time. They detach fine passages of eloquence -and beautiful extracts of poetry; but they are afraid, -it seems, of the authors themselves; they fear lest the pupil -find in them the old human spirit,—the spirit of nature. -Moreover, in the explication of authors, they pay more -attention to words than to things. They direct the pupil’s -attention, not to the thoughts, but to the elegancies of language, -to the elocutionary effect; in a word, to the form, -which, at least, has no religious character, and can in nowise -give umbrage to Catholic orthodoxy. They fear to -awaken reflection and individual judgment. As Macaulay -has said, they seem to have found the point up to which -intellectual culture can be pushed without reaching intellectual -emancipation.</p> - - -<p class="p1">155. <span class="smcap">Disdain of History, of Philosophy, and of the -Sciences in General.</span>—Preoccupied before all else with -purely formal studies, and exclusively devoted to the exercises -which give a training in the use of elegant language, -the Jesuits leave real and concrete studies in entire neglect. -History is almost wholly banished from their programme. -It is only with reference to the Greek and Latin texts that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> -the teacher should make allusion to the matters of history -which are necessary for the understanding of the passage -under examination. No account is made of modern history, -nor of the history of France. “History,” says a Jesuit -Father, “is the destruction of him who studies it.” This -systematic omission of historical studies suffices to put in its -true light the artificial and superficial pedagogy of the -Jesuits, admirably defined by Beckx, who expresses himself -thus:—</p> - -<p>“The gymnasia will remain what they are by nature, a -gymnastic for the intellect, which consists far less in the -assimilation of real matter, in the acquisition of different -knowledges, than in a culture of pure form.”</p> - -<p>The sciences and philosophy are involved in the same disdain -as history. Scientific studies are entirely proscribed in -the lower classes, and the student enters his year in philosophy,<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> -having studied only the ancient languages. Philosophy -itself is reduced to a barren study of words, to subtile discussions, -and to commentaries on Aristotle. Memory and -syllogistic reasoning are the only faculties called into play; -no facts, no real inductions, no care for the observation of -nature. In all things the Jesuits are the enemies of progress. -Intolerant of everything new, they would arrest the -progress of the human mind and make it immovable.</p> - - -<p class="p1">156. <span class="smcap">Discipline.</span>—Extravagant statements have been -made relative to the reforms in discipline introduced by the -Jesuits into their educational establishments. The fact is, -that they have caused to prevail in their colleges more of -order and of system than there was in the establishments of -the University. On the other hand, they have attempted to -please their pupils, to gild for them, so to speak, the bars of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> -the prison which confined them. Theatrical representations, -excursions on holidays, practice in swimming, riding, and -fencing,—nothing was neglected that could render their -residence at school endurable.</p> - -<p>But, on the other hand, the Jesuits have incurred the -grave fault of detaching the child from the family. They -wish to have absolute control of him. The ideal of the perfect -scholar is to forget his parents. Here is what was said -by a pupil of the Jesuits, who afterwards became a member -of the Order, J. B. de Schultaus:—</p> - -<p>“His mother paid him a visit at the College of Trent. -He refused to take her hand, and would not even raise his -eyes to hers. The mother, astonished and grieved, asked -her son the cause of such a cold greeting. ‘I refuse to -notice you,’ said the pupil, ‘not because you are my mother, -but because you are a woman.’ And the biographer adds: -‘This was not excessive precaution; woman preserves -to-day the faults she had at the time of our first father; it -is always she who drives man from Paradise.’ When the -mother of Schultaus died, he did not show the least emotion, -having long ago adopted the Holy Virgin for his true -mother.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">157. <span class="smcap">Emulation Encouraged.</span>—The Jesuits have always -considered emulation as one of the essential elements of discipline. -“It is necessary,” says the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ratio</cite>, “to encourage -an honorable emulation; it is a great stimulus to study.” -Superior on this point, perhaps on this alone, to the Jansenists, -who through mistrust of human nature feared to excite -pride by encouraging emulation, the Jesuits have always -counted upon the self-love of the pupil. The <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ratio</cite> multiplies -rewards,—solemn distributions of prizes, crosses, -ribbons, decorations, titles borrowed from the Roman -Republic, such as <em>decurions</em> and <em>prætors</em>; all means, even<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> -the most puerile, were invented to nourish in pupils an ardor -for work, and to incite them to surpass one another. Let -us add that the pupil was rewarded, not only for his own -good conduct, but for the bad conduct of his comrades if he -informed against them. The <em>decurion</em> or the <em>prætor</em> was -charged with the police care of the class, and, in the absence -of the official disciplinarian, he himself chastised his comrades; -in the hands of his teacher, he became a spy and an -informer. Thus a pupil, liable to punishment for having -spoken French contrary to orders, will be relieved from his -punishment if he can prove by witnesses that one of his -comrades has committed the same fault on the same day.</p> - - -<p class="p1">158. <span class="smcap">Official Disciplinarian.</span>—The rod is an element, -so to speak, of the ancient pedagogical régime. It holds a -privileged place both in the colleges and in private education. -Louis XIV. officially transmits to the Duke of Montausier -the right to correct his son. Henry IV. wrote to the -governor of Louis XIII.: “I complain because you did not -inform me that you had whipped my son; for I desire and -order you to whip him every time that he shall be guilty of -obstinacy or of anything else that is bad; for I well know -that there is nothing in the world that can do him more good -than that. This I know from the lessons of experience, for -when I was of his age, I was soundly flogged.”<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a></p> - -<p>The Jesuits, notwithstanding their disposition to make -discipline milder, were careful not to renounce a punishment -that was in use even at court. Only, while the Brethren of -the Christian Schools, according to the regulations of La -Salle, chastised the guilty pupil themselves, the Jesuits did -not think it becoming the dignity of the master to apply the -correction himself. They reserved to a laic the duty of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> -handling the rods. An official disciplinarian, a domestic, a -porter, was charged in all the colleges with the functions of -chief executioner. And while the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ratio Studiorum</cite> recommends -moderation, certain witnesses prove that the special -disciplinarian did not always carry a discreet hand. Here, -for example, is an account given by Saint Simon:—</p> - -<p>“The eldest son of the Marquis of Boufflers was fourteen -years old. He was handsome, well formed, was wonderfully -successful, and full of promise. He was a resident -pupil of the Jesuits with the two sons of d’Argenson. I do -not know what indiscretion he and they were guilty of. The -Fathers wished to show that they neither feared nor stood in -awe of any one, and they flogged the boy, because, in fact, -they had nothing to fear of the Marquis of Boufflers; but -they were careful not to treat the two others in this way, -though equally culpable, because every day they had to -count with d’Argenson, who was lieutenant of police. The -boy Boufflers was thrown into such mental agony that he -fell sick on the same day, and within four days was dead.... -There was a universal and furious outcry against the -Jesuits, but nothing ever came of it.”<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">159. <span class="smcap">General Spirit of the Pedagogy of the Jesuits.</span>—The -general principles of the doctrine of the Jesuits are -completely opposed to our modern ideas. Blind obedience, -the suppression of all liberty and of all spontaneity, such is -the basis of their moral education.</p> - -<p>“To renounce one’s own wishes is more meritorious than -to raise the dead;” “We must be so attached to the Roman -Church as to hold for black an object which she tells us is -black, even when it is really white;” “Our confidence in -God should be strong enough to force us, in the lack of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> -boat, to cross the ocean on a single plank;” “If God should -appoint for our master an animal deprived of reason, you -should not hesitate to render it obedience, as to a master -and a guide, for this sole reason, that God has ordered it -thus;” “One must allow himself to be governed by divine -Providence acting through the agency of the superiors of -the Order, just as if he were a dead body that could be put -into any position whatever, and treated according to one’s -good pleasure; or as if one were a bâton in the hands of an -old man who uses it as he pleases.”</p> - -<p>As to intellectual education, as they understand it, it is -wholly artificial and superficial. To find for the mind occupations -that absorb it, that soothe it like a dream, without -wholly awakening it; to call attention to words, and to -niceties of expression, so as to reduce by so much the opportunity -for thinking; to provoke a certain degree of intellectual -activity, prudently arrested at the place where the -reflective reason succeeds an embellished memory; in a word, -to excite the spirit just enough to arouse it from its inertia -and its ignorance, but not enough to endow it with a real -self-activity by a manly display of all its faculties,—such is -the method of the Jesuits. “As to instruction,” says -Bersot, “this is what we find with them: history reduced to -facts and tables, without the lesson derived from them -bearing on the knowledge of the world; even the facts suppressed -or altered when they say too much; philosophy -reduced to what is called empirical doctrine, and what -de Maistre called the philosophy of the nothing, without -danger of one’s acquiring a liking for it; physical science -reduced to recreations, without the spirit of research and -liberty; literature reduced to the complaisant explication of -the ancient authors, and ending in innocent witticisms.... -With respect to letters, there are two loves which have noth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>ing -in common save their name; one of them makes men, -the other, great boys. It is the last that we find with the -Jesuits; they amuse the soul.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">160. <span class="smcap">The Oratorians.</span>—Between the Jesuits, their adversaries, -and the Jansenists, their friends, the Oratorians occupy -an intermediate place. They break already with the -over-mechanical education, and with the wholly superficial -instruction which Ignatius Loyola had inaugurated. Through -some happy innovations they approach the more elevated and -more profound education of Port Royal. Founded in 1614, by -Bérulle, the Order of the Oratory soon counted quite a large -number of colleges of secondary instruction, and, in particular, -in 1638, the famous college of Juilly. While with the -Jesuits it is rare to meet the names of celebrated professors, -several renowned teachers have made illustrious the Oratory -of the seventeenth century. We note the Père Lamy, author -of <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Entretiens sur les Sciences</cite> (1683); the Père Thomassin, -whom the Oratorians call the “incomparable theologian,” -and who published, from 1681 to 1690, a series of <cite>Methods</cite> -for studying the languages, philosophy, and letters; Mascaron -and Massillon, who taught rhetoric at the Oratory; the -Père Lecointe and the Père Lelong, who taught history there. -All these men unite, in general, some love of liberty to ardor -of religious sentiment; they wish to introduce more air and -more light into the cloister and the school; they have a taste -for the facts of history and the truths of science; finally, they -attempt to found an education at once liberal and Christian, -religious without abuse of devotion, elegant without refinement, -solid without excess of erudition, worthy, finally, to -be counted as one of the first practical tentatives of modern -pedagogy.</p> - -<p>The limits of this study forbid our entering into details. -Let us merely note a few essential points. That which dis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>tinguishes -the Oratorians, is, first, a sincere and disinterested -love of truth.</p> - -<p>“We love the truth,” says the Père Lamy; “the days do -not suffice to consult her as long as we would wish; or, rather, -we never grow weary of the pleasure we find in studying her. -There has always been that love for letters in this House: -those who have governed it have tried to nourish it. When -there is found among us some penetrating and liberally endowed -spirit who has a rare genius for the sciences, he is -discharged from all other duties.”<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a></p> - -<p>Nowhere have ancient letters been more loved than at -the Oratory.</p> - -<p>“In his leisure hours the Père Thomassin read only the -authors of the humanities;” and yet French was not there -sacrificed to Latin. The use of the Latin language was not -obligatory till after the fourth year, and even then not for the -lessons in history, which, till the end of the courses, had to -be given in French. History, so long neglected even in the -colleges of the University, particularly the history of France, -was taught to the pupils of the Oratory. Geography was -not separated from it; and the class-rooms were furnished -with large mural maps. On the other hand, the sciences had -a place in the course of study. A Jesuit father would not -have expressed himself as the Père Lamy has done:—</p> - -<p>“It is a pleasure to enter the laboratory of a chemist. In -the places where I have happened to be, I did not miss an -opportunity to attend the anatomical lectures that were given, -and to witness the dissection of the principal parts of the -human body.... I know of nothing of greater use than -algebra and arithmetic.”</p> - -<p>Finally, philosophy itself,—the Cartesian philosophy, so -mercilessly decried by the Jesuits,—was in vogue at the Oratory.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> -“If Cartesianism is a pest,” wrote the regents of the -College of Angers, “there are more than two hundred of us -who are infected with it.” ... “They have forbidden the -Fathers of the Oratory to teach the philosophy of Descartes, -and, consequently, the blood to circulate,” wrote Madame de -Sévigné, in 1673.</p> - -<p>Let us also furnish proof of the progress and amelioration -of the discipline at the Oratory:—</p> - -<p>“There are many other ways besides the rod,” says the -Père Lamy; “and, to lead pupils back to their duty, a caress, -a threat, the hope of a reward, or the fear of a humiliation, -has greater efficiency than whips.”</p> - -<p>The ferule, it is true, and whips also, were not forbidden, -but made part of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legitima pœnarum genera</i>. But it does -not appear that use was often made of them; either through -a spirit of mildness, or through prudence, and through the -fear of exasperating the child.</p> - -<p>“There is needed,” says the Père Lamy again, “a sort of -politics to govern this little community,—to lead them -through their inclinations; to foresee the effect of rewards -and punishments, and to employ them according to their -proper use. There are times of stubbornness when a child -would sooner be killed than yield.”</p> - -<p>What made it easier at the Oratory to maintain the authority -of the master without resorting to violent punishments, -is that the same professor accompanied the pupils through the -whole series of their classes. The Père Thomassin, for -example, was, in turn, professor of grammar, rhetoric, philosophy, -mathematics, history, Italian, and Spanish,—a touching -example, it must be allowed, of an absolute devotion to -scholastic labor. But this universality, somewhat superficial, -served neither the real interests of the masters nor those of -their pupils. The great pedagogical law is the division of -labor.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">161. <span class="smcap">Foundation of the Little Schools.</span>—From the -very organization of their society, the Jansenists gave evidences -of an ardent solicitude for the education of youth. -Their founder, Saint Cyran, said: “Education is, in a sense, -the <em>one thing necessary</em>.... I wish you might read in my heart -the affection I feel for children.... You could not deserve -more of God than in working for the proper bringing up of -children.” It was in this disinterested feeling of charity for -the good of the young, in this display of sincere tenderness -for children, that the Jansenists, in 1643, founded the Little -Schools at Port Royal in the Fields, in the vicinity, and then -in Paris.<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> They received into those schools only a small -number of pupils, preoccupied as they were, not with dominating -the world and extending their influence, but with doing -modestly and obscurely the good they could. Persecution -did not long grant them the leisure to continue the work they -had undertaken. By 1660 the enemies of Port Royal had -triumphed; the Jesuits obtained an order from the king closing -the schools and dispersing the teachers. Pursued, imprisoned, -expatriated, the solitaries of Port Royal had but the -opportunity to gather up in memorable documents the results -of their educational experience all too short.<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">162. <span class="smcap">The Teachers and the Books of Port Royal.</span>—Singular -destiny,—that of those teachers whom a relentless<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> -fate permitted to exercise their functions for only five -years, yet who, through their works, have remained perhaps -the best authorized exponents of French education! The -first of these is Nicole, the moralist and logician, one of the -authors of the Port Royal <cite>Logic</cite>, who taught philosophy -and the humanities in the Little Schools, and who published -in 1670, under the title, <cite>The Education of a Prince</cite>, a series of -reflections on education, applicable, as he himself says, to -children of all classes. Another is Lancelot, the grammarian, -the author of the <cite>Methods</cite> for learning the Latin, Greek, -Italian, and Spanish languages. Then there is Arnauld, the -great Arnauld, the ardent theologian, who worked on the -<cite>Logic</cite>, and the <cite>General Grammar</cite>, and who finally composed -the <cite>Regulation of Studies in the Humanities</cite>. In connection -with these celebrated names, we must mention other Jansenists -not so well known, such as De Sacy and Guyot, both -of whom were the authors of a large number of translations; -Coustel, who published the <cite>Rules for the Education of Children</cite> -(1687); Varet, the author of <cite>Christian Education</cite> -(1668). Let us add to this list, still incomplete, the <cite>Regimen -for Children</cite>, by Jacqueline Pascal (1657), and we shall -have some idea of the educational activity of Port Royal.</p> - - -<p class="p1">163. <span class="smcap">The Study of the French Language.</span>—As a -general rule, we may have a good opinion of the teachers who -recommend the study of the mother tongue. In this respect, -the solitaries of Port Royal are in advance of their time. -“We first teach to read in Latin,” said the Abbé Fleury, -“because, compared with French, we pronounce it more as -it is written.”<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> A curious reason, which did not satisfy -Fleury himself; for he acknowledged the propriety of putting, -as soon as possible, into the hands of children, the French<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> -books that they can understand. This was what was done -at Port Royal. With their love of exactness and clearness, -with their disposition, wholly Cartesian, to make children -study only the things they can comprehend, the Jansenists -saw at once the great absurdity of choosing Latin works as -the first reading-books. “To learn Latin before learning -the mother tongue,” said Comenius, wittily, “is like wishing -to mount a horse before knowing how to walk.” And again, -as Sainte-Beuve says, “It is to compel unfortunate children -to deal with the unintelligible in order to proceed towards the -unknown.” For these unintelligible texts, the Jansenists substituted, -not, it is true, original French works, but at least -good translations of Latin authors. For the first time in -France, the French language was made the subject of serious -study. Before being made to write in Latin, pupils were -drilled in writing in French. They were set to compose little -narratives, little letters, the subjects of which were borrowed -from their recollections, by being asked to relate on the spot -what they had retained of what they had read.</p> - - -<p class="p1">164. <span class="smcap">New System of Spelling.</span>—In their constant preoccupation -to make study easier, the Jansenists reformed the -current method of learning to read. “What makes reading -more difficult,” says Arnauld in Chapter VI. of the <cite>General -Grammar</cite>, “is that while each letter has its own proper name, -it is given a different name when it is found associated with -other letters. For example, if the pupil is made to read the -syllable <em>fry</em>, he is made to say <em>ef</em>, <em>ar</em>, <em>y</em>, which invariably confuses -him. It is best, therefore, to teach children to know the -letters only by the names of their real pronunciation, to name -them only by their natural sounds.” Port Royal proposes, -then, “to have children pronounce only the vowels and the -diphthongs, and not the consonants, which they need not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> -pronounce, except in the different combinations which they -form with the same vowels or diphthongs, in syllables and -words.”</p> - -<p>This method has become celebrated under the name of the -Port Royal Method; and it appears, from a letter of Jacqueline -Pascal, that the original notion was due to Pascal himself.<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">165. <span class="smcap">Discipline in Personal Reflection.</span>—That which -profoundly distinguishes the method of the Jansenists from -the method of the Jesuits, is that at Port Royal the purpose -is less to make good Latinists than to train sound intelligences. -The effort is to call into activity the judgment and -personal reflection. As soon as the child is capable of it, he -is made to think and comprehend. In the lessons of the -class-room, not a word is allowed to pass till the child has -understood its meaning. Only those tasks are proposed to -the child which are adapted to his childish intelligence. His -attention is occupied only with the things that are within the -compass of his powers.</p> - -<p>The grammars of Port Royal are written in French, “because -it is ridiculous,” says Nicole, “to teach the principles -of a language in the very language that is to be learned, and -that for the present is unknown.” Lancelot, in his <cite>Methods</cite>, -abbreviates and simplifies grammatical studies:—</p> - -<p>“I have found out, at last, how useful this maxim of -Ramus is,—<em>Few precepts and much practice</em>: and, also, that -as soon as children begin to know these rules somewhat, it is -well to make them observe them in practice.”</p> - -<p>It is by the reading of authors that the grammar of Port -Royal completes the theoretical study of the rules that are -rigidly reduced to their minimum. The professor, with reference<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> -to such or such a passage of an author, will make appropriate -oral remarks. In this way the example, not the -dry and uninteresting one of the grammar, but the living -example, expressive, and, drawn from a writer that is being -read with interest, will precede or accompany the rule, and -the particular case will explain the general law. This is an -excellent method, because it accords with the real movement -of the mind, and adapts the sequence of studies to the progress -of the intelligence, and also because, according to the -advice of Descartes, the child in this way proceeds from the -known to the unknown, from the simple to the complex.</p> - - -<p class="p1">166. <span class="smcap">General Spirit of the Intellectual Education -at Port Royal.</span>—Without doubt, we need not expect to -find among the solitaries of Port Royal a disinterested devotion -to science. In their view, instruction is but a means of -forming the judgment. “The sciences should be employed,” -says Nicole, “only as an instrument for perfecting the -reason.” Historical, literary, and scientific knowledge has -no intrinsic value. The thing required is simply to employ -those subjects for educating just, equitable, and judicious -men. Nicole declares that it would be better absolutely to -ignore the sciences than to become absorbed in the useless -portions of them. Speaking of astronomical researches, and -of the works of those mathematicians who believe that “it is -the finest thing in the world to know whether there is a bridge -and an arch suspended around the planet Saturn,” he concludes -that it is preferable to be ignorant of those things -than to be ignorant that they are vain.</p> - -<p>But, on the other hand, the Jansenists have struck from -their programme of studies everything that is merely sterile -verbiage, exercises of memory or of artificial imagination. -Little attention is given to Latin verse at Port Royal. Ver<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>sion -takes precedence of the theme,<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> and the oral theme -often replaces the written. The pupil is to be taught, “not -to be blinded by a vain flash of words void of sense, not to -rest satisfied with mere words or obscure principles, and -never to be satisfied till he has gained a clear insight into -things.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">167. <span class="smcap">Pedagogical Principles of Nicole.</span>—In his treatise -on the <cite>Education of a Prince</cite>, Nicole has summarized, -under the form of aphorisms, some of the essential principles -of his system of education.</p> - -<p>Let us first notice this maxim, a true pedagogical axiom: -“The purpose of instruction is to carry forward intelligences -to the farthest point they are capable of attaining.” This -is saying that every child, whether of the nobility or of the -people, has the right to be instructed according to his aptitude -and ability.</p> - -<p>Another axiom: We must proportion difficulties to the -growing development of the child’s intelligence. “The -greatest minds have but a limited range of intelligence. In -all of them there are regions of twilight and shadow; but -the intelligence of the child is almost wholly pervaded by -shadows; he catches glimpses of but few rays of light. So -everything depends on managing these rays, on increasing -them, and on exposing to them whatever we wish to have the -child comprehend.”</p> - -<p>A corollary to the preceding axiom is, that the first -appeal must be made to the senses. “The intelligence of -children always being very dependent on the senses, we -must, as far as possible, address our instruction to the -senses, and cause it to reach the mind, not only through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> -hearing, but also through seeing.” Consequently, geography -is a study well adapted to early years, provided we -employ books in which the largest cities are pictured. If -children study the history of a country, we must not neglect -to show them the situation of places on the map. Nicole also -recommends that they be shown pictures that represent the -machines, the arms, and the dress of the ancients, and also -the portraits of kings and illustrious men.</p> - - -<p class="p1">168. <span class="smcap">Moral Pessimism.</span>—Man is wicked, human nature -is corrupt: such is the cry of despair that comes to our ears -from all the writings of the Jansenists.</p> - -<p>“The devil,” says Saint Cyran, “already possesses the -soul of even the unborn child.” ...</p> - -<p>And again: “We must always pray for souls, and always -be on the watch, standing guard as in a city menaced by an -enemy. On the outside the devil makes his rounds.” ...</p> - -<p>“As soon as children begin to have reason,” says another -Jansenist, “we observe in them only blindness and weakness. -Their minds are closed to spiritual things, and they -cannot comprehend them. But, on the contrary, their eyes -are open to evil; their senses are susceptible to all sorts of -corruption, and they have a natural inertia that inclines -them to it.”</p> - -<p>“You ought,” writes Varet, “to consider your children -as wholly inclined to evil, and carried forward towards it. -All their inclinations are corrupt, and, not being governed -by reason, they will permit them to find pleasure and diversion -only in the things that carry them towards vice.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">169. <span class="smcap">Effects on Discipline.</span>—The doctrine of the original -perversity of man may produce contrary results, and -direct the practical conduct of those who accept it in two -opposite directions. They are either inspired with severity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> -toward beings deeply tainted and vicious, or they are excited -to pity and to tenderness for those fallen creatures who suffer -from an incurable evil. The solitaries of Port Royal obeyed -the second tendency. They were as affectionate and good -to the children confided to their care as, in theory, they were -harsh and rigorous towards human nature. In the presence -of their pupils they felt touched with an infinite tenderness -for those poor sick souls, whom they would willingly cure of -their ills, and raise from their fall, at the cost of any and -every sacrifice.</p> - -<p>The conception of the native wickedness of man had still -another result at Port Royal. It increased the zeal of the -teachers. It prompted them to multiply their assiduity and -vigilance in order to keep guard over young souls, and there -destroy, whenever possible, the seeds of evil that sin had -sown in them. When one is charged with the difficult mission -of moral education, it is, perhaps, dangerous to have too -much confidence in human nature, and to form too favorable -an opinion of its qualities and dispositions; for then one is -tempted to accord to the child too large a liberty, and to -practise the maxim, “Let it take its own course, let it -pass” (<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Laissez faire, laissez passer</i>). It is better to err on -the other side, in excess of mistrust; for, in this case, -knowing the dangers that menace the child, we watch over -him with more attention, abandon him less to the inspiration -of his caprices, and expect more of education; we demand -of effort and labor what we judge nature incapable of producing -by herself.</p> - -<p>Vigilance, patience, mildness,—these are the instruments -of discipline in the schools of Port Royal. There were -scarcely any punishments in the Little Schools. “To speak -little, to tolerate much, to pray still more,”—these are the -three things that Saint Cyran recommended. The threat to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> -send children home to their parents sufficed to maintain -order in a flock somewhat small. In fact, all whose example -would have proved bad were sent away; an excellent -system of elimination when it is practicable. The pious -solitaries endured without complaint, faults in which they -saw the necessary consequences of the original fall. Penetrated, -however, as they were, with the value of human -souls, their tenderness for children was mingled with a certain -respect; for they saw in them the creatures of God, -beings called from eternity to a sublime destiny or to a terrible -punishment.</p> - - -<p class="p1">170. <span class="smcap">Faults in the Discipline of Port Royal.</span>—The -Jansenists did not shun the logical though dangerous consequences -that were involved, in germ, in their pessimistic -theories of human nature. They fell into an excess of prudence -or of rigidity. They pushed gravity and dignity to -a formalism that was somewhat repulsive. At Port Royal -pupils were forbidden to thee and thou one another. The -solitaries did not like familiarities, faithful in this respect to -the <cite>Imitation of Jesus Christ</cite>, in which it is somewhere said -that it does not become a Christian to be on familiar terms -with any one whatever. The young were thus brought up -in habits of mutual respect, which may have had their good -side, but which had the grave fault of being a little ridiculous -in children, since they forced them to live among themselves -as <em>little gentlemen</em>, while at the same time they oppose -the development of those intimate friendships, of those lasting -attachments of which all those who have lived at college -know the sweetness and the charm.</p> - -<p>The spirit of asceticism is the general character of all the -Jansenists. Varet declares that balls are places of infamy. -Pascal denies himself every agreeable thought, and what he -called an agreeable thought was to reflect on geometry.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> -Lancelot refuses to take to the theatre the princes of Conti, -of whom he was the preceptor.</p> - -<p>But perhaps a graver fault at Port Royal was, that through -fear of awakening self-love, the spirit of emulation was purposely -suppressed. It is God alone, it was said, who is to -be praised for the qualities and talents manifested by men. -“If God has placed something of good in the soul of a child, -we must praise Him for it and keep silent.” By this deliberate -silence men put themselves on guard against pride; -but if pride is to be feared, is indolence the less so? And -when we purposely avoid stimulating self-love through the -hope of reward, or through a word of praise given in due -season, we run a great risk of not overcoming the indolence -that is natural to the child, and of not obtaining from -him any serious effort. Pascal, the greatest of the friends -of Port Royal, said: “The children of Port Royal, who do -not feel that stimulus of envy and glory, fall into a state of -indifference.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">171. <span class="smcap">General Judgment on Port Royal.</span>—After all -has been said, we must admire the teachers of Port Royal, -who were doubtless deceived on some points, but who were -animated by a powerful feeling of their duty to educate, and -by a perfect charity. Ardor and sincerity of religious faith; -a great respect for the human person; the practice of piety -held in honor, but kept subordinate to the reality of the -inner feeling; devotion advised, but not imposed; a marked -mistrust of nature, corrected by displays of tenderness and -tempered by affection; above all, the profound, unwearied -devotion of Christian souls who give themselves wholly and -without reserve to other souls to raise them up and save -them,—this is what was done by the discipline of Port -Royal. But it is rather in the methods of teaching, and in -the administration of classical studies, that we must look for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> -the incontestable superiority of the Jansenists. The teachers -of the Little Schools were admirable humanists, not of form, -as the Jesuits were, but of judgment. They represent, it -seems to us, in all its beauty and in all its force, that intellectual -education, already divined by Montaigne, which -prepares for life men of sound judgment and of upright -conscience. They founded the teaching of the humanities. -“Port Royal,” says an historian of pedagogy, Burnier, -“simplifies study without, however, relieving it of its wholesome -difficulties; it strives to make it interesting, while it -does not convert it into child’s play; it purposes to confide -to the memory only what has first been apprehended by the -intelligence.... It has given to the world ideas that it has -not again let go, and fruitful principles from which we have -but to draw their logical consequences.”</p> - - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>[172. <span class="smcap">Analytical Summary.</span> 1. In the history of the -three great teaching congregations we have an illustration -of the supposed power of education over the destinies of -men.</p> - -<p>2. To resist the encroachments of Protestantism that followed -the diffusion of instruction among the people, Loyola -organized his teaching corps of Catholic zealots; and this -mode of competition for purposes of moral, sectarian, and -political control has covered the earth, in all Christian -countries, with institutions of learning.</p> - -<p>3. The tendency towards extremes, and the difficulty of -attaining symmetry and completeness, are seen in the preference -of the Jesuits for form, elegance, and mere discipline, -in their excessive use of emulation; and in the pessimism of -the Jansenists, their distrust of human nature, and their fear -of human pride.]</p></div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> Religious congregations, as known in France, are associations of persons -who, consecrating themselves to the service of God, make a vow to -live in common under the same rule. Many of these congregations devote -themselves to the work of teaching, and these are of two classes, the -authorized and the unauthorized. For example, the “Brethren of the -Christian Schools,” founded by La Salle, is an <em>authorized</em>, and the “Society -of Jesus” an <em>unauthorized</em>, congregation. From statistics published in -1878, it appears that there were then in France, 24 congregations of men -authorized to teach, and controlling 3096 establishments; and 528 similar -congregations of women, controlling 16,478 establishments. At the same -time there were 85 unauthorized congregations of men, and 260 unauthorized -congregations of women, devoted to teaching. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> The congregation of the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Doctrinaries</i> founded at a later period establishments -of secondary instruction. Maine de Biran, Laromiguière, and -Lakanal were pupils of the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Doctrinaries</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leibnitii Opera</cite>, Genevæ, 1768, Tome VI. p. 65.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Bacon de Augmentis Scientiarum</cite>, Lib. VI. chap. <span class="fs70">IV.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> See the fourth book of the <cite>Constitutions</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> See note to § 141.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> Letter to Madame Montglat, Nov. 14, 1607.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Saint Simon, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mémoires</cite>, Tome IX. 83.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Entretiens sur les Sciences</cite>, p. 197.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> For the Little Schools of Port Royal, see a recent account by Carré -(<cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue Pédagogique</cite>, 1883, Nos. 2 and 8).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> No more pathetic piece of history has ever been written than that -which relates the vindictive and relentless persecution of the peaceful -and pious solitaries of Port Royal: “The house was razed to the ground, -and even the very foundations ploughed up. The gardens and walks were -demolished; and the dead were even torn from their graves, that not a vestige -might be left to mark the spot where this celebrated institution had -stood.”—<cite>Lancelot’s Tour to La Grande Chartreuse</cite>, p. 243. See also <cite>Narrative -of the Demolition of Port Royal</cite> (London, 1816). (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Du choix et de la méthode des études.</cite></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> See Cousin, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Jacqueline Pascal</cite>, p. 262.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> <em>Version</em>: translation from Latin or Greek into French. <em>Theme</em>: -translation of French into Latin or Greek. (P.)</p> -</div></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER VIII.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">FÉNELON.</span></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>EDUCATION IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY; FÉNELON (1651-1715); HOW -FÉNELON BECAME A TEACHER; ANALYSIS OF THE TREATISE ON -THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS; CRITICISM OF MONASTIC EDUCATION; -REFUTATION OF THE PREJUDICES RELATIVE TO WOMEN; GOOD -OPINION OF HUMAN NATURE; INSTINCTIVE CURIOSITY; LESSONS ON -OBJECTS; FEEBLENESS OF THE CHILD; INDIRECT INSTRUCTION; ALL -ACTIVITY MUST BE PLEASURABLE; FABLES AND HISTORICAL NARRATIVES; -MORAL AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION; STUDIES PROPER FOR -WOMEN; EDUCATION OF THE DUKE DE BOURGOGNE (1689-1695); -HAPPY RESULTS; THE FABLES; THE DIALOGUES OF THE DEAD; -VARIETY OF DISCIPLINARY AGENTS; DIVERSIFIED INSTRUCTION; -THE TELEMACHUS; FÉNELON AND BOSSUET; SPHERE AND LIMITS -OF EDUCATION; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.</p></div> - -<hr class="r15a" /> - -<p class="p1">173. <span class="smcap">Education in the Seventeenth Century.</span>—Outside -of the teaching congregations, the seventeenth century -counts a certain number of independent educators, isolated -thinkers, who have transmitted to us in durable records the -results of their reflection or of their experience. The most -of these belong to the clergy,—they are royal preceptors. -In a monarchical government there is no grander affair than -the education of princes. Some others are philosophers, -whom the general study of human nature has led to reflect -on the principles of education. Without pretending to -include everything within the narrow compass of this elementary -history, we would make known either the fundamental -doctrines or the essential methods which have been -concerned in the education of the seventeenth century, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> -which, at the same time, have made a preparation for the -educational reforms of the succeeding centuries.</p> - - -<p class="p1">174. <span class="smcap">Fénelon (1651-1715).</span>—Fénelon holds an important -place in French literature; but it seems that of all the varied -aspects of his genius, the part he played as an educator is -the most important and the most considerable. Fénelon -wrote the first classical work of French pedagogy, and it may -be said, considering the great number of authors who have -been inspired by his thoughts, that he is the head of a school -of educators.</p> - - -<p class="p1">175. <span class="smcap">How Fénelon became a Teacher.</span>—It is well -known that the valuable treatise, <cite>On the Education of Girls</cite>, -was written in 1680, at the request of the Duke and the -Duchess of Beauvilliers. These noble friends of Fénelon, -besides several boys, had eight girls to educate. It was to -assist, by his advice, in the education of this little family -school, that Fénelon wrote his book which was not designed -at first for the public, and which did not appear till 1687. -The young Abbé who, in 1680, was but thirty years old, had -already had experience in educational matters in the management -of the Convent of the <em>New Catholics</em> (1678). This -was an institution whose purpose was to retain young Protestant -converts in the Catholic faith, or even to call them there -by mild force. It would have been better, we confess, for -the glory of Fénelon, if he had gained his experience elsewhere -than in that mission of fanaticism, where he was the -auxiliary of the secular arm, the accomplice of dragoons, -and where was prepared the Revocation of the Edict of -Nantes. We would have preferred that the <cite>Education of -Girls</cite> had not been planned in a house where were violently -confined girls torn from their mothers, and wives stolen from -their husbands. But if the first source of Fénelon’s educa<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>tional -inspiration was not as pure as one could wish, at least -in the book there is nothing that betrays the spirit of intolerance -and violence with which the author was associated. -On the contrary, <cite>The Education of Girls</cite> is a work of gentleness -and goodness, of a complaisant and amiable grace, which -is pervaded by a spirit of progress.</p> - -<p>Fénelon soon had occasion to apply the principles that he -had set forth in his treatise. August 16, 1689, he was -chosen preceptor of the Duke of Bourgogne,<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> with the Duke -of Beauvilliers for governor, and the Abbé Fleury for sub-preceptor. -From 1689 to 1695, he directed with marvellous -success the education of a prince, “a born terror,” as Saint -Simon expressed it, but who, under the penetrating influence -of his master, became an accomplished man, almost a saint. -It was for his royal pupil that he composed, one after -another, a large number of educational works, such as the -<cite>Collection of Fables</cite>, the <cite>Dialogues of the Dead</cite>, the treatise -on <cite>The Existence of God</cite>, and especially the <cite>Telemachus</cite>, one -of the most popular works in French literature.</p> - -<p>In furnishing occasion for the exercise of his educational -activity, events served Fénelon according to his wish. We -may say that his nature predestinated him to the work of -education. With his tender soul, preserving its paternal -instincts even in his celibate condition, with his admirable -grace of spirit, with his various erudition and profound -knowledge of antiquity, with his competence in the studies -of grammar and history, attested by different passages in -his <cite>Letter to the Academy</cite>; finally, with his temperate disposition -and his inclinations towards liberalism in a century of -absolute monarchy, he was made to become one of the guides, -one of the masters, of French education.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">176. <span class="smcap">Analysis of the Treatise on the Education of -Girls.</span>—This charming masterpiece of Fénelon’s should be -read entire. A rapid analysis would not suffice, as it is -difficult to reduce to a few essential points the flowing -thought of our author. With a facility in expression inclining -to laxness, and with a copiousness of thought somewhat -lacking in exactness, Fénelon easily repeats himself; he -returns to thoughts which have already been elaborated, and -does not restrict his easy flowing thought to a rigorous and -methodical plan. We may, however, distinguish three principal -parts in the thirteen chapters composing the work. -Chapters I. and II. are critical, and in these the ordinary -faults in the education of women are brought into sharp outline; -then in chapters III. to VIII. we have general -observations, and the statement of the principles and -methods that should be followed and applied in the education -of boys as in the education of girls; and finally, from chapter -IX. to the end of the book, are all the special reflections -which relate exclusively to the merits and demerits, the -duties and the studies, of women.</p> - - -<p class="p1">177. <span class="smcap">Criticism on Monastic Education.</span>—In the opening -of the treatise, as in another little essay<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> that is usually -included in this volume, Fénelon expresses a preference for -a liberal and humane education, where the light of the world -penetrates, and which is not confined to the shadow of a -monastery:—</p> - -<p>“I conclude that it is better for your daughter to be with -you than in the best convent that you could select.... If -a convent is not well governed, she will see vanity honored, -which is the most subtile of all the poisons that can affect a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> -young girl. She will there hear the world spoken of as a -sort of enchanted place, and nothing makes a more pernicious -impression than that deceptive picture of the world, -which is seen at a distance with admiration, and which -exaggerates all its pleasures without showing its disappointments -and its sorrows.... So I would fear a worldly convent -even more than the world itself. If, on the contrary, -a convent conforms to the fervor and regularity of its -constitution, a girl of rank will grow up there in a profound -ignorance of the world.... She leaves the convent -like one who had been confined in the shadows of a deep -cavern, and who suddenly returns to the full light of day. -Nothing is more dazzling than this sudden transition, than -this glare to which one has never been accustomed.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">178. <span class="smcap">Refutation of the Prejudices relative to the -Education of Women.</span>—It is, then, for mothers that Fénelon -writes his book, still more than for the convents that he -does not love. Woman is destined to play a grand part in -domestic life. “Can men hope for any sweetness in life, if -their most select companionship, which is that of marriage, -is turned into bitterness?” Then let us cease to neglect the -education of women, and renounce the prejudices by which -we pretend to justify this neglect. A learned woman, it is -said, is vain and affected! But it is not proposed that -women shall engage in useless studies which would make -ridiculous pedants of them; it is simply a question of teaching -them what befits their position in the household. Woman, -it is said again, ordinarily has a weaker intellect than man! -But this is the best of reasons why it is necessary to -strengthen her intelligence. Finally, woman should be -brought up in ignorance of the world! But, replies Fénelon, -the world is not a phantom; “it is the aggregate of all the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> -families”; and women have duties to fulfill in it which are -scarcely less important than those of men. “Virtue is not -less for women than for men.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">179. <span class="smcap">Good Opinion of Human Nature.</span>—There are two -categories of Christians: the first dwell particularly on the -original fall; and the others attach themselves by preference -to the doctrine of redemption. For the first, the child is -deeply tainted with sin; his only inclinations are those -towards evil; he is a child of wrath, who must be severely -punished. For the others, the child, redeemed by grace, -“has not yet a fixed tendency towards any object”; his -instincts have no need of being thwarted; all they need is -direction. Fénelon follows this last mode of thinking, which -is the correct one. He does not fear self-love, and does not -interdict deserved praise. He counts upon the spontaneity -of nature. He regrets the education of the ancients, who -left more liberty to children. Finally, in his judgments on -human nature, he is influenced by a cheerful and amiable -optimism, and sometimes by an excess of complacency and -approbation.</p> - - -<p class="p1">180. <span class="smcap">Feebleness of the Child.</span>—But if Fénelon believes -in the innocence of the child, he is not the less convinced of -its feebleness. Hence the measures he recommends to those -who have in charge the bringing up of children: “The -most important thing in the first years of infancy is the -management of the child’s health. Through the selection of -food and the régime of a simple life, the body should be -supplied with pure blood.... Another thing of great importance -is to allow the organs to strengthen by holding -instruction in abeyance....” The intellectual weakness of -the child comes for the most part from his inability to fix his -attention. “The mind of the child is like a lighted taper in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> -a place exposed to the wind, whose flame is ever unsteady.” -Hence the urgent necessity of not pressing children beyond -measure, of training them little by little as occasion permits, -“of serving and assisting Nature, without urging her.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">181. <span class="smcap">Instructive Curiosity; Object Lessons.</span>—If the -inattention of the child is a great obstacle to his progress, -his natural curiosity, by way of compensation, is a potent -auxiliary. Fénelon knows the aid that can be derived from -this source, and we shall quote entire the remarkable passage -in which he indicates the means of calling it into exercise -through familiar lessons which are already real lessons on -objects:—</p> - -<p>“Curiosity in children is a natural tendency which comes -as the precursor of instruction. Do not fail to take advantage -of it. For example, in the country they see a mill, and -they wish to know what it is. They should be shown the -manner of preparing the food that is needed for human use. -They notice harvesters, and what they are doing should be -explained to them; also, how the wheat is sown, and how it -multiplies in the earth. In the city, they see shops where -different arts are practised, and where different wares are -sold. You should never be annoyed by their questions; -these are so many opportunities offered you by nature for -facilitating the work of instruction. Show that you take -pleasure in replying to such questions, and by this means -you will insensibly teach them how all the things are made -that serve human needs, and that give rise to commercial -pursuits.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">182. <span class="smcap">Indirect Instruction.</span>—Even when the child has -grown up, and is more capable of receiving direct instruction, -Fénelon does not depart from his system of mild management -and precaution. There are to be no didactic lessons,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> -but as far as possible the instruction shall be indirect. This -is the great educational method of Fénelon, and we shall -soon see how he applied it to the education of the Duke of -Bourgogne. “The less formal our lessons are, the better.” -However, there is need of discretion and prudence in the -choice of the first ideas, and the first pictures that are to be -impressed on the child’s mind.</p> - -<p>“Into a reservoir so little and so precious only exquisite -things should be poured.” The absence of pedantry is one -of the characteristics of Fénelon. “In rhetoric,” he says, -“I will give no rules at all; it is sufficient to give good -models.” As to grammar, “I will give it no attention, or, -at least, but very little.” Instruction must be insinuated, -not imposed. We must resort to unexpected lessons,—to -such as do not appear to be lessons. Fénelon here anticipates -Rousseau, and suggests the system of pre-arranged -scenes and instructive artifices, similar to those invented for -Émile.<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">183. <span class="smcap">All Activity must be Pleasurable.</span>—One of the -best qualities of Fénelon as a teacher is that of wishing that -study should be agreeable; but this quality becomes a fault -with him, because he makes an abuse of attractive instruction. -We can but applaud him when he criticises the harsh -and crabbed pedagogy of the Middle Age, and depicts to us -those tiresome and gloomy class-rooms, where teachers are -ever talking to children of words and things of which they -understand nothing. “No liberty,” he says, “no enjoyment, -but always lessons, silence, uncomfortable postures, -correction, and threats.” And so there is nothing more just -than this thought: “In the current education, all the pleasure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> -is put on one side, and all that is disagreeable on the -other; the disagreeable is all put into study, and all the -pleasure is found in the diversions.” Fénelon would change -all this. For study, as for moral discipline, “pleasure must -do all.”</p> - -<p>First, as to study, seek the means of making agreeable to -children whatever you require of them. “We must always -place before them a definite and agreeable aim to sustain -them in their work.” “Conceal their studies under the -appearance of liberty and pleasure.” “Let their range of -vision extend itself a little, and their intelligence acquire -more breadth.” “Mingle instruction with play.” “I have -seen,” he says again, “certain children who have learned to -read while playing.”</p> - -<p>For giving direction to the will, as for giving activity to -the intelligence, never subject children to cold and absolute -authority. Do not weary them by an indiscreet exactness. -Let wisdom appear to them only at intervals, and then with -a laughing face. Lead them by reason whenever it is possible -for you to do it. Never assume, save in case of extreme -necessity, an austere, imperious air that makes them -tremble.</p> - -<p>“You would close their heart and destroy their confidence, -without which there is no profit to hope for from education. -Make yourself loved by them. Let them feel at ease in -your presence, so that they do not fear to have you see their -faults.”</p> - -<p>Such, intellectually and morally, is the amiable discipline -dreamed of by Fénelon. It is evident that the imagination -of our author conducts him a little too far and leads him -astray. Fénelon sees everything on the bright side. In -education, such as this too complacent teacher dreams of it, -there is no difficulty, nothing laborious, no thorns. “All<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> -metals there are gold; all flowers there are roses.” The -child is almost exempted from making effort: he shall not -be made to repeat the lesson he has heard, “for fear of annoying -him.” It is necessary that he learn everything while -playing. If he has faults, he must not be told of them, save -with precaution, “for fear of hurting his feelings.” Fénelon -is decidedly too good-natured, too much given to cajolery. -In his effort to shun whatever is repulsive, he comes to exclude -whatever is laborious. He falls into an artless pleasantry -when he demands that the books of his pupil shall be -“beautifully bound, with gilt edges, and fine pictures.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">184. <span class="smcap">Fables and History.</span>—Fénelon’s very decided -taste for agreeable studies, determines him to place in the -foremost rank of the child’s intellectual occupations, fables -and history, because narratives please the infant imagination -above everything else. It is with sacred history especially -that he would have the attention occupied, always selecting -from it “that which presents the most pleasing and the -most magnificent pictures.” He properly demands, moreover, -that the teacher “animate his narrative with lively and -familiar tones, and so make all his characters speak.” By -this means we shall hold the attention of children without -forcing it; “for, once more,” he says, “we must be very -careful not to impose on them a law to hear and to remember -these narratives.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">185. <span class="smcap">Moral and Religious Education.</span>—Contrary to -Rousseau’s notions, Fénelon requires that children should -early have their attention turned to moral and religious -truths. He would have this instruction given in the concrete, -by means of examples drawn from experience. We -need not fear to speak to them of God as a venerable old -man, with white beard, etc. Whatever of the superstitious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> -there may be in these conceptions adapted to the infant -imagination will be corrected afterwards by the reason. -It is to be noted, moreover, that a religion of extremes is -not what Fénelon desires. He fears all exaggerations, even -that of piety. What he demands is a tempered devotion, a -reasonable Christianity. He is suspicious of false miracles. -“Accustom girls,” he says, “not to accept thoughtlessly -certain unauthorized narrations, and not to practise certain -forms of devotion introduced by an indiscreet zeal.” But -possibly, without intending it, Fénelon himself is preparing -the way for the superstition he combats, when, for the purpose -of indoctrinating the child with the first principles of -religion, he presents to him the notion of God under sensible -forms, and speaks to him of a paradise where all is of -gold and precious stones.</p> - - -<p class="p1">186. <span class="smcap">Studies Proper for Women.</span>—So far, we have noted -in Fénelon’s work only general precepts applicable to boys -and girls alike. But in the last part of his work, Fénelon -treats especially of women’s own work, of the qualities peculiarly -their own, of their duties, and of the kind of instruction -they need in order to fulfill them.</p> - -<p>No one knew better than Fénelon the faults that come to -woman through ignorance,—unrest, unemployed time, inability -to apply herself to solid and serious duties, frivolity, -indolence, lawless imagination, indiscreet curiosity concerning -trifles, levity, and talkativeness, sentimentalism, and, -what is remarkable with a friend of Madame Guyon, a mania -for theology: “Women are too much inclined to speak -decisively on religious questions.”</p> - -<p>What does Fénelon propose as a corrective of these -mischievous tendencies? It must be confessed that the plan -of instruction which he proposes is still insufficient, and that -it scarcely accords with the ideal as we conceive it to-day.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span></p> - -<p>“Keep young girls,” he says, “within the common -bounds, and teach them that there should be for their sex a -modesty with respect to knowledge almost as delicate as that -inspired by the horror of vice.”</p> - -<p>Is not this the same as declaring that knowledge is not -intended for women, and that it is repugnant to their delicate -nature?</p> - -<p>When Fénelon tells us that a young girl ought to learn to -read and write correctly (and observe that account is taken -only of the daughters of the nobility and of the wealthy -middle classes); when he adds, <em>let her also learn grammar</em>, -we can infer from these puerile prescriptions, that Fénelon -does not exact any great things from women in the way of -knowledge. And yet, such as it is, this programme surpassed, -in the time of Fénelon, the received custom, and -constituted a substantial progress. It was to state an excellent -principle, whose consequences should have been more -fully analyzed, to demand that women should learn all that is -necessary for them to know, in order to bring up their -children. Fénelon should also be commended for having -recommended to young women the reading of profane -authors. He who had been nourished on such literature, who -was, so to speak, but a Greek turned Christian, who knew -Homer so perfectly as to write the <cite>Telemachus</cite>, could not, -without belying himself, advise against the studies from -which he had derived so much pleasure and profit. He also -recognized the utility of history, ancient and modern. He -grants a place to poetry and eloquence, provided an elimination -be made of whatever would be dangerous to purity of -morals. What we comprehend less easily is that he condemns, -as severely as he does, music, which, he says, “furnishes -diversions that are poisonous.”</p> - -<p>But these faults, this mistrust of too high an intellectual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> -culture, ought not to prevent us from admiring the <cite>Education -of Girls</cite>. Let us be grateful to Fénelon for having resisted, -in part, the prejudices of a period when young women were -condemned by their sex to an almost absolute ignorance; for -having declared that he would follow a course contrary “to -that of alarm and of a superficial culture of the intelligence”; -and finally, for having written a book, all the generous inspirations -of which Madame de Maintenon herself has not -caught; and of which we may say, finally, that almost everything -that it contains is excellent, and that it is defective -only in what it does not contain.</p> - - -<p class="p1">187. <span class="smcap">Madame de Lambert (1647-1733).</span>—Fénelon, as -an educator of women, was the founder of a school. From -Rollin to Madame de Genlis, how many teachers have been -inspired by him! But in the front rank of his pupils we -must place Madame de Lambert. In her <cite>Counsels to her Son</cite> -(1701), and especially in her <cite>Counsels to her Daughter</cite> (1728), -she has taken up the tradition of Fénelon with greater -breadth and freedom of spirit. “As discreet as he with -respect to works of the imagination, of which she fears that -the reading may inflame the mind;” more severe, even, than -he towards Racine, whose name she seems to hesitate to -pronounce; disposed to exclude her daughter from “plays, -representations that move the passions, music, poetry,—all -belonging to the retinue of pleasure,—in other respects, -Madame de Lambert takes precedence and surpasses her -master” (Gréard). She reproaches Molière for having -abandoned women to idleness, pastime, and pleasure. She -loves history, especially the history of France, “which no -one is permitted not to know.” Finally, without entering -into the details of her protests, she makes a powerful plea for -the cause of woman’s education; she already belongs to the -eighteenth century.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">188. <span class="smcap">Education of the Duke of Bourgogne.</span>—Singularly -enough, Fénelon did not make an application of his -ideas on education till after he had set them forth in a -theoretical treatise. The education of the Duke of Bourgogne -permitted him to make a practical test of the rules -established in the <cite>Education of Girls</cite>. Nothing is of more -interest to the historian of pedagogy than the study of that -princely education into which Fénelon put all his mind and -heart, and which, by its results, at once brilliant and insufficient, -exhibits the merits and the faults of his plan of -education.</p> - - -<p class="p1">189. <span class="smcap">Happy Results.</span>—The Duke of Bourgogne with his -active intelligence, and also with his impetuous, indocile -character, and his fits of passion, was just the pupil for the -teacher who relied on <em>indirect instruction</em>. It would have -been unwise to indoctrinate with heavy didactic lessons a -spirit so impetuous. Through tact and industry, Fénelon -succeeded in captivating the attention of the prince, and in -skillfully insinuating into his mind knowledges that he would -probably have rejected, had they been presented to it in a -scientific and pedantic form. “I have never seen a child,” -says Fénelon, “who so readily understood the finest things -of poetry and eloquence.” Doubtless the happy nature of the -prince contributed a large part towards these results; but -the art of Fénelon had also its share in the final account.</p> - - -<p class="p1">190. <span class="smcap">Moral Lessons; The Fables.</span>—How shall morals -be taught to a violent and passionate child? Fénelon did -not think of preaching fine sermons to him; but presented -to him, under the form of <em>Fables</em>, the moral precepts that he -wished to inculcate. The <cite>Fables</cite> of Fénelon certainly have -not, as a whole, a large literary value; but, to form a just -appreciation of them, we must recollect that their merit is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> -especially to be seen in the circumstances attending their -composition. Composed from day to day, they were adapted -to the circumstances of the life of the young prince; they -were filled with allusions to his faults and his virtues, and -they conveyed to him, at the favorable moment, under the veil -of a pleasing fiction, the commendation or the censure that he -deserved. “One might,” says the Cardinal de Bausset, -“follow the chronological order in which these pieces were -composed, by comparing them with the progress which age -and instruction must have made in the education of the -prince.” The apologues, even with their very general morals, -will always have their value and place in the education of -children. What shall be said of the fables in which the -moral, wholly individual, was addressed exclusively to the -pupil for whom they were written, either on account of some -perversity that he let come to the surface, or of a rising virtue -that had been manifested in his conduct? It is thus that the -fable called <cite>The Capricious</cite> presented to the young duke the -picture of his fits of passion, and taught him to correct himself; -that of the <cite>Bee and the Fly</cite> reminded him that the -most brilliant qualities serve no good purpose without moderation. -One day, in a fit of anger, the prince so far forgot -himself as to say to Fénelon, who was reproving him: “<em>No, -no, Sir! I know who I am, and who you are!</em>” The next -day, doubtless in response to this explosion of princely self-conceit, -Fénelon had him read the fable entitled <cite>Bacchus -and the Faun</cite>: “As Bacchus could not abide a malicious -jeerer always ready to make sport of his expressions that -were not correct and elegant, he said to him in a fiery and -important tone: ‘How dare you jeer the son of Jupiter?’ -The Faun replied without emotion: ‘Alas! how does the -son of Jupiter dare to commit any fault?’”</p> - -<p>Certain fables, of a more elevated tone than the others,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> -are not designed simply to correct the faults of children; -they prepare the prince for the exercise of government. -Thus, the fable of the <cite>Bees</cite> disclosed to him the beauties of -an industrious State, and one where order reigns; the <cite>Nile -and the Ganges</cite> taught him love for the people, “compassion -for humanity, harassed and suffering.” Finally, from each -of these fables there issued a serious lesson under the pleasing -exterior of a witticism; and more than once, in reading -them, the prince doubtless felt an emotion of pleasure or of -shame, as he recognized himself in a commendation or in a -reproof addressed to the imaginary personages of the <cite>Fables</cite>.</p> - - -<p class="p1">191. <span class="smcap">Historical Lessons; The Dialogues of the Dead.</span>—It -is not alone in moral education, but in intellectual education -as well, that Fénelon resorts to artifice. The ingenious -preceptor has employed fiction in all its forms the better to -compass and dominate the spirit of his pupil. There are the -fables for moral instruction, the dialogues for the study of -history, and finally, the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">epopée</span> in the <cite>Telemachus</cite>, for the -political education of the heir to the throne of France.</p> - -<p>The <cite>Dialogues of the Dead</cite> put on the stage men of all -countries and conditions, Charles the Fifth and a monk of -Saint-Just, Aristotle and Descartes, Leonardo da Vinci and -Poussin, Cæsar and Alexander. History proper, literature, -philosophy, the arts, were the subjects of conversations composed, -as in the <cite>Fables</cite>, at different intervals, according to -the progress and the needs of the Duke of Bourgogne. -These were attractive pictures that came from time to time -to be introduced into the scheme for the didactic study of -universal history. They should be taken only for what they -were intended to be,—the pleasing complement to a regular -and consecutive course of instruction. Fénelon knew better -than any one else that history is interesting in itself, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> -that to make the study of it interesting, it is sufficient to present -it to the childish imagination with clearness, with vivacity, -and with feeling.</p> - - -<p class="p1">192. <span class="smcap">Variety of Disciplinary Agents.</span>—The education -of the Duke of Bourgogne is the practical application of -Fénelon’s principles as to the necessity of employing an -insinuating gentleness rather than an authority which dryly -commands. There are to be no sermons, no lectures, but -indirect means of moral instruction. The Duke of Bourgogne -was irascible. Instead of reading to him Seneca’s treatise -<cite>On Anger</cite>, this is Fénelon’s device: One morning he has -a cabinet-maker come to his apartments, whom he has instructed -for the purpose. The prince enters, stops, and -looks at the tools. “Go about your business, Sir,” cries -the workman, who assumes a most threatening air, “for I -am not responsible for what I may do; when I am in a passion, -I break the arms and legs of those whom I meet.” We -guess the conclusion of the story, and how, by this experimental -method, Fénelon contrives to teach the prince to -guard against anger and its effects.</p> - -<p>When indirect means did not answer, Fénelon employed -others. It is thus that he made frequent appeals to the self-love -of his pupil; he reminded him of what he owed to his -name and to the hopes of France. He had him record his -word of honor that he would behave well: “I promise the -Abbé Fénelon, on the word of a prince, that I will obey -him, and that, in case I break my word, I will submit to any -kind of punishment and dishonor. Given at Versailles, this -29th day of November, 1689. Signed: Louis.” At other -times Fénelon appealed to his feelings, and conquered him -by his tenderness and goodness. It is in such moments of -tender confidence that the prince said to him, “I leave the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> -Duke of Bourgogne outside the door, and with you I am but -the little Louis.” Finally, at other times, Fénelon resorted -to the harshest punishments; he sequestered him, took away -his books, and interdicted all conversation.</p> - - -<p class="p1">193. <span class="smcap">Diversified Instruction.</span>—By turns serious and -tender, mild and severe, in his moral discipline, Fénelon was -not less versatile in his methods of instruction. His dominant -preoccupation was to <em>diversify</em> studies—the term is -his own. If a given subject of study was distasteful to his -pupil, Fénelon passed to another. Although the success of -his tutorship seems to be a justification of his course, there -is ground for thinking that, as a general rule, Fénelon’s -precept is debatable, and that his example should not be followed -by making an over-use of amusement and agreeable -variety. Fénelon has too often made studies puerile through -his attempts to make them agreeable.</p> - - -<p class="p1">194. <span class="smcap">Results of the Education of the Duke of Bourgogne.</span>—It -seems like a paradox to say that Fénelon was -too successful in his educational apostleship; and yet this is -the truth. Under his hand—“the ablest hand that ever -was,” says Saint Simon—the prince became in all respects -the image of his master. He was a bigot to the extent of -being unwilling to attend a royal ball because that worldly -entertainment coincided with the religious celebration of the -Epiphany; he was rather a monk than a king; he was destitute -of all spirit of initiative and liberty, irresolute, absorbed -in his pious erudition and mystic prayers; finally, he was -another Telemachus, who could not do without his Mentor. -Fénelon had monopolized and absorbed the will of his pupil. -He had forgotten that the purpose of education is to form, -not a pale copy, an image of the master, but a man independent -and free, capable of sufficing for himself.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">195. <span class="smcap">The Telemachus.</span>—The <cite>Telemachus</cite>, composed -from 1694 to 1698, was designed for the Duke of Bourgogne; -but he was not to read it, and did not read it, in -fact, till after his marriage. Through this <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">epopée</span> in prose, -this romance borrowed from Homer, Fénelon purposed to -continue the moral education of his pupil. But the book -abounds in sermons. “I could have wished,” said Boileau, -“that the Abbé had made his Mentor a little less a preacher, -and that the moral of the book could have been distributed -a little more imperceptibly, and with more art.” At least, -they are beautiful and excellent sermons, aimed against luxury, -the spirit of conquest, the consequences of absolute -power, and against ambition and war. Louis XIV. had -probably read the <cite>Telemachus</cite>, and had comprehended the -allusions concealed in the description of the Republic of -Salentum, when he said of Fénelon that he was “the most -chimerical spirit in his kingdom.” Besides the moral lesson -intended for princes, the <cite>Telemachus</cite> also contains bold -reflections on political questions. For example, note the -conception of a system of public instruction, very new for -the time: “Children belong less to their parents than to the -Republic, and ought to be educated by the State. There -should be established public schools in which are taught the -fear of God, love of country, and respect for the laws.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">196. <span class="smcap">Bossuet and Fénelon.</span>—Bossuet, as preceptor of -the Dauphin,<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> was far from having the same success as -Fénelon. Nothing was overlooked, however, in the education -of the son of Louis XIV.; and the <cite>Letter to Pope -Innocent XI.</cite> (1679), in which Bossuet presents his scheme -of study, gives proof of high fitness for educational work.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> -He recommends assiduous labor, no leaves of absence, -and play mingled with study. “A child must play and -enjoy himself,” he says. Emulation excited by the presence -of other children, who came to compete with the prince; a -thorough reading of the Latin authors, explained, not in -fragments, as with the Jesuits, but in complete texts; a certain -breadth of spirit, since the study of the comic poets—of -Terence in particular—was expressly recommended; a -familiarity with the Greeks and the Romans, “especially -with the divine Homer”; the grammar learned in French; -history, “the mistress of human life,” studied with ardor, -and presented, first, in its particular facts, in the lessons -which the Dauphin drew up, and then in its general laws, -the spirit of which has been transmitted to us in the <cite>Discourse -on Universal History</cite>; geography learned “while -playing and making imaginary journeys”; philosophy; and -finally the sciences, brilliantly presented,—with such a programme, -and under such a master, it seems that the Dauphin -ought to have been a student of the highest rank; but he -remained a mediocre pupil, “absorbed,” to use Saint -Simon’s expression, “in his own fat and gloom.”</p> - -<p>It must certainly be acknowledged that, notwithstanding -his excellent intentions, Bossuet was in part responsible for -the fact that these results were insufficient, or, rather, nil. -He did not know how “to condescend,” as Montaigne says, -“to the boyish ways of his pupil.” In dealing with him he -proceeded on too high a plane. “The austere genius of -Bossuet,” says Henry Martin, “did not know how to become -small with the small.” Bossuet lacked in flexibility -and tact, precisely the qualities that characterized Fénelon. -Bossuet, in education, as in everything else, is grandeur, -noble and sublime bearing; Fénelon, as preceptor, is address, -insinuating grace. That which dominates in the one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> -is authority, a majesty almost icy; that which constitutes -the charm of the other is versatility, a persuasive gentleness, -a penetrating tenderness.</p> - -<p>To be just, however, it must be added that the faults were -not all on Bossuet’s side. In that education, stamped with -failure, the pupil was the great culprit, with his ungrateful -and rebellious nature. “My lord has much spirit,” said a -courtier, “but he has it <em>concealed</em>.” For one not a courtier, -does it not amount to the same thing to have one’s spirit -concealed and to have none at all?</p> - - -<p class="p1">197. <span class="smcap">Sphere and Limits of Education.</span>—It seems that, -on one page of the <cite>Education of Girls</cite>, Fénelon has traced -in advance, and by a sort of divination, the parallels of the -two educations of the Dauphin and of the Duke of Bourgogne -respectively. How can we fail to recognize the -anticipated portrait of Fénelon’s future pupil in this passage, -written in 1680?</p> - -<p>“It must be acknowledged, that of all the difficulties in -education, none is comparable to that of bringing up children -who are lacking in sensibility. The naturally quick -and sensitive are capable of terrible mistakes,—passion and -presumption do so betray them! But they have also great -resources, and when far gone often come to themselves. Instruction -is a germ concealed within them, which starts, and -sometimes bears fruit, when experience comes to the aid of -knowledge, and the passions lose their power. At least, -we know how to make them attentive, and to awaken their -curiosity. We have the means of interesting them, and of -stimulating them through their sense of honor; but, on the -other hand, we can gain no hold on indolent natures.”</p> - -<p>On the other hand, all that follows applies perfectly to the -Dauphin, the indocile pupil of Bossuet:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span></p> - -<p>“ ... All the thoughts of these are distractions; they are -never where they ought to be; they cannot be touched to -the quick even by corrections; they hear everything and feel -nothing. This indolence makes the pupil negligent, and -disgusts him with whatever he does. Under these conditions, -the best planned education runs the risk of failure.... -Many people, who think superficially, conclude from this -poor success that nature does all for the production of men -of merit, and that education has no part in the result; but -the only conclusion to be drawn from the case is, that there -are natures like ungrateful soils, upon which culture has but -little effect.”<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a></p> - -<p>Nothing better can be said, and Fénelon has admirably -summed up the lesson that should be drawn from these two -princely illustrations of the seventeenth century. If the -sorry results of Bossuet’s efforts should inspire the educator -with some modesty, and prove to him that the best grain -does not grow in an ingrate soil, is not the brilliant education -of the Duke of Bourgogne, which developed almost all -the virtues in a soul where nature seemed to have planted -the seeds of all the vices, of a nature to increase the confidence -of teachers, and show them what can be done by the -art of a shrewd and able teacher?</p> - - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>[198. <span class="smcap">Analytical Summary.</span>—1. Education as a plastic -art has never been exhibited in a more favorable light than -in this history of Fénelon’s teaching; and perhaps the -resistance that sometimes sets at defiance the teacher’s art -could not be better illustrated than in the case of Bossuet’s -royal pupil.</p> - -<p>2. These two historical illustrations also exhibit the play -of the two factors that enter into education,—nature and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> -art. Fénelon’s teaching illustrates the potency of human -art in controlling, modifying, almost re-creating a work of -nature. The Duke of Bourgogne was almost re-made to -order.</p> - -<p>3. Here is also an illustrious example of the attempt to -make education a pastime, to divest it of all constraint, to -make learning run parallel with the pupil’s inclinations. In -the natural recoil from a dry and formal teaching that had -to be enforced against the pupil’s will, it is sometimes forgotten -that a large part of life’s duties lie outside of our -inclinations.</p> - -<p>4. The policy of leading pupils at such a distance that -they seem to themselves to be following their own initiative, -is one of the highest of the teacher’s arts.</p> - -<p>5. The inculcation of moral lessons through fables, after -Fénelon’s plan, is a practice that modern teaching might -profitably adopt.]</p></div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> Son of Louis XIV., born Aug. 6, 1682; died Feb. 18, 1712.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> See the <cite>Advice</cite> of Fénelon, Archbishop Cambray, to a lady of quality -on the education of her daughter.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> For an example of this “artifice” carried to the extreme of absurdity, -see Miss Worthington’s translation of the <cite>Émile</cite>, p. 133. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> Eldest son of Louis XIV., born Nov. 1, 1661; died April 14, 1711.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> <cite>Education of Girls</cite>, Chap. V.</p> -</div></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER IX.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">THE PHILOSOPHERS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. -DESCARTES, MALEBRANCHE, LOCKE.</span></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>DESCARTES, MALEBRANCHE, LOCKE; DESCARTES (1596-1650); THE DISCOURSE -OF METHOD; CRITICISM OF THE CURRENT EDUCATION; -GREAT PRINCIPLES OF MODERN PEDAGOGY; OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE -PEDAGOGY; MALEBRANCHE (1638-1715); SENSE INSTRUCTION -CONDEMNED; INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT; LOCKE (1632-1704); THE -THOUGHTS CONCERNING EDUCATION; PHYSICAL EDUCATION; THE -HARDENING PROCESS; HYGIENIC PARADOXES; MORAL EDUCATION -MORE IMPORTANT THAN INSTRUCTION; SENSE OF HONOR THE -PRINCIPLE OF MORAL DISCIPLINE; CONDEMNATION OF CORPORAL -PUNISHMENT; INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION; UTILITARIAN STUDIES; -PROGRAMME OF STUDIES; ATTRACTIVE STUDIES; SHOULD A TRADE -BE LEARNED? WORKING SCHOOLS; LOCKE AND ROUSSEAU; ANALYTICAL -SUMMARY.</p></div> - -<hr class="r15a" /> - -<p class="p1">199. <span class="smcap">Descartes, Malebranche, and Locke.</span>—Descartes, -a spiritualist; Malebranche, an idealist; Locke, a sensationalist,—such -are the philosophers of the seventeenth century -who are related to the history of pedagogy. And yet the -first two have only a remote connection with it, through their -exposition of some of its general principles. Locke is the -only one who has resolutely approached educational questions -in a special treatise that has become a classic in English -pedagogy.</p> - - -<p class="p1">200. <span class="smcap">Descartes (1596-1650).</span>—Descartes, the father of -modern philosophy, does not generally figure in the lists -drawn up by the historians of education; and yet, in our<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> -opinion, there is no thinker who has exercised a more decisive -influence on the destinies of education. The author of -the <cite>Discourse of Method</cite> has, properly speaking, no system -of pedagogy, having never directly treated of educational -affairs; but through his philosophical principles he has -changed the direction of human thought, and has introduced -into the study of known truths, as well as into the -search for new truths, a method and a taste for clearness -and precision, which have profited instruction in all of its -departments.</p> - -<p>“We now find,” says Rollin, “in the discourses from the -pulpit and the bar, and in the dissertations on science, an -order, an exactness, a propriety, and a solidity, which were -formerly not so common. Many believe, and not without -reason, that we owe this manner of thinking and writing to -the extraordinary progress which has been made within a -a century in the study of philosophy.”<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">201. <span class="smcap">The Discourse of Method (1637).</span>—Every system -of philosophy contains in germ a special system of education. -From the mere fact that philosophers define, each in -his own way, the nature and the destiny of man, they come -to different conclusions as to the aims and methods of education. -Only a few of them have taken pains to deduce from -their principles the consequences that are involved in them; -but all of them, whether they will or no, are educators.</p> - -<p>Such is the case of Descartes. In writing, in the first -part of his <cite>Discourse of Method</cite>, his <cite>Considerations Touching -the Sciences</cite>, Descartes has written a chapter on practical -pedagogy, and through the general rules of his logic, he -has, in effect, founded a new theory of education.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">202. <span class="smcap">Criticism of the Current Education.</span>—Descartes -has given a long account of the education which he had received -among the Jesuits, at the college of La Flèche, and -this account furnished him occasion, either to criticize the -methods in use, or to indicate his personal views and his -educational preferences.</p> - -<p>“From my infancy letters have been my intellectual -nourishment.... But as soon as I had completed the -course of study required for the doctor’s degree, I found -myself embarrassed with so many doubts and errors that it -seemed to me that I had received no other profit from my -efforts at learning than the discovery of my growing ignorance.”</p> - -<p>In other terms, Descartes ascertained that his studies, -though pursued with ardor for eight years in one of the -most celebrated schools of Europe, had not permitted him -to acquire “a clear and sure knowledge of all that is useful -for living.” This was to condemn the barren teaching and -the formal instruction of the Jesuits. Passing in review the -different parts of the instruction, Descartes first remarks -that it was wrong to make an abuse of the reading of -ancient books; for, to hold converse with the men of other -centuries “is about the same as travelling; and when we -spend too much time in travelling, we become strangers in -our own country.” Then he complains that he was not -made to know “the true use of mathematics,” since he had -been shown their application only to the mechanic arts. He -nearly condemns rhetoric and poetics, since eloquence and -poetry are “intellectual gifts rather than the fruits of study.” -The ancient languages—and in this he gravely deceives -himself—seem to him useful only for the understanding of -authors. He does not admit that the study of Latin or -Greek can contribute to intellectual development.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span></p> - -<p>From these reflections there seems to issue the notion of -an instruction more solid, more positive, more directly useful -for the purposes of life, than that which had been -brought into fashion by the Jesuits. However, Descartes -does not eliminate the ordinary studies, as eloquence, -“which has incomparable power and beauty”; poetry, -“which has an enchanting tenderness and melody”; the -reading of the classics, which is “a studied conversation -with the most estimable men of past centuries”; history, -“which forms the judgment”; fables, whose “charm arouses -the spirit.” But he would give to all these exercises a more -practical turn, a more utilitarian character, a more positive -application.</p> - - -<p class="p1">203. <span class="smcap">Great Principles of Modern Pedagogy.</span>—Without -intending it, without any other thought than that of -modifying the false direction of the mind in the search for -scientific truth, Descartes has stated some of the great principles -of modern pedagogy.</p> - -<p>The first is the equal aptitude of minds to know and comprehend. -“Good sense,” says Descartes, “is the thing of -all else in this world that is most equally distributed.<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> ... -The latent ability to judge well, to distinguish the true from -the false, is naturally equal among all men.” What is this -but saying that all men are entitled to instruction? In a certain -sense, what are the innumerable primary schools scattered -over the surface of the civilized globe, but the application -and the living commentary of Descartes’ ideas on the equal -distribution of good sense and reason among men?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span></p> - -<p>But, adds Descartes, “it is not enough to have a sound -mind; the principal thing is to make a good use of it.” In -other words, nature is not sufficient in herself; she needs to -be guided and directed. Method is the essential thing; it -has a sovereign importance. Success will depend less on -natural qualities, such as imagination, memory, quickness -of thought, than upon the rules of intellectual direction -imposed on the mind. Education has a far greater part -than nature in the formation and development of accurate -and upright intelligences.</p> - -<p>Another Cartesian principle is the substitution of free -inquiry and reflective conviction for blind beliefs founded -upon authority. Descartes promulgated this famous rule of -his method: “The first precept is, never to receive anything -for true that I do not know, upon evidence, to be such; ... -and to comprise no more within my judgments than what is -presented so clearly and distinctly to my mind that I have -no occasion to call it in question.” In this declaration he -has not only reformed science and revolutionized philosophy, -but has banished from the school the old routine, the -mechanical processes and exercises of pure memory, and -has made a demand for rational methods that excite the -intelligence, awaken clear and distinct ideas, and provoke -judgment and reflection. Of course, it is not proposed to -make a little Descartes out of every child, despoiling him -of received beliefs in order to construct personal opinions -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">de novo</i>; but the rule of evidence, applied with moderation -and discretion, is none the less an excellent pedagogical -precept, which will never be disallowed by those who wish -to make of the child something more than a mere machine.</p> - - -<p class="p1">204. <span class="smcap">Objective and Subjective Pedagogy.</span>—We have -now reached a place where we may call into notice two different -tendencies, equally legitimate, which we shall find,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> -with exaggerations that compromise their utility, in the -practice of modern teachers. There are those who wish -above all to develop the intelligence; and there are others -who are preoccupied with furnishing the mind with a stock -of positive knowledge. The first conceive instruction as -taking place, as it were, through what is within, through the -development of the internal qualities of precision and measure; -the others are preoccupied only with the instruction -that takes place through what is without, through an extended -erudition, through an accumulation of knowledges. -In a word, if I may be allowed the expression, some affect -a subjective pedagogy, and others an objective pedagogy. -Bacon is of the latter number. That which preoccupies the -great English logician above everything else is the extension -of observations and experiments. “To reason without -knowing anything of that which we reason upon,” he says, -“is as if we were to weigh or measure the wind.” Descartes, -however, who has never neglected the study of facts, -esteems them less as material to be accumulated in the mind, -than as instruments for training the mind itself. He would -have repudiated those teachers of our day who seem to -think the whole thing is done when there has been made to -pass before the mental vision of the child an interminable -series of object-lessons, without the thought of developing -that intelligence itself.</p> - - -<p class="p1">205. <span class="smcap">Malebranche (1638-1715).</span>—We must not expect -great pedagogical wisdom from a mystical dreamer and resolute -idealist, who has imagined the vision of all things in -God. Besides, Malebranche has given only a passing attention -to things relating to education. The member of a -teaching congregation, the Oratory, he has not taught; and -the whole effort of his mind was spent in the search for -metaphysical truth. Nevertheless, it is interesting to stop<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> -for a moment this visionary who traverses the earth with -eyes fixed on the heavens, and inquire of him what he -thinks of the very practical question, education.</p> - - -<p class="p1">206. <span class="smcap">Sense Instruction condemned.</span>—Malebranche will -reply to us, with the prejudices of a metaphysician of the -idealist type, that the first thing to do is to nourish the child -on abstract truths. In his view, souls have no age, so to -speak, and the infant is already capable of ideal contemplation. -Then let sense instruction be abandoned, “for this -is the reason why children leave metaphysical thoughts, to -apply themselves to sensations.” Is it objected that the -child does not seem very well adapted to meditation on -abstract truths? It is not so much the fault of nature, -Malebranche will reply, as of the bad habits he has contracted. -There is a means of remedying this ordinary incapacity -of the child.</p> - -<p>“If we kept children from fear, from desires, and from -hope, if we did not make them suffer pain, if we removed -them as far as possible from their little pleasures, then we -might teach them, from the moment they knew how to speak, -the most difficult and the most abstract things, or at least the -concrete mathematics, mechanics.”</p> - -<p>Does Malebranche hope, then, to suppress, in the life of -the child, pleasure and pain, and triumph over the tendencies -which ordinary education has developed?</p> - -<p>“As an ambitious man who had just lost his fortune and -his credit would not be in a condition to resolve questions in -metaphysics or equations in algebra, so children, on whose -brains apples and sugar-plums make as profound impressions -as are made on those of men of forty years by offices and -titles, are not in a condition to hear the abstract truths that -are taught them.”</p> - -<p>Consequently, we must declare war against the senses, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> -exclude, for example, all sorts of sensible rewards. Only, -by a singular contradiction, Malebranche upholds material -punishments in the education of children. The only thing -of sense he retains is the rod.<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">207. <span class="smcap">Influence of Material Environment.</span>—Another -contradiction more worthy of note is, that, notwithstanding his -idealism, Malebranche believes in the influence of physical -conditions on the development of the soul. He does not go -so far as to say with the materialists of our time, that “man -is what he eats”; but he accords a certain amount of influence -to nourishment. He speaks cheerfully of wine and of -“those wild spirits who do not willingly submit to the orders -of the will.” He never applied himself to work without having -partaken of coffee. The soul, in his view, is not a force -absolutely independent and isolated, which develops through -an internal activity: “we are bound,” he says, “to everything, -and stand in relations to all that surrounds us.”</p> - -<p class="p1">208. <span class="smcap">Locke (1632-1704).</span>—Locke is above all else a -psychologist, an accomplished master in the art of analyzing -the origin of ideas and the elements of the mental life. He -is the head of that school of empirical psychology that rallies -around its standard, Condillac in France, Herbart in Germany, -and in Great Britain Hume and other Scotchmen, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> -the most of modern philosophers. But from psychology to -pedagogy the transition is easy, and Locke had to make no -great effort to become an authority in education after having -been an accomplished philosopher.</p> - - -<p class="p1">209. <span class="smcap">Some Thoughts on Education (1693).</span>—The book -which he published towards the close of his life, under the -modest title <cite>Some Thoughts concerning Education</cite>, was the -summing up of a long experience. A studious pupil at -Westminster, he conceived from his early years, as Descartes -did at La Flèche, a keen sense of repugnance for a purely -formal classical instruction, and for language studies in general, -in which, nevertheless, he attained distinction. A -model student at the University of Oxford, he there became -an accomplished humanist, notwithstanding the practical and -positive tendency of his mind that was already drawn towards -the natural sciences and researches in physics and in -medicine. Made Bachelor of Arts in 1656, and Master of Arts -in 1658, he passed directly from the student’s bench to the -professor’s chair. He was successively lecturer and tutor in -Greek, but this did not prevent him later from eliminating -Hellenism almost completely from his scheme of liberal education. -Then he became lecturer on rhetoric, and finally on -moral philosophy. When, in 1666, he discontinued his scholastic -life to mingle in political and diplomatic affairs, he at -least carried from his studious residence at Oxford, the germs -of the most of his ideas on education. He sought occasion to -make an application of them in the education of private individuals, -of whom he was the inspirer and counsellor, if not the -official director. In the families of friends and hosts that he -frequented, for example, in that of Lord Shaftesbury, he made -a close study of children; and it is in studying them, and in -following with a sagacious eye the successive steps of their -improvement in disposition and mind, that he succeeded in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> -acquiring that educational experience which has left a trace -on each page of the <cite>Thoughts concerning Education</cite>. This -book, in fact, is the issue of one of Locke’s experiences as an -assistant in the education of the children of his friends. -Towards the year 1684-5, he addressed to his friend Clarke -a series of letters which, retouched and slightly modified, -have become a classical work, simple and familiar in style, a -little disconnected, perhaps, and abounding in repetitions, -but the substance of which is excellent, and the ideas as -remarkable, in general, for their originality as for their justness. -Translated into French in 1695 by P. Coste, and reprinted -several times in the lifetime of their author, the -<cite>Thoughts concerning Education</cite> have had a universal success. -They have exercised an undoubted influence on the educational -writings of Rousseau and Helvetius. They have -received the enthusiastic praise of Leibnitz, who placed this -work above that on the <em>Human Understanding</em>. “I am -persuaded,” said H. Marion recently, in his interesting study -on Locke, “that if an edition of the <cite>Thoughts</cite> were to be -published to-day in a separate volume, it would have a -marked success.”<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">210. <span class="smcap">Analysis of the Thoughts concerning Education.</span>—Without -pretending to give in this place a detailed -analysis of Locke’s book, which deserves to be read entire, -and which discusses exhaustively or calls to notice, one after -another, almost all important educational questions, we shall -attempt to make known the essential principles which are to -be drawn from it. These are: 1. in physical education, the -<em>hardening process</em>; 2. in intellectual education, practical -utility; 3. in moral education, the principle of honor, set up -as a rule for the free self-government of man.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">211. <span class="smcap">Physical Education; The Hardening Process.</span>—The -ideal of education, according to Locke, is “a sound -mind in a sound body.” A physician like Rabelais, the -author of the <cite>Thoughts concerning Education</cite> had special -competence in questions of physical education. But a love -for the paradoxical, and an excessive tendency towards the -hardening of the body, have marred, on this point, the reflections -of the English philosopher. He has summed up -his precepts on this subject in the following lines:—</p> - -<p>“The whole is reduced,” he says, “to a small number of -rules, easy to observe; much air, exercise, and sleep; a -simple diet, no wine or strong liquors; little or no medicine -at all; garments that are neither too tight nor too warm; -finally, and above all, the habit of keeping the head and feet -cold, of often bathing the feet in cold water and exposing -them to dampness.”<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> But it is necessary to enter somewhat -into details, and to examine closely some of these -ideas.</p> - -<p>Locke is the first educator to write a consecutive and -methodical dissertation on the food, clothing, and sleep of -children. It is he who has stated this principle, afterwards -taken up by Rousseau: “Leave to nature the care of forming -the body as she thinks it ought to be done.” Hence, no -close-fitting garments, life in the open air and in the sun; -children brought up like peasants, inured to heat and cold, -playing with head and feet bare. In the matter of food, -Locke forbids sugar, wine, spices, and flesh, up to the age -of three or four. As to fruits, which children often crave -with an inordinate appetite, a fact that is not surprising, he -pleasantly remarks, “since it was for an apple that our first -parents lost paradise,” he makes a singular choice. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> -authorizes strawberries, gooseberries, apples, and pears; but -he interdicts peaches, plums, and grapes. To excuse Locke’s -prejudice against the grapes, it must be recollected that he -lived in England, a country in which the vine grows with -difficulty, and of which an Italian said, “The only ripe fruit I -have seen in England is a baked apple.” As to meals, -Locke does not think it important to fix them at stated hours. -Fénelon, on the contrary, more judiciously requires that the -hour for repasts be absolutely determined. But this is not -the only instance in which Locke’s wisdom is at fault. -What shall be said of that hygienic fancy which consists in -allowing the child “to have his shoes so thin, that they -might leak and let in water, whenever he comes near it”?</p> - -<p>It is certain that Locke treats children with an unheard-of -severity, all the more surprising in the case of one who had -an infirm and delicate constitution that could be kept in -repair only through precaution and management. I do not -know whether the consequences of the treatment which he -proposes, applied to the letter, might not be disastrous. -Madame de Sévigné was more nearly right when she wrote: -“If your son is very robust, a rude education is good; but -if he is delicate, I think that in your attempts to make him -robust, you would kill him.” The body, says Locke, may be -accustomed to everything. We may reply to this by quoting -an anecdote of Peter the Great, who one day took it into his -head, it is said, that it would be best for all the sailors to -form the habit of drinking salt water. Immediately he promulgated -an edict which ordered that all naval cadets should -henceforth drink only sea-water. The boys all died, and -there the experiment stopped.</p> - -<p>Still, without subscribing to Locke’s paradoxes, which -have found no one to approve of them except Rousseau, we -should recollect that in his precepts on physical education as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> -a whole, the author of the <cite>Thoughts</cite> deserves our commendation -for having recommended a manly course of discipline, -and a frugal diet, for having discarded fashionable conventionalities -and drawn near to nature, and for having condemned -the refinements of an indolent mode of life, and for -being inspired by the simple and manly customs of England.</p> - - -<p class="p1">212. <span class="smcap">Moral Education.</span>—In the thought of Locke, moral -education takes precedence of instruction properly so called:</p> - -<p>“That which a gentleman ought to desire for his son, -besides the fortune he leaves him is, 1. virtue; 2. prudence; -3. good manners; 4. instruction.”</p> - -<p>Virtue and prudence—that is, moral qualities and practical -qualities—are of first consideration. “Instruction,” -says Locke again, “is but the least part of education.” In -the book of <cite>Thoughts</cite>, where repetitions abound, there is -nothing more frequently repeated than the praise of virtue.</p> - -<p>Doubtless it may be thought that Locke, like Herbert -Spencer in our own day, cherishes prejudices with respect to -instruction, and that he does not take sufficient account of -the moralizing influence exercised over the heart and will by -intellectual enlightenment; but, even with this admission, we -must thank Locke for having protested against the teachers -who think they have done all when they have embellished the -memory and developed the intelligence.</p> - -<p>The grand thing in education is certainly to establish good -moral habits, to cultivate noble sentiments, and, finally, to -form virtuous characters.</p> - - -<p class="p1">213. <span class="smcap">Honor, the Principle of Moral Discipline.</span>—But -after having placed moral education in its proper rank, -which is the first, it remains to inquire what shall be the -principles and the methods of this education. Shall it be -the maxim of utility, as Rousseau requires? Must the child,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> -before acting, inquire what is the good of this? <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cui bono?</i> -No; utilitarian in instruction and in intellectual education, as -we have just seen, Locke is not so in moral education. -Shall it be fear, shall it be the authority of the teacher or of -parents, founded on punishments, upon the slavish feeling -of terror? Still less. Locke reproves repressive discipline, -and is not inclined to chastisements. Shall it be affection, -the love of parents, the aggregate of tender sentiments? -Locke scarcely speaks of them. Of too little sensibility himself, -he does not seem to think of all that can be done through -the sensibility of the child.</p> - -<p>Locke, who perhaps is wrong in treating the child too -early, as though he were a man, who does not take sufficient -account of all the feebleness that is in infant nature, appeals -from the first to the sentiment of honor, and to the fear of -shame, that is, to emotions which, I fear, by their very -nobleness, are above the powers of the child. Honor, which -is, in fact, but another name for duty, and the ordinary -synonym of virtue,—honor may assuredly be the guide of -an adult and already trained conscience; but is it not chimerical -to hope that the child, from his earliest years, will be -sensible to the esteem or the contempt of those who surround -him? If it were possible to inspire a child with a regard for -his reputation, I grant with Locke that we might henceforth -“make of him whatever we will, and teach him to love all -the forms of virtue”; but the question is to know whether -we can succeed in this, and I doubt it, notwithstanding the -assurances of Locke.</p> - -<p>Kant has very justly said:—</p> - -<p>“It is labor lost to speak of duty to children. They comprehend -it only as a thing whose transgression is followed by -the ferule.... So one ought not to try to call into play with -children the feeling of shame, but to wait for this till the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> -period of youth comes. In fact, it cannot be developed in -them till the idea of honor has already taken root there.”</p> - -<p>Locke is the dupe of the same illusion, both when he -expects of the child enough moral power so that the sense of -honor suffices to govern him, and when he counts enough on -his intellectual forces to desire to reason with him from the -moment he knows how to speak. For forming good habits -in the child, and preparing him for a life of virtue, there is -full need of all the resources that nature and art put at the -disposal of the educator,—sensibility under all its forms, -the calculations of self-interest, the lights of the intelligence. -It is only little by little, and with the progress of age, that -an exalted principle, like the sentiment of honor or the sentiment -of duty, will be able to emerge from out the mobile -humors of the child, and dominate his actions like a sovereign -law. The moral pedagogy of Locke is certainly faulty in that -it is not sufficiently addressed to the heart, and to the -potency of loving, which is already so great in the child. I -add, that in his haste to emancipate the child, to treat him as -a reasonable creature, and to develop in him the principles -of self-government, Locke was wrong in proscribing almost -absolutely the fear of punishment. It is good to respect the -liberty and the dignity of the man that is in the child, but it -is not necessary that this respect degenerate into superstition; -and it is not sure that to train firm and robust wills, it -is necessary to have them early affranchised from all fear -and all constraint.</p> - - -<p class="p1">214. <span class="smcap">Condemnation of Corporal Punishment.</span>—It is -undeniable that Locke has not sufficiently enlarged the bases -of his theory of moral discipline; but if he has rested incomplete -in the positive part of his task, if he has not advised -all that should be done, he has been more successful in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> -negative part, that which consists in eliminating all that -ought not to be done. The chapters devoted to punishments -in general, and in particular to corporal punishments, count -among the best in the <cite>Thoughts</cite>. Rollin and Rousseau have -often copied from them. It is true that Locke himself has -borrowed the suggestion of them from Montaigne. The -“severe mildness” which is the pedagogical rule of the -author of the <cite>Essays</cite>, is also the rule of Locke. It is in -accordance with this that Locke has brought to bear on the -rod the final judgment of good sense: “The rod is a slavish -discipline, which makes a slavish temper.” He has yielded -to the ideas of his time on only one point, when he admits -one exception to the absolute interdiction of the rod, and -tolerates its use in extreme cases to overcome the obstinate -and rebellious resistance of the child. This is going too far -without any doubt; but to do justice to the boldness of -Locke’s views, we must consider how powerful the custom -then was, and still is, in England, in a country where the -heads of institutions think themselves obliged to notify the -public, in the advertisements published in the journals, that -the interdiction of corporal punishment counts among the -advantages of their schools. “It is difficult to conceive -the perseverance with which English teachers cling to the old -and degrading customs of corrections by the rod.... A -more astonishing thing is that the scholars seem to hold to it -as much as the teachers.” “In 1818,” relates one of the -former pupils of Charterhouse, “our head master, Doctor -Russell, who had ideas of his own, resolved to abolish -corporal punishment and substitute for it a fine. Everybody -resisted the innovation. The rod seemed to us perfectly -consistent with the dignity of a gentleman; but a fine, for -shame! The school rose to the cry: ‘Down with the fine! -Long live the rod!’ The revolt triumphed, and the rod was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> -solemnly restored. Then we were glad-hearted over the -affair. On the next day after the fine was abolished, we -found, on entering the class-room, a superb forest of birches, -and the two hours of the session were conscientiously employed -in making use of them.”<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a><a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">215. <span class="smcap">Intellectual Education.</span>—In what concerns intellectual -education, Locke manifestly belongs to the school, -small in his time, but more and more numerous to-day, of -utilitarian teachers. He would train, not men of letters, or -of science, but practical men, armed for the battle of life, provided -with all the knowledge they will need in order to keep -their accounts, administer their fortune, satisfy the requirements -of their profession, and, finally, to fulfill their duties as -men and citizens. In a word, he wrote for a nation of tradesmen -and citizens.</p> - - -<p class="p1">216. <span class="smcap">Utilitarian Studies.</span>—An undeniable merit of -Locke is that of having reacted against a purely formal instruction, -which substitutes for the acquisition of positive -and real knowledge a superfluous culture, so to speak, a -training in a superficial rhetoric and an elegant verbiage. -Locke disdains and condemns studies that do not contribute -directly to a preparation for life. Doubtless he goes a little<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> -too far in his reaction against the current formalism and in -his predilection for realism. He is too forgetful of the fact -that the old classical studies, if not useful in the positive -sense of the term, and not satisfying the ordinary needs of -existence, have yet a higher utility, in the sense that they -may become, in skillful and discreet hands, an excellent -instrument for intellectual discipline and the education of the -judgment. But Locke spoke to fanatics and pedants, for -whom Latin and Greek were the whole of instruction, and -who, turning letters from their true purpose, wrongly made -a knowledge of the dead languages the sole end, and not, as -should be the case, one of the means of instruction. Locke -is by no means a blind utilitarian, a coarse positivist, who -dreams of absolutely abolishing disinterested studies. He -wishes merely to put them in their place, and to guard against -investing them with a sort of exclusive privilege, and against -sacrificing to them other branches of instruction that are -more essential and more immediately useful.</p> - - -<p class="p1">217. <span class="smcap">Programme of Studies.</span>—As soon as the child -knows how to read and write, he should be taught to draw. -Very disdainful of painting and of the fine arts in general, -whose benign and profound influence on the souls of children -his colder nature has not sufficiently recognized, Locke, by -way of compensation, recommends drawing, because drawing -may be practically useful, and he puts it on almost the same -footing as reading and writing.</p> - -<p>These elements once acquired, the child should be drilled -in the mother tongue, first in reading, and afterwards in -exercises in composition, in brief narratives, in familiar -letters, etc. The study of a living language (Locke recommends -French to his countrymen) should immediately follow; -and it is only after this has been acquired that the child shall -be put to the study of Latin. Save the omission of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> -sciences, Locke’s plan is singularly like that which for ten -years has been in use in the French lycées.</p> - -<p>As to Latin, which follows the living language, Locke -requires that it shall be learned above all through use, -through conversation if a master can be found who speaks -it fluently, but if not, through the reading of authors. As -little of grammar as possible, no memoriter exercises, no -Latin composition, either in prose or verse, but, as soon -as possible, the reading of easy Latin texts,—these are the -recommendations of Locke that have been too little heeded. -The purpose is no longer to learn Latin for the sake of -writing it elegantly; the only purpose truly desirable is to -comprehend the authors who have written in that language. -The obstinate partisans of Latin verse and conversation will -not read without chagrin these earnest protests of Locke -against exercises that have been too much abused, and that -impose on the learner the torment of writing in a language -which he handles with difficulty, upon subjects which he but -imperfectly understands. As to Greek, Locke proscribes it -absolutely. He does not disparage the beauty of a language -whose masterpieces, he says, are the original source of our -literature and science; but he reserves the knowledge of it -to the learned, to the lettered, to professional scholars, and -he excludes it from secondary instruction, which ought to be -but the school which trains for active life. Thus relieved, -classical instruction will more easily welcome the studies that -are of real use and of practical application,—geography, -which Locke places in the first rank, because it is “an exercise -of the eyes and memory”; arithmetic, which “is of so general -use in all parts of life and business, that scarce anything can -be done without it”; then what he somewhat ambitiously -calls astronomy, and which is in reality an elementary cosmography; -the parts of geometry which are necessary for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> -“a man of business”; chronology and history, “the most -agreeable and the most instructive of studies”; ethics and -common law, which do not yet have a place in French programmes; -finally, natural philosophy, that is, the physical -sciences; and, to crown all, a manual trade and bookkeeping.</p> - - -<p class="p1">218. <span class="smcap">Attractive Studies.</span>—Another characteristic of -Locke’s intellectual discipline is, that, utilitarian in its purpose, -the instruction which he organizes shall be attractive -in its methods. After hatred for the pedantry which uselessly -spends the powers of the learner in barren studies, the -next strongest antipathy of Locke is that which is inspired -by the rigor of a too didactic system of instruction, where -the methods are repulsive, the processes painful, and where -the teacher appears to his pupils only as a bugbear and a -marplot.</p> - -<p>Although he may go to extremes in this, he is partly right -in wishing to bring into favor processes that are inviting and -methods that are attractive. Without hoping, as he does, -without desiring even, that the pupil may come to make no -distinction between study and other diversions, we are disposed -to believe that something may be done to alleviate for -him the first difficulties in learning, to entice and captivate -him without constraining him, and, finally, to spare him the -disgust which cannot fail to be inspired by studies too -severely forced upon him, and which are made the subject -of scourges and scoldings. It is especially for reading and -the first exercises of the child that Locke recommends the -use of instructive plays. “They may be taught to read, -without perceiving it to be anything but a sport, and play -themselves into that which others are whipped for.”</p> - -<p>Children of every age are jealous of their independence -and eager for pleasure. No one before Locke had so clearly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> -recognized the need of the activity and liberty which are -natural to the child, or so strongly insisted on the necessity -of respecting his independent disposition and his personal -tastes. Here again English pedagogy of the seventeenth -century meets its illustrious successor of the nineteenth. -Herbert Spencer has thoroughly demonstrated the fact that -the mind really appropriates only the knowledge that affords -it pleasure and agreeable exercise. Now, there is pleasure -and agreeable excitation wherever there is the development -of a normal activity corresponding to an instinctive taste -and proportioned to the natural powers of the child; and -there is no real instruction save at the expense of a real -display of activity.<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">219. <span class="smcap">Should there be Learning by Heart?</span>—To this -question, Should there be learning by heart? Locke gives a -resolute reply in the negative. The conclusion is absolute -and false; but the premises that he assumes to justify his -conclusion are, if possible, falser still. Locke sets out from -this psychological idea, that the memory is not susceptible -of progress. He brings into the discussion his sensualistic -prejudices, his peculiar conception of the soul, which is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> -but a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabula rasa</i>, an empty and inert capacity, and not a congeries -of energies and of living forces that are strengthened -by exercise. He does not believe that the faculties, whatever -they may be, can grow and develop, and this for the -good reason, according to his thinking, that the faculties -have no existence.</p> - -<p>But here let him speak for himself:—</p> - -<p>“I hear it is said that children should be employed in getting -things by heart, to exercise and improve their memories. -I would wish this were said with as much authority and -reason as it is with forwardness of assurance, and that this -practice were established upon good observation more than -old custom. For it is evident that strength of memory is -owing to an happy constitution, and not to any habitual -improvement got by exercise. ’Tis true what the mind is -intent upon, and, for fear of letting it slip, often imprints -afresh on itself by frequent reflection, that it is apt to retain, -but still according to its own natural strength of retention. -An impression made on beeswax or lead will not last so -long as on brass or steel. Indeed, if it be renewed often, it -may last the longer; but every new reflecting on it is a new -impression, and ’tis from thence one is to reckon, if one -would know how long the mind retains it. But the learning -pages of Latin by heart no more fits the memory for retention -of anything else, than the graving of one sentence in -lead makes it the more capable of retaining firmly any other -characters.”<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a></p> - -<p>If Locke were right, education would become wholly impossible; -for, in case of all the faculties, education supposes -the existence of a natural germ which exercise fertilizes and -develops.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">220. <span class="smcap">A Trade should be learned.</span>—Locke, like Rousseau, -but for other reasons, wishes his pupil to learn a trade:</p> - -<p>“I can not forbear to say, I would have my gentleman -<em>learn a trade, a manual trade</em>; nay, two or three, but one -more particularly.”<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></p> - -<p>Rousseau will say the same: “Recollect that it is not -talent that I require of you; it is a trade, a real trade, a purely -mechanical art, in which the hands work more than the head.”</p> - -<p>But Locke, in having his gentleman learn carpentry or -agriculture, especially designed that this physical labor should -lend the mind a diversion, an occasion for relaxation and -repose, and secure to the body a useful exercise. Rousseau -is influenced by totally different ideas. What he wants is, -first, that through an apprenticeship to a trade, Émile may -protect himself against need in case a revolutionary crisis -should deprive him of his wealth. In the second place, -Rousseau obeys his social, we might even say his socialistic, -preoccupations. Work, in his view, is a strict duty, from -which no one can exempt himself. “Rich or poor, every -idle citizen is a knave.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">221. <span class="smcap">Working Schools.</span>—Although Locke is almost -exclusively preoccupied with classical studies and with a -gentleman’s education, nevertheless he has not remained -completely a stranger to questions of primary instruction. -In 1697 he addressed to the English government a remarkable -document on the importance of organizing “working -schools” for the children of the poor. All children over -three and under fourteen years of age are to be collected in -homes where they will find labor and food. In this way -Locke thought to contend against immorality and pauperism. -He would find a remedy for the idleness and vagabondage of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> -the child, and lighten the care of the mother who is absorbed -in her work. He would also, through habits of order and -discipline, train up steady men and industrious workmen. In -other terms, he attempted a work of social regeneration, and -the tutor of <em>gentlemen</em> became the educator of the poor.</p> - - -<p class="p1">222. <span class="smcap">Locke and Rousseau.</span>—In the <cite>Émile</cite> we shall -frequently find passages inspired by him whom Rousseau -calls “the wise Locke.” Perhaps we shall admire even more -the practical qualities and the good sense of the English -educator when we shall have become acquainted with the -chimeras of his French imitator. In the case of Locke, we -have to do, not with an author who wishes to shine, but with -a man of sense and judgment who expresses his opinions, -and who has no other pretense than to understand himself and -to be comprehended by others. To appreciate the <cite>Thoughts</cite> -at their full value, they should not be read till after having -re-read the <cite>Émile</cite>, which is so much indebted to them. On -coming from the reading of Rousseau, after the brilliant -glare and almost the giddiness occasioned his reader by a -writer of genius whose imagination is ever on the wing, -whose passion urges him on, and who mingles with so many -exalted truths, hasty paradoxes, and noisy declamations, it -is like repose and a delicious unbending to the spirit to go -to the study of Locke, and to find a train of thought always -equable, a style simple and dispassionate, an author always -master of himself, always correct, notwithstanding some -errors, and a book, finally, filled, not with flashes and smoke, -but with a light that is agreeable and pure.</p> - - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>[223. <span class="smcap">Analytical Summary.</span>—1. This study illustrates -the fact that the aims and methods of education are determined -by the types of thought, philosophical, political,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> -religious, scientific, and social, that happen to be in the -ascendent; and also the tendency of the human mind to -adopt extreme views.</p> - -<p>2. The subjective tendency of human thought is typified -by the Socratic philosophy, and the objective tendency by -the Baconian philosophy; and from these two main sources -have issued two distinctive schools of educators, the formalists -and the realists, the first holding that the main purpose -of education is discipline, training, or formation, and the -other, that this purpose is furnishing instruction or information. -This line is distinctly drawn in the seventeenth -century, and the two schools are typified by Malebranche -and Locke.</p> - -<p>3. The spirit of reaction is exhibited in the opposition to -classical studies, in the effort to convert study into a diversion, -in the use of milder means of discipline, and in the -importance attached to useful studies. In these particulars -the reaction of the sixteenth century is intensified.]</p></div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> Rollin, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Traité des études</cite>, Tome IV. p. 335.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> I am in doubt whether M. Compayré intends to sanction this doctrine -or not. This is an anticipation of one of Jacotot’s paradoxes: “All human -beings are equally capable of learning.” The verdict of actual teachers -is undoubtedly to the effect that there are manifold differences in the -ability of pupils to know, comprehend, and judge. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> Is not the antagonism pointed out by Malebranche more serious than -M. Compayré seems to think? If the current of mental activity sets -strongly towards the feelings, emotions, or senses, it is thereby diverted -from the purely intellectual processes, such as reflection and judgment. -The mind of the savage is an example of what comes from “following the -order of nature” in an extreme training of the senses. On the nature and -extent of this antagonism, the following authorities may be consulted: -Hamilton, <cite>Metaphysics</cite>, p. 336; Mansel, <cite>Metaphysics</cite>, pp. 68, 70, 77; Bain, -<cite>The Senses and the Intellect</cite>, pp. 392-394; Bain, <cite>Education as a Science</cite>, -pp. 17, 29, 37; Spencer, <cite>Principles of Psychology</cite>, pp. 98-99. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> <cite>John Locke. His Life and his Work.</cite> Paris, 1878.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> <cite>Thoughts</cite>, translation by G. Compayré, p. 57.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> Demogeot et Montucci, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">de l’Enseignement secondaire en Angleterre</cite>, -p. 41.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> On the question of corporal punishment in school, is not M. Compayré -too absolute in his assumptions? On what principle does he base his -absolute condemnation of the rod? What is to be done in those cases of -revolt against order and decency that occur from time to time in most -schools? There is no doubt that the very best teachers can govern without -resorting to this hateful expedient; but what shall be done in extreme cases -by the multitude who are not, and never can be, teachers of this ideal -type? Nor does this question stand alone. Below, it is related to family -discipline; and above, to civil administration. If corporal punishment is -interdicted in the school, should it not be interdicted in the State? (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> It is usually said that a pupil’s distaste for a study indicates one of -two things, either the mode of presenting the subject is bad, or it is presented -at an unseasonable period of mental development; but this distaste -is quite as likely to be due to the fact that a certain mode of mental activity -has not yet been established; for until fairly established, its exercise cannot -be pleasurable. The assumption that intellectual appetites already -exist and are waiting to be gratified, or that they will invariably appear at -certain periods of mental development, is by no means a general law of -the mental life. In many cases, these appetites must be created, and it -may often be that the studies employed for this purpose may not at first -be relished. And there are cases where, under the best of skill, this -relish may never come; and still, the knowledge or the discipline is -so necessary that the studies may be enforced contrary to the pupil’s -pleasure. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> <cite>Thoughts</cite>, edited by R. H. Quick (Cambridge, 1880), pp. 153-4.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> <cite>Thoughts</cite>, p. 177.</p> -</div></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER X.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN IN THE SEVENTEENTH -CENTURY.—JACQUELINE PASCAL AND MADAME DE -MAINTENON.</span></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY; MADAME -DE SÉVIGNÉ; THE ABBÉ FLEURY; EDUCATION IN CONVENTS; PORT -ROYAL AND THE REGULATIONS OF JACQUELINE PASCAL; GENERAL -IMPRESSION; SEVERITY AND AFFECTION; GENERAL CHARACTER OF -SAINT CYR; TWO PERIODS IN THE INSTITUTION OF SAINT CYR; -DRAMATIC REPRESENTATIONS; THE REFORM OF 1692; THE PART -PLAYED BY MADAME DE MAINTENON; HER PEDAGOGICAL WRITINGS; -INTERIOR ORGANIZATION OF SAINT CYR; DISTRUST OF -READING; THE STUDY OF HISTORY NEGLECTED; INSTRUCTION INSUFFICIENT; -MANUAL LABOR; MORAL EDUCATION; DISCREET DEVOTION; -SIMPLICITY IN ALL THINGS; FÉNELON AND SAINT CYR; -GENERAL JUDGMENT; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.</p></div> - -<hr class="r15a" /> - -<p class="p1">224. <span class="smcap">The Education of Women in the Seventeenth -Century.</span>—The <cite>Education of Girls</cite> of Fénelon has shown us -how far the spirit of the seventeenth century was able to go -in what concerns the education of women, as exhibited in -the most liberal theories on the subject; but in practice, -save in brilliant exceptions, even the modest and imperfect -ideal of Fénelon was far from being attained.</p> - -<p>Chrysale was not alone of this opinion, when he said in -the <cite>Learned Ladies</cite>:—</p> - -<p>“It is not very proper, and for several reasons, that a -woman should study and know so many things. To train the -minds of her children in good morals and manners, to superintend -her household, by keeping an eye on her servants, -and to control the expenditures with economy, ought to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> -her study and philosophy.”<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> It is true that Molière himself -did not sympathize with the prejudices whose expression he -put in the mouth of his comic character, and that he concludes -that a woman “may be enlightened on every subject” -(“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Je consens qu’une femme ait des clartés de tout</span>”). But -in real fact and in practice, it is the opinion of Chrysale -that prevailed. Even in the higher classes, woman held -herself aloof from instruction, and from things intellectual. -Madame Racine had never seen played, and had probably -never read, the tragedies of her husband.</p> - - -<p class="p1">225. <span class="smcap">Madame de Sévigné.</span>—However, the seventeenth -century was not wanting in women of talent or genius, who -might have made an eloquent plea in behalf of their sex; but -they were content to give personal examples of a high order, -without any anxiety to be imitated. Madame de Lafayette -made beautiful translations from Latin; Madame Dacier -was a humanist of the first order; and Madame de Sévigné -knew the modern languages as well as the ancient. No one -has better described the advantage of reading. She recommends -the reading of romances in the following terms:—</p> - -<p>“I found that a young man became generous and brave -in seeing my heroes, and that a girl became genteel and wise -in reading <cite>Cleopatra</cite>. There are occasionally some who take -things somewhat amiss, <em>but they would perhaps do scarcely -any better if they could not read</em>.”<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a></p> - -<p>Madame de Sévigné had her daughter read Descartes, and -her granddaughter Pauline, the tragedies of Corneille.</p> - -<p>“For my part,” she said, “if I were to bring up my -granddaughter, I would have her read what is good, but not -too simple. I would reason with her.”<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">226. <span class="smcap">The Abbé Fleury.</span>—But Madame de Sévigné and -Madame de Grignan were but brilliant exceptions. If one -were to doubt the ignorance of the women of this period, it -would suffice to read this striking passage from the Abbé -Fleury, the assistant of Fénelon in the education of the -Duke of Bourgogne:—</p> - -<p>“This, doubtless, will be a great paradox, that women -ought to learn anything else than their catechism, sewing, -and different little pieces of work, singing, dancing, and -dressing in the fashion, and to make a fine courtesy. As -things now go, this constitutes all their education.”<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a></p> - -<p>Fleury desires something else for woman. He demands -that she learn to write correctly in French, and that she -study logic and arithmetic. But we need not fear lest the -liberalism of a thinker of the seventeenth century carry him -too far. Fleury admits, for example, that history is absolutely -useless to women.</p> - - -<p class="p1">227. <span class="smcap">Education in the Convents.</span>—It is almost exclusively -in convents that young girls then received what -passed for an education. The religious congregations that -devoted themselves to female education were numberless; -we note, for example, among the most celebrated, the Ursulines, -founded in 1537; the Association of the Angelics, -established in Italy in 1536; and the Order of Saint Elizabeth. -But, notwithstanding the diversity of names, all the -convents for girls resemble one another. In all of them -woman was educated for heaven, or for a life of devotion. -Spiritual exercises formed the only occupation of the pupils, -and study was scarcely taken into account.</p> - - -<p class="p1">228. <span class="smcap">Port Royal and the Regulations of Jacqueline -Pascal.</span>—The best means of penetrating into the inner life<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> -of the convents of the seventeenth century is to read the -<cite>Regulations for Children</cite>, written towards 1657 by Jacqueline -Pascal, Sister Saint Euphemia. The education of girls -interested the Jansenists not less than the education of -men; but in this respect, Port Royal is far from deserving -the same encomiums in both cases.</p> - - -<p class="p1">229. <span class="smcap">General Impression.</span>—There is nothing so sombre -and sad as the interior of their institution for girls, and -nothing so austere as the rules of Jacqueline Pascal.</p> - -<p>“A strange emotion, even at the distance of centuries, -is caused by the sight of those children keeping silent or -speaking in a whisper from rising till retiring, never walking -except between two nuns, one in front and the other behind, -in order to make it impossible, by slackening their pace on -the pretext of some indisposition, for them to hold any communication; -working in such a way as never to be in companies -of two or three; passing from meditation to prayer, -and from prayer to instruction; learning, besides the catechism, -nothing but reading and writing; and, on Sunday, -‘a little arithmetic, the older from one to two o’clock, and -the younger from two to half past two’; the hands always -busy to prevent the mind from wandering; but without -being able to become attached to their work, which would -please God as much the more as it pleased themselves the -less; opposing all their natural inclinations, and despising -the attentions due the body ‘destined to serve as food for -worms’; doing nothing, in a word, except in the spirit of -mortification. Imagine those days of fourteen and sixteen -hours, slowly succeeding one another, and weighing down -on the heads of those poor little sisters, for six or eight -years in that dreary solitude, where there was nothing to -bring in the stir of life, save the sound of the bell announc<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>ing -a change of exercise or of penance, and you will comprehend -Fénelon’s feeling of sadness when he speaks of the -shadows of that deep cavern in which was imprisoned and, -as it were, buried the youth of girls.”<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">230. <span class="smcap">Severity and Love.</span>—The severity of the <cite>Regulations</cite> -is such that the editor, M. de Pontchartrain, also a -Jansenist, allows that it will be impossible to obtain from -all children “so complete a silence and so formal a life”; -and requires that the mistresses shall try to gain their affections. -Love must be united with severity. Jacqueline -Pascal does not seem to be entirely of this opinion, since -she declares that only God must be loved. However, notwithstanding -her habitual severity, human tenderness sometimes -asserts its rights in the rules which she established. -We feel that she loves more than she confesses, those young -girls whom she calls “little doves.” On the one hand, -the <cite>Regulations</cite> incite the pupils to eat of what is placed -before them indifferently, and to begin with what they like -the least, through a spirit of penitence; but, on the other -hand, Jacqueline writes: “They must be exhorted to take -sufficient nourishment so as not to allow themselves to -become weakened, and this is why care is taken that they -have eaten enough.” And so there is a touching solicitude -that is almost maternal in this remark: “As soon as they -have retired, each particular bed must be visited, to see -whether all proprieties have been observed, and whether the -children are well covered in winter.” The mystic sister of -the ascetic Pascal has moments of tenderness. “Nevertheless, -we must not cease to feel pity for them, and to -accommodate ourselves to them in every way that we can, -but without letting them know that we have thus condescended.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> -However, the dominant conception ever reappearing, -is the idea that human nature is evil; that we have -to do with rebellious spirits which must be conquered, and -that they deserve no commiseration.</p> - -<p>There is a deal of anxiety to make study agreeable! -Jacqueline directs her pupils to work at the very things that -are most repulsive, because the work that will please God -the most is that which will please them the least. The -exterior manifestations of friendship are forbidden, and -possibly friendship itself. “Our pupils shall shun every sort -of familiarity one towards another.”</p> - -<p>Instruction is reduced to the catechism, to the application -of the Christian virtues, to reading, and to writing. Arithmetic -is not taught save on holidays. It seems that memory -is the only faculty that Jacqueline wishes to have developed. -“This opens their minds, gives them occupation, and keeps -them from evil thoughts.” Have we not reason to say that -at Port Royal women have less value than men! What a -distance between the solid instruction of Lancelot’s and -Nicole’s pupils and the ignorance of Jacqueline Pascal’s! -Even when the men of Port Royal speak of the education -of women, they have more liberal ideas than those which are -applied at their side. Nicole declares that books are necessary -even in convents for girls, because it is necessary “to -sustain prayer by reading.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">231. <span class="smcap">General Character of Saint Cyr.</span>—In leaving -Port Royal for Saint Cyr, we seem, on coming out of a -profound night, to perceive a ray of light. Without doubt, -Madame de Maintenon has not yet, as a teacher, all that -breadth of view that could be desired. Her work is far -from being faultless, but the founding of Saint Cyr (1686) -was none the less a considerable innovation. “Saint Cyr,” -it has been said, “is not a convent. It is a great establish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>ment -devoted to the lay education of young women of -noble birth; it is a bold and intelligent secularization of the -education of women.” There is some excess of praise in -this statement, and the lay character of Saint Cyr is very -questionable. Lavallée, an admirer, could write: “The -instructions of Madame de Maintenon are doubtless too -religious, too monastic.” Let us grant, however, that -Madame de Maintenon, who, after having founded Saint -Cyr, was the director of it, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">extra muros</i>, and even taught -there, at stated times, is personally the first lay teacher of -France. Let us grant, also, that at least in the beginning, -and up to 1692, the women entrusted with the work of -instruction were not nuns in the absolute sense of the term. -They were not bound by solemn and absolute vows.</p> - -<p>But this character relatively laic, and this rupture with -monastic traditions, were not maintained during the whole -life of the institution.</p> - - -<p class="p1">232. <span class="smcap">Two Periods in the History of Saint Cyr.</span>—Saint -Cyr, in fact, passed, within a few years, through two -very different periods, and Madame de Maintenon followed -in succession two almost opposite currents. For the first -years, from 1686 to 1692, the spirit of the institution is -broad and liberal; the education is brilliant, perhaps too -much so; literary exercises and dramatic representations -have an honored place. Saint Cyr is an institution inclining -to worldliness, better fitted to train women of intellect than -good economists and housewives. Madame de Maintenon -quickly saw that she had taken a false route, and, from -1692, she reacted, not without excess, against the tendencies -which she had at first obeyed. She conceived an extreme -distrust of literary studies, and cut off all she could from the -instruction, in order to give her entire thought to the moral -and practical qualities of her pupils. Saint Cyr became a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> -convent, with a little more liberty, doubtless, than there was -in the other monasteries of the time, but it was a convent -still.</p> - - - <div><a name="Para_233" id="Para_233"></a></div> -<p class="p1">233. <span class="smcap">Dramatic Representations.</span>—It was the notorious -success of the performance of <cite>Andromaque</cite> and <cite>Esther</cite> that -caused the overthrow of the original intentions of Madame -de Maintenon. <cite>Esther</cite>, in particular, was the great event -of the first years of Saint Cyr. Racine distributed the -parts; Boileau conducted the training in elocution; and the -entire Court, the king at the head, came to applaud and -entertain the pretty actresses, who left nothing undone to -please their spectators. Heads were a little turned by all -this; dissipation crept into the school. The pupils were -no longer willing to sing in church, for fear of spoiling their -voices. Evidently the route was now over a dangerous -declivity. The institution had been turned from its purpose. -Matters were in a way to establish, under another form, -another Hôtel de Rambouillet.<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">234. <span class="smcap">Reform of 1692.</span>—At the first, as we have seen, -the ladies of Saint Louis, charged with the direction of Saint -Cyr, did not found a monastic order properly so-called; but, -when Madame de Maintenon resolved to reform the general -spirit of the house, she thought it necessary to transform -Saint Cyr into a monastery, and she founded the Order of -Saint Augustine.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span></p> - -<p>But what she changed in particular was the moral discipline, -and the programme of studies.</p> - -<p>Madame de Maintenon has herself recited, in a memorable -letter,<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> the reasons of that reform which modified so profoundly -the character of Saint Cyr:—</p> - -<p>“The sorrow I feel for the girls of Saint Cyr,” she said, -“can be cured only by time and by an <em>entire change</em> in the -education that we have given them up to this hour. It is -very just that I should suffer for this, since I have contributed -to it more than any one else.... The whole establishment -has been the object of my pride, and the ground for -this feeling has been so real that it has gone to extremes that -I never intended. God knows that I wished to establish -virtue at Saint Cyr, but I have built upon the sand. Not -having, what alone can make a solid foundation, I wished -the girls to be witty, high-spirited, and trained to think; I -have succeeded in this purpose. They have wit, and they -use it against us. They are high-spirited, and are more -heady and haughty than would be becoming in a royal -princess. Speaking after the manner of the world, we have -trained their reason, and have made them talkative, presumptuous, -inquisitive, bold ... witty,—such characters as -even we who have trained them cannot abide.... Let us -seek a remedy, for we must not be discouraged.... As -many little things form pride, many little things will destroy -it. Our girls have been treated with too much consideration, -have been petted too much, treated too gently. We must -now leave them more to themselves in their class-rooms, -make them observe the daily regulations, and speak to them -of scarcely anything else.... Pray to God, and ask Him to -change their hearts; and that He may give to all of them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> -humility. There should not be much conversation with them -on the subject. Everything at Saint Cyr is made a matter of -discourse. We often speak of simplicity, and try to define -it correctly ... and yet, in practice, the girls make merry in -saying: ‘Through simplicity I take the best place; through -simplicity I am going to commend myself.’ Our girls must -be cured of that jesting turn of mind which I have given -them.... We have wished to shun the pettiness of certain -convents, and God has punished us for this haughty spirit. -There is no house in the world that has more need of humility -within and without than our own. Its situation near the -Court; the air of favor that pervades it; the favors of a -great king; the offices of a person of consideration,—all -these snares, so full of danger, should lead us to take measures -directly contrary to those we have really taken....”</p> - - -<p class="p1">235. <span class="smcap">The Part played by Madame de Maintenon.</span>—Whatever -may be the opinion respecting the tone of the educational -work at Saint Cyr, there cannot be the least doubt -as to the admirable zeal of Madame de Maintenon, and her -indefatigable devotion to the success of her favorite undertaking. -The vocation of the teacher was evidently hers. -For more than thirty years, from 1686 to 1717, she did not -cease to visit Saint Cyr every day, sometimes at six in the -morning. She wrote for the directresses and for the pupils -counsels and regulations that fill several volumes. Nothing -which concerns “her children” is a matter of indifference to -her. She devotes her attention to their meals, their sleep, -their toilet, as well as to their character and their instruction:—</p> - -<p>“The affairs we discuss at Court are bagatelles; those at -Saint Cyr are the more important....” “May that establishment -last as long as France, and France as long as the world. -Nothing is dearer to me than my children of Saint Cyr.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span></p> - -<p>It is not tenderness, it is well known, that characterizes -the soul of Madame de Maintenon; but, at Saint Cyr, from -being formal and cold, which is her usual state, she becomes -loving and tender:—</p> - -<p>“Forget nothing that may save the souls of our young -girls, that may fortify their health and preserve their form.”</p> - -<p>One day, as she had come to the school, as her custom was, -to consult with the nuns, a company of girls passed by raising -a cloud of dust. The nuns, fearing that Madame de Maintenon -was annoyed by it, requested them to withdraw. -“Pray, let the dear girls be,” replied Madame de Maintenon; -“I love them even to the dust they raise.” Conversely, -as it were, the pupils of Pestalozzi, consulted on -the question of knowing whether they were willing always to -be beaten and clawed by their old master, replied affirmatively: -they loved him even to his claws!</p> - - -<p class="p1">236. <span class="smcap">Her Pedagogical Writings.</span>—It is only in our -day that the works of Madame de Maintenon have been -published in the integrity of their text, thanks to the labors -of Théophile Lavallée. For the most part, these long and -interesting letters are devoted to education and to Saint Cyr. -These are, first, the <cite>Letters and Conversations on the Education -of Girls</cite>.<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> These letters were written from day to day, -and are addressed, sometimes to the ladies of Saint Cyr, and -sometimes to the pupils themselves. “We find in them,” -says Lavallée, “for all circumstances and for all times, the -most solid teaching, masterpieces of good sense, of naturalness, -and of truth, and, finally, instructions relative to education -that approach perfection. The <cite>Conversations</cite> originated -in the consultations that Madame de Maintenon had during -the recreations or the recitations, either with the ladies or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> -with the young women, who themselves collected and edited -the words of their governess.”</p> - -<p>After the <cite>Letters and Conversations</cite> comes the <cite>Counsels to -Young Women who enter Society</cite>,<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> which contain general -advice, conversations or dialogues, and, finally, proverbs, -that is, short dramatic compositions, designed at once to -instruct and amuse the young ladies of Saint Cyr. These -essays are not admirable in all respects; most often they are -lacking in imagination; and Madame de Maintenon, though -an imitation of Fénelon, makes a misuse of indirect instruction, -of artifice, and of amusement, in order to teach some -moral commonplaces by insinuation. Here are the titles of -some of these proverbs: <em>The occasion makes the rogue</em>; -<em>Women make and unmake the home</em>; <em>There is no situation -more embarrassing than that of holding the handle of the frying-pan</em>.</p> - -<p>Finally, let us note the third collection, the <cite>Historical and -Instructive Letters addressed to the Ladies of Saint Cyr</cite>.<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a></p> - -<p>It is to be regretted that, out of these numerous volumes, -where repetitions abound, there have not been extracted, in -a methodical manner, a few hundred pages which should -contain the substance of Madame de Maintenon’s thinking -on educational questions.</p> - - -<p class="p1">237. <span class="smcap">Interior Organization.</span>—The purpose of the founding -of Saint Cyr was to assure to the two hundred and fifty -daughters of the poor nobility, and to the children of officers -dead or disabled, an educational retreat where they would be -suitably educated so as to be prepared for becoming either -nuns, if this was their vocation, or, the more often, good -mothers. As M. Gréard has justly observed, “the very -conception of an establishment of this kind, the idea of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> -making France pay the debt of France, educating the children -of those who had given her their blood, proceeds from -a feeling up to that time unknown.”<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a></p> - -<p>Consequently, children of the tenderest years, from six or -seven, were received at Saint Cyr, there to be cared for till -the age of marriage, till eighteen and twenty.</p> - -<p>The young girls were divided into four classes,—the reds, -the greens, the yellows, and the blues. The blues were the -largest, and they wore the royal colors. Each class was -divided into five or six <em>bands</em> or <em>families</em>, of eight or ten -pupils each.</p> - -<p>The ladies of Saint Cyr were ordinarily taken from the -pupils of the school. They were forty in number,—the superior, -the assistant who supplied the place of the superior, -the mistress of the novices, the general mistress of the -classes, the mistresses of the classes, etc.</p> - -<p>The capital defect of Saint Cyr is, that, as in the colleges -of the Jesuits, the residence is absolute and the sequestration -complete. From her fifth to her twentieth year the -young girl belongs entirely to Saint Cyr. She scarcely -knows her parents. It will be said, perhaps, that in many -cases she has lost them, and that in some cases she could -expect only bad examples from them. But no matter; the -general rule, which interrupted family intercourse to the -extent of almost abolishing it, cannot obtain our approbation. -The girl was permitted to see her parents only three or four -times a year, and even then these interviews would last only -for a half an hour each time, and in the presence of a mistress. -There was permission to write family letters from -time to time; but as though she mistrusted the natural impulses -of the heart, and the free outpouring of filial affection, -Madame de Maintenon had taken care to compose some models<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> -of these letters. With more of reason than of feeling, Madame -de Maintenon is not exempt from a certain coldness of heart. -It seems that she would impose on her pupils the extraordinary -habits of her own family. She recollected having been -kissed only twice by her mother, on her forehead, and then -only after a long separation.</p> - - -<p class="p1">238. <span class="smcap">Distrust of Reading.</span>—After the reforms of 1692, -the instruction at Saint Cyr became a matter of secondary -importance. Reading, writing, and counting were taught, -but scarcely anything besides. Reading, in general, was -viewed with distrust: “Teach girls to be very sparing as to -reading, and always to prefer manual labor instead.” Books -of a secular nature were interdicted; only works of piety -were put in the hands of pupils, such as the <cite>Introduction to a -Devout Life</cite>, by Saint François de Salles, and the <cite>Confessions</cite> -of Saint Augustine. “Renounce intellectual culture” is the -perpetual injunction of Madame de Maintenon.</p> - -<p>“We must educate citizens for citizenship. It is not the -question of giving them intellectual culture. We must -preach family duties to them, obedience to husband, and care -for children.... Reading does more harm than good to -young girls.... Books make witlings and excite an insatiable -curiosity.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">239. <span class="smcap">The Study of History Neglected.</span>—To judge of -the spirit of Saint Cyr, from the point of view of intellectual -education, it suffices to note the little importance that was -there given to history. This went so far as to raise the -question whether it were not best to prohibit the study of -French history entirely. Madame de Maintenon consents to -have it taught, but only just enough so that “pupils may -not confuse the succession of our kings with the princes of -other countries, and not take a Roman emperor for an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> -emperor of China or Japan, a king of Spain or of England -for a king of Persia or of Siam.” As to the history of antiquity, -it must be held in mistrust for the very reason—who -would believe it?—of the beautiful examples of virtue that -it contains. “I should fear that those grand examples of -generosity and heroism would give our young girls too much -elevation of spirit, and make them vain and pretentious.” -Have we not some right to feel surprised that Madame de -Maintenon is alarmed at the thought of <em>raising</em> the intelligence -of woman? It is true that she doubtless thought of the -romantic exaggerations produced by the reading of the <cite>Cyrus -the Great</cite> and other writings of Mlle. de Scudéry. Let us -add, besides, to excuse the shortcomings of the programme -of Saint Cyr in the matter of history, that even for boys in -the colleges of the University, the order that introduced the -teaching of history into the classes dates only from 1695.</p> - - -<p class="p1">240. <span class="smcap">Insufficient Instruction.</span>—“Our day,” says Lavallée, -“would not accept that education in which instruction -properly so-called was but a secondary matter, and entirely -sacrificed to the manner of training the heart, the reason, and -the character; and an education, too, that, as a whole and in -its details, was wholly religious.” The error of Madame de -Maintenon consists essentially in the wish to develop the -moral virtues in souls scarcely instructed, scarcely enlightened. -There was much moral discoursing at Saint Cyr. If it did -not always bear fruit, it was because the seed fell into intelligences -that were but little cultivated.</p> - -<p>“Our young women are not to be made scholarly. Women -never know except by halves, and the little that they know -usually makes them conceited, disdainful, chatty, and disgusted -with serious things.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">241. <span class="smcap">Manual Labor.</span>—If intellectual education was -neglected at Saint Cyr, by way of compensation great atten<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>tion -was paid to manual education. The girls were there -taught to sew, to embroider, to knit, and to make tapestry; -and there was also made there all the linen for the house, -the infirmary, and the chapel, and the dresses and clothing -of the ladies and the pupils:—</p> - -<p>“But no exquisite productions,” says Madame de Maintenon, -“nor of very elaborate design; none of those flimsy -edgings in embroidery or tapestry, which are of no use.”</p> - -<p>With what good grace Madame de Maintenon ever preaches -the gospel of labor, of which she herself gave the example! -In the coaches of the king, she always had some work in -hand. At Saint Cyr, the young women swept the dormitories, -put in order the refectory, and dusted the class-rooms. “They -must be put at every kind of service, and made to work at -what is burdensome, in order to make them robust, healthy, -and intelligent.”</p> - -<p>“Manual labor is a moral safeguard, a protection against -sin.”</p> - -<p>“Work calms the passions, occupies the mind, and does -not leave it time to think of evil.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">242. <span class="smcap">Moral Education.</span>—“The Institute,” said Madame -de Maintenon, “is intended, not for prayer, but for -action.” What she wished, above all else, was to prepare -young women for home and family life. She devoted her -thought to the training of wives and mothers. “What I lack -most,” she said, “is sons-in-law!” Hence she was incessantly -preoccupied with moral qualities. One might make -a fine and valuable book of selections out of all the practical -maxims of Madame de Maintenon; as her reflections on -talkativeness: “There is always sin in a multitude of -words;” on indolence: “What can be done in the family of -an indolent and fastidious woman?” on politeness, “which -consists, above all else, in giving one’s thought to others;”<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> -on lack of energy, then too common among women of the -world: “The only concern is to eat and to take one’s ease. -Women spend the day in morning-gowns, reclining in easy-chairs, -without any occupation, and without conversation; -all is well, provided one be in a state of repose.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">243. <span class="smcap">Discreet Devotion.</span>—We must not imagine that -Saint Cyr was a house of prayer, a place of overdone devotion. -Madame de Maintenon held to a reasonable Christianity. -Piety, such as was recommended at Saint Cyr, is a piety that -is <em>steadfast</em>, <em>judicious</em>, and <em>simple</em>; that is, conformed to the -state in which one ought to live, and exempt from refinements.</p> - -<p>“The young women are too much at church, considering -their age,” she wrote to Madame de Brinon, the first director -of the institution.... “Consider, I pray you, that this is -not to be a cloister.”<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a></p> - -<p>And later, after the reform had begun, this is what she -wrote:—</p> - -<p>“Let the piety with which our young girls shall be inspired -be cheerful, gentle, and free. Let it consist rather -in the innocence of their lives, and in the simplicity of their -occupations, than in the austerities, the retirements, and the -refinements of devotion.... When a girl comes from a -convent, saying that nothing ought to interfere with vespers, -she is laughed at; but when an educated woman shall say -that vespers may be omitted for the sake of attending her -sick husband, everybody will commend her.... When a -girl shall say that a woman does better to educate her children -and instruct her servants than to spend the forenoon in -church, that religion will be heartily accepted, and will make -itself loved and respected.”<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> Excellent advice, perhaps too<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> -little followed! Madame de Maintenon here speaks the language -of good sense, and we are wholly surprised to hear it -from the lips of a politic woman who, not without reason, and -for her part in the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, has -the reputation of being an intolerant fanatic.</p> - - -<p class="p1">244. <span class="smcap">Simplicity in All Things.</span>—The simplicity which -she recommended in religion, Madame de Maintenon demanded -in everything,—in dress and in language: “Young -girls,” she says, “must wear as few ribbons as possible.”</p> - -<p>A class-teacher had given a fine lecture, in which she exhorted -her pupils to make an “eternal divorce” with sin. -“Very well said, doubtless,” remarked Madame de Maintenon; -“but, pray, who among our young ladies knows what -divorce is?”</p> - - -<p class="p1">245. <span class="smcap">Fénelon and Saint Cyr.</span>—Michelet, speaking of -Saint Cyr, which he does not love, said: “Its cold governess -was much more a man than Fénelon.” The fact is, that the -author of the <cite>Education of Girls</cite> gives a larger place to sensibility -and intelligence. It is not Madame de Maintenon -who said: “As much as possible, tenderness of heart must -be excused in young girls.” It is not at Saint Cyr that these -maxims were practised. “Pray let them have Greek and -Roman histories. They will find in them prodigies of courage -and disinterestedness. Let them not be ignorant of the -history of France, which also has its beauty.... All this -serves to give dignity to the mind, and to lift the soul to -noble sentiments.” Nevertheless, Fénelon’s work was -highly esteemed at Saint Cyr. It appeared in 1687, and -Saint Cyr was founded in 1686. A great number of its -precepts were there observed, such as the following: “Frequent -leaves of absence should be avoided;” “Young girls -should not be accustomed to talk much.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">246. <span class="smcap">General Judgment.</span>—In a word, if the ideal proposed -to the young women of Saint Cyr by Madame de -Maintenon cannot satisfy those who, in our day, conceive “an -education broader in its scheme and more liberal in its spirit,” -at least we must do justice to an institution which was, as -its foundress said, “a kind of college,” a first attempt at -enfranchisement in the education of women. Without demanding -of Madame de Maintenon what was not in her age -to give, let us be inspired by her in what concerns the -changeless education in moral virtues, and in the qualities -of discretion, reserve, goodness, and submission. “However -severe that education may appear,” says Lavallée, “I -believe it will suggest better reflections to those who observe -the way in which women are educated to-day, and the results -of that education in luxury and pleasure, not only on the -fireside, but still more on society and political life, and on -the future of the men that it is preparing for France. I -believe they will prefer that manly education, so to speak, -which purified private morals and begot public virtues; and -that they will esteem and regret that work of Madame de -Maintenon, which for a century prevented the corruption of -the Court from extending to the provinces, and maintained -in the old country-seats, from which came the greater part of -the nobility, the substantial virtues and the simple manners -of the olden time.”</p> - - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>[247. <span class="smcap">Analytical Summary.</span>—1. The education of women -in the seventeenth century reflects the sentiment of the age -as to their relative position in society, their rights, and -their destiny. Woman was still regarded as the inferior of -man, in the lower classes as a drudge, in the higher as an -ornament; in her case, intellectual culture was regarded as -either useless or dangerous; and the education that was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> -given her was to fit her for a life of devotion or a life of -seclusion from society.</p> - -<p>2. The rules of Jacqueline Pascal exhibit the effects of -an ascetic belief on education,—human nature is corrupt; -all its likes are to be thwarted, and all its dislikes fostered -under compulsion.</p> - -<p>3. The education directed by Madame de Maintenon is -the beginning of a rupture with tradition. It was a movement -towards the secularization of woman’s education, and -towards the recognition of her equality with man, with respect -to her grade of intellectual endowments, her intellectual -culture, and to her participation in the duties of real life.</p> - -<p>4. The type of the higher education was still monastic, -both for men and women. No one was able to conceive -that both sexes might be educated together with mutual -advantage.]</p></div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les Femmes Savantes</cite>, Act <span class="fs70">II.</span> Scene <span class="fs70">VII.</span>, Van Laun’s translation.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> Letter of Nov. 16, 1689.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> Letter of June 1, 1680.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Traité du choix et de la méthode des études</cite>, Chap. <span class="fs70">XXXVIII</span>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> Gréard, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mémoire sur l’enseignement secondaire des filles</cite>, p. 55.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> “The name generally given to a social circle, which for more than half -a century gathered around Catherine de Vivonne, marquise de Rambouillet, -and her daughter, Julie d’Angennes, duchess de Montausier, and which -exercised a very conspicuous influence on French language, literature, and -civilization.... Her house soon became the place where all who had -genius, wit, learning, talent, or taste, assembled, and from these reunions -originated the French Academy, the highest authority of French literature, -and the salons, the most prominent feature of French civilization.”—Johnson’s <cite>Cyclopædia</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> See the Letter to Madame de Fontaine, general mistress of the school, -Sept. 20, 1691.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> Two volumes, 2d edition, 1861.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> Two volumes, 1857.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> Two volumes, 1860.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> M. Gréard, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mémoire sur l’enseignement secondaire des filles</cite>, 1882, p. 59.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Lettres historiques</cite>, Tome I. p. 48.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Lettres historiques</cite>, Tome I. p. 89.</p> -</div></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XI.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">ROLLIN.</span></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS; STATUTES OF 1598 AND OF 1600; ORGANIZATION -OF THE DIFFERENT FACULTIES; DECADENCE OF THE UNIVERSITY -OF PARIS IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY; THE RESTORATION OF -STUDIES AND ROLLIN (1661-1741); THE TREATISE ON STUDIES; DIFFERENT -OPINIONS; DIVISION OF THE TREATISE ON STUDIES; GENERAL -REFLECTIONS ON EDUCATION; STUDIES FOR THE FIRST YEARS; -THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS; THE STUDY OF FRENCH; GREEK AND -LATIN; ROLLIN THE HISTORIAN; THE TEACHING OF HISTORY; -PHILOSOPHY; SCIENTIFIC INSTRUCTION; EDUCATIONAL CHARACTER -OF ROLLIN’S PEDAGOGY; INTERIOR DISCIPLINE OF COLLEGES; -PUBLIC EDUCATION; THE ROD; PUNISHMENTS IN GENERAL; CONCLUSION; -ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.</p></div> - -<hr class="r15a" /> - -<p class="p1">248. <span class="smcap">The University of Paris.</span>—Since the thirteenth -century, the University of Paris had been a centre of light -and a resort for students. Ramus could say: “This University -is not the university of one city only, but of the -entire world.” But even in the time of Ramus, in consequence -of the civil discords, and by reason also of the progress -in the colleges organized by the Company of Jesus, the -University of Paris declined; she saw the number of her -pupils diminish. She persisted, however, in the full light of -the Renaissance, in following the superannuated regulations -which the Cardinal d’Estouteville had imposed on her in 1452; -she fell behind in the routine of the scholastic methods. A -reform was necessary, and in 1600 it was accomplished by -Henry IV.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">249. <span class="smcap">Statutes of 1600.</span>—The statutes of the new university -were promulgated “by the order and the will of the -most Christian and most invincible king of France and -Navarre, Henry IV.” This was the first time that the -State directly intervened in the control of education, and -that secular power was set up in opposition to the absolute -authority of the Church.</p> - -<p>In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries a reform had -been made in the University, by the Popes Innocent III. and -Urban V. The reformer of 1452, the Cardinal d’Estouteville, -acted as the legate of the pontifical power. On the contrary, -the statutes of 1600 were the work of a commission named -by the king, and there sat at its deliberations, by the side of -a few ecclesiastics, magistrates, and even professors.</p> - - -<p class="p1">250. <span class="smcap">Organization of the Different Faculties.</span>—The -University of Paris comprised four Faculties: the Faculties -of Theology, of Law, and of Medicine, which corresponded -to what we to-day call superior instruction, and the Faculty -of Arts, which was almost the equivalent of our secondary -instruction.<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a></p> - -<p>It would take too long to enumerate in this place the -different innovations introduced by the statutes of 1600. -Let us merely say a word of the Faculty of Arts.</p> - -<p>In the Faculty of Arts the door was finally opened to the -classical authors. In a certain degree the tendencies of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> -Renaissance were obeyed. Nevertheless, the methods and -the general spirit were scarcely changed. Catholicism was -obligatory, and the French language remained under ban. -Frequent exercises in repetition and declamation were maintained. -The liberal arts were always considered “the -foundation of all the sciences.” Instruction in philosophy -was always reduced to the interpretation of the texts of Aristotle. -As to history, and the sciences in general, no account -whatever was taken of them.</p> - - -<p class="p1">251. <span class="smcap">Decadence of the University in the Seventeenth -Century.</span>—The reform, then, was insufficient, and the -results were bad. While the colleges of the Jesuits -attracted pupils in crowds, and while the Oratorians and -the Jansenists reformed secondary instruction, the colleges -of the University<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> remained mediocre and obscure. Save -in rare exceptions, there were no professors of distinction; -the education was formal, in humble imitation of that -of the Company of Jesus; there was an abuse of abstract -rules, of grammatical exercises, of written tasks, and of -Latin composition; there was no disposition to take an advance -step; but an obstinate resistance to the new spirit, -which was indicated either by the interdiction of the philosophy -of Descartes, or by the refusal to teach in the French -language; in a word, there was complete isolation in immovable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> -routine, and in consequence, decadence,—such is a -summary history of the University of Paris up to the last -quarter of the seventeenth century.</p> - - -<p class="p1">252. <span class="smcap">The Restoration of Studies and Rollin (1661-1741).</span>—We -must go forward to the time when Rollin -taught, to observe a revival in the studies of the University. -Several distinguished professors, as his master Hersan, Pourchot, -and still others, had prepared the way for him. There -was then, from 1680 to 1700, a real rejuvenescence of -studies, which was initiated in part by Rollin.</p> - -<p>Latin lost a little ground in consequence of a growing -recognition of the rights of the French language and the -national literature, which had just been made illustrious by so -many masterpieces. The spirit of the Jansenist methods -penetrated the colleges of the University. The Cartesian -philosophy was taught in them, and a little more attention -was given to the explication of authors, and a little less to -the verbal repetition of lessons. New ideas began to infiltrate -into the old citadel of scholasticism. The question -came to be asked if celibacy was indeed an indispensable -condition of the teaching office. Men began to comprehend -that at least marriage was not a reason for exclusion. -Finally, real progress was made in discipline as well as in -methods, and the indubitable proof of this is the <cite>Treatise on -Studies</cite>, by Rollin.</p> - - -<p class="p1">253. <span class="smcap">The Treatise on Studies.</span>—Rollin has summed up -his educational experience, an experience of fifty years, in a -book which has become celebrated under the title of <cite>Treatise -on Studies</cite>. The full title of this work was: <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De la manière -d’enseigner et d’étudier les belles-lettres par rapport à l’esprit -et au cœur</cite>. The first two volumes appeared in 1726, and -the other two in 1728.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span></p> - -<p>The <cite>Treatise on Studies</cite> is not like the <cite>Émile</cite>, which was -published twenty years later, a work of venturesome inquiry -and original novelties; but is a faithful exposition of the -methods in use, and a discreet commentary on them. While -this treatise belongs by its date to the eighteenth century, it -is the pedagogy of the seventeenth century, and the traditions -of the University under the reign of Louis XIV. that -Rollin has collected, and of which he has simply wished to -be the reporter. In the Latin dedication, which he addresses -to the Rector of the University of Paris, he clearly defines -his intentions and his purpose:—</p> - -<p>“My first design was to put in writing and define the -method of teaching which has long been in use among you, -and which, up to this time, has been transmitted only by -word of mouth, and through a sort of tradition; and to erect, -so far as I am able to do it, a durable monument of the -rules and practice which you have followed in the instruction -of youth, for the purpose of preserving, in all its integrity, -the taste for <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">belles-lettres</i>, and to preserve it, if possible, -from the injuries and the alterations of time.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">254. <span class="smcap">Different Opinions.</span>—Rollin has always had warm -admirers. Voltaire called the <cite>Treatise</cite> a book “forever -useful,” and whatever may be our reservations on the deficiences, -and on the short and narrow views of certain parts -of the pedagogy of Rollin, we must subscribe to this judgment. -But we shall not go so far as to accept the enthusiastic -declarations of Villemain, who complains that the study -of the <cite>Treatise</cite> is neglected in our time, “as if new methods -had been discovered for training the intelligence and the -heart”; and he adds, “Since the <em>Treatise on Studies, not a -forward step has been taken</em>.” This is to undervalue all the -earnest efforts that have been made for two centuries by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> -educators just as profound as was the ever timid and cautious -Rollin. When we compare the precepts of the <cite>Treatise</cite> with -the reforms which the spirit of progress has already effected, -and particularly with those which it will effect, we are -astonished to hear Nisard say: “In educational matters, -the <cite>Treatise on Studies</cite> is the unique book, or better still, -the book.”</p> - -<p>To put such a burden of pompous praise on Rollin is to -compromise his real worth; and without ceasing to do -justice to his wise and judicious spirit, we wish to employ -more discretion in our admiration.</p> - - -<p class="p1">255. <span class="smcap">Division of the Treatise on Studies.</span>—Before -calling attention to the most interesting parts of the <cite>Treatise -on Studies</cite>, let us briefly state the object of the eight books -of which it is composed.</p> - -<p>The <cite>Treatise</cite> opens with a <em>Preliminary Discourse</em> which -recites the advantages of instruction.</p> - -<p>The title of the first book is: <cite>Exercises which are proper -for very young children; of the education of girls</cite>. Rollin -acknowledges that he treats only very superficially “this -double subject,” which is foreign to his original plan. In -fact, the first edition of his <cite>Treatise on Studies</cite> contained but -seven books, and it is only in 1734 that he wrote, “at the -urgent requests and prayers of several persons,” that short -essay on the education of boys and girls which first appeared -under the form of a supplement, and which became the first -book of the work only in the subsequent editions.</p> - -<p>The different subjects proper for training the youth in -the public schools, that is, in the colleges,—such is the -object of the six books which follow: Book II. <cite>Of the learning -of the languages</cite>; that is, the study of Greek and Latin; -Book III. <cite>Of poetry</cite>; Book IV. <cite>Of rhetoric</cite>; Book V. <cite>Of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> -the three kinds of eloquence</cite>; Book VI. <cite>Of history</cite>; Book -VII. <cite>Of philosophy</cite>.</p> - -<p>Book VIII., the last, entitled <cite>Of the interior government -of schools and colleges</cite>, has a particular character. It does -not treat of studies and intellectual exercises, but of discipline -and moral education. It is, on all accounts, the most -original and interesting part of Rollin’s work, and it opens -to us the treasures of his experience. This eighth book has -been justly called the “Memoirs of Rollin.” That which -constitutes its merit and its charm is that the author here at -last decides to be himself. He does not quote the ancients -so much; but he speaks in his own name, and relates what -he has done, or what he has seen done.</p> - - -<p class="p1">256. <span class="smcap">General Reflections on Education.</span>—There is -little to be gathered out of the <em>Preliminary Discourse</em> of -Rollin. He is but slightly successful in general reflections. -When he ventures to philosophize, Rollin easily falls into -platitudes. He has a dissertation to prove that “study -gives the mind more breadth and elevation; and that study -gives capacity for business.”</p> - -<p>On the purpose of education, Rollin, who copies the -moderns when he does not translate from the ancients, is -content with reproducing the preamble of the regulations of -Henry IV., which assigned to studies three purposes: learning, -morals and manners, and religion.</p> - -<p>“The happiness of kingdoms and peoples, and particularly -of a Christian State, depends on the good education of the -youth, where the purpose is to cultivate and to polish, by the -study of the sciences, the intelligence, still rude, of the young, -and thus to fit them for filling worthily the different vocations -to which they are destined, without which they will be useless -to the State; and finally, to teach them the sincere religious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> -practices which God requires of them, the inviolable attachment -they owe to their fathers and mothers and to their -country, and the respect and obedience which they are bound -to render princes and magistrates.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">257. <span class="smcap">Primary Studies.</span>—Rollin is original when he introduces -us to the classes of the great colleges where he has -lived; but is much less so when he speaks to us of little -children, whom he has never seen near at hand. He has -never known family life, and scarcely ever visited public -schools; and it is through his recollections of Quintilian that -he speaks to us of children.</p> - -<p>There is, then, but little to note in the few pages that he -has devoted to the studies of the first years, from three to -six or seven.</p> - -<p>One of the most interesting things we find here, perhaps, -is the method which he recommends for learning to read,—“the -typographic cabinet of du Mas.” “It is a novelty,” -says the wise Rollin, “and it is quite common and natural -that we should be suspicious of this word <em>novelty</em>.” But -after the examination, he decides in favor of the system in -question, which consists in making of instruction in reading, -something analogous to the work of an apprentice who is -learning to print. The pupil has before him a table, and on -this table is placed a set of pigeon-holes, “logettes,” which -contain the letters of the alphabet, printed on cards. The -pupil is to arrange on the table the different letters needed to -construct the words required of him. The reasons that -Rollin gives for recommending this method, successful tests -of which he had seen made, prove that he had taken into -account the nature of the child and his need of activity:—</p> - -<p>“This method of learning to read, besides several other -advantages, has one which seems to me very considerable,—it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> -is that of being amusing and agreeable, and of not having -the appearance of study. Nothing is more wearisome or -tedious in infancy than severe mental effort while the body -is in a state of repose. With this device, the mind of the -child is not wearied. He need not make a painful effort at -recollection, because the distinction and the name of the -boxes strike his senses. He is not constrained to a posture -that is oppressive by being always tied to the place where he -is made to read. There is free activity for eyes, hands, and -feet. The child looks for his letters, takes them out, -arranges them, overturns them, separates them, and finally -replaces them in their boxes. This movement is very much -to his taste, and is exactly adapted to the active and restless -disposition of that age.”</p> - -<p>Rollin seems really to believe that there “is no danger in -beginning with the reading of Latin.” However, “for the -schools of the poor, and for those in the country, it is -better,” he says, “to fall in with the opinion of those who -believe that it is necessary to begin with the reading of -French.”</p> - -<p>It may be thought that Rollin puts a little too much into -the first years of the child’s course of study. Before the -age of six or seven he ought to have learned to read, to -write, to be nourished on the <cite>Historical Catechism</cite> of Fleury, -to know some of the fables of La Fontaine by heart, and to -have studied French grammar, and geography. At least, -Rollin requires that “no thought, no expression, which is -within the child’s range,” shall be allowed to be passed by. -He requires that the teacher speak little, and that he make -the child speak much, “which is one of the most essential -duties and one of those that are the least practised.” He -demands, above all else, clearness of statement, and commends -the use of illustrations and pictures in reading books.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> -“They are very suitable,” he says, “for striking the attention -of children, and for fixing their memory; this is properly -the writing of the ignorant.”<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">258. <span class="smcap">The Education of Girls.</span>—The same reasons explain -the shortcomings of Rollin’s views on the education of -women, and the relative mediocrity of his ideas on the education -of children. Living in solitude and in the celibate -state, he had no personal information on these subjects, and -so he goes back to Fénelon for his ideas on the education of -women, and to Quintilian in the case of children.</p> - -<p>Is the study of Latin fit for girls? Such is the first question -which he raises; but he has the wisdom to answer it in -the negative, save for “nuns, and also for Christian virgins -and widows.” “There is no difference in minds,” Rollin -emphatically says, “that is due to sex.” But he does not -extend the consequences of this excellent principle very far.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> -He is content to require of women the four rules of arithmetic; -orthography, in which he is not over exacting, for -“their ignorance of orthography should not be imputed to -them as a crime, since it is almost universal in their sex;” -ancient history and the history of France, “which it is disgraceful -to every good Frenchman not to know.”<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> As to -reading, Rollin is quite as severe as Madame de Maintenon: -“The reading of comedies and tragedies may be very dangerous -for young ladies.” He sanctions only <cite>Esther</cite> and -<cite>Athalie</cite>. Music and dancing are allowed, but without enthusiasm -and with endless precautions:—</p> - -<p>“An almost universal experience shows that the study of -music is an extraordinary dissipation.”</p> - -<p>“I do not know how the custom of having girls learn to -sing and play on instruments at such great expense has -become so common.... I hear it said that as soon as they -enter on life’s duties, they make no farther use of it.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">259. <span class="smcap">The Study of French.</span>—Rollin is chiefly preoccupied -with the study of the ancient languages; but he has the -merit, notwithstanding his predilection for exercises in Latin, -of having followed the example of the Jansenists so far as -the importance accorded to the French language is concerned.</p> - -<p>“It is a disgrace,” he says, “that we are ignorant of our -own language; and if we are willing to confess the truth, we -will almost all acknowledge that we have never studied it.”</p> - -<p>Rollin admitted that he was “much more proficient in the -study of Latin than in that of French.” In the opening of -his <cite>Treatise</cite>, which he wrote in French only that he might -place himself within the reach of his young readers and their -parents, he excuses himself for making a trial <em>in a kind of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> -writing which is almost new to him</em>. And in congratulating -him on his work, d’Aguesseau wrote, “You speak French -as if it were your native tongue.” Such was the Rector of -the University in France at the commencement of the -eighteenth century.</p> - -<p>Let us think well of him, therefore, for having so overcome -his own habits of mind as to recommend the study of -French. He would have it learned, not only through use, -but also “through principles,” and would have “the genius -of the language understood, and all its beauties studied.”</p> - -<p>Rollin has a high opinion of grammar, but would not -encourage a misuse of it:—</p> - -<p>“Long-continued lessons on such dry matter might become -very tedious to pupils. Short questions, regularly -proposed each day after the manner of an ordinary conversation, -in which they themselves would be consulted, and in -which the teacher would employ the art of having them tell -what he wished to make them learn, would teach them in the -way of amusement, and, by an insensible progress, continued -for several years, they would acquire a profound -knowledge of the language.”</p> - -<p>It is in the <cite>Treatise on Studies</cite> that we find for the first -time a formal list of classical French authors. Some of -these are now obscure and forgotten, as the <cite>Remarkable -Lives</cite> written by Marsolier, and the <cite>History of the Academy -of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres</cite>, by de Boze; but the most -of them have held their place in our programmes, and the -judgments of Rollin have been followed for two centuries, on -the <cite>Discourse on Universal History</cite>, by Bossuet, on the works -of Boileau and Racine, and on the <cite>Logic</cite> of Port Royal.</p> - -<p>Like all his contemporaries, Rollin particularly recommends -Latin composition to his pupils. However, he has -spoken a word for French composition, which should bear,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> -first, on fables and historical narratives, then on exercises in -epistolary style, and finally, on common things, descriptions, -and short speeches.</p> - - -<p class="p1">260. <span class="smcap">Greek and Latin.</span>—But it is in the teaching of -the ancient languages that Rollin has especially tried the -resources of his pedagogic art. For two centuries, in the -colleges of the University, his recommendations have been -followed. In Greek, he censures the study of themes, and -reduces the study of this language to the understanding of -authors. More of a Latinist than of a Hellenist, of all the -arguments he offers to justify the study of Greek, the best -is, that, since the Renaissance, Greek has always been -taught; but, without great success, he admits:—</p> - -<p>“Parents,” he says, “are but little inclined in favor of -Greek. They also learned Greek, they claim, in their youth, -and they have retained nothing of it; this is the ordinary -language which indicates that one has not forgotten much of -it.”</p> - -<p>But Latin, which it does not suffice to learn to read, but -which must be written and spoken, is the object of all -Rollin’s care, who, on this point, gives proof of consummate -experience. Like the teachers of Port Royal, he demands -that there shall be no abuse of themes in the lower classes, -and recommends the use of oral themes, but he holds firmly -to version, and to the explication of authors:—</p> - -<p>“Authors are like a living dictionary, and a speaking -grammar, whereby we learn, through experience, the very -force and the true use of words, of phrases, and of the rules -of syntax.”</p> - -<p>This is not the place to analyze the parts of the <cite>Treatise -on Studies</cite> which relate to poetics and rhetoric, and which -are the code, now somewhat antiquated, of Latin verse and -prose. Rollin brings to bear on this theme great professional<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> -sagacity, but also a spirit of narrowness. He condemns -ancient mythology, and excludes, as dangerous, the French -poets, save some rare exceptions. He claims that the true -use of poetry belongs to religion. He has no conception of -the salutary and wholesome influence which the beauties of -poetry and eloquence can exercise over the spirit.</p> - - -<p class="p1">261. <span class="smcap">Rollin the Historian.</span>—Rollin has made a reputation -as an historian. Frederick II. compares him to Thucydides, -and Chateaubriand has emphatically called him the -“Fénelon of History.” Montesquieu himself has pleasantly -said: “A noble man has enchanted the public through his -works on history; it is heart which speaks to heart; we feel -a secret satisfaction in hearing virtue speak; he is the bee of -France.”</p> - -<p>Modern criticism has dealt justly with these exaggerations. -The thirteen volumes of his <cite>Ancient History</cite>, which Rollin -published, from 1730 to 1738, are scarcely read to-day. His -great defect as an historian is his lack of erudition and of -the critical spirit; he accepts with credulity every fable and -every legend.</p> - -<p>We are to recollect, however, that as professor of history—and -in truth he pretended to be only this—Rollin has -greater worth than as an historian. He knew how to introduce -into the exposition of facts great simplicity and great -facility. And especially he attempted to draw from events -their moral lesson. “We ought not to forget,” says a -German of our time, “that Rollin has never made any -personal claim to be considered an investigator in historical -study, but that the purpose he had chiefly in view was educational. -As he was the first to introduce the study of history -into French colleges (this is true only of the colleges of -the University), he sought to remedy the complete absence -of historical reading adapted to the needs of the young.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> -This is a great educational feat; for it is undeniable that his -works are of a nature to give to the young of all nations a -real taste for the study of history, and at the same time -a vivid conception of the different epochs, and of the life of -nations.”<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">262. <span class="smcap">The Teaching of History.</span>—However, considered -simply as a professor of history, Rollin is far from being -irreproachable. Doubtless it is good to moralize on history, -and to make of it, as he says, “a school of enduring glory -and real grandeur.” But is not historical accuracy necessarily -compromised, and is there not danger of making the -subject puerile, when the teacher is guided exclusively by -the idea of moral edification?</p> - -<p>Another graver fault in Rollin is that he systematically -omits the history of France, and with it, all modern history. -In this respect, he falls below the Oratory, Port Royal, -Bossuet, Fénelon, and Madame de Maintenon. It is interesting -to observe, moreover, that Rollin recognizes the utility -of the study of national history, but his excuse for omitting -it is the lack of time:—</p> - -<p>“I do not speak of the history of France.... I do not -think it possible to find time, during the regular course of -instruction, to make a place for this study; but I am far -from considering it as of no importance, and I observe with -regret that it is neglected by many persons to whom, nevertheless, -it would be very useful, not to say necessary. -When I say this, it is myself that I criticise first, for I -acknowledge that I have not given sufficient attention to it, -and I am ashamed of being in some sort a stranger in my -own country after having traversed so many others.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">263. <span class="smcap">Philosophy.</span>—It is moral edification that Rollin -seeks in philosophical studies, as in historical studies. With -but little competence in these matters, he admits that he has -applied himself only very superficially to the study of -philosophy. He knows, however, the value of ethics and -logic, which govern the morals and perfect the mind; of -physics, which furnishes us a mass of interesting knowledge; -and finally, of metaphysics, which fortifies the religious -sentiment. The ethics of antiquity seems to him worthy of -attention; it is, in his view, the introduction to Christian -ethics.</p> - - -<p class="p1">264. <span class="smcap">Scientific Instruction.</span>—Rollin has given us a compendium -of astronomy, of physics, and of natural history. -Without doubt his essays have but a moderate value. -Rollin’s knowledge is often inexact, and his general ideas -are narrow. He is capable of believing that “nature entire -is made for man.” But yet he deserves some credit for having -comprehended the part that the observation of the sensible -world ought to play in education:—</p> - -<p>“I call <em>children’s physics</em> a study of nature which requires -scarcely anything but eyes, and which, for this reason, is -within the reach of all sorts of persons, and even of children. -It consists in making ourselves attentive to the objects which -nature presents to us, to consider them with care, and to -admire their different beauties; but without searching into -their secret causes, which comes within the province of the -physics of the scientist.</p> - -<p>“I say that even children are capable of this, for they have -eyes, and are not wanting in curiosity. They wish to know; -they are inquisitive. It is only necessary to awaken and -nourish in them the desire to learn and to know, which is -natural to all men. This study, moreover, if it may be so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> -called, far from being painful and tedious, affords only -pleasure and amusement; it may take the place of recreation, -and ordinarily ought not to take place save in playing. -It is inconceivable how much knowledge of things children -might gain, if we knew how to take advantage of all the -occasions which they furnish for the purpose.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">265. <span class="smcap">The Educative Character of Rollin’s Pedagogy.</span>—It -should not be supposed that Rollin’s exclusive purpose -was to make Latinists and literary men. I know very well -that he himself has said that “to form the taste was his -principal aim.” Nevertheless, he has thought of other -things,—moral qualities not less than intellectual endowments. -He wished to train at once “the heart and the -intellect.” With him, instruction in all its phases takes an -educative turn. He esteems knowledge only because it leads -to virtue. In the explication of authors, attention should be -directed to the morality of their thoughts, at least as much -as to their literary beauty. The maxims and examples which -their writings contain should be skillfully put in relief, so -that these readings may become moral lessons not less than -studies in rhetoric. To sum up in a word, Rollin follows the -tradition of the Jansenists, and not that of the Company of -Jesus.</p> - - -<p class="p1">266. <span class="smcap">Christianity of Rollin.</span>—Rollin, though persecuted -for his Jansenist tendencies, was a fervent Christian. -“A Roman probity” did not suffice for him; he desired a -Christian virtue. Consequently, he requires that religious -instruction should form a part of every lesson. A regulation -which dates from his rectorship required that the scholar in -each class should learn and recite each day one or more -maxims drawn from the Holy Scriptures. This custom has -been maintained to this day. Rollin knew, moreover, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> -the best means of inspiring piety is to preach by example, -and to be pious one’s self:—</p> - -<p>“To make true Christians,—this is the end and purpose of -the education of children; all the rest but fulfills the purpose -of means.... When a teacher has received this spirit, -there is nothing more to say to him....”</p> - -<p>The religious spirit of Rollin comes to view on each page -of his book:—</p> - -<p>“It remains for me,” he says, in concluding his preface, -“to pray God, in whose hands we all are, we and our discourses, -to deign to bless my good intentions.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">267. <span class="smcap">Interior Discipline of the Colleges.</span>—The part -of the <cite>Treatise on Studies</cite> which has preserved the most -interest, and which will be studied with the most profit, is -certainly that which treats of <em>the interior government of -schools and colleges</em>. Here, though he does not completely -divest himself of his method of borrowings, and references -to the authority of others, and though he is especially under -the influence of Locke, whose wise advice on rewards and -punishments he reproduces almost verbatim, Rollin makes -use of a long personal experience. We have charged him -with not knowing the little child. On the other hand, he -knows exactly what scholars a little older are,—children -from ten to sixteen years old. And he not only knows -them, but he loves them tenderly. He gives them this testimony, -which affection alone can explain, that he has always -found them reasonable.</p> - - -<p class="p1">268. <span class="smcap">Enumeration of the Questions treated by Rollin.</span>—To -give an idea of this part of the <cite>Treatise</cite>, the best -way is to reproduce the titles of the thirteen articles composing -the chapter entitled <cite>General Counsels on the Education -of the Young</cite>:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span></p> - -<p>I. What end should be proposed in education? II. How -to study the character of children in order to become able to -instruct them properly. III. How at once to gain authority -over children. IV. How to become loved and feared. -V. Punishments: 1. Difficulties and dangers in punishments; -2. Rules to be observed in punishments. VI. Reprimands: -1. Occasion for reprimanding; 2. Time for -making the reprimand; 3. Manner of reprimanding. VII. -Reasoning with children. Stimulating them with the sense -of honor. Making use of commendation, rewards, and -caresses. VIII. How to train children to be truthful. -IX. How to train children to politeness, to cleanliness, and -to exactness. X. How to make study attractive. XI. How -to give rest and recreation to children. XII. How to train -the young to goodness by instruction and example. XIII. -Piety, religion, zeal for the salvation of children.</p> - - -<p class="p1">269. <span class="smcap">Public Education.</span>—Rollin does not definitely express -himself on the superiority of public education. He -does not dare give formal advice to parents; but he brings -forward the advantages of the common life of colleges with -so much force, that it is very evident that he prefers it to -a private education. Let it be noted, besides, that he -accepts on his own account “the capital maxim of the -ancients, that children belong more to the State than to -their parents.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">270. <span class="smcap">The Rod.</span>—In the matter of discipline, Rollin -leans rather to the side of mildness. However, he does not -dare pronounce himself absolutely against the use of the rod. -That which in particular causes him to hesitate, which gives -him scruples, which prevents him from expressing a censure -which is at the bottom of his heart, but which never rises to -his lips, is that there are certain texts of the Bible whose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> -interpretation is favorable to the use of the rod. It is interesting -to notice how, in a strait between his sentiments as a -docile Christian and his instincts towards mildness, the good -and timid Rollin tries to find a less rigorous meaning in the -sacred text, and to convince himself that the Bible does not -say what it seems to say. After many hesitations, he finally -comes to the conclusion that corporal chastisements are permitted, -but that they are not to be employed save in extreme -and desperate cases; and this is also the conclusion -of Locke.</p> - - -<p class="p1">271. <span class="smcap">Punishments in General.</span>—But how many wise -counsels on punishments, and on the precautions that must -be taken when we punish or reprimand! One should refrain -from punishing a child at the moment he commits his fault, -because this might then exasperate him and provoke him to -new breaches of duty. Let the master be cool when he -punishes, and avoid the anger which discredits his authority. -The whole of this excellent code of scholastic discipline might -be quoted with profit. Rollin is reason and good sense itself -when he guides and instructs the teacher as to his relations -with the pupil. Doubtless the most of these precepts are not -new; but when they come from the mouth of Rollin, there -is something added to them which I cannot describe, but -which gives to the most threadbare advice the authority of -personal experience.</p> - - -<p class="p1">272. <span class="smcap">Conclusion.</span>—We shall not dwell on the other -precepts of Rollin. The text must be consulted for his -reflections on plays, recreations, the means of making study -attractive, and on the necessity of appealing to the child’s -reason betimes, and of explaining to him why one does this -or that. In this last part of the <cite>Treatise on Studies</cite> there is -a complete infant psychology which is lacking neither in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> -keenness nor in penetration. In particular, there is a code -of moral discipline which cannot be too highly commended -to educators, and to all those who desire, in the words of -Rollin, “to train at once the heart and the mind” of the -young. Rollin has worked for virtue even more than for -science. His works are less literary productions than works -on morals, and the author himself is the perfect expression -of what can be done for the education of the young by the -Christian spirit allied to the university spirit.</p> - - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>[273. <span class="smcap">Analytical Summary.</span>—1. The characteristic fact -disclosed by this study is the very slow rate at which progress -in education takes place. There is also an enforcement -of the lesson which has reappeared from time to time, -that education follows in the wake of new and general -movements in human thought.</p> - -<p>2. A more specific fact is the extreme conservatism of -universities, or the tenacity with which they hold to traditions. -The question is suggested whether, after all, the -conservative habit of the university does not best befit its -judicial functions.</p> - -<p>3. In the elbowing of the classics by history and French, -we see the rise of innovations which have become embodied -in the modern university.</p> - -<p>4. A new factor in the higher education is the intervention -of the State, as opposed to the historical domination of -the Church. In the reform of the University of Paris the -State became an educator.</p> - -<p>5. There is evidence of some progress in the historical -struggle towards the conception that woman has equal -rights with man in the benefits of education.]</p></div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> “Formerly secondary schools were schools in which was given a more -advanced instruction then in the primary schools; and they were distinguished -into communal secondary schools, or communal colleges, and into -private secondary schools or institutions.... To-day, secondary instruction -includes the colleges and lycées in which are taught the ancient languages, -modern languages, history, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and -philosophy. Public instruction is divided into primary, secondary, and -superior instruction.”—<span class="smcap">Littré.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> This refers to the University of Paris, which must be distinguished -from the Napoleonic University. “The latter was founded by a decree of -Napoleon I., March 17, 1808. It was first called the Imperial University, -and then the University of France. It comprises: 1. The faculties;<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> 2. the -lycées or colleges of the State; 3. the communal colleges; 4. the primary -schools. All these are under the direction of a central administration.”—<span class="smcap">Littré.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> There are now five Faculties or institutions for special instruction,—the -Faculties of the Sciences, of Letters, of Medicine, of Law, and of Theology. -(P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> Save once, Rollin has scarcely made an allusion to primary instruction -proper. We quote this passage on account of its singularity: “Several -years ago there was introduced into most of the schools for the poor in -Paris a method which is very useful to scholars, and which spares much -trouble to the teachers. The school is divided into several classes. I -select only one of them, that composed of children who already know how -to write syllables; the others must be judged by this one. I suppose that -the subject of the reading lesson is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dixit Dominus Domino meo: Sede a -dextris meis</i>. Each child pronounces one syllable, as <em>Di</em>. His competitor, -who stands opposite, takes up the next, <em>xit</em>, and so on. The whole class is -attentive; for the teacher, without warning, passes at once from the head -of the line to the middle, or to the foot, and the recitation must continue -without interruption. If a pupil makes a mistake in some syllable, the -teacher, without speaking, raps upon the table with his stick, and the competitor -is obliged to repeat as it should be the syllable that has been -wrongly pronounced. If he fail also, the next, upon a second rap of the -stick, goes back to the same syllable, and so on till it has been pronounced -correctly. More than thirty years ago, I saw with unusual pleasure this -method in successful operation at Orleans, where it originated through the -care and industry of M. Garot, who presided over the schools of that -city.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> Rollin does not require it, however, of young men.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> Doctor Wolker, quoted by Cadet, in his edition of Rollin, Paris, 1882.</p> -</div></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XII.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">CATHOLICISM AND PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.—LA SALLE -AND THE BRETHREN OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS.</span></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>STATE OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY; -DÉMIA AND THE INFANT SCHOOLS OF LYONS; CLAUDE JOLY, -DIRECTOR OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF PARIS; THE BOOK OF -THE PARISH SCHOOL; LA SALLE (1651-1719) AND THE CHRISTIAN -SCHOOLS; LIFE AND CHARACTER OF LA SALLE; ASCETIC TENDENCIES; -FOUNDATION OF THE INSTITUTE OF THE BRETHREN -(1684); THE IDEA OF NORMAL SCHOOLS; THE IDEA OF GRATUITOUS -AND COMPULSORY INSTRUCTION; PROFESSIONAL INSTRUCTION; -CONDUCT OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS; SUCCESSIVE EDITIONS; -ABUSE OF SCHOOL REGULATIONS; DIVISION OF THE CONDUCT; -INTERIOR ORGANIZATION OF THE SCHOOLS; SIMULTANEOUS INSTRUCTION; -WHAT WAS LEARNED IN THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS; -METHOD OF TEACHING; THE CHRISTIAN CIVILITY; CORPORAL -CHASTISEMENTS; REPRIMANDS; PENANCES; THE FERULE; THE -ROD; REWARDS; MUTUAL ESPIONAGE; GENERAL CONCLUSION; -ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.</p></div> - -<hr class="r15a" /> - -<p class="p1">274. <span class="smcap">The State of Primary Instruction in the Seventeenth -Century.</span>—It does not form a part of our plan to -follow from day to day the small increments of progress and -the slow development of the primary schools of France; -but we must confine ourselves to the essential facts and to -the important dates.</p> - -<p>The Catholic Church, in the sixteenth and seventeenth -centuries, did not altogether renounce her interest in popular -instruction. She took measures, without doubt, to evangelize -the poor people, and sometimes “even to teach them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> -how to read and write.” Nevertheless, up to the organization -of the Christian schools, by La Salle, no serious effort -was made. Some religious foundations establish gratuitous -schools in many places,—<em>charity schools</em>,—but no comprehensive -purpose directs these establishments. Conflicts of -prerogative among certain independent colleagues, as that -between the writing-masters and the masters of the infant -schools placed under the direct authority of the precentor, or -among the rectors and the tutors (<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">écolâtres</i>), that is, the -assistants of the bishops charged with the supervision of the -schools,—such dissensions came still further to defeat the -good intentions of individuals, and to embarrass the feeble -movement that was exerted in favor of popular instruction. -For example, towards 1680, the writing-masters attempted -to prevent the masters of the primary schools<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> from giving -writing lessons, at least, <em>from giving their pupils any copies -except monosyllables</em>; and a decree of Parliament is necessary -to re-establish the liberty—and then under certain -restrictions—of teaching to write.</p> - -<p>“Christian instruction was neglected, not to say dishonored,” -is the statement of contemporaries. The children -who attended the schools of the poor were subjected to public -contempt. They were obliged to wear on their caps a -distinctive badge. In brief, far from progressing, primary -instruction was rather in a state of decadence.</p> - - -<p class="p1">275. <span class="smcap">Démia and the Primary Schools of Lyons.</span>—Among -the progressive men who struggled against this -unhappy state of affairs, and who tried to develop the -Catholic schools, we must mention, before La Salle, Démia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> -a priest of Lyons, who, in 1666, founded the Congregation -of the Brethren of Saint Charles, for the instruction of poor -children. The Institute of La Salle was not organized till -eighteen years later, in 1684. In 1668, having addressed -to the provosts of the merchants of the city of Lyons a -warm appeal, his <cite>Proposals for the establishment of Christian -schools for the instruction of the poor</cite>, Démia obtained an -annual grant of two hundred livres. In 1675 he was -charged by “express command” of the archbishop of -Lyons “with the management and direction of the schools -of that city and diocese,” and drew up a body of school -regulations which was quoted as a model.<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> For the method -of “teaching to read, of learning the catechism, of correcting -children, and similar things,” Démia conformed to -the book known as the <em>Parish School</em> (<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">École paroissiale</i>), of -which we shall presently say a word. He took it upon himself -to proceed “to the examination of the religion, the -ability, and the good morals, of the persons who proposed -to teach school.” But, what was of greater moment, he -established, for preparing and training them, a sort of seminary.</p> - -<p>A few quotations will give an idea of Démia’s zeal in the -establishment of Christian schools.</p> - -<p>“This establishment is of such importance and of so -great utility, that there is nothing in our political organization -which is more worthy of the care and the watchfulness -of the magistrates, since on it depend our peace and public -tranquillity. The poor, not having the means of educating -their children, leave them in ignorance of their obligations.... -Thus we see, with keen displeasure, that such an education -of the children of the poor is totally neglected, -although it is the most important interest of the State, of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> -which they comprise the largest part; and, although it is -quite as necessary, and even more so, to maintain public -schools for them, as to support colleges for the children of -families in good circumstances....”</p> - - -<p class="p1">276. <span class="smcap">Claude Joly.</span>—In 1676, Claude Joly, precentor of -Notre Dame, “collator, director, and judge of the primary -schools of the city, the suburbs, and the outskirts of Paris,” -published his <cite>Christian and Moral Counsels for the Instruction -of Children</cite>. There is but little to gather from this work, -where the author is so forgetful of elementary instruction as -to speak only of secondary instruction and of the education -of princes. What most concerns Claude Joly is to put -in force the regulations which forbid the association of boys -and girls in the schools. The separation of the sexes was -for a long time an absolute principle in France. Démia, in -article nine of his regulations, restores the ordinance of the -archbishop of Lyons, “which forbids school-masters to -admit girls, and school-mistresses to admit boys.” Rollin -was of the same opinion. Claude Joly, in the capacity of -chief precentor, bluntly claimed his sovereign rights in the -matter of primary instruction:—</p> - -<p>“We shall contest the power claimed by the rectors of -Paris to control the schools, under the name and pretext of -charity, without the permission of the chief precentor, to -whom alone belongs this power. To him, also, belongs the -right of nomination to the schools of the religious and secular -communities. We shall disclose, besides, the attempts -of writers to interfere with the teaching of orthography, -which belongs only to good grammarians, that is, to the -masters of the little schools.”</p> - -<p>We see to what petty questions of prerogative was sacrificed, -in the seventeenth century, the great cause of popular -instruction.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">277. <span class="smcap">The Book of the Parish School.</span>—Under the -title, <cite>The Parish School, or the Manner of Properly Instructing -the Children in the Little Schools</cite>, a priest of the diocese -of Paris had written, in 1655, a school manual, often reprinted,<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> -which became the general standard of the schools -during the years that followed, and which gives an exact -idea of what was narrow and poorly defined in the primary -instruction of that period.</p> - -<p>The author of the <cite>Parish School</cite> does not have a high -opinion of the office of the teacher, which he regards as an -employment <em>without lustre, without pleasure, and without -interest</em>. He does not expect great results from instruction, -of which he is pleased to say, that <em>it is not completely useless</em>. -It is true that instruction is reduced to a very few things,—reading, -writing, and counting. To this the author adds -religion and politeness.</p> - -<p>Let us observe in particular, that the programme of the -parish school also comprises the <em>principles of the Latin language</em>. -The primary school of that period was still confounded -with the college of secondary instruction; the -ancient languages and rhetoric were taught in it. In the -catalogue of the master’s books, drawn up by the author of -the <cite>Parish School</cite>, we find a Greek grammar. In the classes, -the reading of Latin precedes the reading of French.</p> - -<p>Some good advice in practical pedagogy might be extracted -from the first part of the work, especially on the duties of a -school-master, on the power of example, and on the necessity -of knowing the disposition of pupils. But how many artless -assertions and mischievous precepts, in that school code -of the city of Paris, in the near presence of the grand century! -The <cite>Parish School</cite> complains that the scholars eat -too much bread:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span></p> - -<p>“The children of Paris, as a rule, eat a great deal of -bread. This food stupefies the mind, and very often makes -them, at the age of nine or ten, incapable of learning. -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Omnis repletio mala, panis vero pessima.</i>” A serious matter -is that espionage is not only authorized, but is encouraged -and organized:—</p> - -<p>“The master will select two of the most reliable and -intelligent to be on the lookout for the disorders and the -improprieties of the school and the church. They shall -write the names of the offenders, and of those guilty of -improprieties, on pieces of paper or on tablets, to be given -to the master. These officers shall be called <em>observers</em>.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">278. <span class="smcap">La Salle (1651-1719) and the Christian Schools.</span>—The -reading of the <cite>Parish School</cite> prepares us the better -to comprehend the work of La Salle. If one were in any -degree tempted to depreciate the Institute of the Brethren -of the Christian Schools, it would suffice, to counteract this -disposition, to contrast the reforms of La Salle, however -insufficient they may be, with the real state of the schools of -that period. To be equitably judged, human institutions -ought to be replaced in their setting and in their environment. -It is easy to-day to formulate charges against the -pedagogy of the Brethren of the Christian Schools. But -considered in their time, and compared with what existed, -or rather with what did <em>not</em> exist, the establishments of La -Salle deserve the esteem and the gratitude of the friends of -instruction. They represent the first systematic effort of the -Catholic Church to organize popular instruction. What the -Jesuits did in the matter of secondary instruction, with immense -resources and for pupils who paid them for their -efforts, La Salle attempted in primary instruction, through -a thousand obstacles and for pupils who did not pay.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">279. <span class="smcap">Life and Character of La Salle.</span>—We shall have -to criticise in the most of its principles and in many details -of its practice, the educational institute of La Salle. But -that which merits an admiration without reserve is the -professional zeal of the founder of the order, the dauntless -spirit of improvement which he displayed in the -organization of his schools, and in the recruitment of -his teachers; it is also his tenacious zeal which was discouraged -neither by the jealous opposition of corporations, -the writing-masters for example, nor by the inexplicable -opposition of the clergy; and, finally, it is the indefatigable -devotion of a beautiful life consecrated to the cause of -instruction, which was a long series of efforts and sacrifices.</p> - -<p>At an early hour, La Salle had given proofs of the energy -of his character. Weak and sickly, he was obliged to -struggle against the infirmities of his constitution. To -overcome sleep, and to prolong his studious vigils, he -sometimes kneeled on sharp stones, and sometimes he placed -in front of him, upon his study-table, a board fitted with -iron points, against which his head would strike as soon as -fatigue made him doze and he leaned forward. Canon of -the chapter of Reims in 1667, ordained priest in 1678, he -resigned his prebendship in 1683, and, voluntarily making -himself poor, in order to approach those whose souls he -would save, he renounced his whole patrimony, to the great -disgust of his friends, who treated him as a madman.</p> - - -<p class="p1">280. <span class="smcap">Ascetic Tendencies.</span>—But it is not a disinterested -love of the people, it is not the thought of their moral regeneration, -and of their intellectual progress, which animated -and sustained the efforts of La Salle. His purpose was -above all else religious. He pushed devotion even to asceticism. -In his childhood, while he still lived at home, he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> -came to have a sense of unrest in the parlors of his mother; -and one evening, as his biographers relate, while those about -him were engaged in music, or were talking on worldly matters, -he threw himself into the arms of one of his aunts, and -said to her, “Madam, relate to me the life of one of the -saints.” He himself was a saint, though the Church did not -think him worthy of this venerable title. In his youth he -passed whole nights in prayer, and slept on boards. All his -life he was severe to himself and also to others, considering -abstinence and privations as the regimen of the Christian. -His adversaries, at different times, imputed this to him as a -crime. He was represented as a hardened man, pushing his -ascetic requirements to the extreme of cruelty. To appease -their anger, he removed penances and bodily inflictions from -his institution, but he maintained them for himself, and continued -his life of voluntary suffering. Heroic virtues, it may -be; but it may be added also, an unfortunate disposition -for a teacher of children. We distrust, in advance, a system -of teaching whose beginning was so sad, whose founder -inclosed his life within so narrow an horizon, and which, at -first, was illuminated by no rays of gladness and good -humor.</p> - - -<p class="p1">281. <span class="smcap">Foundations of the Institute.</span>—The Institute of -the Brethren was founded in 1684, but it was not sanctioned -by pontifical authority and royal power till forty years later, -in 1724.</p> - -<p>We shall not recite at full length the vicissitudes of the -first years of the Institute. We simply state that La Salle -inaugurated his work by offering hospitality in his own house -to several poor teachers. In 1679 he opened at Reims a -school for boys. In 1684 he imposed on his disciples vows -of <em>stability</em> and <em>obedience</em>, and prescribed their costume. In -1688 he went to Paris in order to found schools there, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> -it was here in particular, as he himself says, that “he saw -himself persecuted by the men from whom he expected help.” -In spite of all these difficulties his enterprise prospered, and -when he died, in 1720, the Institute of the Brethren already -counted a large number of establishments for primary instruction.</p> - - -<p class="p1">282. <span class="smcap">The Idea of Normal Schools.</span>—We know how -the teaching force was then recruited. In Paris, if we may -believe Pourchot, the chief precentor, Claude Joly, was -obliged to employ, for the direction of schools, old-clothes-men, -innkeepers, cooks, masons, wig-makers, puppet-players—the -list might be continued. In 1682 Marie -Moreau, a teacher, was sent by Bossuet to keep the school -at Ferté-Gaucher. The rector of the place, in his capacity -as tutor (<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">écolâtre</i>), wishing to ascertain her competence, -subjected her to an examination, of which the following is -an account:—</p> - -<p>“1. He asked her if she could read, and she replied that -she read passably well, but not well enough to teach.</p> - -<p>“2. He gave her a pen to mend, and she declared that -she could not do it.</p> - -<p>“3. He handed her a Latin book and requested her to -read it, but she was prevented from making the attempt by -sister Remy, who had just prevented her from exhibiting her -writing.”<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a></p> - -<p>Ignorance, and often moral unfitness, was the general -character of the teachers of that period. They often entered -upon their duties without the least preparation. La Salle -had too great an anxiety for the good condition of his schools -to accept improvised teachers. So in 1685 he opened at -Reims, under the name of <em>Seminary for Schoolmasters</em>, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> -real normal school, in which teachers were to be trained for -the rural districts. Only Démia had preceded him in this -work. Later he founded an establishment of the same kind -in Paris, and—a thing worthy of note—he annexed to this -normal school a primary school, in which the teaching was -done by the students in training under the direction of an -experienced teacher.</p> - -<p>In the third part of his <cite>Conduct of Schools</cite> La Salle has -drawn up the rules for what he calls the <em>training of new -masters</em>. Here are the faults that he notices in young -teachers:—</p> - -<p class="p1">1. An itching to talk; 2. too great activity, which degenerates -into petulance; 3. indifference; 4. preoccupation and -embarrassment; 5. harshness; 6. spite; 7. partiality; 8. -slowness and negligence; 9. pusillanimity and lack of force; -10. despondency and fretfulness; 11. familiarity and -trifling; 12. distractions and loss of time; 13. fickleness; -14. giddiness; 15. exclusiveness; 16. lack of attention to -the different characters and dispositions of children.</p> - - -<p class="p1">283. <span class="smcap">The Idea of Gratuitous and Obligatory Instruction.</span>—The -Institute of the Brethren of the Christian -Schools, say the statutes of the order in so many words, is a -society whose members make a profession to conduct schools -<em>gratuitously</em>. “La Salle thought only of the children of -artisans and of the poor, who, he said, being occupied -during the whole day in earning their own livelihood and that -of their families, could not give their children the instruction -they need, and a respectable and Christian education.” In -1694, the founder of the Institute and his first twelve disciples -went and kneeled at the foot of the altar, and pledged -themselves to “conduct collectively and through organized -effort schools of gratuitous instruction, even when, in order<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> -to do this, they might be obliged to ask alms and to live on -bread alone.”</p> - -<p>But a thing still more remarkable than to have popularized -gratuitous instruction, already realized in many places -through charity schools, is to have formed the conception of -obligatory instruction. La Salle, who did not believe that -this was any encroachment on the liberty of parents, proposes, -in this <cite>Conduct of Schools</cite>, a means for affecting their -will:—</p> - -<p>“If among the poor there are certain ones who are unwilling -to take advantage of the opportunities for instruction, -they should be reported to the rectors. The latter will be -able to cure them of their indifference by threatening to give -them no more assistance till they send their children to -school.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">284. <span class="smcap">Professional Instruction.</span>—Besides primary schools -proper, La Salle, who is truly an innovator, inaugurated the -organization of a technical and professional instruction. -At Saint Yon, near Rouen, he organized a sort of college -where was taught “all that a young man can learn, with -the exception of Latin, and whose purpose was to prepare -the student for commercial, industrial, and administrative -occupations.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">285. <span class="smcap">Conduct of the Christian Schools: Successive -Editions.</span>—La Salle took the trouble to draw up for his -Institute a very minute code of rules, with this title: <cite>The -Conduct of Schools</cite>. The first edition bears the date of -1720. It appeared at Avignon a year after the author’s -death.<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> Two other editions have since appeared, in 1811 -and in 1870, with some important modifications. The substance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> -has not been changed, but certain passages relative -to discipline, and to the use of the rod, have been suppressed.</p> - -<p>“With the view to adapt our education to the mildness of -the present state of manners,” says the preface of 1811, -“we have suppressed or modified whatever includes corporal -correction, and have advantageously (<em>sic</em>) replaced -this, on the one hand, by good marks, by promises and -rewards, and on the other by bad marks, by deprivations -and tasks.”</p> - -<p>On the other hand, some additions have been made. The -Institute of the Brethren had to yield in part to the demands -of the times, and to subtract something from the inflexibility -of its government.</p> - -<p>“The Brethren,” it is said in the preface to the edition of -1870, written by the Frère Philip, “the Brethren have little -by little enlarged the original <cite>Conduct</cite>, in proportion as -they have perfected their methods.... It is plain that a -book of this kind cannot receive a final form. New experiments, -progress in methods, legislative enactments, new -needs, etc., require that it receive divers modifications from -time to time.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">286. <span class="smcap">Abuse of Regulations.</span>—A feature common to the -pedagogy of the Jesuits, and to that of the Brethren of the -Christian Schools, is, that everything is regulated in advance -with extraordinary exactness. No discretion is left to the -teachers. The instruction is but a rule in action. All novelty -is interdicted.</p> - -<p>“It has been necessary,” says the <em>Preface</em> of La Salle, to -prepare this <cite>Conduct</cite> of the Christian schools, “to the end -that there may be uniformity in all the schools, and in all -the places where there are Brethren of the Institute, and -that the methods employed may always be the same. Man<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> -is so subject to slackness, and even to changeableness, that -there must be written rules for him, in order to keep him -within the bounds of his duty, and to prevent him from -introducing something new, or from destroying that which -has been wisely established.”</p> - -<p>Need we be astonished, after this, that the teaching of the -Brethren often became a useless routine?</p> - - -<p class="p1">287. <span class="smcap">Division of the Conduct.</span>—The <cite>Conduct of the -Christian Schools</cite> is divided into three parts. The first -treats of all the exercises of the school, and of what is -done in it from the time the pupils enter till they leave. -The second describes the means for establishing and maintaining -order; in a word, the discipline. The third treats of -the duties of the inspector of schools, of the qualities of -the teachers, and of the rules to be followed in the education -of the teachers themselves. This may be called, so to -speak, the manual of the normal schools of the Institute.</p> - - -<p class="p1">288. <span class="smcap">Interior Organization of the Schools.</span>—That -which first strikes the attention in the Christian Schools, -such as La Salle organized, is the complete silence that -reigns in them. Nothing is better than silence on the part -of pupils, when it can be obtained, but La Salle enjoins -silence on teachers as well. The Frère is a professor who -does not talk.</p> - -<p>“He will watch carefully over himself, to speak very -rarely, and very low.” “It would be of but little use for -the teacher to try to make his pupils keep silence if he does -not do this himself.” “When necessity obliges him to speak—and -he is careful that this necessity is rare—he will -always speak in a moderate tone.”</p> - -<p>It might be said that La Salle fears a strong and sonorous -voice.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span></p> - -<p>How, then, shall the teacher communicate with his pupils, -since he is almost debarred from the use of speech? La -Salle has invented, to supersede language, a complete system -of signs, a sort of scholastic telegraphy, a long account -of which will be found in several chapters of the <cite>Conduct</cite>. -To have prayers repeated, the teacher will fold his hands; -to have the catechism repeated, he will make the sign of the -cross. In other cases he will strike his breast, will look at -the pupil steadily, etc. Besides, he will employ an instrument -of iron named a <em>signal</em>, which he will raise or lower, -and handle in a hundred ways, to indicate his wish, or to -announce the beginning or the close of such or such an -exercise.</p> - -<p>What is the meaning of this distrust of speech? And -what are we to think of these schools of mutes where -teachers and pupils proceed only by signs? When a scholar -asks permission to speak, he will stand erect in his place, -with hands crossed and eyes modestly lowered. Doubtless, -to attempt to excuse these practices, we must consider the -annoyances of a noisy school, and the advantages of a -silent school where everything is done discreetly and noiselessly. -Is there not, however, in these odd regulations, -something besides the desire for order and good conduct,—the -revelation of a complete system of pedagogy which is -afraid of life and liberty, and which, under the pretext of -making the school quiet, deadens the school, and, in the -end, reduces teachers and pupils to mere machines?</p> - - -<p class="p1">289. <span class="smcap">Simultaneous Instruction.</span>—By the side of the -evil we must note the good. Up to the time of La Salle, -the individual method was almost alone in use in primary -instruction; but he substituted for this the simultaneous -method, that is, teaching given to all the pupils at the same -time. For this purpose, La Salle divided each school into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> -three divisions: “The division of the weakest, that of the -mediocres, and that of the more intelligent or the more -capable.”</p> - -<p>“All the scholars of the same order will receive the -same lesson together. The instructor will see that all are -attentive, and that, in reading for example, all read in a -low voice what the teacher reads in a loud voice.”</p> - -<p>To aid the instructor, La Salle gives him one or two of -the better pupils of each division, who become his assistants, -and whom he calls <em>inspectors</em>. “The more children have -taught,” said La Salle, “the more they will learn.”</p> - -<p>To be just, however, we must recognize, in certain recommendations -of La Salle, some desire to appeal to the judgment -and the reason of the child:—</p> - -<p>“The teacher will not speak to the scholars during the -catechism, as in preaching, but he will interrogate them -almost continually by questions, direct or indirect, in order -to make them comprehend that which he is teaching them.”</p> - -<p>The Frère Luccard, in his <cite>Life of the Venerable J. B. de -La Salle</cite>,<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> quotes this still more expressive passage, borrowed -from his manuscript <cite>Counsels</cite>:—</p> - -<p>“Let the teacher be careful not to lend his pupils too -much help in resolving the questions that have been proposed -to them. He ought, on the contrary, to invite them not -to be discouraged, but to seek with ardor what he knows -they will be able to find for themselves. He will convince -them that they will the better retain the knowledge they -have acquired by a personal and persevering effort.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">290. <span class="smcap">What was learned in the Christian Schools.</span>—Reading, -writing, orthography, arithmetic, and the catechism,—this -is the programme of La Salle.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span></p> - -<p>In reading, La Salle, agreeing in this respect with Port -Royal, requires that French books be used in the beginning.</p> - -<p>“The book in which the pupil will begin to learn Latin is -the Psalter; but this lesson will be given only to those who -can readily read in French.”</p> - -<p>La Salle requires that the pupil shall not be exercised in -writing till “he can read perfectly.” He attaches, moreover, -an extreme importance to calligraphy, and it is known -that the Brethren have remained masters in this art. La -Salle does not weary in giving advice on this subject: the -pens, the knife for mending them, the ink, the paper, the -tracing-papers and blotters, round letters and italic letters -(a bastard script),—everything is passed in review.<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> The -<cite>Conduct</cite> also insists “on the manner of teaching the proper -posture of the body” and “on the manner of teaching how -to hold the pen and the paper.”</p> - -<p>“It will be useful and timely in the beginning to give the -pupil a stick of the bigness of a pen, on which there are three -notches, two on the right and one on the left, to mark the -places where his fingers should be put.”</p> - -<p>The exercises in writing are to be followed by exercises in -orthography and in composition:—</p> - -<p>“The teacher will require the pupils to compose and write -for themselves notes, receipts, bills, etc. He will also -require them to write out what they remember of the catechism, -and of the lectures that they have heard.”<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a></p> - -<p>As to arithmetic, reduced to the four rules, we must -commend La Salle’s attempt to have it learned by reason -and not by routine. Thus, he requires the teacher to interrogate -the pupil, in order to make him the better comprehend<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> -and retain the rule, or to make sure that he is attentive. He -“will give him a complete understanding” of what he -teaches; and, finally, he will require him “to produce a -certain number of rules that he has discovered for himself.”</p> - -<p>Prayers and religious exercises naturally hold a large place -in the schools organized by La Salle:—</p> - -<p>“There shall always be two or three scholars kneeling, -one from each class, who will tell their beads one after -another.”</p> - -<p>“Care will everywhere be taken that the scholars hear the -holy mass every day.”</p> - -<p>“A half hour each day shall be devoted to the catechism.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">291. <span class="smcap">Method of Teaching.</span>—The Institute of the -Brethren has often been criticised for the mechanical character -of its instruction. The Frère Philip, in the edition of -the <cite>Conduct</cite> published in 1870, implicitly acknowledges the -justice of this criticism when he writes: “Elementary -instruction has assumed a particular character in these last -days, <em>of which we must take account</em>. Proposing for its -chief end to train the judgment of the pupil, it gives less -importance than heretofore to the culture of the memory; it -makes especial use of methods which call into activity the -intelligence, and lead the child to reflect, to take account of -facts, to withdraw from the domain of words to enter into -that of ideas.” Do not these wise cautions unmistakably -betray the existence of an evil tradition which should be -corrected, but which tends to hold its ground? He who has -read the <cite>Conduct</cite> is not left in doubt that the general character -of the pedagogy of the Christian Schools, at the first, -was a mechanical and routine exercise of the memory, and -the absence of life.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">292. <span class="smcap">Christian Politeness.</span>—Under the title of <cite>Rules -of Decorum and Christian Civility</cite>, La Salle had composed a -reading book, intended for pupils already somewhat advanced, -and printed in Gothic characters.<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> It was not only -a manual of politeness, but was, the <cite>Conduct</cite> claims, a -treatise on ethics, “containing all the duties of children, -both towards God and towards their parents.” But we -would examine the work in vain for the justification of this -remark. In it are discussed only the puerile details of outward -behavior and of worldly bearing. It would, however, -be in bad taste to criticise at this day a book of another age, -whose artlessness makes us smile. La Salle’s purpose was -certainly praiseworthy, though attempting a little too much. -It is said in the <em>Preface</em> that “there is not a single one of -our actions which ought not to be regulated by motives -purely Christian.” Hence an infinite number of minute -prescriptions upon the simplest acts of daily life.<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a></p> - -<p>But here are a few specimens of this pretended elementary -ethics:—</p> - -<p>“It is not proper to talk when one has retired, the bed -being made for rest.”</p> - -<p>“One should try to make no noise and not to snore while -asleep; nor should one often turn from side to side in bed as -if he were restless and did not know on which side to lie.”</p> - -<p>“It is not becoming, when one is in company, to take off -one’s shoes.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span></p> - -<p>“It is impolite to play with a stick or a cane, and to use -it to strike the ground or pebbles, etc., etc.”</p> - -<p>How many mistakes in politeness we should make every -day of our lives if the rules of La Salle were infallible!</p> - - -<p class="p1">293. <span class="smcap">Corporal Chastisements.</span>—The Brethren, within -two centuries, have singularly ameliorated their system of correction. -“<em>Imperative circumstances</em>,” said the Frère Philip -in 1870, “no longer permit us to tolerate corporal punishment -in our schools.” Already, in 1811, there was talk of -suppressing entirely, or at least modifying, the use of these -punishments. The instruments of torture were perfected. -“We reduce the heavy ferule, the inconvenience of which -has been only too often felt, to a simple piece of leather, -about a foot long and an inch wide, and slit in two at one -end; still we hope that by divine help and by the mildness -of our very dear and dearly beloved colleagues, they will -make use of it only in cases of unavoidable necessity, and -only to give a stroke with it on the hand, without the permission -ever to make any other use of it.”</p> - -<p>But at first, and in the original <cite>Conduct</cite>,<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> corporal punishment -is freely permitted and regulated with exactness. -La Salle distinguished five sorts of corrections,—reprimand, -penances, the ferule, the rod, expulsion from school.</p> - - -<p class="p1">294. <span class="smcap">Reprimands.</span>—Silence, we have seen, is the fundamental -rule of La Salle’s schools: “There must be as little -speaking as possible. Consequently, corrections by word of -mouth are very rarely to be employed.” It even seems, -adds the <cite>Conduct</cite>, that “it is much better not to use them -at all”!</p> - -<p>A curious system of discipline, verily, where it is as good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> -as forbidden to resort to admonitions, to severe reprimands, -to an appeal through speech to the reason and the feelings of -the child; where, consequently, there is no place for the -moral authority of the teacher, but where there is at once -invoked the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ultima ratio</i> of constraint and violence, of the -ferule and the rod!</p> - - -<p class="p1">295. <span class="smcap">Penances.</span>—La Salle recommends penances as well -as corporal corrections. By this term he means punishments -like the following: maintaining a kneeling posture in the -school; learning a few pages of the catechism by heart; -“holding his book before his eyes for the space of half an -hour without looking off;” keeping motionless, with clasped -hands and downcast eyes, etc.</p> - - -<p class="p1">296. <span class="smcap">The Ferule.</span>—We have not to discuss in this place -the use of material means of correction. The Brethren -themselves have repudiated them. Only it is provoking -that they bow to what they call “imperative circumstances,” -and not to considerations based on principles. But it is -interesting, were it only from an historical point of view, to -recall the minute prescriptions of the founder of the Order.</p> - -<p>The <cite>Conduct</cite> first describes the ferule, “an instrument -formed of two pieces of leather sewed together; it shall be -from ten to twelve inches long, including the handle; the -palm shall be oval, and two inches in diameter; the -palm shall be lined on the inside so as not to be wholly flat, -but rounded to fit the hand.” Nothing is overlooked, we -observe; the form of the ferule is officially defined. But -what shocks us still more is the nature of the faults that -provoke the application of the ferule: “1. for not having -attended to the lesson, or for having played; 2. for being -tardy at school; 3. for not having obeyed the first signal.” -It is true that La Salle, always preoccupied with writing,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> -orders the ferule to be applied only to the left hand; the -right hand shall always be spared. The child, moreover, is -not to cry while he receives the ferule; if he does, he is to -be punished and corrected anew.</p> - - -<p class="p1">297. <span class="smcap">The Rod.</span>—In the penal code of La Salle, the categories -of faults worthy of punishment are sharply defined. -The rod shall be employed for the following faults: 1. refusal -to obey; 2. when the pupil has formed the habit of not -giving heed to the lesson; 3. when he has made blots upon -his paper instead of writing; 4. when he has had a fight with -his comrades; 5. when he has neglected his prayers in -church; 6. when he has been wanting in “modesty” at -mass or during the catechism; 7. when he has been absent -from school, from mass, or from the catechism.</p> - -<p>Even supposing that the principle of the rod is admissible, -we must still condemn the wrong use which La Salle makes -of it, for faults manifestly out of proportion to such a chastisement.</p> - -<p>I very well know that the author of the <cite>Conduct</cite> requires -that corrections shall be rare; but could he be obeyed, when -he put into the hands of his teachers scarcely any other -means of discipline?</p> - -<p>But to comprehend to what extent La Salle forgot what is -due to the dignity of the child, and considered him as a -machine, without any regard to the delicacy of his feelings, -with no respect for his person, we must read to the end the -strange prescriptions of this manual of the rod. The precautions -that La Salle exacts make still more evident the -impropriety of such punishments:—</p> - -<p>“When the teacher would punish a scholar with the rod, -he will make the ordinary sign to summon the attention of -the school; next he will indicate by means of the <em>signal</em> the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> -decree which the pupil has violated, and then show him the -place where correction is ordinarily administered; and he -will at once go there, and will prepare to receive the punishment, -standing in such a way as not to be seen indecently -by any one. This practice of having the scholar prepare -himself for receiving the correction, without any need on the -part of the teacher of putting his hand upon him, shall be -very exactly observed.</p> - -<p>“While the scholar is preparing himself to receive the correction, -the teacher shall be making an inward preparation -to give it in a spirit of love, and in a clear view of God. -Then he will go from his desk with dignity and gravity.</p> - -<p>“And when he shall have reached the place where the -scholar is” (it is stated, moreover, that this place should be in -one of the most remote and most obscure parts of the school, -where the nakedness of the victim cannot be seen), “he will -speak a few words to him to prepare him to receive the correction -with humility, submission, and a purpose of amendment; -then he will strike three blows as is usual; to go -beyond five blows, there would be needed a special order of -the director.</p> - -<p>“He shall be careful not to put his hand on the scholar. -If the scholar is not ready, he shall return to his desk without -saying a word; and when he returns, he shall give him -the most severe punishment allowed without special permission, -that is, five blows.</p> - -<p>“When a teacher shall have thus been obliged to compel a -scholar to receive correction, he shall attempt in some way -a little time afterwards to make him see and acknowledge -his fault, and shall make him come to himself, and give him -a strong and sincere resolution never to allow himself again -to fall into such a revolt.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span></p> - -<p>The moment is perhaps not well chosen to preach a -sermon and to violate the rule which forbids the Brethren -the use of the reprimand.</p> - -<p>“After the scholar has been corrected, he will modestly -kneel in the middle of the room before the teacher, with -arms crossed, to thank him for having corrected him, and -will then turn towards the crucifix to thank God for it, and -to promise Him at the same time not again to commit the -fault for which he had just been corrected. This he will do -without speaking aloud; after which the teacher will give -him the sign to go to his place.”</p> - -<p>Is it possible to have a higher misconception of human -nature, to trifle more ingeniously with the pride of the child, -and with his most legitimate feelings, and to mingle, in the -most repulsive manner, indiscreet and infamous practices -with the exhibition of religious sentiments?</p> - -<p>“It is absurd,” says Kant, “to require the children whom -we punish to thank us, to kiss our hands, etc. This is to -try to make servile creatures of them.”</p> - -<p>To justify La Salle, some quotations from his works have -been invoked.</p> - -<p>“For the love of God, do not use blows of the hand. -Be very careful never to give children a blow.”</p> - -<p>But it is necessary to know the exact thought of the -author of the <cite>Conduct</cite>, and this explains the following -passage:—</p> - -<p>“No corrections should be employed save those which are -in use in the schools; and so scholars should never be struck -with the hand or the foot.”</p> - -<p>In other words, the teacher should never strike except -with the authorized instruments, and according to the official -regulations.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">298. <span class="smcap">Mutual Espionage.</span>—We may say without exaggeration -that the <cite>Conduct</cite> recommends mutual espionage:—</p> - -<p>“The inspector of schools shall be careful to appoint -one of the most prudent scholars to observe those who make -a noise while they assemble, and this scholar shall then -report to the teacher what has occurred, without allowing the -others to know of it.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">299. <span class="smcap">Rewards.</span>—While La Salle devotes more than forty -pages to corrections, the chapter on rewards comprises two -small pages.</p> - -<p>Rewards shall be given “from time to time.” They shall -be of three kinds: rewards for piety, for ability, and for -diligence. They shall consist of books, pictures, plaster -casts, crucifix and virgin, chaplets, engraved texts, etc.</p> - - -<p class="p1">300. <span class="smcap">Conclusion.</span>—We have said enough to give an -exact idea of the Institute of the Christian Brethren in its -primitive form. Its faults were certainly grave, and we cannot -approve the general spirit of those establishments for -education where pupils are forbidden “to joke while they -are at meals”; to give anything whatsoever to one another; -where children are to enter the school-room so deliberately -and quietly that the noise of their footsteps is not heard; -where teachers are forbidden “to be familiar” with the -pupils, “to allow themselves to descend to anything common, -as it would be to laugh ...” But whatever the distance -which separates those gloomy schools from our modern -ideal,—from the pleasant, active, animated school, such as -we conceive it to-day,—there is none the less obligation to -do justice to La Salle, to pardon him for the practices which -were those of his time, and to admire him for the good -qualities that were peculiarly his own. The criticism that is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> -truly fruitful, is that which is especially directed to the -good, without caviling at the bad.<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a></p> - - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>[301. <span class="smcap">Analytical Summary.</span>—1. This study exhibits the -zeal of the Catholic Church in the education of the children -of the poor. The motive was not the spirit of domination, -as in the case of the Jesuits, but a sincere desire to engage -in a humane work.</p> - -<p>2. A proof of the multiplication of schools, and so of the -diffusion of the new educational spirit, is the wretched -quality of those who were allowed to teach. There must be -schools even if they are poor ones.</p> - -<p>3. The need of competent teachers led to the establishment -of the <em>Teachers’ Seminary</em>, the parent of the modern -normal school. The two elements in this professional -instruction seem to have been a knowledge of the subjects -to be taught and of methods of organization and discipline.</p> - -<p>4. The severe discipline and enforced silence of La Salle’s -schools permit the inference that the school of the period -was the scene of lawlessness and disorder. The reaction -went to an extreme; but considering the times, this excess -was a virtue.</p> - -<p>5. The scarcity of teachers and the abundance of pupils -led to the expedient of mutual and simultaneous instruction. -While this method is absolutely bad, it was relatively good.</p> - -<p>6. To the benevolent and inventive spirit of La Salle is -due the organization of industrial schools.]</p></div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Petites écoles.</i> This is the term commonly applied to primary schools -at this period. By the Jansenists this term was used in a more distinctive -sense, and for this reason I have translated it “Little Schools” in <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">Chap. -VII</a>. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> See the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Lectures pédagogiques</cite>. Hachette, 1883, p. 420.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> We have before us the edition of 1722.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Histoire d’une école gratuite</cite>, par V. Plessier, p. 15.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> We have before us a copy of this Avignon edition: J. Charles Chastanier, -printer and bookseller, near the College of the Jesuits.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> Two volumes, Paris, 1876.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> The use of the round script was in fashion. La Salle introduced the -bastard hand.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> See Chap. II. of the Second Part.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> We have before us the sixth edition of this work: Rouen, 1729. La -Salle had written it towards the year 1703.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> See, for example, the following chapters: upon the nose and the manner -of using the handkerchief and of sneezing (chap. vii.); upon the back, the -shoulders, the arms, and the elbow (chap. viii.); on the manner in which -one ought to behave with respect to the bones, the sauce, and the fruit -(chap. vi., of the second part); on the manner of behaving while walking -in the streets, on journeys, in carriages, and on horseback (chap. x.).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> See the edition of 1720, from page 140 to page 180.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> The influence of the teaching congregations in general, and of this one -in particular, on public education as administered by the State, is very -strikingly exhibited by Meunier in his <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Lutte du Principe Clérical et du -Principe Laïque dans l’Enseignement</cite> (Paris: 1861). There is also interesting -information concerning La Salle. See particularly the introductory -<em>Letter</em> and Chaps. I. and II. (P.)</p> -</div></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XIII.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">ROUSSEAU AND THE ÉMILE.</span></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>THE PEDAGOGY OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY; THE PRECURSORS OF -ROUSSEAU; THE ABBÉ DE SAINT PIERRE; OTHER INSPIRERS OF -ROUSSEAU; PUBLICATION OF THE ÉMILE (1762); ROUSSEAU AS A -TEACHER; GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE ÉMILE; ITS ROMANTIC -AND UTOPIAN CHARACTER; DIVISION OF THE WORK; THE FIRST TWO -BOOKS; EDUCATION OF THE BODY AND OF THE SENSES; LET NATURE -ACT; THE MOTHER TO NURSE HER OWN CHILDREN; NEGATIVE EDUCATION; -THE CHILD’S RIGHT TO HAPPINESS; THE THIRD BOOK OF -THE ÉMILE; CHOICE IN THE THINGS TO BE TAUGHT; THE ABBÉ -DE SAINT PIERRE AND ROUSSEAU; ÉMILE AT FIFTEEN; EDUCATION OF -THE SENSIBILITIES; THE FOURTH BOOK OF THE ÉMILE; GENESIS -OF THE AFFECTIONS; MORAL EDUCATION; RELIGIOUS EDUCATION; -THE PROFESSION OF FAITH OF THE SAVOYARD VICAR; SOPHIE -AND THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN; GENERAL CONCLUSION; INFLUENCE -OF ROUSSEAU; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.</p></div> - -<hr class="r15a" /> - -<p class="p1">302. <span class="smcap">The Pedagogy of the Eighteenth Century.</span>—The -most striking of the general characteristics of French -pedagogy in the eighteenth century, is that in it the lay spirit -comes into mortal collision with the ecclesiastical spirit. -What a contrast between the clerical preceptors of the seventeenth -century and the philosophical educators of the eighteenth! -The Jesuits, all-powerful under Louis XIV., are -to be decried, condemned, and finally expelled in 1762. -The first place in the theory and in the practice of education, -will belong to laymen. Rousseau is to write the <cite>Émile</cite>. -D’Alembert and Diderot will be the educational advisers of -the Empress of Russia. The parliamentarians, La Chalotais<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> -and Rolland, will attempt to substitute for the action of the -Jesuits the action of the State, or, at least, one of the powers -of the State. Finally, with the Revolution, the lay spirit -will succeed in triumphing.</p> - -<p>Again, the pedagogy of the eighteenth century is distinguished -by its critical and reformatory tendencies. The -century of Louis XIV. is, in general, a century of content; -the century of Voltaire, a century of discontent.</p> - -<p>Besides, the philosophical spirit, which associates the -theory of education with the laws of the human spirit, which -is not content to modify routine by a few ameliorations of -detail, which establishes general principles and aspires to an -ideal perfection,—the philosophical spirit, with its excellencies -and with its defects,—will come to the light in the -<cite>Émile</cite>, and in some other writings of the same period.</p> - -<p>Finally, and this last characteristic is but the consequence -of the others, education tends to become national, and at the -same time humane. Preparation for life replaces preparation -for death. During the whole of the eighteenth century, a -conception is in process of elaboration which the men of the -Revolution will exhibit in its true light,—that of an education, -public and national, which makes citizens, which works -for country and for real life.</p> - - -<p class="p1">303. <span class="smcap">Precursors of Rousseau.</span>—The greatest educational -event of the eighteenth century, before the expulsion of the -Jesuits and the events of the French Revolution, is the publication -of the <cite>Émile</cite>. Rousseau is undeniably the first in -rank among the founders of French pedagogy, and his influence -will be felt abroad, especially in Germany. But whatever -may be the originality of the author of the <cite>Émile</cite>, his -system is not a stroke of genius for which no preparation -had been made. He had his precursors, and he profited by -their works. A Benedictine, who might have spent his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> -strength to better advantage, has written a book on the -<cite>Plagiarisms of J. J. Rousseau</cite>.<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a></p> - -<p>We do not propose to treat Rousseau as a plagiarist, for he -surely has inspiration of his own, and his own boldness in -invention; but however much of an innovator he may be, he -was inspired by Montaigne, by Locke, and without speaking -of those great masters whom he often imitated, he had his -immediate predecessors, whose ideas on certain points are in -conformity with his own.</p> - - -<p class="p1">304. <span class="smcap">The Abbé de Saint Pierre (1658-1743).</span>—Among -the precursors of Rousseau, a place among the first must be -assigned to the Abbé de Saint Pierre, a dreamy, fantastic -spirit, fitted more to excite curiosity than to deserve admiration, -whom Rousseau himself called “a man of great projects -and petty views.” His projects in fact were great, -at least in number. Between “a <em>project</em> to make sermons -more useful, and a <em>project</em> to make roads more passable,” -there came, in his incoherent and varied work, several projects -for perfecting education in general, and the education -of girls in particular.</p> - -<p>The dominant idea of the Abbé de Saint Pierre is his -anxiety in behalf of moral education. In proportion as we -advance towards the era of liberty, we shall notice a growing -interest in the development of the moral virtues.</p> - -<p>The Abbé de Saint Pierre requires of man four essential -qualities: justice, benevolence, the discernment of virtue or -judgment, and, lastly, instruction, which holds but the lowest -rank. Virtue is of more worth than the knowledge of Latin.</p> - -<p>“It cannot be said that a great knowledge of Latin is not -an excellent attainment; but in order to acquire this knowledge,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span> -it is necessary to give to it an amount of time that -would be incomparably better employed in acquiring great -skill in the observation of prudence. Those who direct education -make a very great mistake in employing tenfold too -much time in making us scholarly in the Latin tongue, and -in employing tenfold too little of it in giving us a confirmed -use of prudence.”<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a></p> - -<p>But what are the means proposed by the Abbé de Saint -Pierre? All that he has devised for organizing the teaching -of the social virtues is reduced to the requirement of reading -edifying narratives, of playing moral pieces, and of accustoming -young people to do meritorious acts in the daily intercourse -of the school. When the lessons have been recited -and the written exercises corrected, the teacher will say to -the pupil: “Do for me an act of prudence, or of justice, or -of benevolence.” This is easier to say than to do. College -life scarcely furnishes occasion for the application of the -social virtues.</p> - -<p>But the Abbé de Saint Pierre should be credited with his -good intentions. He is the first in France to give his thought -to this matter of professional instruction. The mechanic -arts, the positive sciences, the apprenticeship to trades,—these -things he places above the study of languages. Around -his college, and even in his college, there are to be mills, -printing offices, agricultural implements, garden tools, etc.</p> - -<p>Was it not also an idea at once new and wise, to establish -a <em>continuous department</em> of public instruction, a sort of permanent -council, charged with the reformation of methods -and with establishing, as far as possible, uniformity in all -the colleges of the kingdom?</p> - -<p>Finally, we shall commend the Abbé de Saint Pierre for -having persistently urged the necessity of the education of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> -women. From Fénelon to the Abbé de Saint Pierre, from -1680 to 1730, great progress was made in this question. We -seem already to hear Condorcet when we read the following -passage:—</p> - -<p>“The purpose should be to instruct girls in the elements -of all the sciences and of all the arts which can enter into -ordinary conversation, and even in several things which relate -to the different employments of men, such as the history -of their country, geography, police regulations, and the principal -civil laws, <em>to the end that they can listen with pleasure to -what men shall say to them</em>, ask relevant questions, and easily -keep up a conversation with their husbands on the daily -occurrences in their occupations.”</p> - -<p>For the purpose of sooner attaining his end, the Abbé de -Saint Pierre, anticipating the centuries, demanded for women -national establishments, colleges of secondary instruction. -He did not hesitate to cloister young girls in boarding-schools, -and in boarding-schools without vacations; and he entreated -the State to organize public courses for those who, he said, -“constitute one-half of the families in society.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">305. <span class="smcap">Other Inspirers of Rousseau.</span>—With the eighteenth -century there begins for modern thought, in education -as in everything else, an era of international relations, of -mutual imitation, of the action and reaction of people on -people. The Frenchman of the seventeenth century had almost -absolutely ignored Comenius. Rousseau knows Locke, -and also the Hollander Crousaz,<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> whom, by the way, he treats -rather shabbily, speaking of him as “the pedant Crousaz.”</p> - -<p>Crousaz, however, had some good ideas. He criticised -the old methods, which make “of the knowledge of Latin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> -and Greek the principal part of education”; and he preached -scientific instruction and moral education.</p> - -<p>In the <cite>Spectacle of Nature</cite>, which was so popular in its -day, the Abbé Pluche also demanded that the study of the -dead languages should be abridged<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a>:—</p> - -<p>“Experience with the pitiable Latinity which reigns in the -colleges of Germany, Flanders, Holland, and in all places -where the habit of always speaking Latin is current, suffices -to make us renounce this custom which prevents a young -man from speaking his own tongue correctly.”</p> - -<p>The Abbé Pluche demanded that the time saved from -Latin be devoted to the living languages. On the other -hand, he insisted on early education, and on this point he -was the complement to his master, Rollin, who, he said, -wrote rather “for the <em>perfection</em> of studies than for their -beginning.”</p> - -<p>Still other writers were able to suggest to Rousseau some -of the ideas which he developed in the <cite>Émile</cite>. Before him, -La Condamine declared that the <cite>Fables</cite> of La Fontaine are -above the capacity of children.<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id="FNanchor_173_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> Before him, Bonneval, much -interested in physical education, violently criticised the use of -long clothes, and claimed for children an education of the -senses. He demanded, besides, that in early instruction, the -effort of the teacher should be limited to the keeping of evil -impressions from the childish imagination, and that instruction -in the truths of religion should be held in abeyance.</p> - -<p>We shall discover in the <cite>Émile</cite> all these ideas in outline -revived and developed with the power and with the brilliancy -of genius, sometimes transformed into boisterous paradoxes, -but sometimes, also, transformed into solid and lasting -truths.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">306. <span class="smcap">Publication of the Émile (1762).</span>—Rousseau has -made striking statements of nearly all the problems of education, -and he has sometimes resolved them with wisdom, -and always with originality.</p> - -<p>Appearing in 1762, at the moment when the Parliament -was excluding the Jesuits from France, the <cite>Émile</cite> came at -the right moment in that grand overthrow of routine and -tradition to disclose new hopes to humanity, and to announce -the advent of philosophic reason in the art of educating men. -But Rousseau, in writing his book, did not think of the -Jesuits, of whom he scarcely speaks; he wrote, not for the -man of the present, but for the future of humanity; he composed -a book endowed with endless vitality, half romance, -half essay, the grandest monument of human thought on the -subject of education. The <cite>Émile</cite>, in fact, is not a work of -ephemeral polemics, nor simply a practical manual of pedagogy, -but is a general system of education, a treatise on -psychology and moral training, a profound analysis of human -nature.</p> - - -<p class="p1">307. <span class="smcap">Was Rousseau prepared to become a Teacher?</span>—Before -entering upon the study of the <cite>Émile</cite>, it is well to -inquire how the author had been prepared by his character -and by his mode of life to become a teacher. The history of -French literature offers nothing more extraordinary than the -life of Jean Jacques Rousseau. Everything is strange in the -destiny of that unfortunate great man. Rousseau committed -great faults, especially in his youth; but at other -moments of his life he is almost a sage, a hero of private -virtues and civic courage. He traversed all adventures and -all trades. Workman, servant, charlatan, preceptor, all in -turn; he lodged in garrets at a sou, and experienced days -when he complained that bread was too dear. Through all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span> -these miseries and these humiliations a soul was in process -of formation made up, above all else, of sensibility and -imagination.</p> - -<p>Rousseau’s sensibility was extreme. The child who, -unjustly treated, experienced one of those violent fits of -passion which he has so well described in his <cite>Confessions</cite>, -and who writhed a whole night in his bed, crying “<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Carnifex, -carnifex!</i>” was surely not an ordinary child. “I had no -idea of things, but all varieties of feeling were already -known to me. I had conceived nothing; I had felt everything.” -Even a mediocre representation of <cite>Alzire</cite> made him -beside himself, and he refused witnessing the play of tragedies -for fear of becoming ill.</p> - -<p>The sentiment of nature early inspired him with a passion -which was not to be quenched. His philosophic optimism -and his faith in providence were never forgotten. Other -pure and generous emotions filled his soul. The study of -Plutarch had inspired him with a taste for republican virtues -and with an enthusiasm for liberty. Falsehood caused him -a veritable horror. He had the feeling of equity in a high -degree. Later, to the hatred of injustice there was joined in -his heart an implacable resentment against the oppressors of -the people. He had doubtless received the first germ of this -hate when, making the journey afoot from Paris to Lyons, -he entered the cabin of a poor peasant, and there found, as -in a picture, the affecting summary of the miseries of the -people.</p> - -<p>At the same time he was an insatiable reader. He nourished -himself on the poets, historians, and philosophers of -antiquity, and he studied the mathematics and astronomy. -As some one has said, “That life of reading and toil, interrupted -by so many romantic incidents and adventurous -undertakings, had vivified his imagination as a regular course<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> -of study in the College of Plessis could not possibly have -done.”</p> - -<p>It is in this way that his literary genius was formed, and, -in due order, his genius for pedagogy. We need not seek in -the life of Rousseau any direct preparation for the composition -of the <cite>Émile</cite>. It is true that for a time he had been -preceptor, in 1739, in the family of Mably, but he soon -resigned duties in which he was not successful. A little -essay which he composed in 1740<a name="FNanchor_174_174" id="FNanchor_174_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_174_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a> does not yet give proof -of any great originality. On the other hand, if he loved to -observe children, he observed, alas, only the children of -others. There is nothing sadder than that page of the <cite>Confessions</cite> -in which he relates how he often placed himself at the -window to observe the dismission of school, in order to listen -to the conversations of children as a furtive and unseen -observer!</p> - -<p>The <cite>Émile</cite> is thus less the result of a patient induction and -of a real experience than a work of inspiration or a brilliant -improvisation of genius.</p> - - -<p class="p1">308. <span class="smcap">General Principles of the Émile.</span>—A certain -number of general principles run through the entire work, and -give it a systematic form and a positive character.</p> - -<p>The first of these is the idea of the innocence and of the -perfect goodness of the child. The <cite>Émile</cite> opens with this -solemn declaration:—</p> - -<p>“Everything is good as it comes from the hands of the -Author of nature; everything degenerates in the hands of -man.” And in another place, “Let us assume as an incontestable -maxim that the first movements of nature are always -right; there is no original perversity in the human heart.”</p> - -<p>Without doubt Rousseau was right in opposing the pessimism<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> -of those who see in the child a being thoroughly wicked -and degraded before birth; he is deceived in turn when he -affirms that there is no germ of evil in human nature.</p> - -<p>Society is wicked and corrupt, he says, and it is from -society that all the evil comes; it is from its pernicious -influence that the soul of the child must be preserved! But, -we reply, how did society itself happen to be spoiled and -vitiated? It is nothing but a collection of men; and if the -individuals are innocent, how can the aggregate of individuals -be wicked and perverse? But let the contradictions of -Rousseau pass; the important thing to note is that from his -optimism are derived the essential characteristics of the -education which he devises for Émile. This education will -be at once natural and negative:—</p> - -<p>“Émile,” says Gréard, “is a child of nature, brought up -by nature, according to the rules of nature, for the satisfaction -of the needs of nature. This sophism is not merely inscribed -at random on the frontispiece of the book, but is its -very soul; and it is by reason of this sophistry that, separated -from the body of reflections and maxims that give it so -powerful an interest, Rousseau’s plan of education is but a -dangerous chimera.”</p> - -<p>Everything that society has established, Rousseau condemns -in a lump as fictitious and artificial. Conventional -usages he despises; and he places Émile at the school of -nature, and brings him up almost like a savage.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, the education of Émile is negative, at -least till his twelfth year; that is, Rousseau lets nature have -her way till then. For those who think nature evil, education -ought to be a work of compression and of repression. -But nature is good; and so education consists simply in letting -her have free course. To guard the child from the shock -of opinions, to form betimes a defence about his soul, to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span> -assure against every exterior influence the free development -of his faculties—such is the end that he proposes to himself.</p> - -<p>Another general principle of the <cite>Émile</cite>, another truth -which Rousseau’s spirit of paradox quickly transforms into -error, is the idea of the distinction of ages:—</p> - -<p>“Each age, each state of life, has its proper perfection, -and a sort of maturity which is its own. We have often -heard of a man grown; but let us think of a child grown. -That sight will be newer to us, and perhaps not less agreeable.”</p> - -<p>“We do not know infancy. With the false ideas we have, -the further we go, the more we are astray. The most learned -give their attention to that which it is important for men to -know without considering what children are in a condition to -comprehend. They always look for the man in the child, -without thinking of what he was before he became a man.”</p> - -<p>“Everything is right so far, and from these observations -there proceeds a progressive education, exactly conforming -in its successive requirements to the progress of the faculties. -But Rousseau does not stop in his course, and he goes beyond -progressive education to recommend an education in -fragments, so to speak, which isolates the faculties in order -to develop them one after another, which establishes an absolute -line of demarkation between the different ages, and -which ends in distinguishing three stages of progress in the -soul. Rousseau’s error on this point is in forgetting that -the education of the child ought to prepare for the education -of the young man. Instead of considering the different ages -as the several rings of one and the same chain, he separates -them sharply from one another. He does not admit that -marvellous unity of the human soul, which seems so strong in -man only because God has, so to speak, woven its bands into -the child and there fastened them.” (Gréard).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">309. <span class="smcap">Romantic Character of the Émile.</span>—A final observation -is necessary before entering into an analysis of the -<cite>Émile</cite>; it is that in this, as in his other works, Rousseau is -not averse to affecting singularities, and with deliberation -and effrontery to break with received opinions. Doubtless we -should not go so far as to say with certain critics that the -<cite>Émile</cite> is rather the feat of a wit than the serious expression -of a grave and serious thought; but what it is impossible -not to grant is that which Rousseau himself admits in his -preface: “One will believe that he is reading, not so much -a book on education as the reveries of a visionary.” Émile, -in fact, is an imaginary being whom Rousseau places in strange -conditions. He does not give him parents, but has him -brought up by a preceptor in the country, far from all society. -Émile is a character in a romance rather than a real man.</p> - - -<p class="p1">310. <span class="smcap">Division of the Work.</span>—Without doubt, there -are in the <cite>Émile</cite> long passages and digressions that make the -reading of it more agreeable and its analysis more difficult. -But, notwithstanding all this, the author confines himself to -a methodical plan, at least to a chronological order. The -different ages of Émile serve as a principle for the division -of the work. The first two books treat especially of the infant -and of the earliest period of life up to the age of twelve. -The only question here discussed is the education of the body -and the exercise of the senses. The third book corresponds -to the period of intellectual education, from the twelfth to -the fifteenth year. In the fourth book, Rousseau studies -moral education, from the fifteenth to the twentieth year.</p> - -<p>Finally, the fifth book, in which the romantic spirit is still -rampant, is devoted to the education of woman.</p> - - -<p class="p1">311. <span class="smcap">The First Two Books of the Émile.</span>—It would be -useless to search this first part of the <cite>Émile</cite> for precepts rela<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span>tive -to the education of the mind and the heart. Rousseau -has purposely eliminated from the first twelve years of the -child’s life everything which concerns instruction and moral -discipline. At the age of twelve, Émile will know how to -run, jump, and judge of distances; but he will be perfectly -ignorant. The idea would be that he has studied nothing at -all, and “that he has not learned to distinguish his right -hand from his left.”</p> - -<p>The exclusive characteristic of Émile’s education, during -this first period, is, then, the preoccupation with physical -development and with the training of the senses.</p> - -<p>Out of many errors, we shall see displayed some admirable -flashes of good sense, and grand truths inspired by the principle -of nature.</p> - - -<p class="p1">312. <span class="smcap">Let Nature have her Way.</span>—What does nature -demand? She demands that the child have liberty of movement, -and that nothing interfere with the nascent activities -of his limbs. What do we do, on the contrary? We put -him in swaddling clothes; we imprison him. He is deformed -by his over-tight garments,—the first chains that are imposed -on a being who is destined to have so many others to bear! -On this subject, the bad humor of Rousseau does not tire. -He is prodigal in outbreaks of spirit, often witty, and sometimes -ridiculous.</p> - -<p>“It seems,” he says, “as though we fear that the child -may appear to be alive.” “Man is born, lives, and dies, in a -state of slavery; at his birth he is stitched into swaddling-clothes; -at his death he is nailed in his coffin; and as long -as he preserves the human form he is held captive by our -institutions.”</p> - -<p>We shall not dwell on these extravagances of language -which transforms a coffin and a child’s long-clothes into <cite>institutions</cite>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span> -The protests of Rousseau have contributed towards -a reformation of usages; but, even on this point, with his -great principle that everything must be referred to nature, -because whatever nature does she does well, the author of -<cite>Émile</cite> is on the point of going astray. No more for the -body than for the mind is nature sufficient in herself; she -must have help and watchful assistance. Strong supports -are needed to prevent too active movements and dangerous -strains of the body; just as, later on, there will be needed a -vigorous moral authority to moderate and curb the passions -of the soul.</p> - - -<p class="p1">313. <span class="smcap">The Mother to nurse her own Children.</span>—But -there is another point where it has become trite to praise -Rousseau, and where his teaching should be accepted without -reserve. This is when he strongly protests against the use -of hired nurses, and when he eloquently summons mothers -to the duties of nursing their own children. Where there is -no mother, there is no child, says Rousseau, and he adds, -where there is no mother, there is no family! “Would you -recall each one to his first duties? Begin with the mothers. -You will be astonished at the changes you will produce!” -It would be to fall into platitudes to set forth, after Rousseau, -and after so many others, the reasons which recommend -nursing by the mother. We merely observe that -Rousseau insists on this, especially on moral grounds. It is -not merely the health of the child; it is the virtue and the -morality of the family; it is the dignity of the home, that he -wishes to defend and preserve. And, in fact, how many -other duties are provided for and made easier by the performance -of a primal duty.</p> - - -<p class="p1">314. <span class="smcap">Hardening of the Body.</span>—So far, the lessons of -nature have instructed Rousseau. He is still right when he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span> -wishes Émile to grow hardy, to become inured to privations, -to become accustomed at an early hour to pain, and to -learn how to suffer; but from being a stoic, Rousseau soon -becomes a cynic. Contempt for pain gives place to a contempt -for proprieties. Émile shall be a barefoot, like Diogenes. -Locke gives his pupil thin shoes; Rousseau, surpassing -him, completely abolishes shoes. He would also like to -suppress all the inventions of civilization. Thus Émile, -accustomed to walk in the dark, will do without candles. -“I would rather have Émile with eyes at the ends of his -fingers than in the shop of a candle-maker.” All this tempts -us to laugh; but here are graver errors. Rousseau objects -to vaccination, and proscribes medicine. Émile is forehanded. -He is in duty bound to be well. A physician will -be summoned only when he is in danger of death. Again, -Rousseau forbids the washing of the new-born child in wine, -because wine is a fermented liquor, and nature produces -nothing that is fermented. And so there must be no playthings -made by the hand of man. A twig of a tree or a -poppy-head will suffice. Rousseau, as we see, by reason of -his wish to make of his pupil a man of nature, brings him -into singular likeness with the wild man, and assimilates -him almost to the brute.</p> - - -<p class="p1">315. <span class="smcap">Negative Education.</span>—It is evident that the first -period of life is that in which the use of negative education -is both the least dangerous and the most acceptable. Ordinarily, -Émile’s preceptor will be but the inactive witness, -the passive spectator of the work done by nature. Had -Rousseau gone to the full length of his system, he ought to -have abolished the preceptor himself, in order to allow the -child to make his way all alone. But if the preceptor is -tolerated, it is not to act directly on Émile, it is not to per<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span>form -the duties of a professor, in teaching him what it is -important for a child to know; but it is simply to put him in -the way of the discoveries which he ought to make for himself -in the wide domain of nature, and to arrange and to combine, -artificially and laboriously, those complicated scenes which -are intended to replace the lessons of ordinary education. -Such, for example, is the scene of the juggler, where Émile -is to acquire at the same time notions on physics and on -ethics. Such, again, is the conversation with the gardener, -Robert, who reveals to him the idea of property. The preceptor -is no longer a teacher, but a mechanic. The true -educator is nature, but nature prepared and skillfully adjusted -to serve the ends that we propose to attain. Rousseau -admits only the teaching of things:—</p> - -<p>“Do not give your pupil any kind of verbal lesson; he -should receive none save from experience.” “The most -important, the most useful rule in all education, is not to -gain time, but to lose it.”</p> - -<p>The preceptor will interfere at most only by a few timid -and guarded words, to aid the child in interpreting the lessons -of nature. “State questions within his comprehension, -and leave him to resolve them for himself. Let him not -know anything because you have told it to him, but because -he has comprehended it for himself.”</p> - -<p>“For the body as for the mind, the child must be left to -himself.”</p> - -<p>“Let him run, and frolic, and fall a hundred times a day. -So much the better; for he will learn from this the sooner to -help himself up. The welfare of liberty atones for many -bruises.”</p> - -<p>In his horror for what he calls “the teaching and pedantic -mania,” Rousseau goes so far as to proscribe an education -in habits:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span></p> - -<p>“The only habit that a child should be allowed to form -is to contract no habit.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">316. <span class="smcap">The Child’s Right to Happiness.</span>—Rousseau did -not tire of demanding that we should respect the infancy that -is in the child, and take into account his tastes and his aptitudes. -With what eloquence he claims for him the right of -being happy!</p> - -<p>“Love childhood. Encourage its sports, its pleasures, and -its instinct for happiness. Who of you has not sometimes -regretted that period when a laugh was always on the lips, -and the soul always in peace? Why will you deny those -little innocents the enjoyment of that brief period which is so -soon to escape them, and of that precious good which they -cannot abuse? Why will you fill with bitterness and sorrow -those first years so quickly passing which will no more return -to them than they can return to you? Fathers, do you -know the moment when death awaits your children? Do -not lay up for yourselves regrets by depriving them of the -few moments that nature gives them. As soon as they can -feel the pleasure of existence, try to have them enjoy it, and -act in such a way that at whatever hour God summons them -they may not die without having tasted the sweetness of -living.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">317. <span class="smcap">Proscription of Intellectual Exercises.</span>—Rousseau -rejects from the education of Émile all the intellectual -exercises ordinarily employed. He proscribes history on the -pretext that Émile cannot comprehend the relations of events. -He takes as an example the disgust of a child who had been -told the anecdote of Alexander and his physician:—</p> - -<p>“I found that he had an unusual admiration for the courage, -so much lauded, of Alexander. But do you know in -what he saw that courage? Simply in the fact that he -swallowed a drink that had a bad taste.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span></p> - -<p>And from this Rousseau concludes that the child’s intelligence -is not sufficiently open to comprehend history, and that -he ought not to learn it. The paradox is evident. Because -Émile is sometimes exposed to the danger of falling into -errors of judgment, must he be denied the opportunity of -judging? Similarly, Rousseau does not permit the study of -the languages. Up to the age of twelve, Émile shall know -but one language, because, till then, incapable of judging and -comprehending, he cannot make the comparison between -other languages and his own. Later, from twelve to fifteen, -Rousseau will find still other reasons for excluding the study -of the ancient languages. And it is not only history and the -languages; it is literature in general from which Émile is -excluded by Rousseau. No book shall be put into his hands, -not even the <cite>Fables</cite> of La Fontaine. It is well known with -what resolution Rousseau criticises <cite>The Crow and the Fox</cite>.</p> - - -<p class="p1">318. <span class="smcap">Education of the Senses.</span>—The grand preoccupation -of Rousseau is the exercise and development of the -senses of his pupil. The whole theory of object lessons, and -even all the exaggerations of what is now called the intuitive -method, are contained in germ in the <cite>Émile</cite>:—</p> - -<p>“The first faculties which are formed and perfected in us -are the senses. These, then, are the first which should be -cultivated; but these are the very ones that we forget or that -we neglect the most.”</p> - -<p>Rousseau does not consider the senses as wholly formed -by nature; but he makes a special search for the means of -forming them and of perfecting them through education.</p> - -<p>“To call into exercise the senses, is, so to speak, to learn -to feel; for we can neither touch, nor see, nor hear, except as -we have been taught.”</p> - -<p>Only, Rousseau is wrong in sacrificing everything to this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span> -education of the senses. He sharply criticises this favorite -maxim of Locke, “We must reason with children.” Rousseau -retards the education of the judgment and the reason, -and declares that “he would as soon require that a child be -five feet high as that he reason at the age of eight.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">319. <span class="smcap">The Third Book of the Émile.</span>—From the twelfth -to the fifteenth year is the length of time that Rousseau has -devoted to study and to intellectual development proper. It -is necessary that the robust animal, “the roe-buck,” as he -calls Émile, after a negative and temporizing education of -twelve years, become in three years an enlightened intelligence. -As the period is short, Rousseau disposes of the time -for instruction with a miser’s hand. Moreover, Émile is very -poorly prepared for the rapid studies which are to be imposed -on him. Not having acquired in his earlier years the -habit of thinking, having lived a purely physical existence, he -will have great difficulty in bringing to life, within a few -months, his intellectual faculties.</p> - -<p>But without dwelling on the unfavorable conditions of -Émile’s intellectual education, let us see in what it will -consist.</p> - - -<p class="p1">320. <span class="smcap">Choice in the Things to be taught.</span>—The principle -which guides Rousseau in the choice of Émile’s studies -is no other than the principle of utility:—</p> - -<p>“There is a choice in the things which ought to be taught as -well as in the time fit for learning them. Of the knowledges -within our reach, some are false, others are useless, and still -others serve to nourish the pride of him who has them. Only -the small number of those which really contribute to our good -are worthy the care of a wise man, and consequently of a -child whom we wish to render such. It is not a question of -knowing what is, but only what is useful.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">321. <span class="smcap">Rousseau and the Abbé de Saint Pierre.</span>—Among -educators, some wish to teach everything, while others demand -a choice, and would retain only what is necessary. -The Abbé de Saint Pierre follows the first tendency. He -would have the scholar learn everything at college; a little -medicine towards the seventh or eighth year, and in the -other classes, arithmetic and blazonry, jurisprudence, German, -Italian, dancing, declamation, politics, ethics, astronomy, -anatomy, chemistry, without counting drawing and the -violin, and twenty other things besides. Rousseau is wiser. -He is dismayed at such an accumulation, at such an obstruction -of studies, and so yields too much to the opposite tendency, -and restricts beyond measure the list of necessary -studies.</p> - - -<p class="p1">322. <span class="smcap">Émile’s Studies.</span>—These, in fact, are the studies to -which Émile is limited: first, the physical sciences, and, at -the head of the list, astronomy, then geography, geography -taught without maps and by means of travel:—</p> - -<p>“You are looking for globes, spheres, maps. What -machines! Why all these representations? Why not begin -by showing him the object itself?”</p> - -<p>Here, as in other places, Rousseau prefers what would be -best, but what is impossible, to that which is worth less, but -which alone is practicable.</p> - -<p>But Rousseau does not wish that his pupil, like the pupil of -Rabelais, become an “abyss of knowledge.”</p> - -<p>“When I see a man, enamored of knowledge, allow himself -to yield to its charms, and run from one kind to another -without knowing where to stop, I think I see a child on the -sea-shore collecting shells, beginning by loading himself with -them; then, tempted by those he still sees, throwing them -aside, picking them up, until, weighed down by their number,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span> -and no longer knowing which to choose, he ends by rejecting -everything, and returns empty-handed.”</p> - -<p>No account is made of grammar and the ancient languages -in the plan of Émile’s studies. Graver still, history is proscribed. -This rejection of historical studies, moreover, is -systematically done. Rousseau has placed Émile in the -country, and has made him an orphan, the better to isolate -him; to teach him history would be to throw him back into -society that he abominates.</p> - - -<p class="p1">323. <span class="smcap">No Books save Robinson Crusoe.</span>—One of the consequences -of an education that is natural and negative is the -suppression of books. Always going to extremes, Rousseau -is not content to criticise the abuse of books. He determines -that up to his fifth year Émile shall not know what a -book is:—</p> - -<p>“I hate books,” he exclaims; “they teach us merely to -speak of things that we do not know.”</p> - -<p>Besides the fact that this raving is rather ridiculous in the -case of a man who is a writer by profession, it is evident that -Rousseau is roving at random when he condemns the use of -books in instruction.</p> - -<p>One book, however, one single book, has found favor in -his sight. <cite>Robinson Crusoe</cite> will constitute by itself for a long -time the whole of Émile’s library. We understand without -difficulty Rousseau’s kindly feeling for a work which, under -the form of a romance, is, like the <cite>Émile</cite>, a treatise on natural -education. Émile and Robinson strongly resemble each -other, since they are self-sufficient and dispense with -society.</p> - - -<p class="p1">324. <span class="smcap">Excellent Precepts on Method.</span>—At least in the -general method which he commends, Rousseau makes amends -for the errors in his plan of study:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span></p> - -<p>“Do not treat the child to discourses which he cannot -understand. No descriptions, no eloquence, no figures of -speech. Be content to present to him appropriate objects. -Let us transform our sensations into ideas. But let us not -jump at once from sensible objects to intellectual objects. -Let us always proceed slowly from one sensible notion to -another. In general, let us never substitute the sign for the -thing, except when it is impossible for us to show the -thing.”</p> - -<p>“I have no love whatever for explanations and talk. -Things! things! I shall never tire of saying that we ascribe -too much importance to words. With our babbling education -we make only babblers.”</p> - -<p>But the whole would bear quoting. Almost all of Rousseau’s -recommendations, in the way of method, contain an -element of truth, and need only to be modified in order to -become excellent.</p> - - -<p class="p1">325. <span class="smcap">Exclusive Motives of Action.</span>—A great question -in the education of children is to know to what motive we -shall address ourselves. Here again, Rousseau is exclusive -and absolute. Up to the age of twelve, Émile will have -been guided by necessity; he will have been made dependent -on things, not on men. It is through the possible and -the impossible that he will have been conducted, by treating -him, not as a sensible and intelligent being, but as a force of -nature against which other forces are made to act. Not till -the age of twelve must this system be changed. Émile has -now acquired some judgment; and it is upon an intellectual -motive that one ought now to count in regulating his conduct. -This motive is utility. The feeling of emulation cannot -be employed in a solitary education. Finally, at the -age of fifteen, it will be possible to appeal to the heart, to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span> -feeling, and to recommend to the young man the acts we set -before him, no longer as necessary or useful, but as noble, -good, and generous. The error of Rousseau is in cutting -up the life of man to his twentieth year into three sharply -defined parts, into three moments, each subordinated to a -single governing principle. The truth is that at every age -an appeal must be made to all the motives that act on our -will, that at every age, necessity, interest, sentiment, and -finally, the idea of duty, an idea too often overlooked by -Rousseau, as all else that is derived from reason,—all these -motives can effectively intervene, in different degrees, in the -education of man.</p> - - -<p class="p1">326. <span class="smcap">Émile learns a Trade.</span>—At the age of fifteen, -Émile will know nothing of history, nothing of humanity, -nothing of art and literature, nothing of God; but he will -know a trade, a manual trade. By this means, he will be -sheltered from need in advance, in case a revolution should -strip him of his fortune.</p> - -<p>“We are approaching,” says Rousseau, with an astonishing -perspicacity, “a century of revolutions. Who can give -you assurance of what will then become of you? I hold it -to be impossible for the great monarchies of Europe to last -much longer. They have all had their day of glory, and -every State that dazzles is in its decline.”</p> - -<p>We have previously noticed, in studying analogous ideas in -the case of Locke, for what other reasons Rousseau made of -Émile an apprentice to a cabinet-maker or a carpenter.</p> - - -<p class="p1">327. <span class="smcap">Émile at the Age of Fifteen.</span>—Rousseau takes -comfort in the contemplation of his work, and he pauses -from time to time in his analyses and deductions, to trace -the portrait of his pupil. This is how he represents him at -the age of fifteen:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span></p> - -<p>“Émile has but little knowledge, but that which he has is -really his own; he knows nothing by halves. In the small -number of things that he knows, and knows well, the most -important is that there are many things which he does not -know, but which he can some day learn; that there are many -more things which other men know, but which he will never -know; and that there is an infinity of other things which no -man will ever know. He has a universal mind, not through -actual knowledge, but through the ability to acquire it. He -has a mind that is open, intelligent, prepared for everything, -and, as Montaigne says, if not instructed, at least capable -of being instructed. It is sufficient for me that he knows -how to find the <em>of what good is it?</em> with reference to all that -he does, and the <em>why?</em> of all that he believes. Once more, -my object is not at all to give him knowledge, but to teach -him how to acquire it as he may need it, to make him estimate -it at its exact worth, and to make him love truth above -everything else. With this method, progress is slow; but -there are no false steps, and no danger of being obliged to -retrace one’s course.”</p> - -<p>All this is well; but it is necessary to add that even Émile -has faults, great faults. To mention but one of them, but -one which dominates all the others, he sees things only from -the point of view of utility, and he would not hesitate, for -example, “to give the Academy of Sciences for the smallest -bit of pastry.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">328. <span class="smcap">Education of the Sensibilities.</span>—It is true that -Rousseau finally decides to make of Émile an affectionate -and reasonable being. “We have formed,” he says, “his -body, his senses, his judgment; it remains to give him a -heart.” Rousseau, who proceeds like a magician, by wave of -wand and clever tricks, flatters himself that within a day’s<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span> -time Émile is going to become the most affectionate, the -most moral, and the most religious of men.</p> - - -<p class="p1">329. <span class="smcap">The Fourth Book of the Émile.</span>—The development -of the affectionate sentiments, the culture of the moral -sentiment, and that of the religious sentiment, such is the -triple subject of the fourth book,—vast and exalted questions -that lend themselves to eloquence in such a way that the -fourth book of the <cite>Émile</cite> is perhaps the most brilliant of the -whole work.</p> - - -<p class="p1">330. <span class="smcap">Genesis of the Affectionate Sentiments.</span>—Here -Rousseau is wholly in the land of chimeras. Émile, who -lives in isolation, who has neither family, friends, nor companions, -is necessarily condemned to selfishness, and everything -Rousseau can do to warm his heart will be useless. -Do we wish to develop the feelings of tenderness and affection? -Let us begin by placing the child under family or -social influences which alone can furnish his affections the -occasion for development. For fifteen years Rousseau leaves -the heart of Émile unoccupied. What an illusion to think -he will be able to fill it all at once! When we suppress the -mother in the education of a child, all the means that we can -invent to excite in his soul emotions of gentleness and -affection are but palliatives. Rousseau made the mistake of -thinking that a child can be taught to love as he is taught to -read and write, and that lessons could be given to Émile in -feeling just as lessons are given to him in geometry.</p> - - -<p class="p1">331. <span class="smcap">Moral Education.</span>—Rousseau is more worthy of -being followed when he demands that the moral notions of -right and wrong have their first source in the feelings of sympathy -and social benevolence, on the supposition that according -to his system he can inspire Émile with such feelings.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span></p> - -<p>“We enter, finally, the domain of morals,” he says. “If -this were the place for it, I would show how from the first -emotions of the heart arise the first utterances of the conscience, -and how, from the first feelings of love and hate -arise the first notions of good and evil. I would make it -appear that <em>justice</em> and <em>goodness</em> are not merely abstract -terms, conceived by the understanding, but real affections -of the soul enlightened by the reason.”</p> - -<p>Yes; let the child be made to make his way gradually -towards a severe morality, sanctioned by the reason, in -having him pass through the gentle emotions of the heart. -Nothing can be better. But this is to be done on one condition: -this is, that we shall not stop on the way, and that the -vague inspirations of the sensibilities shall be succeeded by -the exact prescriptions of the reason. Now Rousseau, as -we know, was never willing to admit that virtue was anything -else than an affair of the heart. His ethics is wholly an -ethics of sentiment.</p> - - -<p class="p1">332. <span class="smcap">Religious Education.</span>—We know the reasons which -determined Rousseau to delay till the sixteenth or eighteenth -year the revelation of religion. It is that the child, with his -sensitive imagination, is necessarily an idolater. If we -speak to him of God, he can form but a superstitious idea of -him. “Now,” says Rousseau, pithily, “when the imagination -has once seen God, it is very rare that the understanding -conceives him.” In other terms, once plunged in superstition, -the mind of the child can never extricate itself from it. -We must then wait, in the interest of religion itself, till the -child have sufficient maturity of reason and sufficient power -of thought to seize in its truth, divested of every veil of -sense, the idea of God, whose existence is announced to him -for the first time.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span></p> - -<p>It is difficult to justify Rousseau. First, is it not to be -feared that the child, if he has reached his eighteenth year in -ignorance of God, may find it wholly natural to be ignorant -of him still, and that he reason and dispute at random with -his teacher, and that he doubt instead of believe? And if -he allows himself to be convinced, is it not at least evident -that the religious idea, tardily inculcated, will have no profound -hold on his mind? On the other hand, will the child, -with his instinctive curiosity, wait till his eighteenth year to -inquire the cause of the universe? Will he not form the -notion of a God in his own way?</p> - -<p>“One might have read, a few years ago,” says Villemain, -“the account, or rather the psychological confession, of a -writer (Sentenis), a German philosopher, whom his father -had submitted to the experiment advised by the author of -<cite>Émile</cite>. Left alone by the loss of a tenderly loved wife, this -father, a learned and thoughtful man, had taken his infant -son to a retired place in the country; and not allowing him -communication with any one, he had cultivated the child’s -intelligence through the sight of the natural objects placed -near him, and by the study of the languages, almost without -books, and in carefully concealing from him all idea of God. -The child had reached his tenth year without having either -read or heard that great name. But then his mind found -what had been denied it. The sun which he saw rise each -morning seemed the all-powerful benefactor of whom he felt -the need. He soon formed the habit of going at dawn to the -garden to pay homage to that god that he had made for -himself. His father surprised him one day, and showed him -his error by teaching him that all the fixed stars are so many -suns distributed in space. But such was then the disappointment -and the grief of the child deprived of his worship,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span> -that the father, overcome, acknowledged to him that there -was a God, the Creator of the heavens and the earth.”<a name="FNanchor_175_175" id="FNanchor_175_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">333. <span class="smcap">The Savoyard Vicar’s Profession of Faith.</span>—Rousseau -has at least attempted to retrieve, by stately language -and an impassioned demonstration of the existence of -God, the delay which he has spontaneously imposed on his -pupil.</p> - -<p>The <cite>Savoyard Vicar’s Profession of Faith</cite> is an eloquent -catechism on natural religion, and the honest expression of a -sincere and profound deism. The religion of nature is evidently -the only one which, in Rousseau’s system, can be -taught, and ought to be taught, to the child, since the child is -exactly the pupil of nature. If Émile wishes to go beyond -this, if he needs a positive religion, this shall be for himself -to choose.</p> - - -<p class="p1">334. <span class="smcap">Sophie and the Education of Women.</span>—The weakest -part of the <cite>Émile</cite> is that which treats of the education of -woman. This is not merely because Rousseau, with his -decided leaning towards the romantic, leads Émile and his -companion into odd and extraordinary adventures, but it is -especially because he misconceives the proper dignity of -woman. Sophie, the perfect woman, has been educated only -to complete the happiness of Émile. Her education is wholly -relative to her destiny as a wife.</p> - -<p>“The whole education of women should be relative to men; -to please them, to be useful to them, to make themselves -honored and loved by them, to educate the young, to care for -the older, to advise them, to console them, to make life agreeable -and sweet to them,—these are the duties of women in -every age.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span></p> - -<p>“Sophie,” says Gréard, “has but virtues of the second -order, virtues of conjugal education.” It has been said that -marriage is a second birth for man, that he rises or falls -according to the choice which he makes. For woman, according -to the theory of Rousseau, it is the true advent into -life. According to the expressive formula of Michelet, who, -in a sentence, has given a marvellous summary of the doctrine, -but in attaching to it a sense which poetizes it, “the -husband creates the wife.” Sophie, up to the day of her -marriage, did not exist. She had learned nothing and read -nothing “except a <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Barême</cite> and a <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Télémaque</cite> which have -chanced to fall into her hands.” She has been definitely -admonished, “that were men sensible, every lettered girl -will remain a girl.” It is Émile alone who is to instruct her, -and he will instruct her and mould her into his own ideal, -and in conformity to his individual interest.</p> - -<p>While it was only in his youth that he received the first -principles of the religious feeling, Sophie must be penetrated -with it from infancy, in order that she may early form the -habit of submission. He commands and she obeys, the first -duty of the wife being meekness. If, during her youth, she -has freely attended banquets, amusements, balls, the theatre, -it is not so much to be initiated into the vain pleasures of -the world, under the tutelage of a vigilant mother, as to belong, -once married, more fully to her home and to her -husband. She is nothing except as she is by his side, or as -dependent on him, or as acting through him. Strange and -brutal paradox, which Rousseau, it is true, corrects and -repairs in detail, at every moment by the most happy and -charming inconsistencies.</p> - -<p>Sophie, briefly, is an incomplete person whom Rousseau is -not careful enough to educate for herself.</p> - -<p>In her subordinate and inferior position, the cares of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span> -household occupy the largest place. She cuts and makes -her own dresses:—</p> - -<p>“What Sophie knows best, and what was taught her with -most care, is the work of her sex. There is no needle-work -which she does not know how to make.”</p> - -<p>It is not forbidden her, but is even recommended that she -introduce a certain coquetry into her employments:—</p> - -<p>“The work she loves the best is lace-making, because -there is no other that gives her a more agreeable attitude, -and in which the fingers are used with more grace and -deftness.”</p> - -<p>She carries daintiness a little too far:—</p> - -<p>“She does not love cooking; its details have some disgust -for her. She would sooner let the whole dinner go into the -fire than to soil her cuffs.”</p> - -<p>Truly this is fine housewifery! We feel that we have here -to do with a character in a romance who has no need to dine. -Sophie would not have been well received at Saint Cyr, where -Madame de Maintenon so severely scolded the girls who were -too fastidious, “fearing smoke, dust, and disagreeable odors, -even to making complaints and grimaces on their account as -though all were lost.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">335. <span class="smcap">General Conclusion.</span>—In order to form a just estimate -of the <cite>Émile</cite>, it is necessary to put aside the impressions -left by the reading of the last pages. We must consider as -a whole, and without taking details into account, that work, -which, notwithstanding all, is very admirable and profound. -It is injured by analysis. To esteem the <cite>Émile</cite> at its real -worth, it must be read entire. In reading it, in fact, we are -warmed by contact with the passion which Rousseau puts into -whatever he writes. We pardon his errors and chimeras by -reason of the grand sentiments and the grand truths which -we meet at every step. We must also take into account the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span> -time when Rousseau lived, and the conditions under which he -wrote. We have not a doubt that had it been written thirty -years later, in the dawn of the Revolution, for a people who -were free, or who desired to be free, the <cite>Émile</cite> would have -been wholly different from what it is. Had he been working -for a republican society, or for a society that wished to become -such, Rousseau would not have thrown himself, out of -hatred for the reality, into the absurdities of an over-specialized -and exceptional education. We can judge of what -he would have done as legislator of public instruction in the -time of the Revolution, by what he wrote in his <cite>Considerations -on the Government of Poland</cite>:—</p> - -<p>“National education belongs only to people who are -free.... It is education which is to give to men the national -mould, and so to direct their opinions and their tastes that -they will become patriots by inclination, by passion, and by -necessity” (we would only add, by duty). “A child, in -opening his eyes, ought to see his country and nothing but -his country. Every true republican, along with his mother’s -milk, will imbibe love of country, that is, of law and liberty. -This love constitutes his whole existence. He sees but his -country, he lives but for her. So soon as he is alone, he is -nothing; so soon as there is no more of country, he is no -more.... While learning to read, I would have a child of -Poland read what relates to his country; at the age of ten, I -would have him know all its productions; at twelve, all its -provinces, all its roads, all its cities; at fifteen, the whole of -its history; and at sixteen, all its laws; and there should not -be in all Poland a notable deed or an illustrious man, of which -his memory and his heart were not full.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">336. <span class="smcap">Influence of the Émile.</span>—That which proves -better than any commentary can the high standing of the -<cite>Émile</cite>, is the success which it has obtained, the influence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span> -which it has exerted, both in France and abroad, and the -durable renown attested by so many works designed, either -to contradict it, to correct it, or to approve it and to disseminate -its doctrines. During the twenty-five years that -followed the publication of the <cite>Émile</cite>, there appeared in the -French language twice as many books on education as during -the first sixty years of the century. Rousseau, besides -all that he said personally which was just and new, had the -merit of stimulating minds and of preparing through his -impulsion the rich educational harvest of this last one hundred -years.</p> - -<p>To be convinced of this, it suffices to read this judgment -of Kant:—</p> - -<p>“The first impression which a reader who does not read -for vanity or for killing time derives from the writings of -Rousseau, is that this writer unites to an admirable penetration -of genius a noble inspiration and a soul full of sensibility, -such as has never been met with in any other writer, -in any other time, or in any other country. The impression -which immediately follows this, is that of astonishment -caused by the extraordinary and paradoxical thoughts which -he develops.... I ought to read and re-read Rousseau, -till the beauty of his style no more affects me. It is only -then that I can adjust my reason to judge of him.”</p> - - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>[337. <span class="smcap">Analytical Summary.</span>—1. The study of the <cite>Émile</cite> -exhibits, in a very striking manner, the contrast between the -respective agencies of art and nature in the work of education, -and also the power of sentiment as a motor to ideas.</p> - -<p>2. What Monsieur Compayré has happily called Rousseau’s -“misuse of the principle of nature” marks a recoil -against the artificial and fictitious state of society and opinion -in France in the eighteenth century. In politics, in religion, -and in philosophy, there was the domination of authority, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span> -but a small margin was left for the exercise of freedom, -versatility, and individual initiative; while education was -administered rather as a process of manufacture, than of -regulated growth.</p> - -<p>3. The conception that the child, by his very constitution, -is predetermined, like plants and animals, to a progressive -development quite independent of artificial aid, easily degenerates -into the hypothesis that the typical education is a -process of spontaneous growth.</p> - -<p>4. The error in this hypothesis is that of exaggeration or -of disproportion. Education is neither a work of nature -alone, nor of art alone, but is a natural process, supplemented, -controlled, and perfected by human art. What -education would become when abandoned wholly to “nature” -may be seen in the state of a perfected fruit which has been -allowed to revert to its primitive or natural condition.</p> - -<p>5. Man is distinguished from all other creatures by the -fact that he is not the victim of his environment, but is endowed -with the power to control his environment, almost to -re-create it, and so to rise superior to it. This ability gives -rise to human art, which is a coördinate factor with nature -in the work of education.</p> - -<p>6. This convenient fiction of “Nature,” conceived as an -infallible and incomparable guide in education, has introduced -countless errors into educational theory; and Miss E. R. -Sill is amply justified in saying that “probably nine-tenths -of the popular sophistries on the subject of education, would -be cleared away by clarifying the word Nature.”<a name="FNanchor_176_176" id="FNanchor_176_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a></p> - -<p>7. In spite of its paradoxes, its exaggerations, its overwrought -sentiment, and florid declamation, the <cite>Émile</cite>, in its -general spirit, is a work of incomparable power and of perennial -value.]</p></div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> Dom Joseph Cajet, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les Plagiats de J. J. R. de Genève sur l’éducation</cite>, -1768.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Œuvres diverses</cite>, Tome I. p. 12.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De l’éducation des enfants</cite>, La Haye, 1722; <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Pensées libres sur les instructions -publiques des bas collèges</cite>, Amsterdam, 1727.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Spectacle de la nature</cite>, Paris, 1732, Vol. VI. <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Entretien sur l’éducation</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Lettre critique sur l’éducation</cite>, Paris, 1751.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Projet pour l’éducation de M. de Ste-Marie.</cite></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_175_175" id="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> Report of Villemain on the work of the Père Girard (1844).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_176_176" id="Footnote_176_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a> <cite>Atlantic Monthly</cite>, February, 1883, p. 178.</p> -</div></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XIV.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">THE PHILOSOPHERS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.—CONDILLAC, -DIDEROT, HELVETIUS, AND KANT.</span></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>THE PHILOSOPHERS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY; CONDILLAC (1715-1780); -ABUSE OF THE PHILOSOPHIC SPIRIT; MUST WE REASON -WITH CHILDREN? PRELIMINARY LESSONS; THE ART OF THINKING; -OTHER PARTS OF THE COURSE OF STUDY; PERSONAL -REFLECTION; EXCESSES OF DEVOTION CRITICISED; DIDEROT (1713-1784); -HIS PEDAGOGICAL WORKS; HIS QUALITIES AS AN EDUCATOR; -NECESSITY OF INSTRUCTION; IDEA OF A SYSTEM OF PUBLIC -INSTRUCTION; CRITICISM OF FRENCH COLLEGES; PROPOSED REFORMS; -PREFERENCE FOR THE SCIENCES; INCOMPLETE VIEWS -ON THE PROVINCE OF LETTERS; OPINION OF MARMONTEL; OTHER -NOVELTIES OF DIDEROT’S PLAN; HELVETIUS (1715-1771); PARADOXES -OF THE TREATISE ON MAN; REFUTATION OF HELVETIUS BY -DIDEROT; INSTRUCTION SECULARIZED; THE ENCYCLOPÆDISTS; KANT -(1724-1804); HIGH CONCEPTION OF EDUCATION; PSYCHOLOGICAL OPTIMISM; -RESPECT FOR THE LIBERTY OF THE CHILD; CULTURE OF -THE FACULTIES; STORIES INTERDICTED; DIFFERENT KINDS OF -PUNISHMENT; RELIGIOUS EDUCATION; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.</p></div> - -<hr class="r15a" /> - -<p class="p1">338. <span class="smcap">The Philosophers of the Eighteenth Century.</span>—If -there has been considerable progress made in education in -the eighteenth century, it is due, in great part, to the efforts -of the philosophers of that age. It is no longer alone the -men who are actually engaged in the schools that are preoccupied -with education; but nearly all the illustrious -thinkers of the eighteenth century have discussed these great -questions with more or less thoroughness. The subject is -far from being exhausted by the study of Rousseau. Besides -the educational current set in movement by the <cite>Émile</cite>, the -other philosophers of that period, in their isolated and inde<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span>pendent -march, left original routes which it remains to follow. -From out their errors and conceptions of systems there -emerge some new outlooks and some definite truths.</p> - - -<p class="p1">339. <span class="smcap">Condillac (1715-1780).</span>—An acute and ingenious -psychologist, a competitor and rival of Locke in philosophy, -Condillac is far from having the same authority in matters -pertaining to education; but still there is profit to be derived -from the reading of his <cite>Course of Study</cite>, which includes not -less than thirteen volumes. This important work is a collection -of the lessons which he had composed for the education -of the infant Ferdinand, the grandson of Louis XV., and -heir of the dukedom of Parma, whose preceptor he became -in 1757.</p> - - -<p class="p1">340. <span class="smcap">Abuse of the Philosophic Spirit.</span>—It is certainly -a matter of congratulation that the philosophical spirit is -entering more and more largely into the theories of education, -and there would be only words of commendation for -Condillac had he restricted himself to this excellent declaration, -that pedagogy is nothing if it is not a deduction from -psychology. But he does not stop there, but with an indiscretion -that is to be regretted, he arbitrarily transports into -education certain philosophical principles which it is not -proper to apply to the art of educating men, whatever may -be their theoretical truth; thus Condillac, having established -the natural order of the development of the sciences and the -arts in the history of humanity, presumes to impose the same -law of progress upon the child.</p> - -<p>“The method which I have followed does not resemble the -usual manner of teaching; but it is the very way in which -men were led to create the arts and the sciences.”<a name="FNanchor_177_177" id="FNanchor_177_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span></p> - -<p>In other terms, the child must do over again, on his own -account, “that which the race has done.” He must be compelled -to follow, step by step, in its long gropings, the slow -progress made by the race.<a name="FNanchor_178_178" id="FNanchor_178_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a></p> - -<p>There is, doubtless, an element of truth in the error of -Condillac. The sciences and the arts began with the observation -of particulars, and thence slowly rose to general principles; -and to-day no one thinks of denying the necessity of -proceeding in the same manner in education, so far as this is -possible. It is well at the first to present facts to the child, -and to lead him step by step, from observation to observation, -to the law which governs them and includes them; but there is -a wide distance between the discreet use of the inductive and -experimental method, and the exaggerations of Condillac. -No one should seriously think of absolutely suppressing the -synthetic method of exposition, which, taking advantage of -the work accomplished through the centuries, teaches at the -outset the truths that have been already acquired. It would -be absurd to compel the child painfully to recommence the -toil of the race.<a name="FNanchor_179_179" id="FNanchor_179_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span></p> - -<p>Graver still, Condillac, led astray by his love for philosophizing, -presumes to initiate the child, from the very beginning -of his studies, into psychological analysis.</p> - -<p>“The first thing to be done is to make the child acquainted -with the faculties of his soul, and to make him feel the need -of making use of them.”</p> - -<p>In other terms, the analysis of the soul shall be the first -object proposed to the reflection of the child. It is not -proposed to make him attentive, but to teach him what -attention is.</p> - -<p>How can one seriously think of making of the child a little -psychologist, and of choosing as the first element of his education -the very science that is the most difficult of all, the -one which can be but the coronation of his studies?</p> - - -<p class="p1">341. <span class="smcap">Must we reason with Children?</span>—Rousseau had -sharply criticised the famous maxim of Locke: “We must -reason with children.” Condillac tries to restore it to credit, -and for this purpose he invokes the pretended demonstrations -of a superficial and inexact psychology.</p> - -<p>“It has been proved,” he says, “that the faculty of -reasoning begins as soon as the senses commence to develop; -and we have the early use of our senses only because -we early began to reason.” Strange assertions, which are -disproved by the most elementary observation of the facts in -the case. Condillac here allows himself to be imposed upon -by his sensational psychology, the tendency of which is to -efface the peculiar character of the different intellectual -faculties, to derive them all from the senses, and, consequently, -to suppress the distance which separates a simple -sensation from the subtile, reflective, and abstract process -which is called reasoning. It cannot be admitted for a -single instant that the faculties of the understanding are, as -he says, “the same in the child as in the mature man.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span> -There is, doubtless, in the child a beginning of reasoning, a -sort of instinctive logic; but this infantile reasoning can be -applied only to familiar objects, such as are sensible and -concrete. It were absurd to employ it on general and abstract -ideas.</p> - - -<p class="p1">342. <span class="smcap">Preliminary Lessons.</span>—We shall quote, without -comment, the first subjects of instruction which, under the -title of <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Leçons préliminaires</cite>, Condillac proposes to his -pupil: 1. the nature of ideas; 2. the operations of the -soul; 3. the habits; 4. the difference between the soul and -the body; 5. the knowledge of God.</p> - -<p>How are we to conceive that Condillac had the pretension -to place these high philosophical speculations within the -reach of a child of seven years who has not yet studied the -grammar of his native language! How much better some -fables or historical narratives would answer his purpose!</p> - -<p>But Condillac does not stop there. When his pupil has a -systematic knowledge of the operations of the soul, when -he has comprehended the genesis of ideas; in a word, when, -towards the age of eight or ten, he is as proficient in philosophy -as his master, and almost as capable of writing the -<cite>Treatise on Sensations</cite>, what do you think he is invited to -study? Something which very much resembles the philosophy -of history:—</p> - -<p>“After having made him reflect on his own infancy, I -thought that the infancy of the world would be the most -interesting subject for him, and the easiest to study.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">343. <span class="smcap">The Art of Thinking.</span>—It is only when he judges -that the mind of his pupil is sufficiently prepared by psychological -analysis and by general reflections on the progress -of humanity, that Condillac decides to have him enter upon -the ordinary course of study. Here the spirit of system dis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span>appears, -and gives place to more judicious and more practical -ideas. Thus Condillac thinks that “the study of grammar -would be more wearisome than useful if it come too -early.” Would that he had applied this principle to psychology! -Before studying grammar, then, Condillac’s pupil reads -the poets,—the French poets, of course,—and preferably -the dramatic authors, Racine especially, whom he reads for -the twelfth time. The real knowledge of the language precedes -the abstract study of the rules. Condillac himself -composed a grammar entitled the <cite>Art of Speaking</cite>. In this -he imitates the authors of Port Royal, “who,” he says, -“were the first to write elementary books on an intelligent -plan.” After the <cite>Art of Speaking</cite> he calls the attention of -his pupil to three other treatises in succession,—the <cite>Art of -Writing</cite>, or rhetoric, the <cite>Art of Reasoning</cite>, or logic, and the -<cite>Art of Thinking</cite>. We shall not attempt an analysis of these -works, which have gone out of date, notwithstanding the -value of certain portions of them. The general characteristic -of these treatises on intellectual education is that the -author is pre-occupied with the relations of ideas more than -with the exterior elegancies of style, with the development of -thought more than with the beauties of language:—</p> - -<p>“Especially must the intelligence be nourished, even as -the body is nourished. We must present to it knowledge, -which is the wholesome aliment of spirit, opinions and errors -being aliment that is poisonous. It is also necessary that -the intelligence be active, for the thought remains imbecile -as long as, passive rather than active, it moves at random.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">344. <span class="smcap">Other Parts of the Course of Study.</span>—It -seems that Condillac is in pursuit of but one single purpose,—to -make of his pupil a thinking being. The study of -Latin is postponed till the time when the intelligence, being -completely formed, will find in the study of that language<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span> -only the difficulty of learning words. Condillac has but -little taste for the study of the ancient languages. He relegates -the study of Latin to the second place, and omits -Greek entirely. But he accords a great importance to historical -studies.</p> - -<p>“After having learned to think, the Prince made the study -of history his principal object for six years.”</p> - -<p>Twelve volumes of the <cite>Course of Study</cite> have transmitted -to us Condillac’s lessons in history. In this he does not take -delight, as Rollin does, in long narrations; but he analyzes, -multiplies his reflections, and abridges facts; he philosophizes -more than he recites the facts of history.</p> - - -<p class="p1">345. <span class="smcap">Personal Reflection.</span>—What we have said of Condillac’s -<cite>Course of Study</cite> suffices to justify the judgment -expressed of his pedagogy by one of his disciples, Gérando, -when he wrote: “He who had so thoroughly studied the -manner in which ideas are formed in the human mind, had -but little skill in calling them into being in the intelligence -of his pupil.”</p> - -<p>But we would judge our author unjustly if, after the criticisms -we have made of him, we were not to accord him the -praise he deserves, especially for having comprehended, as he -has done, the value of personal reflection, and the superiority -of judgment over memory. A few quotations will rehabilitate -the pedagogy of Condillac in the minds of our readers.</p> - -<p>Above all else there must be an exercise in personal -reflection:—</p> - -<p>“I grant that the education which cultivates only the -memory may make prodigies, and that it has done so; but -these prodigies last only during the time of infancy.... -He who knows only by heart, knows nothing.... He who -has not learned to reflect has not been instructed, or, what is -still worse, has been poorly instructed.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span></p> - -<p>“True knowledge is in the reflection, which has acquired -it, much more than in the memory, which holds it in keeping; -and the things which we are capable of recovering are -better known than those of which we have a recollection. -It does not suffice, then, to give a child knowledge. It is -necessary that he instruct himself by seeking knowledge on -his own account, and the essential point is to guide him -properly. If he is led in an orderly way, he will acquire -exact ideas, and will seize their succession and relation. -Then, able to call them up for review, he will be able to -compare them with others that are more remote, and to -make a final choice of those which he wishes to study. -Reflection can always recover the things it has known, -because it knows how it originally found them; but the -memory does not so recover the things it has learned, -because it does not know how it learns.”</p> - -<p>This is why Condillac places far above the education we -receive, the education that we give ourselves:—</p> - -<p>“Henceforth, Sir, it remains for you alone to instruct -yourself. Perhaps you imagine you have finished; but it is I -who have finished. You are to begin anew!”</p> - - -<p class="p1">346. <span class="smcap">Excessive Devotion Criticised.</span>—What beautiful -lessons Condillac also addresses to his pupil to induce him to -enfranchise himself from ecclesiastical tutelage! Written -by an abbot, the eloquent page we are about to read proves -how the lay spirit tended to pronounce itself in the eighteenth -century.</p> - -<p>“You cannot be too pious, Sir; but if your piety is not -enlightened, you will so far forget your duties as to be -engrossed in the little things of devotion. Because prayer is -necessary, you will think you ought always to be praying, -not considering that true devotion consists first of all in -fulfilling the duties of your station in life: it will not be your<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span> -fault that you do not live in your heart as in a cloister. -Hypocrites will swarm around you, the monks will issue -from their cells. The priests will abandon the service of the -altar in order to be edified with the sight of your holy -works. Blind prince! you will not perceive how their conduct -is in contradiction with their language. You will not -even observe that the men who praise you for always being -at the foot of the altar, themselves forget that it is their own -duty to be there. You will unconsciously take their place -and leave to them your own. You will be continually at -prayer, and you will believe that you assure your salvation. -They will cease to pray, and you will believe that they -assure their salvation. Strange contradiction, which turns -aside ministers from the Church to give bad ministers to the -State.”<a name="FNanchor_180_180" id="FNanchor_180_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">347. <span class="smcap">Diderot (1713-1784).</span>—To him who knows nothing -of Diderot save his works of imagination, often so licentious, -it will doubtless be a surprise to see the name of this -fantastic writer inscribed in the catalogue of educators. -But this astonishment will disappear if we will take the -trouble to recollect with what versatility this mighty spirit -could vary the subject of his reflections, and pass from the -gay to the solemn, and especially with what ardor, in conjunction -with D’Alembert, he was the principal founder of -the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Encyclopédie</cite>, and the indefatigable contributor to it.</p> - - -<p class="p1">348. <span class="smcap">His Pedagogical Works.</span>—But there is no room -for doubt. Diderot has written at least two treatises that -belong to the history of education: first, about 1773, <cite>The -Systematic Refutation of the Book of Helvetius on Man</cite>, an -incisive and eloquent criticism of the paradoxes and errors -of Helvetius; and, in the second place, about 1776, a complete<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span> -scheme of education, composed at the request of Catherine -II., under the title, <cite>Plan of a University</cite>.<a name="FNanchor_181_181" id="FNanchor_181_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">349. <span class="smcap">His Merits as an Educator.</span>—Doubtless Diderot -did not have sufficient gravity of character or sufficiently -definite ideas to be a perfect educator; but, by way of compensation, -the natural and acquired qualities of his mind -made him worthy of the confidence placed in him by Catherine -II. in entrusting him with the organization, at least in -theory, of the instruction of the Russian people. First of -all, he had the merit of being a universal thinker, “sufficiently -versed in all the sciences to know their value, and -not sufficiently profound in any one to give it a preference -inspired by predilection.” Engaged in the scientific movement, -of which the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Encyclopédie</cite> was the centre, he at the -same time cherished an enthusiastic passion for letters. He -worshipped Shakespeare and modern poetry, but he was not -less enamored of classical antiquity, and for several years, -he says, “he thought it as much a religious duty to read a -song of Homer as a good priest would to recite his breviary.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">350. <span class="smcap">Necessity of Instruction.</span>—Diderot, and this is -to his praise, is distinguished from the most of his contemporaries, -and especially from Rousseau, by his ardent faith -in the moral efficacy of instruction:—</p> - -<p>“Far from corrupting,” he exclaims, “instruction sweetens -character, throws light on duty, makes vice less gross, -and either chokes it or conceals it.... I dare assert that -purity of morals has followed the progress of dress, from the -skin of animals to fabrics of silk.”</p> - -<p>Hence he decides on the necessity of instruction for all:—</p> - -<p>“From the prime minister to the lowest peasant, it is good -for every one to know how to read, write, and count.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span></p> - -<p>And he proposes to all people the example of Germany, -with her strongly organized system of primary instruction. -He demands schools open to all children, “schools of reading, -writing, arithmetic, and religion,” in which will be -studied both a moral and a political catechism. Attendance -on these schools shall be obligatory, and to make compulsion -possible, Diderot demands gratuity. He goes even -farther, and would have the child fed at school, and with his -books would have him find bread.</p> - - -<p class="p1">351. <span class="smcap">The Conception of Public Instruction.</span>—Like all -who sincerely desire a strong organization of instruction, -Diderot assigns the direction of it to the State. His ideal of -a Russian university bears a strong resemblance to the French -University of 1808. He would have at its head a politician, -a statesman, to whom should be submitted all the affairs of -public instruction. He even went so far as to entrust to -this general master of the university the duty of presiding -over the examinations, of appointing the presidents of colleges, -of excluding bad pupils, and of deposing professors -and tutors.</p> - - -<p class="p1">352. <span class="smcap">Criticism of French Colleges.</span>—Secondary instruction, -what was then called the <em>Faculty of Arts</em>, is the principal -object of Diderot’s reflections. He criticises the traditional -system with extreme severity, and his charge, thought sometimes -unjust, deserves to be quoted:—</p> - -<p>“It is in the Faculty of Arts that there are still taught -to-day, under the name of belles-lettres, two dead languages -which are of use only to a small number of citizens; it is -there that they are studied for six or seven years without -being learned; under the name of rhetoric, the art of speaking -is taught before the art of thinking, and that of speaking -elegantly before having ideas; under the name of logic, the -head is filled with the subtilties of Aristotle, and of his very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span> -sublime and very useless theory of the syllogism, and there -is spread over a hundred obscure pages what might have been -clearly stated in four; under the name of ethics, I do not -know what is said, but I know that there is not a word said -either of the qualities of mind or heart; under the name of -metaphysics, there are discussed theses as trifling as they are -knotty, the first elements of scepticism and bigotry, and the -germ of the unfortunate gift of replying to everything; under -the name of physics, there is endless dispute about the elements -of matter and the system of the world; but not a word -on natural history, not a word on real chemistry, very little -on the movement and fall of bodies; very few experiments, -less still of anatomy, and nothing of geography.”<a name="FNanchor_182_182" id="FNanchor_182_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">353. <span class="smcap">Proposed Reforms.</span>—After such a spirited criticism, -it was Diderot’s duty to propose earnest and radical reforms; -but all of those which he suggests are not equally commendable.</p> - -<p>Let us first note the idea revived in our day by Auguste -Comte and the school of positivists, of a connection and a -subordination of the sciences, classified in a certain order, -according as they presuppose the science which has preceded, -or as they facilitate the study of the science which follows, -and also according to the measure of their utility.<a name="FNanchor_183_183" id="FNanchor_183_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> It is -according to this last principle in particular, that Diderot -distributes the work of the school, after having called attention -to the fact that the order of the sciences, as determined -by the needs of the school, is not their logical order:—</p> - -<p>“The natural connection of one science with the others -designates for it a place, and the principle of utility, more -or less general, determines for it another place.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span></p> - -<p>But Diderot forgets that we must take into account, not -alone the principle of utility in the distribution of studies, -but that the essential thing of all others is to adapt the order -of studies to the progress of the child in age and aptitudes.</p> - - -<p class="p1">354. <span class="smcap">Preferences for the Sciences.</span>—Although equally -enamored of letters and the sciences, Diderot did not know -how to hold a just balance between a literary and a scientific -education. Anticipating Condorcet and Auguste Comte, he -displaces the centre of instruction, and gives a preponderance -to the sciences. Of the eight classes comprised in his -Faculty of Arts, the first five are devoted to the mathematics, -to mechanics, to astronomy, to physics, and to chemistry. -Grammar and the ancient languages are relegated to the last -three years, which nearly correspond to what are called in -our colleges the “second” and “rhetoric.”<a name="FNanchor_184_184" id="FNanchor_184_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a></p> - -<p>The charge that must be brought against Diderot in this -place, is not merely that he puts an unreasonable restriction -on literary studies, but also that he makes a bad distribution -of scientific studies in placing the mathematics before physics. -It is useless for him to assert that “it is easier to learn -geometry than to learn to read.” He does not convince us -of this. It is a grave error to begin by keeping the child’s -attention on numerical abstractions, by leaving his senses -unemployed, by postponing so long the study of natural -history and experimental physics, those sciences expressly -adapted to children, because, as Diderot himself expresses -it, “they involve a continuous exercise of sight, smell, taste, -and memory.”</p> - -<p>To excuse Diderot’s error, it does not suffice to state that -his pupil does not enter the Faculty of Arts till his twelfth -year. Till that period, he will learn only reading, writing,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span> -and orthography. There is ground for thinking that these -first years will be rather poorly employed; but besides this, -it is evident that even at the age of twelve the mind is not -sufficiently mature to be plunged into the cold deductions of -mathematics.</p> - - -<p class="p1">355. <span class="smcap">Incomplete Views as to the Scope of Literary -Studies.</span>—Diderot’s attitude with respect to classical studies -is a matter of surprise. On the one hand, he postpones their -study till the pupil’s nineteenth and twentieth year. On the -other, with what enthusiasm this eloquent scholar speaks of -the ancients, particularly of Homer!</p> - -<p>“Homer is the master to whom I am indebted for whatever -merit I have, if indeed I have any at all. It is difficult -to attain to excellence in taste without a knowledge of the -Greek and Latin languages. I early drew my intellectual -nourishment from Homer, Virgil, Horace, Terence, Anacreon, -Plato, and Euripides on the one hand, and from Moses and -the Prophets on the other.”</p> - -<p>How are we to explain this contradiction of an inconsistent -and ungrateful humanist who extols the humanities -to the skies, and at the same time puts such restrictions on -the teaching of them as almost to annihilate them? The -reason for this is, that, in his opinion, the belles-lettres are -useful only for the training of orators and poets, but are not -serviceable in the general development of the mind. Consequently, -being fancy studies, so to speak, they are fit only -for a small minority of pupils, and have no right to the first -place in a common education, destined for men in general. -Diderot is not able to discern what, in pedagogy, is their -true title to nobility,—that they are an admirable instrument -of intellectual gymnastics, and the surest and also the -most convenient means of acquiring those qualities of just<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span>ness, -of precision, and of clearness, which are needed by all -conditions of men, and are applicable to all the special employments -of life.<a name="FNanchor_185_185" id="FNanchor_185_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">356. <span class="smcap">Opinion of Marmontel.</span>—Diderot seems to reduce -the office of letters to a study of words, and to an exercise of -memory. He might have learned a lesson from one of his -contemporaries, Marmontel, whose intellect, though less brilliant, -was sometimes more just, an advantage which the -intelligence gains from early discipline in the study of the -languages:—</p> - -<p>“The choice and use of words, in translating from one -language to another, and even then some degree of elegance -in the construction of sentences, began to interest me; and -this work, which did not proceed without the analysis of ideas, -fortified my memory. I perceived that it was the idea attached -to the word which made it take root, and reflection soon made -me feel that the study of the languages was also the study of -the art of distinguishing shades of thought, of decomposing it, -of forming its texture, and of catching with precision its -spirit and its relations; and that along with words, an equal -number of new ideas were introduced and developed in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span> -heads of the young,<a name="FNanchor_186_186" id="FNanchor_186_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_186_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> and that in this way the early classes -were a course in elementary philosophy, much more rich, -more extended, and of greater real utility than we think, -when we complain that in our colleges nothing is learned but -Latin.”<a name="FNanchor_187_187" id="FNanchor_187_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">357. <span class="smcap">Other Novelties in Diderot’s Plan.</span>—Without -entering into the details of the very elaborate organization -of Diderot’s <em>Russian University</em>, we shall call attention to -some other novelties of his system:—</p> - -<p class="p1">1. The division of the classes into several series of parallel -courses: first, the series of scientific and literary courses; -then, the series of lectures devoted to religion, to ethics, and -to history; and finally, courses in drawing, music, etc.</p> - -<p class="p1">2. The whimsical idea of teaching history in an inverted -order, so to speak, in beginning with the most recent events, -and little by little going back to antiquity.</p> - -<p class="p1">3. His extreme estimate of the art of reading: “Let a -teacher of reading be associated with a professor of drawing;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span> -there are so few men, even the most enlightened, who know -how to read well, a gift always so agreeable, and often so -necessary.”</p> - -<p class="p1">4. A special regard for the study of art and for æsthetic -education, which could not be a matter of indifference to the -great art critic who wrote the <cite>Salons</cite>.</p> - -<p class="p1">5. A reform in the system of ushers.<a name="FNanchor_188_188" id="FNanchor_188_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_188_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a> Diderot would -have for supervising assistants in colleges, educated men, -capable on occasion of supplying the places of the professors -themselves. To attach them to their duties, he requires -that some dignity be given to their modest and useful functions, -and that the usher be a sort of supernumerary, or -“professor in reversion,” who aspires to the chair of the professor, -whose place he supplies from time to time, and which -he may finally attain.</p> - - -<p class="p1">358. <span class="smcap">Helvetius (1715-1771).</span>—In undertaking the study -of the thoughts of Helvetius on education, and the rapid -analysis of his <cite>Treatise on Man</cite>, we shall not take leave of -Diderot, for the work of Helvetius has had the good or the -bad fortune of being commented on and criticised by his -illustrious contemporary. Thanks to the <cite>Systematic Refutation -of the Book of Helvetius on Man</cite>, which forms a charming -accompaniment of pungent or vigorous reflections to a dull -and languid book, the reading of the monotonous treatise of -Helvetius becomes easy and almost agreeable.</p> - - -<p class="p1">359. <span class="smcap">The Treatise on Man.</span>—Under this title, a little -long, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De l’homme, de ses facultés intellectuelles et de son éducation</cite>, -Helvetius has composed a large work which he had in -contemplation for fifteen years, and which did not appear -till after his death, in 1772. As a matter of fact, education -does not directly occupy the author’s attention except in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span> -first and the last chapters (sections I. and X.). With this -exception, the whole book is devoted to long developments -of the favorite maxims of his philosophy: as the intellectual -equality of all men, and the reduction of all the passions -to the pursuit of pleasure; or to platitudes, such as -the influence of laws on the happiness of people, and the evils -which result from ignorance.</p> - - -<p class="p1">360. <span class="smcap">Potency of Education.</span>—When he does not fall -into platitudes, Helvetius goes off into paradoxes that are -presumptuous and systematic. His habitual characteristic -is pedantry in what is false. According to him, for example, -education is all-powerful; it is the sole cause of the difference -between minds. The mind of the child is but an empty -capacity, something indeterminate, without predisposition. -The impressions of the senses are the only elements of the -intelligence; so that the acquisitions of the five senses are -the only thing that is of moment; “the senses are all that -there is of man.” It is not possible to push sensationalism -further than this.</p> - -<p>The impressions of the senses are, then, the basis of -human nature, and as these impressions vary with circumstances, -Helvetius arrives at this conclusion, that chance is -the great master in the formation of mind and character. -Consequently, he undertakes to produce at will men of -genius, or, at least, men of talent. For this purpose, it -suffices to ascertain, by repeated observations, the means -which chance employs for making great men. These means -once discovered, it remains only to set them at work artificially -and to combine them, in order to produce the same -effects.</p> - -<p>“Genius is a product of chance. Rousseau, like a countless -number of illustrious men, may be regarded as one of -the masterpieces of chance.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">361. <span class="smcap">Helvetius refuted by Diderot.</span>—It is easy to -reply to extravagant statements of this sort. Had Helvetius -consulted teachers and parents, had he observed himself, -had he simply reflected on his two daughters, so unequally -endowed though identically educated, he would doubtless -have felt constrained to acknowledge the limitations of -education; he would have comprehended that it cannot give -imagination to minds of sluggish temperament, nor enthusiasm -and sensibility to inert souls, and that the most marvellously -helpful circumstances will not make of a Helvetius a -Montesquieu or a Voltaire.</p> - -<p>But if it is easy to refute Helvetius, it is impossible to -criticise him with more brilliancy and eloquence than Diderot -has done. With what perfection of reason he restores to -nature, to innate and irresistible inclinations, the influence -which Helvetius denies to them in the formation of character!</p> - -<p>“The accidents of Helvetius,” he says, “are like the -spark which sets on fire a cask of wine, and which is extinguished -in a bucket of water.”</p> - -<p>“For thousands of centuries the dew of heaven has fallen -on the rocks without making them fertile. The sown fields -await it in order to become productive, but it is not the dew -that scatters the seed. Accidents themselves no more produce -anything, than the pick of the laborer who delves -in the mines of Golconda produces the diamond that it -brings to the surface.”</p> - -<p>Doubtless education has a more radical effect than that -which is attributed to it by La Bruyère when he said that -“it touches only the surface of the soul.” But if it can do -much, it cannot do all. It perfects if it is good; it deadens -and it perverts if it is bad; but it can never be a substitute -for lacking aptitude, and can never replace nature.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">362. <span class="smcap">Secularized Instruction.</span>—In other parts of his -system Helvetius is in accord with Diderot. Like him, he -believes the necessary condition of progress in education is -that it be made secular and entrusted to the civil power. -The vices of education come from the opposition of the two -powers, spiritual and temporal, that assume to direct it. -Between the Church and the State there is an opposition of -interests and views. The State would have the nation -become brave, industrious, and enlightened. The Church -demands a blind submission and unlimited credulity. Hence -there is contradiction in pedagogical precepts, diversity in -the means that are employed, and, consequently, an education -that is hesitating, that is pulled in opposite directions, -that does not know definitely where it is going, that misses -its way, that gropes and wastes time.</p> - -<p>But the conclusion of Helvetius is not as we might expect,—the -separation of Church and State in the matter of -instruction and education, such as recent laws have established -in France. No; Helvetius would have the State -absorb the Church, and have religious power and civil -power lodged in the same hands and both belong to those -who control the government,—a vexatious confusion that -would end in the oppression of consciences.</p> - -<p>Helvetius, whatever may be thought of him, does not -deserve to claim our attention for any length of time, and we -cannot seriously consider as an authority in pedagogy a writer -who, in intellectual as in moral education, reduces everything -to a single principle, the development and the satisfaction of -physical sensibility.<a name="FNanchor_189_189" id="FNanchor_189_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">363. <span class="smcap">The Encyclopædists.</span>—The vast collection which, -under the name <em>Encyclopédie</em>, sums up the science and the -philosophy of the eighteenth century, touches educational -questions only in passing. Properly speaking, the <em>Encyclopédie</em> -contains no system of pedagogy. The principal fragment -is the article <em>Éducation</em>, written by the grammarian -and Latinist Dumarsais.</p> - -<p>But this piece of work is little worthy of its author, and -little worthy in particular of the <em>Encyclopédie</em>. It contains -scarcely anything but vague and trite generalities, and -belongs to the category of those articles for padding which -caused Voltaire to say: “You accept articles worthy of the -Journal of Trévoux.” We shall notice, however, in this -article, the importance accorded to the study of physics, and -to the practice of the arts, even the most common, and the -marked purpose to “subordinate” knowledges and studies, -or to distribute them in a logical, or rather psychological, -order; for example, to cause the concrete always to precede -the abstract. But, after having lost himself in considerations -of but little interest on the development of ideas and -sentiments in the human soul, the author, who is decidedly -far below his task, concludes by recommending to young -people “the reading of newspapers.”</p> - -<p>The other pedagogical articles of the <em>Encyclopédie</em> are -equally deficient in striking novelties. If the great work of -D’Alembert and Diderot has contributed something to the -progress of education, it is less through the insufficient -efforts which it has directly attempted in this direction, than -through the general influence which it has exercised on the -French mind in extolling the sciences in their theoretical -study as well as in their practical applications, in diffusing -technical knowledge, in glorifying the industrial arts, and in -thus preparing for the coming of a scientific and positive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span> -education in place of an education exclusively literary and of -pure form.</p> - - -<p class="p1">364. <span class="smcap">Kant (1724-1804).</span>—We know the considerable -influence which, for a century, Kant has exercised on the -development of philosophy. Since Descartes, no thinker had -to the same degree excited an interest in the great problems -of philosophy, nor more vigorously obliged the human reason -to render an account of itself. It is then a piece of good -fortune for the science of education that a philosopher of this -order has taken up the discussion of pedagogical questions, -and has thrown upon them the light of his penetrating criticism. -The admiration which he felt for Rousseau, his attentive -and impassioned reading of the <cite>Émile</cite>, his own reflections -on the monastic education which he had received at the -Collegium Fredericianum, a sort of small seminary conducted -by the Pietists, the experience which he had had as a preceptor -in several families that entrusted him with their children, -and finally, above all else, his profound studies on human -nature and his exalted moral philosophy, had given him a -capital preparation for treating educational questions. Professor -at the University of Königsberg, he several times -resumes the discussion of pedagogical subjects with a marked -predilection for them, and the notes of his lectures, collected -by one of his colleagues, formed the little <cite>Treatise on Pedagogy</cite> -which we are about to analyze.<a name="FNanchor_190_190" id="FNanchor_190_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">365. <span class="smcap">High Conception of Education.</span>—In the opinion -of Kant, the art of educating men, with that of governing -them, is the most difficult and the most important of all. It -is by education alone that humanity can be perfected and -regenerated:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span></p> - -<p>“It is pleasant to think that human nature will always be -better and better developed by education, and that at last -there will thus be given it the form which best befits it.</p> - -<p>“To know how far the omnipotence of education can go, -it would be necessary that a being of a superior order should -undertake the bringing up of men.”</p> - -<p>But in order that it may attain this exalted end, education -must be set free from routine and traditional methods. It -must bring up children, not in view of their success in the -present state of human society, but “in view of a better state, -possible in the future, and according to an ideal conception -of humanity and of its complete destination.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">366. <span class="smcap">Psychological Optimism.</span>—Kant comes near -accepting the opinion of Rousseau on the original innocence -of man and the perfect goodness of his natural inclinations:—</p> - -<p>“It is said in medicine that the physician is but the servant -of nature. This is true of the moralist. Ward off the -bad influences from without, and nature can be trusted to -find for herself the best way.”<a name="FNanchor_191_191" id="FNanchor_191_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_191_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a></p> - -<p>Thus Kant does not tire of exalting the service which -Rousseau had rendered pedagogy, in recalling educators to -the confidence and respect that are due to calumniated human -nature. Let us add, however, that the German philosopher -is not content to repeat Rousseau. He corrects him in -affirming that man, at his birth, is neither good nor evil, -because he is not naturally a moral being. He does not become -such till he raises his reason to the conception of duty -and law. In other terms, in the infant everything is in germ. -The infant is a being in preparation. The future alone, the -development which he will receive from his education, will -make him good or bad. At the beginning, he has but indeterminate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span> -dispositions, and evil will come, not from a definite -inclination of nature, but solely from the fact that we will -not have known how to direct it,—from the fact, according -to Kant’s own expression, that we will not have “subjected -nature to rules.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">367. <span class="smcap">Respect for the Liberty of the Child.</span>—The -psychological optimism of Kant inspires him, as it does -Rousseau, with the idea of a negative education, respectful -of the liberty of the child:—</p> - -<p>“In general, it must be noted that the earliest education -should be negative; that is to say, nothing should be added -to the precautions taken by nature, and that the effort should -be limited to the preservation of her work.... It is well to -employ at first but few helps, and to leave children to learn -for themselves. Much of the weakness of man is due, not -to the fact that nothing is taught him, but to the fact that -false impressions are communicated to him.”</p> - -<p>Without going so far as to say with Rousseau that all -dependence with respect to men is contrary to order, Kant -took great care to respect the liberty of the pupil. He complains -of parents who are always talking about “breaking -the wills of their sons.” He maintains, not without reason, -that it is not necessary to offer much resistance to children, -if we have not begun by yielding too readily to their caprices, -and by always responding to their cries. Nothing is more -harmful to them than a discipline which is provoking and -degrading. But, in his zeal for human liberty, the theorist -of the autonomy of wills goes a little too far. He fears, for -example, the tyranny of habits. He requires that they be -prevented from being formed, and that children be accustomed -to nothing. He might as well demand the suppression -of all education, since education should be but the acquisition -of a body of good habits.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">368. <span class="smcap">Stories Interdicted.</span>—In the education of the intellectual -faculties or talents, which he calls the <em>physical culture</em> -of the soul, as distinguished from <em>moral culture</em>, which -is the education of the will, Kant also approaches Rousseau. -He proscribes romances and stories. “Children have an extremely -active imagination which has no need of being developed -by stories.” It may be said in reply, that fables and -fictions, at the same time that they develop the imagination, -also direct it and adorn it with their own proper grace, and -may even lend it moral support. Rousseau, notwithstanding -the ardor of his criticisms on the <cite>Fables</cite> of La Fontaine, himself -admitted the moral value of the apologue.</p> - - -<p class="p1">369. <span class="smcap">Culture of the Faculties.</span>—That which distinguishes -Kant as an educator is that he is pre-occupied with -the culture of the faculties much more than with the acquisition -of knowledge. He passes in review the different intellectual -forces, and his reflections on each of them might be -collected as the elements of an excellent system of educational -psychology. He will criticise, for example, the abuse of -memory:—</p> - -<p>“Men who have nothing but memory,” he says, “are but -living lexicons, and, as it were, the pack-horses of Parnassus.”</p> - -<p>For the culture of the understanding, Kant proposes “at -first to train it passively to some degree,” by requiring of the -child examples which illustrate a rule, or, on the contrary, -the rule which applies to particular examples.</p> - -<p>For the exercise of the reason, he recommends the Socratic -method, and, in general, for the development of all the faculties -of the mind, he thinks that the best way of proceeding -is to cause the pupil to be active:—</p> - -<p>“The best way to comprehend is to do. What we learn -the most thoroughly is what we learn to some extent by -ourselves.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">370. <span class="smcap">Different Kinds of Punishments.</span>—Kant has made -a subtile analysis of the different qualities with which punishment -may be invested. He distinguishes from <em>physical -punishment</em>, <em>moral punishment</em>, which is the better. It consists -in humiliating the pupil, in greeting him coolly, “in -encouraging the disposition of the child to be honored and -loved, that auxiliary of morality.” Physical punishments -ought to be employed with precaution, “to the end that they -may not entail servile dispositions.”</p> - -<p>Another distinction is that of <em>natural</em> punishments and -<em>artificial</em> punishments. The first are preferable to the second, -because they are the very consequences of the faults which -have been committed; “indigestion, for example, which a -child brings on himself when he eats too much.” Another -advantage of natural punishment, Kant justly remarks, “is -that man submits to it all his life.”<a name="FNanchor_192_192" id="FNanchor_192_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_192_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a></p> - -<p>Finally, Kant divides punishments into <em>negative</em> and <em>positive</em>. -The first are to be used for minor faults, and the -others are to be reserved for the punishment of conduct that -is absolutely bad.</p> - -<p>Moreover, whatever punishment may be applied, Kant -advises the teacher to avoid the appearance of feeling malice -towards the pupil:—</p> - -<p>“The punishments we inflict while exhibiting signs of -anger have a wrong tendency.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">371. <span class="smcap">Religious Education.</span>—At first view, we might -be tempted to think that Kant has adopted the conclusions -of Rousseau, and that, like him, he refuses to take an early<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span> -occasion to inculcate in the child’s mind the notion of a -Supreme Being:—</p> - -<p>“Religious ideas always suppose some system of theology. -Now, how are we to teach theology to the young, who, far -from knowing the world, do not yet know themselves? How -shall the young who do not yet know what duty is, be in a -condition to comprehend an immediate duty towards God?”</p> - -<p>To speak of religion to a young man, it would then be logical -to wait till he is in a condition to form a clear and fixed conception -of the nature of God. But it is impossible to do -this, says Kant, because the young man lives in a society -where he hears the name of the Divinity spoken at each -moment, and where he takes part in continual observances -of piety. It is better, then, to teach him at an early hour -true religious notions, for fear that he may borrow from -other men notions that are superstitious and false. In -reality, Kant dissents from Rousseau only because, re-establishing -the conditions of real life, he restores Émile to society, -no longer keeping him in a fancied state of isolation. What a -broad and noble way, moreover, of conceiving religious education! -The best way of making clear to the mind of -children the idea of God, is, according to Kant, to seek an -analogy in the idea of a human father. It is necessary, -moreover, that the conception of duty precede the conception -of God; that morality precede, and that theology follow. -Without morality, religion is but superstition; without -morality, the pretended religious man is but a courtier, a -suitor for divine favor.</p> - - -<p class="p1">372. <span class="smcap">Moral Catechism.</span>—Those who know to what a -height Kant could raise the theory of morality, will not be -surprised at the importance which he ascribes to the teaching -of morals.</p> - -<p>“Our schools,” he says, “are almost entirely lacking in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span> -one thing which, however, would be very useful for training -children in probity,—I mean a catechism on duty. It should -contain, in a popular form, cases concerning the conduct to -be observed in ordinary life, and which would always naturally -raise this question: Is this right or not?”</p> - -<p>He had begun to write a book of this kind under the title -<cite>Moral Catechism</cite>;<a name="FNanchor_193_193" id="FNanchor_193_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_193_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a> and he would have desired that an hour -a day of school time be given to its study, “in order to -teach pupils to know and to learn by heart their duty to men,—that -power of God on the earth.” The child, he says -again, would there learn to substitute the fear of his own -conscience for that of men and divine punishment, inward -dignity for the opinion of others, the intrinsic value of -actions for the apparent value of words, and, finally, a serene -and cheerful piety for a sad and gloomy devotion.</p> - - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>[373. <span class="smcap">Analytical Summary.</span>—1. This study exhibits the -influence of philosophical systems on education. New conceptions -of human destiny, new theories with respect to the -composition of human nature, or a new hypothesis concerning -man’s place in nature, determine corresponding changes in -educational theory.</p> - -<p>2. Perhaps the broadest generalization yet reached in -educational theory is the assumption made by Condillac, -that the education of each individual should be a repetition -of civilization <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in petto</i>. With Mr. Spencer this hypothesis -becomes a law.</p> - -<p>3. In theory, the secularization of education has begun. -The Church is to lose one of its historical prerogatives, and -the modern State is to become an educator.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span></p> - -<p>4. Helvetius typifies what may be called the <em>plastic theory</em> -in education, or the conception that the teacher, if wise -enough, may ignore all differences in natural endowment. -This makes man the victim of his environment. The truth -evidently is that man is the only creature which can bend -circumstances to his will; and he has such an endowment of -power in this direction that he can virtually recreate his environment -and thus rise superior to it. And farther than -this, there are innate differences in endowment that will persist -in spite of all that education can do.</p> - -<p>5. The culture value of literary studies is justly exhibited -in the quotation from Marmontel, and in particular the disciplinary -value of translation.</p> - -<p>6. Education for training, discipline, or culture, as distinguished -from an education whose chief aim is to impart -knowledge, receives definite recognition from Kant.]</p></div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_177_177" id="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Discours préliminaire sur la grammaire</cite>, in the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Œuvres complètes</cite> of -Condillac, Tome VI. p. 264.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_178_178" id="Footnote_178_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> This is also the main principle in Mr. Spencer’s educational philosophy. -“The education of the child must accord both in mode and arrangement -with the education of mankind as considered historically; or, in other -words, the genesis of knowledge in the individual must follow the same -course as the genesis of knowledge in the race.”—<cite>Education</cite>, p. 122. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> The general law of human progress is <em>inheritance supplemented by -individual acquisition</em>. Using the symbols <i>i</i> (inheritance) and <i>a</i> (acquisition), -the progress of the race from its origin upwards, through successive -generations, may be exhibited by this series: <i>i</i>; <i>i</i> + <i>a</i>; <i>i</i> (2<i>a</i>) + <i>a</i>; <i>i</i> (3<i>a</i>) + <i>a</i>; -<i>i</i> (4<i>a</i>) + <i>a</i>. If the factor of inheritance could be eliminated, as Condillac -and Spencer recommend, the series would take this form: <i>a</i>′; <i>a</i>″; <i>a</i>‴; -<i>a</i><sup>iv</sup>; <i>a</i><sup>v</sup>: the successive increments in acquisition being due to successive -increments in power gained through heredity. But, happily, the law of inheritance -cannot be abrogated, and so philosophers write books in order to -save succeeding generations from the fate of Sisyphus. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_180_180" id="Footnote_180_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Cours d’études</cite>, Tome X. Introduction.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_181_181" id="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> See <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Œuvres complètes</cite> of Diderot. Edited by Tourneux, 1876-77. -Tomes II. and III.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_182_182" id="Footnote_182_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Œuvres</cite>, Tome III. p. 459.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_183_183" id="Footnote_183_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183_183"><span class="label">[183]</span></a> For Comte’s classification of the sciences, see Spencer’s <cite>Illustrations -of Universal Progress</cite>, Chap. III. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_184_184" id="Footnote_184_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184_184"><span class="label">[184]</span></a> See note, p. 131.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_185_185" id="Footnote_185_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> This thought will bear extension as in the following quotation: “The -reasoning that I oppose starts from the low and false assumption that instruction -serves only for the practical use that is made of it; for example, -that he who, by his social position, does not make use of his intellectual -culture, has no need of that culture. Literature, from this point of view, -is useful only to the man of letters, science only to the scientist, good manners -and fine bearing only to men of the world. The poor man should be -ignorant, for education and knowledge are useless to him. Blasphemy, -Gentlemen! The culture of the mind and the culture of the soul are duties -for every man. They are not simple ornaments; they are things as sacred -as religion” (Renan, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Famille et État</cite>, p. 3). This is a sufficient answer -to Mr. Spencer’s assumption (<cite>Education</cite>, p. 84), that the studies that are -best for guidance are at the same time the best for discipline. See also -Dugald Stewart (<cite>Elements</cite>, p. 12). (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_186_186" id="Footnote_186_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a> This thought throws light on a dictum of current pedagogy, “First, -the idea, then the term.” It shows that very often, in actual experience, -the sequence is from term to idea. The relation between term and idea is -the same in kind as that between sentence and thought. Must we then say, -“First the thought, then the sentence”? Or, “First the thought, then the -chapter or the book”? -</p> -<p> -The disciplinary value of translation is also well stated. It may be -doubted whether the schools furnish a better “intellectual gymnastic.” -Three high intellectual attainments are involved in a real translation: 1. -The separation of the thought from the original form of words; 2. The -seizing or comprehension of the thought as a mental possession; and 3. The -embodying of the thought in a new form. A strictly analogous process, of -almost equal value in its place, is that variety of reading in which the -pupil is required to express the thought of the paragraph <em>in his own language</em>. -This exercise involves the three processes above stated, and may -be called “the translation of thought from one form into another, in the -same language.” (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_187_187" id="Footnote_187_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a> Marmontel, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mémoires d’un père pour servir à l’instruction de ses enfants</cite>, -Tome I. p. 19.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_188_188" id="Footnote_188_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a> <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Maître d’étude</i>: “He who in a lycée, college, or boarding-school, has -oversight of pupils during study hours and recreations.”—<span class="smcap">Littré.</span></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_189_189" id="Footnote_189_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> It is a matter of surprise that in a German <em>Pedagogical Library</em> the very -first French work published is the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Traité de l’Homme</cite> of Helvetius. This -is giving the place of honor to what is perhaps of the most ordinary value -in French pedagogical literature.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_190_190" id="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> See the French translation of this tract at the end of the volume, published -by Monsieur Barni, under the title, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Éléments métaphysiques de la -doctrine de la vertu</cite>. Paris, 1855. The work of Kant appeared in German -in 1803.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_191_191" id="Footnote_191_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a> Extract from Kant’s <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Fragments posthumes</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_192_192" id="Footnote_192_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192_192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a> Monsieur Compayré seems to give his sanction to the “Discipline of -Consequences.” I think that Mr. Fitch has correctly stated its limitations -(<cite>Lectures</cite>, p. 117). Kant doubtless borrowed the idea from Rousseau, who -employs it in the government of his imaginary pupil. (See Miss Worthington’s -translation of the <cite>Émile</cite>, p. 66.) This doctrine is the basis of Mr. -Spencer’s chapter on <cite>Moral Education</cite>. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_193_193" id="Footnote_193_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193_193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a> Helvetius, but poorly qualified for teaching moral questions, had had -the idea of a <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Catéchisme de probité</cite>. Saint Lambert published, in 1798, a -<cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Catéchisme universel</cite>.</p> -</div></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XV.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">THE ORIGIN OF LAY AND NATIONAL INSTRUCTION.—LA -CHALOTAIS AND ROLLAND.</span></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>JESUITS AND PARLIAMENTARIANS; EXPULSION OF THE JESUITS (1764); -GENERAL COMPLAINTS AGAINST THE EDUCATION OF THE JESUITS; -EFFORTS MADE TO REPLACE THEM; LA CHALOTAIS (1701-1785); HIS -ESSAY ON NATIONAL EDUCATION (1763); SECULARIZATION OF -EDUCATION; PRACTICAL END OF INSTRUCTION; NEW SPIRIT IN -EDUCATION; INTUITIVE AND NATURAL INSTRUCTION; STUDIES -OF THE EARLIEST PERIOD; CRITICISM OF NEGATIVE EDUCATION; -HISTORY AVENGED OF THE DISDAIN OF ROUSSEAU; GEOGRAPHY; -NATURAL HISTORY; PHYSICAL RECREATIONS; MATHEMATICAL -RECREATIONS; STUDIES OF THE SECOND PERIOD; THE LIVING -LANGUAGES; OTHER STUDIES; THE QUESTION OF BOOKS; ARISTOCRATIC -PREJUDICES; INSTRUCTION WITHIN THE REACH OF ALL; -NORMAL SCHOOLS; SPIRIT OF CENTRALIZATION; TURGOT (1727-1781); -ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.</p></div> - -<hr class="r15a" /> - -<p class="p1">374. <span class="smcap">Jesuits and Parliamentarians.</span>—Of the educators -of the eighteenth century of whom we have been speaking -up to the present time, no one has been called to exercise an -immediate and direct action on the destinies of public education; -no one of them had the power to apply the doctrines -which were so dear to him to college education; so that, so -far, we have studied the theory and not the practice of education -in the eighteenth century.</p> - -<p>On the contrary, the members of the French Parliaments, -after having solicited and obtained from the king the expulsion -of the Jesuits, made memorable efforts, from 1762 up -to the eve of the Revolution, to supply the places of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span> -teachers whom they had driven away, to correct the faults -of the ancient education, and to give effect to the idea, -cherished by the most of the great spirits of that time, of a -national education adapted to the needs of civil society. -They were the practical organizers of instruction; they prepared -the foundation of the French University of the nineteenth -century; they resumed, not without lustre, the -struggle too often interrupted, which the Jansenists had -sustained against the Jesuits.</p> - - -<p class="p1">375. <span class="smcap">Expulsion of the Jesuits (1764).</span>—The causes of -the expulsion of the Jesuits were doubtless complex, and, -above all else, political. In attacking the Company of Jesus, -the Parliaments desired especially to defend the interests of -the State, compromised by a powerful society which tended -to dominate all Christian nations. But reasons of an educational -character had also some influence on the condemnation -pronounced against the Jesuits by all the Parliaments of -France. From all quarters, in the reports which were drawn -up by the municipal or royal officers of all the cities where -the Jesuits had colleges, complaint is made of the scholastic -methods and usages of the Company. Reforms were demanded -which they were incapable of realizing.</p> - -<p>And it is not in France alone that the faults in the education -of the Jesuits were vigorously announced. In the edict -of 1759, by which the king of Portugal expelled the Jesuits -from his kingdom, it was said: “The study of the humanities -has declined in the kingdom, and the Jesuits are evidently -the cause of the decadence into which the Greek and -Latin tongues have fallen.” Some years later, in 1768, the -king of Portugal congratulated himself on having banished -“the moral corruption, the superstition, the fanaticism, and -the ignorance, which had been introduced by the Society of -Jesus.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">376. <span class="smcap">General Complaints against the Education of the -Jesuits.</span>—Even in the middle of the eighteenth century the -Jesuits were still addicted to their old routine, and even their -faults were aggravated with the times.</p> - -<p>At Auxerre, complaint is made that pupils study in their -schools only a few Latin authors, and that they leave them -without ever receiving into their hands a single French -author.</p> - -<p>At Moulins, a request is made that at least one hour a -week be devoted to the history of France, which proves that -the Society of Jesus, always enslaved to its immobile formalism, -did not grant even this little concession to the teaching -of history.</p> - -<p>At Orleans, the necessity of teaching children the French -language is insisted on.</p> - -<p>At Montbrison, the wish is expressed that pupils be taught -a smattering of geography, especially of their own country.</p> - -<p>At Auxerre, it is proved that in the teaching of philosophy -the time is employed “in copying and learning note-books -filled with vain distinctions and frivolous questions.”</p> - -<p>At Montbrison, the request is made “that the rules of -reasoning be explained in French, and that there be a disuse -of debates which train only disputants and not philosophers.”</p> - -<p>It would be interesting to pursue this study, and to collect -from these reports of 1762,—real memorials of a scholastic -revolution,—all the complaints of public opinion against the -Jesuits. Even in religion, the Company of Jesus is charged -with substituting for the sacred texts, books of devotion composed -by the Fathers. At Poitiers, a demand is made in -favor of the Old and the New Testaments, the study of -which was wholly neglected. From time to time the Jesuits -were accused of continually mixing religious questions with -classical studies and of catechising at every turn. “The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span> -masters of the fifth and sixth forms in the College of -Auxerre dogmatize in the themes which they dictate to the -children.” Finally, the Company of Jesus maintained in -the schools the teaching of moral casuistry; it encouraged -bigotry and superstition; it relaxed nothing from the severity -of its discipline, and provoked violent recriminations -among some of its former pupils who had preserved a painful -recollection of corrections received in its colleges.<a name="FNanchor_194_194" id="FNanchor_194_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_194_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">377. <span class="smcap">Efforts made to displace the Jesuits.</span>—The Parliaments, -then, did nothing more, so to speak, than register -the verdict of public opinion everywhere excited against the -Jesuits. But while they heartily joined in the general reprobation, -they undertook to determine the laws of the new -education. “It is of little use to destroy,” they said, “if -we do not intend to build. The public good and the honor -of the nation require that we should establish a civil education -which shall prepare each new generation for filling with success -the different employments of the State.” It is not just -to say with Michel Bréal, that “once delivered from the -Jesuits, the University installed itself in their establishments -and continued their instruction.” Earnest attempts were -made to reform programmes and methods. La Chalotais, -Guyton de Morveau, Rolland, and still others attempted -by their writings, and, when they could, by their acts, to -establish a system of education which, while inspired by -Rollin and the Jansenists, attempted to do still better.</p> - - -<p class="p1">378. <span class="smcap">La Chalotais (1701-1785).</span>—Of all the parliamentarians -who distinguished themselves in the campaign undertaken -towards the middle of the eighteenth century against -the pedagogy of the Jesuits, the most celebrated, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span> -most worthy of being such, is undoubtedly the solicitor-general -of the Parliament of Bretagne, René de la Chalotais. -A man of courage and character, he was arrested and imprisoned -in the citadel of Saint Malo for having upheld the -franchise of the province of Bretagne; and it was in his -prison, in 1765, that he drew up for his defence an eloquent -and impassioned memorial, of which Voltaire said, “Woe -to every sensitive soul that does not feel the quivering of a -fever in reading it!”</p> - - -<p class="p1">379. <span class="smcap">His Essay on National Education.</span>—The <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Essai</cite> of -La Chalotais appeared in 1763, one year after the <cite>Émile</cite>. -Coming after the ambitious theories of a philosopher who, -scorning polemics and the dissensions of his time, had -written only for humanity and the future, this was a modest -and opportune work, the effort of a practical man who -attempted to respond to the aspirations and the needs of his -time. Translated into several languages, the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Essai d’éducation -nationale</cite> obtained the enthusiastic approval of Diderot, -and also of Voltaire, who said, “It is a terrible book against -the Jesuits, all the more so because it is written with moderation.” -Grimm carried his admiration so far as to write, “It -would be difficult to present in a hundred and fifty pages -more reflections that are wise, profound, useful, and truly -worthy of a magistrate, of a philosopher, of a statesman.” -Too completely forgotten to-day, this little composition of -La Chalotais deserves to be republished. Notwithstanding -some prejudices that mar it, it is already wholly penetrated -with the spirit of the Revolution.</p> - - -<p class="p1">380. <span class="smcap">Secularization of Education.</span>—As a matter of -fact, the whole pedagogy of the eighteenth century is dominated -by the idea of the necessary secularization of instruction. -Thorough-going Gallicans like La Chalotais or Rolland, -dauntless free-thinkers like Diderot or Helvetius, all believe<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span> -and assert that public instruction is a civil affair, a “government -undertaking,” as Voltaire expressed it. All wish to -substitute lay teachers for religious teachers, and to open -civil schools upon the ruins of monastic schools.</p> - -<p>“Who will be persuaded,” says Rolland in his report of -1708, “that fathers who feel an emotion that an ecclesiastic -never should have known, will be less capable than he of -educating children?”</p> - -<p>La Chalotais also demands these citizen teachers. He -objects to those instructors who, from interest as well as -from principle, give the preference in their affections to the -supernatural world over one’s native land.</p> - -<p>“I do not presume to exclude ecclesiastics,” he said, -“but I protest against the exclusion of laymen. I dare claim -for the nation an education which depends only on the State, -because it belongs essentially to the State; because every -State has an inalienable and indefeasible right to instruct its -members; because, finally, the children of the State ought to -be educated by the members of the State.” This does not -mean that La Chalotais is irreligious; but he desires a national -religion which does not subordinate the interests of the -country to a foreign power. What he wants especially is, -that the Church, reserving to herself the teaching of divine -truth, abandon to the State the teaching of morals, and the -control of purely human studies. He is of the same opinion -as his friend Duclos, who said:—</p> - -<p>“It is certain that in the education which was given at -Sparta, the prime purpose was to train Spartans. It is thus -that in every State the purpose should be to enkindle the -spirit of citizenship; and, in our case, to train Frenchmen, -and in order to make Frenchmen, to labor to make men of -them.”<a name="FNanchor_195_195" id="FNanchor_195_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_195_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">381. <span class="smcap">Practical Purpose of Instruction.</span>—The particular -charge brought by La Chalotais against the education of -his time, against that of the University as well as against -that of the Jesuits, is, that it does not prepare children for -real life, for life in the State. “A stranger who should visit -our colleges might conclude that in France we think only of -peopling the seminaries, the cloisters, and the Latin colonies.” -How are we to imagine that the study of a dead -language, and a monastic discipline, are the appointed means -for training soldiers, magistrates, and heads of families?</p> - -<p>“The greatest vice of education, and perhaps the most -inevitable, while it shall be entrusted to persons who have -renounced the world, is the absolute lack of instruction on -the moral and political virtues. Our education does not -affect our habits, like that of the ancients. After having -endured all the fatigues and irksomeness of the college, the -young find themselves in the need of learning in what consist -the duties common to all men. They have learned no principle -for judging actions, evils, opinions, customs. They -have everything to learn on matters that are so important. -They are inspired with a devotion which is but an imitation -of religion, and with practices which take the place of virtue, -and are but the shadow of it.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">382. <span class="smcap">Intuitive and Natural Instruction.</span>—A pupil of -the sensational school, a disciple of Locke and of Condillac, -La Chalotais is too much inclined to misconceive, in the -development of the individual, the play of natural activities -and innate dispositions. But, by way of compensation, his -predilection for sensationalism leads him to excellent thoughts -on the necessity of beginning with sensible objects before -advancing to intellectual studies, and first of all to secure an -education of the senses.</p> - -<p>“I wish nothing to be taught children except facts which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span> -are attested by the eyes, at the age of seven as at the age of -thirty.</p> - -<p>“The principles for instructing children should be those -by which nature herself instructs them. Nature is the best -of teachers.</p> - -<p>“Every method which begins with abstract ideas is not -made for children.</p> - -<p>“Let children see many objects; let there be a variety of -such, and let them be shown under many aspects and on -various occasions. The memory and the imagination of -children cannot be overcharged with useful facts and ideas -of which they can make use in the course of their lives.”</p> - -<p>Such are the principles according to which La Chalotais -organizes his plan of studies.</p> - - -<p class="p1">383. <span class="smcap">The New Spirit in Education.</span>—The purpose, -then, is to replace that monastic and ultramontane education -(this is the term employed by La Chalotais), and also that -narrow education, and that repulsive and austere discipline, -“which seems made only to abase the spirit”; that sterile -and insipid teaching, “the most usual effect of which is to -make study hated for life”; those scholastic studies where -young men “contract the habit of disputing and caviling”; -and those ascetic regulations “which set neatness and health -at defiance.” The purpose is to initiate children into our -most common and most ordinary affairs, into what forms -the conduct of life and the basis of civil society.</p> - -<p>“Most young men know neither the world which they -inhabit, the earth which nourishes them, the men who supply -their needs, the animals which serve them, nor the workmen -and citizens whom they employ. They have not even any -desire for this kind of knowledge. No advantage is taken -of their natural curiosity for the purpose of increasing it.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span> -They know how to admire neither the wonders of nature nor -the prodigies of the arts.”</p> - -<p>This is equivalent to saying that they should henceforth -learn all that up to this time they had been permitted to be -ignorant of.</p> - - -<p class="p1">384. <span class="smcap">Studies of the First Period.</span>—Education, according -to La Chalotais, should be divided into two periods: -the first from five to ten, the second from ten to seventeen.</p> - -<p>During the first period, we have to do with children who -have no experience because they have seen nothing, who -have no power of attention because they are incapable of any -sustained effort, and no judgment because they have not yet -any general ideas; but who, by way of compensation, have -senses, memory, and some power of reflection. It is necessary, -then, to make a careful choice of the subjects of study -which shall be proposed to these tender intelligences; and -La Chalotais decides in favor of history, geography, natural -history, physical and mathematical <em>recreations</em>.</p> - -<p>“The exercises proposed for the first period,” he says, -“are as follows: learning to read, write, and draw; dancing -and music, which ought to enter into the education of persons -above the commonalty; historical narratives and the lives of -illustrious men of every country, of every age, and of every -profession; geography, mathematical and physical recreations; -the fables of La Fontaine, which, whatever may be -said of them, ought not to be removed from the hands of -children, but all of which they should be made to learn by -heart; and besides this, walks, excursions, merriment, and -recreations; I do not propose even the studies except as -amusements.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">385. <span class="smcap">Criticism of Negative Education.</span>—La Chalotais -is often right as against Rousseau. For example, he has -abundantly refuted the utopia of a negative education in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span> -which nature is allowed to have her way, and which considers -the toil of the centuries as of no account. It is good sense -itself which speaks in reflections like these:—</p> - -<p>“If man is not taught what is good, he will necessarily -become preoccupied with what is bad. The mind and the -heart cannot remain unoccupied.... On the pretext of -affording children an experience which is their own, they are -deprived of the assistance of others’ experience.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">386. <span class="smcap">History avenged of the Disdain of Rousseau.</span>—The -sophisms of Rousseau on history are brilliantly refuted. -History is within the comprehension of the youngest. The -child who can understand Tom Thumb and Blue Beard, can -understand the history of Romulus and of Clovis. Moreover, -it is to the history of the most recent times that -La Chalotais attaches the greatest importance, and in this -respect he goes beyond his master Rollin:—</p> - -<p>“I would have composed for the use of the child histories -of every nation, of every century, and particularly of the -later centuries, which should be written with greater detail, -and which should be read before those of the more remote -centuries. I would have written the lives of illustrious men -of all classes, conditions, and professions, of celebrated -heroes, scholars, women, and children.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">387. <span class="smcap">Geography.</span>—La Chalotais does not separate the -study of geography from that of history, and he requires -that, without entering into dry and tedious details, the pupil -be made to travel pleasantly through different countries, and -that stress be put “on what is of chief importance and interest -in each country, such as the most striking facts, the -native land of great men, celebrated battles, and whatever -is most notable, either as to manners and customs, to -natural productions, or to arts and commerce.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">388. <span class="smcap">Natural History.</span>—Another study especially -adapted to children, says La Chalotais with reason, is -natural history: “The principal thing is first to show the -different objects just as they appear to the eyes. A representation -of them, with a precise and exact description, is -sufficient.”</p> - -<p>“Too great detail must be avoided, and the objects chosen -must be such as are most directly related to us, which are -the most necessary and the most useful.”</p> - -<p>“Preference shall be given to domestic animals over those -that are wild, and to native animals over those of other -countries. In the case of plants, preference shall be given -to those that serve for food and for use in medicine.”</p> - -<p>As far as possible, the object itself should be shown, so -that the idea shall be the more exact and vivid, and the -impression the more durable.</p> - - -<p class="p1">389. <span class="smcap">Recreations in Physics.</span>—La Chalotais explains -that he means by this phrase observations, experiments, and -the simplest facts of nature. Children should early be made -acquainted with thermometers, barometers, with the microscope, -etc.</p> - - -<p class="p1">390. <span class="smcap">Recreations in Mathematics.</span>—All this is excellent, -and La Chalotais enters resolutely into the domain of modern -methods. What is more debatable is the idea of putting -geometry and mathematics into the programme of children’s -studies, under this erroneous pretext, that “geometry presents -nothing but the sensible and the palpable.” Let us -grant, however, that it is easier to conceive “clear ideas of -bodies, lines, and angles that strike the eyes, than abstract -ideas of verbs, declensions, and conjugations, of an accusative, -an ablative, a subjunctive, an infinitive, or of the -omitted <em>that</em>.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">391. <span class="smcap">Studies of the Second Period.</span>—La Chalotais postpones -the study of the classical languages till the second -period, the tenth year. The course of study for this second -period will comprise: 1. French and Latin literature, or the -humanities; 2. a continuation of history, geography, mathematics, -and natural history; 3. criticism, logic, and metaphysics; -4. the art of invention; 5. ethics.</p> - -<p>La Chalotais complains that his contemporaries neglect -French literature, as though we had not admirable models in -our national language. Out of one hundred pupils there are -not five who will find it useful to write in Latin; while there -is not one of them who will have occasion to speak or write -in Greek, and to construct Latin verses. All, on the contrary, -ought to know their native language. Consequently, -our author suggests the idea of devoting the morning session -to French, and that of the afternoon to Latin, so that the -pupils who have no need of the ancient languages may pursue -only the courses in French.</p> - - -<p class="p1">392. <span class="smcap">The Living Languages.</span>—La Chalotais thinks the -knowledge of two living languages to be necessary, “the -English for science, and the German for war.” German -literature had not yet produced its masterpieces, and it is -seen that at this period the utility of German appears especially -with reference to military affairs. However it may be, -let us be grateful to him for having appreciated, as he has -done, the living languages. “It is wrong,” he says, “to -treat them nearly as we treat our contemporaries, with a sort -of indifference. Without the Greek and Latin languages -there is no real and solid erudition; and there is no complete -erudition without the others.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">393. <span class="smcap">Other Studies.</span>—How many judicious or just reflections -we have still to gather from the <cite>Essay on National Education</cite>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span> -as upon the teaching of the ancient languages, which La -Chalotais, however, is wrong in restricting to too small a -number of years; upon the necessity of presenting to pupils -as subjects for composition, not puerile amplifications, or -dissertations on facts or matters of which they are ignorant, -but things which they know, which have happened to them, -“their occupations, their amusements, or their troubles”; -upon logic or criticism, the study of which should not be -deferred till the end of the course, as is still done in our day; -upon philosophy, which is, he says, “the characteristic of -the eighteenth century, as that of the sixteenth was erudition, -and that of the seventeenth was talent!” La Chalotais -reserves the place of honor to ethics, “which is the most -important of all the sciences, and which is, as much as any -other, susceptible of demonstration.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">394. <span class="smcap">The Question of Books.</span>—In tracing his programme -of studies, so new in many particulars, La Chalotais took -into account the difficulties that would be encountered in -assuring, and, so to speak, in improvising, the execution -of it, at a time when there existed neither competent teachers -nor properly constructed books. Teachers especially, he -said, are difficult to train. But, while waiting for the recruiting -of the teaching force, La Chalotais puts great dependence -on elementary books, which might, he thought, be -composed within two years, if the king would encourage the -publication of them, and if the Academies would put them -up for competition.</p> - -<p>“These books would be the best instruction which the masters -could give, and would take the place of every other -method. Whatever course we may take, we cannot dispense -with new books. These books, once made, would make -trained teachers unnecessary, and there would then be no -longer any occasion for discussion as to their qualities,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span> -whether they should be priests, or married, or single. All -would be good, provided they were religious, moral, and -knew how to read; they would soon train themselves while -training their pupils.”</p> - -<p>There is much exaggeration in these words. The book, as -we know, cannot supply the place of teachers. But the language -of La Chalotais was adapted to circumstances as they -existed. He spoke in this way, because, in his impatience -to reach his end, he would try to remedy the educational -poverty of his time, and supply the lack of good teachers by -provisional expedients, by means which he found within his -reach.</p> - - -<p class="p1">395. <span class="smcap">Aristocratic Prejudices.</span>—That which we would -expunge from the book of La Chalotais is his opinion on primary -instruction. Blinded by some unexplained distrust of -the people, and dominated by aristocratic tendencies, he complains -of the extension of instruction. He demands that the -knowledge of the poor do not extend beyond their pursuits. -He bitterly criticises the thirst for knowledge which is beginning -to pervade the lower classes of the nation.</p> - -<p>“Even the people can study. Laborers and artisans send -their children to the colleges of the smaller cities.... When -these children have accomplished a summary course of study -which has taught them only to disdain the occupation of their -father, they rush into the cloisters and become ecclesiastics; -or they exercise judicial functions, and often become subjects -harmful to society. The Brethren of the Christian Doctrine -(<em>sic</em>), who are called <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">ignorantins</i>, have just appeared to complete -the general ruin; they teach people to read and write -who ought to learn only to draw, and to handle the plane and -the file, but have no disposition to do it. They are the rivals -or the successors of the Jesuits.”</p> - -<p>A singular force of prejudice was necessary to conceive that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span> -the Brethren of the Christian Schools were instructing the -people too highly.</p> - -<p>Let it be said, however, towards exonerating La Chalotais, -that he perhaps does not so much attack the instruction in -itself, as the bad way in which it is given. What he censures -is instruction that is badly conceived, that which takes people -from their own class. In some other passages of his book -we see that he would be disposed to disseminate the new -education among the ranks of the people.</p> - -<p>“It is the State, it is the larger part of the nation, that -must be kept principally in view in education; for twenty -millions of men ought to be held in greater consideration -than one million, and the <em>peasantry, who are not yet a class</em> in -France, as they are in Sweden, <em>ought not to be neglected in a -system of instruction</em>. Education is equally solicitous that -letters should be cultivated, and that the fields should be -plowed; that all the sciences and the useful arts should be -perfected; that justice should be administered and that religion -should be taught; that there should be instructed and -competent generals, magistrates, and ecclesiastics, and skillful -artists and citizens, all in fit proportion. It is for the -government to make each citizen so pleased with his condition -that he may not be forced to withdraw from it.”</p> - -<p>Let us quote one sentence more, which is almost the formula -that to-day is so dear to the friends of instruction:—</p> - -<p>“We do not fear to assert, in general, that in the condition -in which Europe now is, the people that are the most -enlightened will always have the advantage over those who -are the less so.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">396. <span class="smcap">General Conclusion.</span>—Notwithstanding the faults -which mar it, the work of La Chalotais is none the less one of -the most remarkable essays of the earlier French pedagogy. -“La Chalotais,” says Gréard, “belongs to the school of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span> -Rousseau; but on more than one point he departs from the -plan traced by the master. He escapes from the allurements -of the paradox. Relatively he has the spirit of moderation. -He is a classic without prejudices, an innovator without -temerity.”</p> - -<p>His book is pre-eminently a book of polemics, written with -the ardor of one who is engaged in a fight, and overflowing -with a generous passion. What noble words are the following:—</p> - -<p>“Let the young man learn what bread a ploughman, a -day laborer, or an artisan eats. He will see in the sequel -how they are deprived of the bread which they earn with so -much difficulty, and how one portion of men live at the expense -of the other.”</p> - -<p>In these lines, which breathe a sentiment of profound pity -for the disinherited of this world, we already hear, as it were, -the signal cry announcing the social reclamations of the -French Revolution.</p> - - -<p class="p1">379. <span class="smcap">Rolland (1734-1794).</span>—La Chalotais, after having -criticised the old methods, proposed new ones; Rolland -attempted to put them in practice. La Chalotais is a polemic -and a theorist; Rolland is an administrator. President of the -Parliament of Paris, he presented to his colleagues, in 1768, -a Report which is a real system of education.<a name="FNanchor_196_196" id="FNanchor_196_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_196_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a> But above -all, he gave his personal attention to the administration of -the College Louis-le-Grand. An ardent and impassioned -adversary of the Jesuits, he used every means to put public -instruction in a condition to do without them. “Noble and -wise spirit, patient and courageous reason, who, for twenty -years, even during exile and after the dissolution of his -society, did not abandon for a single moment the work he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span> -had undertaken, but brought it, almost perfected, to the -very confines of the Revolution; a heart divested of every -ambition, who, chosen by popular wish, and by the cabinet -of the king, as director of public instruction, obstinately -entrenched himself in the peace of his studious retreat.” This -is the judgment of a member of the University, in the nineteenth -century, Dubois, director of the Normal School.</p> - -<p>No doubt Rolland is not an original educator. “It is in -Rollin’s <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Traité des études</cite>,” he says, “that every teacher will -find the true rules for education.” Besides, he borrowed -ideas from La Chalotais, and also from the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mémoires</cite> which -the University of Paris drew up in 1763 and 1764 at the -request of Parliament; so that the interest in his work is -less, perhaps, in its personal views than in the indications -it furnishes relative to the situation of the University and -its tendency towards self-reformation.</p> - - -<p class="p1">398. <span class="smcap">Instruction within the Reach of All.</span>—At least -on one point Rolland is superior to La Chalotais; he takes a -bold stand for the necessity of primary instruction, and for -the progress and diffusion of human knowledge.</p> - -<p>“Education cannot be too widely diffused, to the end that -there may be no class of citizens who may not be brought to -participate in its benefits. It is expedient that <em>each citizen -receive the education</em> which is adapted to his needs.”<a name="FNanchor_197_197" id="FNanchor_197_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_197_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a></p> - -<p>It is true that Rolland joins in the wish expressed by the -University, which demanded a reduction in the number of -colleges. But only colleges for the higher studies were in -question, and Rolland thought less of restricting instruction -than of proportioning and adapting it to the needs of the -different classes of society.</p> - -<p>“<em>Each one ought to have the opportunity to receive the -education</em> which is adapted to his needs.... Now each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span> -soil,” adds Rolland, “is not susceptible of the same culture -and the same product. Each mind does not demand the -same degree of culture. All men have neither the same -needs nor the same talents; and it is in proportion to these -talents and these needs that public education ought to be -regulated.”</p> - -<p>Rolland shared the prejudices of La Chalotais against “the -new Order founded by La Salle”; but none the less on this -account did he demand instruction for all.</p> - -<p>“The knowledge of reading and writing, which is the key -to all the other sciences, ought to be universally diffused. -Without this the teachings of the clergy are useless, for the -memory is rarely faithful enough; and reading alone can -impress in a durable manner what it is important never to -forget.” Would it be granted by every one to-day, affected -by prejudices that are ever re-appearing, that “the laborer -who has received some sort of instruction is but the more -diligent and the more skillful by reason of it”?</p> - - -<p class="p1">399. <span class="smcap">The Normal School.</span>—We shall not dwell upon -the methods and schemes of study proposed by Rolland. -Save very urgent recommendations relative to the study of -the national history and of the French language, we shall -find nothing very new in them. What deserve to be pointed -out, by way of compensation, are the important innovations -which he wished to introduce into the general organization -of public instruction.</p> - -<p>First there was the idea of a higher normal school, of a -seminary for professors. The University had already -expressed the wish that such an establishment should be -founded. To be convinced how much this pedagogical seminary, -conceived as far back as 1763, resembled our actual -Normal School, it suffices to note the following details. The -establishment was to be governed by professors drawn from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span> -the different faculties, according to the different subjects of -instruction. The young men received on competitive examination -were to be divided into three classes, corresponding -to the three grades of admission. Within the establishment -they were to take part in a series of discussions, after a -given time to submit to the tests for graduation, and finally -to be placed in the colleges. Is it not true that there was -no important addition to be made to this scheme? Rolland -also required that pedagogics have a place among the studies -of these future professors, and that definite and systematic -instruction be given in this art, so important to the teachers -of youth.</p> - -<p>Rolland does not stop even there. He provides for -inspectors, or <em>visitors</em>, who are to examine all the colleges -each year. Finally, he subjects all scholastic establishments -to one single authority, to a council of the government, to -which he applies the rather odd title, the “Bureau of Correspondence.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">400. <span class="smcap">Spirit of Centralization.</span>—Whatever opinion -may be formed of absolute centralization, which, in our century, -has become the law of public instruction, and has -caused the disappearance of provincial franchises, it is certain -that the parliamentarians of the eighteenth century were the -first to conceive it and desire it, if not to realize it. Paris, in -Rolland’s plan, becomes the centre of public instruction. -The universities distributed through the provinces are co-ordinated -and made dependent on that of Paris.</p> - -<p>“Is it not desirable,” said Rolland, “that the good taste -which everything concurs to produce in the capital, be diffused -to the very extremities of the kingdom; that every -Frenchman participate in the treasures of knowledge which -are there accumulating from day to day; that the young men -who have the same country, who are destined to serve the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span> -prince and to fulfill the same functions, receive the same lessons -and be imbued with the same maxims; that one part of -France be not under the clouds of ignorance while letters -shed the purest light in another; in a word, that the time -come when a young man educated in a province cannot be -distinguished from one who has been trained in the capital?” -And he adds that “the only means for attaining an -end so desirable is to make Paris the centre of public instruction.”</p> - -<p>Besides the gain that will thus accrue to instruction, Rolland -sees this other advantage, that, through uniformity in instruction, -there will be secured a uniformity in manners and in -laws. By means of a uniform education, “the young men -of all the provinces will divest themselves of all their prejudices -of birth; they will form the same ideas of virtue and -justice; they will demand uniform laws, which would have -offended their fathers.”</p> - -<p>By this means, finally, there will be developed a national -spirit, a national character, and a national jurisprudence, -“the only means of recreating love of country.” Is it not -true that the great magistrates of the close of the eighteenth -century deserve also to be counted among the founders of -French unity?</p> - - -<p class="p1">401. <span class="smcap">Turgot (1727-1781).</span>—In his <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mémoires</cite> to the king -(1775), Turgot set forth analogous ideas, and also demanded -the formation of a council of public instruction. He made -an eloquent plea for the establishment of a civil and national -education which should be extended to the country at large.</p> - -<p>“Your kingdom, Sir, is of this world. Without opposing -any obstacle to the instructions whose object is higher, and -which already have their rules and their expounders, I -think I can propose to you nothing of more advantage to -your people than to cause to be given to all your subjects an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span> -instruction which shows them the obligations they owe to -society and to your power which protects them, the duties -which those obligations impose on them, and the interest -which they have in fulfilling those duties for the public good -and their own. This moral and social instruction requires -books expressly prepared, by competition, and with great -care, and a schoolmaster in each parish to teach them to -children, along with the art of writing, reading, counting, -measuring, and the principles of mechanics.”</p> - -<p>“The study of the duty of citizenship ought to be the -foundation of all the other studies.”</p> - -<p>“There are methods and establishments for training -geometricians, physicists, and painters, but there are none -for training citizens.”</p> - -<p>In a word, La Chalotais, Rolland, Turgot, and some of -their contemporaries, were real precursors of the French -Revolution in the matter of education. At the date of 1762 -the scholastic revolution began, at least so far as secondary -instruction is concerned. The Parliaments of that period -conceived the plan of the University of the nineteenth century, -and prepared for the work of Napoleon I. But they -left to the men of the Revolution the honor of being the first -to organize primary instruction.</p> - - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>[402. <span class="smcap">Analytical Summary.</span>—1. This study exhibits the -evils brought upon a country by an education controlled and -administered by a dominant Church for the attainment of -its own ends; and also the efforts of a nation to save itself -from imminent disaster by making the State the great public -educator.</p> - -<p>2. The right of the State to self-preservation is the vindication -of its right to control and direct public education. -The State thus becomes the patron of the public school;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span> -the product it requires is good citizenship; and for the sake -of securing this product the State endows the school, wholly -or in part.</p> - -<p>3. The situation in France, as described in this study, is -an aggravated case of what may occur whenever education is -administered by a class having special interests and ambitions; -and under some form there must be the intervention -of the State as a means of protecting its own interests.</p> - -<p>4. When education is administered in the main by the -literary class, there is some danger that the instruction may -not be that which is best adapted to the needs of other -classes.]</p></div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_194_194" id="Footnote_194_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194_194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a> See the pamphlet published in 1764 entitled: <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mémoires historiques sur -l’orbilianisme et les correcteurs des Jésuites</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_195_195" id="Footnote_195_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a> Duclos, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Considérations sur les mœurs de ce siècle</cite>. Ch. II. <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Sur l’éducation -et les préjugés</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_196_196" id="Footnote_196_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196_196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a> See the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Recueil</cite> of the works of President Rolland, printed in 1783, by -order of the executive committee of the College Louis-le-Grand.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_197_197" id="Footnote_197_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197_197"><span class="label">[197]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Recueil</cite>, etc., p. 25.</p> -</div></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XVI.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.—MIRABEAU, TALLEYRAND, -CONDORCET.</span></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>CONTRADICTORY JUDGMENTS ON THE WORK OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION; -GENERAL CHARACTER OF THAT WORK; THE STATE OF PRIMARY -INSTRUCTION; WHAT WAS TAUGHT IN THE SCHOOLS; DISCIPLINE; -THE SITUATION OF TEACHERS; THE RECRUITMENT OF TEACHERS; -WHAT THE SCHOOL ITSELF WAS; THE PECULIAR WORK OF THE -REVOLUTION; THE CAHIERS OF 1789; MIRABEAU (1749-1791) AND -HIS TRAVAIL SUR L’INSTRUCTION PUBLIQUE; DANGERS OF -IGNORANCE; LIBERTY OF TEACHING; THE CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY -AND THE RAPPORT OF TALLEYRAND; TALLEYRAND (1758-1838); -POLITICAL PRINCIPLES OF UNIVERSAL INSTRUCTION; FOUR GRADES -OF INSTRUCTION; POLITICAL CATECHISM; INDEPENDENT MORALITY; -THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY AND THE RAPPORT OF CONDORCET; -CONDORCET (1743-1794); GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON EDUCATION; -INSTRUCTION AND MORALITY; INSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS; LIBERALITY -OF CONDORCET; FIVE GRADES OF INSTRUCTION; PURPOSE -AND PROGRAMME OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION; IDEA OF COURSES -FOR ADULTS; THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN; PREJUDICES; FINAL -JUDGMENT; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.</p></div> - -<hr class="r15a" /> - -<p class="p1">404. <span class="smcap">Contradictory Judgments on the Work of the -Revolution.</span>—An historian of education in France, Théry, -opens his chapter on the Revolution with these contemptuous -words, “One does not study a void, one does not analyze a -negation.”<a name="FNanchor_198_198" id="FNanchor_198_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_198_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a> A more recent historian of public instruction -during the Revolution, Albert Duruy, arriving at the work -of Condorcet, certainly the most important undertaking of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span> -the pedagogy of the Revolution, does not hesitate to record -this absolute and summary judgment: “We are now no -longer in the real and in the possible; we are travelling in -the land of chimeras; we are soaring in space at heights -which admit of only ideal attainment.”<a name="FNanchor_199_199" id="FNanchor_199_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_199_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a></p> - -<p>How easy it is to say this! To believe these facile -judges, one who would estimate the efforts of the Revolution -in the matter of public instruction would have to choose -between a nothing and a chimera. The men of the Revolution -have done nothing, say some; they are dreamers and -idealists, say others.</p> - -<p>These assertions do not bear examination. For every -impartial observer it is certain that the Revolution opened a -new era in education, and the proof of this is to be found in -the very documents that our opponents so triflingly condemn, -and the practical spirit of which they misconceive.</p> - - -<p class="p1">405. <span class="smcap">General Character of that Work.</span>—It is not -that the men of the Revolution were educators in the strict -sense of the term. The science of education is not indebted -to them for new methods. They have not completed the -work of Locke, of Rousseau, and of La Chalotais; but -they were the first to attempt a legislative organization of a -vast system of public instruction. It is just to place them -in the front rank of the men who might be called “the politicians -of education.” Doubtless they lacked time for applying -their ideas, but they had at least the merit of having -conceived these ideas, and of having embodied them in -legislative acts. The principles which we proclaim to-day, -they formulated. The solutions which we attempt to put in -practice after a century of waiting, were decreed by them. -The reader who will follow the long series of reports and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span> -decrees which constitutes the pedagogical work of the Revolution -will have witnessed the genesis of popular instruction -in France.</p> - - -<p class="p1">406. <span class="smcap">The State of Primary Instruction.</span>—In order -to form a proper appreciation of the merits of the men of -the Revolution, it is first necessary to consider in what a -deplorable state they found primary instruction. What a -contrast between that which they hoped to do and the actual -situation in 1789! I very well know that fancy sketches -have been drawn of the old régime. A very showy enumeration -has been made of the number of colleges; but we -have not been told how many of these colleges had no professors, -and how many had no pupils. And so of the -schools; they are found everywhere, but it remains to be -shown what was taught in them, and whether anything was -taught in them.<a name="FNanchor_200_200" id="FNanchor_200_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_200_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a></p> - -<p>Party writers who are bound to gainsay the work of the -French Revolution in the matter of education, generally put -under contribution, to serve their political prejudices, the old -communal archives. They cite imaginary statistics which -prove, for example, that in the diocese of Rouen, in 1718, -there were 855 schools for boys, and 306 schools for girls, -for a territory of 1159 parishes.</p> - -<p>It is first necessary to verify these statistics, whose accuracy -has not been demonstrated, and whose figures were -evidently obtained only by counting a school wherever the -rector of the parish gave lessons in reading and in the catechism -to three or four children.</p> - -<p>But there are other replies to make to the traducers of the -Revolution who tax their ingenuity to prove that instruction -was flourishing under the old régime, and that the Revolution<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span> -destroyed more than it created. With this assumed efflorescence -of schools of which we hear, it is necessary to -contrast the results as shown by authentic statistics of the -number of illiterates. In 1790 there was 53 per cent of men -and 73 per cent of women who could not sign their names -to their marriage contracts.</p> - -<p>Besides, we must inquire what was taught in these pretended -schools, how many children attended them, and what -was the material and moral condition of the teachers who -directed them.</p> - - -<p class="p1">407. <span class="smcap">What was taught in the Schools.</span>—Instruction -was reduced to the catechism, to reading and writing. On -this point there can be no dispute. The official programme -of the Brethren of the Christian Schools did not go -beyond this. The ordinance of Louis XIV., dated in 1698, -has been pompously quoted.</p> - -<p>“We would have appointed,” it is there said, “as far as -it shall be possible, masters and mistresses in all the parishes -where there are none, to instruct all children, and <em>in -particular those whose parents have made profession of the -pretended reformed religion</em>, in the catechism and the prayers -which are necessary; to take them to mass on every work -day; and also to teach reading and writing <em>to those who will -need this knowledge</em>.”</p> - -<p>But does not this very text support those who maintain -that the Monarchy and the Church have never encouraged -primary instruction except as required by the necessities of -the struggle against heresy, and that primary instruction -under the old régime was scarcely more than an instrument -of religious domination?</p> - -<p>Most often the school was simply a place to which parents -sent their children for temporary care. Writing was not -always taught in it. A school-mistress of Haute-Marne<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span> -was forbidden to teach writing “for fear her pupils might -employ their knowledge in writing love-letters.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">408. <span class="smcap">Discipline.</span>—Corporal punishments were more than -ever the order of the day. The bishop of Montpellier, at -the end of the seventeenth century, forbids, it is true, beating -with sticks, kicks, and raps on the head; but he authorizes -the ferule and the rod, on the condition that the patient -be not completely exposed.</p> - - -<p class="p1">409. <span class="smcap">Condition of the Teachers.</span>—That which is graver -still is that the teachers themselves (I speak of lay teachers, -who, it is true, were not numerous) lived in a wretched condition, -without material independence and without moral -dignity. In general, there were no fixed salaries. Wages -varied from 40 to 200 francs, arbitrarily fixed by the vestry-board -or by the community, in return for a great number of -services the most various and the least exalted. The school-masters -were far less teachers than sextons, choristers, -beadles, bell-ringers, clock-makers, and even grave-diggers. -“Attendance at marriages and at burials was counted at the -rate of 15 sols and dinner for marriages, and 20 sols for -burials.” And Albert Duruy concludes that in this there -were <em>substantial advantages</em> to the school-masters;<a name="FNanchor_201_201" id="FNanchor_201_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_201_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a>—advantages -dearly bought in every case, and repudiated by those -who were interested in them. “The more services we render -the community,” said the teachers of Bourgogne in their -complaints in 1789, “the more we are degraded.”<a name="FNanchor_202_202" id="FNanchor_202_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_202_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> The -school-masters were scarcely more than the domestics of the -<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">curé</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span></p> - -<p>In order to live, they were not only obliged to accept -these church services, but they also became shoemakers, -tailors, innkeepers, millers, etc. The teacher of the commune -of Angles, in the High Alps, was a “barbers’ -surgeon.”</p> - -<p>Thus there was no assured salary, and consequently no -moral consideration. “In the communes, teachers were -regarded as strangers and not as citizens; like tramps and -vagrants, they were not admitted to the assemblies of the -commune.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">410. <span class="smcap">The Recruitment of Teachers.</span>—Nowhere were -there normal schools for the training of teachers. The -schools were entrusted to the first comer. The bishop -granted his approbation, or permission to teach, after an -examination of the most summary kind. The duties of -teaching were the means of subsistence which were accepted -without call and without serious preparation. In Provence, -school-masters attended kinds of “teachers’ fairs” for the -purpose of being hired. In the Alps, teachers were numerous, -but only in winter. They tarried in the plain and in -the valleys only during the inclement season. They returned -home for the labors of the summer.</p> - -<p>Consequently, most of the schools existed only in name. -“The schools,” we are told,<a name="FNanchor_203_203" id="FNanchor_203_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_203_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a> “were in vacation for four or -five months.” For a half of the year, the school-masters -were free to follow another trade, or, rather, to devote themselves -more completely to their ordinary trade, which their -school duties did not always interrupt.</p> - - -<p class="p1">411. <span class="smcap">What the School Itself was.</span>—School-houses were -most frequently merely wretched huts, wooden cots, and narrow -ground-floors, badly lighted, which served at the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span> -time as a domicile for the school-master and his family, and -as a class-room for pupils. Benches and tables were things -rarely seen, and pupils wrote while standing.</p> - -<p>In a word, the state of primary instruction, when the -States-General opened in 1789, was as follows: schools -few in number and poorly attended; few lay teachers, trained -no one knows how, without thorough instruction, and, as -they themselves said, “degraded” by their inferior position; -few or no elementary books; gratuity only partial; finally, -a general indifference for elementary instruction, which philosophers -like Voltaire, and Rousseau, and Parliamentarians -like La Chalotais, themselves lightly esteemed.</p> - - -<p class="p1">412. <span class="smcap">The Proper Work of the Revolution.</span>—I do not -say that the Revolution accomplished all that there was to be -attempted in order to bring instruction up to the needs of the -new society; but it purposed to do this. Every time a liberal -ministry has decided to work for the promotion of instruction, -it has revived its plans; and it is these same plans -that by a vigorous effort public authority has attempted to -realize in recent times.</p> - - -<p class="p1">413. <span class="smcap">The Reports of 1789.</span>—Already, in the reports of -1789, public opinion vigorously pronounced itself in favor of -educational reforms. “The <em>cahiers</em> of 1789, even those -of the clergy and the nobility, demand the reorganization of -public instruction on a comprehensive plan. The <em>cahiers</em> -of the clergy of Rodez and of Saumur demand ‘that there -may be formed a plan of <em>national education</em> for the young’; -those of Lyons, that education be restricted ‘to a teaching -body whose members may not be removable except for negligence, -misconduct, or incapacity; that it may no longer be -conducted according to arbitrary principles, and that all public -instructors be obliged to conform to a uniform plan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span> -adopted by the States-General.’ The <em>cahiers</em> of the nobility -of Lyons insist that ‘a national character’ be impressed on -the education of both sexes. Those of Paris demand ‘that -public education be perfected, and extended to all classes of -citizens.’ Those of Blois, ‘that there be established a council -composed of the most enlightened scholars of the capital -and of the provinces and of the citizens of the different -orders, to form a plan of national education, for the use of -all the classes of society, and to edit elementary treatises.’”<a name="FNanchor_204_204" id="FNanchor_204_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">414. <span class="smcap">Mirabeau (1749-1791).</span>—From the first days of -the Revolution, pedagogical literature abounds, and gives evidence -of the ever-growing interest which public opinion -attaches to educational questions. The Oratorians, of whom -La Chalotais said, “that they were free from the prejudices -of the school and of the cloister, and that they were citizens,” -present to the National Assembly a series of scholastic -plans. On its part, the Assembly sets itself at work; Talleyrand -prepares his great report, and Mirabeau embodies his -own reflections in four eloquent discourses.</p> - -<p>Mirabeau’s discourses, published after his death through -the good offices of his friend Cabanis, had the following -titles: 1. <cite>Draft of a Law for the Organization of the Teaching -Body</cite>; 2. <cite>Public and Military Festivals</cite>; 3. <cite>Organization -of a National Lycée</cite>; 4. <cite>The Education of the Heir -Presumptive of the Crown</cite>.</p> - - -<p class="p1">415. <span class="smcap">The Dangers of Ignorance.</span>—With what brilliancy -the illustrious orator made appear the advantages and the -necessity of instruction!</p> - -<p>“Those who desire that the peasant may not know how -to <em>read or write</em>, have doubtless made a patrimony of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span> -ignorance, and their motives are not difficult to appreciate; -but they do not know that when they have made a wild beast -of a man, they expose themselves to the momentary danger -of seeing him transformed into a savage beast. Without intelligence -there is no morality. But on whom, then, is it -important to bestow intelligence, if it is not upon the rich? -Is not the safeguard of their enjoyments the morality of the -people? Through the influence of the laws, through that of -a wise administration, through the efforts to which each one -should be inspired by the hope of ameliorating the condition -of his fellows, exert yourselves, public and private citizens, -to diffuse in all quarters the noble fruits of knowledge. -Believe that in dissipating one single error, in propagating -one single wholesome truth, you will do something for the -happiness of the human race; and whoever you are, do not -have the least doubt that it is only by this means that you -can assure your own happiness.”</p> - -<p>But through some inexplicable spirit of timidity, Mirabeau -did not draw from these principles the consequences that -they permit. He does not admit that the State can impose -the obligation to attend school.</p> - -<p>“Society,” he says, “has not the right to prescribe instruction -as a duty.... Public authority has not the right, -with respect to the members of the social body, to go beyond -the limits of watchfulness against injustice and of protection -against violence....” “Society,” he adds, “can exact of -each one only the sacrifices necessary for the maintenance -of the liberty and the safety of all.”</p> - -<p>Mirabeau forgets that the obligation to send children to -school is exactly one of those necessary sacrifices which the -State has the right to impose on parents.</p> - -<p>Hostile to obligation, Mirabeau feels no greater partisanship -for gratuity:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span></p> - -<p>“Gratuitous education,” he said, “is paid for by everybody, -while its fruits are immediately gathered by only a -small number of individuals.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">416. <span class="smcap">Liberty of Teaching.</span>—Like so many other generous -spirits, Mirabeau cherished the dream of the most complete -liberty of teaching.<a name="FNanchor_205_205" id="FNanchor_205_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a></p> - -<p>“Your single purpose,” he said to the members, “is to give -to man the use of all his faculties, to make him enjoy all his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span> -rights, to develop the corporate life out of all the individual -lives freely developed, and the will of the whole out of all -personal wills.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">417. <span class="smcap">Distribution of Studies.</span>—In Mirabeau’s plan, -public and national instruction depends, not on the executive -power, but on “the magistrates who truly represent the people, -that is to say, who are elected and often renewed by the -people,”—in other terms, the officers of departments or districts. -Establishments for instruction ought not to form a -consolidated body.</p> - -<p>Let us observe, finally, that by the side of the primary -schools Mirabeau established a college of literature for each -department, and at Paris, a single National Lycée, “designed -to secure to a select number of French youth the means of -finishing their education.” In this he established a chair of -<em>method</em>, which, he said, ought to be the basis of instruction.</p> - -<p>In conclusion, the work of Mirabeau is but a very imperfect -sketch, and a sort of graduated transition between the -old and the new régime.</p> - -<p>We do not yet find in it the grand ideas which are to -impassion men, and it is the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Rapport</cite> of Talleyrand which -constitutes the real introduction to the educational work of -the Revolution.</p> - - -<p class="p1">418. <span class="smcap">The Constituent Assembly and Talleyrand.</span>—The -constitution of Sept. 4, 1791, announced the following -provision:—</p> - -<p>“There shall be created and organized a system of public -instruction, common to all citizens, and gratuitous with respect -to those branches of instruction which are indispensable -for all men.”</p> - -<p>It was to put in force the decree of the Constitution that -Talleyrand drew up his <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Rapport</cite> and presented it to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span> -Assembly at the sessions of September 10 and 11. The -entire bill contained not less than 208 articles. Having -reached the term of its troubled existence, the Assembly did -not find the time to discuss it, and, while regretting “not -having established the bases of the regeneration of education,” -it referred the examination of Talleyrand’s work to -the Legislative Assembly.</p> - -<p>The Legislative Assembly showed but little anxiety to -accept the legacy of its predecessor. Another report, that -of Condorcet, was prepared, so that the bill of Talleyrand -never had the honor of a parliamentary discussion.</p> - - -<p class="p1">419. <span class="smcap">Talleyrand (1758-1838).</span>—The ex-bishop of -Autun, having become a revolutionist of 1789, before being -the chamberlain of Napoleon I. and the minister of Louis -XVIII., scarcely deserves by his character the esteem of -history; he too often gave a striking example of political -versatility. But at least, by his supple and acute intelligence, -and by the abundance of his ideas, he has always -risen to the height of the various tasks that he has undertaken, -and his <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Rapport</cite> is a remarkable work.</p> - - -<p class="p1">420. <span class="smcap">General Principles.</span>—As Montesquieu has said, -“the laws of education ought to be relative to the principles -of government.” It is by this truth that Talleyrand is -inspired in the long considerations that serve as a preamble -to his bill.</p> - -<p>What was to be done in the presence of a constitution -which, limiting the powers of the king, called the entire people -to participate in political life? That constitution would -have remained sterile, would have been but a dead letter, if -a suitable education had not come to vivify it by causing it -to pass, so to speak, into the blood of the nation. In what -did the new régime consist? You have separated, said<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span> -Talleyrand to the members, you have separated the will of -the whole, or the power of making the laws, from the executive -power, which you have reserved to the king. But that -general will must be upright, and, in order to be upright, it -must be enlightened and instructed. After having given -power to the people, you ought to teach them wisdom. Of -what use would it be to enfranchise brutal and unconscious -forces, to turn them over to their own keeping? Instruction -is the necessary counterpoise of liberty. The law, which is -henceforth the work of the people, ought not to be at the -mercy of the tumultuous opinions of an ignorant multitude.</p> - - -<p class="p1">421. <span class="smcap">Education as related to Liberty and Equality.</span>—Talleyrand -is pleased with his thought, and, considering -in turn the two fundamental ideas of the Revolution, the -idea of equality and the idea of liberty, he shows, not without -some length of analysis, that instruction is necessary, on -the one hand, to create free individuals, by giving to them a -conscience and a reason, and on the other, to draw men -together by diminishing the inequality of intelligences.</p> - - -<p class="p1">422. <span class="smcap">Rules for Public Instruction.</span>—Instruction is -due to all. There must be schools in the villages as in the -cities. Instruction ought to be given by all; there ought to -be no privilege in instruction. Finally, instruction ought to -extend to all subjects; everything shall be taught which can -be taught:—</p> - -<p>“In a well organized society, though no one can attain to -universal knowledge, it should nevertheless be possible to -learn everything.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">423. <span class="smcap">Political Education.</span>—At the basis of every -educational system there is always a dominant and essential -thought. In the Middle Age—and the Middle Age is continued -in the schools of the Jesuits—it is the idea of salva<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375]</a></span>tion, -it is the preparation of the soul for the future life. In -the seventeenth century it is the conception of a perfect -justness of spirit joined to uprightness of heart; such -was the ideal of the solitaries of Port Royal. In 1792 politics -became the almost exclusive preoccupation of the -educators of youth. Everything else—religion, accuracy -of judgment, nobility of heart—is relegated to the second -place: man is nothing more than a political animal, brought -into the world to know, to love, and to obey the constitution.</p> - -<p>The <cite>Declaration of the Rights of Man</cite> became, in the system -of Talleyrand, the catechism of childhood. It is necessary -that the future citizen learn to know, to love, to obey, -and finally to perfect the constitution. We cannot help -thinking that Talleyrand himself showed a marvellous aptitude -for loving and obeying the constitution. Unfortunately -this has not always been the case!</p> - - -<p class="p1">424. <span class="smcap">Universal Morality.</span>—One of the most beautiful -pages of Talleyrand’s work is certainly that in which he -recommends the teaching of universal morality, and claims -the autonomy of natural laws, distinct from all positive -religion.</p> - -<p>“We must learn to infuse ourselves with morality, which -is the first need of all constitutions.... Morality must be -taught as a real science, whose principles will be demonstrated -to the reason of all men, and to that of all ages. It -is only in this way that it will resist all trials. It has long -been a matter of lamentation to see men of all nations and -of all religions make it depend exclusively on that multitude -of opinions which divide them. From this have resulted -great evils; for abandoning morality to uncertainty, and -often to absurdity, it has necessarily been compromised; it -has been made versatile and unsettled. It is time to establish -it upon its own bases, and to show men that if baneful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[376]</a></span> -divisions separate them, they at least have in morality a -common meeting place where they all ought to take refuge -and unite for protection. It is necessary, then, to detach it -in some sort from everything else, in order to reunite it at -once to that which merits our approval and our homage.... -This change is simple and injures nothing; above all, -it is possible. How is it possible not to see, in fact, that -abstraction being made of every system and of every opinion, -and by considering in men only their relations with other -men, they can be taught what is good and just, made to love -it, and made to find happiness in virtuous actions and -wretchedness in those which are not so?”</p> - - -<p class="p1">425. <span class="smcap">Four Grades of Instruction.</span>—The organization -of instruction, in Talleyrand’s bill, was “to be combined -with that of the government,” and to be modeled after the -division of administrative functions. The <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Rapport</cite> established -four grades of instruction. There was a school for -each <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">canton</i>, corresponding to each primary assembly. Then -came intermediate or secondary instruction, intended, if not -for all, at least for the greater number, and given in the -principal town of the district, or <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">arrondissement</i>. In the third -place, special schools, scattered over the territory of the -kingdom, in the principal towns of the departments, prepare -young men for the different professions. Finally, the select -intelligences find at Paris, in the National Institute, all that -constitutes the higher instruction.</p> - -<p>The great novelty of this system was the creation of cantonal -schools, open to peasants and to workmen, to those -whom, up to this time, improvidence or the purpose of the -great sent off to their plows or to their planes.</p> - - -<p class="p1">426. <span class="smcap">Gratuity of Primary Instruction.</span>—Talleyrand did -not desire compulsory education any more than Mirabeau;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a></span> -but, in accordance with the constitution of 1791, he demands -the gratuity of primary instruction. Society is under obligations -to give elementary instruction, but not intermediate -and secondary instruction, and still less, special and higher -instruction. Gratuitous for the lowest grade, and in case -of that elementary knowledge which constitutes for every -civilized man a real moral necessity, instruction ought not -to be free to young men who aspire to a liberal profession, -because they have leisure, and who have leisure because they -have wealth. However, Talleyrand admits exceptions in the -case of talent. By the creation of national scholarships, -the doors of all the schools will be opened to select intelligences -whom the lowness of their condition would condemn -to remain obscure and unappreciated, did not society lend to -them a helping hand.</p> - - -<p class="p1">427. <span class="smcap">Programme of Primary Instruction.</span>—Primary -instruction should comprise the principles of the national -language, the elementary rules of calculation and mensuration; -the elements of religion, the principles of morals, the -principles of the constitution; finally, the development of -the physical, intellectual, and moral powers.</p> - - -<p class="p1">428. <span class="smcap">Means of Instruction.</span>—We shall not insist on the -details of the organization of the different parts of that -which Talleyrand himself called his “immense machine.” -Let us notice only the last part of his work, where he discusses -a certain number of general questions under this -arbitrary and unjustifiable title: <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Des moyens d’instruction</i>. -The professors, carefully chosen, shall be elected by the -king. Talleyrand does not determine that they shall be -irremovable, but he requires that their situation shall be -surrounded by all possible guarantees. Prizes, and rewards -of every kind, shall encourage the teachers of youth to re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></span>double -their zeal and to find new methods. Talleyrand -counts on dramatic representations and on national holidays -to hasten the progress of instruction. Finally, let it be -added that he entrusts the supreme direction of public instruction -to six commissioners, chosen by the king and -obliged to make an annual report.</p> - - -<p class="p1">429. <span class="smcap">The Education of Women.</span>—Talleyrand, in his -proposal, has not wholly forgotten women, and what he has -said of them is just and sensible. He discusses the question -of their political rights, and, in accord with tradition and -good sense, he concludes that the happiness of women, their -own interests, their nature and their proper destination, -ought to forbid them from entering the political arena. -What is particularly fit for them is a domestic education, -which, received in the family, prepares them for living there. -Like Mirabeau, he wishes woman to remain a woman. Her -function, said the great orator, is to perpetuate the species, -to watch with solicitude over the perilous periods of early -youth, and “to enchain to her feet all the energies of the -husband by the irresistible power of her weakness.” Without -being as gallant in his expressions, Talleyrand’s thought -is the same. He thought it necessary, however, in order to -respond to certain proprieties, that the State should establish -institutions of public education destined to replace the -convents.</p> - -<p>This desire sets right whatever was unreasonable in this -passage of his proposed law:—</p> - -<p>“Girls shall not be admitted to the primary schools after -the age of eight. After that age the National Assembly -advises parents to entrust the education of their daughters -only to themselves, and reminds them that this is their first -duty.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[379]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">430. <span class="smcap">The Legislative Assembly and Condorcet.</span>—Of -all the educational undertakings of the Revolution, the most -remarkable is that of Condorcet. His <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Rapport</cite> presented to -the Legislative Assembly, in behalf of the committee on -public instruction, April 20 and 21, 1792, reprinted in 1793 -by order of the Convention, did not directly have the honor -of a public discussion; but it contained principles and solutions -which are found in the deliberations and legislative -acts of his successors. It remained, during the whole duration -of the Convention, the widely accessible source whence -the legislators of that time, like Romme, Bouquier, and Lakanal, -drew their inspiration.</p> - - -<p class="p1">431. <span class="smcap">Condorcet (1743-1794).</span>—Condorcet was admirably -qualified for the task which the Legislative Assembly -imposed on him, in charging him with the organization of -public instruction. During the first years of the Revolution -he had employed his leisure (he was not a member of the -Constituent Assembly) in writing five <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mémoires</cite> on instruction, -which appeared in a periodical called the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Bibliothèque -de l’homme public</cite>. The <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Rapport</cite> which he submitted to the -Assembly was a sort of résumé of his long reflections. Condorcet -brought to this work, not the indiscreet imagination -of an improvised educator, but the authority of a competent -thinker, who, if he had no personal experience in teaching, -had at least reflected much on these topics and was conscious -of all their difficulties. Besides, he devoted himself -to his work with the ardor of an enthusiastic nature, and -with the serious convictions of a mind that had carried -farther than any one else the religion of progress and zeal -for the public good.</p> - - -<p class="p1">432. <span class="smcap">General Considerations upon Instruction.</span>—All -the Revolutionists have sung the praises of instruction, of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[380]</a></span> -which they were the passionate admirers. Condorcet is its -reflective partisan. He did not love it more than the others, -but he comprehended it better, and better stated why it -should be loved. He first takes up the ideas of Talleyrand, -and shows that without instruction, liberty and equality -would be chimeras:—</p> - -<p>“A free constitution which should not be correspondent -to the universal instruction of citizens, would come to destruction -after a few conflicts, and would degenerate into one of -those forms of government which cannot preserve the peace -among an ignorant and corrupt people.”</p> - -<p>Anarchy or despotism, such is the future of peoples who -have become free before having been enlightened.</p> - -<p>As to equality, without falling into the chimeras of an instruction -which should be the same for all, and which should -reduce all men to the same level, Condorcet desires to realize -it so far as it is possible. He desires that the poorest and -the humblest shall be sufficiently instructed to belong to himself, -and not to be at the mercy of the first charlatan who -comes along, and also to be able to fulfill his civil duties, to -be an elector, a juror, etc.</p> - - -<p class="p1">433. <span class="smcap">Instruction and Morality.</span>—The instrument of -liberty and equality, instruction, in the opinion of Condorcet, -is, in addition, the real source of public morality and of -human progress. If it were not correspondent to the -advances in knowledge, a free and impartial constitution -would be hostile rather than favorable to good morals.</p> - -<p>“Instruction alone can give the assurance that the principle -of justice which the equality of rights ordains, shall not be -in contradiction with this other principle, which prescribes -that only those rights shall be accorded to men which they -can exercise without danger to society.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[381]</a></span></p> - -<p>But it is moral reasons still more than political motives -that make instruction the condition of virtue. Condorcet -has shrewdly seen that the vices of the people come chiefly -from their intellectual impotency.</p> - -<p>“These vices come,” he says, “from the need of escaping -from <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">ennui</i> in moments of leisure, and in escaping from it -through sensations and not through ideas.”</p> - -<p>These are notable words which should never be lost sight -of by the teachers and moralists of the people.</p> - -<p>To cause gross natures to pass from the life of the senses -to the intellectual life; to make study agreeable to the end -that the higher pleasures of the spirit may struggle successfully -against the appetites for material pleasures; to put -the book in the place of the wine bottle; to substitute the -library for the saloon; in a word, <em>to replace sensation by idea</em>,—such -is the fundamental problem of popular education.</p> - - -<p class="p1">434. <span class="smcap">Instruction and Progress.</span>—Condorcet was a -fanatic on the subject of progress. Up to the last moment -of his life he dreamed of progress, its conditions, and its -laws. Now the most potent means of hastening progress is -to instruct men; and here is the final reason why instruction -is so dear to him.</p> - -<p>These are grand words:—</p> - -<p>“If the indefinite improvement of our species is, as I believe, -a general law of nature, man ought no longer to regard -himself as a being limited to a transitory and isolated existence, -destined to vanish after an alternative of happiness or -of misery for himself, and of good and evil for those whom -chance has placed near him; but he becomes an active part -of the grand whole, and a fellow-laborer in a work that is -eternal. In an existence of a moment, and upon a point in -space, he can, by his works, compass all places, relate him<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[382]</a></span>self -to all the centuries, and continue to act long centuries -after his memory has disappeared from the earth.” And -further on: “For a long time I have considered these views -as dreams which were to be realized only in an indefinite -future, and for a world where I should not exist. A happy -event has suddenly opened an immense career to the hopes -of the human race; a single instant has put a century of distance -between the man of to-day and him of to-morrow.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">435. <span class="smcap">The Liberality of Condorcet.</span>—Wrongly credited -with a despotic and absolute habit of mind, Condorcet is, on -the contrary, full of scruples and penetrated with respect as -regards the liberty of individual opinions. In fact, he carefully -distinguishes instruction from education. Instruction -has to do with positive and certain knowledge, the truths of -fact and of calculation; education, with political and religious -beliefs. Now, if the State is the natural dispenser of instruction, -it ought, on the contrary, in the matter of education, to -forbear, and to declare itself incompetent. In other words, -the State ought not to abuse its power by imposing by force -on its citizens such or such a religious <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Credo</i>, such or such -a political dogma.</p> - -<p>“Public authority cannot establish a body of doctrine -which is to be exclusively taught. No public power ought -to have the authority, or even the permission, to prevent the -development of new truths, or the teaching of theories contrary -to its particular policy or to its momentary interests.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">436. <span class="smcap">Five Grades of Instruction.</span>—Condorcet distinguishes -five grades of instruction: 1. Primary schools proper; -2. Secondary schools, that is, such as we now call higher -primary schools; 3. <em>Institutes</em>, or colleges of secondary instruction; -4. <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Lycées</i>, or institutions of higher instruction; -5. The <em>National Society of Sciences and Arts</em>, which corresponds -to our Institute.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[383]</a></span></p> - -<p>Two things are especially to be noted: first, Condorcet -establishes for the first time higher primary schools, and demands -one for each district, and in addition one for each town -of four thousand inhabitants; then, for primary schools proper, -he takes the population as a basis for their establishment, and -requires one for each four hundred inhabitants.<a name="FNanchor_206_206" id="FNanchor_206_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">437. <span class="smcap">Purpose and Plan of Primary Instruction.</span>—Condorcet -has admirably defined the purpose of primary instruction:—</p> - -<p>“In the primary schools there is taught that which is -necessary for each individual in order to direct his own conduct -and to enjoy the plenitude of his own rights.”</p> - -<p>The programme comprised reading, writing, some notions -on grammar, the rules of arithmetic, simple methods of -measuring a field and a building with exactness; a simple -description of the productions of the country, of the processes -in agriculture and the arts; the development of the first -moral ideas and the rules for conduct derived from them; -finally, such of the principles of social order as can be put -within the comprehension of children.</p> - - -<p class="p1">438. <span class="smcap">The Idea of Courses for Adults.</span>—Condorcet -was strongly impressed with the necessity of continuing the -instruction of the workman and of the peasant after withdrawal -from school:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[384]</a></span></p> - -<p>“We have observed that instruction ought not to abandon -individuals the moment they leave the schools; that it ought -to embrace all ages; that there is no period of life when it is -not useful and possible to learn, and that this supplementary -instruction is so much the more necessary as that of infancy -has been contracted to the narrowest limits. Here is one -of the principal causes of the ignorance in which the poor -classes of society are to-day plunged; they lacked not nearly -so much the possibility of receiving an elementary instruction -as that of preserving its advantages.”</p> - -<p>Consequently, Condorcet proposed, if not courses of instruction -for adults, at least something very like them,—weekly -lectures, given each Sunday by the village teachers, -a kind of lay sermons.</p> - -<p>“Each Sunday the teacher shall give a public lecture -which citizens of all ages will attend. In this arrangement -we have seen a means of giving to young people those necessary -parts of knowledge, which, however, did not form a part -of their primary education.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">439. <span class="smcap">Professional and Technical Education.</span>—But -Condorcet does not think his duty to the people done when -he has given them intellectual emancipation. He is very -anxious to give in addition to the sons of peasants or workmen -the means of struggling against misery, by diffusing -more and more among the masses of the people a technical -knowledge of the arts and trades. He deserves to be -counted among the adepts in professional instruction and in -industrial education. He asks that there be placed in the -schools “models of machines or of trades”; and in all grades -of instruction, he recommends with a special solicitude the -teaching of the practical arts.</p> - -<p>We fancy we are doing something new to-day when we -establish school museums. “Each school,” says Condorcet,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[385]</a></span> -“shall have a small library, and a small cabinet in which -shall be placed some meteorological instruments or some -specimens of natural history.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">440. <span class="smcap">The Education of Women.</span>—Condorcet may be -regarded as one of the most ardent apostles of the education -of women. He wishes education to be common and equal. -He is evidently wrong when he dreams of a perfect identity -of instruction for the two sexes, when he forgets the particular -destination of women, and the special character of their -education. But we have found so many educators disposed -to depreciate the abilities of woman, that we are happy to -find at last one voice that exalts them, even beyond -measure.</p> - -<p>Let us recall, however, the excellent reasons which he -gives in support of his thesis on the equality of education. -It is necessary that women should be instructed: 1. in order -that they may be able to bring up their children, of whom -they are the natural instructors; 2. in order that they may -be the worthy companions, the equals of their husbands, that -they may feel an interest in their pursuits, share in their -preoccupations, and, finally, participate in their life, such -being the condition of conjugal happiness; 3. in order, -further, by an analogous reason, that they may not quench, -by their ignorance, that inspiration of heart and mind which -previous studies have developed in their husbands, but that -they may nourish this flame by conversation and reading in -common; 4. finally, because this is just,—because the two -sexes have an equal right to instruction.</p> - - -<p class="p1">441. <span class="smcap">Reservations to be made.</span>—All is not equally -worthy of commendation in the work of Condorcet. Some -faults and some omissions mar this fine piece of political -pedagogy. The faults are, first, the exaggerated idea of lib<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[386]</a></span>erty -and of equality. From Condorcet’s ardors for liberty there -issues, in his plan for education, a grave error,—the idea of -making of the teaching body a sort of State within the State, -an independent authority, a fourth power, released from all -exterior authority, governing itself and administering its -own affairs, the State intervening only as treasurer to pay for -the services which it neither regulates nor supervises. The -liberal Daunou, while explaining the system of our author, -has criticised it on this point.<a name="FNanchor_207_207" id="FNanchor_207_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_207_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a> “Condorcet,” he said, “the -enemy of corporations, has sanctioned one in his scheme of -national instruction; he established, as it were, an academic -church. This is because Condorcet, the enemy of kings, -would add in the balance of public powers one counterbalance -more to that royal power whose monstrous existence, -in a free constitution, is sufficiently attested by the alarms -and fears of all the friends of liberty.”</p> - -<p>The passion for equality led Condorcet into another chimera,—that -of the absolute gratuity of instruction of all grades.</p> - -<p>Finally, in his dreams of infinite perfectibility, Condorcet -allows himself to be carried so far away as to imagine for -man, and to expect from instruction, results that are utterly -unattainable. Instruction, according to him, ought to be so -complete “as to cause the disappearance of every inequality -which induces dependence.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">442. <span class="smcap">Prejudices of the Mathematician.</span>—From another -point of view, Condorcet was led astray by his predilection -for the sciences. He so far forgot that he was a member of -the French Academy as to obey only his tendencies, a little -too exclusive, as a mathematician and a member of the -Academy of Sciences. By a reaction, natural enough, -against those long centuries in which an abuse was made of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[387]</a></span> -literary culture, Condorcet is too prompt to underrate the -influence of letters in education, and to invest the sciences -with the place of honor. The reasons which he invokes to -justify his preference are not all conclusive.</p> - - -<p class="p1">443. <span class="smcap">Omissions.</span>—The idea of obligatory instruction is -still wanting in the scheme we are examining. We shall be -surprised, perhaps, that Condorcet, who has so clearly proclaimed -the necessity of universal instruction, did not think -to impose obligatory attendance, which is the only means of -establishing it. This is because the early revolutionists, in -the ardor of their enthusiasm, did not suspect the opposition -to the accomplishment of their plans that was to come from -the indifference of the greater number, and from the prejudices -of those who, as Condorcet has eloquently said, -“thought they were obeying God while betraying their country.” -It seemed to them that when centres of light had -been made to glow over the whole surface of the country, -citizens would hasten after them, impelled by a natural -appetite, spontaneously thirsting for enlightenment. They -were deceived. These hopes, a little artless, were destined -to be disproved by facts; and it was to triumph over the -neglect of some, and the resistance of others, that the Convention, -supplying one of the rare defects in Condorcet’s -plan, decreed, on several occasions, instruction “imperative -and forced,” as was then said.</p> - -<p>On still another point, Condorcet remained inferior to his -successors; in his report there was no mention made of the -organization of normal schools. In this grave and fundamental -question of the education of the teaching body, -Condorcet contented himself with a provisional expedient, -which consisted in entrusting to the professors of the grade -immediately higher the care of preparing teachers for the -grade lower.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[388]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">444. <span class="smcap">Final Conclusion.</span>—But even with these reservations, -the work of Condorcet deserves scarcely anything but -praise. We have commended its new and exalted conceptions. -Its beautiful and exact arrangement and its masterly -style also deserve praise. Condorcet’s periods are symmetrical -in their fullness, and the expression is precise and vigorous. -Doubtless there is some monotony and some frigidity -in that style so concise and strong. But at intervals there -are outbursts of passion. The man whom his contemporaries -compared to “an enraged lamb,” or to a “volcano -covered with snow,” is painted to the life in his writings. -His <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Rapport</cite> is like a beautiful and finished statue of marble, -cold to the touch, but upon which the hand might feel beating -in places a vein warm with life.</p> - - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>[445. <span class="smcap">Analytical Summary.</span>—1. The more important -lessons to be derived from this study are the following: the -necessity of making instruction universal and of having it -administered by the State; the need of making instruction -obligatory, and, in certain grades, gratuitous; the value of -intellectual culture as a moral safeguard.</p> - -<p>2. The right of the State to self-preservation carries with -it the right to ordain the establishment of schools for giving -a certain kind and degree of instruction. This constitutes -the first form of compulsion.</p> - -<p>3. When there is not a voluntary and general attendance -on the schools ordained by the State, it may avail itself of -the supplementary right to make attendance obligatory. -This constitutes the second form of compulsion.</p> - -<p>4. Gratuity is the logical sequence to compulsion. If the -State may require all children to partake of a certain degree -of instruction, it must make such instruction free.</p> - -<p>5. Should instruction that is above the compulsory grade -be free? This depends on the question whether the State<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[389]</a></span> -needs a certain amount of the higher culture, and whether -this required amount will be secured at the pupils’ own expense. -Monsieur Compayré decides, as against Condorcet -(paragraph 441), that the higher grades of instruction -should not be gratuitous. In this country the prevailing -theory is that the higher education should be endowed by -the State.</p> - -<p>6. The relation of instruction to morality has never been -more justly and pointedly stated than in paragraph 433. -This is not only good sense but sound philosophy.]</p></div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_198_198" id="Footnote_198_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198_198"><span class="label">[198]</span></a> Théry, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Histoire de l’éducation en France</cite>, Paris, 1861, Tome II. p. 188.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_199_199" id="Footnote_199_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199_199"><span class="label">[199]</span></a> Albert Duruy, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’instruction publique et la Révolution</cite>, p. 80.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_200_200" id="Footnote_200_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200_200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a> J. Simon, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dieu, patrie, et liberté</cite>, p. 11.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_201_201" id="Footnote_201_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201_201"><span class="label">[201]</span></a> Albert Duruy, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 16.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_202_202" id="Footnote_202_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202_202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Doléances</cite> presented to the States-General by the teachers of the -smaller cities, hamlets, and villages of Bourgogne.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_203_203" id="Footnote_203_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203_203"><span class="label">[203]</span></a> A. Duruy, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 10.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_204_204" id="Footnote_204_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204_204"><span class="label">[204]</span></a> See the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dictionnaire de Pédagogie</cite>, Article <span class="smcap">France</span>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_205_205" id="Footnote_205_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a> What is meant by “liberty of teaching” will be better understood from -the following quotations from the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dictionnaire de Pédagogie</cite>, Première -Partie, p. 1575 <em>et seq.</em>:— -</p> -<p> -“Liberty of teaching, in a country which has proclaimed obligatory instruction, -is the equal right of all to give that instruction, or the prohibition -of every monopoly which would put that instruction into the hands either -of privileged individuals, or of corporations, or even of the State, to the -exclusion of every other teaching body.” -</p> -<p> -“Under the old régime, the education of the masses was committed to -the hands of the Church; the colleges, directed by a body of men who were -all ecclesiastics, gave ‘a vain pretence of an education, where the memory -alone was exercised, and where the reason was insulted in the forms of -reasoning.’” -</p> -<p> -“The purpose of the men of the Revolution was, then, above all else, to -emancipate science, and to guarantee the right of free inquiry; and while -rescuing instruction from the tyranny of the Church, to assure to citizens -in general the opportunity to acquire the knowledge that is essential to -man. On the one hand, they would take precautions against the abuse -of power by a government which had always shown itself hostile to free -thought ...; on the other, in opposition to the old doctrine which condemned -the people to ignorance, they proclaimed the duty of the State to -create a system of <em>public instruction</em>, common to all citizens.” -</p> -<p> -“It is at this point of view that we must place ourselves in order to gain -a correct notion of the plans that were submitted to the Constituent Convention -and the Legislative Assembly. What Talleyrand and Condorcet -desired was, first, to organize, under the form of a public service, a system -of national education in which all might participate; and in the second -place, to take precautions against the Church and the royal authority, and -so prevent despotic power from attempting to prevent the development of -new truths and the teaching of theories which it judged contrary to its -policy and interests. For them, liberty of teaching is the demand of philosophic -liberty against ecclesiastical and secular authority.” (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_206_206" id="Footnote_206_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206_206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a> Public instruction as now organized in France is of three grades, as -follows:— -</p> -<p> -“Primary instruction, which gives the elements of knowledge, reading, -writing, and arithmetic. Secondary instruction, embracing the study of -the ancient languages, of rhetoric, and the first elements of the mathematical -and physical sciences, and of philosophy. This is given in the lycées -and colleges, as well as in the smaller seminaries. Superior instruction, -designed to teach in all their completeness letters, the languages, the sciences, -and philosophy. This is given in the Faculties, in the College of -France, and in the larger seminaries.”—<span class="smcap">Littré.</span> (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_207_207" id="Footnote_207_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207_207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a> See the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Rapport</cite> of Daunou presented to the National Convention, 27 -Vendémiaire, year IV.</p> -</div></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[390]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XVII.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">THE CONVENTION.—LEPELLETIER SAINT-FARGEAU, -LAKANAL, DAUNOU.</span></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>THE CONVENTION; SUCCESSIVE MEASURES; THE BILL OF LANTHENAS; -THE BILL OF ROMME; THE NATIONAL HOLIDAYS; ELEMENTARY -BOOKS; DECREE OF MAY 30, 1793; LAKANAL (1762-1845); DAUNOU -(1761-1840); THE BILL OF LAKANAL, SIEYÈS, AND DAUNOU; LEPELLETIER -SAINT-FARGEAU (1760-1793); HIS SCHEME OF EDUCATION (JULY -13, 1793); LEPELLETIER AND CONDORCET; COMPULSORY EDUCATION -IN BOARDING-SCHOOLS; THE CHILD BELONGS TO THE REPUBLIC; -SCHOOL OCCUPATIONS; ABSOLUTE GRATUITY; THE RIGHTS OF THE -FAMILY; SAINT-JUST; THE ROMME LAW; THE BOUQUIER LAW; THE -LAKANAL LAW; EDUCATIONAL METHODS; ELEMENTARY BOOKS; -GEOGRAPHY; LETTERS AND SCIENCES; THE FOUNDATION OF NORMAL -SCHOOLS; THE NORMAL SCHOOL OF PARIS; CENTRAL SCHOOLS; THEIR -DEFECTS; POSITIVE AND PRACTICAL SPIRIT; GREAT FOUNDATIONS -OF THE CONVENTION; THE LAW OF OCTOBER 27, 1795; INSUFFICIENCY -OF DAUNOU’S SCHEME; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.</p></div> - -<hr class="r15a" /> - -<p class="p1">446. <span class="smcap">The Convention.</span>—The Constituent Assembly and -the Legislative Assembly had done nothing more than to -prepare reports and projected decrees, without either discussing -them or bringing them to a vote. The Convention -went so far as to vote, but it did not have the time to execute -the resolutions, contradictory and incoherent, which it -was forced to adopt, one after another, by the fluctuation -of political currents.</p> - - -<p class="p1">447. <span class="smcap">Successive Measures.</span>—Nothing definite in the -way of execution issued from the enthusiastic passion which -the Convention exhibited for the organization of primary -instruction. First there was a triumph of modern ideas in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[391]</a></span> -the bill of Lanthenas, the first article of which was adopted -December 12, 1792; and they appeared again in the bill of -Sieyès, Daunou, and Lakanal, presented June 26, 1793, -and defeated after an exciting discussion. But the influence -of the Girondists was succeeded by the domination of the -Montagnards<a name="FNanchor_208_208" id="FNanchor_208_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> whose dictatorial and violent spirit is indicated: -1. in the bill of Lepelletier, adopted through the -support of Robespierre, August 13, 1793; 2. in the bill -projected and presented by Romme in behalf of the commission -of public instruction, October 20, 1793, and passed on -the following day; 3. and lastly in the bill of Bouquier, -which, presented December 19, 1793, became the decree of -December 26. The reaction which followed resulted in the -legislative acts by which the Convention finished its -educational work. The bill of Sieyès, Daunou, and Lakanal -was reconsidered, and November 17, 1793, it was substituted -for the bill of Bouquier. Finally, when the constitution -of 1794 was substituted for the constitution of 1793, a new -law of public instruction was passed on the report of Daunou, -October 27, 1795, and it is this law which presided over -the organization of schools under the Directory.</p> - -<p>In this confusion, this chaos of bills and counter-bills, it is -difficult to establish any clew that is wholly trustworthy. -We shall restrict ourselves to noting the points that seem -essential.<a name="FNanchor_209_209" id="FNanchor_209_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a></p> - -<p>Impatient to finish its business, the committee on public<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[392]</a></span> -instruction, which the Convention had appointed October 2, -1792, decided to put aside, for the present, the other branches -of public instruction, and proposed for immediate action -only the organization of primary schools, by taking, as a -point of departure, the bill which Condorcet had presented -to the Legislative Assembly. The report of Lanthenas and -a proposed decree were within a few weeks the results of -these deliberations; but in all its parts this result is scarcely -more than the reproduction of Condorcet’s work, and presents -nothing original. Let us note, however, the idea of associating -the pupil with his teacher in the work of instruction:—</p> - -<p>“Teachers will call to their aid the pupils whose intelligence -shall have made the most rapid progress; and they will thus -be able, <em>very easily</em>, to give to four classes of pupils, in the -same session, all the attention needed for their progress. -At the same time, the efforts made by the most competent -to teach what they know to their schoolmates, will be much -more instructive to themselves than the lessons they receive -from their masters.”</p> - -<p>Further, let us notice title III. of the proposed decree -relative to the measures to be taken in order to make obligatory -the use of the French language, and to abolish the -<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">patois</i>, or particular idioms. The minimum salary of men -teachers was fixed at six hundred francs. The appointment -of teachers was entrusted to the heads of families, who were -to elect one from a list prepared by a “commission of educated -persons” appointed by the Councils-General of the -communes and the Directories of departments.</p> - - -<p class="p1">448. <span class="smcap">The Bill of Lanthenas.</span>—The discussion of the bill -of Lanthenas began on December 12, 1792, but only article -first was carried, and the bill itself did not become a law.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[393]</a></span></p> - -<p>On December 20, another member of the Convention, -Romme, mathematician, deputy from Puy-de-Dôme, read -a new report on public instruction.</p> - - -<p class="p1">449. <span class="smcap">The Bill of Romme.</span>—The bill of Lanthenas -aimed at only the first grade of instruction, but the report of -Romme embraced the four grades of instruction, and was -but little more than a reproduction of Condorcet’s work. -But no legislative measure followed the reading of his bill, -and up to the 30th of May, 1793, there is scarcely anything -to be noted, as the educational work of the Convention, save -the bill of Rabaud Saint-Étienne on public festivals, and the -report of Arbogast on elementary books.</p> - - -<p class="p1">450. <span class="smcap">National Holidays.</span>—It is difficult to form an -idea of the importance which the men of this period attributed -to the educational influence of national holidays. At variance -on so many points, they all agree in thinking that the -French people could be instructed and regenerated simply -by establishing popular solemnities.</p> - -<p>“It is a kind of institution,” said Robespierre, “which -ought to be considered as an essential part of public education,—I -mean national holidays.”</p> - -<p>Daunou also persisted in considering national holidays as -the most certain and the most comprehensive means of public -instruction. The decree passed at his request established -seven national holidays: that of the foundation of the -Republic, of young men, of husbands, of thanksgiving, of -agriculture, of liberty, of old men.</p> - - -<p class="p1">451. <span class="smcap">Elementary Books.</span>—An important point in the -pedagogy of the Revolution was the attention given to the -composition of elementary books. On several occasions -the Convention put up for competition these modest works -intended to aid parents or teachers in their task. It was one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[394]</a></span> -of the happiest thoughts of that period to desire that there -should be placed in the hands of parents simple methods and -well-arranged books which might teach them how to bring up -their children. The difficulty of this kind of composition -was understood, and so application was made to the most -distinguished writers. Bernardin de Saint Pierre was employed -to edit the <cite>Elements of Morality</cite>.</p> - -<p>December 24, 1792, Arbogast had submitted to the Convention -a proposed decree in which it was said:—</p> - -<p>“It is only the superior men in a science, or in an art, -those who have sounded all its depths, and have carried it to -its farthest limits, who are capable of composing such elementary -treatises as are desirable.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">452. <span class="smcap">Decree of May 30, 1793.</span>—The first decree of the -Convention relative to primary schools was passed May 30, -1793. But this laconic law contained nothing very new. -Besides, it was forgotten in the storm which on the next -day, May 31, swept away the Girondists, and gave to the -Montagnards the political supremacy.</p> - - -<p class="p1">453. <span class="smcap">Lakanal (1762-1845).</span>—After the revolution of -May 31, among the men who, in the committee on public instruction -and in the assembly itself, were occupied with the -educational organization of France, we must assign the first -place to Lakanal and Daunou. On June 26, 1793, three -days after the adoption of the new constitution, Lakanal -brought to the tribune the bill which he had drawn up in -conjunction with Daunou and Sieyès.</p> - -<p>Lakanal is one of the purest and most remarkable characters -of the French Revolution.<a name="FNanchor_210_210" id="FNanchor_210_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> “Lakanal,” said Marat, to -whom some one had denounced him, “works too much to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[395]</a></span> -have the time to conspire.” Industrious and thoughtful, -after having taught philosophy with the “Doctrinaires,” of -whom he was the pupil, he became the first, after Condorcet, -of the educators of the Revolution. “His appearance,” says -Paul Bert, “has always particularly attracted me. It unites -gentleness with force, energy with serenity. We feel that -this austere citizen has never known any other passion than -that of well-doing, and has neither desired nor obtained any -other reward than that of having done his duty. He despises -violence of language, and hates that of acts; and so we do -not find him, under the Empire, a baron like Jean-Bon Saint -André, a minister like Fouché, or a senator like a whole herd.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">454. <span class="smcap">Daunou (1761-1840).</span>—At an early period in his -life, Daunou had taught philosophy in the colleges of the -Oratorians, of whom he was a member. In 1789 he published -in the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Journal Encyclopédique</cite>, a plan of national -education which was approved by the Oratory, and which -he presented to the Constituent Assembly in 1790. In the -Convention he took an active part in the work of the committee -on public instruction, and assisted in the preparation -of Lakanal’s first bill. In the same year he published an -<cite>Essay on Public Instruction</cite>. In the Council of the Five -Hundred he was appointed to make a report on the organization -of special schools. Under the Empire he accepted the -management of the national archives. Under the Restoration -he was appointed professor of history in the College of -France. Finally, after 1830, we find him once more in the -Chamber of Deputies, giving proof of unusual energy and -vitality, and presenting in opposition to the minister of public -instruction, de Montalivet, a counter-bill, the principal -aim of which was to lodge with the municipal authorities the -administration of schools, a power which the government -wished to leave in the hands of the inspectors.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[396]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">455. <span class="smcap">The Bill of Lakanal, Sieyès, and Daunou.</span>—These -are the principal provisions of this bill: a school for -each thousand inhabitants; separate schools for girls and -boys; the election of teachers entrusted to a board of inspectors -composed of three members, and located at the government -centre of each district; the general organization of -methods, regulations, and school régime placed in the hands -of a central commission sitting with the Corps Législatif, -and placed under its authority; an education which embraces -the whole man, at once intellectual, physical, moral, and industrial; -the first lessons in reading given to boys as to girls -by a woman teacher; arithmetic, geometry, physics, and -morals included in the programme of instruction; visits to -hospitals, prisons, and workshops; finally, liberty granted to -private initiative to found schools.</p> - -<p>“The law can put no veto on the right which all citizens -have to open private courses and schools, free in all grades -of instruction, and to direct them as shall seem to them -best.” (Art. 61.)</p> - -<p>This was pushing liberality rather far.</p> - -<p>Another distinctive feature of this bill, which is not without -value, is the respect shown the character and functions -of the teacher. On public occasions the schoolmaster shall -wear a medal with this inscription: <em>He who instructs is a -second father</em>. The form is rather pretentious, but the sentiment -is good. Other articles do not merit the same commendation, -particularly the one which established theatres in -each canton, in which men and women would take part in -music and dancing.</p> - -<p>The bill of Lakanal, vigorously opposed by a part of the -Assembly, was not adopted. Under the leadership of Robespierre, -the Convention gave preference to the dictatorial and -violent measure of Lepelletier Saint-Fargeau.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[397]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">456. <span class="smcap">Lepelletier Saint-Fargeau (1760-1793).</span>—Assassinated -in 1793, Lepelletier Saint-Fargeau left among -his papers an educational bill which Robespierre took up, -and which he presented to the Assembly July 13, 1793, on -the occasion of the debate opened on the motion of Barrère. -A month later the bill was passed by the Convention, but before -being carried into operation, the decree was revoked. -The Assembly receded from the accomplishment of a reform -in which some good intentions could not atone for measures -that, on the whole, were mischievous and tyrannical.</p> - - -<p class="p1">457. <span class="smcap">His Scheme of Education.</span>—The plan of Lepelletier -scarcely deserves the admiration which Michelet gives -it, who salutes in this work the “<em>revolution of childhood</em>,” and -who declares that it is “admirable in spirit, and in no respect -chimerical.” An imitation with but little originality of the -institutions of Lycurgus and the reveries of Plato, the plan -of Lepelletier is scarcely more than an historical curiosity.</p> - - -<p class="p1">458. <span class="smcap">Lepelletier and Condorcet.</span>—Lepelletier accepted -Condorcet’s plan in all that relates to <em>secondary schools</em>, <em>institutes</em>, -and <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">lycées</i>, that is to say, higher primary instruction, -secondary instruction, and superior instruction.</p> - -<p>“I find,” he said, “in these three courses a plan which -seems to me wisely conceived.”</p> - -<p>But Lepelletier follows only his own fancy in the conception -of those curious boarding-schools, little barracks for -childhood, in which he confined all children by force, wresting -them from their parents, and placing at the expense of -the State their moral training, as well as their material -support.</p> - - -<p class="p1">459. <span class="smcap">Obligatory Attendance in Boarding-Schools.</span>—In -education, Lepelletier represents the doctrine of the -Jacobins. In order to make France republican, he would -employ radical and absolute measures.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[398]</a></span></p> - -<p>“Let us ordain,” he says, “that all children, girls as well -as boys, girls from five to eleven, and boys from five to -twelve, shall be educated in common, at the expense of the -State, and shall receive, for six or seven years, the same -education.”</p> - -<p>In order that there may be complete equality, their food, -like their instruction, shall be the same; even more, their -dress shall be identical. Does Lepelletier then desire, in his -craze for equality, that girls shall be dressed like boys?</p> - - -<p class="p1">460. <span class="smcap">The Child belongs To the Republic.</span>—The idea -of Lepelletier is that the child is the property of the State, -a chattel of the Republic. The State must make the child in -its own image.</p> - -<p>“In our system,” he says, “the entire being of the child -belongs to us; the material never leaves the mould.” And -he adds, “Whatever is to compose the Republic ought to be -cast in the republican mould.”</p> - -<p>Lepelletier imposes on all children, girls and boys, the -same studies,—reading, writing, numbers, natural morality, -domestic economy. This is almost the programme of Condorcet. -But he adds to it manual labor. All children shall -be employed in working the soil. If the college has not at -its disposal enough land to cultivate, the children shall be -taken out on the roads, there to pick up stones or to scatter -them. Can we imagine, without smiling, a system of education, -in which our future advocates and writers are to spend -six years in transporting material upon the highways?</p> - - -<p class="p1">461. <span class="smcap">Absolute Gratuity.</span>—The colleges in which Lepelletier -sequesters and quarters all the children are to be absolutely -free. Three measures were proposed for covering the -expense: 1. tuition paid by parents in easy circumstances; -2. the labor of the children; 3. the balance needed furnished<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[399]</a></span> -by the State. But is there not just a little of the chimerical -in counting much on the work of children of that age?</p> - - -<p class="p1">462. <span class="smcap">The Rights of the Family.</span>—Lepelletier takes -but little account of the rights of the family. However, -notice must be taken of that idea which Robespierre thought -“sublime,”—the creation, at each college, of a council of -heads of families, entrusted with the oversight of teachers -and their children.</p> - - -<p class="p1">463. <span class="smcap">Saint-Just.</span>—Saint-Just, in his <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Institutions républicaines</cite>, -maintains opinions analogous to those of Lepelletier. -He admits that the child belongs to his mother till the age of -five; but from the age of five till death he belongs to the -Republic. Till the age of sixteen boys are fed at the expense -of the State. It is true that their food is not expensive. -It is composed of grapes, fruit, vegetables, milk-diet, -bread, and water. Their dress is of cotton in all seasons. -However, Saint-Just did not subject girls to the same régime. -More liberal on this point than Lepelletier, he would have -them brought up at home.</p> - - -<p class="p1">464. <span class="smcap">The Romme Law</span> (Oct. 30, 1793).—Romme was -one of the most active members of the committee on public -instruction. He was the principal author of the bill which -the Convention passed in October, 1793, the principal articles -of which were conceived as follows:—</p> - -<p>“Art. 1. There are primary schools distributed throughout -the Republic in proportion to the population.</p> - -<p>“Art. 2. In these schools children receive their earliest -physical, moral, and intellectual education, the best adapted -to develop in them republican manners, love of country, and -taste for labor.</p> - -<p>“Art. 3. They learn to speak, read, and write the French -language.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[400]</a></span></p> - -<p>“They are taught the acts of virtue which most honor free -men, and particularly the acts of the French Revolution most -fit to give them elevation of soul, and to make them worthy -of liberty and equality.</p> - -<p>“They acquire some notions of the geography of France.</p> - -<p>“The knowledge of the rights and duties of the man and -the citizen is brought within their comprehension through -examples and their own experience.</p> - -<p>“They are given the first notions of the natural objects -that surround them, and of the natural action of the -elements.</p> - -<p>“They have practice in the use of numbers, of the compass, -the level, weights and measures, the lever, the pulley, -and in the measurement of time.</p> - -<p>“They are often allowed to witness what is done in the -fields and in workshops; and they take part in these employments -as far as their age permits.”</p> - -<p>But the bill of Romme was not put in operation. The -Convention presently decided on a revision of the decree it -had passed, and the bill of Bouquier was substituted for the -bill of Romme.</p> - - -<p class="p1">465. <span class="smcap">The Bouquier Law</span> (Dec. 19, 1793).—Bouquier -was a man of letters, deputy from Dordogne, and belonged -to the Jacobinic party. He spoke of his bill as follows:—</p> - -<p>“It is a simple and natural scheme, and one easy to execute; -a plan which forever proscribes all idea of an academic -body, of a scientific society, of an educational hierarchy; a -plan, finally, whose bases are the same as those of the constitution, -liberty, equality, and simplicity.”</p> - -<p>The Bouquier bill was adopted December 19, and remained -in force till it was superseded by the Lakanal law.</p> - -<p>These are its principal provisions:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[401]</a></span></p> - -<p>“The right to teach is open to all.” “Citizens, men and -women, who would use the liberty to teach, shall be required -to produce a certificate of citizenship and good morals, and -to fulfill certain formalities.” “They shall be designated as -<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">instituteurs</i> and <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">institutrices</i>.” They shall be placed “under -the immediate supervision of the municipality, of parents, -and of all the citizens.” “They are forbidden to teach anything -contrary to the laws and to republican morality.” On -the other hand, parents are required to send their children to -the primary schools. Parents who do not obey this order -are sentenced, for the first offence, to pay a fine equal to a -fourth of their school tax. In case of a second offence, the -fine is to be doubled and the children to be suspended for ten -years from their rights as citizens. Finally, young people -who, on leaving the primary schools, “do not busy themselves -with the cultivation of the soil, shall be required to -learn a trade useful to society.”</p> - -<p>Enforced school attendance, and what is an entirely different -thing, the obligation of citizens to work, were thus established -by the Bouquier law.</p> - -<p>Let us add that the author of this bill, which, like so many -others, was not executed, had strange notions on the sciences -and on instruction.</p> - -<p>“The speculative sciences,” he says, “detach from society -the individuals who cultivate them.... Free nations have -no need of speculative scholars, whose minds are constantly -travelling over desert paths.”</p> - -<p>Hence, no scientific instruction. The real schools, “the -noblest, the most useful, the most simple, are the meetings -of committees. The Revolution, in establishing national -holidays, in creating popular associations and clubs, has -placed in all quarters inexhaustible sources of instruction. -Then let us not go and substitute for this organization, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[402]</a></span> -simple and sublime as the people that creates it, an artificial -organization, based on academic statutes which should no -longer infect a regenerated nation.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">466. <span class="smcap">The Lakanal Law</span> (Nov. 17, 1794).—There still -remained something of the spirit of Lepelletier in the Bouquier -law, though the idea of an education in common had been -abandoned; but the Lakanal law openly breaks with the tendencies -of Robespierre and his friends.</p> - -<p>The law which was passed November 17, 1794, upon the -report of Lakanal, reproduced in its spirit and in its principal -provisions the original bill which the influence of Robespierre -had defeated.</p> - -<p>The following was the programme of instruction contained -in this law.</p> - -<p>The instructor shall teach:—</p> - -<p>“1. Reading and writing; 2. the declaration of the -rights of man and the constitution; 3. elementary lessons -on republican morals; 4. the elements of the French language -both spoken and written; 5. the rules of simple calculation -and of surveying; 6. lessons on the principal -phenomena and the most common productions of nature; -there shall be taught a collection of heroic actions and songs -of triumph.”</p> - -<p>At the same time the bill required that the schools be -divided into two sections, one for the girls and the other for -the boys, and distributed in the proportion of one to each -thousand inhabitants. The teachers, nominated by the people -and confirmed by a jury of instruction, are to receive salaries -as follows: men, twelve hundred francs; women, one thousand -francs.</p> - - -<p class="p1">467. <span class="smcap">Pedagogical Methods.</span>—Lakanal had given much -thought to pedagogical methods. It is the interior of the -school, not less than its exterior organization, that preoc<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[403]</a></span>cupied -his generous spirit. Like the most of his contemporaries, -a partisan of Condillac’s doctrine, he believed that -the idea could not reach the understanding except through -the mediation of the senses. Consequently, he recommended -the method which consists “in first appealing to the eyes of -pupils, ... in creating the understanding through the senses, ... in -developing morals out of the sensibility, just as understanding -out of sensation.” This is an excellent method -if we add to it a corrective, if we do not forget to excite the -intelligence itself, and to make an appeal to the interior forces -of the soul.</p> - - -<p class="p1">468. <span class="smcap">Elementary Books.</span>—A few other quotations will -suffice to prove with what acuteness of pedagogic sense -Lakanal was endowed.<a name="FNanchor_211_211" id="FNanchor_211_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_211_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a> Very much interested in the composition -of works for popular instruction, he sharply distinguished -the elementary book, which brings knowledge within -the reach of children, from the abridgment, which does no -more than condense a long work. “The abridged,” he said, -“is exactly opposed to the elementary.” No one has better -comprehended than he the difficulty of writing a treatise on -morals for the use of children:—</p> - -<p>“It requires special genius. Simplicity in form and artless -grace should there be mingled with accuracy of ideas; -the art of reasoning ought never to be separated from that -of interesting the imagination; such a work should be conceived -by a profound logician and executed by a man of -feeling. There should be found in it, so to speak, the analytical -mind of Condillac and the soul of Fénelon.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">469. <span class="smcap">Geography.</span>—Lakanal has defined with the same -exactness the method to be followed in the teaching of -geography. “First let there be shown,” he says, “in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[404]</a></span> -every school, the plan of the commune in which it is situated, -and then let the children see a map of the canton of which -the commune forms a part; then a map of the department, -and then a map of France; after which will come the map -of Europe and of other parts of the world, and lastly a map -of the world.”<a name="FNanchor_212_212" id="FNanchor_212_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_212_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">470. <span class="smcap">Letters and Sciences.</span>—More just than Condorcet, -Lakanal did not wish scientific culture to do prejudice to -literary culture:—</p> - -<p>“For a long time we have neglected the belles-lettres, -and some men who wish to be considered profound regard -this study as useless. It is letters, however, which open -the intelligence to the light of reason, and the heart to -impressions of sentiment. They substitute morality for -interest, give pupils polish, exercise their judgment, make -them more sensitive and at the same time more obedient to -the laws, more capable of grand virtues.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">471. <span class="smcap">Necessity of Normal Schools.</span>—Lakanal’s highest -title to glory is that he has associated his name with the -foundation of normal schools. The idea of establishing -pedagogical seminaries was not absolutely new. A number -of the friends of instruction, both in the seventeenth and in -the eighteenth century,<a name="FNanchor_213_213" id="FNanchor_213_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_213_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a> had seen that it would be useless to -open schools, if good teachers had not been previously<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[405]</a></span> -trained; but the Convention has the honor of having for the -first time given practical effect to this vague aspiration.</p> - -<p>Decreed June 2, 1793, the foundation of normal schools -was the object of a report by Lakanal on October 26, 1794. -In a style which was inferior to his ideas, and which would -have been more effective had it been simpler, Lakanal sets -forth the necessity of teaching the teachers themselves before -sending them to teach their pupils:—</p> - -<p>“Are there in France, are there in Europe, are there in -the whole world, two or three hundred men (and we need -more than this number) competent to teach the useful arts -and the necessary branches of knowledge, according to -methods which make minds more acute, and truths more -clear,—methods which, while teaching you to know one -thing, teach you to reason upon all things? No, that number -of men, however small it may appear, exists nowhere on the -earth. It is necessary, then, that they be trained. In being -the first to decree normal schools, you have resolved to create -in advance a very large number of teachers, capable of being -the executors of a plan whose purpose is the regeneration -of the human understanding, in a republic of twenty-five -millions of men, all of whom democracy renders equal.”</p> - -<p>The term <em>normal schools</em> (from the Latin word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">norma</i>, a -rule) was not less new than the thing. Lakanal explains -that it was designed by this expression to characterize with -exactness the schools which were to be the type and the -standard of all the others.</p> - - -<p class="p1">472. <span class="smcap">The Normal School of Paris.</span>—To accomplish -his purpose, Lakanal proposed to assemble at Paris, under -the direction of eminent masters, such as Lagrange, Berthollet, -and Daubenton, a considerable number of young men, -called from all quarters of the Republic, and designated “by -their talents as by their state of citizenship.” The masters<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[406]</a></span> -of this great normal school were to give their pupils “lessons -on the art of teaching morals, ... and teach them to apply -to the teaching of reading and writing, of the first elements -of calculation, of practical geometry, of history and of -French grammar, the methods outlined in the elementary -courses adopted by the National Convention and published -by its orders.” Once instructed “in the art of teaching -human knowledge,” the pupils of the Normal School of Paris -were to go and repeat in all parts of the Republic the “grand -lectures” they had heard, and there form the nucleus of provincial -normal schools. And thus, says Lakanal with exaggeration, -“that fountain of enlightenment, so pure and so -abundant, since it will proceed from the foremost men of the -Republic of every class, poured out from reservoir to reservoir, -will diffuse itself from place to place throughout all -France, without losing anything of its purity in its course.”</p> - -<p>October 30, 1794, the Convention adopted the proposals -of Lakanal. The Normal School opened January 20, 1795. -Its organization was defective and impracticable. First, there -were too many pupils,—four hundred young men admitted -without competitive tests, and abandoned to themselves in -Paris; professors who were doubtless illustrious, but whose -literary talent or scientific genius did not perhaps adapt itself -sufficiently to the needs of a normal course of instruction and -of a practical pedagogy; lectures insufficient in number, -which lasted for only four months, and which, on the testimony -of Daunou, “were directed rather towards the heights -of science than towards the art of teaching.” Thus the -experiment, which terminated May 6, 1795, did not fulfill -the hopes that had been formed of it: the idea of establishing -provincial normal schools was not carried out. But no -matter; a memorable example had been given, and the fruitful -principle of the establishment of normal schools had made -a start in actual practice.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[407]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">473. <span class="smcap">Central Schools.</span>—The <em>central schools</em>, designed -to replace the colleges of secondary instruction, were established -by decree of February 25, 1795, on the report of -Lakanal. Daunou modified them in the law of October 25, -1795. They continued, without great success, till the law of -May 1, 1802, which suppressed them.</p> - - -<p class="p1">474. <span class="smcap">Defects of the Central Schools.</span>—The Central -Schools of Lakanal resembled, trait for trait, the Institutes -of Condorcet. And it must be confessed that here the imitation -is not happy. Lakanal made the mistake of borrowing -from Condorcet the plan of these poorly defined establishments, -in which the instruction was on too vast a scale, and -the programmes too crowded, where the pupil, it seems, was -to learn to discuss <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">de omni re scibili</i>. Condorcet went so far -as to introduce into his Institutes a course of lectures on midwifery! -The Central Schools, in which the instruction was -a medley of studies indiscreetly presented to an overdriven -auditory, do honor neither to the Convention that organized -them, nor to Condorcet who had traced the first sketch of -them.</p> - - -<p class="p1">475. <span class="smcap">Positive and Practical Spirit.</span>—However, there -was something correct in the idea which presided over the -foundation of the Central Schools. We find this expressed in -the <cite>Essays on Instruction</cite>, by the mathematician, Lacroix.<a name="FNanchor_214_214" id="FNanchor_214_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_214_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a> -Lacroix calls attention to the fact that the progress of the -sciences and the necessity of learning a great number of new -things, impose on the educator the obligation to take some -account of space; and, if I may so speak, of clipping the -wings of studies which, like Latin, had thus far been the -unique and exclusive object of instruction.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[408]</a></span></p> - -<p>In the Central Schools, in fact, the classical languages -held only the second place. Not only were the mathematical -sciences, and those branches of knowledge from which the -pupil can derive the most immediate profit, associated with the -classics, but the preference was given to them. In the minds -of those who organized these schools, the positive and practical -idea of success in life was substituted for the speculative -and disinterested idea of mental development for its own sake. -In reality, these two ideas ought to complete each other, -and not to exclude each other. The ideal of education consists -in finding a system which welcomes both. But in the -Central Schools the first point of view absorbed the second. -These establishments resembled the industrial schools of our -day, but with this particular defect, that there was a determination -to include everything in them, and to give a place -to new studies without wholly sacrificing the old. Let there -be created colleges of practical and special instruction; nothing -can be better, for provision would thus be made for the -needs of modern society. But let no one force literary studies -and the industrial arts to live together under the same roof.</p> - - -<p class="p1">476. <span class="smcap">Great Foundations of the Convention.</span>—In the -first years of its existence, the Convention had given its attention -only to primary schools. It seemed as though teaching -the illiterate to read was the one need of society. In the -end the Convention rose above these narrow and exclusive -views, and turned its attention towards secondary instruction -and towards superior instruction. It is particularly by the -establishment of several special schools for superior instruction -that the Convention gave proof of its versatility and -intelligence.</p> - -<p>In quick succession it decreed and founded the Polytechnic -School, under the name of the Central School of Public Works<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[409]</a></span> -(March 11, 1794); the Normal School (October 30, 1794); -the School of Mars (June 1, 1794); the Conservatory of Arts -and Trades (September 29, 1794). The next year it organized -the Bureau of Longitudes, and finally the National Institute. -What a magnificent effort to repair the ruins which -anarchy had made, or to supply the omissions which the old -régime had patiently suffered! Of these multiplied creations -the greater number remain and still flourish.</p> - - -<p class="p1">477. <span class="smcap">Law of October 27, 1795.</span>—Those who ask us to -see in the decree of October 27, 1795, “the capital work of -the Convention in the matter of instruction, the synthesis of -all its previous labors and proposals, the most serious effort -of the Revolution,”<a name="FNanchor_215_215" id="FNanchor_215_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_215_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> evidently put forward a paradox. Lakanal -and his friends would certainly have disavowed a law -which cancels with a few strokes of the pen the grand revolutionary -principles in the matter of education,—the gratuity, -the obligation, and the universality of instruction.</p> - -<p>The destinies of public instruction are allied to the fate of -constitutions. To changes of policy there correspond, by an -inevitable recoil, analogous changes in the organization of instruction. -Out of the slightly retrograde constitution of 1793 -there issued the educational legislation of 1794, of which it -could be said that “the spirit of reaction made itself painfully -felt in it.”</p> - -<p>Daunou, who was the principal author of it, doubtless had -high competence in questions of public instruction; but with -a secret connivance of his own temperament he yielded to the -tendencies of the times. He voluntarily condescended to -the timidities of a senile and worn-out Assembly, which, -having become impoverished by a series of suicides, had -scarcely any superior minds left within it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[410]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">478. <span class="smcap">Insufficiency of Daunou’s Scheme.</span>—Nothing -could be more defective than Daunou’s plan. The number -of primary schools was reduced. It is no longer proposed -to proportion them to the population. Daunou goes back to -the cantonal schools of Talleyrand: “There shall be established -in each canton of the Republic one or more primary -schools.” We are far from Condorcet, who required a school -for each group of four hundred souls, and from Lakanal, who -demanded one for each thousand inhabitants. On the other -hand, teachers no longer receive a salary from the State. -The State merely assures to them a place for a class-room -and lodging, and also a garden! “There shall likewise be furnished -the teacher the garden which happens to lie near these -premises.” There is no other remuneration save the annual -tuition paid by each pupil to the teacher. At the same stroke -the teacher was made the hireling of his pupils, and gratuity -of instruction was abolished. Only the indigent pupils, a -fourth of the whole number, could be exempted by the municipal -administration from the payment of school fees. Finally, -the programme of studies was reduced to the humblest proportions: -reading, writing, number, and the elements of -republican morality.</p> - -<p>After so many noble and generous ambitions, after so -many enthusiastic declarations in favor of the absolute gratuity -of primary instruction, after so many praiseworthy -efforts to raise the material and moral condition of teachers, -and to cause instruction to circulate to the minutest fibres of -the social tissue, the Convention terminated its work in a -mean conception which thinned out the schools, which impoverished -the programmes, which plunged the teacher anew -into a precarious state of existence, which put him anew at -the mercy of his pupils, without, however, taking care to -assure him of patronage, and which, for his sole compensa<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[411]</a></span>tion -in case he had no pupils to instruct, guaranteed him the -right to cultivate a garden, if, indeed, there should be one in -the neighborhood of the school! Had the law of 1795 been -in fact the educational will of the Convention, is it not true, -at least, that it is after the manner of those wills extorted by -undue means, where a man by his final bequests recalls his -former acts, and proves himself faithless to all the aspirations -of his life?</p> - -<p>No, it is not from Daunou, but from Talleyrand, from -Condorcet, and from Lakanal that we must seek the real -educational thought of the Revolution. Doubtless the measure -of Daunou had over all previous measures the advantages -of being applied, and of not remaining a dead letter; -but the glory of the early Revolutionists should not be belittled -by the fact that circumstances arrested the execution of -their plans, and that a century was necessary in order that -society might attain the ideal which they had conceived. -They were the first to proclaim the right and the duty of each -citizen to be instructed and enlightened. We are ceaselessly -urged to admire the past and to respect the work of our -fathers. We do not in the least object to this, but the Revolution -itself also forms a part of that past, and we regret -that the men who so eloquently preach the worship of traditions -and respect for ancestors, are precisely those who the -most harshly disparage the efforts of the Revolution.</p> - - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>[479. <span class="smcap">Analytical Summary.</span>—1. The educational legislation -of the French Revolution, apparently so inconsiderate, -so vacillating, and so fruitless, betrays the instinctive feeling -of a nation in peril, that the only constitutional means of regeneration -is universal instruction, intellectual and moral.</p> - -<p>2. Out of the same instinct grew the conception that the -starting-point in educational reform is the instruction and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[412]</a></span> -inspiration of the teaching body. The normal school lies at -the very basis of national safety and prosperity.</p> - -<p>3. The immediate fruitlessness of the educational legislation -of the Revolution, is another illustration of the general -fact that no reform is operative, which in any considerable -degree antedates the existing state of public opinion. Could -there be a revelation of the ideal education, human society -could grow into it only by slow and almost insensible degrees. -While there can be rational growth only through some degree -of anticipation, it is perhaps best that educators have only -that prevision which is provisional.]</p></div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_208_208" id="Footnote_208_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a> A term applied to the most pronounced revolutionists of the Convention -and of the National Assembly.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_209_209" id="Footnote_209_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209_209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a> It is impossible, within the limits prescribed by the character and plan -of this work, to enter into detail and enumerate all the decrees and counter-decrees -of the Convention on the subject of public instruction. To see -clearly into this chaos and this confusion, it is necessary to read the -excellent article of Monsieur Guillaume in the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dictionnaire de Pédagogie</cite>, -article <span class="smcap">Convention</span>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_210_210" id="Footnote_210_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210_210"><span class="label">[210]</span></a> See a recent sketch, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Lakanal</cite>, by Paul Legendre (Paris, 1882), with a -Preface by Paul Bert.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_211_211" id="Footnote_211_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_211_211"><span class="label">[211]</span></a> See in the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue politique et littéraire</cite>, for Oct. 7, 1882, an excellent -article on Lakanal, by Monsieur Janet.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_212_212" id="Footnote_212_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212_212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a> If the consensus of philosophic opinion is trustworthy, there is no basis -whatever in psychology for this sequence. On the almost uniform testimony -of psychologists, the organic mental sequence is from aggregates to -parts; so that if the method of presentation is to be in harmony with the -organic mode of the mind’s activities, the sequence should be as follows: -the globe; the eastern continent; Europe; France; the department; the -canton; the commune. On the mental sequence, see Hamilton’s <cite>Lectures</cite>, -Vol. I. pp. 69, 70, 368, 371, 469, 498, 500, 502, 503. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_213_213" id="Footnote_213_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213_213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a> Dumonstier, rector of the University of Paris in 1645, La Salle, and in -the eighteenth century, the Abbé Courtalon.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_214_214" id="Footnote_214_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214_214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a> Essais sur l’enseignement. Paris, 1805.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_215_215" id="Footnote_215_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215_215"><span class="label">[215]</span></a> Albert Duruy, <em>op. cit.</em> p. 137.</p> -</div></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[413]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XVIII.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">PESTALOZZI.</span></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>GERMAN PEDAGOGY; THE PIETISTS AND FRANCKE (1663-1727); THE -PHILANTHROPISTS AND BASEDOW (1723-1790); THE PEOPLE’S SCHOOLS; -PESTALOZZI (1746-1827); THE EDUCATION OF PESTALOZZI; PESTALOZZI -AS AN AGRICULTURIST; HOW PESTALOZZI BECAME A TEACHER; -EDUCATION OF HIS SON; THE SCHOOL AT NEUHOF (1775-1780); PESTALOZZI -AS A WRITER (1780-1787); LEONARD AND GERTRUDE -(1781); NEW EXPERIMENTS IN AGRICULTURE; OTHER WORKS; THE -ORPHAN ASYLUM AT STANZ (1798-1799); METHODS FOLLOWED AT -STANZ; THE SCHOOLS AT BURGDORF (1799-1801); HOW GERTRUDE -TEACHES HER CHILDREN (1801); PESTALOZZI’S STYLE; ANALYSIS -OF THE GERTRUDE; THE INSTITUTE AT BURGDORF (1801-1804); -THE INSTITUTE AT YVERDUN (1805-1825); TENTATIVES OF PESTALOZZI; -ESSENTIAL PRINCIPLES; EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES; SIMPLIFICATION -OF METHODS; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.</p></div> - -<hr class="r15a" /> - -<p class="p1">480. <span class="smcap">German Pedagogy.</span>—For two centuries Germany -has been the classical land of pedagogy; and to render an -account of all the efforts put forth in that country in the -domain of education it would be necessary to write several -volumes.</p> - -<p>From the opening of the eighteenth century, says Dittes, -“a change for the better takes place. Ideas become facts. -The importance of education is more and more recognized; -pedagogy shakes off the ancient dust of the school and interests -itself in actual life; it is no longer willing to be a -collateral function of the Church, but begins to become an -independent art and science. A few theologians will still -render it important service, but in general they will do this -outside the Church, and often in opposition to it.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[414]</a></span></p> - -<p>While awaiting the grand and fruitful impulsion of Pestalozzi, -the history of pedagogy ought to mention at least the -Pietists, “whose educational establishments contributed to -prepare the way for the new methods,” and after them, the -Philanthropists, of whom Basedow is the most celebrated -representative.</p> - - -<p class="p1">481. <span class="smcap">The Pietists and Francke (1663-1727).</span>—Francke -played nearly the same part in Germany that La Salle did in -France. He founded two establishments at Halle, the <em>Pædagogium</em> -and the <em>Orphan Asylum</em>, which, in 1727, contained -more than two thousand pupils. He belonged to the sect of -Pietists, Lutherans who professed an austere morality, and, -in conformity with the principles of his denomination, he -made piety the supreme end of education.</p> - -<p>That which distinguishes and commends Francke, is his -talent for organization. He was right in giving marked attention -to the material condition of schools and to needed -supplies of apparatus. The Pædagogium was installed in 1715 -in comfortable quarters, and there were annexed to it a -botanical garden, a museum of natural history, physical apparatus, -a chemical and an anatomical laboratory, and a shop -for the cutting and polishing of glass.</p> - -<p>After him his disciples, Niemeyer, Semler, and Hecker, -continued his work, and, in certain respects, reformed it. -They founded the first <em>real schools</em> of Germany. They kept -up the practical spirit, the professional pedagogy of their -master, and assured the development of those educational -establishments which still exist to-day under the name of -the <em>Institutions</em> of Francke.</p> - - -<p class="p1">482. <span class="smcap">The Philanthropists and Basedow (1723-1790).</span>—With -Basedow, a more liberal spirit, borrowed in part from -Rousseau, gained entrance into German pedagogy. Basedow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[415]</a></span> -founded at Dessau a school which received the praise of the -philosopher Kant, and of the clergyman Oberlin. He designated -it by a name which reflects his humanitarian intentions, -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Philanthropinum</i>. In the methods which he employed in -it he seems always to have had before his eyes the exclamation -of Rousseau: “Things, things! Too many words!” -The intuitive method, or that of <em>teaching by sight</em>, was practised -in the school of Dessau.</p> - -<p>The principal work of Basedow, his <cite>Elementary Book</cite>, is -scarcely more than the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Orbis Pictus</cite> of Comenius reconstructed -according to the principles of Rousseau. At Dessau, -the pretence was made of teaching a language in six months. -“Our methods,” says Basedow, “make studies only one-third -as long and thrice as agreeable.” An abuse was made -of mechanical exercises. The children, at the command of -the master: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Imitamini sartorem</i>,—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Imitamini sutorem</i>,—all -began to imitate the motions of a tailor who is sewing, or of -a shoemaker who is using his awl. Graver still, Basedow -made such an abuse of <em>object lessons</em> as to represent to children -certain scenes within the sick-chamber, for the purpose -of teaching them their duties and obligations to their -mothers.<a name="FNanchor_216_216" id="FNanchor_216_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">483. <span class="smcap">Schools for the People.</span>—Great efforts were made -in the eighteenth century, in the Catholic, as well as in the -Protestant countries of Germany, towards the development -of popular instruction. Maria Theresa and Frederick II. considered -public instruction as an affair of the State. Private -enterprise was added to the efforts of the government. In -Prussia, a nobleman, Rochow (1734-1805), founded village<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[416]</a></span> -schools; and in Austria, two ecclesiastics, Felbiger (1724-1788) -and Kindermann (1740-1801), contributed by their -activity in education to the reform of schools.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, the results were still very poor, and the public -school, especially the village school, remained in a sorry -condition.</p> - -<p>“Almost everywhere,” says Dittes, “there were employed -as teachers, domestics, corrupt artisans, discharged soldiers, -degraded students, and, in general, persons of questionable -morality and education. Their pay was mean, and their -authority slight. Attendance at school, generally very irregular, -was almost everywhere entirely suspended in summer. -Many villages had no school, and scarcely anywhere was the -school attended by all the children. In many countries, most -of the children, especially the girls, were wholly without instruction. -The people, especially the peasantry, regarded -the school as a burden. The clergy, it is true, always regarded -themselves as the proprietors of the school, but on -the whole they did but very little for it, and even arrested its -progress. The nobility was but little favorable, in general, -to intellectual culture for the people.... Instruction remained -mechanical and the discipline rude. It is reported -that a Suabian schoolmaster, who died in 1782, had inflicted -during his experience in teaching 911,527 canings, 124,010 -whippings, 10,235 boxes on the ear, and 1,115,800 thumps -on the head. Moreover, he had made boys kneel 777 times -on triangular sticks, had caused the fool’s cap to be worn -5001<a name="FNanchor_217_217" id="FNanchor_217_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a> times, and the stick to be held in air 1707 times. He -had used something like 3000 words of abuse....”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[417]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">484. <span class="smcap">Pestalozzi (1746-1827).</span>—In Switzerland, the situation -of primary instruction was scarcely better. The -teachers were gathered up at hazard; their pay was wretched; -in general they had no lodgings of their own, and they were -obliged to hire themselves out for domestic service among the -well-off inhabitants of the villages, in order to find food and -lodging among them. A mean spirit of caste still dominated -instruction, and the poor remained sunk in ignorance.</p> - -<p>It was in the very midst of this wretched and unpropitious -state of affairs that there appeared, towards the end of the -eighteenth century, the most celebrated of modern educators, -a man who, we may be sure, was not exempt from faults, -whose mind had deficiencies and weaknesses, and whom we -have no intention of shielding from criticism, by covering -him with the praises of a superstitious admiration; but who -is pre-eminently great by reason of his unquenchable love for -the people, his ardent self-sacrifice, and his pedagogic instinct. -During the eighty years of his troubled life, Pestalozzi never -ceased to work for children, and to devote himself to their -instruction. War or the ill-will of his countrymen destroyed -his schools to no purpose. Without ever despairing, he -straightway rebuilt them farther away, sometimes succeeding, -through the gift of ardent speech, which never deserted -him, in communicating the inspiration to those about him; -gathering up in all places orphans and vagabonds, like a kidnapper -of a new species; forgetting that he was poor, when -he saw an occasion to be charitable, and that he was ill, when -it was necessary to teach; and, finally, pursuing with an unconquerable -energy, through hindrances and obstacles of -every description, his educational apostleship. “It is death -or success!” he wrote. “My zeal to accomplish the dream -of my life would have carried me through air or through fire, -no matter how, to the highest peak of the Alps!”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[418]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">485. <span class="smcap">The Education of Pestalozzi.</span>—The life of Pestalozzi -is intimately related to his educational work. To -comprehend the educator, it is first necessary to have become -acquainted with the man.</p> - -<p>Born at Zurich in 1746, Pestalozzi died at Brugg in Argovia -in 1827. This unfortunate great man always felt the -effects of the sentimental and unpractical education given -him by his mother, who was left a widow with three children -in 1751. He early formed the habit of feeling and of being -touched with emotion, rather than of reasoning and of reflecting. -The laughing-stock of his companions, who made sport -of his awkwardness, the little scholar of Zurich accustomed -himself to live alone and to become a dreamer. Later, -towards 1760, the student of the academy distinguished himself -by his political enthusiasm and his revolutionary daring. -At that early period he had conceived a profound feeling for -the miseries and the needs of the people, and he already proposed -as the purpose of his life the healing of the diseases of -society. At the same time there was developed in him an -irresistible taste for a simple, frugal, and almost ascetic life. -To restrain his desires had become the essential rule of his -conduct, and, to put it in practice, he forced himself to sleep -on a plank, and to subsist on bread and vegetables. Life in -the open air had an especial attraction for him. Each year -he spent his vacations in the country at his grandfather’s, who -was a minister at Hœngg. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Omne malum ex urbe</i> was his -favorite thought.</p> - - -<p class="p1">486. <span class="smcap">Pestalozzi an Agriculturist (1765-1775).</span>—Pestalozzi’s -call to be a teacher manifested itself at first only by -some vague aspirations, of which it would be easy to find the -trace in the short essays of his youth, and in the articles -which he contributed in his twentieth year to a students’ -journal published at Zurich. After having tried his hand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[419]</a></span> -unsuccessfully at theology and law, he became an agriculturist. -When he established at Neuhof an agricultural enterprise, -he thought less of enriching himself than of raising -the material condition of the Swiss peasantry by organizing -new industries. But notwithstanding his good intent, and -the assistance of the devoted woman whom he had married -in 1769, Anna Schultess, Pestalozzi, more enterprising than -skillful, failed in his industrial establishments. In 1775 he -had exhausted his resources. It is then that he formed an -heroic resolution which typifies his indiscreet generosity. -Poor, and scarcely more than able to support himself, he -opened on his farm an asylum for poor children.</p> - - -<p class="p1">487. <span class="smcap">How Pestalozzi became an Educator.</span>—The asylum -for poor children at Neuhof (1775-1780) is, so to speak, -the first step in the pedagogical career of Pestalozzi. The -others will be the orphan asylum at Stanz (1798-1799), the -primary schools at Burgdorf (1799), the institute at Burgdorf -(1801-1804), and, finally, the institute at Yverdun (1805-1825).</p> - -<p>The first question that is raised when we study systems -of education, is, how the authors of those systems became -teachers.</p> - -<p>The best, perhaps, are those who became such because of -their great love for humanity, or because of their tender love -for their children. Pestalozzi is of this class. It is because -he has ardently dreamed from his youth of the moral amelioration -of the people; and it is also because he has followed -with a tender solicitude the first steps of his little son Jacob -on life’s journey, that he became a great teacher.</p> - - -<p class="p1">488. <span class="smcap">The Education of his Son.</span>—The <cite>Father’s Journal</cite>,<a name="FNanchor_218_218" id="FNanchor_218_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> -where Pestalozzi noted from day to day the progress of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[420]</a></span> -his child, shows him intent on applying the principles of -Rousseau. At the age of eleven, Jacob, like Émile, did not -yet know how to read or to write. Things before words, the -intuition of sensible objects, few exercises in judgment, -respect for the powers of the child, an equal anxiety to husband -his liberty and to secure his obedience, the constant -endeavor to diffuse joy and good humor over education,—such -were the principal traits of the education which Pestalozzi -gave his son, an education which was a real experiment -in pedagogy, from which the pupil perhaps suffered somewhat, -but from which humanity was to derive profit. From -this period Pestalozzi conceived some of the ideas which became -the principles of his method. The father had made the -educator. One of the superiorities of Pestalozzi over Rousseau -is, that he loved and educated his own child.</p> - - -<p class="p1">489. <span class="smcap">The Asylum at Neuhof.</span>—Madame de Staël was -right in saying that “we must consider Pestalozzi’s school -as limited to childhood. The education which it gives is -designed only for the common people.” And, in fact, the -first and the last establishments of Pestalozzi were schools -for small children. In the last years of his life, when he -was obliged to leave the institute of Yverdun, he returned -to Neuhof, and there had constructed a school for poor -children.</p> - -<p>The school at Neuhof was to be above all else, in Pestalozzi’s -thought, an experiment in moral and material regeneration -through labor, through order, and through instruction. -Many exercises in language, singing, reading of the Bible,—such -were the intellectual occupations. But the greater part -of the time was devoted to agricultural labor, to the cultivation -of madder.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding his admirable devotion, Pestalozzi did not -long succeed in his philanthropic plans. He had to contend<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[421]</a></span> -against the prejudices of parents, and the ingratitude of the -children. Very often the little beggars whom he had gathered -up waited only till they had received from him new -clothing, and then ran away and resumed their vagabond -life. Besides, he lacked resources. He became poor, and -fell more and more into debt. His friends, who had aided -him on the start, warned him that he would die in a hospital -or in a mad-house.</p> - -<p>“For thirty years,” he says himself, “my life was a desperate -struggle against the most frightful poverty.... More -than a thousand times I was obliged to go without dinner, -and at noon, when even the poorest were seated around a -table, I devoured a morsel of bread upon the highway ...; -and all this that I might minister to the needs of the poor, -by the realization of my principles.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">490. <span class="smcap">Pestalozzi a Writer.</span>—After the check to his undertaking -at Neuhof, Pestalozzi renounced for some time all -practical activity, and it was by his writings that he manifested, -from 1780 to 1787, his zeal in education.</p> - -<p>In 1780 appeared the <cite>Evening Hours of a Recluse</cite>, a series -of aphorisms on the rise of a people through education. In -this, Pestalozzi sharply criticised the artificial method of the -school, and insisted on the necessity of developing the soul -through <em>what is within</em>,—through interior culture:—</p> - -<p>“The school everywhere puts the order of words before -the order of free nature.”</p> - -<p>“The home is the basis of the education of humanity.”</p> - -<p>“Man, it is within yourself, it is in the inner sense of your -power, that resides nature’s instrument for your development.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">491. <span class="smcap">Leonard and Gertrude.</span>—In 1781 Pestalozzi -published the first volume of <cite>Leonard and Gertrude</cite>. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[422]</a></span> -had written it within the blank spaces of an old account book. -This book, the most celebrated perhaps of all Pestalozzi’s -writings, is a sort of popular romance in which the author -brings upon the stage a family of working-people. Gertrude -here represents the ideas of Pestalozzi on the education of -children. The three other volumes (1783, 1785, 1787) relate -the regeneration of a village through the concerted action -of legislation, administration, religion, and the school, and -especially the school, “which is the centre whence everything -should proceed.”</p> - -<p><cite>Leonard and Gertrude</cite> is the only one of Pestalozzi’s -works which Diesterweg<a name="FNanchor_219_219" id="FNanchor_219_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_219_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> recommends to practical teachers.</p> - -<p>“It was my first word,” says Pestalozzi, “to the heart of -the poor and of the abandoned of the land.”</p> - -<p>In making Gertrude the principal character of his romance, -Pestalozzi wished to emphasize one of his fundamental ideas, -which was to place the instruction and the education of the -people in the hands of mothers.</p> - - -<p class="p1">492. <span class="smcap">New Experiments in Agriculture.</span>—From 1787 -to 1797 Pestalozzi returned to farming. It is from this -period that date his relations with Fellenberg, the celebrated -founder of <cite>Agricultural Institutes</cite>, and with the philosopher -Fichte, who showed him the agreement of his ideas with the -doctrine of Kant. His name began to become celebrated, -and, in 1792, the Legislative Assembly proclaimed him a -French citizen, in company with Washington and Klopstock.</p> - -<p>During these years of farm labor, Pestalozzi had meditated -different works which appeared in 1797.</p> - - -<p class="p1">493. <span class="smcap">Other Works of Pestalozzi.</span>—Educational thought -pervades all the literary works of Pestalozzi. Thus his -<cite>Fables</cite>, short compositions in prose, all have a moral and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[423]</a></span> -educational tendency. Also, in his <cite>Researches on the Course -of Nature in the Development of the Human Race</cite>, he sought -to justify the preponderant office which he accorded to nature -in the education of man. But Pestalozzi was not successful -in philosophical dissertations.</p> - -<p>“This book,” he says himself, “is to me only another -proof of my lack of ability; it is simply a diversion of my -imaginative faculty, a work relatively weak.... No one,” -he adds, “understands me, and it has been hinted that the -whole work has been taken for nonsense.”</p> - -<p>This judgment is severe, but it is only just. Pestalozzi -had an intuition of truth, but he was incapable of giving a -theoretical demonstration of it. His thought all aglow, and -his language all imagery, did not submit to the concise and -methodical exposition of abstract truths.</p> - - -<p class="p1">494. <span class="smcap">The Orphan Asylum at Stanz (1798-1799).</span>—Up -to 1798 Pestalozzi had scarcely found the occasion to -put in practice his principles and his dreams. The Helvetic -Revolution, which he hailed with enthusiasm as the signal of -a social regeneration for his country, finally gave him the -means of making a trial of his theories, which, by a strange -destiny, had been applied by other hands before having been -applied by his own.</p> - -<p>The Helvetic government, whose sentiments were in harmony -with the democratic sentiments of Pestalozzi, offered -him the direction of a normal school. But he declined, in -order that he might remain a teacher. He was about to take -charge of a school, the plan of which he had organized, when -events called him to direct an orphan asylum at Stanz.</p> - - -<p class="p1">495. <span class="smcap">Methods followed at Stanz.</span>—From six to eight -o’clock in the morning, and from four to eight in the afternoon, -Pestalozzi heard the lessons of his pupils. The rest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[424]</a></span> -of the time was devoted to manual labor. Even during the -lesson, the child at Stanz “drew, wrote, and worked.” To -establish order in a school which contained eighty pupils, -Pestalozzi had the idea of resorting to rhythm; “and it was -found,” he says, “that the rhythmical pronunciation increased -the impression produced by the lesson.” Having to do with -pupils absolutely ignorant, he kept them for a long time on -the elements; he practised them on the first elements till -they had mastered them. He simplified the methods, and -sought in each branch of instruction a point of departure -adapted to the nascent faculties of the child. The mode of -teaching was simultaneous. All the pupils repeated in a -high tone of voice the words of the teacher; but the instruction -was also mutual:—</p> - -<p>“Children instructed children; they themselves tried the -experiment; all I did was to suggest it. Here again I obeyed -necessity. Not having a single assistant, I had the idea of -putting one of the most advanced pupils between two others -who were less advanced.”</p> - -<p>Reading was combined with writing. Natural history and -geography were taught to children under the form of conversational -lessons.</p> - -<p>But what engrossed Pestalozzi above all else was to -develop the moral sentiments and the interior forces of the -conscience. He wished to make himself loved by his pupils, -to awaken among them, in their daily association, sentiments -of fraternal affection, to excite the conception of each virtue -before formulating its precept, and to give the children moral -lessons through the influence of nature which surrounded -them and through the activity which was imposed on them.</p> - -<p>Pestalozzi’s chimera, in the organization at Stanz, was to -transport into the school the conditions of domestic life—the -desire to be a father to a hundred children.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[425]</a></span></p> - -<p>“I was convinced that my heart would change the condition -of my children just as promptly as the sun of spring -would reanimate the earth benumbed by the winter.”</p> - -<p>“It was necessary that my children should observe, from -dawn to evening, at every moment of the day, upon my brow -and on my lips, that my affections were fixed on them, that -their happiness was my happiness, and that their pleasures -were my pleasures.”</p> - -<p>“I was everything to my children. I was alone with them -from morning till night.... Their hands were in my hands. -Their eyes were fixed on my eyes.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">496. <span class="smcap">Results accomplished.</span>—Without plan, without -apparent order; merely by the action and incessant communication -of his ardent soul with children ignorant and -perverted by misery; reduced to his own resources in a -house where he was himself “steward, accountant, footman, -and almost servant all in one,” Pestalozzi obtained surprising -results.</p> - -<p>“I saw at Stanz,” he says, “the power of the human -faculties.... My pupils developed rapidly; it was another -race.... The children very soon felt that there existed in -them forces which they did not know, and in particular they -acquired a general sentiment of order and beauty. They -were self-conscious, and the impression of weariness which -habitually reigns in schools vanished like a shadow from my -class-room. They willed, they had power, they persevered, -they succeeded, and they were happy. They were not -scholars who were learning, but children who felt unknown -forces awakening within them, and who understood where -these forces could and would lead them, and this feeling -gave elevation to their mind and heart.”</p> - -<p>“It is out of the folly of Stanz,” says Roger de Guimps,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[426]</a></span> -“that has come the primary school of the nineteenth century.”</p> - -<p>While the pupils prospered, the master fell sick of overwork. -When the events of the war closed the orphan -asylum, it was quite time for the health of Pestalozzi. He -raised blood and was at the limit of his strength.</p> - - -<p class="p1">497. <span class="smcap">The Schools of Burgdorf (1799-1802).</span>—As -soon as he had recovered his health, Pestalozzi resumed the -course of his experiments. Not without difficulty he succeeded -in having entrusted to him a small class in a primary -school of Burgdorf. He passed for an ignoramus.</p> - -<p>“It was whispered that I could neither write, nor compute, -nor even read decently.” Pestalozzi does not defend himself -against the charge, but acknowledges his incapacity, and -even asserts that it is to his advantage.</p> - -<p>“My incapacity in these respects was certainly an indispensable -condition for my discovery of the simplest method -of teaching.”</p> - -<p>What troubled him most in the school at Burgdorf “was -that it was subjected to rules.” “Never in my life had I -borne such a burden. I was discouraged. I cringed under -the routine yoke of the school.”</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, Pestalozzi succeeded admirably in his little -school. Then more advanced pupils were given him, but -here his success was less. He always proceeded without a -plan, and he gave himself great trouble in obtaining results -that he might have attained much more easily with a little -more system. Blunders, irregularities, and whimsicalities -were ever compromising the action of his good will. To be -convinced of this, it suffices to read the books which he published -at this period, and in particular the most celebrated, -of which we shall proceed to give a brief analysis.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[427]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">498. <span class="smcap">How Gertrude teaches her Children.</span>—It is -under this title that in 1801 Pestalozzi published an exposition -of his doctrine.<a name="FNanchor_220_220" id="FNanchor_220_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a> “It is the most important and the -most profound of all his pedagogical writings,” says one of -his biographers. We shall not dispute this; but this book -also proves how the mind of Pestalozzi was inferior to his -heart, how the writer was of less worth than the teacher. -Composed under the form of letters addressed to Gessner, -the work of Pestalozzi is too often a tissue of declamations, -of rambling thoughts, and of personal grievances. It is the -work of a brain that is in a state of ferment, and of a heart -that is overflowing. The thought is painfully disentangled -from out a thousand repetitions. Why need we be astonished -at this literary incompetence of Pestalozzi when he -himself makes the following confession: “For thirty years -I had not read a single book; I could not longer read them.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">499. <span class="smcap">Pestalozzi’s Style.</span>—The style of Pestalozzi is the -very man himself: desultory, obscure, confused, but with -sudden flashes and brilliant illuminations in which the warmth -of his heart is exhibited. There are also too many comparisons; -the imagery overwhelms the idea. Within a few -pages he will compare himself, in succession, “to a sailor, -who, having lost his harpoon, would try to catch a whale -with a hook,” to depict the disproportion between his -resources and his purpose; then to a straw, which even a -cat would not lay hold of, to tell how he was despised; -to an owl, to express his isolation; to a reed, to indicate -his feebleness; to a mouse which fears a cat, to characterize -his timidity.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[428]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">500. <span class="smcap">Analysis of the Gertrude.</span>—It is not easy to -analyze one of Pestalozzi’s books. To begin with, <cite>How -Gertrude teaches her Children</cite> is a very bad title, for Gertrude -is not once mentioned in it. This proper name became for -Pestalozzi an allegorical term by which he personifies himself.</p> - -<p>The first three letters are rather autobiographical memoirs -than an exposition of doctrine. Pestalozzi here relates his -first experiments, and makes us acquainted with his assistants -at Burgdorf,—Krüsi, Tobler, and Buss. In the letters -which follow, the author attempts to set forth the general -principles of his method. The seventh treats of language; -the eighth, of the intuition of forms, of writing, and of -drawing; the ninth, of the intuition of numbers and of computation; -the tenth and twelfth, of intuition in general. -For Pestalozzi, intuition was, as we know, direct and experimental -perception, either in the domain of sense, or in -the interior regions of the consciousness. Finally, the last -letters are devoted to moral and religious development.</p> - -<p>Without designing to follow, in all its ramblings and in all -its digressions, the mobile thought of Pestalozzi, we shall -gather up some of the general ideas which abound in this -overcharged and badly composed work.</p> - - -<p class="p1">501. <span class="smcap">Methods Simplified.</span>—The purpose of Pestalozzi -was indeed, in one sense, as he was told by one of his -friends, to <em>mechanize</em> instruction. He wished, in fact, to -simplify and determine methods to such a degree that they -might be employed by the most ordinary teacher, and by the -most ignorant father and mother. In a word, he hoped to -organize a pedagogical machine so well set up that it could -in a manner run alone.</p> - -<p>“I believe,” he says, “that we must not dream of making -progress in the instruction of the people as long as we have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[429]</a></span> -not found the forms of instruction which make of the -teacher, at least so far as the completion of the elementary -studies is concerned, the simple mechanical instrument of a -method which owes its results to the nature of its processes, -and not to the ability of the one who uses it. I assert that -a school-book has no value, save as it can be employed by a -master without instruction as well as by one who has been -taught.”</p> - -<p>This was sheer exaggeration, and was putting too little -value on the personal effort and merit of teachers. On this -score, it would be useless to found normal schools. Pestalozzi, -moreover, has given in his own person a striking -contradiction to this singular theory; for he owed his success -in teaching much more to the influence of his living speech, -and to the ardent communication of the passion by which his -heart was animated, than to the methodical processes which -he never succeeded in combining in an efficient manner.</p> - - -<p class="p1">502. <span class="smcap">The Socratic Method.</span>—Pestalozzi recommends -the Socratic method, and he indicates with exactness some of -the conditions necessary for the employment of that method. -He first observes that it requires on the part of the teacher -uncommon ability.</p> - -<p>“A superficial and uncultivated intelligence,” he says, -“does not sound the depths whence a Socrates made spring -up intelligence and truth.”</p> - -<p>Besides, the Socratic method can be employed only with -pupils who already have some instruction. It is absolutely -impracticable with children who lack both the point of departure, -that is, preliminary notions, and the means of -expressing these notions, that is, a knowledge of language. -And as it is always necessary that Pestalozzi’s thought -should wind up with a figure of speech, he adds:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[430]</a></span></p> - -<p>“In order that the goshawk and the eagle may plunder -eggs from other birds, it is first necessary that the latter -should deposit eggs in their nests.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">503. <span class="smcap">Word, Form, and Number.</span>—A favorite idea of -Pestalozzi, which remained at Yverdun, as at Burgdorf, the -principle of his exercises in teaching, is that all elementary -knowledge can and should be related to three principles,—<em>word</em>, -<em>form</em>, and <em>number</em>. To the <em>word</em> he attached -language, to <em>form</em>, writing and drawing, and to <em>number</em>, -computation.</p> - -<p>“This was,” he says, “like a ray of light in my researches, -like a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Deus ex machina!</i>” Nothing justifies such -enthusiasm. It would be very easy to show that Pestalozzi’s -classification, besides that it offers no practical interest, is -not justifiable from the theoretical point of view, first because -one of the elements of his trilogy, the <em>word</em>, or language, -comprises the other two; and then because a large -part of knowledge, for example, all physical qualities, does not -permit the distinction of which he was superstitiously fond.</p> - - -<p class="p1">504. <span class="smcap">Intuitive Exercises.</span>—What is of more value is -the importance which Pestalozzi ascribes to intuition. An -incident worthy of note is that it is not Pestalozzi himself, -but one of the children of his school, who first had the idea -of the direct observation of the objects which serve as the -text for the lesson. One day as, according to his custom, he -was giving his pupils a long description of what they -observed in a drawing where a window was represented, he -noticed that one of his little auditors, instead of looking at -the picture, was attentively studying the real window of the -school-room.</p> - -<p>From that moment Pestalozzi put aside all his drawings, -and took the objects themselves for subjects of observation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[431]</a></span></p> - -<p>“The child,” he said, “wishes nothing to intervene between -nature and himself.”</p> - -<p>Ramsauer, a pupil at Burgdorf, has described, not without -some inaccuracy perhaps, the intuitive exercises which -Pestalozzi offered to his pupils:—</p> - -<p>“The exercises in language were the best we had, especially -those which had reference to the wainscoting of the -school-room. He spent whole hours before that wainscoting, -very old and torn, busy in examining the holes and -rents, with respect to number, form, position, and color, and -in formulating our observations in sentences more or less developed. -Then Pestalozzi would ask us, Boys, what do you -see? (He never mentioned the girls.)</p> - -<p><em>Pupil</em>: I see a hole in the wainscoting.</p> - -<p><em>Pestalozzi</em>: Very well; repeat after me:—</p> - -<p> -I see a hole in the wainscoting.<br /> -I see a large hole in the wainscoting.<br /> -Through the hole I see the wall, etc., etc.”<br /> -</p> - - -<p class="p1">505. <span class="smcap">The Book for Mothers.</span>—In 1803 Pestalozzi published -a work on elementary instruction, which remained unfinished, -entitled <cite>The Book for Mothers</cite>. This was another -<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Orbis Pictus</cite> without pictures. Pestalozzi’s intention was to -introduce the child to a knowledge of the objects of nature -or of art which fall under his observation. In this he tarried -too long over the description of the organs of the body -and of their functions. A French critic, Dussault, said, -with reference to this:—</p> - -<p>“Pestalozzi gives himself much trouble to teach children -that their nose is in the middle of their face.” In his anxiety -to be simple and elementary, Pestalozzi often succeeds in -reality in making instruction puerile. On the other hand, -the Père Girard complains that the exercises in language<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[432]</a></span> -which compose <cite>The Book for Mothers</cite>, “really very well arranged, -are also very dry and monotonous.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">506. <span class="smcap">A Swiss Teacher in 1793.</span>—To form a just estimate -of the efforts of Pestalozzi and his assistants, we must -take into account the wretched state of instruction at the -period when they attempted to reform the methods of teaching. -Krüsi, Pestalozzi’s first assistant, one of those who -were perhaps the nearest his heart, has himself related how -he became a teacher. He was eighteen, and till then his -only employment had been that of a peddler for his father. -One day, as he was going about his business with a heavy -load of merchandise on his shoulders, he meets on the road a -revenue officer of the State, and they enter into conversation. -“Do you know,” said the officer, “that the teacher of Gais -is about to leave his school? Would you not like to succeed -him?—It is not a question of what I would like; a school-master -should have knowledge, in which I am absolutely lacking.—What -a school-master can and should know with us, -you might easily learn at your age.”—Krüsi reflected, went -to work, and copied more than a hundred times a specimen -of writing which he had procured; and he declares that this -was his only preparation. He registered for examination. -The day for the trial arrived.</p> - -<p>“There were but two competitors of us,” he says. “The -principal test consisted in writing the Lord’s Prayer, and to -this I gave my closest attention. I had observed that in -German, use was made of capital letters; but I did not know -the rule for their use, and took them for ornaments. So I -distributed mine in a symmetrical manner, so that some were -found even in the middle of words. In fact, neither of us -knew anything.</p> - -<p>“When the examination had been estimated, I was sum<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[433]</a></span>moned, -and Captain Schœpfer informed me that the examiners -had found us both deficient; that my competitor read -the better, but that I excelled him in writing; ... that, -besides, my apartment, being larger than that of the other -candidate, was better fitted for holding a school, and, finally, -that I was elected to the vacant place.”</p> - -<p>Is it not well to be indulgent to teachers whom we meet on -the highway, who scarcely know how to write, and whom a -captain commissions?</p> - - -<p class="p1">507. <span class="smcap">The Institute at Burgdorf (1802).</span>—When Pestalozzi -published the <cite>Gertrude</cite> and <cite>The Book for Mothers</cite>, he -was not simply a school-master at Burgdorf; he had taken -charge of an institute, that is, of a boarding-school of higher -primary instruction. There also he applied the natural -method, “which makes the child proceed from his own intuitions, -and leads him by degrees, and through his own efforts, -to abstract ideas.” The institute succeeded. The pupils of -Burgdorf were distinguished especially by their skill in drawing -and in mental arithmetic. Visitors were struck with their -air of cheerfulness. Singing and gymnastics were held in -honor, and also exercises on natural history, learned in the -open field, and during walks. Mildness and liberty characterized -the internal management. “It is not a school that -you have here,” said a visitor, “but a family!”</p> - - -<p class="p1">508. <span class="smcap">Journey to Paris.</span>—It was at this period that Pestalozzi -made a journey to Paris, as a member of the <em>consulta</em> -called by Bonaparte to decide the fate of Switzerland. He -hoped to take advantage of his stay in France to disseminate -his pedagogical ideas. But Bonaparte refused to see him, -saying that he had something else to do besides discussing -questions of <em>a b c</em>. Monge, the founder of the Polytechnic -School, was more cordial, and kindly listened to the explana<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[434]</a></span>tions -of the Swiss pedagogue. But he concluded by saying, -“It is too much for us!” More disdainful still, Talleyrand -had said, “It is too much for the people!”</p> - -<p>On the other hand, at the same period, the philosopher -Maine de Biran, then sub-prefect at Bergerac, called a disciple -of Pestalozzi, Barraud, to found schools in the department of -Dordogne, and he encouraged with all his influence the application -of the Pestalozzian method.</p> - - -<p class="p1">509. <span class="smcap">The Institute at Yverdun (1805-1825).</span>—In 1803 -Pestalozzi was obliged to leave the castle of Burgdorf. The -Swiss government gave him in exchange the convent of -München-Buchsee. Pestalozzi transferred his institute to -this place, but only for a little time. In 1805 he established -himself at Yverdun, at the foot of Lake Neufchâtel, in French -Switzerland; and here, with the aid of several of his colleagues, -he developed his methods anew, with brilliant success -at first, but afterwards through all sorts of vicissitudes, difficulties, -and miseries.</p> - -<p>The institute at Yverdun was rather a school of secondary -instruction, devoted to the middle classes, than a primary -school proper. Pupils poured in from all sides. The character -of the studies, however, was poorly defined, and Pestalozzi -found himself somewhat out of his element in his new -institution, since he excelled only in elementary methods and -in the education of little children.</p> - - -<p class="p1">510. <span class="smcap">Success of the Institute.</span>—Numerous visitors betook -themselves to Yverdun, some through simple love of -strolling. The institute of Yverdun made a part, so to speak, -of the curiosities of Switzerland. People visited Pestalozzi -as they went to see a lake or a glacier. As soon as notice -was given of the arrival of a distinguished personage, Pestalozzi -summoned one of his best masters, Ramsauer or -Schmid.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[435]</a></span></p> - -<p>“Take your best pupils,” he said, “and show the Prince -what we are doing. He has numerous serfs, and when he is -convinced, he will have them instructed.”</p> - -<p>These frequent exhibitions entailed a great loss of time. -Disorder reigned in the instruction. The young masters -whom Pestalozzi had attached to his fortunes were overwhelmed -with work, and could not give sufficient attention to -the preparation of their lessons. Pestalozzi was growing old, -and did not succeed in completing his methods.</p> - - -<p class="p1">511. <span class="smcap">The Tentatives of Pestalozzi.</span>—The teaching of -Pestalozzi was in reality but a long groping, an experiment -ceaselessly renewed. Do not require of him articulate ideas, -and methods definitely established. Always on the alert, and -always in quest of something better, his admirable pedagogic -instinct never came to full satisfaction. His merit was that -he was always on the search for truth. His theories almost -always followed, rather than preceded, his experiments. A -man of intuition rather than of reasoning, he acknowledges -that he went forward without considering what he was doing. -He had the merit of making many innovations, but he was -wrong in taking counsel of no one but himself, and of his -personal feelings. “We ought to read nothing,” he said; -“we ought to discover everything.” Pestalozzi never knew -how to profit by the experience of others.</p> - -<p>He never arrived at complete precision in the establishment -of his methods. He complained of not being understood, -and he was not in fact. One of his pupils at Yverdun, -Vulliemin, thus expresses himself:—</p> - -<p>“That which was called, not without pretense, the <em>method</em> -of Pestalozzi was an enigma for us. It was for our teachers -themselves. Each of them interpreted the doctrine of the -master in his own way; but we were still far from the time<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[436]</a></span> -when these divergencies engendered discord; when our -principal teachers, after each had given out that he alone -had comprehended Pestalozzi, ended by asserting that Pestalozzi -himself was not understood; that he had not been -understood except by Schmid, said Schmid, and by Niederer, -said Niederer.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">512. <span class="smcap">Methods at Yverdun.</span>—The writer whom we have -just quoted gives us valuable information on the methods -which were in use at Yverdun:—</p> - -<p>“Instruction was addressed to the intelligence rather than -to the memory. Attempt, said Pestalozzi to his colleagues, -to <em>develop</em> the child, and not to <em>train</em> him as one trains a -dog.”</p> - -<p>“Language was taught us by the aid of intuition; we -learned to see correctly, and through this very process to -form for ourselves a correct idea of the relations of things. -What we had conceived clearly we had no difficulty in -expressing clearly.”</p> - -<p>“The first elements of geography were taught us on the -spot.... Then we reproduced in relief with clay the valley -of which we had just made a study.”</p> - -<p>“We were made to invent geometry by having marked -out for us the end to reach, and by being put on the route. -The same course was followed in arithmetic; our computations -were made in the head and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">viva voce</i>, without the aid -of paper.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">513. <span class="smcap">Decadence of the Institute.</span>—Yverdun enjoyed -an extraordinary notoriety for some years. But little by -little the faults of the method became apparent. Internal -discords and the misunderstanding of Pestalozzi’s colleagues, -of Niederer, “the philosopher of the method,” and -of Schmid, the mathematician, hastened the decadence of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[437]</a></span> -an establishment in which order and discipline had never -reigned. Pestalozzi was content with being the spur of the -institute. He became more and more unfit for practical -affairs. He allowed all liberty to his assistants, and also to -his pupils. At Yverdun the pupils addressed their teachers -in familiar style. The touching fiction of paternity transported -into the school, which was successful with Pestalozzi -in his first experience in teaching, and with a small number -of pupils, was no longer practicable at Yverdun, with a mass -of pupils of every age and of every disposition.</p> - - -<p class="p1">514. <span class="smcap">Judgment of Père Girard.</span>—In 1809 the Père -Girard<a name="FNanchor_221_221" id="FNanchor_221_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_221_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a> was commissioned by the Swiss government to -inspect the institute. The result was not favorable, though -Girard acknowledges that he conceived the idea of his own -method from studying at first hand that of Pestalozzi.</p> - -<p>The principal criticism of Girard bears on the abuse of -mathematics, which, under the influence of Schmid, became -in fact more and more the principal occupation of teachers -and pupils.</p> - -<p>“I made the remark,” he says, “to my old friend Pestalozzi, -that the mathematics exercised an unjustifiable sway -in his establishment, and that I feared the results of this on -the education that was given. Whereupon he replied to me -with spirit, as was his manner: ‘This is because I wish my -children to believe nothing which cannot be demonstrated as -clearly to them as that two and two make four.’ My reply -was in the same strain: ‘In that case, if I had thirty sons, -I would not entrust one of them to you, for it would be -impossible for you to demonstrate to him, as you can that -two and two make four, that I am his father, and that I -have a right to his obedience.’”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[438]</a></span></p> - -<p>It is evident that Pestalozzi was deviating from his own -inclinations. The general character of his pedagogy is in -fact to avoid abstraction, and in all things to aim at concrete -and living intuition. Even in religion, he deliberately -excluded dogmatic teaching, precise and literal form, and -sought only to awaken in the soul a religious sentiment, -sincere and profound. The Père Girard had remarked to -him that the religious instruction of his pupils was vague -and indeterminate, and that their aspirations lacked the -doctrinal form. “The form,” replied Pestalozzi, “I am -still looking for it!”</p> - - -<p class="p1">515. <span class="smcap">The Last Years of Pestalozzi.</span>—Disheartened by -the decadence of his institute, Pestalozzi left Yverdun in -1824, and sought a retreat at Neuhof, on the farm where he -had tried his first experiments in popular education. It is -here that he wrote his last two works,—<cite>The Swan’s Song</cite> and -<cite>My Destinies</cite>. January 25, 1827, he was taken to Brugg to -consult a physician. He died there February 17; and two -days after he was buried at Birr. It is there that the Canton -of Argovia erected a monument to him in 1846, with the -following inscription:—</p> - -<p>“Here lies Henry Pestalozzi, born at Zurich, January 12, -1746, died at Brugg, February 17, 1827, savior of the poor -at Neuhof, preacher of the people in <cite>Leonard and Gertrude</cite>, -father of orphans at Stanz, founder of the new people’s -school at Burgdorf and at München-Buchsee, educator of -humanity at Yverdun, man, Christian, citizen: everything -for others, nothing for himself. Blessed be his name.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">516. <span class="smcap">Essential Principles.</span>—Pestalozzi never took the -trouble to formulate the essential principles of his pedagogy. -Incapable of all labor in abstract reflection, he borrowed -from his friends, on every possible occasion, the logical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[439]</a></span> -exposition of his own methods. In his first letter to Gessner, -he is only too happy to reproduce the observations of -the philanthropist Fischer, who distinguished five essential -principles in his system:—</p> - -<p class="p1">1. To give the mind an intensive culture, and not simply -extensive: to form the mind, and not to content one’s self -with furnishing it;</p> - -<p class="p1">2. To connect all instruction with the study of language;</p> - -<p class="p1">3. To furnish the mind for all its operations with fundamental -data, mother ideas;</p> - -<p class="p1">4. To simplify the mechanism of instruction and study;</p> - -<p class="p1">5. To popularize science.</p> - -<p>On several points, indeed, Pestalozzi calls in question the -translation which Fischer has given of his thought; but, -notwithstanding these reservations, powerless to find a more -exact formula, he accepts as a finality this interpretation of -his doctrine.</p> - -<p>Later, another witness of the life of Pestalozzi, Morf, also -condensed into a few maxims the pedagogy of the great -teacher:—</p> - -<p class="p1">1. Intuition is the basis of instruction;</p> - -<p class="p1">2. Language ought to be associated with intuition;</p> - -<p class="p1">3. The time to learn is not that of judging and of criticising;</p> - -<p class="p1">4. In each branch, instruction ought to begin with the -simplest elements, and to progress by degrees while following -the development of the child, that is to say, through a -series of steps psychologically connected;</p> - -<p class="p1">5. We should dwell long enough on each part of the instruction -for the pupil to gain a complete mastery of it;</p> - -<p class="p1">6. Instruction ought to follow the order of natural -development, and not that of synthetic exposition;</p> - -<p class="p1">7. The individuality of the child is sacred;</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[440]</a></span></p> - -<p class="p1">8. The principal end of elementary instruction is not to -cause the child to acquire knowledge and talents, but to -develop and increase the forces of his intelligence;</p> - -<p class="p1">9. To wisdom there must be joined power; to theoretical -knowledge, practical skill;</p> - -<p class="p1">10. The relations between master and pupil ought to be -based on love;</p> - -<p class="p1">11. Instruction proper ought to be made subordinate to -the higher purpose of education.</p> - -<p>Each one of these aphorisms would need a long commentary. -It is sufficient, however, to study them in the aggregate, -in order to form an almost exact idea of that truly -humane pedagogy which reposes on psychological principles.</p> - -<p>Krüsi could say of his master: “With respect to the -ordinary knowledge and practices of the school, Pestalozzi -was far below a good village <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister</i>; but he possessed -something infinitely superior to that which can be given by a -course of instruction, whatever it may be. He knew that -which remains concealed from a great number of teachers,—the -human spirit and the laws of its development and culture, -the human heart and the means of vivifying it and ennobling -it.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">517. <span class="smcap">Pedagogical Processes.</span>—The pedagogy of Pestalozzi -is no less valid in its processes than in its principles. -Without presuming to enumerate everything, we will indicate -succinctly some of the scholastic practices which he employed -and recommended:—</p> - -<p>The child should know how to speak before learning to -read.</p> - -<p>For reading, use should be made of movable letters glued -on pasteboard. Before writing, the pupil should draw. -The first exercises in writing should be upon slates.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[441]</a></span></p> - -<p>In the study of language, the evolution of nature should -be followed, first studying nouns, then qualificatives, and -finally propositions.</p> - -<p>The elements of computation shall be taught by the aid of -material objects taken as units, or at least by means of strokes -drawn on a board. Oral computation shall be the most -employed.</p> - -<p>The pupil ought, in order to form an accurate and exact -idea of numbers, to conceive them always as a collection of -strokes or of concrete things, and not as abstract figures. -A small table divided into squares in which points are represented, -serves to teach addition, subtraction, multiplication, -and division.</p> - -<p>There was neither book nor copy-book in the schools of -Burgdorf.</p> - -<p>The children had nothing to learn by heart. They had to -repeat all at once and in accord the instructions of the -master. Each lesson lasted but an hour, and was followed -by a short interval devoted to recreation.</p> - -<p>Manual labor, making paper boxes, working in the garden, -gymnastics, were associated with mental labor. The last -hour of each day was devoted to optional labor. The pupils -said, “We are working for ourselves.”</p> - -<p>A few hours a week were devoted to military exercises.</p> - -<p>Surely everything is not to be commended in the processes -which we have just indicated. It is not necessary, for example, -that the child conceive, when he computes, the content -of numbers, and Pestalozzi sometimes makes an abuse -of sense intuition. He introduces analysis, and an analysis -too subtile and too minute, into studies where nature alone -does her work. “My method,” he said, “is but a refinement -of the processes of nature.” He refines too much.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[442]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">518. <span class="smcap">Pestalozzi and Rousseau.</span>—Pestalozzi has often -acknowledged what he owed to Rousseau. “My chimerical -and unpractical spirit was taken,” he said, “with that chimerical -and impracticable book.... The system of liberty ideally -established by Rousseau, excited in me an infinite longing -for a wider and more bounteous sphere of activity.”</p> - -<p>The great superiority of Pestalozzi over Rousseau, is that -he worked for the people,—that he applied to a great number -of children the principles which Rousseau embodied only -in an individual and privileged education. Émile, after all, -is an aristocrat. He is rich, and of good ancestry; and is -endowed with all the gifts of nature and fortune. Real pupils -do not offer, in general, to the action of teachers, material -as docile and complaisant. Pestalozzi had to do only -with children of the common people, who have everything to -learn at school, because they have found at home, with busy -or careless parents, neither encouragement nor example,—because -their early years have been only a long intellectual -slumber. For these benumbed natures, many exercises are -necessary which would properly be regarded as useless if it -were a question of instructing children of another condition. -Before condemning, before ridiculing, the trifling practices of -Pestalozzi, and of teachers of the same school, we should -consider the use to which these processes were applied. The -real organizer of the education of childhood and of the people, -Pestalozzi has a right to the plaudits of all those who -are interested in the future of the masses of the people.</p> - - -<p class="p1">519. <span class="smcap">Conclusion.</span>—We should not flatter ourselves that -merely by means of an analysis of Pestalozzi’s methods, we -can comprehend the service of a man who excelled in the -warmth of his charity, in his ardor of devotion and of propagandism, -and in I know not what that makes a grand per<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[443]</a></span>sonality, -more than by the clearness and the exactness of -his theories. It is somewhat with Pestalozzi as with those -great actors who carry with them to their tomb a part of the -secret of their art.</p> - -<p>He was especially great in heart and in love. To read -some of his writings, we would sometimes be tempted to say -that his intellect was far inferior to the expectation excited -by his name; but what a splendid revenge he takes in the -domain of sentiment!</p> - -<p>He passionately loved the people. He knew their sufferings, -and nothing turned him from his anxiety to cure them. -In the presence of a beautiful landscape, he thought less of -the charming scene that was displayed before his eyes than -of the poor people who, under those splendors of nature, led -a life of misery.</p> - -<p>That which assures him an immortal glory is the high purpose -that he set before himself,—his ardor to regenerate -humanity through instruction. Of what consequence is it -that the results obtained were so disproportionate to his -efforts, and that he could say, “The contrast between what -I would and what I could is so great that it cannot be expressed”? -Even the French Revolution did not succeed in -the matter of instruction, in making its works commensurate -with its aspirations.</p> - -<p>The love and the admiration of all the friends of instruction -are forever secured to Pestalozzi. He was the most suggestive, -the most stimulating, of modern educators. If it was -not given him to act sufficiently on French pedagogy, he was -in Germany the great inspirer of reform in popular education. -While he was despised by Bonaparte, he obtained, in 1802, -from the philosopher Fichte, this fine compliment, “It is -from the institute of Pestalozzi that I expect the regeneration -of the German nation.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[444]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="blockquotx"> - - <div><a name="Para_520" id="Para_520"></a></div> -<p>[520. <span class="smcap">Analytical Summary.</span>—1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Inveniam viam aut -faciam.</i> To know the end is to find the way; and to be possessed -of an impulse to reach an end is to make a way. -There are thus two categories of educational reformers. -Some see a goal by the light of reason and reflection, and -then lay out a logical route to it which they may or may not -traverse, but which some one will ultimately traverse. -Others are dominated by an intense feeling, and grope their -uncertain way towards a goal whose outline and position are -only dimly discerned through the mists of emotion. With -some, the motive is intellectual, with others, it is emotional; -and in their higher manifestations these endowments are mutually -exclusive.</p> - -<p>2. Pestalozzi belongs pre-eminently to the emotional reformers. -He felt intensely, but he saw vaguely. His impulses -were the highest and the noblest that can animate the -human soul, but at every stage in his career his success was -compromised by his inability to see things in their normal -relations and proportions. Conscious of his inability to -frame a rational defence of his system, he was glad to borrow -philosophic insight from abroad; but he could not live -with colleagues who would test the logic of his methods.</p> - -<p>3. Tested by the simplest rules of order, symmetry, and -economy, the schools organized by Pestalozzi were failures; -but tested by the exalted humanity, the heroic devotion, and -self-sacrifice of their founder, and by the new life which, -through his example, was henceforth to animate the teaching -profession, his schools were successful beyond all precedent. -Judged by modern standards, Pestalozzi was a poor teacher, -but an unsurpassed educator.</p> - -<p>4. The conception which the humanitarian warmth of Pestalozzi’s -nature converted into a motive, was <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'that true edution'">that true education</ins> -is a growth, the outward evolution of an inward life.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[445]</a></span> -The conception itself was as old as David and Socrates, but -it had ceased to have the power of a living truth.</p> - -<p>5. The history of human thought shows that there has -ever been a tendency to separate form from content, or letter -from spirit, and as constant a predilection for form or letter, -as distinguished from content or spirit; and the essential -work of reform has consisted in reanimation. This illustrates -and defines Pestalozzi’s mission as an educator. The story -of his devotion and suffering is the most pathetic in the history -of education, and it should be unnecessary to repeat the -lesson that was taught at such cost.]</p></div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_216_216" id="Footnote_216_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216_216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a> Besides Basedow, there should be mentioned among the educators who -have become noted in Germany under the name of Philanthropists, Salzman -(1744-1811) and Campe (1746-1818).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_217_217" id="Footnote_217_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a> What a painstaking soul to be so exact in his accounts! Doubtless he -had an eye to the future publication of his record as a <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">maître de fouet</i>! -This account is rather too exact to be trustworthy. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_218_218" id="Footnote_218_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a> See interesting quotations from the “<cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Journal d’un père</cite>,” in the excellent -biography of Pestalozzi, by Roger de Guimps.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_219_219" id="Footnote_219_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219_219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a> See <a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">Chap. XIX.</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_220_220" id="Footnote_220_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220_220"><span class="label">[220]</span></a> A second edition appeared in the lifetime of the author, in 1820, with -some important modifications. The French translation published in 1882 -by Dr. Darin was made from the first edition.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_221_221" id="Footnote_221_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_221_221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a> See <a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">the following chapter</a>.</p> -</div></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[446]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XIX.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">THE SUCCESSORS OF PESTALOZZI.—FRŒBEL AND THE -PÈRE GIRARD.</span></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>THE PEDAGOGY OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY; FRŒBEL (1782-1852); -YOUTH OF FRŒBEL; DIFFERENT EMPLOYMENTS; CALL TO TEACH; -FRŒBEL AND PESTALOZZI; TREATISE ON THE SPHERICAL; NEW -STUDIES; INSTITUTE OF KEILHAU; THE EDUCATION OF MAN; -ANALYSIS OF THAT WORK; LOVE FOR CHILDREN; UNITY OF EDUCATION; -DIFFERENT STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF MAN; -NATURALISM OF FRŒBEL; NEW EXPERIMENTS IN TEACHING; KINDERGARTENS; -ORIGIN OF THE KINDERGARTENS; THE GIFTS OF -FRŒBEL; APPEAL TO THE INSTINCTS OF THE CHILD; IMPORTANCE -OF SPORTS; PRINCIPAL NEEDS OF THE CHILD; FAULTS IN FRŒBEL’S -METHOD; THE LAST ESTABLISHMENTS OF FRŒBEL; FRŒBEL AND -DIESTERWEG; POPULARITY OF FRŒBEL; THE PÈRE GIRARD (1765-1850); -LIFE OF THE PÈRE GIRARD; PLAN OF EDUCATION FOR HELVETIA; -LAST YEARS OF THE PÈRE GIRARD; TEACHING OF THE -MOTHER TONGUE; GRAMMAR OF IDEAS; DISCREET USE OF RULES; -EDUCATIVE COURSE IN THE MOTHER TONGUE; ANALYSIS OF THAT -WORK; MORAL ARITHMETIC; MORAL GEOGRAPHY; INFLUENCE OF -GIRARD; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.</p></div> - -<hr class="r15a" /> - -<p class="p1">521. <span class="smcap">The Pedagogy of the Nineteenth Century.</span>—Pestalozzi -really belongs to our century by the close of his -career, and especially by the posthumous glory of his name. -With Frœbel and the Père Girard, we enter completely -upon the nineteenth century; both, in different degrees and -with characteristics of their own, continue the work of -Pestalozzi.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[447]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">522. <span class="smcap">Frœbel (1782-1852).</span>—It may be said of Frœbel -as of Pestalozzi, that in France at least, he is more praised -than known, more celebrated than studied. We have been -tardy in speaking of him,—it is scarcely twenty years since; -but it seems that our admiration has sought to atone for the -slowness of its manifestation by its vivacity and its ardor. -The name of the founder of <em>Kindergartens</em> has become almost -popular, while his writings have remained almost unknown.</p> - -<p>An impartial and thorough study of Frœbel’s work will -abate rather than encourage this excessive infatuation and -this somewhat artificial enthusiasm. Assuredly, Frœbel -had grand qualities as a teacher; but he lacked a profound -classical culture and also the sense of proportion. Like -most of the Germans of this century, he has ventured on the -conceptions of a nebulous philosophy, and following the -steps of Hegel, he has too often deserted the route of observation -and experiment, to strike out into metaphysical divagations. -Frœbel’s imagination magnifies and distorts everything. -He cannot see objects as they are, but lends them -a symbolical meaning, and wanders off into transcendental -and obscure considerations. But his practical work is worth -more than his writings, and he cannot be denied the glory -of having been a bold and happy innovator in the field of -early education.</p> - - -<p class="p1">523. <span class="smcap">The Youth of Frœbel.</span>—Frœbel was born in -Thuringia in 1782. He lost his mother almost at birth, and -was educated by his father and his uncle, both village -pastors. We recollect that by a contrary destiny, Pestalozzi -was brought up by his mother. From his earliest years he -manifested remarkable traits of character, and also mental -tendencies which were a little singular. He was dreamy and -wholly penetrated with a profound religious sentiment.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[448]</a></span> -Thus, the day when he believed that he was assured by peremptory -reasoning that he was not doomed to eternal flames, -was an event in his life. Ardently enamored of nature, he -considers her as the true inspirer of humanity. This had -also been the conception of Rousseau and of Pestalozzi, but -it exhibits itself with much more power in the case of -Frœbel.</p> - -<p>It is difficult to comprehend the exaggeration of his -thought when he says that nature, attentively observed, -appears to us as the symbol of the highest aspirations of -human life.</p> - -<p>“Entire nature, even the world of crystals and stones, -teaches us to recognize good and evil, but nowhere in a more -living, tranquil, clear, and evident way than in the world of -plants and flowers.”</p> - -<p>Morality, thus understood, is a little vague. We do not -deny that the calm life of the fields contributes to surround -us with a pure atmosphere, and to beget within us wholesome -and elevated aspirations; but one must have a singularly -sentimental temperament to believe that nature can give us -“the clearest and the most obvious” lessons in morals.</p> - - -<p class="p1">524. <span class="smcap">Different Occupations.</span>—The first part of Frœbel’s -life gives evidence of a certain unsteadiness of mind. -Inconstant in his tastes, he cannot settle on a fixed mode of -life. Improvident and poor, like Pestalozzi, he is in turn -forester, intendant, architect, preceptor; he feels his way -up to the day when his vocation as a teacher is suddenly -revealed to him. Moreover, he studies everything,—law, -mineralogy, agriculture, mathematics.</p> - - -<p class="p1">525. <span class="smcap">Vocation to Teach.</span>—It was in 1805, at Frankfort, -that Frœbel began to teach. He was then twenty-three. -The teacher Gruner offered him a position as instructor in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[449]</a></span> -the model school which he directed; Frœbel accepted, but -he was of that number who do nothing artlessly.</p> - -<p>“An accidental circumstance determined my decision. I -received news that my certificates were lost [certificates that -he had sent to an architect to secure a position with him]. -I then concluded that Providence had intended, by this incident, -to take from me the possibility of a return backward.”</p> - -<p>At the end of a few days he wrote to his brother -Christopher:—</p> - -<p>“It is astonishing how my duties please me. From the -first lesson it seemed to me that I had never done anything -else, and that I was born for that very thing. I could no -longer make it seem to me that I had previously thought of -following any occupation but this, and yet I confess that the -idea of becoming a teacher had never occurred to me.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">526. <span class="smcap">Frœbel and Pestalozzi.</span>—At the school in Frankfort, -Frœbel, still a novice in the art of teaching, attempted -scarcely more than scrupulously to apply the Pestalozzian -methods.</p> - -<p>And upon many points Frœbel remained to the end a -faithful disciple of Pestalozzi. Intuition is the fundamental -principle of his method, and we might say that his effort in -pedagogy consists chiefly in organizing into a system the -sense intuitions which Pestalozzi proposed to the child somewhat -at random and without plan.</p> - -<p>Frœbel had had direct relations with Pestalozzi. In 1808 -he went to Yverdun with three of his pupils, and there spent -two years, taking part in the work of the institute, and -becoming acquainted with the methods of the master. He -declares that it was a “decisive” epoch in his life.</p> - -<p>But let us note, in passing, the difference in character -between Pestalozzi and Frœbel. While Pestalozzi is ever<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[450]</a></span> -ready to accuse himself with a touching humility, Frœbel -regards himself as almost infallible. He never attributes -failure to his own insufficiency, but lays the blame on destiny -or on the ill-will of others. Pestalozzi is ever forgetting -himself, and he is so neglectful as to be uncouth in his attire. -“He never knew how to dress,” say his biographers; “his -distraction made him forget sometimes his cravat, and at -others his garters.” Frœbel, on the contrary, affected an -elegant and theatrical bearing. He studied effect. At certain -periods, as we are told, he wore Hessian boots and a -Tyrolese cap with high plumes.</p> - - -<p class="p1">527. <span class="smcap">The Treatise on Sphericity (1811).</span>—It was -about 1811 that the peculiar originality of Frœbel manifested -itself, and this was done, it must be confessed, in an unfortunate -way, by the publication of his <cite>Treatise on Sphericity</cite>.</p> - -<p>Pestalozzi somewhere wrote: “If my life is entitled to -any credit, it is that of having placed the square at the basis -of an intuitive instruction which has never yet been given to -a people.”<a name="FNanchor_222_222" id="FNanchor_222_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a> This language coming from Pestalozzi is certainly -calculated to surprise us; but at least Pestalozzi -meant square in the proper sense of the term, as a -geometrical figure, or as a form for drawing. When Frœbel -speaks to us of the sphere, and makes of it the basis of -education, it is a wholly different thing.</p> - -<p>In reading the <cite>Treatise on Sphericity</cite>, we are sometimes -tempted to inquire whether we have to do with a well-balanced -mind, or whether an exuberant imagination has not -caused the author to lose the consciousness of reality.</p> - -<p>According to Frœbel, the sphere is the ideal form:—</p> - -<p>“The sphere seems like the prototype or the unity of all -bodies and of all forms. Not an angle, not a line, not a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[451]</a></span> -plane, not a surface, is shown in it, and yet it has all points -and all surfaces.”</p> - -<p>Let this pass; but besides this, the sphere has mysterious -relations with spiritual things; it teaches the perfection of -the moral life.</p> - -<p>“To labor conscientiously at the development of the -spherical nature of a being, is to effect the education of a -being.”</p> - -<p>An incident borrowed from the life of Frœbel will complete -the picture. He enlisted as a volunteer in 1812, and -made the campaigns of 1812-1813, with Langethal and Middendorf, -who were afterward to be his colleagues. After -the war, he returned to Berlin, passing through the whole of -Germany. During the whole journey, he says, “I was seeking -something, but without reaching a definite idea of what -I was in quest of, and nothing could satisfy me. Wholly -engrossed in this thought, I entered one day into a very -beautiful garden, ornamented with plants the most various. -I admired them, and yet none of them brought relief to my -inmost feeling.</p> - -<p>“Passing them in review, at a glance, in my soul, I suddenly -discovered that among them there was no lily.... -Then I knew what was lacking in that garden, and what I -was looking for. How could my inmost feeling have manifested -itself to me in a more beautiful way? You seek, I -said to myself, tranquil peace of heart, harmony of life, and -purity of soul, in the image of the lily, that peaceful flower, -simple and pure. The garden, with all its varied flowers, -but without the blossoms of the lily, was for me like life -agitated and variegated, but without harmony and without -unity.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">528. <span class="smcap">New Studies.</span>—Frœbel returned to Berlin in 1814, -and there obtained an assistant’s place in the mineralogical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[452]</a></span> -museum. He there studied at leisure the geometrical forms -of crystals, and reflected anew on their symbolical meaning. -Perhaps he derived from these studies the idea of the first -gifts which he afterwards introduced into his <em>Kindergartens</em>. -It was not till two years afterwards that he formed the definite -resolution to devote himself to the education of youth -(1816). He first established himself at Griesheim, and then -at Keilhau (a league’s distance from Rudolstadt), where, -with five pupils, all his nephews, he opened a school which -he called by a pompous title, and one hardly justifiable at -the beginning, the <em>General German Institute of Education</em>. -He succeeded in associating with himself Langethal and -Middendorf. The establishment was administered at first on -a very modest scale, as the resources were slender; but it -prospered little by little, and in 1826 it numbered more than -fifty pupils.</p> - - -<p class="p1">529. <span class="smcap">Institute at Keilhau.</span>—The principles of Pestalozzi -were applied at Keilhau. Langethal and Middendorf -passed their apprenticeship in the Pestalozzian method under -the direction of Frœbel. The three professors met in the -common hall, and there were frequently heard as echoes -from their discussion the words: <em>intuition</em>, <em>personal initiative</em>, -<em>proceeding from the known to the unknown</em>. “They are -learning the system,” said the children who heard them.</p> - -<p>At Keilhau, physical, intellectual, and moral education -marched abreast. The master was to attempt to penetrate -the individuality of each child, to the end that he might thence -provoke the free development of that individuality. The -government was austere and the fare frugal. The system -of physical hardening was carried to an extreme. The -pupils, winter and summer, wore a blouse and cotton trousers. -A considerable time was devoted to religious exer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[453]</a></span>cises. -Frœbel always remained attached to the Lutheran -Church, though his orthodoxy might have seemed open to -suspicion, and he always thought that education ought to be -essentially religious.</p> - -<p>“All education that is not founded on religion is sterile.” -And he adds, “All education that is not founded on the -Christian religion is defective and incomplete.”<a name="FNanchor_223_223" id="FNanchor_223_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_223_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">530. <span class="smcap">The Education of Man.</span>—It was at Keilhau in -1826, that Frœbel published his principal work, <cite>The Education -of Man</cite>.<a name="FNanchor_224_224" id="FNanchor_224_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_224_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a></p> - -<p>At that date, the idea of <em>Kindergartens</em> had not yet taken -form in his mind; and <cite>The Education of Man</cite> was not so -much the exposition of the practical applications of Frœbel’s -method, as a nebulous and tumid development of his metaphysical -principles. It is a book little read, and, let it be -confessed, partly illegible! We have ventured to speak of -the nonsense written by Pestalozzi. What shall be said of -the mystical dreams of Frœbel? The pedagogy of the Germans, -like their philosophy, has for a century often lost its -way in strange theories which absolutely surpass the comprehension -of the French mind. From a mass of vague and -pretentious speculations on universal nature, there are culled -with difficulty some ideas which are well founded. However, -let us try to gather up the obscure idea of Frœbel, -made still more obscure by the exterior form of the work. -In the first edition Frœbel had omitted to introduce into the -text any division into chapters and paragraphs. The reading -of this uninterrupted text could not fail to be laborious; -even with the somewhat artificial divisions which were subsequently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[454]</a></span> -introduced, <cite>The Education of Man</cite> remains difficult -to read and to analyze.</p> - - -<p class="p1">531. <span class="smcap">Analysis of the Work.</span>—The introduction is the -most interesting part of the work. We might reduce the -somewhat confused ideas which it contains to three essential -points, to three general ideas, of philosophy, of psychology, -and of pedagogy.</p> - -<p>The idea of general philosophy is this: “Everything comes -solely from God. In God is the unique principle of all -things.”</p> - -<p>It is a vague pantheism which consists in believing that -all the objects of nature are the direct manifestations of the -divine activity.</p> - -<p>“The end, the destiny of each thing, is to publish abroad -its being, the activity of God which operates in it, and the -manner in which this activity is combined with the thing.” -From these premises Frœbel is logically brought to this psychological -statement, that everything is good in man, for it -is God who acts in him. He pushes his optimism so far as -to say:—</p> - -<p>“From his earliest age the child yields himself to justice -and right with a surprising tact, for we rarely see him avoiding -them voluntarily.”</p> - -<p>The pedagogical conclusion is easy to guess: Education -shall be essentially a work of liberty and of spontaneity. It -ought to be indulgent, flexible, supple, and restricted to protecting -and overseeing.</p> - -<p>“The vocation of man, considered as a reasonable intelligence, -is to let his nature act in manifesting the action of God, -who operates in him; to publish God outwardly, to acquire -the knowledge of his real destiny, and to accomplish it in all -<em>liberty</em> and <em>spontaneity</em>.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[455]</a></span></p> - -<p>These last two words are repeated <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad nauseam</i>. Frœbel -goes so far as to say that there can be no general form of -education to impose or even to recommend, because account -must be taken of the nature of each child, and the free -development of his individuality provoked by inviting him -to action and to personal exertion. The choice in the manifestation -of the exterior form of education ought to be left -to the intelligence of the educator, and there ought to be -almost as many ways of educating men as there are individuals, -with their own natures aspiring to a personal development.</p> - - -<p class="p1">532. <span class="smcap">Love for Children.</span>—Frœbel, and this is perhaps -his best quality, loves children tenderly. He speaks of -them with touching accents, but he does not fail to mingle -with his affection for them his habitual symbolism. The -child is not for him simply the little real being that he has -under his eyes. He sees him through mystic veils, so to -speak, and, as it were, crowned with an aureole:—</p> - -<p>“Let the child always appear to us as a living pledge of -the presence, of the goodness, and of the love of God.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">533. <span class="smcap">Unity of Education.</span>—Frœbel is always bitterly -complaining of the fragmentary and scrappy character of the -ordinary education. His dream was to introduce unity into -it. In this respect he separates himself squarely from Rousseau. -The different stages of life form an uninterrupted -chain. “Let life be considered as being but one in all its -phases, as forming one complete whole.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">534. <span class="smcap">Different Stages in the Development of Man.</span>—Frœbel, -in <cite>The Education of Man</cite>, considers in succession -the different periods of life. The first three chapters -treat of the <em>first stages of development</em> in man,—the nurseling, -the child, the young boy. We here find pages full of charm,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[456]</a></span> -upon the education of the child by the mother, and upon the -progress of the faculties; but pretentious considerations -and whimsical interpretations too often come to spoil the -psychology of Frœbel.</p> - -<p>“The child,” he says, “scarcely knows whether he loves -the flowers for themselves, for the delight which they give -him, ... or for the vague intuition which they give him of -the Creator.”</p> - -<p>Farther on he speaks of introducing the child to colors, -and from this exercise he at once draws moral conclusions: -the child loves colors because he comes by means of them -“to the knowledge of an interior unity.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">535. <span class="smcap">The Naturalism of Frœbel.</span>—The elements of -education according to Frœbel are, with religion; the artistic -studies, mathematics, language, and, above all, nature. -“Teachers should scarcely let a week pass without taking to -the country a part of their pupils. They shall not drive them -before them like a flock of sheep.... They shall walk with -them as a father among his children, or a brother among his -brothers, in making them observe and admire the varied -richness which nature displays to their eyes at each season -of the year.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">536. <span class="smcap">New Experiments in Teaching.</span>—The institute of -Keilhau did not long prosper. In 1829 it was necessary to -close it for lack of pupils. Frœbel lacked the practical qualities -of an administrator. In 1831 he tried in vain to open a -new school at Wartensee in Switzerland. The attacks of the -clerical party obliged him to abandon his project. After -several other attempts he was elected director of an orphan -asylum at Burgdorf; and it was there that he resolved to -devote his pedagogical efforts to the education of early -childhood.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[457]</a></span></p> - -<p>The little village of Burgdorf had the honor, within a period -of thirty-five years, of offering an asylum to Pestalozzi and -to Frœbel, and of being the scene of their experiments in -pedagogy.</p> - - -<p class="p1">537. <span class="smcap">The Kindergartens.</span>—The master conception of -Frœbel, the creation of the <em>Kindergarten</em>, was only slowly -developed in his mind. It was only in 1840 that he invented -the term. Of course, given the imagination of Frœbel, and -his tendency to symbolism, <em>children’s garden</em> ought to be -taken in its allegorical sense. The child is a plant, the school -a garden, and Frœbel calls teachers “gardeners of children.”<a name="FNanchor_225_225" id="FNanchor_225_225"></a><a href="#Footnote_225_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a></p> - -<p>But before giving a name to his school for early childhood, -Frœbel had long cherished the idea of it. In 1835, at Burgdorf, -he attempted to realize it; in 1837, at Blankenburg, -near Rudolstadt, he founded his first infant school.</p> - - -<p class="p1">538. <span class="smcap">Origin of the Kindergarten.</span>—Without wishing to -belittle the originality of Frœbel’s creation, it is right to say -that it was suggested to him in part by Comenius. The philosopher -Krause had pointed out to him the importance of the -writings of the Slavic educator. He studied them, and the -<em>Kindergarten</em> certainly has some relations of parenthood with -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">schola materni gremii</i>. There is, however, one essential -difference between the idea of Comenius and that of Frœbel,—the -first confided to the mother the cares which the second -relegates to the teachers of the children’s gardens.</p> - -<p>It is said that it was from seeing a child playing at ball -that Frœbel conceived the first idea of his system. We know<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[458]</a></span> -what importance he attached to the spherical form and to -play. The first principle of his <em>Kindergarten</em> was then that -the child ought to play, and to play at ball.</p> - -<p>But Frœbel enveloped the simplest ideas in prolix and -whimsical theories. If he recommends the ball, it is not for -positive reasons, nor because it is an inoffensive play, very -appropriate to the need of movement which characterizes the -child. It is because the ball is the symbol of unity. The -cube, which was to succeed the ball, represents diversity in -unity. It is also because the word <em>ball</em> is a symbolic word, -formed from letters borrowed from the German words <em><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Bild -von all</span>, picture of the whole</em>.</p> - -<p>Frœbel came to attribute an occult meaning to the different -letters of words. He thought he found in the figures of -the year 1836, the date of his first conception of the <em>Kindergarten</em>, -the proof that that year was to open to humanity a -new era, and he expressed his views in an essay entitled: -<cite>The Year 1836 requires a Renovation of Life</cite>. In this we -read such things as these: “The word marriage (German -<i lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ehe</i>) represents by its two vowels <b>e</b>-<b>e</b>, life; these two vowels -are united by the consonant <i>h</i>, thus symbolizing a double -life which the spirit unites; again, the two halves thus united -are similar and equal each to each: <b>e</b>-<i>h</i>-<b>e</b>.” And farther on: -“What does the word <em>German</em> (<i lang="de" xml:lang="de">Deutsch</i>) signify? It is derived -from the word <i lang="de" xml:lang="de">deuten</i> (signifying to manifest), which -designates the act by which self-conscious thought is clearly -manifested outwardly.... To be a German is then to raise -one’s self as an individual and as a whole, by a clear manifestation -of one’s self, to a clear consciousness of self.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">539. <span class="smcap">The Gifts of Frœbel.</span>—Under the graceful -name of gifts, Frœbel presents to the child a certain number -of objects which are to serve as material for his exercises.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[459]</a></span> -The five gifts are contained in a box from which they are -taken in succession, as the children are in a condition to receive -them. In the original plan of Frœbel, these gifts -were: 1. the ball; 2. the sphere and the cube; 3. the cube -divided into eight equal parts; 4. the cube divided into eight -rectangular parallelopipeds, in the form of building-bricks, -which the child will use as material for little constructions; -5. the cube divided in each of its dimensions, that is, cut into -twenty-seven equal cubes; three of them are subdivided into -two prisms, and three others into four prisms, by means of -an oblique section, single or double.<a name="FNanchor_226_226" id="FNanchor_226_226"></a><a href="#Footnote_226_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a> And to these gifts -Frœbel added other objects, such as thin strips of wood and -little sticks for constructing figures; and bits of paper for -braiding, folding, dotting, etc.</p> - -<p>The conception of Frœbel does not rest, as one might -think, on the adaptation of the objects which he chooses in -succession, to the faculties of the child. It is not this at all -which interests him. The order which he has adopted is -derived from another principle. According to him, the form -of bodies has an intimate relation with the general laws of -the universe. There is, consequently, a methodical gradation -to be observed, according to the intrinsic character of -the objects themselves, for the purpose of initiating the child -into the laws of the divine thought symbolized in the sphere, -in the cube, in the cylinder, etc. Frœbel was greatly irritated -at those of his scholars who misunderstood the philosophical -import of his “gifts,” and who saw in them only plays. -“If my material for instruction possesses some utility,” he -said, “it does not owe it to its exterior appearance, which -has nothing striking and offers no novelty. It owes it simply<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[460]</a></span> -to the way in which I use it, that is, to my method -and to the philosophical law on which it is founded. The -<em>justification of my system of education is entirely in this law</em>; -according as this law is rejected or admitted, the system falls -or continues with it. All the rest is but material without any -value of its own.”</p> - -<p>It is this “material,” however, which for Frœbel had no -value, that his admirers have above all preserved of his -method, without longer caring for the allegorical sense which -he attached to it.</p> - - -<p class="p1">540. <span class="smcap">Appeal to the Instincts of the Child.</span>—That -which makes, notwithstanding so much that is whimsical, the -lasting merit of Frœbel’s work, that which justifies in part -the admiration which it has excited, is that he organized the -<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">salle d’asile</i>, the infant school, and that he realized for it -that which Pestalozzi had attempted for the elementary -school. He knew how to make an appeal to the instincts of -the youngest child, to combine a system of exercises for the -training of the hand, for the education of the senses, to -satisfy the need of movement and activity which develops -itself from the first day of life, and, finally, to make of the -child a creator, a little artist always at work.</p> - -<p>For the old education, which he calls “a hot-house education,” -and in which the instruction, premature through language, -smothers in their germs the native powers of the -child, in order to excite his memory and his judgment by -artificial means,—for this education he substitutes a free and -cheerful education which cultivates the faculties of the child -by love, and which makes a just estimate of his instincts. -Books are suppressed, and lessons also. The child freely -expands in play.</p> - - -<p class="p1">541. <span class="smcap">The Importance of Play.</span>—With Frœbel, play became -an essential element of education. This ingenious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[461]</a></span> -teacher knew how to make of it an art, an instrument for the -development of the infant faculties.</p> - -<p>“The plays of the child,” he said, “are, as it were, the -germ of the whole life which is to follow, for the whole man -develops and manifests itself in it; in it he reveals his -noblest aptitudes and the deepest elements of his being. -The whole life of man has its source in that epoch of existence, -and whether that life is serene or sad, tranquil or -agitated, fruitful or sterile, whether it brings peace or war, -that depends on the care, more or less judicious, given to the -beginnings of existence.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">542. <span class="smcap">Principal Needs of the Child.</span>—Gréard, in a remarkable -study on the method of Frœbel, reduces the aspirations -of the child to three essential instincts:—</p> - -<p class="p1">1. The taste for observation:—</p> - -<p>“All the senses of the child are on the alert; all the objects -which his sight or his hand encounters attract him, -interest him, delight him.”</p> - -<p class="p1">2. The need of activity, the taste for construction:—</p> - -<p>“It is not enough that we show him objects; it is necessary -that he touch them, that he handle them, that he appropriate -them to himself.... He takes delight in constructing; -he is naturally geometrician and artist.”</p> - -<p class="p1">3. Finally, the sentiment of personality:—</p> - -<p>“He wishes to have his own place, his own occupation, -his own teacher.”</p> - -<p>Now Frœbel’s method has precisely for its object the -satisfaction of these different instincts.</p> - -<p>“To place the child before a common table,” says Gréard, -“but with his own chair and a place that belongs to him, so -that he feels that he is the owner of his little domain; to -excite at the very beginning his good will by the promise of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[462]</a></span> -an interesting game; to develop in succession under his -very eyes the marvels of the five gifts: to teach him in the -first place, from concrete objects exposed to his sight, balls -of colored worsted and geometrical solids, to distinguish -color, form, material, the different parts of a body, so as to -accustom him to <em>see</em>, that is, to seize the aspects, the figures, -the resemblances, the differences, the relations of things; -then to place the objects in his hands, and to teach him to -make with the balls of colored worsted combinations of colors -agreeable to the eye, to arrange, with matches united -by balls of cork, squares, angles, triangles of all sorts, to -set up little cubes in the form of crosses, pyramids, etc.;—then, -either by means of strips of colored paper placed in -different directions, interlaced into one another, braided as a -weaver would make a fabric, or with the crayon, to drill him -in reproducing, in creating, designs representing all the -geometrical forms, so that to the habit of observation is -gradually joined that of invention; finally, while his hand -is busy in concert with his intelligence, and while his need of -activity is satisfied, to take advantage of this awakened and -satisfied attention to fix in his mind by appropriate questions -some notions of the properties and uses of forms, by relating -them to some great principle of general order, simple and -fruitful, to mingle the practical lesson with moral observations, -drawn in particular from the incidents of the school—this, -in its natural progress and its normal development, is -the method of Frœbel.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">543. <span class="smcap">Defects in Frœbel’s Method.</span>—There is ground -for thinking, notwithstanding all, that Frœbel’s method is a -little complicated, a little artificial, and that it sometimes -proceeds in opposition to the natural disposition of children. -Their soul, he said, cannot in the first period of its develop<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[463]</a></span>ment, -recognize itself, apprehend itself, save in the perception -of the simplest forms of the exterior world, presented in -a concrete manner. Now nature of herself does not offer -these elementary forms; it is necessary to know how to extract -them from the infinite diversity of things. And Frœbel -found these simple forms in the sphere, the cube, and the -cylinder.</p> - -<p>But these forms, we reply, are but abstractions; it does -not suffice to say that the cube and the sphere are material -and palpable,—they are none the less the product of abstract -thought on this account; nature does not present these -simple geometrical forms; everything in them is complex. -Now the nascent thought is employed at first on real things, -on the living and irregular forms of animals and vegetables; -then in this case, the mind proceeds naturally from the complex -to the simple, from the concrete to the abstract. It -seems, on the contrary, that Frœbel begins with the abstract -in order to arrive at the concrete.</p> - -<p>In the school of Frœbel other defects have been developed. -An abuse has been made of the exercises in imitation and -invention. The child has been made to produce marvels of -construction which take too much of his time and demand of -him too much effort. It has been forgotten that these employments -should be preparatory exercises,—means, and -not the end of education.</p> - - -<p class="p1">544. <span class="smcap">The Last Establishments of Frœbel.</span>—Towards -1840, the ideas of Frœbel began to become popular. His -methods attracted attention. Then he wished to transform -his school at Blankenburg into a model establishment. He -addressed an appeal to the German nation in favor of his -work, but it was only slightly successful. Obliged in 1844 -to close his institute, through lack of resources, he then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[464]</a></span> -travelled through Germany in order to make known his -methods. He did not derive from his journey the profit that -he expected from it, and, discouraged, he returned once -more to Keilhau, where he opened a course in method, or a -normal course, for the use of young women who were preparing -themselves for the education of infants. This association -with women, in which Frœbel lived till his death, -exercised a profound influence on the development of his -system. A much greater share of attention was given to the -practical exercises, and the mathematics was put in the background.</p> - -<p>In 1850 he obtained through the intervention of the Baroness -von Marenholtz, one of his most ardent admirers, the -lease of the Castle of Marienthal, and to this he transferred -his establishment. A long period of activity seemed opening -before him. He personally directed the games of the -children, and trained the teachers; but he died suddenly -in 1852.</p> - - -<p class="p1">545. <span class="smcap">Frœbel and Diesterweg.</span>—However, before his -death, Frœbel was able to witness the growing success of -his work. Each day he received eminent adhesions; for example, -that of Diesterweg.<a name="FNanchor_227_227" id="FNanchor_227_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_227_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> It was through the mediation -of the Baroness von Marenholtz that Frœbel and Diesterweg, -the celebrated director of the normal school of Berlin, became -acquainted. Diesterweg was a strong and practical -spirit, who contributed much to the development of instruction -in Prussia. At first he had a contempt for Frœbel, whom -he treated as a charlatan; but on his first conversation with -him he changed his opinion. He was taken to the school-room -in which Frœbel was teaching; but wholly intent on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[465]</a></span> -his work, Frœbel did not observe the presence of the visitor. -Diesterweg was impressed by seeing this old man devoting -himself entirely to his little pupils, and his prejudices disappeared. -To a certain extent he became the propagator of -Frœbel’s ideas. He agreed with him on his general conception -of the needs of the child, and of the province of woman -as the earliest educator.</p> - - -<p class="p1">546. <span class="smcap">Success of Frœbel’s Work.</span>—Frœbel had other imitators. -Like Pestalozzi, he inspired a large number of minds -by his writings, and through the zeal of Madame von Marenholtz, -and of some other disciples, his practical work prospered. -The <em>Kindergartens</em> have been multiplied in many -places, and particularly in Austria.</p> - - -<p class="p1">547. <span class="smcap">The Père Girard (1765-1850).</span>—The Père Girard -is the most eminent educator of modern Switzerland. Less -celebrated than Pestalozzi and Frœbel, he yet has this advantage -over them, of having been better prepared for his profession -as an educator. After having finished a thorough -and complete course of classical study, he for a long time -taught the same subjects in the same school. He acquired -experience and wrote his treatises only in an advanced age, -at a time when he was in complete possession of his ideas. -He was in fact seventy-nine years old when he published -his book <cite>On the Systematic Teaching of the Mother Tongue</cite>. -It is a work of mature thought, and sums up a whole lifetime -of labor. Less addicted to system than Frœbel and -Pestalozzi, the Père Girard still carries mere system too -far, and makes a misuse of the principle which consisted in -making of all the parts of instruction the elements of moral -education.</p> - - -<p class="p1">548. <span class="smcap">Life of the Père Girard.</span>—Girard was born in -Friburg in 1765. His pedagogic instinct manifested itself<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[466]</a></span> -at an early hour. While still very young he aided his mother -in instructing his fourteen brothers and sisters. Like Frœbel, -he was passionately fond of religious questions. One day as -he had heard his preceptor say that there was no salvation -outside of the Roman Church, he sought his mother in tears, -and asked her if the Protestant tradesman who brought her -fruit each day would be damned. His mother reassured -him, and he always remained faithful to what he called “the -theology of his mother,”—a tolerant and broad theology -which brought on him the hatred of the Jesuits.</p> - -<p>At the age of sixteen he entered the order of the Gray -Friars, and completed his novitiate at Lucerne. He then -taught in several convents, in particular at Wurtzburg, where -he remained four years (1785-1788). He returned to Friburg -in 1789, and for ten years he devoted himself almost -exclusively to his ecclesiastical functions.</p> - -<p>But his vocation as an educator was even then indicated -by some things that he had written.</p> - -<p>In 1798, under the influence of the ideas of Kant, whose -philosophical doctrine he had ardently studied, he published -a <cite>Scheme of Education for all Helvetia</cite>, addressed to the -Swiss minister Stapfer, who was also the patron of Pestalozzi.</p> - -<p>It was only in 1804, that Girard devoted himself entirely -to teaching, the very year in which Frœbel began his work. -He was appointed to direct the primary school at Friburg, -which had just been entrusted to the Gray Friars. Girard -received the title of “prefect of studies,” and for nineteen -years, from 1805 to 1823, he exercised his functions as a -teacher in that school. Very small in the beginning, the -school had a remarkable growth. There was added to it -even a school for girls. At first Girard had Gray Friars for -colleagues; but he soon replaced them with lay teachers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[467]</a></span> -who obeyed him better and devoted themselves more entirely -to their task. The teacher of drawing was a Protestant.</p> - - -<p class="p1">549. <span class="smcap">Success of the School at Friburg.</span>—A disciple -and an admirer of Girard, the pastor Naville, has related in -his work on <cite>Public Education</cite><a name="FNanchor_228_228" id="FNanchor_228_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_228_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a> the brilliant results obtained -by Girard in his school at Friburg.</p> - -<p>“He had trained a body of youth the like of which -perhaps no city in the world could furnish. It was -not without a profound emotion that the friends of humanity -contemplated a spectacle so new and so touching. -That ignorant and boorish class, full of prejudices, which -everywhere abounds, was no longer met with at Friburg.... -The young there developed graces of an amiable deportment -which were never marred by anything disagreeable in tone, -speech, or manner. If, seeing children approaching you -covered with rags, you approached them thinking that you -were about to encounter little ruffians, you were wholly surprised -to have them reply to you with politeness, with judgment, -and with that accent which bespeaks genteel manners -and a careful education.... You will find the explanation -in the school, when you observe the groups where these same -children exercise by turns, as in playing, their judgment and -their conscience. Three or four hours a day employed in -this work gave the young that intelligence, those sentiments, -and those manners which delighted you.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">550. <span class="smcap">The Last Years of the Père Girard.</span>—Notwithstanding -the success of his instruction, the Père Girard was -obliged to abandon the charge of his school in 1823. His -loss of position was the result of the intrigues of the Jesuits,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[468]</a></span> -whose college had been re-established in 1818. He left -Friburg amid universal regrets, and retired to Lucerne, where -he taught philosophy till 1834. At that date he returned to -his native city and lived a life of seclusion. It was then -that he wrote his pedagogical works. But through his disciples, -and particularly through the pastor Naville, the methods -of the Père Girard were known before he had published anything.</p> - - -<p class="p1">551. <span class="smcap">Teaching of the Mother Tongue.</span>—Let us now -examine the general spirit of the pedagogy of Girard. It is -in the theoretical work which he published in 1844, and -which was crowned by the French Academy in the same year, -that we must look for the principles of his method. It consisted -in “choosing a study which may be considered as one -essential part of the instruction common to all the classes of -society, and which nevertheless is fit for calling into exercise -all the intellectual powers.” This study was the mother -tongue, which Girard employed for the moral and religious -development of children.</p> - -<p>Villemain, in his report on the books of Girard, has clearly -defined the purpose of the common school as conceived by -the educator of Friburg:—</p> - -<p>“Where the period of instruction is necessarily short and -its object limited, a wise choice of method is the thing of -first importance, for upon this choice will depend the education -itself. If that method is purely technical, if its exclusive -object is reading, writing, and the rules of grammar and -computation, the child of the common people will be poorly -instructed and will not be educated at all. A difficult task -burdens his memory without developing his soul. A new -process is placed at his disposal, one workshop more is open -to him, so to speak; but the trace left by that instruction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[469]</a></span> -will not be deep, will sometimes even be lost through lack of -application and exercise, and will not have acted on the -moral nature, too often absorbed eventually by a monotonous -devotion to duty or the excessive fatigue of bodily labor. -The only, the real people’s school, is then that in which all -the elements of study serve for the culture of the soul, and -in which the child grows better by the things which he learns -and by the manner in which he learns them.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">552. <span class="smcap">Analysis of this Work.</span>—The book of Girard is -divided into four parts. The first contains <em>general considerations</em> -on the manner in which the mother teaches her children -to speak, upon the purpose of a course of instruction on the -mother tongue, and on the elements which should compose it.</p> - -<p>The second part is entitled: <cite>The Systematic Teaching of -the Mother Tongue considered solely as the Expression of -Thought</cite>. It is language considered in itself; but Girard -desires that the word should always be united to the thought. -It is not necessary that the teaching of grammar should be -reduced to verbal instruction; it should also serve to develop -the thought of pupils.</p> - -<p>In the third part, the <cite>Systematic Teaching of the Mother -Tongue considered as the Means of Intellectual Culture</cite>, Girard -considers everything which can contribute to the development -of the faculties.</p> - -<p>In the fourth part, the <cite>Systematic Teaching of Language -employed for the Culture of the Heart</cite>, Girard shows how the -teaching of language may assist in moral education.</p> - -<p>A fifth part, <cite>Use of the Course in the Mother Tongue</cite>, is, -so to speak, the material part of the book, and, as it were, -the outline of the great practical work of Girard, the <cite>Educative<a name="FNanchor_229_229" id="FNanchor_229_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_229_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> -Course in the Mother Tongue</cite>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[470]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">553. <span class="smcap">The Grammarian, the Logician, the Educator.</span>—In -other terms, Girard places himself in succession at -four different points of view in the teaching of language:—</p> - -<p>“Four persons,” he says, “ought to concur in constructing -the course in the mother tongue: the grammarian, the -logician, the educator, and, finally, the man of letters.”</p> - -<p>The task of the grammarian is to furnish the material of -the language and its proper forms.</p> - -<p>The logician will teach us what must be done in order to -cultivate the intelligence of the young.</p> - -<p>The educator will ever be inspired by this grand truth: -“Man acts as he loves, and he loves as he thinks.” He will -try to grave in the souls of children all the beautiful and -grand truths which can awaken and nourish pure and noble -affections.</p> - -<p>Finally, the man of letters has also his part in the course -in language, in the sense that pupils, besides being required -from the beginning of their studies to invent propositions -and sentences, will have a little later to compose narratives, -letters, dialogues, etc.</p> - - -<p class="p1">554. <span class="smcap">The Grammar of Ideas.</span>—Elementary instruction -should have for its purpose the development of the mind -and the judgment. It is no longer a question of cultivating -the memory alone and of causing words to be learned. The -Père Girard would have grammar made an exercise in -thinking.</p> - -<p>“The grammars in use,” he says, “are intended simply -to teach correctness in speaking and writing. By their aid -we are able finally to avoid a certain number of faults in -style and orthography.... This instruction becomes a -pure affair of memory, and the child becomes accustomed -to pronounce sounds to which he attaches no meaning. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[471]</a></span> -child needs a <em>grammar of ideas</em>.... Our <em>grammars of -words</em> are the plague of education.”</p> - -<p>In other terms, grammar should be made above all else an -exercise in thinking, and, as it were, “the logic of childhood.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">555. <span class="smcap">Discreet Use of Rules.</span>—The Père Girard does -not proscribe rules. The teaching of language cannot do -without them; “but there is,” he says, “a proper manner -of presenting them to children, and a just medium to hold.”</p> - -<p>In the teaching of grammar we must follow the course -which the grammarians themselves have followed in order to -construct their science: “The rules were established on -facts. It is then to facts that they must be referred in -instruction, in order that by this means children may be -taught to do intelligently what they have hitherto done -through blind imitation.... Few rules, many exercises. -Rules are always abstract, dry, and for this very reason -poorly adapted to please children, even when they can comprehend -them. We ought, then, in general, to make a very -sparing use of them.”</p> - -<p>So the Père Girard particularly recommends practical -exercises, oral instruction, the continual use of the blackboard, -the active and animated co-operation of all the members -of the class, rapid interrogation, the Socratic method, -the abuse of which, however, he criticises.<a name="FNanchor_230_230" id="FNanchor_230_230"></a><a href="#Footnote_230_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">556. <span class="smcap">Moral Arithmetic.</span><a name="FNanchor_231_231" id="FNanchor_231_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_231_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a>—The Père Girard, like almost -all the men who have conceived an original idea, has fallen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">[472]</a></span> -into the love of systematizing. He believed that not only -language, but all the branches of study might contribute to -moral education.</p> - -<p>“He conceived,” says Naville, “that by means of a -selection of problems adapted to the development of the -social affections in the family, the commune, and the State, -one might give to arithmetic such a wholesome direction that -it might be made to contribute, not only to making the child -prudent and economical, but even more to extend his views -beyond the narrow circle of selfishness, and to cultivate in -him beneficent dispositions.”<a name="FNanchor_232_232" id="FNanchor_232_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_232_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">557. <span class="smcap">Moral Geography.</span>—It is in the same spirit that -he claimed to find in the study of geography a means of -contributing to the development of the moral nature.</p> - -<p>“According to my honest conviction, every elementary -work for children ought to be a means of education. If it -is limited to giving knowledge, if it is limited to developing -the faculties of the pupil, I can approve the order and the -life which the author has known how to put into his work; -but I am not satisfied with it. I am even offended to find -only a teacher of language, of natural history, of geography, -etc., when I expected something much greater,—an instructor -of the young, training the mind in order to train the heart.... -Geography lends itself as marvellously to this sublime -purpose, although in a sphere a little narrower.”<a name="FNanchor_233_233" id="FNanchor_233_233"></a><a href="#Footnote_233_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">558. <span class="smcap">Educative Course in the Mother Tongue.</span>—Girard -is not content to state his doctrine in his book <cite>On the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">[473]</a></span> -Systematic Teaching of the Mother Tongue</cite>; but in the four -volumes of his <cite>Educative Course</cite> (1844-1846) he has applied -his method. Full of new and radical views, original in the -arrangement of material as in its system of exposition, -revolutionary even in its grammatical terminology, this book -is a mine from which we may borrow without stint, only -we shall not advise wholesale adoption: there is matter to -take and to leave.<a name="FNanchor_234_234" id="FNanchor_234_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_234_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">559. <span class="smcap">Analysis of this Work.</span>—The title indicates the -general character of the work. In his <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Cours éducatif</cite>, Girard -does not separate education from instruction. The purpose -is to develop the moral and religious sentiments of the child, -no less than to teach him his native language.</p> - -<p>The first lessons in grammar ought to be lessons in things. -The child is made to name the objects which he knows,—persons, -animals, things,—and through these he is made to acquire -notions of nouns, common and proper, of gender and -number. He is then induced to find for himself the physical, -intellectual, and moral qualities of objects, and by this means -is made familiar with qualifying adjectives. Care is taken, -moreover, while causing each quality to be named, as farther -on while causing each judgment to be expressed, to ask the -child, “Is this right? Is this wrong?”</p> - -<p>The agreement of adjective with noun is learned by practice. -The child is drilled in applying adjectives to the nouns -which he has found, and <em>vice versa</em>.</p> - -<p>Once in possession of the essential elements of the proposition, -the child begins the study of the proposition itself, -and finally the study of the verb. Girard makes it a principle -always to have the conjugations made by means of propositions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">[474]</a></span> -At first, however, he employs in simple propositions -only the indicative, the infinitive, the imperative, and the -participle; he postpones till later the study of the conditional -and the subjunctive. It is to be noted, in addition, that he -brings forward simultaneously the simple tenses of all the -conjugations.</p> - -<p>The order followed by Girard is wholly different from that -of the ordinary grammars. This is how he explains it:—</p> - -<p>“In their first part, the grammars set out in a row the nine -sorts of words, and thus give in rapid succession their definitions, -distinctions, and variable forms, which introduces a -legion of terms wholly unknown to the child. The second -part of these grammars takes up these words again in the -same order, so as, in an uninteresting way, to regulate -their use in construction,—a tedious and arid system, which -affords the child no interest.”</p> - -<p>Elsewhere, speaking of his own work, he writes:—</p> - -<p>“My work differs essentially from the grammars which -are put in the hands of children. When we write on language -for adults, we may adhere to definitions, distinctions, -rules, and exceptions, and formulate statements regarding -their proper use; but he who writes for children ought to -have the education of the mind and heart in view, and regulate -on that basis the course and form of instruction. The -course ought to be rigorously progressive, and the pupils -ought, from beginning to end, to assist themselves in constructing -a grammar of their own.”</p> - -<p>“So, instead of making generalizations on the noun, -adjective, verb, etc., and of connecting with these parts of -speech all that relates to them, we must apply ourselves to -the substance of language, passing step by step from the -simple to the complex, and teaching children to think, in -order to teach them to comprehend and to speak the language<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[475]</a></span> -of man. The little details cannot appear till later, and as -occasion requires. From this there necessarily results a -displacement of grammatical material which has been industriously -collected and arranged. Hence, also, a great parsimony -in definitions and abstract distinctions which repel -children.”</p> - - - <div><a name="Para_560" id="Para_560"></a></div> -<p class="p1">560. <span class="smcap">Educational Influence of the Père Girard.</span>—The -influence of the Père Girard was not extended simply to -Switzerland. It has radiated abroad. His ideas have been -disseminated in Italy, propagated by the Abbé Lambruschini -and by Enrico Mayer. A journal even has been founded to -serve as the organ of the “Girardists” of the Peninsula. -In France, Michel, in the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Journal de l’éducation pratique</cite>, -and Rapet in different works,<a name="FNanchor_235_235" id="FNanchor_235_235"></a><a href="#Footnote_235_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a> have commended to public -attention the methods of the Swiss educator. Finally, it -may be remarked that the principles very recently set forth -by the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'Conseil supérieure'">Conseil supérieur</ins> de l’instruction publique</cite> (1880), -on the teaching of French in the elementary classes of the -lycées, are in great part the echo of the pedagogical doctrine -of the Père Girard.</p> - - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>[561. <span class="smcap">Analytical Summary.</span>—1. In this study we have the -third exposition, in historical order,—Rousseau, Pestalozzi, -Frœbel,—of the doctrine of nature as applied to education. -This doctrine may be summarized as follows:—</p> - -<p>The existing order of things is conceived as an animated -organism, and is personified under the term Nature. All -living things, such as plants, animals, and men, are products -of the creative power that is immanent in nature, and each -is predetermined to an upward development in the line of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">[476]</a></span> -growth. This growth is an unfolding from within outward, -and each individual thing, as a child, has reached the -term of its development when it has grown into the type of -its kind. In the case of the human species, this growth is -best when it is <em>natural</em>, and it is natural to the degree in -which it takes place without the deliberate intervention of -art. This process of development is Nature’s work, and its -synonym is education. Education is best when it is most -<em>natural</em>, that is, when it suffers least from human interference. -The question of the relative parts to be played by -Nature and by Art in education has given rise to two schools -of educators.</p> - -<p>2. In Frœbel’s application of this doctrine, the original -conception is obscured by three circumstances: 1. his deism; -2. his mysticism or symbolism; 3. his dependence on artificial -agents, his “gifts,” and his belief in the potency of -abstractions.</p> - -<p>3. The <em>Kindergarten</em> has introduced many ameliorations -into primary instruction, and its tendency is to make child-life -happy through self-activity. Its shortcomings are that -it undervalues the acquisition of second-hand knowledge, -obscures the distinction between work and play, and indisposes, -and perhaps unfits, the pupil to contend with real -difficulties.<a name="FNanchor_236_236" id="FNanchor_236_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_236_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a></p> - -<p>4. The effect of this new movement in primary instruction -upon educational science has been wholesome. It has induced -a closer study of child nature, has enlisted the sympathies<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[477]</a></span> -and affections in support of elementary instruction, and has -profoundly modified the conception of the primary school.</p> - -<p>5. Whether the <em>Kindergarten</em> is to be maintained apart, -as an institution <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sui generis</i>, or whether it is to lose its identity -by the absorption of its spirit into the primary school, is -a question for the future. Probably the latter result will -follow.</p> - -<p>6. The misuse of a good thought is seen in the attempt of -the Père Girard to give a distinct moral value to every school -exercise. It is the verdict of experience that the moral -value of science is greatest when it is taught simply as science, -and that the direct teaching of ethics should be conducted -on an independent basis.]</p></div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_222_222" id="Footnote_222_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Comment Gertrude instruit ses enfants</cite>, translated by Darin, p. 204.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_223_223" id="Footnote_223_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a> See the <cite>Aphorisms</cite> published by Frœbel in 1821.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_224_224" id="Footnote_224_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a> See the French translation by Madame de Crombrugghe, Paris, 1881. -Also, the English translation by Josephine Jarvis, New York, 1885.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_225_225" id="Footnote_225_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_225_225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a> Consequently it is wrong to take Frœbel’s expression in the sense that -he wished to establish by the side of each school a garden, a lawn planted -with trees and adorned with flower-beds. See Gréard, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’instruction primaire -à Paris</cite>, 1877, p. 73.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_226_226" id="Footnote_226_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226_226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a> The disciples of Frœbel have modified in different manners his system -of gifts. See, for example, the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Jardin d’enfants</cite>, by Goldammer, French -translation by Louis Fournier, 1877.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_227_227" id="Footnote_227_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227_227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a> See on Diesterweg the article by Pécaut, in the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dictionnaire de -Pédagogie</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_228_228" id="Footnote_228_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De l’éducation publique.</cite> Paris, 1833, p. 158. Naville (1784-1846) -founded in 1817, at Vernier, near Geneva, an institute where he applied -with success the educative method of the Père Girard.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_229_229" id="Footnote_229_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_229_229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a> I am aware that this term is not found in the latest Webster, but I see -no other way of expressing the force of the word <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">éducatif</i>, which seems to -signify the disciplinary, or rather the culture, value of a study. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_230_230" id="Footnote_230_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230_230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a> See Chap. III. of Book III. paragraph 1st. <em>Just medium between two -extremes.</em></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_231_231" id="Footnote_231_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a> Here is an example from Père Girard’s arithmetic:— -</p> -<p> -“A father had the habit of going every evening to the dram-shop, and -often left his family at home without bread. During the five years that -he led this life, he spent, the first year, 197 francs, the second, 204 francs, -the third, 212 francs, and the fourth, 129 francs. How many francs would -this unfortunate father have saved if he had not had a taste for drink?” (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_232_232" id="Footnote_232_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a> Naville, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De l’Éducation publique</cite>, p. 411.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_233_233" id="Footnote_233_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Explication du plan de Fribourg en Suisse</cite>, 1817.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_234_234" id="Footnote_234_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a> See the interesting articles of Lafargue in the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Bulletin pédagogique -de l’enseignement secondaire</cite>, 1882.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_235_235" id="Footnote_235_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a> -<ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'Monsieurs Rapet and'">Messieurs Rapet and</ins> Michel were associated in the publication of the -<cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Cours éducatif de la langue maternelle</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_236_236" id="Footnote_236_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a> “Man owes his growth, his energy, chiefly to that striving of the will, -that conflict with difficulty, which we call effort. Easy, pleasant work -does not make robust minds, does not give men a consciousness of their -powers, does not train them to endurance, to perseverance, to steady force -of will, that force without which all other acquisitions avail nothing.” -Dr. Channing.</p> -</div></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[478]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XX.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">WOMEN AS EDUCATORS.</span></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>WOMEN AS EDUCATORS; MADAME DE GENLIS (1746-1830); PEDAGOGICAL -WORKS; ENCYCLOPÆDIC EDUCATION; IMITATION OF ROUSSEAU; -MISS EDGEWORTH (1767-1849); MISS HAMILTON (1758-1816); MADAME -CAMPAN (1752-1822); COMMENDATION OF HOME EDUCATION; PROGRESS -IN INSTRUCTION; INTEREST IN POPULAR EDUCATION; -MADAME DE RÉMUSAT (1780-1821); OUTLINE OF FEMININE PSYCHOLOGY; -THE SERIOUS IN EDUCATION; PHILOSOPHICAL SPIRIT; -MADAME GUIZOT (1773-1827); LETTERS ON EDUCATION; PSYCHOLOGICAL -OPTIMISM; NATURE OF THE CHILD; PHILOSOPHICAL RATIONALISM; -MADAME NECKER DE SAUSSURE (1765-1841); MADAME NECKER DE -SAUSSURE AND MADAME DE STAËL; PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION AND -ROUSSEAU; ORIGINALITY OF MADAME NECKER DE SAUSSURE; DIVISION -OF PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION; DEVELOPMENT OF THE FACULTIES; -CULTURE OF THE IMAGINATION; EDUCATION OF WOMEN; -MADAME PAPE-CARPENTIER (1815-1878); GENERAL CHARACTER OF -HER WORKS; PRINCIPAL WORKS OF MADAME PAPE-CARPENTIER; -OBJECT LESSONS; OTHER WOMEN WHO WERE EDUCATORS; DUPANLOUP -AND THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.</p></div> - -<hr class="r15a" /> - -<p class="p1">562. <span class="smcap">Women as Educators.</span>—One of the characteristic -features of the pedagogy of the nineteenth century is the -constant progress in the education of women. Woman will -be better instructed, and at the same time she will play a -more important part in instruction. Primary schools for girls -did not exist, so to speak, in France, at the commencement -of this century. Fourcroy, who reported the bill of May 1, -1802, declared that “the law makes no mention of girls.” -But through the efforts of the monarchy of July, and still<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[479]</a></span> -more of the liberal laws of the second and of the third Republic, -the primary instruction of girls will become more and -more general. Secondary public instruction will be created -for women by the law of December 20, 1880, and the equality -of the two sexes, in respect of education, will tend more and -more to become a reality, through the influence of governmental -action as well as that of private initiative.</p> - -<p>But not less remarkable is the important part which women, -by their abstract reflections or by their practical efforts, have -taken in the progress of pedagogy. In the history of education, -the nineteenth century will be noted for the great number -of its women who were educators, some who were real -philosophers and distinguished writers, and others, zealous -and enthusiastic teachers.</p> - - -<p class="p1">563. <span class="smcap">Madame de Genlis (1746-1830).</span>—While she does -not belong to the nineteenth century by her pedagogical -writings, Madame de Genlis has certain rights to a foremost -place in the list of the educational women of our time. She -had in the highest degree the pedagogic vocation; only, that -vocation became a mania and was squandered on everything. -Madame de Genlis wished to know everything in order that -she might teach everything. “She was more than a woman -author,” says Sainte-Beuve, wittily; “she was a woman -<em>teacher</em>; she was born with the sign on her forehead.”</p> - -<p>Young girls of their own accord play <em>mamma</em> with their -dolls. From the age of seven, Madame de Genlis played -<em>teacher</em>.</p> - -<p>“I had a taste for teaching children, and I became school-mistress -in a curious way.... Little boys from the village -came under the window of my parents’ country-seat to play. -I amused myself in watching them, and I soon took it into -my head to give them lessons.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[480]</a></span></p> - -<p>Twenty years later, the village teacher became the governess -of the daughters of the Duchesse de Chartres, and the -<em>governor</em> of the sons of the Duke de Chartres (Philippe-Égalité).</p> - - -<p class="p1">564. <span class="smcap">Pedagogical Works.</span>—The principal work of -Madame de Genlis, <cite>Letters on Education</cite> (1782), treats of -the education of princes and also of “that of young persons -and of men.” In giving it that other title, <cite>Adèle and Théodore</cite>, -the author indicated her intention of rivaling Rousseau, -and of educating a man and a woman more perfect than -Émile and Sophie.</p> - -<p>Although she had a profoundly aristocratic nature, Madame -de Genlis, after the revolution of 1789, seemed for an instant -to follow the liberal current which was sweeping minds along. -It was then that she published the <cite>Counsels on the Education -of the Dauphin</cite>, and some parts of her educational journal, -entitled <cite>Lessons of a Governess</cite>. She never ceased to preach -love of the people to sovereigns, and in justice this must be -said to her credit, that she did not write merely for courtly -people. She protests, and with spirit, “that she is the first -author who has concerned herself with the education of the -people. This glory,” she adds, “is dear to my heart.” In -support of these assertions, Madame de Genlis cites the -fourth volume of her <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Théâtre d’éducation</cite>, which is, she says, -“solely intended for the children of tradesmen and artisans; -domestics and peasants will there see a detailed account of -their obligations and their duties.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">565. <span class="smcap">Encyclopædic Education.</span>—It has been said with -reason that Madame de Genlis was the personification of -encyclopædic instruction.<a name="FNanchor_237_237" id="FNanchor_237_237"></a><a href="#Footnote_237_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[481]</a></span></p> - -<p>“Her programme of instruction had no limits. She favors -Latin, without, however, thinking the knowledge of it indispensable. -She gives a large place to the living languages. -At Saint Leu, her pupils garden in German, dine in English, -and sup in Italian. At the same time she invents gymnastic -apparatus,—pulleys, baskets, wooden beds, lead shoes. -Nothing takes her at unawares, her over-facile pen stops at -nothing; she is universal. A plan for a rural school for -children in the country is wanted, and she furnishes it.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">566. <span class="smcap">Imitation of Rousseau.</span>—Madame de Genlis never -ceased to criticise Rousseau, and yet, in her educational -romances, the inspiration of Rousseau is everywhere present. -How can we fail to recognize a pupil of Rousseau in the -father of Adèle and Théodore, who leaves Paris in order to -devote himself entirely to the education of his children, to -make himself “their governor and their friend, and finally, -to screen the infancy of his son and daughter from the examples -of vice”? And the methods manufactured by Rousseau, -the unforeseen lessons, the indirect means employed to instruct -without having the appearance of doing so,—Madame -de Genlis desires no others. Nothing is more amusing than -the description of the country-seat of the Baron d’Almane, -the father of Adèle and Théodore. It is no longer a country-seat; -it is a school-house. The walls are no longer walls; -they are charts of history and maps of geography.</p> - -<p>“When we would have our children study history according -to a chronological order, we start from my bed-chamber, -which represents sacred history; from there we enter my -gallery, where we find ancient history; we reach the parlor, -which contains Roman history, and we end with the gallery -of Monsieur d’Almane (it is the Baroness who speaks), where -is found the history of France.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[482]</a></span></p> - -<p>In her pedagogic fairyland, Madame de Genlis does not -wish the child to meet a single object which may not be -transformed into an instrument of instruction. Adèle and -Théodore cannot take a hand-screen without finding a geography -lesson represented on it, and drawn out at full length. -Here are pictures worked in tapestry; they are historical -scenes; on the back of them care has been taken to write -an explanation of what they represent. At least, those five -or six movable partitions which are displayed in the apartment -on cold days have no instructive purposes? You are -mistaken. There is painted and written on them the history -of England, of Spain, of Germany, and that of the Moors -and the Turks. Even in the dining-room, mythology encumbers -the panels of the room, and “it usually forms the subject -of conversation during the dinner.” In that castle, -bewitched, so to speak, by the elf of history, there is not a -glance that is lost, not a minute without its lesson, not a -corner where one may waste his time in dreaming. History -pursues you like a ghost, like a nightmare, along the corridors, -on the stairs, even on the carpet on which you tread, -and on the chairs upon which you sit. The true way to -disgust a child forever with historical studies is to condemn -him to live for eight days in this house-school of Madame de -Genlis.</p> - - -<p class="p1">567. <span class="smcap">Miss Edgeworth (1767-1849).</span>—It is with the -Scotch philosophy and the psychological theories of Reid and -Dugald Stewart, that were inspired in different degrees two -distinguished women, who honored English pedagogy at the -beginning of this century,—Miss Edgeworth and Miss Hamilton.</p> - -<p>In her book on <cite>Practical Education</cite>, published in 1798,<a name="FNanchor_238_238" id="FNanchor_238_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_238_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[483]</a></span> -Miss Edgeworth does not lose herself in theoretical dissertations. -Her book is a collection of facts, observations, and -precepts. The first chapter treats of toys, and the author -justifies this beginning by saying that in education there is -nothing trivial and minute. It is first by conversations, and -then by the use of the inventive, analytical, and intuitive -method, that Miss Edgeworth proposes to train her pupils; -and her reflections on intellectual education deserve to be -considered. In moral education she agrees with Locke, and -seems to place great reliance on the sentiment of honor, and -on the love of reputation. In every case she absolutely -ignores the religious feeling. The characteristic of her system -is that it makes “a total abstraction of religious ideas.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">568. <span class="smcap">Miss Hamilton (1758-1816).</span>—Miss Hamilton is -at once more philosophical and more Christian than Miss -Edgeworth. It is from the psychologist Hartley that she -borrows her essential principle, which consists in making of -the association of ideas the basis of education. Hartley saw -in this the sovereign law of intellectual development. But, -on the other hand, she declares “that she follows no other -guide than the precepts of the Gospel.”</p> - -<p>The principal work of Miss Hamilton, her <cite>Letters on the -Elementary Principles of Education</cite> (1801),<a name="FNanchor_239_239" id="FNanchor_239_239"></a><a href="#Footnote_239_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> has a more -theoretical character than the book of Miss Edgeworth. -With her it is above all else a question of principles, which, -she says, are more necessary than rules. We find but few -reflections on teaching proper. She borrows the very words -of Dugald Stewart to define the object of education:—</p> - -<p>“The most essential objects of education are the following: -<em>first</em>, to cultivate all the various principles of our nature, -both speculative and active, in such a manner as to bring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">[484]</a></span> -them to the greatest perfection of which they are susceptible; -and <em>secondly</em>, by watching over the impressions and -associations which the mind receives in early life, to secure -it against the influence of prevailing errors; and, as far -as possible, to engage its prepossessions on the side of -truth.”<a name="FNanchor_240_240" id="FNanchor_240_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_240_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a></p> - -<p>To cultivate the intellectual and moral faculties, Miss -Hamilton places her chief dependence, as we have said, on -the principle of the association of ideas. We must break up, -or, rather, prevent from being formed, all false associations, -that is, all inaccurate judgments. Order once re-established -among ideas, the will will be upright, and the conduct well -regulated. In other terms, this was to subordinate, perhaps -too completely, the development of the moral faculties to the -culture of the intellectual faculties.</p> - -<p>“It is evident,” says Miss Hamilton, “that all our desires -are in accord with ideas of pleasure, and all our aversions -with ideas of pain.”</p> - -<p>The educator will then try to associate the idea of pleasure -with what is good and useful for the child and for the man.</p> - -<p>Let us also note, in passing, the solicitude of Miss Hamilton -for the education of the people:—</p> - -<p>“From most of the writers on education it would appear -that it is only to people of rank and fortune that education -is a matter of any importance.... My plan has for its -object the cultivation of the faculties that are common to the -whole human race.”<a name="FNanchor_241_241" id="FNanchor_241_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_241_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a></p> - -<p>On this point her thought was the same as that of Miss -Edgeworth, whose father, in 1799, in the Irish Parliament, -had caused the adoption of the first law on primary instruction.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[485]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">569. <span class="smcap">Madame Campan (1752-1822).</span>—Twenty-five years’ -experience, either at the court of Louis XV., or in the school -at Saint-Germain, which she founded under the Revolution, -or finally in the institution at Écouen, the direction of which -was entrusted to her by Napoleon I., in 1807,—such are the -claims which at once assure to Madame Campan some authority -on pedagogical questions.<a name="FNanchor_242_242" id="FNanchor_242_242"></a><a href="#Footnote_242_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a> Let us add that good sense, -a methodical and prudent mind,—in a word, qualities which -were reasonable rather than brilliant,—directed that long -personal experience.</p> - -<p>“First I saw,” she said, “then I reflected, and finally I -wrote.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">570. <span class="smcap">Eulogy on Home Education.</span>—From a teacher, -from the directress of a school, we would expect prejudices -in favor of public education in boarding-schools. That which -secures our ready confidence, is that Madame Campan, on -the contrary, appreciates better than any one else the advantages -of maternal education:—</p> - -<p>“To create mothers,” she said, “this is the whole education -of women.” Nothing seems to her superior to a mother -governess “who does not keep late hours, who rises betimes,” -who, finally, devotes herself resolutely to the important duty -with which she is charged.</p> - -<p>“There is no boarding-school, however well it may be conducted, -there is no convent, however pious its government -may be, which can give an education comparable to that -which a young girl receives from a mother who is educated, -and who finds her sweetest occupation and her true -glory in the education of her daughter.”</p> - -<p>Madame Campan, moreover, reminds mothers who would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[486]</a></span> -be the teachers of their own daughters, of all the obligations -which are involved in such a charge. Too often the mother -who jealously keeps her daughter near her, is not capable of -educating her. In this case there is only the appearance of -home education, and as Madame Campan wittily says, “this -is no longer <em>maternal education</em>; it is but <em>education at -home</em>.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">571. <span class="smcap">Progress in Instruction.</span>—Fénelon was Madame -Campan’s favorite author. On the other hand, there was -some resemblance between the rules of the school at Écouen -and those of Saint Cyr. The spirit of the seventeenth century -lives again in the educational institutions of the nineteenth, -and Madame Campan continues the work of Madame -de Maintenon.</p> - -<p>However, there is progress in more than one respect, and -the instruction is more solid and more complete.</p> - -<p>“The purpose of education,” wrote Madame Campan to -the Emperor, “ought to be directed: 1. towards the domestic -virtues; 2. towards instruction, to such a degree of perfection -in the knowledge of language, computation, history, -writing, and geography, that all pupils shall be assured of -the happiness of being able to instruct their own daughters.”</p> - -<p>Madame Campan desired, moreover, to extend her work. -She demanded of the Emperor the creation of several public -establishments “for educating the daughters of certain classes -of the servants of the State.” She desired that the government -should take under its supervision private institutions, -and contemplated for women as for men a sort of university -“which might replace the convents and the colleges.” But -Napoleon was not the man to enter into these schemes. The -schools of “women-logicians” were scarcely to his taste, -and the teaching congregations, which he restored to their -privileges, the better served his purpose.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">[487]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">572. <span class="smcap">Interest in Popular Education.</span>—One might believe -that Madame Campan, who had begun by being the -teacher of the three daughters of Louis XV., and who associated -with scarcely any save the wealthy or the titled, had -never had the taste or the leisure to think of popular instruction. -It is nothing of the sort, as is proved by her <cite>Counsels -to Young Girls, a work intended for Elementary Schools</cite>.</p> - -<p>“There is no ground for fearing that the daughters of the -rich will ever be in want of books to instruct them or of -governesses to direct them. It is not at all so with the children -who belong to the less fortunate classes.... I have -seen with my own eyes how incomplete and neglected is the -education of the daughters of country people.... It is for -them that I have penned this little work.”</p> - -<p>The work itself has not perhaps the tone that could be desired, -nor all the simplicity that the author would have wished -to give it; but we must thank Madame Campan for her intentions, -and we count among her highest claims to the -esteem of posterity the effort which she made in her old age -to become, at least in her writings, a simple school-mistress -and a village teacher.</p> - - -<p class="p1">573. <span class="smcap">Madame de Rémusat (1780-1821).</span>—Madame de -Rémusat has written only for women of the world. Herself -a woman of the world, lady of the palace of the Empress -Josephine, she had no personal experience in the way of -teaching. She had nothing to do with the practice of education -save in supervising the studies of her two sons, one of -whom became a philosopher and an illustrious statesman, -Charles de Rémusat. The noble book of Madame de Rémusat, -her <cite>Essay on the Education of Women</cite>, does not commend -itself by reason of its detailed precepts and scholastic methods, -but by its lofty reflections and general principles.<a name="FNanchor_243_243" id="FNanchor_243_243"></a><a href="#Footnote_243_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">[488]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">574. <span class="smcap">Sketch of Feminine Psychology.</span>—Let us first -notice different passages in which the author sketches by a -few touches the psychology of woman, and determines her -sphere in life:—</p> - -<p>“Woman is the companion of man upon the earth, but -yet she exists on her own account; she is <em>inferior</em>, but not -<em>subordinate</em>.”</p> - -<p>The expression here betrays Madame de Rémusat, and it -would be more accurate to say that woman is not inferior to -man, that she is his equal, but that in existing civil and social -conditions she necessarily remains subordinate to him.</p> - -<p>But with what perfect justness the amiable writer characterizes -the peculiar qualities of woman!</p> - -<p>“We lack continuity and depth when we would apply -ourselves to general questions. Endowed with a quick intelligence, -we hear promptly, we even divine and see just as -well as men; but too easily moved to remain impartial, too -mobile to be profound, perceiving is easier for us than observing. -Prolonged attention wearies us; we are, in short, more -mild than patient. More sensitive and more devoted than -men, women are ignorant of that sort of selfishness which -an independent being exhibits outwardly as a consciousness -of his own power. To obtain from them any activity whatever, -it is almost always necessary to <em>interest them in the -happiness of another</em>. Their very faults are the outgrowths -of their condition. The same cause will excite in man -emotions of pride, and in woman only those of vanity.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">575. <span class="smcap">The Serious in Education.</span>—Madame de Rémusat, -still more than Madame Campan, belongs to the modern -school. She desires for woman an education serious and -grave.</p> - -<p>“I see no reason for treating women less seriously than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">[489]</a></span> -men, for misrepresenting truth to them under the form of a -prejudice, duty under the appearance of a superstition, in -order that they may accept both the duty and the truth.”</p> - -<p>She does not in the least incline to the opinion of the over-courteous -moralist Joubert, who, with more gallantry than real -respect for women, said: “Nothing too earthly or too material -ought to employ young ladies; only delicate material should -busy their hands.... They resemble the imagination, and -like it they should touch only the surface of things.”<a name="FNanchor_244_244" id="FNanchor_244_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_244_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a></p> - -<p>Madame de Rémusat enters into the spirit of her time, and -her admiration for the age of Louis XIV. does not make her -forget what she owes to the new society, transformed by -great political reforms.</p> - -<p>“We are drawing near the time when every Frenchman -shall be a citizen. In her turn, the destiny of woman is -comprised in these two terms: <em>wife and mother of a citizen</em>. -There is much morality, and a very severe and touching -morality, in the idea which ought to be attached to that word -<em>citizen</em>. After religion, I do not know a more powerful motive -than the patriotic spirit for directing the young towards -the good.”</p> - -<p>It is no longer a question, then, of training the woman and -the man for themselves, for their individual destiny. They -must be educated for the public good, for their duties in -society. Madame de Rémusat is not one of those timid -and frightened women who feel a homesickness for the past, -whom the present terrifies. Liberal and courageous, she -manfully accepts the new régime; she proclaims its advantages, -and, if she writes like a woman of the seventeenth -century, almost with the perfection of Madame de Sévigné, -her chosen model, she at least thinks like a daughter of the -Revolution.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">[490]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">576. <span class="smcap">Philosophical Spirit.</span>—That which is not less remarkable -is the philosophical character of her reflections. -She believes in liberty and in conscience. It is conscience -which she purposes to substitute, as a moral rule, “for -despotic and superficial caprices.” It is no longer by the -imperative term, <em>you must</em>, but by the obligatory term, <em>you -ought</em>, that the mother should lead and govern her daughter.</p> - -<p>“On every occasion let these words, <em>I ought</em>, re-appear in -the conversation of the mother.”</p> - -<p>This is saying that the child ought to be treated as a free -being. The end, and at the same time the most efficient -means, of education, is the wise employment of liberty. -While keeping the oversight of the child, he must be left to -take care of himself, and on many occasions to follow the -course that he will. By this means his will will be developed, -and his character strengthened; and this is an essential point -according to Madame de Rémusat.</p> - -<p>“If under Louis XIV.,” she says, “the education of -woman’s mind was grave and often substantial, that of her -character remained imperfect.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">577. <span class="smcap">Madame Guizot (1773-1827).</span>—Madame Guizot -first became known under her maiden name, Pauline de -Meulan. In the closing years of the eighteenth century she -had written several romances, and had contributed to the review -of Suard, the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Publiciste</cite>. In 1812 she married Guizot, -the future author of the law of 1833, who had just founded -the <cite>Annals of Education</cite>.<a name="FNanchor_245_245" id="FNanchor_245_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_245_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a> From this period, all her ideas -and all her writings were directed almost exclusively<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">[491]</a></span> -towards ethics and education. She published in succession, -<cite>Children</cite> (1812), <cite>Raoul and Victor</cite> (1821), and, finally, her -masterpiece, the <cite>Family Letters on Education</cite> (1826).</p> - - -<p class="p1">578. <span class="smcap">The Letters on Education.</span>—To give at once an -idea of the merit of this book,<a name="FNanchor_246_246" id="FNanchor_246_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_246_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a> we shall quote the opinion of -Sainte-Beuve:—</p> - -<p>“The work of Madame Guizot will survive the <em>Émile</em>, -marking in this line the progress of the sound, temperate, -and refined reason of our times, over the venturesome genius -of Rousseau, just as in politics the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Démocratie</i> of De Tocqueville -is an advance over the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Contrat Social</i>. Essential to -meditate upon, as advice, in all education which would prepare -strong men for the difficulties of our modern society, -this book also contains, in the way of exposition, the noblest -moral pages, the most sincere and the most convincing, -which, with a few pages from Jouffroy, have been suggested -to the philosophy of our age by the doctrines of a spiritualistic -rationalism.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">579. <span class="smcap">Psychological Optimism.</span>—The philosophical spirit -is not lacking in the <cite>Letters on Education</cite>. The whole of -Letter XII. is a plea in behalf of the relative innocence of -the child. That which is bad in the disorderly inclination, -says the author, is not the inclination, but the disorder:—</p> - -<p>“The inclinations of a sentient being are in themselves -what they ought to be. It has been said that a man could -not be virtuous if he did not conquer his inclinations; hence, -his inclinations are evil. This is an error. No more could -the tree produce good fruit, if, in pruning it, the disorderly -flow of the sap were not arrested. Does this prove that the -sap is harmful to the tree?”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">[492]</a></span></p> - -<p>It follows from these principles that discipline ought not -to be severe.</p> - -<p>“Do you not think it strange,” exclaims Madame Guizot, -“that for centuries education has been, so to speak, a systematic -hostility against human nature; that to correct and -to punish have been synonymous; and that we have heard -only of dispositions to break, and natures to overcome, just -as though it were a question of taking away from children -the nature which God has given them in order to give them -another such as teachers would have it?”</p> - - -<p class="p1">580. <span class="smcap">Nature of the Child.</span>—That which gives a great -value to the work of Madame Guizot is, that besides the -general considerations and the philosophical reflections, we -there find a great number of circumstantial experiences and -detailed observations which are admissible in a sound treatise -on pedagogy. Like the psychology of the child, pedagogy -itself, at least in its first chapters, ought to be conceived -and written near a cradle. Madame Guizot forcibly indicates -the importance of the first years, where the future destiny -of the child is determined: “In those imperfect organs, -in that incomplete intelligence, are contained, from the first -moment of existence, the germs of that which is ever more -to proceed from them either for better or for worse. The -man will never have, in the whole course of his life, an impulse -which does not belong to that nature, all the features -of which are already foreshadowed in the infant. The infant -will never receive a keen and durable impression, however -slight, an impress of whatever kind, whose effects are not to -influence the life of the man.”</p> - -<p>At the same time that she sees in the infant the rough -draft of the man, Madame Guizot recognizes with a remarkable -delicacy of psychologic sense, that which distinguishes,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493">[493]</a></span> -that which characterizes, the irreflective and inconsiderate -nature of the child. What is more just than this observation?</p> - -<p>“We often deceive ourselves in attributing to the conduct -of children, because it is analogous to our own, motives -similar to those which guide ourselves.”</p> - -<p>What better observation than the example which Madame -Guizot cites in support of this statement!</p> - -<p>“Louise, by a sudden impulse, drops her toys, throws -herself upon my neck, and cannot cease kissing me. It -seems that all my mother’s heart could not sufficiently -respond to the warmth of her caresses; but by the same -playful impulse she leaves me to kiss her doll or the arm of -the chair which she meets on her way.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">581. <span class="smcap">Philosophic Rationalism.</span>—Madame Guizot pushes -rationalism much farther than Madame de Rémusat, and still -farther than Madame Necker de Saussure. She is first a -philosopher, then a Christian. She more nearly approaches -Rousseau. She would first form in the minds of children the -universal idea of God before initiating them into the particular -dogmas of positive religions. She bases morals on the idea -of duty, which is “the only basis of a complete education.”</p> - -<p>“I would place,” she says, “each act of the child under -the protection of an idea or of a moral sentiment.”</p> - -<p>Recalling the distinction made by Dupont de Nemours -between <em>paternal commands</em> and <em>military commands</em>, the -first addressing themselves to the reason, the others to be -observed without protest and with a passive obedience, she -does not conceal her preference for the use of the first, -because she would form in the woman, as in the man, a spirit -of reason and of liberty. She absolutely proscribes personal -interest, and hence declares that “rewards have always -seemed to her contrary to the true principle of education.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494">[494]</a></span></p> - -<p>Let us say, lastly, without being able to enter into detail, -that the book of Madame Guizot deserves to be read with -care. There will be found in it a great number of excellent -reflections on instruction which ought to be substantial -rather than extensive; upon the reading of romances, and -upon the theatre, which she does not forbid; upon easy -methods, which she condemns; and, finally, on almost all -pedagogical questions.<a name="FNanchor_247_247" id="FNanchor_247_247"></a><a href="#Footnote_247_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">582. <span class="smcap">Madame Necker de Saussure (1765-1841).</span>—There -are in the history of education privileged moments, -periods that are particularly and happily fruitful. It is thus -that within the space of a few years there appeared in succession -the books of Madame de Rémusat, of Madame -Guizot, and, the most important of all, the <cite>Progressive Education</cite> -of Madame Necker de Saussure.<a name="FNanchor_248_248" id="FNanchor_248_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_248_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a></p> - -<p>A native of Geneva, like Rousseau, Madame Necker de -Saussure has endowed French literature with an educational -masterpiece, which for elevation of view and nobleness of -inspiration, can take rank by the side of the <em>Émile</em>. Though -she may sometimes be too logical and too austere, and while -in general she is lacking in good humor, and while she looks -upon life only through a veil of sadness, Madame Necker is -an incomparable guide in educational affairs. She brings to -the subject remarkable qualities of perspicacity and penetration, -and a spirit of marked gravity. She takes a serious -view of life, and applies herself to training the noblest qualities -of the human soul. Profoundly religious, she unites a -“philosophical boldness to the submission of faith.” She -is, in some measure, a Christian Rousseau.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495">[495]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">583. <span class="smcap">Madame Necker de Saussure and Madame de -Staël.</span>—The first work of Madame Necker, <cite>Notice of the -Character and the Writings of Madame de Staël</cite>, already gives -proof of her interest in education. The author of the <cite>Progressive -Education</cite> here studies with care the ideas of her -heroine on education and instruction. It is plain that she -has profited by some of the solid reflections in the noble -book on <cite>Germany</cite>, and particularly by this opinion on the -gradual and progressive method of Rousseau and of Pestalozzi:—</p> - -<p>“Rousseau calls children into activity by degrees. He -would have them do for themselves all that their little powers -permit them to do. He does not in the least force their -intelligence; he does not make them reach the result without -passing over the route. He wishes the faculties to be -developed before the sciences are taught.”</p> - -<p>“What wearies children is to make them jump over intermediate -parts, to make them advance without their really -knowing what they think they have learned. With Pestalozzi -there is no trace of these difficulties. With him, children -take delight in their studies, because even in infancy, they -taste the pleasure of grown men, namely, comprehending -and completing that on which they have been engaged.”</p> - -<p>Moreover, Madame Necker must have recognized her own -spirit, her preference for a severe and painstaking education, -in this passage where Madame de Staël vigorously protested -against amusing and easy methods of instruction:—</p> - -<p>“The education that takes place through amusement -dissipates thought; labor of some sort is one of the great -aids of nature; the mind of the child ought to accustom -itself to the labor of study, just as our soul to suffering.... -You will teach a multitude of things to your child by means -of pictures and cards, but you will not teach him how to -learn.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496">[496]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">584. <span class="smcap">Progressive Education and Rousseau.</span>—It is -undeniable that Madame Necker owes much to Rousseau; -but she is far from always agreeing with him.</p> - -<p>For Rousseau, man is good; for her, man is bad. The -first duty of the teacher should be to reform him, to raise -him from his fall; the purpose of life is not happiness, as an -immoral doctrine maintains, but it is improvement; the basis -of education ought to be religion.</p> - -<p>Even when she is inspired by Rousseau, Madame Necker -is not long in separating from him. Thus we may believe -that she borrows from him the fundamental idea of her book, -the idea of a successive development of the faculties, to -which should correspond a parallel movement in educational -methods. Like the author of the <em>Émile</em>, she follows the -awakening of the senses in the infant. She considers the -infant as a being <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sui generis</i> “who lives only on sensations -and desires.” She sees in the infant a distinct period of life, -an age whose education has its own special rules. But at -that point the resemblances stop; for Madame Necker de -Saussure hastens to add that, from the fifth year, the child -is in possession of all his intellectual faculties. He is no -longer simply a sentient being, a robust animal like Émile; -but he is a complete being, soul and body. Consequently, -education should take account of his double nature. Moral -education ought not to be separated from physical education, -and cannot begin too soon.</p> - -<p>“It is a great error to believe that nature proceeds in the -systematic order imagined by Rousseau. With her, we -nowhere discern a commencement; we do not surprise her at -creating, and it always seems that she is developing.”</p> - -<p>So, in education, we must know how to appeal, at the -same time and as soon as possible, to the different motives, -instinctive or reflective, selfish or affectionate, which sway -the will.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">[497]</a></span></p> - -<p>Often, in practice, the two thinkers approach each other, -and, even in her protestations against her countryman, -Madame Necker de Saussure preserves something of Rousseau’s -spirit. Thus, she does not desire the negative education -which leaves everything to nature. The teacher ought -not to <em>allow</em> the child to do (<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">laisser faire</i>), but <em>cause</em> him to -do (<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">faire faire</i>). But, at the same time, she demands that -the will be strengthened, so that education may find in it a -point of support; that the character be hardened; that some -degree of independence be accorded to the child; “that in -permissible cases he be allowed to come to his own decision; -and that half-orders, half-obligations, tacit entreaties, and -insinuations, be avoided.” Is not this retaining all that is -just and practical in Rousseau’s theory, namely, the necessity -of associating the special and spontaneous powers of the -child with the work of education? Madame de Saussure -adopts a just medium between the active education which -makes a misuse of the master’s instruction, and the passive -education which makes a misuse of the pupil’s liberty. She -would willingly have accepted this precept of Frœbel, “Let -teachers not lose sight of this truth: it is necessary that -always and at the same time they give and take, that they -precede and follow, that they act and let act.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">585. <span class="smcap">Originality of Madame Necker.</span>—Though she had -reflected much on the writings of her predecessors, it is nevertheless -to her personal experience and to her original investigations -that Madame Necker owes the best of her thought. -She had herself followed the advice which she gives to mothers, -of “observing their children, and of keeping a journal, -in which a record should be made of each step of progress, -and in which all the vicissitudes of physical and moral health -should be noted.” It is a rich psychological fund, and at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498">[498]</a></span> -same time a perpetual aspiration after the ideal, which makes -the strength and the beauty of the <cite>Progressive Education</cite>. -With what penetrating insight Madame Necker has pointed -out the difficulty and also the charm of the study of children!</p> - -<p>“It were so delightful to fix the fugitive image of childhood, -to prolong indefinitely the happiness of contemplating -their features, and to be sure of ever finding again those dear -creatures whom, alas, we are always losing as children, even -when we still have the happiness of keeping them!”</p> - -<p>“We must love children in order to know them, and we -divine them less by the intelligence than by the heart.”</p> - -<p>Thanks to the pronounced taste for the study of child -nature, the most just psychological observations are ever -mingled, in the <cite>Progressive Education</cite>, with the precepts of -education, and it has been truly said that “this book is -almost a journal of domestic education which takes the proportions -of a theory.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">586. <span class="smcap">Division of the Progressive Education.</span>—The -<cite>Progressive Education</cite> appeared in 1836 and 1838 in three -volumes. The first three books treat of the history of the -soul in infancy; the fourth examines the general principles -of teaching, independently of the age of the pupil; the fifth -studies the child of from five to seven years of age; the sixth -takes us to the tenth year; the seventh shows “the distinctive -marks of the character and the intellectual development -of boys, during the years which immediately precede adolescence.” -Finally, the last four books form a complete -whole, and treat of the education of women during the whole -course of life.</p> - - -<p class="p1">587. <span class="smcap">Development of the Faculties.</span>—We cannot attempt -in this place to analyze a work so rich in ideas as the -work of Madame Necker. Let us limit ourselves to indicating<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499">[499]</a></span> -the essential points in her system of education. First, it is -the preoccupation of training the will, a faculty which is too -much neglected by teachers, but which, nevertheless, is the -endowment which dominates life. Madame Necker treats this -subject in a masterly way in a chapter to which she prefixes -these words as a superscription:—</p> - -<p>“Obedience to law constrains the will without enfeebling -it, while obedience to man injures it or enervates it.</p> - -<p>“It is, above all, to place the interior education of the -soul above superficial and formal instruction.</p> - -<p>“To instruct a child is to construct him within; it is to -make him become a man.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">588. <span class="smcap">Culture of the Imagination.</span>—Whatever importance -she attaches to the active powers, Madame Necker does -not neglect the contemplative faculties. The imagination, -next to the will, is the faculty of the soul which has most -often engrossed her attention.</p> - -<p>“She has made it appear,” says a distinguished writer, -“that this irresistible power, when we believe it to have been -conquered, takes the most diverse forms; that it disguises -its power and arouses with a secret fire the most miserable -passions. If you refuse it space and liberty, it slinks away -in the depths of selfishness, and under vulgar features it -becomes avarice, cowardice, and vanity.”</p> - -<p>“So it is necessary to see with what tender anxiety -Madame Necker watches its first movements in the soul of -the child; with what intelligent care she seeks to make of it -from entrance upon life, the companion of truth; how she -surrounds it with everything which can establish it within the -circle of the good. The studies which extend our intellectual -horizon, the spectacle of nature in her marvelous diversities, -the emotions of the arts,—nothing seems to her superfluous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500">[500]</a></span> -or dangerous for directing the imagination in the way that is -good. She fears to see it escape, through the lack of pleasures -that are intense enough, in the direction of other routes.”<a name="FNanchor_249_249" id="FNanchor_249_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_249_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a></p> - -<p>In other terms, it is not proposed to repress the imagination, -still less to destroy it; but merely to guide it gently, -to associate it with reason and virtue, to awaken it to a taste -for the good, and to an admiration for nature.</p> - -<p>“Show him a beautiful sunset, in order that nothing which -can enchant him may pass unnoticed.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">589. <span class="smcap">The Education of Women.</span>—In her special studies -on the education of women, Madame Necker, who in other -parts of her work sometimes makes an improper use of vague -declarations of principles, without entering sufficiently into -the details of practical processes, has had the double merit -of assigning to the destiny of women an elevated ideal, and -of determining with precision the means of attaining it. -She complains that we too often adhere to Rousseau’s programme, -that of an education which relates exclusively to -the conjugal duties of the woman. She recommends that the -marriage of young girls be delayed, so that they may have -time to become “enlightened spirits and intelligent creatures”; -so that they may acquire, not “an assortment of all -petty knowledges,” but a solid instruction, which prepares -them for the duties of society and of maternity, which make -of them the first teachers of their children, which, in a word, -starts them on the way towards that personal perfection -which they will never completely attain except by the efforts -of their whole life.<a name="FNanchor_250_250" id="FNanchor_250_250"></a><a href="#Footnote_250_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_501" id="Page_501">[501]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">590. <span class="smcap">Madame Pape-Carpentier (1815-1878).</span>—With -Madame Pape-Carpentier, we leave the region of theories to -enter the domain of facts; we have to do with a practical -teacher. In 1846, after several trials at teaching at La -Flèche, her native city, and at Mans, she published her -<cite>Counsels on the Management of Infant Schools</cite>. In 1847 she -founded at Paris a <em>Mothers’ Normal School</em>, which the next -year, under the ministry of Carnot, became a public establishment, -and which, in 1852, under the ministry of Fortoul, -took the distinctive title <cite>Practical Courses on Infant Schools</cite>. -It is there that during twenty-seven years Madame Pape-Carpentier -applied her methods and trained a large number -of pupils, more than fifteen hundred, who have propagated -in France and abroad her teaching and her ideas. In 1847 -she was removed from the management of her normal school -through intrigues; but her loss of position was not of long -duration. A little later she was appointed inspector-general -of infant schools.</p> - - -<p class="p1">591. <span class="smcap">General Character of her Works.</span>—Madame -Pape-Carpentier may be considered as a pupil of Pestalozzi -and of Frœbel. She was specially occupied with elementary -education, and carried into her work a spirit of great simplicity. -We must not demand of her ambitious generalities -nor views on abstract metaphysics; but she excels in practical -wisdom, and speaks the language of childhood to perfection.</p> - - -<p class="p1">592. <span class="smcap">Principal Works of Madame Pape-Carpentier.</span>—Among -the important works of Madame Pape-Carpentier -we shall recommend the following in particular:—</p> - -<p class="p1">1. <cite>Advice on the Management of Infant Schools</cite> (1845). -In her preface the author excuses herself for undertaking -“a subject of such gravity.” But she goes on to say that -“no instruction has yet been given the teacher on the educa<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">[502]</a></span>tion -of the poor child,” and she asks the privilege of speaking -in the name of her personal experience. This book, -often reprinted, has become <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Enseignement pratique dans les -salles d’asile</cite>.<a name="FNanchor_251_251" id="FNanchor_251_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_251_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a></p> - -<p class="p1">2. <cite>Narratives and Lessons on Objects</cite> (1858). This is a -collection of little stories, “simple as childhood,” which -were tested before children before being written, and in -which Madame Pape-Carpentier attempts to teach them -things which are good: “I mean,” she says, “things really, -seriously good.”</p> - -<p class="p1">3. <cite>Pedagogical Discussions held at the Sorbonne</cite> (1867). -During the Universal Exposition of 1867, Monsieur -Duruy had assembled at Paris a certain number of teachers -before whom pedagogical discussions were held. Madame -Pape-Carpentier took upon herself the special task of explaining -to them how the methods of the infant school might -be introduced into the primary school.</p> - -<p class="p1">4. <cite>Reading and Work for Children and Mothers</cite> (1873). -Here Madame Pape-Carpentier is especially intent on -popularizing the methods of Frœbel; she suggests ingenious -exercises which can be applied to children to give them skill -in the use of their fingers, and to inspire them with a taste -for order and symmetry.</p> - -<p class="p1">5. <cite>Complete Course of Education</cite> (1874). This book, -which would have been the general statement of the pedagogical -principles of the author, was left incomplete. Only -three volumes have appeared. A few quotations will make -known their spirit.</p> - -<p>“To co-operate with nature in her work, to extend it, to -correct her when she goes wrong,—such is the task of the -educator. In all grades of education, nature must be -respected.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503">[503]</a></span></p> - -<p>“The child should live in the midst of fresh and soothing -impressions; the objects which surround him in the school -should be graceful and cheerful.</p> - -<p>“Socrates has admirably said, ‘The duty of education is -to give the idea birth rather than to communicate it.’”</p> - -<p class="p1">6. <cite>Note on the Education of the Senses, and some Pedagogical -Appliances</cite> (1878). Madame Pape-Carpentier is -very much interested in the education of the senses, because, -she says, “every child born into the world is a workman in -prospect, a future apprentice to an occupation still unknown.” -It is then necessary to perfect at an early hour the natural -tools he will need in order to fulfill his task. The education -of the senses will have its place some day or other in the -official programmes, and, for this sense-training, instruments -are just as necessary as books are for the culture of the intellect.</p> - - -<p class="p1">593. <span class="smcap">Lessons on Objects.</span>—“The object-lesson is the -new continent on which Madame Pape-Carpentier has planted -her standard.” She herself wrote a number of works which -contain models of object-lessons; she has stated the theory -of them, notably in her discussions of 1867. It is even -permissible to think that she has made a wrong use of them. -With her, the object-lesson becomes a universal process -which she applies to all subjects, to chemistry, to physics, -to grammar, to geography, and to ethics.</p> - -<p>However it may be, this is the course to follow according -to her: it is necessary to conform to the order in which the -perceptions of the intelligence succeed each other. The -child’s attention is first struck by color. Then he will distinguish -the form of the object, and would know its use, -its material, and mode of production. It is according to -this natural development of the child’s curiosity that the -object-lesson should proceed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_504" id="Page_504">[504]</a></span></p> - -<p>Moreover, it can be given with reference to everything. -Madame Pape-Carpentier admits what she calls “occasional -lessons”; but she also thinks that object-lessons can be -given according to a plan, a fixed programme.</p> - -<p>Madame Pape-Carpentier deserves, then, to be heard as an -experienced adviser in whatever relates to elementary instruction; -but that which we must admire in her still more -than her professional skill and her pedagogical knowledge, is -an elevated conception of the teacher’s work, and a lofty inspiration -coming from her devotion to children and her love -for them.</p> - -<p>“To educate children properly,” she said, “ought to be -for the teacher only the second part of his undertaking; the -first, and the most difficult, is to perfect himself.”</p> - -<p>“What we are able to do for children is measured by the -love we bear them.”</p> - - - <div><a name="Para_594" id="Para_594"></a></div> -<p class="p1">594. <span class="smcap">Other Women who were Educators.</span>—If the education -of women has received an important development in -our day, it is due, then, in great part to the women who have -shown what they were worth and what they could do, either -as teachers or as educators. And yet the history whose -principal features we have just traced remains very incomplete. -By the side of the celebrated women whose works we -have studied, we should mention Mademoiselle Sauvan, who, -in 1811, founded at Chaillot an educational establishment -which she did not leave till about 1830, to take the intellectual -and moral direction of the girls’ schools of Paris;<a name="FNanchor_252_252" id="FNanchor_252_252"></a><a href="#Footnote_252_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a> -Madame de Maisonneuve, author of an <cite>Essay on the Instruction -of Women</cite>,<a name="FNanchor_253_253" id="FNanchor_253_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_253_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> in which she sums up the results of a long<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_505" id="Page_505">[505]</a></span> -experience acquired in the management of a private boarding-school.</p> - -<p>But men have also contributed by their theoretical objections, -or by their practical efforts, to the progress of the education -of women. It would be of interest, for example, to -study the courses in secondary instruction of Lourmand -(1834), and the <cite>Courses in Maternal Education</cite>, of Lévi -Alvarès (1820). “Monsieur Lévi,” says Gréard, “makes the -mother tongue and history the basis of instruction. He himself -sums up his methods in this formula of progressive education: -Facts, comparison of facts, moral or philosophical -consequence of facts; that is, seeing, comparing, judging. -This is the very order of nature.” Let us mention also the -work of Aimé Martin, <cite>The Education of Mothers</cite>,<a name="FNanchor_254_254" id="FNanchor_254_254"></a><a href="#Footnote_254_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a> which for -several years enjoyed an extraordinary reputation that it -would be rather difficult to justify.</p> - - -<p class="p1">595. <span class="smcap">Dupanloup and the Education of Women.</span>—A -bishop of the nineteenth century, Dupanloup, has assumed -to rival Fénelon in the delicate question of the education of -women. Different works, and in particular the one which he -esteemed most, his <cite>Letters on the Education of Girls</cite>, published -after his death in 1879, give proof of the interest -which he took in these questions. These letters are for the -most part real letters which were addressed to women of the -time. Notwithstanding the variety and the freedom of the -epistolary form, the work may be divided into three parts: -1. the principles of education; 2. the education of young -women; 3. free and personal study in the world. Dupanloup -should be thanked for having summoned woman to a true -intellectual culture, and for not consenting to have her faculties -remain “smothered and useless.” Through the revelations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_506" id="Page_506">[506]</a></span> -of the confessional and the spiritual direction of a great -number of women, Dupanloup knew exactly what a void -an incomplete education of the mind and heart leaves in the -soul. He is indeed willing to acknowledge that piety is not -enough, and with a certain breadth of spirit which drew upon -him the censure of the ultramontane press, he recommends -the serious studies to women. His counsels, however, are -addressed only to women of the middle classes, to those who, -he says, “occupy the third story of houses in Paris.” His -book is rather a reminiscence of the seventeenth century, of -its manners and its habits of thinking, than a living work of -to-day, adapted to the needs of modern society.</p> - - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>[596. <span class="smcap">Analytical Summary.</span>—1. The formal discussion -of woman’s education by women marks an important epoch -in the history of education. Had the education of men been -wholly, or even chiefly, discussed by women, it cannot be -doubted that it would have been more or less partial and -imperfect.</p> - -<p>2. The formal discussion of infant education by women is -scarcely less important; for nothing less than maternal instinct -and affection can divine the nature and the needs of -the child.</p> - -<p>3. This study calls attention to the need of making the -education of women serious instead of ornamental. Plato -based his recommendation of the equal education of men and -women on equality of civil functions. In modern thought -it is the conception of equal rights and of equal abilities -that tends to prescribe the same course of intellectual training -for both sexes.</p> - -<p>4. The educational work of the two Englishwomen, Miss -Edgeworth and Miss Hamilton, can be studied with great prof<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_507" id="Page_507">[507]</a></span>it. -The first excels in practical wisdom, and the second in -philosophic insight.</p> - -<p>5. <cite>The Progressive Education</cite> of Madame Necker is a -classic which fairly ranks with the <em>Émile</em> of Rousseau, and -the <cite>Education</cite> of Herbert Spencer.]</p></div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_237_237" id="Footnote_237_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a> Gréard, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mémoire sur l’enseignement secondaire des filles</cite>, p. 78.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_238_238" id="Footnote_238_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a> French translation by Pictet, 1801.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_239_239" id="Footnote_239_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_239_239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a> French translation by Chéron, 2 vols., Paris, 1804.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_240_240" id="Footnote_240_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240_240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a> Stewart, <cite>Elements</cite>, p. 11.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_241_241" id="Footnote_241_241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_241_241"><span class="label">[241]</span></a> <cite>Letters</cite>, Vol. I. p. 11.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_242_242" id="Footnote_242_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_242_242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a> See the two volumes published in 1824 by Barrière, on the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Éducation, -par Madame Campan</cite>, followed by the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Conseils aux jeunes filles</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_243_243" id="Footnote_243_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a> The work of Madame de Rémusat was published in 1824, after the author’s -death, under the direction of Charles de Rémusat.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_244_244" id="Footnote_244_244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_244_244"><span class="label">[244]</span></a> Joubert, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Pensées</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_245_245" id="Footnote_245_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_245_245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a> The <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Annales de l’éducation</cite> appeared from 1811 to 1814. It is an interesting -collection to consult. In it Guizot published among other pedagogical -works, his studies on the ideas of Rabelais and Montaigne, afterwards -reprinted in the volume, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Études Morales</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_246_246" id="Footnote_246_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Éducation domestique ou Lettres de famille sur l’éducation.</cite> 2 vols. -Paris, 1826.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_247_247" id="Footnote_247_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_247_247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a> See in the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue pédagogique</cite>, 1883, No. 6, an interesting study on -Madame Guizot, by Bernard Perez.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_248_248" id="Footnote_248_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_248_248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’Éducation progressive ou Étude du cours de la nature humaine.</cite> -3 vols. 1836-1838.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_249_249" id="Footnote_249_249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_249_249"><span class="label">[249]</span></a> Preface to the fifth edition of the <cite>Progressive Education</cite>. Paris. -Garnier.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_250_250" id="Footnote_250_250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_250_250"><span class="label">[250]</span></a> We must include in the educational school of Madame Necker de -Saussure one of her countrymen, the celebrated Vinet (1799-1847), who, in -his excellent book, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’Éducation, la famille et la société</cite> (Paris, 1855), has -vigorously discussed certain educational questions.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_251_251" id="Footnote_251_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_251_251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a> See the sixth edition, Paris, Hachette, 1877.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_252_252" id="Footnote_252_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_252_252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a> See the work entitled <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'Madamoiselle Sauvan'">Mademoiselle Sauvan</ins>, première inspectrice des -écoles de Paris, sa vie, son œuvre</cite>, par E. Gossot. Paris, 1880.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_253_253" id="Footnote_253_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_253_253"><span class="label">[253]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Essai sur l’instruction des femmes.</cite> Tours, 1841.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_254_254" id="Footnote_254_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_254_254"><span class="label">[254]</span></a> The first edition is dated 1834. The ninth was published in 1873.</p> -</div></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_508" id="Page_508">[508]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XXI.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF EDUCATION IN THE -NINETEENTH CENTURY.</span></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>THE PEDAGOGY OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY; VOTES OF THE COUNCILS-GENERAL -(1801); FOURCROY AND THE LAW OF 1802; FOUNDATION -OF THE UNIVERSITY (1806); ORGANIZATION OF THE IMPERIAL -UNIVERSITY; INTENTIONS OF THE DYNASTY; PRIMARY INSTRUCTION -NEGLECTED; ORIGIN OF MUTUAL INSTRUCTION; BELL AND -LANCASTER; SUCCESS OF MUTUAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE; MORAL -ADVANTAGES; ECONOMICAL ADVANTAGES; ORGANIZATION OF -SCHOOLS ON THE MUTUAL SYSTEM; VICES OF THIS SYSTEM; STATE -OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION; GUIZOT AND THE LAW OF 1833; HIGHER -PRIMARY SCHOOLS; CIRCULAR OF GUIZOT; PROGRESS IN POPULAR -INSTRUCTION; PROGRAMMES OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION; THE -THEORISTS OF EDUCATION; JACOTOT (1770-1840); THE PARADOXES -OF JACOTOT; ALL IS IN ALL; THE SAINT-SIMONIANS AND THE -PHALANSTERIANS; FOURIER (1772-1837); AUGUSTE COMTE (1798-1857) -AND THE POSITIVISTS; DUPANLOUP (1802-1878); ANALYSIS OF THE -TREATISE ON EDUCATION; ERRORS AND PREJUDICES; THE SPIRITUALISTIC -SCHOOL AND THE UNIVERSITY MEN; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.</p></div> - -<hr class="r15a" /> - -<p class="p1">597. <span class="smcap">The Pedagogy of the Nineteenth Century.</span>—An -effort more and more marked to organize education in accordance -with the data of psychology and on a scientific basis, -and to co-ordinate pedagogical methods in accordance with a -rational plan; a manifest tendency to take the control of -education from the hands of the Church in order to restore it -to the State and to lay society; a larger part accorded the -family in the management of children; a faith more and more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_509" id="Page_509">[509]</a></span> -sanguine in the efficacy of instruction, and an ever-growing -purpose to have every member of the human family participate -in its benefits,—such are some of the characteristics of -the pedagogy of the nineteenth century. Education tends -more and more to become a social problem; it is to be an -affair of universal interest. It is no longer to be merely a -question of regulating select studies for the use of a few who -are the favorites of birth and fortune; but science must be -placed within the reach of all, and through the simplification -of methods and the universal distribution of knowledge, it -must be adapted to the democratic spirit of the new society.</p> - -<p>We have no intention to follow in this place, in all its -details, and in the diversity of its currents, this educational -movement of a century which has not yet said its last word; -but we must limit ourselves to calling attention to the points -which seem to us essential.</p> - - -<p class="p1">598. <span class="smcap">Laws of the Councils-General of 1801.</span>—Notwithstanding -the efforts of the Revolution, public instruction -in France, during the first part of the nineteenth century, -was far from being flourishing. There was urgent need of -introducing reforms. The Councils-General were summoned -in 1801 to give their advice on the organization of studies. -That which is very noticeable in the State papers of the -Councils-General of 1801, is that the departmental assemblies -agree in demanding the establishment of a National -University. The Councils-General complain that the professors, -being no longer united by the ties of solidarity, as -were the members of the religious teaching congregations of -the old régime, march at random, without unity, without -concerted direction. They solicit, then, a uniform organization -of instruction. They even conceive the idea of an -official instruction administered exclusively by the State.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_510" id="Page_510">[510]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">599. <span class="smcap">Fourcroy<a name="FNanchor_255_255" id="FNanchor_255_255"></a><a href="#Footnote_255_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a> and the Law of 1802.</span>—We have not -the space to dwell long on the bill of Fourcroy, which became -the law of 1802, although this measure, it has been said, was -amended twenty-three times before being submitted to the -Corps Législatif and to the Tribunate.</p> - -<p>Fourcroy did not sufficiently recognize the rights of the -State. Doubtless he did not go so far as to assert, with -Adam Smith, that education should be abandoned entirely -to private enterprise; but he thinks that the task of organizing -the primary schools must be left to the communes. -In his opinion, that which prevented the success of these -schools was the attempt to impose too great a uniformity -on them. He demands that the teachers be chosen by the -mayors, or by the municipal councillors, who alone are cognizant -of the local interests. The primary school is the need -of all. Then let it be the affair of all. Fourcroy was mistaken. -Primary instruction became a reality in France only -on the day when the State vigorously put its hand on it.</p> - -<p>On certain points, however, the law of 1802 prepared the -way for the approaching creation of Napoleon; for example, -in giving to the First Consul the appointment of the professors -of the colleges, and in placing the primary schools -under the supervision of the prefects.</p> - - -<p class="p1">600. <span class="smcap">Foundation of the University (1806).</span>—The law -of May 11, 1806, completed by the decrees of March 17, -1808, and of 1811, established the University, that is, a -teaching corporation, unique and entirely dependent on the -State:—</p> - -<p>“There shall be constituted a body charged exclusively<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_511" id="Page_511">[511]</a></span> -with instruction and public education throughout the whole -extent of the Empire.”</p> - -<p>Instruction thus became a function of the State, on the -same basis as the administration of justice or the organization -of the army.</p> - -<p>At the same time that it lost all autonomy, all independence, -the University gained the formidable privilege of -being alone charged with the national instruction.</p> - -<p>“No one can open a school or teach publicly, without -being a member of the Imperial University and without having -been graduated from one of its Faculties.” “No school -can be established outside of the University, and without the -authorization of its head.”</p> - -<p>We know what protestations were excited, even on the -start, by the establishment of this University monopoly. -“It was not enough to enchain parents; it was still necessary -to dispose of the children. Mothers have been seen -hastening from the extremities of the Empire, coming to reclaim, -in an agony of tears, the sons whom the government -had carried off from them.” Thus spoke Chateaubriand, -before lavishing his adulations on the restorer of altars, and -he added, with an extravagance of imagination which recoils -on itself, “Children were placed in schools where they were -taught at the sound of the drum, irreligion, debauchery, and -contempt for the domestic virtues!” Joseph de Maistre -was more just: “Fontanes,”<a name="FNanchor_256_256" id="FNanchor_256_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_256_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a> he said, “has large views -and excellent intentions. The plan of his University is -grand and comprehensive. It is a noble body. The soul -will come to it when it can. Celibacy, subordination, devotion -of the whole life without religious motive, are required. -Will they be obtained?”<a name="FNanchor_257_257" id="FNanchor_257_257"></a><a href="#Footnote_257_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_512" id="Page_512">[512]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">601. <span class="smcap">Organization of the Imperial University.</span>—The -Imperial University comprised, like the present University, -Colleges, Lycées, and Faculties. The Colleges furnished -secondary instruction, like the Lycées, but less complete. -There were a Faculty of Letters and a Faculty of Sciences -for each academic centre; but these Faculties were very -poorly equipped, with their endowment of from five to ten -thousand francs at most, and with their few professors. The -professors of the neighboring Lycée (professors of rhetoric -and mathematics) formed a part of the establishment, and -each Faculty included at most but two or three other chairs.</p> - -<p>Latin and mathematics formed the basis of the instruction -in the Lycées. The Revolution had not come in vain, since -that which it had vigorously demanded was now realized; -the sciences and the classical languages were put on a footing -of equality.</p> - - -<p class="p1">602. <span class="smcap">Dynastic Prepossessions.</span>—That which absorbed -the attention of the founder of the Imperial University was -less the schemes of study than the general principles on -which the rising generations were to be nourished. In this -respect the thought of the Emperor is not obscure. He does -not dissemble it. God and the Emperor are the two words -which must be graven into the depths of the soul.</p> - -<p>“All the schools of the Imperial University will make as -the basis of their instruction: 1. the precepts of the Catholic -religion; 2. fidelity to the Emperor, to the imperial monarchy, -the depository of the happiness of the people, and to -the Napoleonic dynasty, the <em>conservator of the unity of -France</em>, and of all the ideas proclaimed by the Constitution.”</p> - -<p>“Napoleon,” as Guizot says, “attempted to convert into -an instrument of despotism an institution which tended to -be only a centre of light.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_513" id="Page_513">[513]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">603. <span class="smcap">Primary Instruction neglected.</span>—Primary instruction -never occupied the attention of Napoleon I. The decree -of 1805 contented itself with promising measures intended to -assure the recruitment of teachers, especially the creation of -one or more normal classes within the colleges and lycées. -Moreover, the Grand Master was to encourage and to license -the Brethren of the Christian Schools, while supervising their -establishments. Finally, the right to establish schools was -left to families or to religious corporations, the budget of the -Empire containing no item of appropriation for the cause of -popular instruction.</p> - -<p>The Restoration was scarcely more generous towards the -instruction of the people. By the ordinance of February 29, -1815, it granted <em>fifty thousand francs</em> as encouragement to the -primary schools. Was this derisive liberality any better than -complete silence and neglect? A more important measure -was the establishment of cantonal committees charged with -the supervision of primary schools. These committees were -placed, sometimes under the direction of the rector, and at -others under the authority of the bishop, at the pleasure of -the vicissitudes of politics. Certificates of qualification were -delivered to the members of the authorized congregations, on -the simple presentation of their letters of permission. We -can imagine what a body of teachers could be assured by such -a mode of recruitment.</p> - -<p>In anticipation of the monarchy of July, which in its liberal -dispositions was to appear more regardful of popular education, -private initiative signalized itself under the Restoration -by the foundation of the <em>Society for Elementary Instruction</em>, -and also by the encouragement it gave to the first attempts at -mutual instruction.</p> - - -<p class="p1">604. <span class="smcap">Origin of Mutual Instruction.</span>—Two Englishmen, -Bell and Lancaster, have claimed the honor of having in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_514" id="Page_514">[514]</a></span>vented -mutual instruction. The fact is, neither of them -invented it; they simply gave it currency. It is in France, -if not in India, that we must look for the real origin of -mutual instruction. We have seen that Madame de Maintenon, -Rollin, La Salle, and Pestalozzi, practised it, and to a -certain extent gave it currency. In the eighteenth century -Herbault had employed it in the hospital of La Pitié (1747), -the Chevalier Paulet at Vincennes (1774), and, finally, the -Abbé Gaultier,<a name="FNanchor_258_258" id="FNanchor_258_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_258_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a> also a Frenchman, had introduced the use of -it into London, in 1792, some years before Bell brought it -from India.</p> - - -<p class="p1">605. <span class="smcap">Bell (1753-1832) and Lancaster (1778-1838).</span>—Bell -and Lancaster are none the less the first authorized -propagators of the mutual method, or, as the English say, of -the <em>monitorial system</em>. Bell had used it at Madras, in imitation -of the Hindoo teachers, and in 1798 he introduced it into -England. But at the same period, a young English teacher, -Lancaster, applied the same methods with success, and, so -far as it appears, through a suggestion absolutely personal -and original. Lancaster was a Quaker, and Bell a Churchman, -so that public opinion in England was divided between -the two rivals. The truth is that they had applied at the -same time a system which was known before their day, and -which must naturally have been suggested to all teachers who -have too large a number of children to instruct, as a result -of the inadequacy of their resources and the lack of a teaching -force sufficiently large.</p> - - -<p class="p1">606. <span class="smcap">Success of Mutual Instruction in France.</span>—Mutual -instruction, which was maintained in certain schools of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_515" id="Page_515">[515]</a></span> -Paris till 1867, for a long time enjoyed an extraordinary -credit in France. Under the Restoration, its success was so -great that it became the fashion, and even a craze. Patronized -by the most eminent men of that day, by Royer-Collard, -by Laisné, by the Duke Decazes, by the Duke Pasquier, -mutual instruction became the flag of the liberal party in the -matter of instruction. Political passions became involved in -it. The new system came into competition with the traditional -instruction of the Brethren of the Christian Schools, -and was fought and denounced as immoral by all the partisans -of routine. “Mutual instruction was charged with destroying -the foundation of social order by delegating to children -a power which ought to belong only to men.... Men held -for or against simultaneous instruction, its rival, as if it were -a question of an article of the Charter.”<a name="FNanchor_259_259" id="FNanchor_259_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_259_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">607. <span class="smcap">Moral Advantages.</span>—The friends of mutual instruction, -in order to justify their enthusiasm, made the most of -moral reasons. What can be more touching, they said, than -to see children communicating to one another the little that -they know? What an excellent lesson of charity and of -mutual aid! The Gospel has said, <em>Love one another</em>. Was -it not giving to the divine precept a happy translation to add, -<em>Instruct one another</em>! An attempt was made, moreover, to -introduce mutuality into discipline and into the repression -of school faults. The school, on certain solemn occasions, -was converted into a court for trying criminals. “All this -was done very seriously, and it was also very seriously felt -that these practices, passing from a class of children to a -class of adults, would contribute to introduce into society the -habits of a true and useful fraternity.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_516" id="Page_516">[516]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">608. <span class="smcap">Economical Advantages.</span>—To tell the truth, mutual -instruction was above all else “a useful expedient,” -according to Rollin’s expression. At a period when teachers -were scarce, when the budget of public instruction did not -exist, it was natural that an economic system which dispensed -with teachers, and which reduced to almost nothing the cost -of instruction, should be hailed with enthusiasm. Let us add -that there was also an economy in books, since “there was -need of only one book, which pupils never used, and which -would thus last for several years.”</p> - -<p>Jomard calculated that there were 3,000,000 children to -instruct, and that, according to the ordinary system, this -would require the expenditure of more than 45,000,000 -francs.<a name="FNanchor_260_260" id="FNanchor_260_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_260_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a></p> - -<p>Now, according to the calculations of the Comte de Laborde,<a name="FNanchor_261_261" id="FNanchor_261_261"></a><a href="#Footnote_261_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a> -1000 pupils being able to be educated by one single -teacher, by the system of mutual instruction, more easily -than 30 could have been by the old system, a sum of 10,000 -francs granted annually by the State would suffice to educate -in twelve years the entire generation of poor children.<a name="FNanchor_262_262" id="FNanchor_262_262"></a><a href="#Footnote_262_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">609. <span class="smcap">Organization of Schools on the Mutual Plan.</span>—Bell -defined mutual instruction as “the method by means -of which a whole school may instruct itself, under the supervision -of one single master.”</p> - -<p>Here is the picture of a mutual school, as described by -Gréard:—</p> - -<p>“That was a striking spectacle at the first glance,—those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_517" id="Page_517">[517]</a></span> -long and vast structures which contained a whole school, -such as the older generations of our teachers recollect still to -have seen at the Halle aux Draps. In the middle of the -room, throughout its entire length, were rows of tables having -from five to twenty places each, having at one end, at -the right, the desk of the monitor, and the board having -models of writing, itself surmounted by a standard or telegraph -which served to secure, by means of directions easy to -read, regularity of movements; at the side of the room, and -all along the walls, there were rows of semi-circles, about -which were arranged groups of children; on the walls, on a -line with the eye, there was a blackboard on which were -performed the exercises in computation, and from which -were suspended the charts for reading and grammar; right -at his side, within reach of his hand, was the stick with -which the teacher was provided for conducting the lesson; -finally, at the lower part of the room, on a wide and high -platform, accessible by steps and surrounded by a balustrade, -was the chair of the master, who, employing in succession, -according to fixed rules, voice, <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bâton</i>, or whistle, -surveyed the tables and groups, distributing commendation or -reproof, and directing, in a word, like a captain on the deck -of his vessel, the whole machinery of instruction.”</p> - -<p>In respect of systematic movements and exterior order, -nothing is more charming than the appearance of a school -conducted on the mutual plan. It remains to inquire what -were the educational results of the system, and whether the -fashion which brought it into favor was justified by real -advantages.</p> - - -<p class="p1">610. <span class="smcap">Vices of Mutual Instruction.</span>—The monitor was -the mainspring of the mutual method. But what was the -monitor? A child, more intelligent, doubtless, than his com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_518" id="Page_518">[518]</a></span>rades, -but too little instructed to be equal to his task. The -mutual school did not open till ten o’clock. From eight to -ten there was a class for the monitors. There they learned -in haste what they were, for the rest of the day, to teach to -the other children. The purpose of the master being to form -good instruments as quickly as possible, they were fitted up -for their trade by the most expeditious methods.</p> - -<p>“What sort of teachers could such a preparation produce? -To teach is to learn twice, it has been truly said; but on -the condition of having reflected on that which has been -learned and upon that which is to be taught. To convey light -into the intelligence of another, it is first necessary to have -produced the light within one’s self, a thing which supposes -the enlightened, penetrating, and persevering action of a -mind relatively mature and trained. From the class where -they have just been sitting as pupils, the monitors—masters -improvised as by the wave of a wand,—passed to -the classes of children whom they were to indoctrinate” -(Gréard).</p> - -<p>The instruction, consequently, became purely mechanical. -The monitor faithfully repeated what he had been taught. -Everything was reduced to mechanical processes.</p> - -<p>Let us observe, besides, that from the moral point of -view, the mutual system left much to be desired. The monitors, -we are told, did not escape the intoxications of -pride. Even in the family they became petty tyrants. -Parents complained of their dictatorial habits and their tone -of authority.</p> - -<p>However it may be, mutual instruction has rendered -undeniable services, thanks to the zeal of such teachers as -Mademoiselle Sauvan and Monsieur Sarazin; but its reputation -went on diminishing in proportion as the State became<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_519" id="Page_519">[519]</a></span> -more and more disposed to make sacrifices, and as it was -possible to multiply the services of teachers.<a name="FNanchor_263_263" id="FNanchor_263_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_263_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">611. <span class="smcap">The State of Primary Instruction.</span>—Under the -title, <cite>Exhibit of Primary Instruction in France</cite>, a member of -the University, P. Lorain, published in 1837 a <em>résumé</em> of the -inquiry, which, by the orders of Guizot, had been made in -1833 throughout the whole extent of France, by the labors -of more than 400 inspectors. Here are some of the sad -results of this inquiry: all the teachers did not know how to -write; a large number employed the mechanism of the three -fundamental rules without being able to give any theoretical -reason for these operations. “The ignorance was general.”</p> - -<p>As under the old régime, the teacher practiced all the -trades; he was day-laborer, shoemaker, innkeeper.</p> - -<p>“He had his wife supply his place while he went hunting -in the fields.”</p> - -<p>The functions of the teacher, poorly rewarded, exposed to -the risk of a very slender tuition, enjoyed no consideration.</p> - -<p>“The teacher was often regarded in the community on -the same footing as a mendicant, and between the herdsman -and himself, the preference was for the herdsman.”</p> - -<p>Consequently, the situation of school-master was the most -often sought after by men who were infirm, crippled, unfit -for any other kind of work.</p> - -<p>“From the teacher without arms, to the epileptic, how -many infirmities to pass through!”</p> - - -<p class="p1">612. <span class="smcap">Guizot and the Law of June 28, 1833.</span>—Primary -instruction, so often decreed by the Revolution, was not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_520" id="Page_520">[520]</a></span> -really organized in France till by the law of June 28, 1833, -the honor of which is due in particular to Guizot, then minister -of public instruction.<a name="FNanchor_264_264" id="FNanchor_264_264"></a><a href="#Footnote_264_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a></p> - -<p>Primary instruction was divided into two grades,—elementary -and higher. Henceforth there was to be a school for -each commune, or at least for each group of two or three -communes. The State reserved the right of appointing -teachers, and of determining their salary, which, it is true, -in certain places, did not exceed two hundred francs. Poor -children were to be received without pay.</p> - - -<p class="p1">613. <span class="smcap">Higher Primary Schools.</span>—One of the most praiseworthy -purposes of the legislator of 1833 was the establishment -of higher primary instruction.</p> - -<p>“<em>Higher</em> primary instruction,” he said, “necessarily includes, -in addition to all the branches of elementary primary -instruction, the elements of geometry, and its common applications, -especially linear drawing and surveying, information -on the physical sciences and natural history, applicable to -the uses of life, singing, the elements of history and geography, -and particularly of the history and geography of -France. According to the needs and the resources of localities, -the instruction shall receive such developments as shall -be deemed proper.”</p> - -<p>A higher primary school was to be established in the chief -towns of the department and in all the communes which had -a population of more than six thousand souls. The law was -executed in part. In 1841, one hundred and sixty-one -schools were founded. But little by little, the indifference -of the government, and, above all, the vanity of parents who -preferred for their children worthless Latin studies to a good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_521" id="Page_521">[521]</a></span> -and thorough primary instruction, discouraged these first -efforts.</p> - -<p>The legislator of 1833 had good reason for thinking that a -good vest was worth more than a poor coat. His mistake -was in thinking that people would be persuaded to abandon -the coat in order to take the vest.<a name="FNanchor_265_265" id="FNanchor_265_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_265_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a> The higher schools were -almost everywhere annexed to the colleges of secondary instruction. -To suppress their independence and their own -distinctive features was to destroy them. The final blow -was given them by the law of 1850, which abstained from -pronouncing their name, and which condemned them by its -silence.</p> - - -<p class="p1">614. <span class="smcap">Circular of Guizot.</span>—In transmitting to teachers -the law of June 28, 1833, Guizot had it followed by a celebrated -circular, which eloquently stated the proper office of -the teacher, his duties and his rights. Here are some passages -from it:</p> - -<p>“Do not make a mistake here, Sir. While the career of -primary instruction may be without renown, its duties interest -the whole of society, and it is an occupation which shares -the importance attached to public functions.... Universal -primary instruction is henceforth to be one of the guarantees -of order and social stability.”</p> - -<p>The circular next examines the material advantages which -the new law assured to teachers, and it continues thus:—</p> - -<p>“However, Sir, as I well know, the foresight of the law -and the resources at the disposal of public authority, will -never succeed in rendering the humble profession of a communal -teacher as attractive as it is useful. Society could -not reward him who devotes himself to this service for all -that he does for it. There is no fortune to gain; there is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_522" id="Page_522">[522]</a></span> -scarcely any reputation to acquire in the difficult duties which -he performs. Destined to see his life spent in a monotonous -occupation, sometimes even to encounter about him the injustice -and the ingratitude of ignorance, he would often grow -disheartened, and would perhaps succumb did he not draw -his strength and his courage from other sources than from -the prospect of an interest immediate and purely personal. -It is necessary that a profound sense of the moral importance -of his work sustain and animate him, and that the austere -pleasure of having served men and secretly contributed to the -public good, become the noble reward which his conscience -alone can give. It is his glory to aim at nothing beyond his -obscure and laborious condition, to spend himself in sacrifices -scarcely counted by those who profit by them, and, in -a word, to work for men and to look for his reward only -from God.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">615. <span class="smcap">Progress of Popular Instruction.</span>—It would be -an interesting history to relate in detail the progress of popular -education in France from the law of 1833 to our day. -The public bills of the Republic of 1848, the liberal propositions -of Carnot and of Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire, the recoil -of the law of March 15, 1850, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">statu quo</i> of the first years -of the Second Empire, then towards the end the praiseworthy -efforts and tentatives of Duruy, and, finally, under the Third -Republic, the definite and triumphant organization,—all -this is sufficiently known and too recent to justify us in -dwelling on it here.</p> - -<p>For successfully introducing anew into the laws the principles -of gratuity, obligation, and secularization, as proclaimed -by the French Revolution, not less than a century was necessary. -And in particular, the better spirits allowed themselves -to be convinced of the need of obligatory instruction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_523" id="Page_523">[523]</a></span> -only by slow degrees. However, in 1833, Cousin, who reported -the law of Guizot to the Chamber of Peers, expressed -himself as follows:—</p> - -<p>“A law which should make of primary instruction a legal -obligation seems to me to be no more above the powers of -the legislator than the law on the national guard, and that -which you have just made on a forced appropriation for the -public good. If reasons of public utility justify the legislator -in appropriating private property, why do not reasons of -a much higher utility justify him in doing less,—in requiring -that children receive the instruction indispensable to every -human creature, to the end that he may not become dangerous -to himself or to society as a whole?”</p> - -<p>Cousin added that the commission of which he was the -chairman would not have receded from measures wisely combined -to make instruction obligatory, had it not been afraid -of provoking difficulties, and, in this way, of postponing a -law that was awaited with impatience. The evident necessity -of instructing the people, the interests of society, the -interests of families and individuals,—all these considerations -have insensibly overcome the scruples or the illusions -of a false liberality, and it is no longer necessary, to-day, to -repeat the eloquent pleas of Carnot in his bill of 1848, of -Duruy, and of Jules Simon.</p> - -<p>In 1873 Guizot expressed himself as follows:—</p> - -<p>“The liberty of conscience and that of families are facts -and rights which, in this question, ought to be scrupulously respected -and guaranteed; but, under the condition of this -respect and of these guarantees, it may happen that the state -of society and the state of minds may render legal obligation, -in respect of primary instruction, legitimate, salutary, and necessary. -<em>This is the condition of things to-day.</em> The movement -in favor of obligatory instruction is sincere, serious, national.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_524" id="Page_524">[524]</a></span> -Powerful examples authorize and encourage it. In Germany, -in Switzerland, in Denmark, in most of the American States, -primary instruction has this character, and civilization has -reaped excellent fruits from it. France and its government -have reason to welcome this principle.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">616. <span class="smcap">Programmes of Primary Instruction.</span>—At the -same time that primary instruction made progress by its ever-growing -extension, and by the participation in it of a greater -number of individuals, its programmes were also extended, -and it is interesting to compare in this respect the different -laws which have regulated the matter of instruction in our -century.</p> - -<p>The law of 1833 said: “Elementary primary instruction -necessarily comprises moral and religious instruction, reading, -writing, the elements of the French language and of computation, -the legal system of weights and measures.”</p> - -<p>The bill presented, June 30, 1848, by Carnot, minister of -public instruction, expresses itself thus:—</p> - -<p>“Primary instruction comprises: 1. reading, writing, the -elements of the French language, the elements of computation, -the metric system, the measure of distances, elementary -notions of the phenomena of nature, and the principal facts -of agriculture and of industry, linear drawing, singing, -elementary notions on the history and geography of France; -2. a knowledge of the duties and the rights of man and -citizen, the development of the sentiments of liberty, equality, -and fraternity; 3. the elementary rules of hygiene, and useful -exercises in physical development.”</p> - -<p>“The religious instruction is given by the ministers of the -different communions.”</p> - -<p>According to the bill of Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire (April -10, 1849), elementary instruction for boys, necessarily com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_525" id="Page_525">[525]</a></span>prised -“moral, religious, and civic instruction, reading, -writing, the elements of the French language, the elements -of computation, the legal system of weights and measures, -linear drawing, elementary notions of agriculture and of -hygiene, singing and gymnastic exercises.</p> - -<p>“According to the needs and resources of localities, elementary -primary instruction shall receive the developments -which shall be thought proper, and shall comprise, in particular, -notions on the history and geography of France.”</p> - -<p>Finally, the law of March 15, 1850, is worded thus:—</p> - -<p>“Art. 23. Primary instruction comprises moral and religious -instruction, reading, writing, the elements of the French -language, computation, and the legal system of weights and -measures. It may comprise in addition, arithmetic applied -to practical operations, the elements of history and geography, -notions of the physical sciences and of natural history -applicable to the ordinary purposes of life, elementary instruction -on agriculture, trade, and hygiene, surveying, leveling, -linear drawing, singing and gymnastics.”</p> - -<p>Progress has especially consisted, since 1850, in rendering -obligatory that which was simply optional. History, for -example, did not become a subject of instruction till 1867.</p> - - -<p class="p1">617. <span class="smcap">The Theorists of Education.</span>—Along with the -progress of primary instruction, the historian of the pedagogy -of the nineteenth century would have also to follow the -development of secondary instruction and of superior instruction. -He would have to write the history of the University, -reforming the methods of its lycées and its colleges, and -ever enlarging in a noble spirit of liberty the studies of its -faculties. But we should depart from the limits of our plan, -were we to undertake this order of inquiries, and were we to -enter into details which pertain to contemporary history.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_526" id="Page_526">[526]</a></span></p> - -<p>That which should engage our attention is the theoretical -reflections of the different thinkers who, in our century, have -discussed the principles and the laws of education, of those -at least who have become celebrated for their novel views.</p> - - -<p class="p1">618. <span class="smcap">Jacotot (1770-1840).</span>—Jacotot, who has maintained -scarcely any celebrity in France except for the singularity of -his paradoxes, is perhaps of all French educators of the -nineteenth century the one who has received most attention -abroad, particularly in Germany. “Jacotot,” says Doctor -Dittes, “has incited a lasting improvement in the public instruction -of Germany. The reform which he introduced into -the teaching of reading is important. He started with an -entire sentence, which was pronounced, explained, and learned -by heart by the children, and afterward analyzed into its -constituent parts.”<a name="FNanchor_266_266" id="FNanchor_266_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_266_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a> On the other hand, a French critic, -Bernard Perez, has drawn the following portrait of Jacotot:—</p> - -<p>“He was the best and the most lovable of men. He had -the firmness, patience, honesty, and candor of superior minds, -an inexhaustible goodness and a universal charity which -make him close all his letters with this formula, ‘I especially -commend to you the poor.’ This ardent philanthropy, -as well as his enthusiasm and his zeal for instruction, pervades -even his writings, though full of inequalities and -verbal eccentricities.”<a name="FNanchor_267_267" id="FNanchor_267_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_267_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">619. <span class="smcap">Paradoxes of Jacotot.</span>—In his principal work, -<cite>Universal Instruction</cite>,<a name="FNanchor_268_268" id="FNanchor_268_268"></a><a href="#Footnote_268_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a> Jacotot has set forth his principles, -which are so many paradoxes, “All intelligences are equal”; -“Every man can teach, and even teach that which he himself<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_527" id="Page_527">[527]</a></span> -does not know”; “One can instruct himself all alone”; -“All is in all.”</p> - -<p>Doubtless at the basis of Jacotot’s paradoxes there is an -element of truth; for example, the very just idea that the -best teaching is that which encourages young minds to think -for themselves. Doubtless also he qualified the exaggeration -of his statement when he said that the inequality of -wills at once destroys the equality of intelligences. But the -violent and unreasonable form which he gave to his ideas -has compromised them in public opinion. That which is -true and fruitful in his system has been forgotten, and we -recall only the whimsical formulas in which he delighted.</p> - - -<p class="p1">620. <span class="smcap">All is in All.</span>—The most famous of Jacotot’s -paradoxes is the formula, “All is in all.” The whole of -Latin is in a page of Latin; the whole of music is in a piece -of music; the whole of arithmetic, in a rule of computation.</p> - -<p>In practice, Jacotot made his pupils learn the first six -books of the <cite>Telemachus</cite>. Upon this text, once learned, -and recited twice a week, there were constructed all sorts of -exercises, and these sufficed for the complete knowledge of -the French language. In the same way the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Epitome Historiæ -Sacræ</cite>, put in the hands of pupils, and learned in -two months, was almost the sole instrument for the study of -Latin. In fact, and aside from evident exaggerations, -Jacotot rightly thought that it is necessary, as he said, “to -learn something well, and to connect with this all the rest.”</p> - - - <div><a name="Para_621" id="Para_621"></a></div> -<p class="p1">621. <span class="smcap">The Followers of Saint Simon and of Fourier.</span>—There -is little of practical value to be gathered from the writings -of the celebrated utopists, who, at the opening of this -century, became known by their plans of social organization. -It is the chimerical which characterizes their systems. Cabet -demanded among other absurdities that all ancient books be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_528" id="Page_528">[528]</a></span> -burned, and that no new books be written except by command -of the State. Besides, he would have the school-code -established by the children themselves.<a name="FNanchor_269_269" id="FNanchor_269_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_269_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a></p> - -<p><ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'Victor Consedérant'">Victor Considerant</ins> suppressed, not books, but discipline -and authority. “The child,” he said, “shall no longer be -disobedient, because he shall no longer be commanded.”<a name="FNanchor_270_270" id="FNanchor_270_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_270_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a></p> - -<p>Saint Simon, in 1816, communicated to the <cite>Society for -Elementary Instruction</cite>, a brief essay which gave proof of his -interest in education. For him and his disciples, education -is “the aggregate of efforts to be employed in order to adapt -each new generation to the social order to which it is called -by the march of humanity.” This was to mark the contrast -between modern tendencies which aspire above all else to an -earthly and a social end, with ancient tendencies which were -subservient to supernatural ideas. Æsthetic sentiments, -scientific methods, industrial activity,—such is the triple -development which special and professional education should -consider. But above this the Saint-Simonians place moral -education, too much neglected, as they think, which should -consist particularly in developing in the young the sympathetic -and affectionate faculties. The Saint-Simonians placed -but little dependence on science and abstract principles for -assuring among men the reign of morality. Sentiment, in -their view, is the true moral principle, and education, consequently, -ought to be essentially the education of the heart.</p> - - -<p class="p1">622. <span class="smcap">Fourier (1772-1837).</span>—Fourier, like Saint Simon, -had educational pretensions. There is nothing more curious -than his treatise on <cite>Natural Education</cite>. In it there is only -here and there a flash of good sense mingled with a multitude -of grotesque fancies.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_529" id="Page_529">[529]</a></span></p> - -<p>Fourier renews the utopias of Plato, and confides infants -to public nurses. He is more reasonable when, in spite of -his declamations on the excellence of nature, he is really -willing to recognize in children a diversity of characters, and -divides “the nurslings and the babies” into three classes,—“the -benign, the malign, and the devilkins.”</p> - -<p>We must also commend Fourier for his efforts to encourage -industrial activity. There is perhaps a valuable hint in -those walks which he recommends children to take through -manufactories and shops, so that at the sight of such or such -a tool, their particular vocation may be suggested to them!</p> - -<p>The instincts of the child are sacred in the eyes of Fourier, -even the worst, their inclination to destroy, for example, or -their contempt for the rights of property. Far from opposing -them, he turns them to account and utilizes them, by -employing destructive and slovenly children in occupations -in accord with their tastes; for example, in the pursuit of -reptiles, and in the cleansing of sewers.</p> - -<p>But it is useless to enter into longer details. The education -of the Fourierites is neither a discipline nor a rule of life; it is -simply a system of complaisant adherence, and even of ardent -provocation, to the instincts which the child inherits from -nature. It is no longer a question either of directing or of -training; it is simply necessary to emancipate and to excite.</p> - - -<p class="p1">623. <span class="smcap">Auguste Comte (1798-1857) and the Positivists.</span>—The -positivist school, and its illustrious founder, Auguste -Comte, could not omit, in their encyclopædic works, a question -so important as that of education. The author of the -<cite>Course in Positive Philosophy</cite> had even announced a special -treatise on pedagogy, “a great subject,” he said, “which -has not yet been undertaken in a manner sufficiently systematic.”<a name="FNanchor_271_271" id="FNanchor_271_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_271_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> -The promise was not kept, but from different passages<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_530" id="Page_530">[530]</a></span> -in the writings of Auguste Comte it is possible to reconstruct, -in its principal features, the education which would -be derived from his system.</p> - -<p>Comte took for his guide the natural and specific evolution -of humanity.</p> - -<p>“Individual education can be adequately estimated only -according to its necessary conformity with collective evolution.”</p> - -<p>As positivism represents, in the view of Comte, the supreme -degree of the evolution of humanity, the new education -ought to be <em>positive</em>.</p> - -<p>“Right-minded men universally recognize the necessity of -replacing our European education, a system essentially theological, -metaphysical, and literary, by a <em>positive</em> education, -conformed to the spirit of our epoch, and adapted to the -needs of modern civilization.”</p> - -<p>The teaching of science, then, shall be the basis of education; -but this teaching will bear its fruits only on one condition, -and this is, that at last we renounce “the exclusive -specialty, the too pronounced isolation, which still characterizes -our manner of conceiving and cultivating the sciences.” -The precise purpose of the <cite>Course in Positive Philosophy</cite> was -to remedy the deleterious influence of a too great specialization -of research, by establishing the relations and the hierarchy -of the sciences. Comte made of mathematics the -point of departure in scientific instruction. This was the -very reverse of the modern tendency, which consists in beginning -with the concrete and physical studies.</p> - -<p>Auguste Comte, in his project for social reform, demanded -universal instruction, and he bitterly complains of the indifference -of the ruling classes for the instruction of the poor.</p> - -<p>“Nothing is more profoundly characteristic of the existing -anarchy than the shameful indifference with which the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_531" id="Page_531">[531]</a></span> -higher classes of to-day habitually regard the total absence -of popular education, the exaggerated prolongation of which, -however, threatens to exert on their approaching destiny a -frightful reaction.”</p> - -<p>Comte does not go so far, however, as to dream of an -identical education for all men, an integral education, as it -has been called. He admits degrees in instruction, “which,” -he says, “will allow varieties of extension in a system constantly -similar and identical.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">624. <span class="smcap">Dupanloup (1803-1878).</span>—Of all the ecclesiastical -writers of our century, he who has the most ardently studied -the problems of education is certainly Bishop Dupanloup. -Important works give proof of the educational zeal of the -eloquent prelate. But they were composed with more spirit -than wisdom, and they betray the zeal of the Christian -apologist more than the inspiration of an impartial love for -the truth. Extravagances of language and exaggerations -of thought too often prevent the reader from feeling, as he -ought, the moral and religious inspiration out of which proceeded -those books of ardent and profound faith, but of faith -more than of charity. Notwithstanding their length and -their vast proportions, these books are pamphlets, works of -combat. One should be on his guard against taking them -for scientific treatises. Serenity is lacking in them, and from -the very first, we feel ourselves enveloped in an atmosphere -of trouble and storm.</p> - - -<p class="p1">625. <span class="smcap">Analysis of the Treatise on Education.</span>—However, -the three volumes of the <cite>Education</cite> will be read with -profit. The first volume treats of education in general, and -contains three books. In the first book the author determines -the character of education, which has for its purpose to <em>cultivate</em> -the faculties, to <em>exercise</em> them, to <em>develop</em> them, to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_532" id="Page_532">[532]</a></span> -<em>strengthen</em> them, and, finally, to <em>polish</em> them. In the following -books the author studies the nature of the child, of whom he -sometimes speaks with a touching tenderness; and examines -the means of education, which are “religion, instruction, -discipline, and physical culture.” Discipline consists in supporting, -preventing, and repressing. Discipline is to education -“that which the bark is to the tree which it surrounds. -It is the bark which holds the sap, and forces it to ascend to -the heart of the tree.”</p> - -<p>The general title of the second volume is, <cite>On Authority -and Respect in Education</cite>. Authority and respect, in the -eyes of the author, are the two fundamental things. From -this point of view, he studies what he calls the <em>personnel</em> of -education; that is, God, the parents, the teacher, the child, -and the schoolmate.</p> - -<p>The third volume, entitled <cite>Educational Men</cite>, treats of the -qualities befitting the head master of an educational establishment, -and of his different colleagues.<a name="FNanchor_272_272" id="FNanchor_272_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_272_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">626. <span class="smcap">Errors and Prejudices.</span>—Although he wrote a -beautiful chapter entitled, <cite>Of the Respect due the Dignity of -the Child and the Liberty of his Nature</cite>, Dupanloup is still -more struck with the faults than with the virtues of childhood. -He shudders in thinking of his thoughtlessness, of -his curiosity, of his sensuality, and especially of his pride. -So he distrusts commendation and rewards.</p> - -<p>“In praising your pupils,” he says to the teacher, “do you -not fear to excite their pride? The pride of scholars is a -terrible evil; it begins in the ‘third,’ develops in the ‘second,’ -blossoms in ‘rhetoric,’ and becomes established in -‘philosophy.’”<a name="FNanchor_273_273" id="FNanchor_273_273"></a><a href="#Footnote_273_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_533" id="Page_533">[533]</a></span></p> - -<p>To this mistrust of human nature is joined a singular -pessimism with respect to the functions of the teacher.</p> - -<p>“There is found,” he says, “in this service, grave -troubles. Sometimes, if we are worthy of this service, if we -sacrifice ourselves to it, we can find consolations in it, but -pleasure, never!”</p> - -<p>The verdict is severe and absolute, but it recoils in part on -him who pronounces it. How not mistrust an educator who -declares that there is no sweetness mingled with the fatigues -of teaching, and who condemns the teachers of youth to a -life of complete sacrifice and bitterness?</p> - -<p>The greatest fault in the educational spirit of Dupanloup -is that he does not cross the narrow limits of an education in -small seminaries. Dupanloup wrote only for the middle -classes. He had no interest in popular education; he does -not love the lay teacher; he detests the University. Finally, -he is the man who inspired the law of May 15, 1850.</p> - - -<p class="p1">627. <span class="smcap">The Spiritualistic School and University Men.</span>—The -philosophers of the French spiritualistic school have -not in general paid great attention to the theory of education. -The most illustrious of them, Cousin (1792-1868), at the -same time that he aided in organizing University instruction, -carefully studied educational institutions abroad, especially -in his two works, <cite>Public Instruction in Holland</cite> (1837), and -<cite>Public Instruction in Germany</cite> (1840). The works of Jules -Simon have the same practical character, but with a marked -tendency to treat by preference the questions of primary -instruction. The <cite>School</cite> (1864) is a manifesto in favor of -gratuity and obligation.</p> - -<p>The University men, on their part, have, in this century, -acted rather than speculated. They have been intent rather -on making good pupils than on composing theories. There<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_534" id="Page_534">[534]</a></span> -would, however, be valuable truths to cull from the works of -Cournot,<a name="FNanchor_274_274" id="FNanchor_274_274"></a><a href="#Footnote_274_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a> of Bersot,<a name="FNanchor_275_275" id="FNanchor_275_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_275_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a> and especially of Michel Bréal.<a name="FNanchor_276_276" id="FNanchor_276_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_276_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a></p> - - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>[628. <span class="smcap">Analytical Summary.</span>—1. One of the main characteristics -of the educational thought of this century is doubtless -the effort to deduce the rules of practice from certain first -principles. The principles of instruction are to be found, for -the most part, in the science of psychology, and the principles -of education, in part, in social science and even in jurisprudence.</p> - -<p>2. The purpose of Napoleon to secure the perpetuity of his -dynasty through the influence of his Imperial University, is -a striking proof of the belief in the potency of ideas, and of -the belief in the potency of popular instruction as a means -of national strength.</p> - -<p>3. The history of mutual instruction exhibits three important -facts: 1. the effect of agitation in arousing public interest -in educational questions; 2. the manner in which peculiar -circumstances suggest an expedient which can be justified on -no absolute grounds; 3. the danger of converting such an -expedient into a “system” for universal adoption.</p> - -<p>4. Comenius, Pestalozzi, and Jacotot, attempted to make -instruction universal by simplifying its processes to such a -degree that every mother might be a teacher and every household -a school.</p> - -<p>5. In Comte we see the re-appearance of Condillac’s doctrine, -that the historic education of the race is the type of -individual education. The same hypothesis will re-appear in -Mr. Spencer’s <cite>Education</cite>.]</p></div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_255_255" id="Footnote_255_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_255_255"><span class="label">[255]</span></a> Fourcroy (1755-1809), a celebrated chemist, was director-general of -public instruction in 1801. He prepared, in the following years, the decrees -relative to the establishment of the University.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_256_256" id="Footnote_256_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_256_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a> Fontanes (1757-1821), first Grand Master of the University.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_257_257" id="Footnote_257_257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_257_257"><span class="label">[257]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mémoire politique</cite> of Joseph de Maistre, Paris, 1858, p. 30.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_258_258" id="Footnote_258_258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_258_258"><span class="label">[258]</span></a> The Abbé Gaultier (1746-1818), author of a large number of works on -elementary instruction, and almost a reformer in his way. He employed -<em>teaching by sight</em>, and recommended varied exercises, such as games where -he introduced <em>counters</em>, tickets, interrogations in the form of <em>lotteries</em>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_259_259" id="Footnote_259_259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_259_259"><span class="label">[259]</span></a> See Gréard, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’enseignement primaire à Paris de 1867 à 1877</cite>. A memoir -published in 1877, pp. 75-90. See also an interesting study full of personal -recollections of E. Deschamps, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’enseignement mutual</cite>. Toulouse, 1883.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_260_260" id="Footnote_260_260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_260_260"><span class="label">[260]</span></a> Jomard (1777-1862), member of the Society for Elementary Instruction, -author of <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Tableaux des écoles élémentaires</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_261_261" id="Footnote_261_261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_261_261"><span class="label">[261]</span></a> The Comte de Laborde (1771-1842), author of a <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">plan d’éducation pour -les enfants</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_262_262" id="Footnote_262_262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_262_262"><span class="label">[262]</span></a> Among the other propagators of mutual instruction, mention should be -made of the Abbé Gaultier, Larochefoucauld-Liancourt, De Lasteyrie, etc.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_263_263" id="Footnote_263_263"></a><a href="#FNanchor_263_263"><span class="label">[263]</span></a> Two noted attempts to extend and popularize the monitorial system -are exhibited in the following works: Pillans, <cite>The Rationale of Discipline</cite> -(Edinburgh, 1852); Bentham, <cite>Chrestomathia</cite> (London, 1816).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_264_264" id="Footnote_264_264"></a><a href="#FNanchor_264_264"><span class="label">[264]</span></a> It is at the same period, in 1832, that Gérando published his <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Cours -normal des instituteurs</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_265_265" id="Footnote_265_265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_265_265"><span class="label">[265]</span></a> Cournot, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Des institutions d’instruction publique</cite>, p. 315.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_266_266" id="Footnote_266_266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_266_266"><span class="label">[266]</span></a> Dittes, <em>op. cit.</em> p. 272.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_267_267" id="Footnote_267_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a> See <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Jacotot et sa méthode d’émancipation intellectuelle</cite>, by Bernard -Perez. Paris, 1883.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_268_268" id="Footnote_268_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_268_268"><span class="label">[268]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Enseignement universel.</cite> Paris, 1823.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_269_269" id="Footnote_269_269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_269_269"><span class="label">[269]</span></a> Cabet, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Voyage en Icarie</cite>. Paris, 1842.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_270_270" id="Footnote_270_270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_270_270"><span class="label">[270]</span></a> -<ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'Consedérant'">Considerant</ins>, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Théorie d’éducation rationnelle et attrayante du dix-neuvième -siècle</cite>. Paris, 1844.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_271_271" id="Footnote_271_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_271_271"><span class="label">[271]</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Cours de philosophie positive</cite>, second edition, 1864. Vol. VI. p. 771.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_272_272" id="Footnote_272_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_272_272"><span class="label">[272]</span></a> The principal educational works of Dupanloup are <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Éducation</cite>, 1851, -three volumes; <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De la haute éducation intellectuelle</cite>, 1855, three volumes; -<cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Lettres sur l’éducation des filles</cite>, 1879, one volume.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_273_273" id="Footnote_273_273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_273_273"><span class="label">[273]</span></a> See <a href="#Footnote_103_103">note to page 131.</a></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_274_274" id="Footnote_274_274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_274_274"><span class="label">[274]</span></a> Cournot published in 1864 a remarkable book under this title: <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Des institutions -d’instruction publique</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_275_275" id="Footnote_275_275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_275_275"><span class="label">[275]</span></a> See the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Essais de philosophie et de morale</cite>, by E. Bersot, and also <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Études -et discours</cite> (1879).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_276_276" id="Footnote_276_276"></a><a href="#FNanchor_276_276"><span class="label">[276]</span></a> See especially the well-known book of Bréal, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Quelques mots sur l’instruction -publique en France</cite>.</p> -</div></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_535" id="Page_535">[535]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">CHAPTER XXII.</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="fs70">THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION.—HERBERT SPENCER -AND ALEXANDER BAIN.</span></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION; THE GERMAN PHILOSOPHERS; THE ENGLISH -PHILOSOPHERS; HERBERT SPENCER’S EDUCATION; PLAN OF -THE WORK; DEFINITION OF EDUCATION; HUMAN DESTINY; UTILITARIAN -TENDENCIES; DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF ACTIVITIES; -CRITICISM OF MR. SPENCER’S CLASSIFICATION; EFFECTS ON -EDUCATION; SCIENCE IS THE BASIS OF EDUCATION; SCIENCE FOR -HEALTH AND INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITY; SCIENCE FOR FAMILY LIFE; -SCIENCE FOR ÆSTHETIC ACTIVITY; EXAGGERATIONS AND PREJUDICES; -INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION; LAWS OF MENTAL EVOLUTION; -PERSONAL EDUCATION; MORAL EDUCATION; SYSTEM OF -NATURAL PUNISHMENTS; DIFFICULTIES IN APPLICATION; RETURN -TO NATURE; PHYSICAL EDUCATION; GENERAL JUDGMENT; MR. -BAIN AND THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION; GENERAL IMPRESSIONS; -DIVISIONS OF THE BOOK; PSYCHOLOGICAL ORDER AND LOGICAL -ORDER; MODERN EDUCATION; ERRORS IN THEORY; UTILITARIAN -TENDENCIES; FINAL JUDGMENT; AMERICAN EDUCATORS; CHANNING; -HORACE MANN; CONCLUSION; ANALYTICAL SUMMARY.</p></div> - -<hr class="r15a" /> - -<p class="p1">629. <span class="smcap">The Science of Education.</span>—To-day, thanks to -important works, the science of education is no longer an -empty term, an object of vague aspirations for philosophers, -of easy ridicule for wits. Doubtless it is far from being -definitely established; but it no longer conceals its name -and its pretensions; it defines its purpose and its methods; -and manifests its youthful vitality in all directions.</p> - -<p>Up to the present period, philosophers had scarcely thought -of organizing pedagogy, of constructing it on a rational<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_536" id="Page_536">[536]</a></span> -basis. On the other hand, the practice of education is still -less advanced than the conceptions of philosophers. Here -we the more often follow a thoughtless routine, or the vague -inspirations of instinct. The methods in use are not co-ordinated. -They present a curious mixture of old traditions -and modern surcharges. It is this lack of definiteness, of -co-ordination of ideas, and the spectacle of these contradictions, -which caused Richter<a name="FNanchor_277_277" id="FNanchor_277_277"></a><a href="#Footnote_277_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a> to say: “The education of the -day resembles the Harlequin of the Italian comedy who comes -on the stage with a bundle of papers under each arm. -‘What do you carry under your right arm?’ he is asked. -‘Orders,’ he replies. ‘And under your left arm?’ ‘Counter-orders!’”</p> - -<p>Quite a number of the philosophers of the nineteenth century -have attempted to remedy this incoherence, and, by -appealing to the scientific spirit, to regulate educational -processes that have fallen into excesses of empiricism or of -routine. It is these attempts which we are summarily to -recite.</p> - - -<p class="p1">630. <span class="smcap">The German Philosophers.</span>—Since Kant, and by -his example, the most of German philosophers have associated -the theory of education with their speculations on -human nature.</p> - -<p>Fichte (1762-1814), in his <cite>Discourse to the German Nation</cite>, -proclaimed the necessity of a national education to -secure the regeneration of his country and its restoration to -its former standing. The advocate of a public and common -education, because he would fight against the selfishness -which family life encourages, he contributed by his eloquent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_537" id="Page_537">[537]</a></span> -appeals to restore the intellectual and moral grandeur, and -consequently, the material grandeur, of Germany.</p> - -<p>Schleiermacher (1768-1834) wrote a <cite>Doctrine of Education</cite>, -which was not published till 1849. In this he develops, -among other ideas, this proposition, that religious education -does not belong to the school, but that it is the affair of the -family and the Church.</p> - -<p>Herbart (1776-1841) has composed a series of pedagogical -writings which assign him a special place in the list of -educational philosophers. Let us call attention, in particular, -to his <cite>General Pedagogy</cite> (1806), and the <cite>Outline of my Lessons -on Pedagogy</cite> (1840). That which distinguishes Herbart -is his attempt to reduce to a system all the rules of -pedagogy by giving them for a basis his own psychological -theory. He inaugurated a new method in psychology, which -does not seem, however, to have given the results that were -expected from it,—the mathematical method. For him, psychology -is only the mechanism of the mind, and by means of -mathematical formula calculation may be applied to measure -the force of ideas. The soul does not possess innate faculties; -it is developed progressively.</p> - -<p>But it would require long efforts to enter into the secrets -of Herbart’s original thought. Let it suffice to say, that -nurtured from an early period on the ideas of Pestalozzi, -whose friend he was, he has founded a real school of -pedagogy.</p> - -<p>Beneke (1798-1854) is the author of a <cite>Doctrine of Education -and Instruction</cite>, which is, in the opinion of Doctor -Dittes, a masterpiece of psychological pedagogy. Beneke -agrees with Herbart on a great number of points. His -pedagogical methods have been popularized by J. G. Dressler, -director of the normal school at Bauzen, who died in 1860.<a name="FNanchor_278_278" id="FNanchor_278_278"></a><a href="#Footnote_278_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_538" id="Page_538">[538]</a></span></p> - -<p>Charles Schmidt, who died in 1864, wrote a large number -of works on pedagogy, in which he is inspired by the phrenology -of Gall and his fantastical hypotheses. Doubtless -this inspiration is not happy, and the works of Schmidt are -more valuable for their details, for their special reflections, -than for their general doctrine. But from his undertaking -there issues at least this truth, that the science of education -should have for its basis, not only psychology, but physiology -also, the science of the whole man, body and mind.</p> - -<p>There is no country where pedagogy has received a more -philosophical and a higher development than in Germany. -Even the great poets, Lessing, Herder, Gœthe, and Schiller, -have contributed through certain grand ideas to the construction -of a science of education.</p> - - -<p class="p1">631. <span class="smcap">The English Philosophers.</span>—English philosophy, -with its experimental and practical character, and with its -positive and utilitarian tendencies, was naturally called to -exercise a great influence on pedagogy. There are more -truths to gather from the thinkers who, in different degrees, -have followed Locke and Bain, and who have preserved a -taste for prudent observation and careful experiments, than -from the German idealists, enamored of hypothesis and systematic -constructions.</p> - -<p>Without doubt this explains the considerable success which -the recent books of Herbert Spencer and Alexander Bain -have obtained even in France.</p> - - -<p class="p1">632. <span class="smcap">The Book of Herbert Spencer.</span>—If it were sufficient -to define with exactness the end to be attained, and to -discover the true method for constructing the science, Herbert -Spencer’s book on <cite>Education, Intellectual, Moral, and -Physical</cite>,<a name="FNanchor_279_279" id="FNanchor_279_279"></a><a href="#Footnote_279_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a> would be a satisfactory treatise; but it is one thing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_539" id="Page_539">[539]</a></span> -to comprehend that psychology is the only solid basis of a -complete and exact pedagogy, and another thing to determine -the real laws of psychology.</p> - -<p>“Education will not be definitely systematized,” says Mr. -Spencer, “till the day when science shall be in possession of -a rational psychology.”</p> - -<p>This day has not yet come, and Herbert Spencer, who is -the first to recognize the fact, modestly presents his work -only as an essay. But if it does not yet contain a perfect -and fully worked out theory of education, the essay of the -English philosopher is at least a vigorous effort, and a notable -step towards a rational pedagogy, towards the science of -education, which, as Virchow expresses it, “ought forever -to proscribe the gropings of an ignorant education whose -experiments are ever to be gone over anew.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">633. <span class="smcap">Plan of the Work.</span>—Every system of education -supposes at the same time an ethics,—I mean a certain conception -of life and of human destiny, and a psychology,—that -is, a knowledge more or less exact of our faculties and -of the laws which preside over their development. There are, -in fact, in education, two essential questions: 1. What are -the subjects of study and instruction, proper to create the -qualities, the aggregate of which constitutes the type of the -well-educated man? 2. By what methods shall we teach -the child rapidly and well that which it is proper for him to -learn? There are, in other terms, the question of end and -the question of means. Ethics is necessary to resolve the -first, and psychology, to illustrate the second.</p> - -<p>It is in accordance with this plan that Mr. Spencer has -arranged the different parts of his work. The first chapter, -entitled <cite>What Knowledge is of Most Worth?</cite> is in substance -but a series of reflections on the final purpose, on the differ<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_540" id="Page_540">[540]</a></span>ent -forms, of human activity, and, consequently, on the relative -importance, on the rank, which should be assigned to -the studies which go to compose a complete education.</p> - -<p>In the three other chapters, <cite>Intellectual</cite>, <cite>Moral</cite>, and <cite>Physical -Education</cite>, the author examines the methods which are -deemed the best for instructing the intelligence, perfecting -the moral character, and fortifying the body.</p> - - -<p class="p1">634. <span class="smcap">Definition of Education.</span>—Herbert Spencer begins -with a definition of education:—</p> - -<p>“Education,” he says, “is all that we do for ourselves, -and all that others do for us, for the purpose of bringing us -nearer the perfection of our nature.... The ideal of education -would be to furnish man with a complete preparation -for life as a whole.... Do not attempt to give an exclusive -development of one order of knowledge at the expense -of the rest, however important it may be. Let us distribute -our attention over the whole, and justly proportion our efforts -to their relative value.... In general, the object of education -ought to be to acquire as completely as possible the -knowledge that is best adapted to develop individual and -social life under all its aspects, and to do no more than -glance at the subjects which contribute the least to this -development.”<a name="FNanchor_280_280" id="FNanchor_280_280"></a><a href="#Footnote_280_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a></p> - -<p>This definition is wrong in being a little pretentious and -in not adapting itself to all the forms of education. It is -true, perhaps, if it is a question of the ideal to be attained in -a complete instruction, accessible to a few privileged men, -but it could not be applied to popular education. It soars -too high above human conditions and social realities.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_541" id="Page_541">[541]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="p1">635. <span class="smcap">Human Destiny.</span>—The conception of human destiny, -as Mr. Spencer outlines it in the opening of his book, has -very marked utilitarian tendencies. His first complaint -against the current education is that it sacrifices the useful -to the agreeable; that as matters now go, everything which -pertains to mental adornment and display has precedence -over the knowledge which might increase our well-being and -assure our happiness. As in the history of dress, with -savages for example, it is proved that the ornamental in -dress precedes the useful; so in instruction, ornamental -studies are preferred to useful studies. This is especially -the case with women, who have a decided preference for the -qualities of pure decoration.<a name="FNanchor_281_281" id="FNanchor_281_281"></a><a href="#Footnote_281_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a></p> - -<p>In his rather vigorous reaction against the luxuries which -in classical instruction would wrongly substitute themselves -for more necessary studies, Mr. Spencer goes so far as to -say:—</p> - -<p>“Just as the Orinoco Indian paints and tattooes himself, -so the child in this country learns Latin because it forms a -part of the education of a gentleman.”</p> - -<p>However, we do not construe this literally. Mr. Spencer -does not go so far as to suppress the disinterested studies -which are as much the more necessary as they seem to be -the more superfluous. He merely demands that instruction -be not reduced to a training in the trivial elegancies of a -dead language, or to a study of trifles in history, such as the -dates of battles, and the birth and death of princes.</p> - - -<p class="p1">636. <span class="smcap">Utilitarian Tendencies.</span>—Utility, that is, the influence -on happiness,—such is the true criterion by which are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_542" id="Page_542">[542]</a></span> -to be estimated, admitted or excluded, and finally classified, -the subjects proposed for the study of man as the elements -of his education. It is understood, however, that happiness -is to be considered in its widest and highest sense. Happiness -does not consist in the satisfaction of such or such a -privileged inclination. It consists in being all that it is -possible to be,—in complete living. To prepare us for a -complete life,—such is the function of education.</p> - - -<p class="p1">637. <span class="smcap">Different Categories of Activity.</span>—Complete life -supposes different kinds of activity, which ought to be subordinated -one to another according to their importance and -dignity. The following statement shows how Mr. Spencer -proposes to classify these different categories of activities -according to an ascending scale of progress:—</p> - -<p class="p1">1. In the first rank is placed the activity which ministers -simply to self-preservation. It would be of no consequence -to be an eminent scholar, or a citizen and a patriot, or a -devoted father; or rather, all this would be impossible, if -one did not first know how to assure his safety and his life.</p> - -<p class="p1">2. Then comes the series of activities which tend <em>indirectly</em> -to the same end of physical well-being, by the acquisition -and production of the material goods necessary for existence, -that is, industry and the different occupations.</p> - -<p class="p1">3. In the third place, man employs his activities in the -service of his family,—he has children to support and to -bring up.</p> - -<p class="p1">4. Social and political life is the fourth object of his -efforts. This supposes, as a previous condition, the accomplishment -of family duties, just as family life itself supposes -the normal development of the individual life.</p> - -<p class="p1">5. Finally, human existence is consummated and crowned, -so to speak, in the exercise of the activities which, in a single<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_543" id="Page_543">[543]</a></span> -word, we might call æsthetic, and which, taking advantage -of the leisure left from care and business, will find satisfaction -in the culture of letters and the arts.</p> - - -<p class="p1">638. <span class="smcap">Criticism of this Classification.</span>—What exceptions -can be taken to this exact and methodical table of the -different elements of an existence complete, normal, and -consequently human? Is it necessary to remark that the -happiness thus understood does not differ from what we call -virtue? None of the five elements distinguished by Mr. -Spencer can be safely omitted. The first could not be -neglected without endangering the material reality of life; -nor the last, without impairing its moral dignity. In some -degree they are mutually necessary, in this sense, that the -lower, or selfish activities, are the conditions which make -possible the other parts of human duty; and that the higher, -or disinterested activities, become, as it were, the justification -of the toil we endure in order to exist and to satisfy -material necessities.</p> - -<p>We have, however, one grave reserve to make. Mr. -Spencer is wrong in putting into the last category of activities -that which is the crown of the others, all that which concerns -the moral development of the individual. Between the -second and the third class of activities we ask to interpolate -another form of activity,—that which constitutes the individual -moral life, that which, in every man, even the humblest -and the poorest, calls into exercise the conscience, the reason, -and the will. Mr. Spencer’s system is decidedly too -aristocratic. It seems to reserve the moral life for men of -leisure. In a democratic society, which believes in equality -and which would not have this an empty term, there are efforts -which must be made for the moral development of the -human being in all conditions, and it would be wrong to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_544" id="Page_544">[544]</a></span> -reduce personal activity to the care of health and material -well-being.</p> - - -<p class="p1">639. <span class="smcap">Effects on Education.</span>—It is now easy to comprehend -the duties of education. Conforming its efforts to -nature, distributing its lessons according to the exact division -of human functions, it will seek the branches of knowledge -the most fit for making of the pupil, first, a sound and -healthy man, then a toiler, a workman,—a man, in a word, -capable of earning his livelihood; then it will train him for -the family and the State, by endowing him with all the -domestic and civic virtues; finally, it will open to him the -brilliant domain of art under all its forms.</p> - - -<p class="p1">640. <span class="smcap">Science is the Basis of Education.</span>—When we -have once divided human life into a certain number of superimposed -stages which education should teach us to ascend -one after another, it becomes necessary to know what are the -facts and the branches of knowledge which correspond to -each one of these different steps. To this question Mr. -Spencer replies that in all the grades of human development -that which is pre-eminently necessary, that which is the basis -of education, is science.</p> - - -<p class="p1">641. <span class="smcap">Science for Health and Industrial Activity.</span>—It -is in the first part of education, that which has for its object -self-preservation, that science is the least useful. So far, -education may be in great part negative, because nature has -taken it upon herself to lead us to our destination. The -child cries at the sight of a stranger, and throws himself -into the arms of his mother when he feels the slightest sorrow. -However, in proportion to his growth, man has more -and more need of science, and he could not do without physiology -and hygiene. By this means will he shun all those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_545" id="Page_545">[545]</a></span> -little acts of imprudence, all those physical faults, which -shorten life, or pave the way for infirmities in old age. By -this means he will diminish the interval, which is so considerable, -between the length of life as it might be and the -brevity of life as it is. Evident truths, but too often unheeded!</p> - -<p>“How many scholars,” exclaims Mr. Spencer, “who -would blush if caught saying Iphigénia instead of Iphigenía, -show not the slightest shame in confessing that they do not -know where the Eustachian tubes are, and what are the -actions of the spinal cord!”</p> - -<p>With respect to the activities which might be called lucrative, -and to the kind of instruction which they require, Mr. -Spencer still shows the utility of science. He knows how -great a disposition there is in modern society to promote professional -or industrial instruction; but he thinks, not without -reason, that we do not proceed as we should in order to be -completely successful in this direction. All the sciences, -mathematics through its applications to the arts, mechanics -through its connection with industries where machines play -so great a part, physics and chemistry through the knowledge -they furnish on matter and its properties, even the social -sciences by reason of the relations of commerce with politics,—all -the sciences, in a word, contribute to develop the -skill and the prudence of the man who is employed in any -trade or occupation whatever.</p> - - -<p class="p1">642. <span class="smcap">Science for Family Life.</span>—A point in which the -originality of Mr. Spencer’s thought is distinctly marked, -and which he develops with an eloquent earnestness, is the -necessity of enlightening parents, and particularly mothers, -upon their obligations and duties, and of putting them -in a condition to direct the education of their children by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_546" id="Page_546">[546]</a></span> -teaching them the natural laws of body and mind: “Is it -not monstrous,” he says, “that the fate of a new generation -should be left to the chances of unreasoning custom, -impulse, fancy,—joined with the suggestions of ignorant -nurses and the prejudiced counsel of grandmothers.... -In the actual state of things the best instruction, even -among the favored by fortune, is scarcely more than an -instruction of celibates.” We are ever saying that the vocation -of woman is to bring up her children, and yet we teach -her nothing of that which she ought to know in order to fulfill -worthily this great task. Ignorant as she is of the laws -of life and of the phenomena of the soul, knowing nothing -of the nature of the moral emotions or of physical disorders, -her intervention in the education of the child is often more -disastrous than her absolute inaction would be.</p> - - -<p class="p1">643. <span class="smcap">Science in Æsthetic Education.</span>—Mr. Spencer -next shows that social and political activity also has need of -being enlightened by science. One is a citizen only on the -condition of knowing the history of his country.</p> - -<p>That which it is more difficult to grant Mr. Spencer, is -that æsthetic education, in its turn, is based on science. Is -there not some exaggeration, for example, in asserting that -poor musical compositions are poor because they are lacking -in truth? and that they are lacking in truth “because -they are lacking in science”? Does one become a man of -letters and an artist as one becomes a geometrician? To -cultivate with success those arts which are as the flower of -civilization, is there not required, besides talent and natural -gifts, a long practice, a slow initiation, something, in a -word, more delicate than the attention which suffices for -being instructed in science?</p> - - -<p class="p1">644. <span class="smcap">Exaggerations and Prejudices.</span>—We believe as -thoroughly as any one can in the efficiency and in the educa<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_547" id="Page_547">[547]</a></span>tional -virtues of science, and we would willingly make it, as -Mr. Spencer does, the basis of education. We must be on -our guard, however, against cultivating this religion of -science until it becomes a superstition. Our author is not -completely exempt from this danger.</p> - -<p>That science develops the intellectual qualities, such as -judgment, memory, reasoning, we admit; that it develops -them better than the study of the languages, let even this be -granted! But it is impossible for us not to protest when Mr. -Spencer represents science as endowed with the same efficacy -for inspiring moral qualities, such as perseverance, sincerity, -activity, resignation to the will of nature, piety even, and -religion. Science appears to us an infallible means of animating -and exciting the different energies of the soul; but -will it also have the quality of disciplining them? Thanks -to science, man will know that which it is proper to do, if he -wishes to be a workman, a parent, or a citizen, but on this -express condition, that he <em>wills</em>; and this education of the -will, is it still science which shall be charged with it? We -may be allowed to doubt it.</p> - -<p>Mr. Spencer himself now seems to share this doubt, if we -may trust one of his recent works.<a name="FNanchor_282_282" id="FNanchor_282_282"></a><a href="#Footnote_282_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> “Faith in books and in -nature,” it is there said, “is one of the superstitions of our -times.” We deceive ourselves, says the author, when we -establish a connection between the intelligence and the will, -for conduct is determined not by knowledge but by emotion.</p> - -<p>“He who would hope to teach geometry by giving lessons -in Latin, would scarcely be more unreasonable than those -who count on producing better sentiments by means of a discipline -of the intellectual faculties.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_548" id="Page_548">[548]</a></span></p> - -<p>To tell the truth, Mr. Spencer has here fallen into another -extreme, and he seems to us at one time to have granted too -much, and at another too little, to the influence of instruction -on morality.</p> - - -<p class="p1">645. <span class="smcap">Intellectual Education.</span>—So far we have examined -along with Mr. Spencer only the nature of the objects -and of the knowledge which befit the education of man. It -remains to inquire how the mind can assimilate this knowledge. -Pedagogy has not only to draw up in theory a brilliant -programme of necessary studies, but it also searches -out the means and the methods to be employed, in order that -these studies may be presented to the mind, and may have -the greater chance of being thus presented with profit.</p> - -<p>In this somewhat more practical part of his work, Mr. -Spencer thinks that pedagogy should be guided by the idea -of evolution; that is, of the progressive course of a being -who makes himself, who creates himself little by little, and -who develops in succession, according to fixed laws, powers -originally enveloped in the germs that he has received from -nature, or that have been transmitted to him by heredity.</p> - - -<p class="p1">646. <span class="smcap">Laws of Intellectual Evolution.</span>—In other terms, -Mr. Spencer shows that the precepts of pedagogy cannot be -definitely deduced until the laws of mental evolution have -been accurately established, and he attempts to determine -some of these laws.</p> - -<p>He proves that the mind passes naturally from the simple -to the complex, from the indefinite to the definite, from the -concrete to the abstract, from the empirical to the rational; -that the genesis of the individual is the same as the genesis -of the race; that the intelligence assimilates by preference -that which it discovers for itself; finally, that all culture -which profits the pupil is, at the same time, an exercise -which stimulates him and delights him.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_549" id="Page_549">[549]</a></span></p> - -<p>From this there result these practical consequences: that -it is necessary first to present to the child simple subjects of -study, individual things, sensible objects, for the purpose of -starting him gradually on his way towards complex truths, -abstract generalities, conceptions of the reason; that nothing -can be exacted of the child’s intelligence but vague and -incomplete notions which the travail of the mind will gradually -clarify and elaborate; that education ought to be <em>in -petto</em>, for each individual, a repetition and a copy of the general -march of civilization and of the progress of humanity; -that it is necessary to count more on the personal effort of -the pupil than upon the action of the teacher; that, finally, -it is necessary to find the methods which interest, and even -those which amuse. Hence the educator, instead of opposing -nature, instead of disconcerting her in her course and in -the insensible steps of her real development, will restrict -himself to following her step by step, and education will be -no longer a force which obstructs, which represses, which -smothers; but, on the contrary, a force which sustains and -stimulates by associating with itself the work of the spontaneous -powers of the soul.</p> - - -<p class="p1">647. <span class="smcap">Self-Education.</span>—Mr. Spencer attaches great importance -to that maxim which recommends us to encourage -above all else self-education:—</p> - -<p>“In education the process of self-development should be -encouraged to the fullest extent. Children should be led to -make their own investigations, and to draw their own inferences. -They should be <em>told</em> as little as possible, and induced -to <em>discover</em> as much as possible. Humanity has progressed -solely by self-instruction; and that to achieve the best results, -each mind must progress somewhat after the same -fashion, is continually proved by the marked success of self-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_550" id="Page_550">[550]</a></span>made -men. Those who have been brought up under the -ordinary school-drill, and have carried away with them the -idea that education is practicable only in that style, will -think it hopeless to make children their own teachers. If, -however, they will call to mind that the all-important knowledge -of surrounding objects which a child gets in its early -years is not without help,—if they will remember that the -child is self-taught in the use of its mother tongue,—if they -will estimate the amount of that experience of life, that out-of-school -wisdom which every boy gathers for himself,—if -they will mark the unusual intelligence of the uncared-for -London <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">gamin</i>, as shown in all the directions in which his -faculties have been tasked,—if further, they will think how -many minds have struggled up unaided, not only through the -mysteries of our irrationally-planned <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curriculum</i>, but through -hosts of other obstacles besides; they will find it a not unreasonable -conclusion, that if the subjects be put before him -in right order and right form, any pupil of ordinary capacity -will surmount his successive difficulties with but little -assistance.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">648. <span class="smcap">Moral Education.</span>—Moral education, without furnishing -occasion for as complete a theory as intellectual -education, has, nevertheless, suggested to Mr. Spencer some -important reflections.</p> - -<p>Mr. Spencer expressly declares that he does not accept the -dogma of Lord Palmerston, or what would be called in -France the dogma of Rousseau, namely, that all children are -born good. He would incline the rather toward the contrary -opinion, which, “though untenable,” he says, “seems to us -less wide of the truth”! Doubtless, we must not expect too -much moral goodness of children; but it may be found that -Mr. Spencer exaggerates a little, and draws too dark a por<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_551" id="Page_551">[551]</a></span>trait -of the child when he says, “The child resembles the -savage; his physical features, like his moral instincts, recall -the savage.” Taken literally, such pessimism would lead -logically to an over-severe moral discipline, wholly repressive -and restraining. Such, however, is not the conclusion of -Mr. Spencer, who recommends a course of tolerance and -mildness, a system of relative letting alone which we might -almost think dictated by the optimism of Rousseau. He -censures the brutal discipline of the English schools. Finally, -he would have the child treated, not as an incorrigible rebel -who is obedient only to force, but as a reasonable being -capable of readily comprehending the reasons and the advantages -of obedience, from the simple fact that he takes into -account the connection of cause and effect.</p> - - -<p class="p1">649. <span class="smcap">System of Natural Punishments.</span>—The true moral -discipline, according to Mr. Spencer, is that which puts the -child in a state of dependence on nature, who teaches him to -detest his faults by reason of the natural consequences which -they involve. It is necessary to renounce artificial punishments, -which are almost always irritating and taken amiss, -and to have recourse, as a rule, only to the privations and the -inconveniencies which are the necessary consequences, and, -as it were, the inevitable reactions, of the acts which have -been committed.</p> - -<p>A boy, for example, puts his room in disorder. In this -case, the method of natural punishment requires that he himself -shall repair the mischief; and in this way he will soon -correct himself of a turbulence from which he will be the first -to suffer.</p> - -<p>A little girl, through indolence, or through tarrying too -long over her toilet, has made herself late for a walk. Let -her be punished by not waiting for her, by leaving her at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_552" id="Page_552">[552]</a></span> -home. This is the best means of curing her in the future of -her indolence and coquetry.</p> - -<p>The system which tends thus to substitute the lessons of -nature for artificial penalties, certainly offers great advantages. -It subjects the child, not to the authority of a passing -teacher, or of parents who will one day die, but to a law -whose action neither ceases nor ever relents. Artificial punishments -often provoke the resistance of the child because he -does not comprehend their meaning, and because, proceeding -from the human will, they can be taxed with injustice and -caprice. Could one as easily refuse to bow before the impersonal -force of nature,—a force which exactly adjusts the -punishment to the fault,<a name="FNanchor_283_283" id="FNanchor_283_283"></a><a href="#Footnote_283_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a> which accepts no excuse, against -which there is no appeal, and which, without threats, without -anger, rigorously and silently executes the law?</p> - - -<p class="p1">650. <span class="smcap">Difficulties in Application.</span>—Mr. Spencer’s principle -is excellent, but the opportunities for applying it are -far less frequent than our philosopher believes. The child, -in most cases, is too little reflective, too little reasonable, to -comprehend, and especially to heed, the suggestions of personal -interest.</p> - -<p>Let us add that this principle is wholly negative, that it -furnishes at most only the means of shunning evil; that even -in according to it an efficacy it does not have, it would still -be necessary to reproach it with narrowing moral culture by -reducing it to the rather mean solicitude for simple utility; -finally, that it exercises no influence on the development of -the positive virtues, on the disinterested education of morality -in what is noble and exalted.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_553" id="Page_553">[553]</a></span></p> - -<p>Finally, the system of natural punishments would incur the -danger of often being cruel, and of causing the child an irreparable -injury. Let pass the pin-cushion, the boiling water, -and the candle-flame,—examples which Mr. Spencer proposes; -but what shall we say of the bar of red-hot iron which -he lets the child pick up? What shall be said, above all, of -the grave consequences entailed by the faults of a young man -left to himself?</p> - -<p>“Would it not be,” says Gréard justly, “to condemn the -child to a régime so severe as to be an injustice, to count -solely on the effects of natural reactions and inevitable consequences, -for the purpose of disciplining his will? The -penalty which they provoke is the most often enormous as -compared with the fault which has produced them, and man -himself demands for his conduct other sanctions than those -of a harsh reality. He desires that we judge the intention -as well as the fact; that he be commended for his efforts; -that in the first instance extreme measures be not taken -against him; that the blow fall on him if needs be, but without -crushing him, and while extending to him a hand to help -him up.”<a name="FNanchor_284_284" id="FNanchor_284_284"></a><a href="#Footnote_284_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a></p> - - -<p class="p1">651. <span class="smcap">Return to Nature.</span>—However it may be, Mr. -Spencer is to be commended for having shown that for moral -education as for intellectual education, the method which -approaches nature the nearest is also the best. The return -to nature which was the characteristic of Rousseau’s theories -and of Pestalozzi’s practice, is also the dominant trait of Mr. -Spencer’s pedagogy.</p> - -<p>If we look closely into the matter, this decided purpose to -follow nature implicates something besides the superficial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_554" id="Page_554">[554]</a></span> -condemnation of methods introduced by art and human device. -It supposes a fundamental belief,—the belief in the -beneficent purpose of natural instincts. To have confidence -in nature, to fall back on the spontaneous forces of the soul, -because we discern behind them or in them a higher providence -or an internal foresight, is a belief generally useful and -suggestive for conducting human affairs, but particularly -necessary for directing the education of man. It is not -without some surprise that we discover this belief at the basis -of Mr. Spencer’s pedagogy, as though, by a contradiction -which is not new, the evolutionist philosophy, which seems -to exclude final causes from the conception of the universe, -had been practically constrained to bow before them, and to -proclaim, at least in the matter of education, the salutary -efficacy of the theory which admits them.</p> - -<p>Thus, in speaking of physical education, Mr. Spencer -remarks that the sensations are the natural guides, which it -would be dangerous not to follow.</p> - -<p>“Happily, that all-important part of education which goes -to secure direct self-preservation, is in great part already -provided for. Too momentous to be left to our own blundering, -Nature takes it into her own hands.”</p> - -<p>Speaking in another place of the instincts which induce -the child to move himself and to seek in physical exercise the -basis of physical well-being, he declares that to oppose these -instincts would be to go counter to the means “<em>divinely</em> -arranged” for assuring the development of the body.</p> - - -<p class="p1">652. <span class="smcap">Physical Education.</span>—The chapter devoted by Mr. -Spencer to physical education, is such as might be expected -from a thinker who is wholly exempt from idealistic prejudices -and who does not hesitate to write:—</p> - -<p>“The history of the world shows that the well-fed races -have been the energetic and dominant races.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_555" id="Page_555">[555]</a></span></p> - -<p>It is necessary first and above all to establish physical -force in man, and to create within him “a robust animal.”</p> - -<p>“The actual education of children is defective in several -particulars: in an insufficiency of food, in an insufficiency -of clothing, in an insufficiency of exercise, and in an excess -of mental application.”</p> - -<p>Mr. Spencer complains that modern education has become -wholly intellectual, and that it neglects the body. He -reminds us that “the preservation of health is one of our -duties,” and that there exists a thing which might be called -“physical morality.”</p> - -<p>Here, as everywhere, Mr. Spencer demands that we follow -the indications of nature. He explains on physiological -grounds the apparently inordinate appetite which children -show for certain foods,—sugar, for example. He urgently -entreats that preference shall be given to play and to free -and spontaneous exercise, over gymnastics.</p> - - -<p class="p1">653. <span class="smcap">General Judgment.</span>—That which, in our opinion, -attests the truth of the pedagogical laws which we have just -discussed, is that they are in agreement with the general -opinions of the great modern reformers in education. It is -thus that Spencer’s ideas are in close harmony with those -which Pestalozzi had employed at Stanz. The success which -he obtained there, as Mr. Spencer has remarked, depended -on two things: first, on the attention which he used in -determining what kind of instruction the children had need -of, and next, on the pains he took to associate the new knowledge -with that which they already possessed.</p> - -<p>Mr. Spencer’s essay, then, deserves the attention of educators. -There is scarcely a book in which a keen scent for -details comes more agreeably to animate a fund of solid -arguments, and from which it is more useful to extract the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_556" id="Page_556">[556]</a></span> -substance. However, it must not be read save with precaution. -The brilliant English thinker sometimes fails in justness -and measure, and his bold generalizations need to be -tested with care.</p> - - -<p class="p1">654. <span class="smcap">Alexander Bain and Education as a Science.</span>—Less -brilliant than the work of Mr. Spencer, the book of -Mr. Bain, <cite>Education as a Science</cite>, recommends itself by -merits of studied analysis and scholarly minuteness. Others -surpass Mr. Bain in brilliancy of imagination, in originality -and in enthusiasm; but no one equals him in richness of -details, in acuteness and abundance of observations. After -the more venturesome have taken the lead and have published -the original sketch, Mr. Bain appears and writes the -methodical and complete manual. His own work resembles -that of a conscientious guard who marches in the rear of -a victorious army, and by a wise organization makes sure -the positions conquered by the march of an impetuous -commander-in-chief. His book, in other terms, is but the -studious and thorough development of Mr. Spencer’s principles.</p> - - -<p class="p1">655. <span class="smcap">General Impression.</span>—It is impossible in an analysis -to bring out the merit of a book which is especially -valuable for the multiplicity of the questions which the -author discusses in it, and for the infinite variety of the -solutions which he proposes. There are landscapes which -discourage the painter, because, notwithstanding their -beauty, they are too vast, too full of details, to admit of -being crowded into a frame. We may say the same of Mr. -Bain’s book. One must have studied it himself in order to -form an estimate of its value. Professors of all classes will -here find pages of well-considered counsels, and judicious -reflections upon educational methods. The nature of stud<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_557" id="Page_557">[557]</a></span>ies, -the sequence of subjects, the gradation of difficulties, -the choice of exercises, the comparison of oral instruction -with text-book instruction, modes of discipline,—nothing -escapes a thinker who is not a mere theorist or an amateur -educator, but a professional man, a competent teacher, an -experienced professor.</p> - -<p>Indeed, no one should allow himself to be deceived by this -fine phrase, <cite>Education as a Science</cite>, which might disconcert -and turn aside whole classes of readers, such as those who, -in works on education, especially desire a guide for practice. -On the contrary, they will have every reason to commend a -book which passes very quickly from generalities to applications, -and which is above all else a manual of practical and -technical pedagogy. The study of it will be profitable not -merely to professors who are teaching the higher branches of -literature and science, but even to the humblest instructors, -and even—for Mr. Bain overlooks no detail—to teachers -of reading and writing.</p> - - -<p class="p1">656. <span class="smcap">Division of the Work.</span>—<cite>Education as a Science</cite> -comprises three parts: 1. psychological data; 2. methods; -3. modern education.</p> - -<p>The author first inquires in what order the faculties are -developed, and what effect this order should have on the -distribution of studies. This is the psychological part. -Then follows a discussion of what Mr. Bain calls the logical -order, that is, of the relations which exist between the -studies themselves and their different parts. This is the -“analytical problem” of education.<a name="FNanchor_285_285" id="FNanchor_285_285"></a><a href="#Footnote_285_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a></p> - -<p>These preliminaries being established, Mr. Bain enters<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_558" id="Page_558">[558]</a></span> -upon the principal theme,—the methods of instruction. He -discusses one after another the first elements of reading, -object-lessons, “which, more than any other means of -instruction, require to be practised with care, for without -this, an admirable process might, in unskillful hands, be -nothing more than a thing of seductive appearance, but without -value”; then methods relating to history, geography, the -sciences, and the languages.</p> - -<p>Finally, in his third book, Mr. Bain exhibits a new plan of -study, with particular reference to secondary instruction.</p> - - -<p class="p1">657. <span class="smcap">Psychological Order and Logical Order.</span>—In -his reflections on the development of the mind and upon the -distribution of studies, Mr. Bain is inspired by the principles -which have guided Mr. Spencer.</p> - -<p>“Observation precedes reflection. The concrete comes -before the abstract.”</p> - -<p>In education, then, the sequence should be from the simple -to the complex, from the particular to the general, from -the indefinite to the definite, from the empirical to the rational, -from analysis to synthesis, from the outline to details; finally, -from the material to the immaterial.</p> - -<p>Such would be the ideal order in education; but Mr. Bain -remarks that in practice all sorts of obstacles come to disturb -this rigorous sequence.</p> - - -<p class="p1">658. <span class="smcap">Modern Education.</span>—The plan of secondary studies -which Mr. Bain recommends to the reformers of teaching is -the result and the <em>résumé</em> of all these observations.</p> - -<p>Intellectual education, common to all young people who -receive a liberal instruction, would henceforth comprise three -essential parts: 1. the sciences; 2. the humanities; 3. rhetoric -and the national literature. We see at once what is to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_559" id="Page_559">[559]</a></span> -be understood by this last item; but the two others have -need of some explanations.</p> - -<p>The sciences are divided into two groups: those which are -to be mastered,—arithmetic, geometry, algebra, physics, -chemistry, biology, psychology; and the natural sciences, -which should be studied only superficially because they would -overwhelm the memory under the weight of too large a number -of facts. Geography, which, one does not know why, is -included in the sciences, while history is attached to the humanities, -will complete the programme of scientific studies.</p> - -<p>As to the humanities, Mr. Bain preserves scarcely more -than the name while suppressing the thing; for in the curtailed -and disfigured domain which he persists in calling by -this name, he cuts off precisely that which has always been -considered as constituting its essence,—the study of the -dead languages. He excludes from it even the living languages, -and that which he still decorates with the fine title -of humanities, is still science,—moral science, it is true,—“history -and sociology with political economy and jurisprudence.”</p> - -<p>A course in universal literature, but, be it understood, -without original texts, <em>might</em> afterwards be added to this pretended -teaching of the humanities.</p> - -<p>Two or three hours a week would be devoted parallelly, -during the whole course of study, which would last six years, -to each of the three departments of instruction which Mr. -Bain thinks equally important.</p> - -<p>As to the real humanities, dead or living languages, they -should no longer be included in education save as optional -and extra studies, on the same basis as the accomplishments. -And, appealing to the future, Mr. Bain even predicts that -“a day will come when it will be found that this is still -granting them too large a place in education.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_560" id="Page_560">[560]</a></span></p> - -<p>Mr. Bain, then, gives all his preferences to scientific -studies, and his book might properly be entitled, not only -<cite>Education as a Science</cite>, but also <em>Science in Education</em>.</p> - - -<p class="p1">659. <span class="smcap">Theoretical Errors.</span>—Mr. Bain reproaches letters -with giving the mind the habit of servility. By what singular -revulsion of thought can the liberal studies <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">par excellence</i> -be represented as a school of intellectual servitude? It -is rather to scientific instruction that we may properly return -the accusation of enslaving the spirit. By their inexorable -evidence and by their very exactness, do not the sciences -sometimes smother the originality and the free flight of the -imagination?</p> - -<p>This defect, however, does not cut them off from a right -to a place, and to a large place, in the programme of intellectual -education. Let us accept with favor their alliance, -let us admit them to a certain degree of fellowship, but do -not let us tolerate their encroachments. In a word, the object -of the sciences is either pure abstractions or material -realities. He who studies mathematics and physics first acquires -real knowledge of high value; and, on the other hand, -he strengthens his mind through the habits engendered by -the rigorous methods which the sciences employ. We cheerfully -grant to Mr. Bain that the sciences are at the same time -admirable sources of useful truths and valuable instruments -of mental discipline. By cultivating them we gain not only -the positive knowledge which they teach respecting the world, -but also the power, rigor, and exactness which they impose -on their adepts.</p> - - -<p class="p1">660. <span class="smcap">Insufficiency of the Sciences.</span>—But the question is -to know whether the sciences, so useful and so necessary for -enriching and disciplining the mind, are also the best agents -for training it. The educator is not in the situation of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_561" id="Page_561">[561]</a></span> -farmer who has only two things to do,—to plow and sow -the field which he cultivates. The work of education is vast -in another direction. It has to do with developing the aptitudes -or latent energies, that which the philosophy of the day -hardly allows us longer to call faculties, but that which they -re-establish under another name, that of the unconscious -forces of the soul; it has to do, not with laboring on a soil -almost entirely prepared by nature, but in great part with -creating the soil itself. Now, the sciences are indeed the -seed which it will be proper by and by to sow on the field, but -they are not the substance which nourishes and fertilizes it.</p> - - -<p class="p1">661. <span class="smcap">Sensualistic Tendencies.</span>—If we go to the bottom -of Mr. Bain’s thought and doctrine on the mind, we shall -find the secret of his ardent preference for the teaching of -the sciences. His errors in practical pedagogy proceed from -theoretical errors on human nature.</p> - -<p>For him, as for Locke, there are not, properly speaking, -intellectual forces independent of the facts which succeed -one another in the consciousness. Consequently, there is -not an education of the faculties. Memory or imagination, -considered as a distinct power, as an aptitude more or less -happy, is but a word. It is nothing apart from the recollections -or the images which are successively graven in the mind. -For Mr. Bain, as for Locke, the best education is that which -places items of knowledge side by side in the mind, which -accumulates facts there, but not that which seeks to enkindle -in the soul a flame of intelligence.</p> - -<p>That which also warps the theoretical views of Mr. Bain -is that he accords no independence, no individual life, to the -mind; and that for him, back of the facts of consciousness, -there come to view, without any intermedium, the cerebral -organs. Now the brain is developed of itself; it acquires<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_562" id="Page_562">[562]</a></span> -fatally, with the progress of years, more weight and more -volume; it passes from the age of concrete things to the age -of abstractions. Hence a reduction, an inevitable contraction, -of the sphere of education. There is nothing more to -do than to let nature have her way, and to fill the vase which -she charges herself with constructing.</p> - - -<p class="p1">662. <span class="smcap">Utilitarian Tendencies.</span>—Finally, to conclude this -indication of the general ideas which dominate and which -mar the pedagogy of Mr. Bain, let us observe that a positive -and practical utility, a vulgar utility, mingles too many of -its inspirations with it. The criterion of utility is sometimes -applied to it with an artless extravagance. Thus, in -the languages, only those words should be learned which -occur the most often, and in the sciences, only the parts -which are of the most frequent use. Even in moral education, -as it is conceived by the English philosopher, are to be -found, as we might expect, these utilitarian and narrow -views.</p> - -<p>Would one believe, for example, that Mr. Bain makes -the fear of the penal code the mainspring of the teaching -of virtue?<a name="FNanchor_286_286" id="FNanchor_286_286"></a><a href="#Footnote_286_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a> Here, at least, we must acknowledge that science -is insufficient. “To pretend, for example, that physiology -can teach us moderation in the sexual appetite is to -attribute to it a result which no science has yet been able to -give.” But must we count any more, as Mr. Bain would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_563" id="Page_563">[563]</a></span> -have us, for example, on social influences and on personal -experience? In this truly experimental education in virtue, -ethics would be learned just as the mother tongue is learned, -by use, by the imitation of others; and moral instruction, -properly so called, would be a sort of grammar which is to -rectify vicious practices.</p> - - -<p class="p1">663. <span class="smcap">Final Judgment.</span>—But our criticisms on the general -tendencies of Mr. Bain’s pedagogy subtract nothing from -our admiration of the sterling qualities of his <cite>Education as a -Science</cite>. Doubtless there would also be errors of detail to -notice, or some particular methods to discuss; for example, -that of never doing more than one thing at a time, or the propriety -of first teaching to children the history of their country. -Mr. Bain forgets that mythological history and sacred history, -by their legendary and fabulous character, offer a particular -attraction to the childish imagination, and are better -adapted than history proper to infant minds. But, aside -from the portions which are debatable, how many wise observations -to gather on the different processes of instruction, -on the transition from the concrete to the abstract, on the -discretion which must be employed in object-lessons, the use -of which so easily degenerates into abuse! Even through -its absolute theories, <cite>Education as a Science</cite> will render -great services; for, to illustrate the march of thought, nothing -is so valuable as opinions which are exclusive and sincere. -It were even desirable, if one did not fear to experiment -on human souls, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in anima sublimi</i>, that according to -Mr. Bain’s plan, the experiment should be tried of an education -exclusively scientific.</p> - - -<p class="p1">664. <span class="smcap">American Educators. Channing (1780-1842).</span>—The -general fault of English pedagogy is its aristocratic -character. For Mr. Spencer and Mr. Bain, as for Locke, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_564" id="Page_564">[564]</a></span> -is simply a question of the education of a <em>gentleman</em>. It is -in America, in the writings of Channing and Horace Mann, -that we must seek the elements of a theory of democratic -education, and of popular instruction.<a name="FNanchor_287_287" id="FNanchor_287_287"></a><a href="#Footnote_287_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a></p> - -<p>Channing, a Unitarian minister, associated religious sentiment -and philosophic reason, and desired that in theology -itself everything should issue in the supremacy of the human -judgment. The most interesting of his writings are the public -lectures which he gave in Boston in 1838, and the object -of which is the education one gives himself, and the elevation -of the working classes. We lack the space to give an -analysis of these lectures, but a few quotations will make -known the general spirit of the American reformer:—</p> - -<p>“I am not discouraged by the objection that the laborer, -if encouraged to give time and strength to the elevation of -his mind, will starve himself and impoverish the country, -when I consider the energy, and the efficiency of Mind.”</p> - -<p>“The highest force in the universe is Mind. This created -the heavens and earth. This has changed the wilderness into -fruitfulness, and linked distant countries in a beneficent ministry -to one another’s wants. It is not to brute force, to -physical strength, so much as to art, to skill, to intellectual -and moral energy, that men owe their mastery over the world. -It is mind which has conquered matter. To fear, then, that -by calling forth a people’s mind, we shall impoverish and -starve them, is to be frightened at a shadow.”</p> - -<p>“It is chiefly through books that we enjoy intercourse with -superior minds, and these invaluable means of communication -are in the reach of all. In the best books, great men talk to -us, give us their most precious thoughts, and pour their souls<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_565" id="Page_565">[565]</a></span> -into ours. God be thanked for books. They are the voices -of the distant and the dead, and make us heirs of the spiritual -life of past ages. Books are the true levellers. They give -to all, who will faithfully use them, the society, the spiritual -presence, of the best and greatest of our race. No matter -how poor I am; no matter though the prosperous of my own -time will not enter my obscure dwelling; if the sacred writers -will enter and take up their abode under my roof, if Milton -will cross my threshold to sing to me of Paradise, and Shakespeare -to open to me the worlds of imagination and the -workings of the human heart, and Franklin to enrich me with -his practical wisdom, I shall not pine for want of intellectual -companionship, and I may become a cultivated man though -excluded from what is called the best society in the place -where I live.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">665. <span class="smcap">Horace Mann (1796-1859).</span>—Horace Mann is not -a philosopher who discusses education, but a politician who -reformed and developed the education of his country. Secretary -of the Massachusetts Board of Education, he opened -schools, founded libraries, and pronounced a great number of -discourses, the best known of which is <cite>The Necessity of -Education in a Republican Government</cite>.</p> - -<p>“When, then,” he often said, “will men give their thought -to infancy? We watch the seed which we confide to the -earth, but we do not concern ourselves with the human soul -till the sun of youth has set. Were it in my power, I would -scatter books over all the earth as men sow wheat on the -plowed fields.”</p> - -<p>Speaking to Americans, to working people, and to tradesmen, -he made apparent the positive advantages of instruction:—</p> - -<p>“If to-morrow some one were to tell you that a coal mine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_566" id="Page_566">[566]</a></span> -had been discovered which would pay ten per cent, you would -all rush to it; and yet there are men whom you let grovel in -ignorance when you might realize from forty to fifty per cent -on them. You are ever giving your thought to capital and -to machines; but the first machine is man, and the first capital, -man, and you neglect him.”</p> - -<p>But he also interested himself in the moral effects of education, -especially in a democratic society, where each citizen -is a sovereign:—</p> - -<p>“The education which has already been given a people -makes it necessary to give them more. By instructing them, -new powers have been awakened in them, and this intellectual -and moral energy must be regulated. In this case we have -not to do with mechanical forces, which, once put in action, -accomplish their purpose and then stop. No; these are spiritual -forces endowed with a principle of life and of progress -which nothing can quench.”</p> - - -<p class="p1">666. <span class="smcap">Conclusion.</span>—The labors of Mr. Spencer and Mr. -Bain, the works of Channing and Mann, and others still, -will contribute, we hope, to prepare the definite solutions -demanded by our times in the matter of education. These -solutions are important for the security and the greatness of -our country. More than ever it is necessary that education -become something else than an affair of inspiration, abandoned -to caprice and hazard, but that it be a work of reflection. -It is said that the future is uncertain, that events are -leading French society no one knows where, and that our -destinies are at the mercy of the most unforeseen storms. -We do not believe this, since it is within our power that it -shall be otherwise. There is a means, in fact, of assuring -the future of peoples, and this is to give them an intellectual -and moral education which purifies the soul and strengthens<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_567" id="Page_567">[567]</a></span> -character. Do not let us look for regeneration and progress -from a sudden and miraculous transformation; do not let us -demand them even of the immediate efficiency of such or -such a political institution. Everything here below is accomplished -according to the laws of a slow progression, by -trifling and successive modifications. Just as for the child -there is no abridgment which allows us to suppress the -slow steps of the insensible growth which each year brings -forward, so for nations there is no other process than the -action, slow but sure, of a wise and vigorous education, for -causing them to pass from vice to virtue, from abasement to -grandeur.</p> - -<p>The partisans of evolution sometimes seem to announce -to us the near apparition of a race superior to our own, -called to supplant us, as we shall have supplanted the inferior -races. One day or another we shall be liable, it seems, -to meet “at the angle of a rock” the successor of the -human race. We count but little on such promises, and the -coming of this hypothetical race of men, suddenly evoked -by a wave of the magic wand of natural selection, leaves us -very incredulous.</p> - -<p>Happily, we know another means, a much surer process, -for causing to appear, not a strange race, until now unknown, -but generations of more worth than our own, which -are superior to it in physical force, as in qualities of mind -or virtues of character. This means is to establish, through -reflection and reason, an education better adapted to our -destination; an education broader and more complete, at -once more severe and more liberal, since it will at the same -time exact more toil and permit more scope; in which the -child will learn to count more on himself; in which his indolence -will no longer be encouraged by accustoming him -inopportunely to invoke supernatural aid; in which instruc<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_568" id="Page_568">[568]</a></span>tion -will no longer be a formulary recited as lip-service, but -an inner and profound acquisition of the soul, in which the -fear of the conscience will be substituted for the other rules -of conduct, and in which thought and free reflection will no -longer be distrusted; finally, an education more scientific -and more rational, because it will neglect nothing which can -develop a human soul and bring it into likeness with its -ideal. Now that education to which the future belongs, -notwithstanding the obstacles which the spirit of the past -will still stir up against it,—that education is not possible, -its laws cannot be established, its methods cannot be practised, -except on one condition; this is, that the psychology -of the child be written, and well written, and that reflection -draw from this psychology all the consequences which it -permits.</p> - - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>[667. <span class="smcap">Comment on Mr. Spencer’s Education.</span>—Monsieur -Compayré might have emphasized his cautions. Read -with caution, and with a purpose to weigh the truth, Mr. -Spencer’s <cite>Education</cite> is inspiring and wholesome; but it may -be doubted whether there has been written, since the <em>Émile</em>, -a book on education which is so well fitted to deceive -an unwary reader by its rhetoric and philosophic plausibility. -The air of breadth and candor with which the writer -sets out is eminently prepossessing, and the reader is almost -obliged to assume that he is being led to foregone conclusions. -The first chapter, in particular, is a piece of literary -art, in which there is such a deft handling of sentiment and -pathos as to unfit the susceptible reader for exercising his -own critical judgment.</p> - -<p>In this place I can only indicate in the briefest manner -what seem to be the fundamental errors contained in the -book:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_569" id="Page_569">[569]</a></span></p> - -<p>1. Mr. Spencer does not distinguish between the <em>immediate</em> -and the <em>mediate</em> practical value of knowledges. We may -admit with him that science is of inestimable value to the -human race; but it does not follow by any means that every -person must be versed in science. As we need not own -everything that is essential to our comfort, so we need not -have as a personal possession all the knowledge that we -need for guidance.</p> - -<p>2. It is a very low conception of education that would -limit its function to adapting a man merely to that state in -life into which he chances to be born. The Bushman, the -Red Indian, and the accountant, are unfortunate illustrations -of the province of education. Often the highest function -of education is to lift a man out of his ancestral state.</p> - -<p>3. That the value of a subject for guidance is the same -as its value for discipline, is true under only one assumption,—that -the Bushman is always to remain a Bushman, -and the Red Indian always a Red Indian, as by the new -philosophy of course they should. Practical teachers very -well know that, as a rule, the studies that are the most -valuable for practical use are the least valuable for discipline. -Mr. Spencer quotes no better proof of his assumption -than “the beautiful economy of Nature.”</p> - -<p>4. Mr. Spencer’s proposed education is sordid in its utilitarianism. -He is preoccupied with man as an instrument -rather than with a human being aspiring towards the highest -type of his kind. A liberal education should be preoccupied -first with the training of the man, then with the training -of the instrument.</p> - -<p>5. Mr. Spencer’s restatement of Condillac’s and Comte’s -doctrine, that individual education should be a repetition of -civilization <em>in petto</em>, is at best but a specious generalization. -The doctrine cannot be applied to practice, in any considera<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_570" id="Page_570">[570]</a></span>ble -degree, if we would, and should not be, if we could, for -it ignores one essential factor in progress,—inheritance.</p> - -<p>6. The part assigned to “Nature” in the work of education -is so overstrained as to be unnatural and absurd. -Physical science has long since discarded this myth of -Nature personified. It is only in educational science that -this fiction is still employed to eke out an argument.</p> - -<p>7. The doctrine of consequences which underlies Mr. -Spencer’s system of moral education is applicable to but a -limited number of cases, or, if applied with thoroughness, -is inhuman. Not even all the fit would survive if they were -not shielded from the consequences of their acts by human -sympathy and oversight.]</p></div> - - -<div class="footnotes pg-brk"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_277_277" id="Footnote_277_277"></a><a href="#FNanchor_277_277"><span class="label">[277]</span></a> J. P. Richter, better known under the name Jean Paul (1763-1825), the -author of a spirited and scholarly book, <cite>Levana, or the Doctrine of Education</cite>, -1803.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_278_278" id="Footnote_278_278"></a><a href="#FNanchor_278_278"><span class="label">[278]</span></a> See <cite>The Elements of Psychology, on the Principles of Beneke</cite> (London, -1871).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_279_279" id="Footnote_279_279"></a><a href="#FNanchor_279_279"><span class="label">[279]</span></a> The first French translation appeared in 1878.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_280_280" id="Footnote_280_280"></a><a href="#FNanchor_280_280"><span class="label">[280]</span></a> In this, as in several other instances, Monsieur Compayré gives a summary -of the author’s thought rather than an exact quotation. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_281_281" id="Footnote_281_281"></a><a href="#FNanchor_281_281"><span class="label">[281]</span></a> As, historically, ornament precedes dress, on Mr. Spencer’s main principle, -it need not be till late in life that women dress sensibly. Or ought not -the genesis of dress in the individual to follow the same order as the genesis -of dress in the race? (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_282_282" id="Footnote_282_282"></a><a href="#FNanchor_282_282"><span class="label">[282]</span></a> <cite>Introduction to Social Science</cite>, p. 390.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_283_283" id="Footnote_283_283"></a><a href="#FNanchor_283_283"><span class="label">[283]</span></a> So far as experience can testify, this is a pure assumption. The most -trifling injuries are often the most painful, and the most serious the most -painless. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_284_284" id="Footnote_284_284"></a><a href="#FNanchor_284_284"><span class="label">[284]</span></a> See the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Esprit de discipline dans l’éducation</cite>, a memoir of Gréard, -published in the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue Pédagogique</cite>, 1883, No. 11.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_285_285" id="Footnote_285_285"></a><a href="#FNanchor_285_285"><span class="label">[285]</span></a> By the “analytical problem” of education, Mr. Bain means the determining -of the education value of subjects. See <cite>Education as a Science</cite>, -Chapter V. (P.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_286_286" id="Footnote_286_286"></a><a href="#FNanchor_286_286"><span class="label">[286]</span></a> We might dwell on Mr. Bain’s observations relative to punishments. -Here is what Gréard says of them: “Mr. Bain, with infinite good sense -and disciplinary tact, is much less concerned with applying the rule than -with the conditions according to which it should be applied. On this point -he enters into details full of scruples. He does not hesitate to call to his -aid the knowledge of the masters of penal jurisprudence, and his recommendations, -added to those of Bentham, comprise not less than thirty -articles.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_287_287" id="Footnote_287_287"></a><a href="#FNanchor_287_287"><span class="label">[287]</span></a> There should be added to these the works of Swiss, Italian, and French -educators, particularly of Siciliani, and the original and eminently suggestive -studies of Bernard Perez.</p> -</div></div> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_571" id="Page_571">[571]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="APPENDIX" id="APPENDIX"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">APPENDIX.</a></h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/sep.jpg" width="70" alt="" /></div> - -<p class="center">A.</p> - -<p class="p1 pfs90 smcap">Suggestions to Teachers of the History of Pedagogy.</p> - - -<p class="p1">The two aims to be kept in view in the teaching of this -subject are <em>culture</em> and <em>guidance</em>. The purpose should be to -extend the intellectual horizon of the teacher, or, to use -Plato’s phrase, to make him “the spectator of all time and -all existence”; and, in the second place, to furnish the -teacher with a clew which will safely conduct him through -the mazes of systems, methods, and doctrines. There is no -other profession that has derived so little profit from capitalized -experiences; and there is no profession in which culture -and breadth are more necessary.</p> - -<p>For securing the ends here proposed, it is recommended -that a plan somewhat like the following be pursued in the -use of this volume:—</p> - -<p class="p1">1. If there are three recitations a week, assign one -chapter for each of the first two recitations, <em>to be carefully -and thoughtfully read</em>, and require each pupil to select one -special topic to present and discuss when he is called upon -in the recitation; and for the <em>third</em> recitation in each week, -require each pupil to select a topic from any part of the -book which has thus far been studied. The purpose of this -plan is to bring before the class, in sharp outline, the salient -points of the subject; and, at the same time, to create a -sense of the organic unity of the theme as a comprehensive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_572" id="Page_572">[572]</a></span> -whole. When there are more than three recitations a week, -only a part of a chapter need be assigned for an advance -lesson.</p> - -<p class="p1">2. When the first survey of the subject has been made -in the way just suggested, a <em>review</em> may be conducted as -follows:—</p> - -<p>(1.) <em>Biographical.</em> Following a chronological order, divide -the whole treatise into as many sections as there are -recitations to be devoted to this purpose, and require each -pupil to make a careful study of some educator, as Socrates, -Montaigne, or Pestalozzi, and to present this theme when -called upon in recitation. When there is opportunity, encourage -pupils to amplify their themes with information derived -from other sources.</p> - -<p>(2.) <em>Topical.</em> Require each pupil to select some doctrine, -system, or method, and to show, in a systematic way, its -origin, progress, and termination. In this review, encourage -the critical spirit, and make the recitation to consist, in part, -of a free discussion of principles and doctrines. The value -of this subject for <em>guidance</em> will appear in this part of the -study.</p> - -<p>(3.) <em>By Chapters.</em> Require each pupil to prepare a summary -of some chapter in the book, emphasizing the more -important truths that are taught in it, and showing the tendency -or drift of educational thought. The <em>culture</em> value of -the subject will appear in this part of the study. By this -mode of treatment, the subject can be compassed, with good -results, in twenty weeks.</p> - -<p class="p1">3. Where no more than twelve or fourteen weeks can be -given to this subject, it is recommended that the following -chapters be selected: I., II., III., IV., V., VI., VII., X., -XII., XIII., XVIII., XIX., XX., XXI., XXII.</p> - -<p>For use in <em>Teachers’ Meetings</em> held by superintendents, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_573" id="Page_573">[573]</a></span> -following chapters are suggested: II., III., V., VI., VII., -X., XIII., XVIII., XX., XXII.</p> - -<p>For use in <em>Teachers’ Reading Circles</em>, either of the above -selections will serve a good purpose.</p> - - -<p class="p2 center">B.</p> - -<p class="center smcap">A Select List of Works Supplementary to “Compayré’s -History of Pedagogy.”</p> - -<p class="p1 noindent fs90"> - 1. The Cyclopædia of Education. New York.<br /> - 2. Buisson. Dictionnaire de Pédagogie. Parts 1-156. Paris.<br /> - 3. Lindner. Handbuch der Erziehungskunde. Wien and Leipzig.<br /> - 4. K. Schmidt. Die Geschichte der Pädagogik. Cöthen.<br /> - <a name="Bib_5" id="Bib_5"></a> - 5. G. Compayré. <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'Historie Critique'">Histoire Critique</ins> des Doctrines de l’Éducation -en France. Paris.<br /> - 6. Barnard. German Teachers and Educational Reformers.<br /> - 7. Barnard. French Teachers, Schools, and Pedagogy.<br /> - 8. Barnard. English Teachers, Educators, and Promoters of -Education.<br /> - 9. Barnard. American Teachers, Educators, and Benefactors of -Education.<br /> -10. Barnard. Pestalozzi and Swiss Pedagogy.<br /> -11. Biber. Pestalozzi and his Plan of Education. London.<br /> -12. Donaldson. Lectures on the History of Education. Edinburgh.<br /> -13. Krüsi. Pestalozzi: his Life, Work, and Influence. Cincinnati.<br /> -14. Lorenz. Life of Alcuin. London.<br /> -15. Mrs. Mann. Life of Horace Mann. Boston.<br /> -16. Meiklejohn. Dr. Andrew Bell. London.<br /> -17. Morley, J. Rousseau. London.<br /> -18. Mullinger. The Schools of Charles the Great. London.<br /> -19. Quick. Essays on Educational Reformers. Cincinnati.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_574" id="Page_574">[574]</a></span> -20. Shuttleworth. Four Periods of Public Education. London.<br /> -21. Arnold. Higher Schools and Universities of Germany. -London.<br /> -22. Hart. German Universities. New York.<br /> -23. De Guimps. Histoire de Pestalozzi. Lausanne.<br /> -24. De Guimps. La Philosophie et la Pratique de l’Éducation. -Paris.<br /> - <a name="Bib_25" id="Bib_25"></a> -25. Meunier. Lutte du Principe Clérical <ins class="corr" title="Transcriber's Note—Original text: 'et de Principe'">et du Principe</ins> Laïque -dans l’Enseignement. Paris.<br /> -26. Gaufrés. Claude Baduel et la Réforme des Études au XVI^e -Siècle. Paris.<br /> -27. Bentham. Chrestomathia. London.<br /> -28. Drane. Christian Schools and Scholars. London.<br /> -29. Ascham. The Scholemaster. Notes by Mayor. London.<br /> -30. Locke. Thoughts concerning Education. Notes by Quick. -Cambridge.<br /> -31. Laurie. John Amos Comenius. Boston.<br /> -32. Lancelot. Narrative of a Tour to La Grande Chartreuse. -London.<br /> -33. Schimmelpenninck. Narrative of the Demolition of Port Royal. -London.<br /> -34. Hamilton, Elizabeth. Letters on the Elementary Principles -of Education. London.<br /> -35. Spencer. Education: Intellectual, Moral, and Physical. N. Y.<br /> -36. Rousseau, Émile. Extracts. Boston.<br /> -37. Blackie. Four Phases of Morals. N. Y.<br /> -38. Aristotle. The Politics and Economics. London.<br /> -39. Craik. The State in its Relation to Education. London.<br /> -40. Cousin. Report on the State of Public Instruction in Prussia.<br /> -41. Gill. Systems of Education. Boston.<br /> -42. Souquet. Les Ecrivains Pédagogues du XVI^e Siècle. Paris.<br /> -43. Mann. Lectures on Education. Boston.<br /> -44. Quintilian. Institutes of Oratory. London.<br /> -45. Plato. The Republic and the Laws. London.<br /> -46. Xenophon. The Memorabilia of Socrates. N. Y.<br /> -47. Plutarch. Morals. Boston.<br /> -48. MacAlister. Montaigne on Education. Boston.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_575" id="Page_575">[575]</a></span> -49. Pestalozzi. Leonard and Gertrude. Boston.<br /> -50. Necker de Saussure. Éducation Progressive. Paris.<br /> -51. Cochin. Pestalozzi: sa Vie, ses Œuvres, ses Méthodes. -Paris.<br /> -52. Compayré. Cours de Pédagogie. Paris.<br /> -53. Milton. Tractate on Education. Cambridge.<br /> -54. Fénelon. Fables. Paris.<br /> -55. Fénelon. The Education of a Daughter. Dublin.<br /> -56. Martin. Les Doctrines Pédagogiques des Grecs. Paris.<br /> -57. Jacotot. Enseignement Universel. Paris.<br /> -58. Adams. The Free School System of the United States. -London.<br /> -59. Conrad. The German Universities for the last Fifty Years. -Glasgow.<br /> -60. Capes. University Life in Ancient Athens. N. Y.<br /> -61. Mahaffy. Old Greek Education.<br /> -62. Chassiotis. L’Instruction Publique chez les Grecs. Paris.<br /> -63. Spiers. School System of the Talmud. London.<br /> -64. Simon. L’Éducation et l’Instruction des Enfants chez les -Anciens Juifs. Paris.<br /> -65. Edgeworth. Practical Education. N. Y.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="fs90"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—For other supplementary works, and for a more complete -description of the books in the above list, consult the Bibliography -of G. Stanley Hall (Boston: D. C. Heath & Co.).</p> - - - <div class="chapter"></div> -<hr class="chap" /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_576" id="Page_576">[576]</a></span><br /> - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_577" id="Page_577">[577]</a></span></p> -<p class="p4" /> - -<h2 class="no-brk"><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a><a href="#CONTENTS">INDEX.</a></h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/sep.jpg" width="70" alt="" /></div> - - - <div class="fs90"> -<p class="noindent"> - -Abelard, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br /> - -Academy, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">French, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</span><br /> - -Achilles, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.<br /> - -Activity, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">categories of, <a href="#Page_542">542</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">the divine, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">industrial, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</span><br /> - -Adalberic, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> - -Adaptation, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.<br /> - -<em>Adèle</em> and <em>Théodore</em>, of Madame de Genlis, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.<br /> - -Age, for public instruction, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.<br /> - -Agricola, Rudolph, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br /> - -Agriculture, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.<br /> - -Ahriman, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br /> - -Aix-la-Chapelle, Council of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.<br /> - -Alcuin, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.<br /> - -Alexander, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.<br /> - -<em>Alexander</em>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.<br /> - -Alfred the Great, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.<br /> - -<em>All is in All</em>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.<br /> - -Amusements, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.<br /> - -Amyot, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.<br /> - -Analysis, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.<br /> - -Anselm, Saint, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br /> - -Antiquity, education in, <a href="#Page_1">1-16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.<br /> - -Arabic, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br /> - -Arabs, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br /> - -Arbogast, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.<br /> - -Argovia, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.<br /> - -Argument, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> - -Aristophanes, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br /> - -Aristotle, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">plan of education, <a href="#Page_36">36-41</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of music, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> - -Arithmetic, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">moral, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</span><br /> - -Arnauld, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1"><em>General Grammar</em>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</span><br /> - -Art, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_546">546</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of education, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">industrial, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>, <a href="#Page_545">545</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of creating thought, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</span><br /> - -Artisans, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.<br /> - -Arts, Faculty of, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">the Seven Liberal, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span><br /> - -Asceticism, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.<br /> - -Assembly, Constituent, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Legislative, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">National, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</span><br /> - -Assistant, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.<br /> - -Astronomy, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.<br /> - -Athens, education at, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.<br /> - -<em>Atlantic Monthly</em>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.<br /> - -d’Aubigné, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.<br /> - -Augustine, Saint, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.<br /> - -Augustus, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.<br /> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_578" id="Page_578">[578]</a></span>Aurelius, Marcus, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br /> - -Austria, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.<br /> - -Authority, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">basis of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</span><br /> - -Auxerre, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.<br /> - -Avignon, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.<br /> -<br /> - -Bacon, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.<br /> - -Bain, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>, <a href="#Page_556">556-563</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">errors of, <a href="#Page_559">559-563</a>.</span><br /> - -Barraud, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.<br /> - -Barrère, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.<br /> - -Barrière, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.<br /> - -Basedow, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.<br /> - -Basil, Saint, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br /> - -Bausset, Cardinal de, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.<br /> - -Bauzen, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.<br /> - -Beauty, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.<br /> - -Beauvilliers, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br /> - -Beckx, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> - -Belief, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.<br /> - -Bell, Andrew, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513-517</a>.<br /> - -<em>Belles-lettres</em>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.<br /> - -Benedict, Saint, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br /> - -Benedictines, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.<br /> - -Bentham, <em>Chrestomathia</em>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.<br /> - -Berlin, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.<br /> - -Bernardin de Saint Pierre, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.<br /> - -Bersot, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.<br /> - -Bert, Paul, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.<br /> - -Berthollet, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.<br /> - -Burgdorf, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.<br /> - -Bérulle, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br /> - -Bias, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br /> - -Bible, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.<br /> - -Billom, College of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> - -Bills, Educational, <a href="#Page_390">390-411</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509-512</a>, <a href="#Page_519">519-525</a>.<br /> - -Birr, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.<br /> - -Blackie, <em>Four Phases of Morals</em>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> - -Blankenburg, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.<br /> - -Boarding-schools, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.<br /> - -Body, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196-199</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292-315</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">exercises for, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289-292</a>.</span><br /> - -Bœotia, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.<br /> - -Bohemia, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> - -Boileau, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br /> - -Bonneval, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.<br /> - -<em>Book for Mothers</em>, Pestalozzi’s, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.<br /> - -Books, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">use of, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</span><br /> - -Bossuet, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182-185</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br /> - -Boufflers, Marquis de, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.<br /> - -Bouquier, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Law of, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</span><br /> - -Bourgogne, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Duke of, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177-182</a>.</span><br /> - -Boys, education of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284-302</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.<br /> - -Boze, de, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br /> - -Brahmins, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.<br /> - -Bréal, Michel, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.<br /> - -Bretagne, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.<br /> - -Brethren of Saint Charles, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.<br /> - -Brethren of the Christian Schools, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253-277</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.<br /> - -Brinon, Madame de, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.<br /> - -Browning, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.<br /> - -Brugg, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.<br /> - -Buddha, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.<br /> - -Buisson, <em>Dictionnaire de Pédagogie</em>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.<br /> - -“Bureau of Correspondence,” <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.<br /> - -Burnier, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br /> - -Burnouf, <em>Histoire du Bouddhisme</em>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.<br /> - -Buss, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.<br /> -<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_579" id="Page_579">[579]</a></span> - -Cabanis, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.<br /> - -Cabet, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.<br /> - -Cabinet, school, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.<br /> - -<em>Cabinet of du Mas</em>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.<br /> - -Cadet, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.<br /> - -Cæsar, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br /> - -Cæsar de Bus, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.<br /> - -Cajet, Dom Joseph, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.<br /> - -Calvin, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br /> - -Cambridge, University of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br /> - -Campan, Madame, <a href="#Page_485">485-487</a>.<br /> - -Campe, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.<br /> - -Campus Martius, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.<br /> - -Carnot, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a>.<br /> - -Carré, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br /> - -Carthage, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br /> - -Caste, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.<br /> - -Casuistry, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.<br /> - -Catechism, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.<br /> - -Catherine II., of Russia, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.<br /> - -Catholicism, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253-277</a>.<br /> - -Cavern, Plato’s, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br /> - -Centralization, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">opposed, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</span><br /> - -Central Schools, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.<br /> - -Ceremonies, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.<br /> - -Chaillot, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.<br /> - -Chaldee, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> - -Chance, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.<br /> - -Channing, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_563">563-565</a>.<br /> - -Character, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.<br /> - -Charicles, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.<br /> - -Charity, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">condemned, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</span><br /> - -Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_71">71-73</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br /> - -Charles the Bold, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.<br /> - -Charron, <em>Wisdom</em>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br /> - -Chastanier, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.<br /> - -Chateaubriand, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.<br /> - -Chevalier de la Tour-Landry, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.<br /> - -Child, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">age for study, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">development of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">education of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284-304</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501-504</a>, <a href="#Page_520">520-525</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">etiquette, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">inclination of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>, <a href="#Page_547">547</a>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">indulgence of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_551">551</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">moral protection of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470-475</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">punishment of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271-276</a>, <a href="#Page_551">551</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">the property of the State, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</span><br /> - -Chinese, <a href="#Page_11">11-13</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">civil service of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</span><br /> - -<em>Chriæ</em>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.<br /> - -Christian Doctrine, The Order of the, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.<br /> - -Christianity, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.<br /> - -<em>Christian Marriage</em>, of Erasmus, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br /> - -Christians, The Early, <a href="#Page_61">61-67</a>.<br /> - -Chrysale, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.<br /> - -Chrysippus, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.<br /> - -Church, The, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.<br /> - -Cicero, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> - -<em>Ciceromania</em>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br /> - -<em>Circular</em> of Guizot, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.<br /> - -Citharist, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br /> - -<em>Civil Government</em>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.<br /> - -Clarke, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.<br /> - -Classes, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.<br /> - -Cleanliness, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.<br /> - -Clergy, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.<br /> - -Clermont, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> - -Cloister, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.<br /> - -Co-education, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_580" id="Page_580">[580]</a></span> - -Colleges, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.<br /> - -<em>Colloquy of the Abbé</em>, of Erasmus, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br /> - -Comedy, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br /> - -Comenius, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121-136</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.<br /> - -Communication, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">lack of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of knowledge, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.</span><br /> - -Compayré, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_568">568</a>.<br /> - -<a name="COM" id="COM"></a> -Compulsion, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.<br /> - -Comte, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_529">529-531</a>.<br /> - -Condé, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> - -Condillac, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312-319</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1"><em>Grammaire</em>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span><br /> - -Condorcet, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379-389</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.<br /> - -<em>Conduct of Schools</em>, La Salle’s, <a href="#Page_262">262-276</a>.<br /> - -Confucius, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.<br /> - -<em>Conjugal Precepts</em>, Plutarch’s, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br /> - -Conscience, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.<br /> - -Considerant, Victor, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.<br /> - -Constituent Assembly, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.<br /> - -Construction, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.<br /> - -Convention, The, <a href="#Page_390">390-411</a>.<br /> - -Convents, <a href="#Page_62">62-70</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214-218</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.<br /> - -Conversation, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">with Aristodemus, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Art of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of Buddha and Purna, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</span><br /> - -<em>Conversations</em>, of Madame de Maintenon, <a href="#Page_222">222-229</a>.<br /> - -Cordova, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br /> - -Coriolanus, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br /> - -Corneille, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.<br /> - -Cornelia, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br /> - -Corporal punishment, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271-276</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_551">551</a>.<br /> - -Coste, P., <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.<br /> - -Cotton, <em>Montaigne</em>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br /> - -Council of Carthage, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br /> - -Council of public instruction, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.<br /> - -Councils-General, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.<br /> - -<em>Counsels to her Daughter</em>, of Madame de Lambert, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.<br /> - -Courage, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.<br /> - -Cournot, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.<br /> - -<em>Course of Study</em>, Condillac’s, <a href="#Page_214">214-219</a>.<br /> - -Courses for adults, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.<br /> - -Courses of study, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>, <a href="#Page_520">520-525</a>, <a href="#Page_559">559</a>.<br /> - -Courtalon, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.<br /> - -Cousin, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.<br /> - -Coustel, <em>Education of Children</em>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> - -Critias, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.<br /> - -Crousaz, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.<br /> - -Culture, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Athenian, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Chinese, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Egyptian, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of the imagination, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of the Middle Age, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">self, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a>, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">studies, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324-326</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</span><br /> - -Curiosity, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.<br /> - -<em>Cyropædia</em>, Xenophon’s, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.<br /> - -Czech, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> -<br /> - -Dacier, Madame, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.<br /> - -D’Alembert, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.<br /> - -Dancing, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.<br /> - -Darin, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_581" id="Page_581">[581]</a></span> - -Daubenton, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.<br /> - -Daunou, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.<br /> - -Dauphin, The, <a href="#Page_182">182-185</a>.<br /> - -David, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /> - -Decazes, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.<br /> - -Deism, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.<br /> - -De Lasteyrie, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.<br /> - -Démia, <a href="#Page_254">254-258</a>.<br /> - -Demogeot, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.<br /> - -Demosthenes, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.<br /> - -<em>De Ratione Studii</em>, of Erasmus, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br /> - -De Sacy, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> - -Descartes, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187-192</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.<br /> - -Deschamps, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.<br /> - -Dessau, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.<br /> - -Destiny, of man, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>, <a href="#Page_542">542</a>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of woman, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</span><br /> - -De Tocqueville, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.<br /> - -Development, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>, <a href="#Page_542">542</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">precocious, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</span><br /> - -Deventer, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br /> - -Devotion, <a href="#Page_214">214-217</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.<br /> - -Dialectics, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.<br /> - -Dialogue, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br /> - -<em>Dialogues of the Dead</em>, Fénelon’s, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.<br /> - -<em>Dictionnaire de Pédagogie</em>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.<br /> - -<em>Didactica Magna</em>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> - -Didactics, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.<br /> - -Diderot, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319-327</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.<br /> - -Diesterweg, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.<br /> - -Dignity, of mother, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of persons, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</span><br /> - -Diogenes, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.<br /> - -Diogenes Laërtius, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.<br /> - -Discipline, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145-148</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159-162</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249-252</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263-266</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270-276</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_551">551</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of consequences, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_551">551</a>.</span><br /> - -<em>Discourse on Method</em>, of Descartes, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br /> - -Discovery, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a>.<br /> - -Dittes, <em>Histoire de l’éducation</em>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.<br /> - -Division of labor, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_569">569</a>.<br /> - -Doctors, of the Church, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br /> - -<em>Doctrinaries</em>, The, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.<br /> - -Domitian, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.<br /> - -<em>Donatus</em>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.<br /> - -Dordogne, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.<br /> - -Drama, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.<br /> - -Drane, Augusta F., <em>Christian Schools and Scholars</em>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.<br /> - -Drawing, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.<br /> - -Dressler, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.<br /> - -Dualism, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Socratic, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</span><br /> - -Dubois, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.<br /> - -Duclos, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.<br /> - -Dumarsais, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.<br /> - -Dumonstier, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.<br /> - -Dupanloup, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.<br /> - -Dupont de Nemours, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.<br /> - -Duruy, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>.<br /> - -Dussault, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.<br /> - -Duty, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of teacher, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> - -<em>Economics</em>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br /> - -Economy, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">in education, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of nature, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</span><br /> - -Écouen, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_582" id="Page_582">[582]</a></span> - -Edgworth, Miss, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.<br /> - -<a name="EDU" id="EDU"></a> -Education, <a href="#Page_30">30-33</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">in antiquity, <a href="#Page_1">1-16</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Athenian, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">by the Church, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">definition of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_540">540</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">domestic, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">extent of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">formal, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145-147</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">among the Greeks, <a href="#Page_17">17-42</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">higher, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">intellectual, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468-475</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">moral, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159-162</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177-182</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199-203</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245-252</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>, <a href="#Page_550">550</a>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">national, <a href="#Page_340">340-389</a>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>, <a href="#Page_536">536</a>, <a href="#Page_564">564-568</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">negative, <a href="#Page_287">287-310</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, <a href="#Page_542">542-555</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">the new, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284-310</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_542">542</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">obligatory, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">the old, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_547">547</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">physical, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196-199</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">power of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">public, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113-136</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">purpose of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>, <a href="#Page_536">536</a>, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Roman, <a href="#Page_43">43-60</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">science of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_535">535-571</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">scientific, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_535">535-555</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">self, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a>, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Spartan, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">systematic, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_525">525</a>, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>, <a href="#Page_547">547</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">treatises on, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501-503</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">universal, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>, <a href="#Page_526">526-531</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">a universal right, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of women, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174-176</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212-231</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478-507</a>.</span><br /> - -<em>Education</em>, Spencer’s, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, <a href="#Page_538">538-555</a>.<br /> - -<em>Education as a Science</em>, Bain’s, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_556">556-563</a>.<br /> - -<em>Education of Girls</em>, Fénelon’s, <a href="#Page_165">165-169</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174-177</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.<br /> - -<em>Education of Man</em>, Frœbel’s, <a href="#Page_453">453-456</a>.<br /> - -<em>Education of a Prince</em>, Nicole’s, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> - -<em>Education of Women</em>, of Madame de Rémusat, <a href="#Page_487">487-490</a>.<br /> - -Egypt, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br /> - -Elocution, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br /> - -<em>Émile</em>, The, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278-310</a>.<br /> - -Emotions, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_550">550</a>, <a href="#Page_551">551</a>.<br /> - -Emulation, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.<br /> - -<em>Encyclopédie</em>, The, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.<br /> - -Encyclopædists, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.<br /> - -England, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.<br /> - -<em>Entretiens sur les Sciences</em>, Lamy’s, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.<br /> - -Environment, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.<br /> - -Epicureans, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> - -Equality, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of sex, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</span><br /> - -Erasmus, <a href="#Page_85">85-91</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">works of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_583" id="Page_583">[583]</a></span> - -Espionage, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.<br /> - -<em>Esther</em>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.<br /> - -Estouteville, Cardinal d’, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.<br /> - -Ethics, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.<br /> - -Ethnology, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.<br /> - -Etiquette, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of ladies, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</span><br /> - -<em>Eudemon</em> of Rabelais, <a href="#Page_92">92-100</a>.<br /> - -<em>Euthydemus</em>, The, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br /> - -Evil, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">cause of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">how overcome, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.</span><br /> - -Evolution, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.<br /> - -Examinations, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of teachers, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</span><br /> - -Example, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.<br /> - -Exclusiveness, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.<br /> - -Excursions, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>.<br /> - -<em>Existence of God</em>, Fénelon’s, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br /> - -Experience, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.<br /> - -Explanation, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.<br /> - -Expulsion, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.<br /> -<br /> - -Fables, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.<br /> - -<em>Fables</em>, Fénelon’s, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177-180</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.<br /> - -Faculties, The, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_511">511-513</a>.<br /> - -<em>Faire faire</em>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.<br /> - -Faith, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.<br /> - -Family, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, <a href="#Page_542">542</a>, <a href="#Page_545">545</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">sacrificed, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</span><br /> - -Farrar, Archdeacon, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br /> - -Fathers, The early, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> - -Fathers, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_545">545</a>.<br /> - -Faults, in education, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270-276</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302-307</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a>, <a href="#Page_568">568</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of Greek pedagogy, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of women, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</span><br /> - -Fear, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.<br /> - -Feelings, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.<br /> - -Felbiger, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.<br /> - -Fellenberg, <em>Agricultural Institutes</em>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.<br /> - -Fencing, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.<br /> - -Fénelon, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164-186</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.<br /> - -Ferrier, <em>Greek Philosophy</em>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> - -Ferule, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.<br /> - -Fichte, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1"><em>Discourse to the German Nation</em>, <a href="#Page_536">536</a>.</span><br /> - -Firmness, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.<br /> - -Fischer, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.<br /> - -Fitch, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.<br /> - -Fléchier, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> - -Fleury, The Abbé, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.<br /> - -Fontaine, Madame de, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.<br /> - -Fontanes, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.<br /> - -Form, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.<br /> - -Formalism, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.<br /> - -Fortoul, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.<br /> - -Fourcroy, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.<br /> - -Fourier, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.<br /> - -Fournier, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.<br /> - -France, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218-224</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">College of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</span><br /> - -Francke, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.<br /> - -Frankfort, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.<br /> - -Freedom, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">annihilated, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of intelligence, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_584" id="Page_584">[584]</a></span> - -French, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.<br /> - -French Revolution, The, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362-389</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.<br /> - -Friburg, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.<br /> - -Frœbel, <a href="#Page_446">446-465</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.<br /> - -Fronto, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br /> - -Frugality, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.<br /> - -Fulneck, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> - -Fustel de Coulanges, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br /> -<br /> - -Gall, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.<br /> - -Gamala, Joshua Ben, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br /> - -Gamaliel, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.<br /> - -<em>Gargantua</em> of Rabelais, <a href="#Page_91">91-100</a>.<br /> - -Garnier, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.<br /> - -Garot, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.<br /> - -<em>Gaudentius, Letter to</em>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br /> - -Gaultier, The Abbé, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.<br /> - -Genesis, of knowledge, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.<br /> - -Geneva, College of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br /> - -Genlis, Madame de, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479-482</a>.<br /> - -Geography, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">moral, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</span><br /> - -Geometry, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.<br /> - -Gérando, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.<br /> - -German, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.<br /> - -Germany, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.<br /> - -<em>Germany</em> of Madame de Staël, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.<br /> - -Gerson, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br /> - -Gessner, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.<br /> - -“Gifts” of Frœbel, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.<br /> - -Girard, The Père, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465-475</a>.<br /> - -Girls, destiny of, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">education of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212-231</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478-507</a>.</span><br /> - -Girondists, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.<br /> - -God, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">belief in, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">duty to, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">knowledge of, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">omnipresence of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</span><br /> - -Gœthe, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.<br /> - -Goldammer, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.<br /> - -Golden rule, example of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br /> - -<em>Gonzagas, Prince of</em>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.<br /> - -Good, The, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.<br /> - -Goodwin, <em>Plutarch’s Morals</em>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.<br /> - -<em>Gorgias</em>, The, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br /> - -Gossot, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.<br /> - -Gournay, Mademoiselle, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br /> - -Government, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270-276</a>.<br /> - -Gracchus, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br /> - -Grades, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>, <a href="#Page_559">559</a>.<br /> - -Grammar, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470-475</a>.<br /> - -Grammarian, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.<br /> - -Gratuity, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.<br /> - -Gray Friars, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.<br /> - -Gréard, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.<br /> - -Greek, the study of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324-326</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>, <a href="#Page_547">547</a>, <a href="#Page_559">559</a>.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_585" id="Page_585">[585]</a></span> - -Greek pedagogy, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17-42</a>.<br /> - -Gregory the Great, Saint, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> - -Griesheim, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.<br /> - -Grignan, Madame de, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.<br /> - -Grimm, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.<br /> - -Groot, Gerard, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br /> - -Grosselin, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> - -Grote, <em>History of Greece</em>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> - -Gruner, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.<br /> - -Guienne, College of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br /> - -Guidance, as object of instruction, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.<br /> - -Guillaume, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.<br /> - -Guizot, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>, <a href="#Page_519">519-522</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Madame, <a href="#Page_490">490-494</a>.</span><br /> - -Guyon, Madame, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.<br /> - -Guyot, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> - -Guyton de Morveau, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.<br /> - -Gymnasium, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Greek, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</span><br /> - -Gymnastics, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195-199</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">intellectual, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">interdicted, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> - -Habits, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.<br /> - -Halle, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.<br /> - -Halle aux Draps, <em>mutual school</em>, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.<br /> - -Hamilton, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.<br /> - -Hamilton, Miss, <a href="#Page_482">482-484</a>.<br /> - -Hannibal, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br /> - -Happiness, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.<br /> - -“Hardening process,” <a href="#Page_196">196-198</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.<br /> - -Harmony, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.<br /> - -Hartley, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.<br /> - -Harvard College, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> - -Health, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_542">542</a>.<br /> - -Heart, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471-475</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.<br /> - -Hebrew, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.<br /> - -Hebrews, <a href="#Page_7">7-11</a>.<br /> - -Hecker, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.<br /> - -Hegel, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.<br /> - -Heidelberg, University of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br /> - -Helvetius, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327-330</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.<br /> - -Henry IV., of France, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.<br /> - -Herbart, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.<br /> - -Herbault, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.<br /> - -Herder, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.<br /> - -Heredity, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.<br /> - -Herodotus, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br /> - -Hersan, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.<br /> - -Hindoos, <a href="#Page_2">2-4</a>.<br /> - -History, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of education, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</span><br /> - -Holidays, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.<br /> - -Holiness, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214-217</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.<br /> - -Holland, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.<br /> - -Holland, Philemon, <em>Plutarch’s Morals</em>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.<br /> - -Homer, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.<br /> - -Honor, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.<br /> - -Horace, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.<br /> - -<em>How Gertrude teaches her Children</em>, Pestalozzi’s, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.<br /> - -Huc, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br /> - -Humanist, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.<br /> - -Humanities, The, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558-561</a>.<br /> - -<em>Humanities</em>, Arnauld’s, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> - -<em>Human Understanding</em>, Locke’s, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.<br /> - -Hume, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.<br /> - -Hygiene, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.<br /> -<br /> - -Ideal, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Chinese, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of the Fathers, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Greek, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Hebrew, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Hindoo, <a href="#Page_3">3-5</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Roman, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Persian, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_586" id="Page_586">[586]</a></span> - -Idealists, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.<br /> - -Ideas, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">birth of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">grammar of, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">innate, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">religious, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">made significant, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</span><br /> - -Identity, loss of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.<br /> - -Ignorance, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">learned, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Socratic, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</span><br /> - -Imagination, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.<br /> - -Imitation, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.<br /> - -<em>Imitation</em>, Gerson’s, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br /> - -Immobility, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.<br /> - -Impressions, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.<br /> - -India, education in, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.<br /> - -Individuality, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">loss of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</span><br /> - -Induction, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>.<br /> - -Indulgence, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of teachers, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</span><br /> - -Inertness, intellectual, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.<br /> - -Instinct, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>, <a href="#Page_536">536</a>.<br /> - -Institute of the Brethren, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153-163</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252-277</a>.<br /> - -Institutes, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.<br /> - -<em>Institutes of Oratory</em>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.<br /> - -Instruction, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Christian, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">domestic, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">ecclesiastical, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">gratuitous, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">indirect, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177-182</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287-310</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">mutual, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513-519</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">national, <a href="#Page_340">340-389</a>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">need of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">popular, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">primary, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112-136</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253-277</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455-465</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468-475</a>, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a>, <a href="#Page_525">525</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">public, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522-525</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">religious, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">secondary, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">self, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a>, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sense, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">simultaneous, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">technical, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_545">545</a>.</span><br /> - -Intelligence, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">disregard for, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">works of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</span><br /> - -Interpretation, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.<br /> - -Intuition, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290-310</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_548">548-555</a>.<br /> - -Irony, Socratic, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br /> - -Israelites, <a href="#Page_6">6-11</a>.<br /> - -Italy, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.<br /> -<br /> - -Jacotot, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.<br /> - -Janet, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_587" id="Page_587">[587]</a></span> - -Jansenists, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153-163</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.<br /> - -<em>Janua linguarum reserata</em>, of Comenius, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.<br /> - -Jealousy, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.<br /> - -Jena, Prussians at, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.<br /> - -Jerome, Saint, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.<br /> - -Jeromites, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br /> - -Jesuits, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139-150</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340-344</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of the East, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</span><br /> - -Jewess, education of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.<br /> - -Jews, <a href="#Page_8">8-11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br /> - -John of Wessel, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br /> - -Joly, Claude, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.<br /> - -Jomard, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.<br /> - -Josephine, The Empress, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.<br /> - -Joubert, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.<br /> - -Jouffroy, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.<br /> - -Judgment, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.<br /> - -Juilly, College of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br /> - -Justice, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.<br /> - -Juvenal, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br /> -<br /> - -Kant, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332-338</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_536">536</a>.<br /> - -Keilhau, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.<br /> - -Khung-tsze, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br /> - -<em>Kindergartens</em>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457-465</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.<br /> - -Kindermann, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.<br /> - -Klopstock, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.<br /> - -Knowledge, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_547">547</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">clearness of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of facts, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">a means, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of nature, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">source of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">before practice, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">value, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">for women, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</span><br /> - -Königsberg, University of, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.<br /> - -Krause, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.<br /> - -Krüsi, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.<br /> -<br /> - -Labor, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">manual, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.</span><br /> - -Laborde, Comte de, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.<br /> - -La Bruyère, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.<br /> - -La Chalotais, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343-355</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.<br /> - -La Condamine, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.<br /> - -Lacroix, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.<br /> - -<em>Læta, Letter to</em>, <a href="#Page_64">64-67</a>.<br /> - -Lafargue, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.<br /> - -Lafayette, Madame de, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.<br /> - -La Flèche, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">College of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</span><br /> - -La Fontaine, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.<br /> - -Lagrange, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.<br /> - -Laisné, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.<br /> - -<em>Laissez faire</em>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.<br /> - -Lakanal, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Law of, <a href="#Page_402">402-408</a>.</span><br /> - -Lambert, Madame de, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.<br /> - -Lambruschini, The Abbé, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.<br /> - -Lamoignon, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> - -Lamy, The Père, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br /> - -Lancaster, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.<br /> - -Lancelot, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.<br /> - -Langethal, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.<br /> - -Language, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323-326</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>, <a href="#Page_547">547</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">native, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469-471</a>.</span><br /> - -Lanthenas, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.<br /> - -Lâo-tsze, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br /> - -La Pitié, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.<br /> - -Larochefoucauld-Liancourt, <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.<br /> - -Laromiguière, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.<br /> - -La Salle, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254-277</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.<br /> - -Lateran Council, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_588" id="Page_588">[588]</a></span> - -Latin, the study of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>, <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.<br /> - -Laurie, S. S., <em>Comenius</em>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> - -Lavallée, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.<br /> - -Laws, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">educational, <a href="#Page_399">399-402</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Plato’s, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</span><br /> - -Lay teachers, <a href="#Page_340">340-345</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.<br /> - -Lecointe, The Père, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br /> - -Legendre, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.<br /> - -Legislative Assembly, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.<br /> - -Leibnitz, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.<br /> - -Leisure, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.<br /> - -Lelong, The Père, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br /> - -<em>Leonard and Gertrude</em>, Pestalozzi’s, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.<br /> - -Lepelletier Saint-Fargeau, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.<br /> - -Lessing, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.<br /> - -<em>Letters to Lucilius</em>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<br /> - -<em>Letters to Pope Innocent XI.</em>, Bossuet’s, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.<br /> - -Lévi Alvarès, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.<br /> - -Lewes, George Henry, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br /> - -L’Hôpital, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.<br /> - -<em>Liberal Education of Children</em>, of Erasmus, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br /> - -Liberty, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of teaching, <a href="#Page_371">371-396</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</span><br /> - -Life, family, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>, <a href="#Page_546">546</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">monastic, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">practical, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>, <a href="#Page_541">541</a>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">public, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">stages of, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>, <a href="#Page_542">542</a>.</span><br /> - -Lissa, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> - -Literature, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">classical, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324-326</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>, <a href="#Page_547">547</a>, <a href="#Page_559">559</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Greek, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_559">559</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Latin, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324-326</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">profane, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</span><br /> - -Little Schools of Port Royal, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.<br /> - -Littré, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.<br /> - -<em>Lives</em>, Plutarch’s, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.<br /> - -Locke, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194-210</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>.<br /> - -Logic, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.<br /> - -<em>Logic</em>, Port Royal, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br /> - -Lorain, P., <a href="#Page_519">519</a>.<br /> - -Lorenz, <em>Life of Alcuin</em>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.<br /> - -Louis XIV., <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.<br /> - -Louis-le-Grand, College of, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.<br /> - -Louis the Pious, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.<br /> - -Lourmand, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.<br /> - -Love, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of country, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</span><br /> - -Loyola, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1"><em>Constitutions</em>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</span><br /> - -Lubbock, Sir John, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.<br /> - -Luccard, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.<br /> - -Lucerne, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.<br /> - -Lupus of Ferrières, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.<br /> - -Luther, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113-120</a>.<br /> - -Luxembourg, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> - -Luxury, effect of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.<br /> - -Lycée, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.<br /> - -Lyceum, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.<br /> - -Lycurgus, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.<br /> - -Lyons, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.<br /> -<br /> - -Macaulay, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br /> - -Madras, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.<br /> - -<em>Magdala</em>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_589" id="Page_589">[589]</a></span> - -Magistrates, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.<br /> - -Maieutics, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.<br /> - -Maine de Biran, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.<br /> - -Maintenon, Madame de, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218-231</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.<br /> - -Maisonneuve, Madame de, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.<br /> - -Maistre, Joseph de, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.<br /> - -Malebranche, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192-194</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.<br /> - -Man, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">conception of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">the perfect, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>, <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</span><br /> - -Mann, Horace, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>.<br /> - -Manners, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of Chinese, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of Greeks, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</span><br /> - -Mansel, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.<br /> - -Marat, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.<br /> - -Marcellus, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br /> - -Marenholtz, Baroness von, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.<br /> - -Maria Theresa, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.<br /> - -Marienthal, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.<br /> - -Marion, H., <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.<br /> - -Marmontel, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.<br /> - -Marriages, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.<br /> - -Marsolier, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br /> - -Martin, Aimé, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.<br /> - -Martin, Alexander, <em>Les Doctrines Pédagogiques des Grecs</em>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.<br /> - -Martin, Henry, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.<br /> - -Mascaron, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br /> - -Massillon, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br /> - -Mathematics, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">for women, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</span><br /> - -Mather, Cotton, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> - -Maturity, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.<br /> - -Mauriac, College of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> - -Mayer, Enrico, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.<br /> - -Mean, The, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.<br /> - -<em>Meditations</em>, Marcus Aurelius, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br /> - -Melancthon, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br /> - -Melmoth, <em>Pliny</em>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> - -<em>Memorabilia</em>, The, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br /> - -<em>Memoriter</em>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.<br /> - -Memory, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.<br /> - -Method, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_536">536</a>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">attractive, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>, <a href="#Page_541">541</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Chinese, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dialectic, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">didactic, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><em>educative</em>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">intuitive, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295-310</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402-404</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415-445</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461-463</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">among the Jews, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Port Royal, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of reading, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">repulsive, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Socratic, <a href="#Page_22">22-27</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">synthetic, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</span><br /> - -<em>Methods</em>, Lancelot’s, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> - -Meunier, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.<br /> - -Michel, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.<br /> - -Michelet, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.<br /> - -Middendorf, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.<br /> - -Middle Age, The, <a href="#Page_67">67-81</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">ignorance in, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</span><br /> - -Mildness, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">severe, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</span><br /> - -Milton, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.<br /> - -Mind, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">not <em>tabula rasa</em>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</span><br /> - -Mirabeau, <a href="#Page_369">369-372</a>.<br /> - -Moderation, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.<br /> - -Modesty, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.<br /> - -Molière, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.<br /> - -Monasteries, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.<br /> - -Monge, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_590" id="Page_590">[590]</a></span> - -Monitors, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514-519</a>.<br /> - -Montagnards, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.<br /> - -Montaigne, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101-110</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of Greek education, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</span><br /> - -Montaigu, College of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br /> - -Montalivet, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.<br /> - -Montausier, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.<br /> - -Montbrison, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.<br /> - -Monteil, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br /> - -Montesquieu, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.<br /> - -Montpellier, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.<br /> - -Morality, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">good conduct, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Platonic, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">utilitarian, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302-305</a>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</span><br /> - -Morals, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50-60</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471-475</a>, <a href="#Page_547">547</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.<br /> - -Moravian Brethren, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> - -Moreau, Marie, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.<br /> - -Mothers, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">duties of, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>, <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</span><br /> - -Mother-tongue, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465-471</a>.<br /> - -Motives, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.<br /> - -Moulins, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.<br /> - -München-Buchsee, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.<br /> - -Museum, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.<br /> - -Music, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">interdicted, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</span><br /> - -Mutual instruction, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513-519</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.<br /> - -Mysticism, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">criticism of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</span><br /> - -Mythology, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.<br /> -<br /> - -Naples, University of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br /> - -Napoleon I., <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>, <a href="#Page_510">510-513</a>.<br /> - -National Assembly, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.<br /> - -<em>National Education</em>, of La Chalotais, <a href="#Page_344">344-355</a>.<br /> - -National holidays, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.<br /> - -Native tongue, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.<br /> - -Natural history, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.<br /> - -Nature, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">no commencement in, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">economy of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">following, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">human, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>, <a href="#Page_536">536</a>, <a href="#Page_550">550</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">morality in, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">return to, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">study of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</span><br /> - -Naville, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.<br /> - -Necker de Saussure, Madame, <a href="#Page_493">493-500</a>.<br /> - -Neufchâtel, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.<br /> - -Neuhof, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.<br /> - -New Education, The, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284-310</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_542">542</a>.<br /> - -Newspapers, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.<br /> - -Nicole, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154-159</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1"><em>Logic</em>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><em>Education of a Prince</em>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</span><br /> - -Niederer, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.<br /> - -Niemeyer, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.<br /> - -Nirvâna, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.<br /> - -Nisard, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.<br /> - -Normal Schools, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.<br /> - -North, Sir Thomas, <em>Plutarch</em>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.<br /> - -<em>Novum Organum</em>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br /> - -Number, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of pupils, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_591" id="Page_591">[591]</a></span> - -Oberlin, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.<br /> - -Object-lessons, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.<br /> - -Obligation. <em>See</em> <a href="#COM">Compulsion</a>, <a href="#EDU">Education</a>, <a href="#STA">State</a>.<br /> - -Observation, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.<br /> - -Old Education, The, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.<br /> - -Olynthiacs, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br /> - -Optimism, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>, <a href="#Page_551">551</a>.<br /> - -Oratorians, <a href="#Page_150">150-153</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.<br /> - -Oratory, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<br /> - -Oratory, The, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br /> - -<em>Orbis sensualium pictus</em>, of Comenius, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.<br /> - -<em>Order of Study</em>, of Erasmus, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br /> - -Organization, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of Christian education, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of instruction, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of schools, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of the State, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</span><br /> - -Orleans, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.<br /> - -Ormuzd, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br /> - -<em>Orphan Asylum</em>, Francke’s, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.<br /> - -Ovid, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br /> - -Oxenstiern, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> - -Oxford, University of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> -<br /> - -<em>Pacatula</em>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br /> - -Padua, University of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br /> - -<em>Pædagogium</em>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.<br /> - -Painting, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.<br /> - -Palatine school, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.<br /> - -Palestra, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br /> - -Pamiers, College of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> - -Pansophia, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.<br /> - -<em>Pantagruel</em>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.<br /> - -Pantheism, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of Hindoos, <a href="#Page_2">2-4</a>.</span><br /> - -Pape-Carpentier, Madame, <a href="#Page_501">501-504</a>.<br /> - -Papinian, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> - -Paris, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Normal School at, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">University of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233-235</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</span><br /> - -<em>Parish School</em>, The, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.<br /> - -Parliaments, French, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.<br /> - -Pascal, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.<br /> - -Pascal, Jacqueline, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214-217</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1"><em>Regulations for Children</em>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</span><br /> - -Pasquier, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.<br /> - -Patak, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> - -Patience, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.<br /> - -Paul III., Pope, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> - -<em>Paula</em>, <a href="#Page_64">64-67</a>.<br /> - -Paulet, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.<br /> - -Pauline de Meulan, Madame Guizot, <a href="#Page_490">490-494</a>.<br /> - -Pécaut, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.<br /> - -Pedagogics, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.<br /> - -Pedagogue, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.<br /> - -Pedagogy, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">English, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_535">535-570</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">German, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of the Jansenists, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of the Jesuits, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">modern, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</span><br /> - -Pedants, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.<br /> - -Penances, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.<br /> - -People, The, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">exclusion of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</span><br /> - -Perez, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.<br /> - -Perfection, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>, <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_592" id="Page_592">[592]</a></span> - -Pericles, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.<br /> - -Perigordian, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br /> - -Persia, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">education by the State, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</span><br /> - -Personality, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.<br /> - -Pessimism, <a href="#Page_159">159-162</a>, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.<br /> - -Pestalozzi, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413-445</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.<br /> - -Peter the Great, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br /> - -Philanthropists, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.<br /> - -Philip of Macedon, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.<br /> - -Philosophers, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.<br /> - -Philosophy, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">definition, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of education, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, <a href="#Page_535">535-570</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Greek, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">for magistrates, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</span><br /> - -Phœnix, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.<br /> - -Physics, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.<br /> - -Piccolomini, Æneas Sylvius, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br /> - -Pictet, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.<br /> - -Pietists, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.<br /> - -Pillans, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>.<br /> - -<em>Plan of a University</em>, Diderot’s, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.<br /> - -Plato, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">aim of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">caste in, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of the drama, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of music, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</span><br /> - -Platter, Thomas, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br /> - -Play, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.<br /> - -Pleasures, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.<br /> - -Plessier, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.<br /> - -Plessis, College of, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.<br /> - -Pliny, <em>Letters</em>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br /> - -Pluche, The Abbé, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.<br /> - -Plutarch, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53-58</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">education of women, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">training of children, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</span><br /> - -Poetry, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br /> - -Poitiers, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.<br /> - -Poland, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.<br /> - -Politeness, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.<br /> - -Politics, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>, <a href="#Page_542">542</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Aristotle’s, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Plato’s, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">versatility in, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</span><br /> - -Polybius, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.<br /> - -<em>Ponocrates</em> of Rabelais, <a href="#Page_93">93-100</a>.<br /> - -Pontchartrain, de, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.<br /> - -Port Royal, <a href="#Page_152">152-163</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215-217</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">demolition of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</span><br /> - -Portugal, The King of, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.<br /> - -Positivists, <a href="#Page_529">529-531</a>.<br /> - -Pourchot, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.<br /> - -Practice, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of education, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</span><br /> - -Prague, University of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br /> - -Praise, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.<br /> - -Precision, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.<br /> - -Priests, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">as educators, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140-163</a>.</span><br /> - -Principles, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of education, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439-441</a>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, <a href="#Page_566">566-570</a>.</span><br /> - -Professors, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.<br /> - -Progress, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">popular instruction, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112-136</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</span><br /> - -<em>Progressive Education</em>, of Madame Necker, <a href="#Page_494">494-500</a>.<br /> - -Pronunciation, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.<br /> - -Protestantism, <a href="#Page_112">112-136</a>.<br /> - -Protestants, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br /> - -Proverbs, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.<br /> - -Prudence, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_545">545</a>.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_593" id="Page_593">[593]</a></span> - -Psychology, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.<br /> - -Public schools, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.<br /> - -Punishment, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249-252</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270-276</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_551">551-553</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">corporal, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201-203</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271-275</a>.</span><br /> - -Purity, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.<br /> - -Purna, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.<br /> - -Pythagoras, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<br /> -<br /> - -<em>Quadrivium</em>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br /> - -Questioning, The art of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.<br /> - -Quick, R. H., <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1"><em>Educational Reformers</em>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</span><br /> - -Quintilian, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47-52</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of indulgence, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> - -Rabaud Saint-Étienne, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.<br /> - -Rabbins, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.<br /> - -Rabelais, <a href="#Page_91">91-100</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.<br /> - -Racine, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.<br /> - -Rambouillet, Hôtel de, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.<br /> - -Ramsauer, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.<br /> - -Ramus, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.<br /> - -Rapet, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.<br /> - -Ratich, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.<br /> - -Rationalism, philosophic, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.<br /> - -<em>Ratio Studiorum</em>, of the Jesuits, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br /> - -Reading, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.<br /> - -Realism, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.<br /> - -Reason, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.<br /> - -Reasoning, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.<br /> - -Recreation, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">mathematical, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">physical, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</span><br /> - -Recruitment of teachers, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.<br /> - -Redolfi, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.<br /> - -Refinement, conventional, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.<br /> - -Reflection, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.<br /> - -Reform, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.<br /> - -Reformation, The, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113-136</a>.<br /> - -<em>Refutation of Helvetius on Man</em>, Diderot’s, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.<br /> - -Reid, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.<br /> - -Reims, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.<br /> - -Religion, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.<br /> - -Rémusat, Madame de, <a href="#Page_487">487-490</a>.<br /> - -Renaissance, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83-111</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.<br /> - -Renan, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1"><em>Vie de Jésus</em>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">education of women, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</span><br /> - -Repetition, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.<br /> - -<em>Republic</em>, Plato’s, <a href="#Page_27">27-33</a>.<br /> - -Respect, for teacher, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.<br /> - -Rewards, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.<br /> - -Rhetoric, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.<br /> - -Rhythm, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br /> - -Richter, <a href="#Page_536">536</a>.<br /> - -<em>Rights of Man</em>, Talleyrand’s, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.<br /> - -Robespierre, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.<br /> - -<em>Robinson Crusoe</em>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.<br /> - -Rochefoucault, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.<br /> - -Rochow, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.<br /> - -Rod, The, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_594" id="Page_594">[594]</a></span> - -Rodez, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.<br /> - -Roger de Guimps, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.<br /> - -Rolland, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355-359</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Law of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</span><br /> - -Rollin, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232-252</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.<br /> - -Roman Law, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.<br /> - -Rome, <a href="#Page_43">43-60</a>.<br /> - -Romme, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Law of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</span><br /> - -Rouen, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.<br /> - -Rousseau, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278-310</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332-337</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.<br /> - -Routine, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_536">536</a>.<br /> - -Royer-Collard, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.<br /> - -Rudolstadt, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.<br /> - -Rules, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.<br /> - -Russell, Doctor, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.<br /> -<br /> - -Sacrifices, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.<br /> - -Saint Cyr, <a href="#Page_218">218-231</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.<br /> - -Saint Cyran, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.<br /> - -Sainte-Beuve, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.<br /> - -Saint François de Salles, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.<br /> - -Saint Gall, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> - -Saint-Germain, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.<br /> - -Saint-Hilaire, Barthélemy, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a>.<br /> - -Saint-Just, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.<br /> - -Saint Leu, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.<br /> - -Saint Malo, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.<br /> - -Saint Pierre, The Abbé, <a href="#Page_280">280-282</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.<br /> - -Saint Pierre, Bernardin de, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.<br /> - -Saint Simon, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.<br /> - -Saint Yon, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.<br /> - -Salamanca, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br /> - -Salary, of teachers, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.<br /> - -Salian hymns, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.<br /> - -Salzman, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.<br /> - -Sauvan, Mademoiselle, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.<br /> - -Savages, education of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.<br /> - -<em>Savoyard Vicar’s Profession of Faith</em>, Rousseau’s, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.<br /> - -Sarazin, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.<br /> - -Schiller, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.<br /> - -Schleiermacher, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.<br /> - -Schmid, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.<br /> - -Schmidt, Charles, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.<br /> - -Scholasticism, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">criticism of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</span><br /> - -School-house, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.<br /> - -Schools, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">adornment of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">at Athens, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><em>central</em>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">in China, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">claustral, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">etymology of the word, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">European type of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">infant, <a href="#Page_457">457-465</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501-504</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">in India, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Jewish, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Latin, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of the Middle Age, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Palatine, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">primary, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254-277</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>, <a href="#Page_520">520-525</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">public, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">real, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">at Rome, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">secular, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</span><br /> - -Schœpfer, Captain, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.<br /> - -Schultaus, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br /> - -Schultess, Anna, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.<br /> - -Science, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>, <a href="#Page_559">559</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of education, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37-41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435-470</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">neglect of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</span><br /> - -Scipio, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_595" id="Page_595">[595]</a></span> - -Scudéry, Mademoiselle de, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.<br /> - -Sculpture, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.<br /> - -Secularization, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340-344</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.<br /> - -Séguier, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> - -Self-abasement, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.<br /> - -Self-consciousness, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.<br /> - -Self-control, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.<br /> - -Selfishness, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>, <a href="#Page_536">536</a>, <a href="#Page_542">542</a>.<br /> - -Self-renunciation, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.<br /> - -Seminary for Schoolmasters, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.<br /> - -Semler, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.<br /> - -Seneca, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> - -Sensationalism, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>.<br /> - -Senses, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283-310</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">education of, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>, <a href="#Page_542">542-555</a>.</span><br /> - -Sensibilities, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">training of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</span><br /> - -Sentenis, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.<br /> - -Sentiments, <a href="#Page_302">302-305</a>.<br /> - -Sequence of studies, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.<br /> - -Seven Liberal Arts, The, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br /> - -Sévigné, Madame de, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.<br /> - -Sexes, equality of, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">separation of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</span><br /> - -Shaftesbury, Lord, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> - -Shakespeare, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.<br /> - -Siciliani, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.<br /> - -Sidonius, Apollinaris, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> - -Sieyès, <a href="#Page_391">391-396</a>.<br /> - -Signal, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.<br /> - -Silence, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.<br /> - -Sill, Miss E. R., <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.<br /> - -Simon, J., <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.<br /> - -Simplicity, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.<br /> - -Singing, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.<br /> - -Site, for schools, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br /> - -Slaves, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">as teachers, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</span><br /> - -Smith, Adam, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.<br /> - -Society, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">unity of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.</span><br /> - -Socrates, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<br /> - -Socratic method, <a href="#Page_22">22-27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.<br /> - -Solomon, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br /> - -Solon, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> - -<em>Sophie</em>, <a href="#Page_305">305-307</a>.<br /> - -Sophists, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> - -Soul, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">culture of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_546">546</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">development of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_495">495-500</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.</span><br /> - -Spain, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br /> - -Sparta, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.<br /> - -Specialists, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.<br /> - -Spelling, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> - -Spencer, Herbert, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>, <a href="#Page_538">538-555</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of caste, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">prejudices of, <a href="#Page_546">546</a>, <a href="#Page_547">547</a>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a>, <a href="#Page_553">553-555</a>.</span><br /> - -<em>Sphericity</em>, of Frœbel, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.<br /> - -Spirit, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_547">547</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of Christianity, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">national, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of Protestantism, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</span><br /> - -Spiritual life, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.<br /> - -Spiritualistic School, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_596" id="Page_596">[596]</a></span> - -Spontaneity, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">in education, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284-309</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, <a href="#Page_547">547</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">suppressed, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</span><br /> - -Staël, Madame de, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.<br /> - -Stanz, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.<br /> - -Stapfer, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.<br /> - -<a name="STA" id="STA"></a> -State, The, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">duty to educate, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363-389</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>, <a href="#Page_520">520-525</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">physical education by, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</span><br /> - -States-General, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.<br /> - -Stewart, Dugald, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.<br /> - -Stoics, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.<br /> - -Strasburg, College of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br /> - -Studies, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Baconian, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">classical, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324-326</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>, <a href="#Page_512">512</a>, <a href="#Page_547">547</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">disciplinary, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296-298</a>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">diversity of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">gradation of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>, <a href="#Page_525">525</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>, <a href="#Page_559">559</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Jewish, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">painful, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">pleasurable, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457-465</a>, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>, <a href="#Page_541">541</a>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sequence of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">simultaneous, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">utilitarian, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296-298</a>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">educational value of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323-326</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">for women, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</span><br /> - -Sturm, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br /> - -Sweden, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.<br /> - -Switzerland, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a>.<br /> - -Summaries, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, <a href="#Page_568">568</a>.<br /> - -Supervision, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.<br /> - -Syllogism, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br /> - -Symmetry, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.<br /> - -Synthesis, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.<br /> -<br /> - -<em>Tabula rasa</em>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.<br /> - -Talent, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">encouragement of, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</span><br /> - -Talleyrand, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372-379</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.<br /> - -Talmud, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.<br /> - -Teachers, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Aristotle, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">faults of, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">respect for, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">as tradesmen, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">training of, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">virtues of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">women as, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478-507</a>.</span><br /> - -“Teachers’ fairs,” <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.<br /> - -Teaching, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of geography, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of history, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of objects, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</span><br /> - -Teaching Congregations, The, <a href="#Page_138">138-163</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.<br /> - -<em>Telemachus</em>, Fénelon’s, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.<br /> - -Temperance, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.<br /> - -Tennis, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<br /> - -Terence, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.<br /> - -Term, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_597" id="Page_597">[597]</a></span> - -Tertullian, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br /> - -Text-books, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">uniformity in, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</span><br /> - -<em>Theme</em>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.<br /> - -Themistocles, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br /> - -Theology, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.<br /> - -Theory, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of education, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>, <a href="#Page_525">525-570</a>.</span><br /> - -Theresa, Saint, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br /> - -Théry, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.<br /> - -Things, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.<br /> - -Thomassin, The Père, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.<br /> - -Thought, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">life of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.</span><br /> - -<em>Thoughts</em>, Locke’s, <a href="#Page_195">195-208</a>.<br /> - -Thucydides, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.<br /> - -Thuringia, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.<br /> - -Tobler, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.<br /> - -Tournon, College of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> - -Trades, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>.<br /> - -Tradition, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.<br /> - -Tragedy, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.<br /> - -Training, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of children, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">mental, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324-326</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468-475</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">physical, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of the senses, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289-308</a>, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of will, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>, <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</span><br /> - -Translation, value of, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.<br /> - -<em>Treatise on Pedagogy</em>, Kant’s, <a href="#Page_332">332-338</a>.<br /> - -<em>Treatise on Studies</em>, Rollin’s, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.<br /> - -<em>Trivium</em>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br /> - -Truth, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.<br /> - -Turgot, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.<br /> - -Tutor, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>.<br /> - -<em>Twelve Tables</em>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.<br /> -<br /> - -Uniformity, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.<br /> - -Unity, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of education, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">in teaching, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</span><br /> - -<em>Universal Instruction</em>, Jacotot’s, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.<br /> - -Universals, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.<br /> - -University, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">Diderot’s, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">for women, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</span><br /> - -University of France, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509-512</a>, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.<br /> - -Unselfishness, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.<br /> - -Utility, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296-310</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>, <a href="#Page_541">541</a>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of culture, <a href="#Page_324">324-326</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>.</span><br /> - -Ursulines, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.<br /> -<br /> - -Values, educational, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323-326</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>.<br /> - -Van Laun, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.<br /> - -Varet, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1"><em>Christian Education</em>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</span><br /> - -Varro, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.<br /> - -Vaughan and Davies, <em>Republic</em>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> - -Venice, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.<br /> - -Vernier, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.<br /> - -<em>Version</em>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.<br /> - -Veturia, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br /> - -Vice, cause of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">how overcome, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</span><br /> - -Vienna, University of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br /> - -Villemain, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.<br /> - -Vincennes, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.<br /> - -Vinet, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.<br /> - -Virchow, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.<br /> - -Virgil, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_598" id="Page_598">[598]</a></span> - -Virtue, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">moral, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">passive, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Roman, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</span><br /> - -Vittorino da Feltre, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br /> - -Vives, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br /> - -Vivonne, Catherine de, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.<br /> - -Voltaire, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.<br /> - -Vulliemin, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.<br /> -<br /> - -Warriors, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.<br /> - -Wartensee, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>.<br /> - -Washington, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.<br /> - -Watson, <em>Quintilian</em>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.<br /> - -Wessel, John of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br /> - -Wittenberg, University of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br /> - -Whipping, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.<br /> - -Will, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>, <a href="#Page_547">547</a>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.<br /> - -Wine, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.<br /> - -Wisdom, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">the highest, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</span><br /> - -Wolker, Doctor, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.<br /> - -Women, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">education of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174-176</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212-231</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305-307</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">unsexed, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</span><br /> - -Words, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.<br /> - -Wordsworth, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.<br /> - -Works, of Comenius, <a href="#Page_125">125-127</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">of Diderot, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of Erasmus, <a href="#Page_87">87-90</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of Fénelon, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of Madame de Genlis, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of Madame de Maintenon, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of Madame Pape-Carpentier, <a href="#Page_501">501-503</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of Pestalozzi, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">of Plutarch, <a href="#Page_53">53-58</a>.</span><br /> - -Worthington, Miss, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.<br /> - -Writing, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;<br /> -<span class="pad1">schools, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</span><br /> - -Wurtzburg, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.<br /> -<br /> - -Xenophon, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br /> -<br /> - -Yverdun, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.<br /> -<br /> - -Zurich, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.<br /> - -Zwingli, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.<br /> -</p> - </div> - - -<div class="transnote pg-brk"> -<a name="TN" id="TN"></a> -<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong></p> - -<p>Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been -corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within -the text and consultation of external sources.</p> - -<p>Footnote<a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> is referenced twice, from <a href="#Para_116">§116</a> and <a href="#Para_117">§117</a>.</p> - -<p>Footnote<a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> has no anchor in the text, but is referenced from the -previous Footnote<a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a>.</p> - -<p>Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been -corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within -the text and consultation of external sources.</p> - -<p>Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, -and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.</p> - -<p> -<a href="#Page_xi">Pg xi</a>: ‘of history of pedagogy’ replaced by ‘of a history of pedagogy’.<br /> -<a href="#Para_40">§40</a> Footnote<a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>: ‘I thiuk it may’ replaced by ‘I think it may’.<br /> -<a href="#Para_42">§42</a>: ‘teaching intrument was’ replaced by ‘teaching instrument was’.<br /> -<a href="#Para_125">§125</a>: Missing — inserted before ‘The German reformer’.<br /> -<a href="#Para_233">§233</a> Footnote<a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a>: the citation ‘—Johnson’s <em>Cyclopædia</em>.’ -has been joined to the quotation, for consistency with other citations.<br /> -<a href="#Para_520">§520</a>: ‘that true edution’ replaced by ‘that true education’.<br /> -<a href="#Para_560">§560</a> Footnote<a href="#Footnote_235_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a>: ‘Monsieurs Rapet and’ replaced by ‘Messieurs Rapet and’.<br /> -<a href="#Para_560">§560</a>: ‘Conseil supérieure’ replaced by ‘Conseil supérieur’.<br /> -<a href="#Para_594">§594</a> Footnote<a href="#Footnote_252_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a>: ‘Madamoiselle Sauvan’ replaced by ‘Mademoiselle Sauvan’.<br /> -<a href="#Para_621">§621</a>: ‘Victor Consedérant’ replaced by ‘Victor Considerant’.<br /> -<a href="#Para_621">§621</a> Footnote<a href="#Footnote_270_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a>: ‘Consedérant’ replaced by ‘Considerant’.<br /> -<br /> -Appendix B.<br /> -<a href="#Bib_5">#5</a>: ‘Historie Critique’ replaced by ‘Histoire Critique’.<br /> -<a href="#Bib_25">#25</a>: ‘et de Principe’ replaced by ‘et du Principe’.<br /> -<br /> -Index.<br /> -Entry ‘Encyclopedists’ replaced by ‘Encyclopædists’.<br /> -Entry ‘Königberg’ replaced by ‘Königsberg’.<br /> -Entry ‘Sazarin’ replaced by ‘Sarazin’.<br /> -Entry ‘Studies’: ‘Bacon of’ replaced by ‘Baconian’.<br /> -Entry ‘Symmetry’: ‘896’ replaced by ‘396’.<br /> -</p> -</div> - - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The History of Pedagogy, by Gabriel Compayré - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY *** - -***** This file should be named 62376-h.htm or 62376-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/3/7/62376/ - -Produced by Turgut Dincer, John Campbell and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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