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diff --git a/old/62342-0.txt b/old/62342-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 3b13c4b..0000000 --- a/old/62342-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11346 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Stonehenge and other British Stone -Monuments Astronomically Considere, by Joseph Norman Lockyer - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Stonehenge and other British Stone Monuments Astronomically Considered - -Author: Joseph Norman Lockyer - -Release Date: June 8, 2020 [EBook #62342] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STONEHENGE AND OTHER BRITISH *** - - - - -Produced by Tim Lindell, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian -Libraries) - - - - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - Text printed in italics has been transcribed _between underscores_, - bold face text =between equal signs=. Small capitals have been - replaced with ALL CAPITALS. Texts ~between tildes~ have been - transcribed from illustrations, and have been included here for the - sake of consistency with the illustrated versions. - - More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text. - - - - - STONEHENGE - - - - - LIST OF WORKS BY SIR NORMAN - LOCKYER. - - PRIMER OF ASTRONOMY. - ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN ASTRONOMY. - MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH. - CONTRIBUTIONS TO SOLAR PHYSICS. - CHEMISTRY OF THE SUN. - THE METEORITIC HYPOTHESIS. - THE SUN’S PLACE IN NATURE. - INORGANIC EVOLUTION. - RECENT AND COMING ECLIPSES. - STARGAZING, PAST AND PRESENT. - (_In conjunction with G. M. Seabroke._) - THE DAWN OF ASTRONOMY. - STONEHENGE AND OTHER BRITISH STONE MONUMENTS. - - STUDIES IN SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. - THE SPECTROSCOPE AND ITS APPLICATIONS. - - THE RULES OF GOLF. - (_In conjunction with W. Rutherford._) - -_In the Press._ - - EDUCATION AND NATIONAL PROGRESS. - - - - - STONEHENGE - AND OTHER - BRITISH STONE MONUMENTS - _Astronomically Considered_ - - BY - SIR NORMAN LOCKYER, K.C.B., F.R.S. - DIRECTOR OF THE SOLAR PHYSICS OBSERVATORY - - HON. LL. D., GLASGOW; HON. SC.D., CAMBRIDGE; CORRESPONDENT OF THE - INSTITUTE OF FRANCE; CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE IMPERIAL ACADEMY OF - SCIENCES OF ST. PETERSBURG; THE SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF NATIONAL - INDUSTRY OF FRANCE; THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, GÖTTINGEN; THE - FRANKLIN INSTITUTE, PHILADELPHIA; THE ROYAL MEDICAL SOCIETY OF - BRUSSELS; SOCIETY OF ITALIAN SPECTROSCOPISTS; THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF - PALERMO; THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF GENEVA; OF THE ASTRONOMICAL - SOCIETY OF MEXICO; MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF LYNCEI, ROME; AND - THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, PHILADELPHIA; HONORARY MEMBER OF - THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCE OF CATANIA; PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF - YORK; LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF MANCHESTER; ROYAL CORNWALL - POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION; AND LEHIGH UNIVERSITY - - London - MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED - 1906 - _All rights reserved_ - - - RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED - BREAD STREET HILL, E.C., AND - BUNGAY, SUFFOLK. - - - - -PREFACE - - -In continuation of my work on the astronomical uses of the Egyptian -Temples, I have from time to time, when leisure has permitted, given -attention to some of the stone circles and other stone monuments -erected, as I believed, for similar uses in this country. One reason for -doing so was that in consequence of the supineness of successive -Governments, and the neglect and wanton destruction by individuals, the -British monuments are rapidly disappearing. - -Although, and indeed because, these inquiries are still incomplete, I -now bring together some of the notes I have collected, as they may -induce other inquirers to go on with the work. Some of the results -already obtained have been communicated to the Royal Society, and others -have appeared in articles published in _Nature_, but only a small -percentage of the monuments available has so far been examined. Further -observations are required in order that the hypothesis set forth in this -book may be rejected or confirmed. - -In the observations made at Stonehenge referred to in Chapter VII. I had -the inestimable advantage of the collaboration of the late Mr. Penrose. -Our work there would not have been possible without the sympathetic -assistance of Sir Edmund Antrobus, Bart.; Colonel Duncan A. Johnston, -R.E., Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, also was good enough on -several occasions to furnish us with much valuable information which is -referred to in its place. Messrs. Howard Payn and Fowler skilfully and -zealously helped in the observations and computations. To all these I am -glad to take this opportunity of expressing my obligations. - -With regard to the other monuments besides Stonehenge, I have to tender -my thanks to the following gentlemen for most valuable local -assistance:-- - - Brittany--Lieut. de Vaisseau Devoir. - - Stenness--Mr. Spence. - - Stanton Drew--Professor Lloyd Morgan, Mr. Morrow, and Mr. Dymond. - - The Hurlers, and the Merry Maidens--the Right Hon. Viscount Falmouth, - Capt. Henderson, Mr. Horton Bolitho and Mr. Wallis. - - Tregaseal--Mr. Horton Bolitho and Mr. Thomas. - - The Dartmoor Avenues--Mr. Worth. - -The following have helped me in many ways, among them with advice and -criticism:--Principal Rhys, Dr. Wallis Budge, Dr. J. G. Frazer, and Mr. -A. L. Lewis. - -The assistance so generously afforded in the case of Stonehenge by -Colonel Johnston, R.E., in furnishing me with accurate azimuths was -continued for the monuments subsequently investigated till his -retirement. To his successor, Colonel R. C. Hellard, R.E., I am already -under deep obligations. - -For the use of some of the Illustrations my thanks are due to the Royal -Society, the Society of Antiquaries, the Royal Institute of British -Architects, Messrs. Macmillan, and Mr. John Murray. - -I have to thank Mr. Rolston, F.R.A.S., one of my staff, for assistance -in the computations involved. - - NORMAN LOCKYER. - - SOLAR PHYSICS OBSERVATORY, - _17th May, 1906_. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - PREFACE v - - CHAPTER - - I. INTRODUCTORY 1 - - II. THE ASTRONOMICAL DIVISIONS OF THE YEAR 12 - - III. THE AGRICULTURAL DIVISIONS OF THE YEAR 17 - - IV. THE VARIOUS NEW-YEAR DAYS 25 - - V. CONDITIONS AND TRADITIONS AT STONEHENGE 34 - - VI. GENERAL ARCHITECTURE OF STONEHENGE 55 - - VII. ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS AT STONEHENGE IN 1901 62 - - VIII. ARCHÆOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT STONEHENGE, 1901 69 - - IX. WAS THERE AN EARLIER CIRCLE? 88 - - X. THE MAY AND JUNE WORSHIPS IN BRITTANY 96 - - XI. ASTRONOMICAL HINTS FOR ARCHÆOLOGISTS 107 - - XII. ASTRONOMICAL HINTS FOR ARCHÆOLOGISTS (_Continued_) 118 - - XIII. STENNESS (Lat. 59° N.) 123 - - XIV. THE HURLERS (Lat. 50° 31′ N.) 133 - - XV. THE DARTMOOR AVENUES 145 - - XVI. THE DARTMOOR AVENUES (_Continued_) 157 - - XVII. STANTON DREW (Lat. 51° 10′ N.) 166 - - XVIII. FOLKLORE AND TRADITION 178 - - XIX. SACRED FIRES 189 - - XX. SACRED TREES 200 - - XXI. HOLY WELLS AND STREAMS 213 - - XXII. WHERE DID THE BRITISH WORSHIP ORIGINATE? 232 - - XXIII. THE SIMILARITY OF THE SEMITIC AND BRITISH WORSHIPS 252 - - XXIV. THE MAY YEAR IN SOUTH-WEST CORNWALL 261 - - XXV. THE MERRY MAIDENS CIRCLE (Lat. 50° 4′ N.) 265 - - XXVI. THE TREGASEAL CIRCLES 277 - - XXVII. SOME OTHER CORNISH MONUMENTS 287 - - XXVIII. THE CLOCK-STARS IN EGYPT AND BRITAIN 294 - - XXIX. A SHORT HISTORY OF SUN-TEMPLES 304 - - XXX. THE LIFE OF THE ASTRONOMER-PRIESTS 316 - - - APPENDICES. - - I. DETAILS OF THE THEODOLITE OBSERVATIONS AT STONEHENGE 325 - - II. SUGGESTIONS ON FIELD OBSERVATIONS 329 - - INDEX 333 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - FIG. PAGE - - 1. Present Sun Worship in Japan 4 - - 2. The Celestial Sphere, Conditions at the North Pole 5 - - 3. The Celestial Sphere, Conditions at the Equator 6 - - 4. The Celestial Sphere, Conditions in a Middle Latitude 6 - - 5. The Four Astronomical Divisions of the Year 14 - - 6. The Various Bearings of the Sun Risings and Settings in N. - latitude 51° 14 - - 7. The Astronomical and Vegetation Divisions of the Year 23 - - 8. Original Tooling of the Stones at Stonehenge 44 - - 9. View of Stonehenge from the West 45 - - 10. Copy of Hoare’s Plan of Stonehenge, 1810 46 - - 11. The Leaning Stone in 1901 48 - - 12. The Axis of the Temple of Karnak 56 - - 13. Plan of the Temple of Ramses II. in the Memnonia at Thebes 57 - - 14. One of the remaining Trilithons at Stonehenge 59 - - 15. General Plan of Stonehenge 60 - - 16. The Arrangements for raising the Stone 70 - - 17. The Cradle and Supports 71 - - 18. The Frame used to locate the Finds 73 - - 19. Some of the Flint Implements 77 - - 20. Showing the careful Tooling of the Sarsens 82 - - 21. Face of Rock against which a Stone was made to rest 83 - - 22. The Leaning Stone Upright 85 - - 23. Stonehenge, 1905 86 - - 24. Map of the Stones made by the Ordnance Survey 89 - - 25. Rod placed in the Common Axis of the Circle and Avenue 94 - - 26. Alignments at Le Ménec 99 - - 27. Menhir on Melon Island 100 - - 28. Melon Island, showing Menhir and Cromlech 101 - - 29. Menhirs of St. Dourzal 102 - - 30. Alignment at Lagatjar (photograph) 103 - - 31. Alignments at Lagatjar (plan) 104 - - 32. Menhirs on Solstitial and May Alignments 105 - - 33. Diagram for finding Declination from given Amplitudes or - Azimuths in British Latitudes 113 - - 34. Declinations of Northern Stars from 250 A.D. to 2150 B.C. 115 - - 35. Declinations of Southern Stars from 250 A.D. to 2150 B.C. 116 - - 36. The Conditions of Sunrise at the Summer Solstice in Lat. - 59° N. 119 - - 37. The Azimuths of the Sunrise (upper limb) at the Summer - Solstice. Lats. N. 59°-47° 121 - - 38. Maeshowe and the Stones of Stenness 124 - - 39. Chief Sight-Lines from the Stones of Stenness 126 - - 40. Variation of the Obliquity of the Ecliptic 100 A.D.-4000 B.C. 130 - - 41. The Sight-Lines at the Hurlers 136 - - 42. The Southern Avenue at Merrivale, looking East 147 - - 43. Avenues, Circle and Stones at Merrivale, with their Azimuths 154 - - 44. Cursus at Stonehenge, nearly parallel to the Merrivale Avenue 155 - - 45. The remains of the Challacombe Avenue 159 - - 46. The Sight-Lines at Trowlesworthy 162 - - 47. The Circles and Avenues at Stanton Drew 169 - - 48. The Carro, Florence 194 - - 49. Cresset-Stone, Lewannick 257 - - 50. First Appearance of May Sun in British Latitudes 263 - - 51. Azimuths of the May Sunrise 264 - - 52. The Merry Maidens 269 - - 53. 25-inch Ordnance Map of Merry Maidens showing Alignments 275 - - 54. The Eastern Circle at Tregaseal 279 - - 55. Photograph of Ordnance Map showing Sight-lines 281 - - 56. Plan of the Mên-an-Tol 283 - - 57. Photograph of the Mên-an-Tol 284 - - 58. The Mên-an-Tol. Front View and Section 285 - - 59. Photograph of the Ordnance Map of Boscawen-un 288 - - 60. Diagram showing Azimuths of Sunrise 1680 B.C. and 1905 A.D. 290 - - 61. Arcturus and Capella as Clock-Stars in Britain 300 - - 62. A Night-Dial 303 - - 63. Layard’s Plan of the Palace of Sennacherib 305 - - 64. Layard’s Plan of the Mound at Nimrood 306 - - 65. The Temples at Chichen Itza 307 - - - - - STONEHENGE - - - - -CHAPTER I - -INTRODUCTORY - - -In the book I published ten years ago, entitled “The Dawn of Astronomy,” -I gave a pretty full account of the principles and the methods of -observation which enable us to trace the ideas which were in the minds -of the ancient Egyptians when they set out the line of a temple they -proposed to build. - -Numerous references to the ceremonial of laying the foundation-stones of -temples exist, and we learn from the works of Chabas, Brugsch, -Dümichen[1] and others, that the foundation of an Egyptian temple was -associated with a series of ceremonies which are repeatedly described -with great minuteness. Amongst these ceremonies, one especially refers -to the fixing of the temple-axis; it is called, technically, “the -stretching of the cord,” and is not only illustrated by inscriptions on -the walls of the temples of Karnak, Denderah and Edfu--to mention the -best-known cases--but is referred to elsewhere. - -During the ceremony the king proceeded to the site where the temple was -to be built, accompanied mythically by the goddess Sesheta, who is -styled “the mistress of the laying of the foundation-stone.” - -Each was armed with a stake. The two stakes were connected by a cord. -Next the cord was aligned towards the sun on some day of the year, or a -star, as the case might be; when the alignment was perfect the two -stakes were driven into the ground by means of a wooden mallet. One -boundary wall parallel to the main axis of the temple was built along -the line marked out by this stretched cord. - -If the moment of the rising or setting of the sun or star were chosen, -as we have every reason to believe was the case, seeing that all the -early observations were made on the horizon, it is obvious that the -light from the body towards which the temple was thus aligned would -penetrate the axis of the temple from one end to the other in the -original direction of the cord. - -We learn from Chabas that the Egyptian word which expresses the idea of -founding or laying the foundation-stone of a temple is _Senti_--a word -which still exists in Coptic. But in the old language another word -_Pet-ser_, which no longer remains in Coptic, has been traced. It has -been established that _pet_ means to stretch, and _ser_ means cord, so -that that part of the ceremonial which consisted in stretching a cord in -the direction of a star was considered of so great an importance that it -gave its name to the whole ceremonial. - -Dealing with the existing remains of Egyptian temples, it may be said -that the most majestic among them was that of Amen-Rā at Karnak, -dedicated to the Sun-God, and oriented to catch the light of the sun -setting at the summer solstice, the time of the year at which the -all-important rise of the Nile began. - -Although the sun is no longer worshipped in Egypt or Britain, -sun-worship has not yet disappeared from the world. Professor Gowland -has recently[2] brought to notice a surviving form of sun-worship in -Japan. I quote his statement:-- - -“There on the seashore at Fûta-mi-ga-ura (as will be seen in a copy of a -print which I obtained at that ancient place) the orientation of the -shrine of adoration is given by two gigantic rocks which rise from the -sea as natural pillars. The sun as it rises over the mountains of the -distant shore is observed between them, and the customary prayers and -offerings made in that direction (Fig. 1). - -“It is, too, specially worthy of note that the point from which the sun -is revered is marked by a structure of the form of a trilithon, but made -of wood, placed immediately behind the altar. This representative of the -trilithon is of very remote date in Japan, and has been in use there -from the earliest times in connection with the observances of the -ancient Shintō cult in which the Sun-Goddess is the chief deity. One of -its important uses, which still survives, was to indicate the direction -of the position of some sacred place or object of veneration, in order -that worshippers might make their prayers and oblations towards the -proper quarter.” - -The table of offerings must also be noted. - -In the book to which I have referred, I also endeavoured to show that a -knowledge of even elementary astronomy may be of very great assistance -to students of archæology, history, folk-lore and all that learning -which deals with man’s first attempts to grasp the meaning and phenomena -of the universe in which he found himself before any scientific methods -were available to him; before he had any idea of the origins or the -conditionings of the things around him. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Present sun worship in Japan.] - -It may be well, however, in the present book to restate the underlying -astronomical principles in the briefest possible manner; and this is the -more easily done because, in the absence of measuring instruments, the -horizon was the only circle which the ancient peoples could employ -effectively, and we need only therefore consider it. - -Indeed, whether we regard the Rig-Veda or the Egyptian monuments from an -astronomical point of view, we are struck by the fact that the early -worship and all the early observations related to the horizon. This was -true not only for the sun, but for all the stars which studded the -general expanse of sky. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--The celestial sphere, conditions at the North -Pole. A parallel sphere. _N.P._, North celestial Pole; _N_, position of -observer.] - -We have therefore chiefly to consider the relation of the horizon of any -place to the apparent movements of celestial bodies at that place. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--The celestial sphere, conditions at the Equator. -A right sphere. _Q_, standpoint of observer; _PP_, the celestial poles; -_EW_, east and west points.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--The celestial sphere, conditions in a middle -latitude. An oblique sphere. In this woodcut _DD′_ shows the apparent -path of a circumpolar star; _BB′B″_ the path and rising and setting -points of an equatorial star; _CC′C″_ and _AA′A″_, those of stars of mid -declination, one north and the other south; _O_, standpoint of -observer.] - -We now know that the earth rotates on its axis, but this idea was of -course quite unknown to these early peoples. Since the earth rotates, -with stars infinitely removed surrounding it on all sides, the apparent -movements of the stars will depend very much upon the position we -happen to occupy on the earth. An observer at the North Pole of the -earth, for instance, would see the stars moving round in circles -parallel to the horizon (Fig. 2). No star could therefore either rise or -set--one half of the heavens would be always visible above his horizon, -and the other half invisible. An observer at the South Pole would of -course see that half of the stars invisible to the observer at the -northern one. - -If the observer be on the equator, the movements of the stars will -appear to be as indicated in this diagram (Fig. 3)--that is, all the -stars will rise and set, and each star will be, in turn, twelve hours -above the horizon, and the same time below it. But if we consider the -position of an observer in a middle latitude, say at Stonehenge, we find -that some stars will always be above the horizon, some always -below--that is, they will neither rise nor set. All other stars will -both rise and set, but some of them will be above the horizon for a long -time and below for a short time, whereas others will be a very short -time above the horizon and a long time below it, each star completing a -circle in a day (Fig. 4). - -Wherever we are upon the earth we always imagine that we are on the top -of it. The idea held by all the early peoples was that the surface of -the earth near them was an extended plain: they imagined that the land -that they knew and just the surrounding lands were really in the centre -of the extended plain. Plato, for instance, was content to think the -Mediterranean and Greece upon the top of a cube, and Anaximander placed -the same region at the top of a cylinder. - -By the use of a terrestrial globe we can best study the conditions of -observation at the poles of the earth, the equator and some place in -middle latitude. The wooden horizon of the globe is parallel to the -horizon of a place at the top of the globe, which horizon we can -represent by a wafer. By inclining the axis of the globe and watching -the movement of the wafer as the globe is turned round, we can get a -very concrete idea of the different relations of the observer’s horizon -to the apparent paths of the stars in different latitudes. - -We have next to deal with the astronomical relations of the horizon of -any place, in connection with the observation of the sun and stars at -the times of rising or setting, when of course they are on or near the -horizon; and in order to bring this matter nearer to the ancient -monuments, we will study this question for both Thebes and Stonehenge. -We may take the latitude of Thebes as 25°, Stonehenge as 51°, and we -will begin with Thebes. - -To consider an observer on the Nile at Thebes and to adjust things -properly we must rectify a celestial globe to the latitude of 25° N., -or, in other words, incline the axis of the globe at that angle to the -wooden horizon. - -Since all the stars which pass between the North Pole and the horizon -cannot set, all their apparent movements will take place above the -horizon. All the stars between the horizon and the South Pole will never -rise. Hence, stars within the distance of 25° from the North Pole will -never set at Thebes, and those stars within 25° of the South Pole will -never be visible there. At any place the latitude and the elevation of -the pole are the same. It so happens that many of those places with -which archæologists have to do in studying the history of early -peoples--Chaldæa, Egypt, Babylonia, &c.--are in low middle latitudes, -therefore we have to deal with bodies in the skies which do set and -bodies which do not, and the elevation of the pole is neither very great -nor very small. But although in each different latitude the inclination -of the equator to the horizon as well as the elevation of the pole will -vary, there will be a strict relationship between the inclination of the -equator at each place and the elevation of the pole. Except at the poles -themselves the equator will cut the horizon due east and due west; -therefore every celestial body to the north of the celestial equator -which rises and sets will cut the horizon between the east and west -point and the north point; those bodies which do not rise will of course -not cut the horizon at all. - -The stars near the equator, and the sun, in such a latitude as that of -Thebes, will appear to rise or set at no very considerable angle from -the vertical; but when we deal with stars very near to the north or -south points of the horizon they will seem to skim along the horizon -instead of rising directly. - - * * * * * - -We now pass on to Stonehenge. To represent the new condition the axis of -the globe will now require to be inclined 51° to the horizon. The number -of northern stars which do not set and of southern stars which do not -rise will be much greater than at Thebes. The most northern and southern -stars visible will in their movement hug the horizon more closely than -was observed under the Thebes condition. - -The sun, both at Thebes and Stonehenge, since it moves among the stars -from 23¹⁄₂° N. to 23¹⁄₂° S. each year, will change its place of rising -and setting at different times of the year. - -Now it will at once be obvious that there must be a strict law -connecting the position of a star with its place of rising or setting. -Stars at the same distance from the celestial pole or equator will rise -or set at the same point of the horizon, and if a star does not change -its place in the heavens it will always rise or set in the same place. - -The sun as it changes its position each day, in its swing N. and S. of -the equator, will rise and set on any day in the same place as a star -which permanently has the same distance from the equator as that -temporarily occupied by the sun. - -Here it will be convenient to introduce one or two technical terms: we -generally define a star’s place by giving, as one ordinate, its distance -in degrees from the equator: this distance is called its _declination_. - -Further, we generally define points on the horizon by dividing its whole -circumference into 360°, so that we can have _azimuths_ up to 90° from -the north and south points to the east and west points. We also have -_amplitudes_ from the east and west points towards the north and south -points. We can say, then, that a star of a certain declination, or the -sun when it occupies that declination, will rise or set at such an -azimuth, or at such an amplitude. This will apply to both north and -south declinations. - -Then supposing the azimuth to be 39° in the N.E. quadrant, it is written -N. 39° E. For the other quadrants we have N. 39° W., S. 39° E., and S. -39° W., respectively. - -The following table gives the amplitudes of rising or setting (north or -south) of celestial bodies having declinations from 0° to 64°, at Thebes -and Stonehenge respectively. - -AMPLITUDES AT THEBES AND STONEHENGE. - - ------------+-------------------- - | Amplitude. - Declination.+-------+----------- - |Thebes.|Stonehenge. - ------------+-------+----------- - 0° | 0° 0′| 0° 0′ - 1 | 1 7 | 1 36 - 2 | 2 13 | 3 11 - 3 | 3 20 | 4 46 - 4 | 4 26 | 6 22 - 5 | 5 33 | 7 58 - 6 | 6 40 | 9 34 - 7 | 7 47 | 11 10 - 8 | 8 53 | 12 47 - 9 | 9 59 | 14 23 - 10 | 11 6 | 16 1 - 11 | 12 13 | 17 39 - 12 | 13 20 | 19 18 - 13 | 14 27 | 20 57 - 14 | 15 34 | 22 36 - 15 | 16 41 | 24 17 - 16 | 17 49 | 25 58 - 17 | 18 56 | 27 45 - 18 | 20 3 | 29 24 - 19 | 21 10 | 31 10 - 20 | 22 17 | 32 55 - 21 | 23 25 | 34 43 - 22 | 24 33 | 36 32 - 23 | 25 41 | 38 23 - 24 | 26 49 | 40 16 - 25 | 27 58 | 42 11 - 26 | 29 6 | 44 10 - 27 | 30 15 | 46 10 - 28 | 31 23 | 48 15 - 29 | 32 32 | 50 22 - 30 | 33 41 | 52 36 - 31 | 34 51 | 54 55 - 32 | 36 1 | 57 21 - 33 | 37 11 | 59 56 - 34 | 38 21 | 62 42 - 35 | 39 31 | 65 44 - 36 | 40 42 | 69 4 - 37 | 41 53 | 73 0 - 38 | 43 5 | 78 4 - 39 | 44 17 | 90 0 - 40 | 45 30 | - 41 | 46 43 | - 42 | 47 56 | - 43 | 49 10 | - 44 | 50 25 | - 45 | 51 41 | - 46 | 52 57 | - 47 | 54 14 | - 48 | 55 32 | - 49 | 56 51 | - 50 | 58 12 | - 51 | 59 34 | - 52 | 60 58 | - 53 | 62 23 | - 54 | 63 51 | - 55 | 65 21 | - 56 | 66 54 | - 57 | 68 31 | - 58 | 70 12 | - 59 | 71 59 | - 60 | 73 55 | - 61 | 76 1 | - 62 | 78 25 | - 63 | 81 19 | - 64 | 85 42 | - ------------+-------+------------ - -The amplitude is always the complement of the azimuth, so that amplitude -+ azimuth = 90°. Later on I shall give amplitudes for latitudes higher -than that of Stonehenge, so that still more northerly monuments can be -considered. - -[1] “Baugeschichte des Dendera-Tempels.” 1877. - -[2] “Archæologia,” vol. lviii. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE ASTRONOMICAL DIVISIONS OF THE YEAR - - -It is next important to deal with the yearly path of the sun, with a -view of studying the relation of the various points of the horizon -occupied by the sun at different times in the year. In the very early -observations that were made in Egypt, Chaldæa and elsewhere, when the -sun was considered to be a god who every morning got into his boat and -floated across space, there was no particular reason for considering the -amplitude at which the boat left, or came to, shore. But a few centuries -showed that this rising or setting of the sun in widely varying -amplitudes at different times of the year at the same place obeyed a -very definite law. - -In its northward passage it reaches the highest point at our summer -solstice, and then goes down again till it reaches its greatest southern -declination, as it does in our winter. At both these points the sun -appears to stand still in its north or south movement, and the Latin -word solstice exactly expresses that idea. The change of declination -brought about by these movements will affect the place of the sun’s -rising and setting; this is why the sun sets most to the north in -summer and most to the south in winter. At the equinoxes the sun has -always 0° Decl., so it rises and sets due east and west all over the -world. But at the solstices it has its greatest declination of 23¹⁄₂° N. -or S.; it will rise and set therefore furthest from the east and west -points; how far, will depend upon the latitude of the place, as will -have been gathered from the preceding table (p. 11). - -These solstices and their accompaniments are among the striking things -in the natural world. In the winter solstice we have the depth of -winter, in the summer solstice we have the height of summer, while at -the equinoxes we have but transitional changes; in other words, while -the solstices point out for us the conditions of greatest heat and -greatest cold, the equinoxes point out for us those two times of the -year at which the temperature conditions are very nearly equal, although -of course in the one case we are saying good-bye to summer and in the -other to winter. - -Did the ancients know anything about these solstices and these -equinoxes? Dealing with the monumental evidence in Egypt alone, the -answer is absolutely overwhelming. Many thousand years ago the Egyptians -were perfectly familiar with the solstices, and therefore with the -yearly path of the sun. - -This fundamental division of the sun’s apparent revolution and course -which define our year into four nearly equal parts may be indicated as -in Fig. 5, the highest point reached by the sun in our northern -hemisphere being represented at the top. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--The four Astronomical Divisions of the year.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--The various bearings of the sun risings and -settings in a place with a N. latitude of 51°.] - -In order better to consider the problem as it was presented to the early -astronomers who built observatories (temples) to mark these points, we -may deal with the bearings of the points occupied by the sun on the -horizon (either at rising or setting) at the times indicated. These -points are defined, as we have seen, by their “amplitude” or their -distance in degrees from the E. or W. points of the horizon. In the -diagram (Fig. 6) I represent the conditions of our chief British -sun-temple, Stonehenge, in latitude 51° N. approximately. - -Taking the astronomical facts regarding the solstices and equinoxes for -the first year (1901) of the present century, we find-- - - Sun enters Aries, Spring equinox, March 21. - „ „ Gemini, Summer solstice, June 21. - „ „ Libra, Autumn equinox, September 23. - „ „ Sagittarius, Winter solstice, December 23. - -These points, then, are approximately ninety-one days apart (91 × 4 = -364). - -In Fig. 6 I deal with the “amplitudes” at Stonehenge, that is, the -angular distance along the horizon from the E. and W. points, at which -the sunrise and sunset are seen at the solstices; at the equinoxes they -are seen at the E. and W. points. But as these amplitudes vary with the -latitude and therefore depend upon the place of observation, a more -general treatment is possible if we deal with the declination of the sun -itself, that is, its angular distance from the equator. - -The maximum declination depends upon the obliquity of the ecliptic, that -is, the angle between the plane of the ecliptic and that of the equator -at the time of observation. When the Stonehenge Sarsen Stones were -erected this angle was, as I shall show later on, 23° 54′ 30″. Its mean -value for the present year (1906) is 23° 27′ 5″; it is decreasing very -slowly. - -It will be obvious from Fig. 6 that in temples built to observe the -solstices or equinoxes, if they were open from end to end, looking in -one direction we should see the sun rising at a solstice or equinox, and -looking in the other we should see the sun setting at the opposite one. -I shall show later on that this statement requires a slight -modification. - -But temples so built interfered with the ceremonial, which required that -the light should illuminate a naos--that is, the Sanctuary or Holy of -Holies, only entered by the High Priest, and generally kept dark. -Usually, therefore, two temples were built back to back, with a common -axis, as at Karnak. - -And here a very important point comes in; which time of the year and day -of the year are most easy to fix by astronomical observation? As a -matter of fact the summer solstice, the position of the sun on the -longest day, is a point easily fixed. All we have to do is to observe -the sun rising more and more to the north as the summer approaches, -until at the very height of the summer we have the extreme -north-easterly point of the horizon reached, and the sun stands still. -We have the solstice. We can then put a row of stakes up, and so fix the -solstitial line. Of course we find, as mankind has found generally, that -the sun comes back next year to that same solstitial place of rising or -setting. So that when we have once got such an alignment for the rising -of the sun at midsummer, we can determine the length of the year in -days, and therefore the beginning of each year as it comes round. - -So much, then, for the chief points in what we may term the astronomical -year, those at which the sun’s declination is greatest and least. We see -that they are approximately ninety-one days apart--say three months. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE AGRICULTURAL DIVISIONS OF THE YEAR - - -The early peoples have been very much misrepresented, and held to have -been uninstructed, by several writers who have not considered what they -were really driving at. It was absolutely essential for early man, -including the inhabitants of Britain as it was then--townless, -uncivilised--that the people should know something about the proper time -for performing their agricultural operations. We now go into a shop and -for a penny buy an almanack which gives us everything we want to know -about the year, the month and the day, and that is the reason why so few -of us care about astronomy: we can get all we want from astronomy for a -penny or twopence. But these poor people, unless they found out the time -of the year and the month and the day for themselves, or got some one to -tell them--and their priests were the men who knew, and they were -priests because they knew--had absolutely no means of determining when -their various agricultural operations should take place. So that we find -all over the world temples erected in the very first flush of -civilisation. - -On this a point comes in of very considerable interest. If we study the -civilisations in Egypt, we find that, so far as we know, one of the -first peoples who used this principle of orientation for agricultural -purposes was some tribe that came down the Nile about 6400 years B.C. -They used the star Canopus, and their determination was that of the -autumnal equinox, which practically was the time when the Nile began to -go down, and when their sowing might begin. There was another race who, -instead of being interested in the sun, and therefore in agriculture, at -the time of the autumnal equinox, were interested in the year about the -time of Easter as well. This race built the Pyramids about four thousand -years B.C. There was an interval of about two or three thousand years -between these races. As we shall see there were others, who at Thebes -started the solstitial worship--that is to say, the worship of the sun -at midsummer--and at Memphis in May, so as to enable them to go on with -their agricultural operations with greater certainty. We must not forget -that first of all the farmers tried to plough and sow by the moon. We -can see how hopeless agriculture must have been under such conditions. -The month, indeed, was the only unit of time employed, even of human -life. We hear of people who lived 1200 years; that means 1200 -months--there is no question whatever about that now. - -When we study the history of our own country--when we come back from -Egypt to Britain, leaving alone Greece and Rome--we find that in various -times in our country we have had a year, a farmer’s year, beginning in -the month of May; we have had another farmer’s year beginning in the -month of August; we have had another farmer’s year beginning at the -longest day; and it appears that the year beginning at the longest day -was really the last year to be introduced. So that while we have in -Stonehenge a solstitial temple--that is to say, a temple to make -observations of the length of the year by observing the rise of the sun -on the longest day of the year--in other parts of England there were -other temples observing the sun, not on the 21st of June, but early in -May and early in August. - -Now, as I have indicated, the priest-astronomers in these temples could -only have won and kept the respect of the agricultural population with -whom alone they were surrounded in early times, and by whom they were -supported, by being useful to them in some way or another. This could -only have been in connection with what we may term generally the -_farming_ operations necessary at different times of the year, whether -in the shape of preparing the ground or gathering the produce. For this -they must have watched the stars. - -A very large part of mythology has sprung out of the temple cults, -prayer, sacrifices and thanksgiving connected with these farming -operations in different lands and ages. - -I wish to show next that by studying the orientation of temples erected -to watch the stars and sunrise and sunset at times other than the -solstices or equinoxes, an immense amount of information may be gained -if we endeavour to find the way in which the problem must have been -attacked before the year was thoroughly established, and when it was -still a question of grass- or corn-kings or gods who had to be -propitiated; and we may even be enabled to understand why the particular -divisions of the year were chosen. - -In a solstitial temple the sun makes its appearance only once a year, -when it reaches its greatest north or south declination; but in the -temples dealing with lower declinations the sun appears twice, once on -its journey from the summer to the winter solstice, and again on its -return. - -The first difficulty of the inquiry in the direction I have indicated -arises from the fact that the products of different countries vary, and -that identical farming operations have to be carried on at different -times in these countries. We must, then, begin with some one country, -and as the record is fullest for Greece I will begin with it. - -The first thing we find is that the chief points in the farmer’s year in -Greece are about as far from the fixed points in the astronomical year -as they well can be. - -In the Greek information so admirably collated by M. Ruelle in the -article on the calendar in Daremberg and Saglio’s monumental -“Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et Romaines,” the earlier -Gregorian dates on which the seasons were reckoned to commence in -ancient Greece were as follows:-- - - Summer May 6. - Autumn (φθινοπωρον) August 11. - Winter November 10. - Spring February 7. - -I may also add from the same source that in the calendars of the Latins -the dates become:-- - - Summer May 9. - Autumn August 8. - Winter November 9. - Spring February 7. - -Now we see at once that these dates are, roughly, half-way between the -solstices and equinoxes. - -This, then, at once brings us back to the orientation problem, which was -to fix by means of a temple in the ordinary way dates nearer to these -turning-points in the local farmer’s years than those fixed by the -solstitial and equinoctial temples. - -It must be borne in mind that it is not merely a question of stately -piles such as Karnak and the Parthenon in populous centres, but of the -humblest dolmen or stone circle, in scattered agricultural communities, -which was as certainly used for orientation purposes, that is, for -recording the lapse of time at night or return of some season important -to the tiller of the soil. The advent of the season thus determined -could be announced to outlying districts by fire signals at night. - -I have already pointed out that any temple, dolmen or cromlech oriented -to a sunrise or sunset at any dates between the solstices will receive -the sunlight twice a year. - -If the temple is pointed nearly solstitially the two dates at which the -sun appears in it will be near the solstice; similarly, for a temple -pointed nearly equinoctially the dates will be near the equinox; but if -the ancients wished to divide the ninety-one days’ interval between the -solstice and equinox, a convenient method of doing this would be to -observe the sun at the half-time interval, such that the same temple -would serve on both occasions. This could be done by orienting the -temple to the sun’s place on the horizon when it had the declination 16° -20′ on its upward and downward journey, or, in other words, was, _in -days_, half-way between the equinox and solstice. Thus, for the 45 days - - ( 91 days ) - ( = ------- ) - ( 2 ) - -from March 22, we have in-- - - March 9 - April 30 - May 6 - --- - 45 - -What, then, are the non-equinoctial, non-solstitial days of the year -when the sun has this declination? - -They are, in the sun’s journey from the vernal equinox to the summer -solstice and back again, - - May 6 and August 8 Sun’s decl. N. 16° 20′. - -Similarly, for the journey to the winter solstice and return we have - - November 8 and February 4 Sun’s decl. S. 16° 20′. - -We get, then, a year symmetrical with the astronomical year, which can -be indicated with it as in Fig. 7; a year roughly halving the intervals -between the chief dates of the astronomical year. - -With regard to the dates shown I have already pointed out that farming -operations would not occur at the same time in different lands; that -ploughing and seed time and harvest would vary with crops and latitudes; -and I must now add that when we wish to determine the exact days of the -month we have to struggle with all the difficulties introduced by the -various systems adopted by different ancient nations to bring together -the reckoning of months by the moon and of years by the sun. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.--The astronomical and vegetation divisions of the -year.] - -In more recent times there is an additional difficulty owing to the -incomplete reconstruction of the calendar by Julius Cæsar, who gave us -the Julian year. Thus, while the spring equinox occurred on March 21 at -the time of the Council of Nice, in 325 A.D., by the year 1751 the -dating of the year on which it took place had slipped back to the 10th. -Hence the Act 24 George II. c. 23, by which September 2, 1752, was -followed by September 14 instead of by the 3rd, thus regaining the -eleven days lost. This change from the so-called “old style” to the “new -style” is responsible for a great deal of confusion. - -Another cause of trouble was the forsaking by the Jews of the solar -year, with which they commenced, in favour of the Babylonian lunar year, -which has been continued for the purposes of worship by Christians, -giving us “movable feasts” to such an extent that Easter Day, which once -invariably marked the spring equinox, may vary from March 22 to April -25, and Whit Sunday from May 10 to June 13. It is at once obvious that -no fixed operations of Nature can be indicated by such variable dates as -these. - -Hence in what follows I shall only deal with the months involved; these -amply suffice for a general statement, but a discussion as to exact -dates may come later. - -To sum up, then, the astronomer-priests had (1) to watch the time at -night by observing a star rising near the north point of the horizon. -This star would act as a warner of sunrise at some time of the year. - -(2) To watch for the rising or setting of other stars in various -azimuths warning sunrise at the other critical times of the May or -Solstitial years. - -(3) To watch the sunrise and sunset. - -(4) To mark all rising or setting places of the warning stars and sun by -sight-lines from the circle. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE VARIOUS NEW-YEAR DAYS - - -With regard to the astronomical year it may be stated that each solstice -and equinox has in turn in some country or another, and even in the same -country at different times, been taken as the beginning of the year. - -We have, then, to begin with, the following which may be called -_astronomical_ years:-- - - Solstitial { June December June. - year. { December June December. - - Equinoctial { March September March. - year. { September March September. - -Next, if we treat the intermediate points we have found in the same way, -we have the following _vegetation_ years:-- - - Flower { May November May. - year. { November May November. - - Harvest { August February August. - year. { February August February. - -It will have been gathered from Fig. 7 that the temples or cromlechs -erected to watch the first sunrise of the May-November-May year could -also perform the same office for the August-February-August year; and in -a stone circle the priests, by looking along the axis almost in an -opposite direction, could note the sunsets marking the completion of the -half of the sun’s yearly round in November and February. - -Now to those who know anything of the important contributions of Grimm, -Rhŷs, Frazer, and many others we might name, to our knowledge of the -mythology, worships, and customs in the Mediterranean basin and western -Europe, an inspection of the first columns in the above tables will show -that here we have a common meeting-ground for temple orientation, -vegetation and customs depending on it, religious festivals, and -mythology. From the Egyptian times at least to our own a generic sun-god -has been specifically commemorated in each of the named months. Generic -customs with specific differences are as easily traced in the same -months; while generic vegetation with specific representatives proper to -the season of the year has been so carefully regarded that even -December, though without May flowers or August harvests, not to be -outdone, brings forward its offering in the shape of the berries of the -mistletoe and holly. - -About the mistletoe there is this difficulty. Innumerable traditions -associate it with worship and the oak tree. Undoubtedly the year in -question was the solstitial year, so that so far as this goes the -association is justified. But as a rule the mistletoe does not grow on -oaks. This point has been frequently inquired into, especially by Dr. -Henry Ball (_Journal of Botany_, vol. ii. p. 361, 1864) in relation to -the growth of the plant in Herefordshire, and by a writer in the -_Quarterly Review_ (vol. cxiv.), who spoke of the mistletoe “deserting -the oak” in modern times and stated, “it is now so rarely found on that -tree as to have led to the suggestion that we must look for the -mistletoe of the Druids, not in the _Viscum album_ of our own trees and -orchards, but in the _Loranthus Europaeus_ which is frequently found on -oaks in the south of Europe.” - -On this point I consulted two eminent botanical friends, Mr. Murray, of -the British Museum, and Prof. Farmer, from whom I have learned that the -distribution of _V. album_ is in Europe universal except north of Norway -and north of Russia; in India in the temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to -Nepaul, altitude 3000 to 7000 feet. - -The _Viscum aureum_, otherwise called _Loranthus Europaeus_, is a near -relation of the familiar mistletoe, and in Italy grows on the oak almost -exclusively. There are fifty species of Loranthus in the Indian flora, -but _L. Europaeus_ does not occur. - -In the _Viscum aureum_ we have the “golden bough,” the oak-borne _Aurum -frondens_ and _Ramus aureus_ of Virgil; and it can easily be imagined -that when the Druids reached our shores from a country which had -supplied them with the _Viscum aureum_, this would be replaced by the -_V. album_ growing chiefly on apple trees and not on oaks; indeed, Mr. -Davies, in his “Celtic Researches,” tells us that the apple was the next -sacred tree to the oak, and that apple orchards were planted in the -vicinity of the sacred groves. The transplanting of the mistletoe from -the apple to the oak tree before the mystic ceremonies began was not -beyond the resources of priestcraft. - -It must not be forgotten that these ceremonies took place at both -solstices--once in June, when the oak was in full leaf, and again in -December, when the parasitic plant was better visible in the light of -the young moon. Mr. Frazer, in his “Golden Bough” (iii. p. 328), points -out that at the summer solstice not only was mistletoe gathered, but -many other “magic plants, whose evanescent virtue can be secured at this -mystic season alone.” - -It is the ripening of the berries at the winter solstice which secured -for the mistletoe the paramount importance the ceremonials connected -with it possessed at that time, when the rest of the vegetable world was -dormant. - -With regard especially to the particular time of the year chosen for -sun-worship and the worship of the gods and solar heroes connected with -the years to which I have referred, I may add that the vague year in -Egyptian chronology makes it a very difficult matter to determine the -exact Gregorian dates for the ancient Egyptian festivals, but, -fortunately, there is another way of getting at them. Mr. Roland -Mitchell, when compiling his valuable “Egyptian Calendar” (Luzac and -Co., 1900), found that the Koptic calendar really presents to us the old -Egyptian year, “which has been in use for thousands of years, and has -survived all the revolutions.” - -Of the many festivals included in the calendar, the great Tanta fair, -which is also a Mohammedan feast. “is the most important of all held in -Egypt. Religion, commerce, and pleasure offer combined attractions.” As -many as 600,000 or 700,000 often attend this great fair, “no doubt the -survival of one of the ancient Egyptian national festivals.” - -It is held so as to end on a Friday, and in 1901 the Friday was August -9! - -This naturally suggests that we should look for a feast in the early -part of May. We find the Festival of Al-Khidr, or Elias in the middle of -the wheat harvest in Lower Egypt; of this we read:-- - -“Al-Khidr is a mysterious personage, who, according to learned opinion, -was a just man, or saint, the Visīr of Dhu’l-Karnên (who was a great -conqueror, contemporary with Ibrahīm--Abraham--and identified in other -legends with Alexander the Great, St. George, &c.). Al-Khidr, it is -believed, still lives, and will live until the Day of Judgment. He is -clad in green garments, whence probably the name. He is commonly -identified with Elias (Elijah), and this confusion seems due to a -confusion or similarity of some of the attributes that tradition assigns -to both.” - -“The ‘Festival of El-Khidr and of Elias,’ falling generally on May 6, -marks the two-fold division of the year, in the Turkish and Armenian -calendars, into the Rūz Kāsim and the Rūz Khidr (of 179-80 and 185-6 -days respectively).” - -This last paragraph is important, as it points to ancient sun-worship, -Helios being read for Elias; and 179 days from May 6 bring us to -November 1. So we find that the modern Turks and Armenians have the old -May-November year as well as the ancient Egyptians who celebrated it in -the Temple of Menu at Thebes. - -The traces of the Ptah worship are not so obvious. Finally, it may be -stated that the second Tanta fair occurs at the spring equinox, so that -the pyramid worship can still be traced in the modern Egyptian -calendar. The proof that this was an exotic[3] is established, I think, -by the fact that no important agricultural operations occur at this -period in Egypt, while in May we have the harvest, in August and -November sowing, going on. - -A cursory examination of Prof. Rhŷs’ book containing the Hibbert -Lectures of 1886, in the light of these years, used as clues, suggests -that in Ireland the sequence was May-November (Fomori and Fir Bolg), -August-February (Lug and the Tuatha Dé Danann), and, lastly, -June-December (Cúchulainn). Should this be confirmed we see that the -farmers’ years were the first to be established, and it is interesting -to note that the agricultural rent year in many parts of Ireland still -runs from May to November. It is well also to bear in mind, if it be -established that the solstitial year did really arrive last, that the -facts recorded by Mr. Frazer in his “Golden Bough” indicate that the -custom of lighting fires on hills has been in historic times most -prevalent at the summer solstice; evidently maps showing the -geographical distribution of the May, June, and August fires would be of -great value. - -Some customs of the May and August years are common to the solstitial -and equinoctial years. Each was ushered in by fires on hills and the -like; flowers in May and the fruits of the earth in August are -associated with them; there are also special customs in the case of -November. In western Europe, however, it does not seem that such -traditions exist over such a large area as that over which the remnants -of the solstitial practices have been traced. - -I have pointed out that both the May and August years began when the sun -had the same declination (16° N. or thereabouts); once, on its ascent -from March to the summer solstice in June, again in its decline from the -solstice to September. Hence it may be more difficult in this case to -disentangle and follow the mythology, but the two years stand out here -and there. With regard to August, Mr. Penrose’s orientation data for the -Panathenæa fix the 19th day (Gregorian) for the festival in the -Hecatompedon; similar celebrations were not peculiar to western Europe -and Greece, as a comparison of dates of worship will show. - - Hecatompedon April 28 and August 16. - Older Erechtheum April 29 „ August 13. - Temple of Diana, Ephesus April 29 „ August 13. - „ Min, Thebes May 1 „ August 12. - „ Ptah, Memphis April 18 „ August 24. - „ „ Annu April 18 „ August 24. - „ Solar Disc, Tell el-Amarna April 18 „ August 24. - -In the above table I have given both the dates on which the sunlight (at -rising or setting) entered the temple, but we do not know for certain, -except in the case of the Hecatompedon, on which of the two days the -temples were used; it is likely they were all used on both days, and -that the variation from the dates proper to the sun’s declination of N. -16° indicates that they were very accurately oriented to fit the local -vegetation conditions in the most important and extensive temple fields -in the world. - -This is the more probable because the Jews also, after they had left -Egypt, established their feast of Pentecost fifty days after Easter = -May 10, on which day loaves made of newly harvested corn formed the -chief offering. - -With regard to the equinoctial year, the most complete account of the -temple arrangements is to be found in Josephus touching that at -Jerusalem. The temple had to be so erected that at the spring equinox -the sunrise light should fall on, and be reflected to, the worshippers -by the sardonyx stones on the high priest’s garment. At this festival -the first barley was laid upon the altar. - -But this worship was in full swing in Egypt for thousands of years -before we hear of it in connection with the Jews. It has left its -temples at Ephesus, Athens, and other places, and with the opening of -this year as well as of the solstitial one the custom of lighting fires -is associated, not only on hills, but also in churches. - -Here the sequence of cult cannot be mistaken. We begin with Isis and the -young Sun-god Horus at the Pyramids, and we end with “Lady Day,” a -British legal date; while St. Peter’s at Rome is as truly oriented to -the equinox as the Pyramids themselves, so that we have a distinct -change of cult with no change of orientation. - -If such considerations as these help us to connect Egyptian with British -worships we may hope that they will be no less useful when we go further -afield. I gather from a study of Mr. Maudslay’s admirable plans of -Palenque and Chichén-Itzá that the solstitial and farmers’ years’ -worships were provided for there. How did these worships and associated -temples with naos and sphinxes[4] get from Egypt to Yucatan? The more we -know of ancient travel the more we are convinced that it was coastwise, -that is, from one point of visible land to the next. Are the cults as -old as differences in the coast-lines which would most easily explain -their wide distribution? - -[3] In Babylonia the spring equinox was the critical time of the year -because the Tigris and Euphrates then began to rise. - -[4] See _Dawn of Astronomy_, Plate facing p. 182, for the lines of -sphinxes at Karnak. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -CONDITIONS AND TRADITIONS AT STONEHENGE - - -After Mr. Penrose, by his admirable observations in Greece, had shown -that the orientation theory accounted as satisfactorily for the -directions in which the chief temples in Greece had been built as I had -shown it did for some in Egypt, it seemed important to apply the same -methods of inquiry with all available accuracy to some example, at all -events, of the various stone circles in Britain which have so far -escaped destruction. Many attempts had been previously made to secure -data, but the instruments and methods employed did not seem to be -sufficient. - -Much time has, indeed, been lost in the investigation of a great many of -these circles, for the reason that in many cases the relations of the -monuments to the chief points of the horizon have not been considered; -and when they were, the observations were made only with reference to -the magnetic north, which is different at different places, and besides -is always varying; few indeed have tried to get at the astronomical -conditions of the problem. - -The first, I think, was Mr. Jonathan Otley, who in 1849 showed the -“Orientation” of the Keswick Circle “according to the solar meridian,” -giving true solar bearings throughout the year. - -I wrote a good deal in _Nature_[5] on sun and star temples in 1891, and -Mr. Lewis the next year expressed the opinion that the British Stone -Monuments, or some of them, were sun and star temples. - -Mr. Magnus Spence of Deerness in Orkney published a pamphlet, “Standing -Stones and Maeshowe of Stenness,[6]” in 1894; it is a reprint of an -article in the _Scottish Review_, Oct. 1893. Mr. Cursiter, F.S.A., of -Kirkwall, in a letter to me dated 15 March 1894, a letter suggested by -my _Dawn of Astronomy_ which appeared in that year and in which the -articles which had appeared in _Nature_ in 1891 had been expanded, drew -my attention to the pamphlet; the observations had no pretension to -scientific accuracy, and although some of the sight-lines were -incorrectly shown in an accompanying map, May year and solstitial -alignments were indicated. - - * * * * * - -So far as I know, there has never been a complete inquiry into the stone -circles in Britain, but Mr. Lewis, who has paid great attention to these -matters, has dealt in a general manner with them (_Archaeological -Journal_, vol. xlix. p. 136), and has further described (_Journal_ -Anthropological Institute, n.s., iii., 1900) the observations made by -him of stone circles in various parts of Scotland. From an examination -of the latter he concludes that they may be divided into different -types, each of which has its centre in a different locality. The types -are--(1) the Western Scottish type, consisting of a rather irregular -single ring or sometimes of two concentric rings; (2) the Inverness -type, consisting of a more regular ring of better-shaped stones, -surrounding a tumulus with a retaining wall, containing a built-up -chamber and passage leading to it, or a kist without a passage; (3) the -Aberdeen type, consisting of a similar ring with the addition of a -so-called “altar-stone” and usually having traces of a tumulus and kist -in the middle. In addition to these three types of circles, there are in -Britain generally what Mr. Lewis calls sun and star circles, with their -alignments of stones, and apparently proportioned measurements. He has -shown that there is a great preponderance of outlying stones and -hill-tops lying between the circles and the N.E. quarter of the horizon. -From what has been stated in Chapter III with regard to the nightly -observations of stars it will be gathered that these may have been used -for this purpose. - -The following list gives some of the bearings of outlying stones and -other circles from the centres of the named circles:-- - - Roll-rich, Oxon.--Kingstone N. 27° E. - Stripple Stones, Cornwall--Bastion on bank N. 26 E. - Long Meg, Cumberland--Small circle N. 27 E. - The Hurlers, Cornwall--Two outlying circles N. 13-16 E. - Trippet Stones--Leaze circle N. 11 E. - -If these alignments mean anything they must of course refer to the -rising of _stars_, as the position on the horizon is outside the sun’s -path. - -The many circles in Cornwall have been dealt with by Mr. Lukis in a -volume published by the Society of Antiquaries in 1895.[7] A carefully -prepared list of circles will be found in Mr. Windle’s recently -published work entitled “Remains of the Prehistoric Age in England.” - -It may be useful here to state, with regard to megalithic remains -generally, that they may be classed as follows; some details will be -discussed later on. - -(_a_) Circles. These may be single, double, or multiple, and either -concentric or not. - -(_b_) Menhirs, large single stones, used to mark sight-lines from -circles. - -(_c_) Alignments, _i.e._, lines of stones in single, double, or in many -parallel lines. If these alignments are short they are termed avenues. - -(_d_) Holed-stones, doubtless used for observing sight-lines, sometimes -_over_ a circle. - -(_e_) Coves. A term applied by Dr. Stukeley and others to what they -considered shrines formed by three upright stones, thus leaving one side -open. I take them to be partially protected observing places. There are -well-marked examples at Avebury, Stanton Drew and Kit’s Coity House. - -(_f_) Cromlechs. This term generally means a grouping of upright stones; -it is applied to irregular circles in Brittany. It also applies to a -stone or stones raised on the summits of three or more pillar stones -forming the end and sides of an irregular vault generally open at one -end (“Dolmens of Ireland,” Borlase, p. 429). The top stone is called in -S.W. England a “quoit.” Cromlechs in most cases have been covered by -barrows or cairns. - -(_g_) Dolmens, from Dol Men, a table stone. These consist of stones, -resting on two or more upright stones forming a more or less complete -chamber, some of which are of great length. I note the following -subdivisions: “Dolmen à galerie” having an entrance way of sufficient -height, and “Galgal,” similar but smaller. In the “Dolmen à l’allée -couverte” there is a covered passage way to the centre. It is a more -elaborate cove. For the relation between cromlechs and dolmens, see -Borlase (_loc. cit._ and p. 424 _et seq._). - -With regard to dolmens, I give the following quotation from Mr. Penrose -(_Nature_, vol. lxiv., September 12, 1901):-- - -“Near Locmariaquer in the estuary named Rivière d’Auray, there is an -island named Gavr’ Inis, or Goat Island, which contains a good specimen -of the kind of dolmen which has been named ‘Galgal.’ - -“At the entrance our attention is at once arrested by the profusion of -tracery which covers the walls. From the entrance to the wall facing us -the distance is between 50 and 60 feet. The square chamber to which the -gallery leads is composed of two huge slabs, the sides of the room and -gallery being composed of upright stones, about a dozen on each side. -The mystic lines and hieroglyphics similar to those above mentioned -appear to have a decorative character. - -“An interesting feature of Gavr’ Inis is its remarkable resemblance to -the New Grange tumulus at Meath. In construction there is again a -strong resemblance to Mæs-Howe, in the island of Orkney. There is also -some resemblance in smaller details.” - -While we generally have circles in Britain without, or with small, -alignments; in Brittany we have alignments without circles, some of them -being on an enormous scale;[8] thus at Menec (the place of stones) we -have eleven lines of menhirs, terminating towards the west in a -cromlech, and, notwithstanding that great numbers have been converted to -other uses, 1169 menhirs still remain, some reaching as much as 18 feet -in height. - -The alignments of Kermario (the place of the dead) contain 989 menhirs -in ten lines. Those of Kerlescant (the place of burning), which -beginning with eleven rows are afterwards increased to thirteen, contain -altogether 579 stones and thirty-nine in the cromlech, with some -additional stones. The adoration paid these stones yielded very slowly -to Christianity. In the church history of Brittany the _Cultus Lapidum_ -was denounced in 658 A.D. - -Many of the fallen menhirs in these alignments have been restored to -their upright position by the French Government. Some of them may have -been overturned in compliance with the decree of 658 A.D. above referred -to. Several of the loftier menhirs are surmounted by crosses of stone or -iron. - -Both circles and alignments are associated with holidays and the -lighting of fires on certain days of the year. This custom has remained -more general in Brittany than in Britain. At Mount St. Michael, near -Carnac, the custom still prevails of lighting a large bonfire on its -summit at the time of the summer solstice; others, kindled on prominent -eminences for a distance of twenty or thirty miles round, reply to it. -These fires are locally called “Tan Heol,” and also by a later use, Tan -St. Jean. In Scotland there was a similar custom in the first week in -May under the name of Bel Tan, or Baal’s Fire; the synonym for summer -used by Sir Walter Scott in the “Lady of the Lake”:-- - - Ours is no sapling chance-sown by the fountain, - Blooming at Beltane in winter to fade. - -At Kerlescant the winter solstice is celebrated by a holiday, whilst -Menec greets the summer solstice, and Kermario the equinoxes, with -festivals. Concerning these fires and the associated customs Mr. -Frazer’s “Golden Bough” is a perfect mine of information and should be -consulted. It may simply be said here that the May and November, and -June and December fires seem to be the most ancient. It is stated that -the Balder bale fires on Mayday Eve were recognised by the primitive -race, and I shall prove this in the sequel when British customs are -referred to. On the introduction of Christianity the various customs -were either transferred to or reorganised in association with church -festivals; but as some of these, such as Easter, are movable feasts, it -is difficult to follow the dates. - -Regarding both circles and alignments in the light of the orientation -theory, we may consider simple circles with a central stone as a -collection of sight-lines from the central stone to one or more of the -outer ones, or the interval between any two; indicating the place of the -rise or setting of either the sun or a star on some particular day of -the year, which day, in the case of the sun, will be a new year’s day. - -Alignments, on the other hand, will play the same part as the -sight-lines in the circles. - -Sometimes the sight-line may be indicated by a menhir outside, and even -at a considerable distance from, the circle; later on tumuli replaced -menhirs. - -The dolmens have, I am convinced, been in many cases not graves -originally, but darkened observing places whence to observe along a -sight-line; this would be best done by means of an _allée couverte_, the -predecessor of the darkened naos at Stonehenge, shielded by its covered -trilithons. - -In order to obtain some measurements to test the orientation theory in -Britain, I found that Stonehenge is the ancient monument in this country -which lends itself to accurate theodolite work better than any other. -Mr. Spence’s excellent work on astronomical lines at Stenness, where the -stones, till some years ago at all events, have been more respected than -further south, suggested a beginning there, but the distance from London -made it impossible. - -Avebury and Stanton Drew are well known to a great many archæologists; -there are also other very wonderful stone circles near Keswick and in -other parts of England; but unfortunately it is very much more difficult -to get astronomical data from these ancient monuments than it is in the -case of Stonehenge, one reason being that Stonehenge itself lies high, -and the horizon round it in all directions is pretty nearly the same -height, so that the important question of the heights of the hills along -the sight-line--a matter which is fundamental from an astronomical point -of view, although it has been neglected, so far as I can make out, by -most who have made observations on these ancient monuments--is quite a -simple one at Stonehenge. Hence it was much easier to determine a date -there than by working at any of the other ancient remains to which I -have referred. - -In orientation generally--such orientation as has been dealt with by Mr. -Penrose and myself in Egypt and in Greece--the question frequently was a -change in direction in the axis of a temple, or the laying down of the -axis of a temple, by means of observations of stars. Unfortunately for -us as archæologists, not as astronomers, the changes of position of the -stars, owing to certain causes, chiefly the precessional movement, are -very considerable; so that if a temple pointed to a star in one year, in -two or three hundred years it would no longer point to the same star, -but to another. - -These star observations were requisite in order to warn the priests -about an hour before sunrise so that they might prepare for the morning -sacrifice which always took place at the first appearance of the sun. -Hence the morning star to be visible in the dawn must be a bright one, -and the further north or south of the sun’s rising place it rose, the -more easily it would be seen. Some stars so chosen rose not far from -the north point of the horizon. The alignments with small azimuths -referred to in the British circles (p. 36) I believe to be connected -with the Egyptian and Greek practice. - -Acting on a very old tradition, some people from Salisbury and other -surrounding places go to observe the sunrise on the longest day of the -year at Stonehenge. We therefore are perfectly justified in assuming -that it was a solar temple used for observation in the height of -midsummer. But at dawn in midsummer in these latitudes the sky is so -bright that it is not easy to see stars even if we get up in the morning -to look for them; stars, therefore, were not in question, so that some -other principle had to be adopted, and that was to point the temple -directly to the position on the horizon at which the sun rose on that -particular day of the year, and no other. - -Now, if there were no change in the position of the sun, that, of -course, would go on for ever and ever; but, fortunately for -archæologists, there is a slight change in the position of the sun, as -there is in the case of a star, but for a different reason; the planes -of the ecliptic and of the equator undergo a slight change in the angle -included between them. So far as we know, that angle has been gradually -getting less for many thousands of years, so that, in the case of -Stonehenge, if we wish to determine the date, having no stars to help -us, the only thing that we can hope to get any information from is the -very slow change of this angle; that, therefore, was the special point -which Mr. Penrose and I were anxious to study at Stonehenge, for the -reason that we seemed in a position to do it there more conveniently -than anywhere else in Britain. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--The original tooling of the stone protected from -the action of the weather.] - -But while the astronomical conditions are better at Stonehenge than -elsewhere, the ruined state of the monument makes accurate measurements -very difficult. - -Great age and the action of weather are responsible for much havoc, so -that very many of the stones are now recumbent, as will be gathered from -an article by Mr. Lewis, who described the condition of the monument in -1901, in _Man_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.--View of Stonehenge from the west. A, stone which -fell in 1900; _BB_, stones which fell in 1797. (Reproduced from an -article on the fallen stones by Mr. Lewis in _Man_.)] - -Professor Gowland in his excavations at Stonehenge, to which I shall -refer in the sequel, found the original tooled surface near the bottom -of one of the large sarsens which had been protected from the action of -the weather by having been buried in the ground. It enables us to -imagine the appearance of the monument as it left the hands of the -builders (Fig. 8). - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Copy of Hoare’s plan of 1810, showing the -unbroken Vallum and its relation with the Avenue.] - -But the real destructive agent has been man himself; savages could not -have played more havoc with the monument than the English who have -visited it at different times for different purposes. It is said the -fall of one great stone was caused in 1620 by some excavations, but this -has been doubted; the fall of another in 1797 was caused by gipsies -digging a hole in which to shelter, and boil their kettle; many of the -stones have been used for building walls and bridges; masses weighing -from 56 lb. downwards have been broken off by hammers or cracked off as -a result of fires lighted by excursionists. - -It appears that the temenos wall or vallum, which is shown complete in -Hoare’s plan of 1810, is now broken down in many places by vehicles -indiscriminately driven over it. Indeed, its original importance has now -become so obliterated that many do not notice it as part of the -structure--that, in fact, it bears the same relation to the interior -stone circle as the nave of St. Paul’s does to the Lady Chapel (Fig. -10). - -It is within the knowledge of all interested in archæology that not long -ago Sir Edmund Antrobus, the owner of Stonehenge, advised by the famous -Wiltshire local society, the Society for the Protection of Ancient -Buildings, and the Society of Antiquaries, enclosed the monument in -order to preserve it from further wanton destruction, and--a first step -in the way of restoration--with the skilled assistance of Prof. Gowland -and Messrs. Carruthers, Detmar Blow and Stallybrass, set upright the -most important menhir, which threatened to fall or else break off at one -of the cracks. This menhir, the so-called “leaning stone,” once formed -one of the uprights of the trilithon the fall of the other member of -which is stated by Mr. Lewis to have occurred before 1574. The latter, -broken in two pieces, and the supported impost, now lie prostrate -across the altar stone. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.--The Leaning Stone in 1901.] - -This piece of work was carried out with consummate skill and care, and -most important conclusions, as we shall see in a subsequent chapter, -were derived from the minute inquiry into the conditions revealed in the -excavations which were necessary for the proper conduct of the work. - -Let us hope that we have heard the last of the work of devastators, and -even that, before long, some of the other larger stones, now inclined or -prostrate, may be set upright. - -Since Sir Edmund Antrobus, the present owner, has acted on the advice of -the societies I have named to enclose the monument, with a view to guard -it from destruction and desecration, he has been assailed on all sides. -It is not a little surprising that the “unclimbable wire fence” -recommended by the societies in question (the Bishop of Bristol being -the president of the Wiltshire society at the time) is by some regarded -as a suggestion that the property is not national, the fact being that -the nation has not bought the property, and that it has been private -property for centuries, and treated in the way we have seen. - -Let us hope also that before long the gaps in the vallum may be filled -up. These, as I have already stated, take away from the meaning of an -important part of one of the most imposing monuments of the world. In -the meantime, it is comforting to know that, thanks to what Sir Edmund -Antrobus has done, no more stones will be stolen, or broken by -sledge-hammers; that fires; that excavations such as were apparently the -prime cause of the disastrous fall of one of the majestic trilithons in -1797; that litter, broken bottles and the like, with which too many -British sightseers mark their progress, besides much indecent -desecration, are things of the past. - -If Stonehenge had been built in Italy, or France, or Germany, it would -have been in charge of the State long ago. - - * * * * * - -I now pass from the monument itself to a reference to some of the -traditions and historical statements concerning it. - -Those who are interested in these matters should thank the Wiltshire -Archæological and Natural History Society, which is to be warmly -congratulated on its persistent and admirable efforts to do all in its -power to enable the whole nation to learn about the venerable monuments -of antiquity which it has practically taken under its scientific charge. -It has published two most important volumes[9] dealing specially with -Stonehenge, including both its traditions and history. - -With regard to Mr. Long’s memoir, it may be stated that it includes -important extracts from notices of Stonehenge from the time of Henry of -Huntingdon (twelfth century) to Hoare (1812), and that all extant -information is given touching on the questions by whom the stones were -erected, whence they came, and what was the object of the structure. - -From Mr. Harrison’s more recently published bibliography, no reference -to Stonehenge by any ancient author, no letter to the _Times_ for the -last twenty years dealing with any question touching the monuments, -seems to be omitted. - -It is very sad to read, both in Mr. Long’s volume and the bibliography, -of the devastation which has been allowed to go on for so many years and -of the various forms it has taken. - - * * * * * - -As almost the whole of the notes which follow deal with the assumption -of Stonehenge having been a solar temple, a short reference to the -earliest statements concerning this view is desirable; and, again, as -the approximate date arrived at by Mr. Penrose and myself in 1901 is an -early one, a few words may be added indicating the presence in Britain -at that time of a race of men capable of designing and executing such -work. I quote from the paper communicated by Mr. Penrose and myself to -the Royal Society:-- - -“As to the first point, Diodorus Siculus (ii., 47, ed. Didot, p. 116) -has preserved a statement of Hecatæus in which Stonehenge alone can by -any probability be referred to. - -“‘We think that no one will consider it foreign to our subject to say a -word respecting the Hyperboreans. - -“‘Amongst the writers who have occupied themselves with the mythology of -the ancients, Hecatæus and some others tell us that opposite the land of -the Celts [ἑν τοις ἁντιπεραν της Κελτικης τοποις] there exists in the -Ocean an island not smaller than Sicily, and which, situated under the -constellation of The Bear, is inhabited by the Hyperboreans; so called -because they live beyond the point from which the North wind blows.... -If one may believe the same mythology, Latona was born in this island, -and for that reason the inhabitants honour Apollo more than any other -deity. A sacred enclosure [νησον] is dedicated to him in the island, as -well as a magnificent circular temple adorned with many rich -offerings.... The Hyperboreans are in general very friendly to the -Greeks.’” - -“The Hecatæus above referred to was probably Hecatæus of Abdera, in -Thrace, fourth century B.C.; a friend of Alexander the Great. This -Hecatæus is said to have written a history of the Hyperboreans: that it -was Hecatæus of Miletus, an historian of the sixth century B.C., is less -likely. - -“As to the second point, although we cannot go so far back in evidence -of the power and civilisation of the Britons, there is an argument of -some value to be drawn from the fine character of the coinage issued by -British kings early in the second century B.C., and from the statement -of Julius Cæsar (‘De Bello Gallico,’ vi., c. 14) that in the schools of -the Druids the subjects taught included the movements of the stars, the -size of the earth, and the nature of things (multa præterea de sideribus -et eorum motu, de mundi magnitudine, de rerum natura, de deorum -immortalium vi ac potestate disputant et juventuti tradunt). - -“Studies of such a character seem quite consistent with, and to demand, -a long antecedent period of civilisation.” - -Henry of Huntingdon is the first English writer to refer to Stonehenge, -which he calls Stanenges. Geoffrey of Monmouth (1138) and Giraldus -Cambrensis come next. - -In 1771, Dr. John Smith, in a work entitled “Choir Gawr, the Grand -Orrery of the Ancient Druids, called Stonehenge, Astronomically -Explained, and proved to be a Temple for Observing the Motions of the -Heavenly Bodies,” wrote as follows:-- - -“From many and repeated visits, I conceived it to be an astronomical -temple; and from what I could recollect to have read of it, no author -had as yet investigated its uses. Without an instrument or any -assistance whatever, but White’s ‘Ephemeris,’ I began my survey. I -suspected the stone called _The Friar’s Heel_ to be the index that would -disclose the uses of this structure; nor was I deceived. This stone -stands in a right line with the centre of the temple, pointing to the -north-east. I first drew a circle round the vallum of the ditch and -divided it into 360 equal parts; and then a right line through the body -of the temple to the Friar’s Heel; at the intersection of these lines I -reckoned the sun’s greatest amplitude at the summer solstice, in this -latitude, to be about 60 degrees, and fixed the eastern points -accordingly. Pursuing this plan, I soon discovered the uses of all the -detached stones, as well as those that formed the body of the temple.” - -With regard to this “Choir Gawr,” translated Chorea Gigantum, Leland’s -opinion is quoted (Long, p. 51) that we should read Choir vawr, the -equivalent of which is Chorea nobilis or magna.[10] - -In spite of Inigo Jones’s (1600) dictum that Stonehenge was of Roman -origin, Stukeley came to the conclusion in 1723 that the Druids were -responsible for its building; and Halley, who visited it in -1720--probably with Stukeley--concluded from the weathering of the -stones that it was at least 3000 years old; if he only had taken his -theodolite with him, how much his interest in the monument would have -been increased! - -[5] See especially _Nature_, July 2, 1891 p. 201. - -[6] Gardner, Paisley and London. - -[7] “The Prehistoric Stone Monuments of the British Isles--Cornwall.” - -[8] “The French Stonehenge: An Account of the Principal Megalithic -Remains in the Morbihan Archipelago.” By T. Cato Worsfold, F. R. Hist. -S., F.R.S.I. (London: Bemrose and Sons, Ltd.) - -[9] _The Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine_: -“Stonehenge and its Barrows.” By William Long, M.A., F.S.A. 1876. _The -Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine_: “Stonehenge -Bibliography Number.” By W. Jerome Harrison. 1902. - -[10] Mr. Morien Morgan informs me that Cor y Gawres is correct, and -means Choir of the Giantess Cariadwen, the Welsh Neith, Nyth (Nydd). - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -GENERAL ARCHITECTURE OF STONEHENGE - - -Although I have before hinted that the astronomical use of the Egyptian -temples and British circles was the same, there is at first sight a vast -difference in the general plan of structure. - -This has chiefly depended upon the fact that the riches and population -of ancient Egypt were so great that that people could afford to build a -temple to a particular star, or to the sun’s position on any particular -day of the year. The temple axis along the line pointing to the -celestial body involved, then became the chief feature, and tens of -years were spent in lengthening, constricting and embellishing it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.--The axis of the Temple of Karnak, looking -south-east, from outside the north-west pylon (from a photograph by the -author).] - -From one end of an Egyptian temple to the other we find the axis marked -out by narrow apertures in the various pylons, and many walls with doors -crossing the axis. There are seventeen or eighteen of these apertures in -the solar temple of Amen-Rā at Karnak, limiting the light which falls -into the Holy of Holies or Sanctuary. This construction gives one a very -definite impression that every part of the temple was built to subserve -a special object, viz., to limit the sunlight which fell on its front -into a narrow beam, and to carry it to the other extremity of the -temple--into the sanctuary, where the high priest performed his -functions. The sanctuary was always blocked. There is no case in which -the beam of light can pass absolutely through a temple (Figs. 12 and -13). - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Plan of the Temple of Ramses II. in the -Memnonia at Thebes (from Lepsius), showing the pylon at the open end, -the various doors along the axis, the sanctuary at the closed end, and -the temple at right angles.] - -In Britain the case was different, there was neither skill nor workers -sufficient to erect such stately piles, and as a consequence one -structure had to do the work of several and it had to be done in the -most economical way. Hence the circle with the observer at the centre -and practically a temple axis in every direction among which could be -chosen the chief directions required, each alignment being defined by -stones, more or less distant, or openings in the circle itself. - -Now for some particulars with regard to those parts of Stonehenge which -lend themselves to the inquiry. - -The main architecture of Stonehenge consisted of an external circle of -about 100 feet in diameter, composed of thirty large upright stones, -named sarsens, connected by continuous lintels. The upright stones -formerly stood 14 feet above the surface of the ground. They have nobs -or tenons on the top which fit into mortice holes in the lintels. Within -this peristyle there was originally an inner structure of ten still -larger upright stones, arranged in the shape of a horseshoe, formed by -five isolated trilithons which rose progressively from N.E. to S.W., the -loftiest stones being 25 feet above the ground. About one-half of these -uprights have fallen, and a still greater number of the imposts which -they originally carried. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.--One of the remaining Trilithons.] - -There is also another circle of smaller upright stones, respecting which -the only point requiring notice now is that none of them would have -interrupted the line of the axis of the avenue. The circular temple was -also surrounded by the earthen bank, shown in Fig. 15, of about 300 -feet in diameter, interrupted towards the north-east by receiving into -itself the banks forming the avenue before mentioned, which is about 50 -feet across. Within this avenue, no doubt an old _via sacra_, and -looking north-east from the centre of the temple, at about 250 feet -distance and considerably to the right hand of the axis, stands an -isolated stone, which from a mediæval legend has been named the Friar’s -Heel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.--General plan; the outer circle, naos and avenue -of Stonehenge. - -_F.H._ = Friar’s Heel.] - -The axis passes very nearly centrally through an intercolumniation (so -to call it) between two uprights of the external circle and between the -uprights of the westernmost trilithon as it originally stood. Of this -trilithon the southernmost upright with the lintel stone fell in 1620, -but the companion survived as the leaning stone which formed a -conspicuous and picturesque object for many years, but happily now -restored to its original more dignified and safer condition of -vertically. The inclination of this stone, however, took place in the -direction of the axis of the avenue, and as the distance between it and -its original companion is known both by the analogy of the two perfect -trilithons and by the measure of the mortice holes on the lintel they -formerly supported, we obtain by bisection the distance, 11 inches, from -its edge, of a point in the continuation of the central axis of the -avenue and temple. - -The banks which form the avenue have suffered much degradation. It -appears from Sir Richard Colt Hoare’s account that at the beginning of -the last century they were distinguishable for a much greater distance -than at present, but they are still discernible, especially on the -northern side, for more than 1300 feet from the centre of the temple, -and particularly the line of the bottom of the ditch from which the -earth was taken to form the bank, and which runs parallel to it. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS AT STONEHENGE IN 1901[11] - - -An investigation was undertaken by Mr. Penrose and myself in the spring -of 1901, as a sequel to analogous work in Egypt and Greece, with a view -to determine whether the orientation theory could throw any light upon -the date of the foundation of Stonehenge, concerning which authorities -vary in their estimates by some thousands of years. Ours was not the -first attempt to obtain the date of Stonehenge by means of astronomical -considerations. In Mr. Godfrey Higgins’ work[12] he refers to a method -of attack connected with precession. This furnished him with the date -4000 B.C. - -More recently, Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie,[13] whose plan of the stones -is a valuable contribution to the study of Stonehenge, was led by his -measures of the orientation to a date very greatly in the opposite -direction, but, owing to an error in his application of the change of -obliquity, clearly a mistaken one. - -The chief astronomical evidence in favour of the solar temple theory -lies in the fact that the “avenue,” as it is called, formed by two -ancient earthen banks, extends for a considerable distance from the -structure, in the general direction of the sunrise at the summer -solstice, precisely in the same way as in Egypt a long avenue of -sphinxes indicates the principal outlook of a temple. - -These earthen banks defining the avenue do not exist alone. As will be -seen from the sketch plan (Fig. 15), there is a general common line of -direction for the avenue and the principal axis of the structure; and -the general design of the building, together with the position and shape -of the naos, indicates a close connection of the whole temple structure -with the direction of the avenue. There may have been other pylon and -screen equivalents as in other ancient temples, which have disappeared, -the object being to confine the illumination to a small part of the -naos. There can be little doubt, also, that the temple was originally -roofed in, and that the sun’s first ray, suddenly shining into the -darkness, formed a fundamental part of the cultus. - -With regard to the question of the roof, however, the above suggestion, -I now find, is not new, the view having been held by no less an -authority than Dr. Thurnham, who apparently was led to it by the -representations of the Scandinavian temples as covered and enclosed -structures. - -Since the actual observation of sunrise was doubtless made within the -sanctuary itself, we seem justified in taking the orientation of the -axis to be the same as that of the avenue, and since in the present -state of the S.W. trilithon the direction of the avenue can probably be -determined with greater accuracy than that of the temple axis itself, -the estimate of date must be based upon the orientation of the avenue. -Further evidence will be given, however, to show that the direction of -the axis of the temple, so far as it can now be determined, is -sufficiently accordant with the direction of the avenue. - -The orientation of this avenue may be examined upon the same principles -that have been found successful in the case of Greek and Egyptian -temples--that is, on the assumption that Stonehenge was a solar temple, -and that the greatest function took place at sunrise on the longest day -of the year. This not only had a religious motive; it had also the -economic value of marking officially and distinctly that time of the -year and the beginning of an annual period. - -It is, indeed, possible that the present structure may have had other -capabilities, such as being connected with the May year, the equinoxes -or the winter solstice; but it is with its uses at the summer solstice -alone that we now deal. - -There is a difference in treatment between the observations required for -Stonehenge and those which are available for Greek or Egyptian solar -temples. In the case of the latter, the effect of the precession of the -equinoxes upon the stars, which as warning clock stars were almost -invariably connected with those temples, offers the best measure of the -dates of foundation; but in Britain, owing to the brightness of the dawn -at the summer solstice, such a star could not have been employed, so -that we can rely only on the secular change of the obliquity as -affecting the azimuth of the point of sunrise. This requires the -measurements to be taken with very great precision, and as the azimuth -of the place of sunrise varies with the latitude, and as a datum point -on the horizon in a known position was also required, Colonel Johnston, -R.E., the Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, was asked for and -obligingly supplied the following particulars: - - { Lat. 51° 10′ 42″ - Centre of stone circle, Stonehenge { Long. W. 1 49 99 - - { Lat. 51° 3′ 52″ - Centre of spire, Salisbury Cathedral { Long. 1 47 45 - -The real point was to determine the direction of the so-called avenue. -Measurements taken from the line of the bottom of the ditch assisted -materially those taken from the crown of the bank itself. With this help -and by using the southern bank and ditch whenever it admitted of -recognition, a fair estimate of the central line could be arrived at. To -verify this, two pegs were placed at points 140 feet apart along the -line near the commencement of the avenue, and four others at distances -averaging 100 feet apart nearer the further recognisable extremity, and -their directions were measured with the theodolite, independently by two -observers, the reference point being Salisbury Spire, of which the exact -bearing had been communicated by Colonel Johnston. - -This bearing was also measured locally by observations of the Sun and of -Polaris, the mean of which differed by less than 20″ from the Ordnance -value. The resulting observations gave for the axis of the avenue -nearest the commencement an azimuth of 49° 38′ 48″, and for that of the -more distant part 49° 32′ 54″. The mean of these two lines drawn from -the central interval of the great trilithon, already referred to, passes -between two of the sarsens of the exterior circle, which have an opening -of about 4 feet, within a few inches of their middle point, the -deviation being northwards. This may be considered to prove the close -coincidence of the original axis of the temple with the direction of the -avenue. - -This value of the azimuth, the mean of which is 49° 35′ 51″, is -confirmed by the information, also supplied from the Ordnance Survey, -that from the centre of the temple, the bearing to the N.E. of the -principal bench mark on a hill, about 8 miles distant, the bench mark -being very near a well-known ancient fortified British encampment named -Silbury or Sidbury, is 49° 34′ 18″; and that the same line continued -through Stonehenge, to the south-west, strikes another ancient -fortification, namely, Grovely Castle, about 6 miles distant, and at -practically the same azimuth, viz., 49° 35′ 51″. For the above reasons -49° 34′ 18″ has been adopted for the azimuth of the avenue. - -The summer solstice sunrise in 1901 was also watched for by Mr. Howard -Payn on five successive mornings, viz., June 21 to 25, and was -successfully observed on the last occasion. As soon as the Sun’s limb -was sufficiently above the horizon for its bisection to be well -measured, it was found to be 8′ 40″ northwards of the peak of the -Friar’s Heel, which was used as the reference point; the altitude of the -horizon being 35′ 48″. The azimuth of this peak from the point of -observation had been previously ascertained to be 50° 39′ 5″, giving for -that of the Sun when measured, 50° 30′ 25″; by calculation that of the -Sun, with the limb 2′ above the horizon, should be 50° 30′ 54″. This -observation was therefore completely in accordance with the results -which had been obtained otherwise. - -The time which would elapse between geometrical sunrise, that is, with -the upper limb tangential with the horizon, and that which is here -supposed, would be about 17 seconds, and the difference of azimuth would -be 3′ 15″. - -The remaining point was to find what value should be given to the Sun’s -declination when it appeared showing itself 2′ above the horizon, the -azimuth being 49° 34′ 18″. - -The data obtained for the determination of the required epoch were as -follows:-- - -(1.) The elevation of the local horizon at the sunrise point seen by a -man standing between the uprights of the great trilithon (a distance of -about 8000 feet) is about 35′ 30″, and 2′ additional for Sun’s upper -limb makes 37′ 30″. - -(2.) -Refraction + parallax, 27′ 20″. - -(3.) Sun’s semi-diameter, allowance being made for greater eccentricity -than at present, 15′ 45″. - -(4.) Sun’s azimuth, 49° 34′ 18″, and N. latitude, 51° 10′ 42″. - -From the above data the Sun’s declination works out 23° 54′ 30″ N., and -by Stockwell’s tables of the obliquity, which are based upon modern -determinations of the elements of the solar system,[14] the date is -found to be 1680 B.C. - -It is to be understood that on account of the slight uncertainty as to -the original line of observation and the very slow rate of change in -the obliquity of the ecliptic, the date thus derived may possibly be in -error by 200 years more or less; this gives us a date of construction -lying between say 1900 and 1500 B.C. - -In this investigation the so-called Friar’s Heel was used only as a -convenient point for reference and verification in measurement, and no -theory was formed as to its purpose. It is placed at some distance, as -before mentioned, to the south of the axis of the avenue, so that at the -date arrived at for the erection of the temple the Sun must have -completely risen before it was vertically over the summit of the stone. -It may be remarked, further, that more than 500 years must yet elapse -before such a coincidence can take place at the beginning of sunrise. - -In an Appendix certain details of the observations are given. - -In the next chapter I propose to show that an independent archæological -inquiry carried out, in a most complete and admirable way, just after -Mr. Penrose and myself had obtained our conclusion, entirely -corroborates the date at which we had arrived. - -[11] This chapter and the end of the previous one are mainly based on -the paper communicated by Mr. Penrose and myself to the Royal Society -(see _Proceedings_, _Royal Society_, vol. 69, p. 137 _et seq._). - -[12] _The Celtic Druids_. 4to. London. 1827. - -[13] _Stonehenge, &c._ 1880. - -[14] _Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge_, vol. xviii. No. 232, -table 9. Washington. 1873. For curve, see page 130. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -ARCHÆOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT STONEHENGE, 1901 - - -Soon after Mr. Penrose and myself had made our astronomical survey of -Stonehenge in 1901, some archæological results of the highest importance -were obtained by Professor Gowland. The operations which secured them -were designed and carried out in order to re-erect the leaning stone -which threatened to fall, a piece of work recommended to Sir Edmund -Antrobus by the Society of Antiquaries of London and other learned -bodies, and conducted at his desire and expense. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.--The arrangements for raising the stone, looking -north-east.] - -They were necessarily on a large scale, for the great monolith, “the -leaning stone,” is the largest in England, the Rudston monolith -excepted. It stood behind the altar stone, over which it leant at an -angle of 65 degrees, resting at one point against a small stone of -syenite. Half-way up it had a fracture one-third across it; the weight -of stone above this fracture was a dangerous strain on it, so that both -powerful machinery and great care and precautions had to be used. -Professor Gowland was charged by the Society of Antiquaries with the -conduct of the excavations necessary in the work. The engineering -operations were planned by Mr. Carruthers, and Mr. Detmar Blow was -responsible for the local superintendence. Mr. Blow thus describes the -arrangements (_Journal_ Institute of British Architects, 3rd series, -ix., January, 1902):-- - -“A strong cradle of 12-inch square baulks of timber was bolted round the -stone, with packing and felt, to prevent any marking of the stone. To -the cradle were fixed two 1-inch steel eyebolts to receive the blocks -for two six-folds of 6-inch ropes. These were secured and wound on to -two strong winches fifty feet away, with four men at each winch. When -the ropes were thoroughly tight, the first excavation was made as the -stone was raised on its west side.” - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.--The cradle and supports, looking west.] - -The method employed by Professor Gowland in the excavation should be a -model for all future work of the kind. - -Above each space to be excavated was placed a frame of wood, bearing on -its long sides the letters A to H, and on its short sides the letters R -M L, each letter being on a line one foot distant from the next. By this -means the area to be excavated was divided into squares each having the -dimension of a square foot. A long rod divided into 6-inch spaces, -numbered from 1 to 16, was also provided for indicating the depth from -the datum line of anything found. In this way a letter on the long sides -of the frame, together with one on the short sides, and a number on the -vertical rod, indicated the position of any object found in any part of -the excavation. - -Excavations were necessary because to secure the stone for the future -the whole of the adjacent soil had to be removed down to the rock level, -so that it could be replaced by concrete. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.--The frame used to locate the finds.] - -All results were registered by Professor Gowland in relation to a datum -line 337·4 feet above sea level. The material was removed in buckets, -and carefully sifted through a series of sieves 1-inch, ¹⁄₂-inch, -¹⁄₄-inch, and ¹⁄₈-inch mesh, in order that the smallest object might -not be overlooked. - -From the exhaustive account of his work given by Professor Gowland to -the Society of Antiquaries (_Archaeologia_, lviii.), I gather three -results of the highest importance from the point of view I am -considering. These were, first, the finding of an enormous number of -implements; secondly, the disposition and relative quantities of the -chippings of the sarsen and blue stones; and thirdly, the discovery of -the method by which the stones were originally erected. - -I will take the implements first. This, in a condensed form, is what -Professor Gowland says about them:-- - -More than a hundred flint implements were found, and the greater number -occurred in the stratum of chalk rubble which either directly overlaid -or was on a level with the bed rock. They may all be arranged generally -in the following classes:-- - -_Class I._--Axes roughly chipped and of rude forms, but having -well-defined, more or less sharp cutting edges. - -_Class II._--Hammerstones, with more or less well-chipped, sharp curved -edges. Most may be correctly termed hammer-axes. They are chipped to an -edge at one end, but at the other are broad and thick, and in many -examples terminated there by a more or less flat surface. In some the -natural coating of the flint is left untouched at the thick end. - -_Class III._--Hammerstones, more or less rounded. Some specimens appear -to have once had distinct working edges, but they are now much blunted -and battered by use. - -In addition to the above flint implements were found about thirty -hammerstones, consisting of large pebbles or small boulders of the hard -quartzite variety of sarsen. Some have been roughly broken into -convenient forms for holding in the hand, whilst a few have been rudely -trimmed into more regular shapes. They vary in weight from about a pound -up to six and a half pounds. To these we have to add mauls, a more -remarkable kind of hammerstone than those just enumerated. They are -ponderous boulders of the quartzite variety of sarsen with their -broadest sides more or less flat. Their weights range from about 40 lb. -to 64 lb. - -How came these flints and stones where they were found? Prof. Gowland -gives an answer which everybody will accept. The implements must be -regarded as the discarded tools of the builders of Stonehenge, dumped -down into the holes as they became unfit for use, and, in fact, used to -pack the monoliths as they were erected. We read:--“Dealing with the -cavity occupied by No. 55 before its fall, the mauls were found wedged -in below the front of its base to act together with the large blocks of -sarsen as supports” (p. 54). Nearly all bear evidence of extremely rough -usage, their edges being jagged and broken, just as we should expect to -find after such rough employment. We evidently have to deal with -builders doing their work in the Stone and not in the Bronze age. But -was the age Palæolithic or Neolithic? - -Prof. Gowland writes:-- - -“Perhaps the most striking features of the flint implements is their -extreme rudeness, and that there is not a single ground or polished -specimen among them. This, at first sight and without due consideration, -might be taken to indicate an extremely remote age. But in this -connection it must be borne in mind that in the building of such a -stupendous structure as Stonehenge, the tools required must have been -numbered by thousands. The work, too, was of the roughest character, and -for such only rude tools were required. The highly finished and polished -implements which we are accustomed to consider, and rightly so, as -characteristic of Neolithic man, would find no place in such work. They -required too much labour and time for their manufacture, and, when made, -could not have been more effective than the hammer-axes and hammerstones -found in the excavations, which could be so easily fashioned by merely -rudely shaping the natural flints, with which the district abounds, by a -few well directed blows of a sarsen pebble.” - -On this ground Prof. Gowland is of opinion that, notwithstanding their -rudeness, they may be legitimately ascribed to the Neolithic age, and, -it may be, near its termination, that is, before the Bronze age, the -commencement of which has been placed at 1400 B.C. by Sir John Evans for -Britain, though he is inclined to think that estimate too low, and 2000 -B.C. by Montelius for Italy. - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Some of the Flint Implements.] - -Prof. Gowland guardedly writes:-- - -“The occurrence of stone tools does not alone prove with absolute -certainty that Stonehenge belongs to the Neolithic age, although it -affords a strong presumption in favour of that view. But, and this is -important, had bronze been in general or even moderately extensive use -when the stones were set up, it is in the highest degree probable that -some implement of that metal would have been lost within the area of the -excavations, and if so lost, it would certainly have been found together -with the stone tools. Further, the employment of deer’s horn picks for -the extensive excavations made in the chalk around the base of the -monoliths also tends to support the view that bronze implements cannot -have been in common use. If they had it would seem not unreasonable to -assume that they would have been employed, as they would have been so -much more effective for such work than the picks of deer’s horn. - -“Again, the chippings of the stones of Stonehenge in two of the Bronze -age barrows[15] in its neighbourhood show that it is of earlier date -than they.” - -And finally:-- - -“In my opinion, the date when copper or bronze was first known in -Britain is a very remote one, as no country in the world presented -greater facilities for their discovery. The beginning of their -application to practical uses should, I think, be placed at least as far -back as 1800 B.C., and that date I am inclined to give, until further -evidence is forthcoming, as the approximate date of the erection of -Stonehenge.” - -Now the date arrived at by Mr. Penrose and myself on astronomical -grounds was about 1700 B.C. It is not a little remarkable that -independent astronomical and archæological inquiries conducted in the -same year should have come so nearly to the same conclusion. If a -general agreement be arrived at regarding it, we have a firm basis for -the study of other similar ancient monuments in this country. - -I have previously in this book referred to the fact that the trilithons -of the naos and the stones of the outer circle are all built up of -so-called “sarsen” stones. To describe their geological character, I -cannot do better than quote, from Mr. Cunnington’s “Geology of -Stonehenge,”[16] their origin according to Prestwich. - -“Among the _Lower Tertiaries_ (the Eocene of Sir Charles Lyell) are -certain sands and mottled clays, named by Mr. Prestwich the Woolwich and -Reading beds, from their being largely developed at these places, and -from these he proves the sarsens to have been derived; although they are -seldom found _in situ_, owing to the destruction of the stratum to which -they belonged. They are large _masses of sand concreted together_ by a -siliceous cement, and when the looser portions of the stratum were -washed away, the blocks of sandy rocks were left scattered over the -surface of the ground. - -“At Standen, near Hungerford, large masses of sarsen are found, -consisting almost _entirely_ of flints, formed into conglomerate with -the sand. Flints are also common in some of the large stones forming the -ancient temple of Avebury. - -“The abundance of these remains, especially in some of the valleys of -North Wilts, is very remarkable. Few persons who have not seen them can -form an adequate idea of the extraordinary scene presented to the eye -of the spectator, who standing on the brow of one of the hills near -Clatford, sees stretching for miles before him, countless numbers of -these enormous stones, occupying the middle of the valley, and winding -like a mighty stream towards the south.” - -These stones, then, may be regarded as closely associated with the local -geology. - -The exact nature of the stones, called “blue stones,” can best be -gathered from a valuable “Note” by Prof. Judd which accompanies Prof. -Gowland’s paper. These blue stones are entirely unconnected with the -local geology; they must, therefore, represent boulders of the Glacial -drift, or they must have been brought by man, from distant localities. -Prof. Judd inclines to the first opinion. - -The distinction between these two kinds of stone are well shown by Prof. -Gowland:-- - -“The large monoliths of the outer circle, and the trilithons of the -horse-shoe are all sarsens. [See general plan, Fig. 15.] These sarsens -in their composition are sandstones, consisting of quartz-sand, either -fine or coarse, occasionally mixed with pebbles and angular bits of -flint, all more or less firmly cemented together with silica. They are -the relics of the concretionary masses which had become consolidated in -the sandstone beds that once overlaid the chalk of the district, and had -resisted the destructive agencies by which the softer parts of the beds -were removed in geological times. They range in structure from a -granular rock resembling loaf sugar in internal appearance to one of -great compactness similar to and sometimes passing into quartzite. - -“The monoliths and trilithons all consist of the granular rock. The -examples of the compact quartzite variety, of which many were found in -the excavations, were almost without exception either hammerstones that -had been used in shaping and dressing the monoliths, or fragments which -had been broken from off them in these operations. - -“The small monoliths, the so-called ‘blue stones,’ which form the inner -circle and the inner horse-shoe, are, with the undermentioned -exceptions, all of diabase more or less porphyritic. Two are porphyrite -(formerly known as felstone or hornstone). Two are argillaceous -sandstone. - -“Mr. William Cunnington, in his valuable paper, ‘Stonehenge Notes,’ -records the discovery of two stumps of ‘blue stones’ now covered by the -turf. One of these lies in the inner horseshoe between Nos. 61 and 62, -and 9 feet distant from the latter. It is diabase. The other is in the -inner circle between Nos. 32 and 33, 10 feet from the former, and -consists of a soft calcareous altered tuff, afterwards designated for -the sake of brevity fissile rock. - -“The altar stone is of micaceous sandstone.” - -I now come to the second point, to which I shall return in the next -chapter. - -In studying the material obtained from the excavations, it was found in -almost every case that the number of chippings and fragments of blue -stone largely exceeded that of the sarsens; more than this, diabase -(blue stone) and sarsen were found together in the layer overlying the -solid chalk (p. 15). Chippings of diabase were the most abundant, but -there were few large pieces of it. Sarsen, on the other hand, occurred -most abundantly in lumps (p. 20); very few small chips of sarsen were -found (p. 42). Hence Prof. Gowland is of opinion that the sarsen blocks -were roughly hewn where they were found (p. 40); the local tooling, -executed with the small quartzite hammers and mauls, would produce not -chips but dust. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Showing the careful tooling of the Sarsens.] - -Finally, I reach the third point of importance from the present -standpoint; the excavations produced clear evidence touching the mode of -erection. Prof. Gowland’s memoir deals only with the leaning stone, but -I take it for granted that the same method was employed throughout: the -method was this. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Face of rock against which a stone was made to -rest.] - -(1) The ground in the site a stone was to occupy was removed, the chalk -rock being cut into in such a manner as to leave a ledge, on which the -base of the stone was to rest, _and a perpendicular face rising from it, -against which as a buttress_ one side would bear when set up. From the -bottom of this hole an inclined plane was cut to the surface down which -the monolith which had already been dressed was slid until its base -rested on the ledge. - -(2) It was then gradually raised into a vertical position by means first -of levers and afterwards of ropes. The levers would be long trunks of -trees, to one end of which a number of ropes was attached (this method -is still employed in Japan); so that the weights and pulling force of -many men might be exerted on them. The stronger ropes were probably of -hide or hair, but others of straw, or of withes of hazel or willow, may -have been in use for minor purposes. - -(3) As the stone was raised, it was packed up with logs of timber and -probably also with blocks of stone placed beneath it. - -(4) After its upper end had reached a certain elevation, ropes were -attached to it, and it was then hauled by numerous men into a vertical -position, _so that its back rested against the perpendicular face of the -chalk which had been prepared for it_. During this part of the -operation, struts of timber would probably be placed against its sides -to guard against slip, a precaution taken when the leaning stone was -raised and until the foundation was properly set. - -As regards the raising of the lintels, and imposts, and the placing of -them on the tops of the uprights, there would be even less difficulty -than in the erection of the uprights themselves. - -[Illustration: FIG. 22.--The leaning stone upright before the struts -were removed.] - -It could be easily effected by the simple method practised in Japan for -placing heavy blocks of stone in position. The stone, when lying on the -ground, would be raised a little at one end by means of long wooden -levers. A packing of logs would then be placed under the end so raised, -the other extremity of the stone would be similarly raised and packed, -and the raising and packing at alternate ends would be continued until -the block had gradually reached the height of the uprights. It would -then be simply pushed forward by levers until it rested upon them. - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Stonehenge, 1905.] - -It is not often that an engineering operation has been made so -subservient to the interests of science as the one we have dealt with in -this chapter. It is satisfactory to know not only that much new -knowledge has been acquired by Professor Gowland and his coadjutors, but -that the famous leaning stone has now been set upright in such fashion -that it will remain upright for hundreds of years. May the other leaning -stones soon receive the same treatment. - -[15] Sir Richard Colt Hoare, _Ancient History of South Wiltshire_, p. -127. (London, 1812); W. Stukeley, _Stonehenge_, p. 46. (London, 1740). - -[16] _Wilts Archaeological and Natural History Magazine_, xxi. pp. -141-149. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -WAS THERE AN EARLIER CIRCLE? - - -When we come to examine Stonehenge carefully in relation to the -orientation theory, it soon becomes clear that its outer circle of -upright stones with lintels, and the inner naos, built of trilithons, -oriented in the line of the “avenue” and the summer solstice sunrise, -are not the only things to be considered. These stones, all composed of -sarsen, which, be it remarked, have been trimmed and tooled, are not -alone in question. We have:-- - -(1) An interior circle broken in many places, and other stones near the -naos, composed of stones, “blue stones,” which, as we have seen, are of -an entirely different origin and composition. - -(2) Two smaller _untrimmed_ sarsen stones lying near the vallum, _not_ -at the same distance from it, the line joining them passing nearly, but -not quite, through the centre of the sarsen circle. The amplitude of the -line joining them is approximately 26° S. of E. and 26° N. of W. Of -these stones, the stump of the N.W. one is situated 22 feet from the top -of the vallum according to the Ordnance plan. The S.E. stone has fallen, -but according to careful observations and measurements by Mr. Penrose, -when erect its centre was 14 feet from the top of the vallum. The centre -of the line joining the stones is therefore about 4 feet to the S.E. of -the axis of the present circles, which, it may be stated, passes 3 feet -to the N.W. of the N.W. edge of the Friar’s Heel (see Fig. 24). - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Map of the Stones made by the Ordnance -Survey.[17] A, N.W. stone; B, S.E. stone; C, Friar’s Heel; D, Slaughter -stone.] - -There are besides these two large _untrimmed_ sarsen stones, one -standing some distance outside the vallum, one recumbent lying on the -vallum; both nearly, but not quite, in the sunrise line as viewed from -the centre of the sarsen circle. These are termed the “Friar’s Heel” and -“Slaughter Stone” respectively. - -I will deal with (1) first, and begin by another quotation from Mr. -Cunnington, who displayed great acumen in dealing with the smaller -stones not sarsens. - -“The most important consideration connected with the smaller stones, and -one which in its archæological bearing has been too much overlooked, is -the fact of their having been brought from a great distance. I expressed -an opinion on this subject in a lecture delivered at Devizes more than -eighteen years ago, and I have been increasingly impressed with it -since. I believe that these stones would not have been brought from such -a distance to a spot where an abundance of building stones equally -suitable in every respect already existed, unless some special or -religious value had been attached to them. This goes far to prove that -Stonehenge was _originally a temple_, and neither a monument raised to -the memory of the dead, nor an astronomical calendar or almanac. - -“It has been suggested that they were Danams, or the offerings of -successive votaries. Would there in such case have been such uniformity -of design, or would they have been all alike of foreign materials? I -would make one remark about the small impost of a trilithon of syenite, -now lying prostrate within the circle. One writer has followed another -in taking it for granted that there must have been a second, -corresponding with it, on the opposite side. Of this there is neither -proof nor record, not a trace of one having been seen by any person who -has written on the subject. This small impost, not being of sarsen, but -syenite, must have belonged to the original old circle; _it may even -have suggested to the builders of the present Stonehenge the idea of the -large imposts, and trilithons with their tenons and mortices_.” - -In Prof. Gowland’s examination of the contents of the holes necessarily -dug in his operations, it was found over and over again, indeed almost -universally, that the quantity of blue stone chippings was much greater -than that from the sarsen stones. While the sarsen stones had only been -worked or tooled on their surface, the blue stones had been hewed and -trimmed in extraordinary fashion; indeed it is stated by Prof. Judd that -they had been reduced to half their original dimensions in this process, -the chippings almost equalling the volume of the stones themselves. - -It seems, then, that when the sarsen stones were set up, the sarsen and -blue stones were treated very differently. This being so, the following -quotation from Prof. Judd’s “Note” is interesting (_Archaeologia_, -lviii., p. 81):-- - -“I may repeat my conviction that if the prevalent beliefs and traditions -concerning Stonehenge were true, and the “bluestone” circles were -transported from some distant locality, either as trophies of war or as -the sacred treasures of a wandering tribe, it is quite inconceivable -that they should have been hewed and chipped, as we now know them to -have been, and reduced in some cases to half their dimensions, _after -having been carried with enormous difficulty over land and water, and -over hills and valleys_. On the other hand, in the glacial drift, which -once probably thinly covered the district, the glacial deposits dying -out very gradually as we proceed southwards, we have a source from which -such stones might probably have been derived. It is quite a well-known -peculiarity of the glacial drift to exhibit considerable assemblages of -stones of a particular character at certain spots, each of these -assemblages having probably been derived from the same source. - -“I would therefore suggest as probable that when the early inhabitants -of this island commenced the erection of Stonehenge, Salisbury Plain was -sprinkled over thickly with the great white masses of the sarsen-stones -(‘grey wethers’), and much more sparingly with darker coloured boulders -(the so-called ‘blue-stones’), the last relics of the glacial drift, -which have been nearly denuded away. From these two kinds of materials -the stones suitable for the contemplated temple were selected. It is -even possible that the abundance and association of these two kinds of -materials so strikingly contrasted in colour and appearance, at a -particular spot, may not only have decided the site, but to some extent -have suggested the architectural features of the noble structure of -Stonehenge.” - -If we grant everything that Prof. Judd states, the question remains--why -did the same men in the same place at the same time treat the sarsen and -blue stones so differently? - -I shall show subsequently that there is a definite answer to the -question on one assumption. - -I next come to (2). The important point about these stones is that with -the amplitude 26°, at Stonehenge, a line from the centre of the circle -over the N.W. stone would mark the sunset place in the first week in -May, and a line over the S.E. stone would similarly deal with the -November sunrise. We are thus brought in presence of the May-November -year. - -Another point about these stones is that they are not at the same -distance from the centre of the sarsen stone circle, which itself is -concentric with the temenos mound; this is why they lie at different -distances from the mound. Further, a line drawn from the point of the -Friar’s Heel over the now recumbent Slaughter Stone with the amplitude -determined by Mr. Penrose and myself for the summer solstice sunrise in -1680 B.C. cuts the line joining the stones at the middle point, -suggesting that the four untrimmed sarsen stones provided alignments -both for the May and June years at about that date. - -Nor is this all; the so-called tumuli within the vallum (Fig. 10) may -have been observation mounds, for the lines passing from the northern -tumulus over the N.W. stone and from the southern tumulus over the S.E. -one are parallel to the avenue, and therefore represent the solstitial -orientation. - -So much, then, for the stones. We see that, dealing only with the -untrimmed sarsens that remain, the places of the May sunset and June and -November sunrises were marked from the same central point. - -Statements have been made that there was the stump of another stone -near the vallum to the S.W., in the line of the Friar’s Heel and -Slaughter Stone, produced backwards, at the same distance from the old -centre as the N.W. and S.E. stones. This stone was _not_ found in an -exploration by Sir Edmund Antrobus, Mr. Penrose and Mr. Howard Payn by -means of a sword and an auger. But the question will not be settled -until surface digging is permitted, as a “road” about which there is a -present contention passes near the spot. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.--The rod on the recumbent stone is placed in and -along the common axis of the present circle and avenue. It is seen that -the Friar’s Heel, the top of which is shown in the distance, would hide -the sunrise place if the axis were a little further to the S.E.] - -But even this is not the only evidence we have for the May worship in -early times. There is an old tradition of the slaughter of Britons by -the Saxons at Stonehenge, known as “The Treachery of the Long Knives”; -according to some accounts, 460 British chieftains were killed while -attending a banquet and conference. Now at what time of the year did -this take place? Was it at the summer solstice on June 21? I have -gathered from Guest’s “Mabinogion,” vol. ii. p. 433, and Davies’s -“Mythology of the British Druids,” p. 333, that _the banquet took place -on May eve_ “_Meinvethydd_.” Is it likely that this date would have been -chosen in a solar temple dedicated exclusively to the solstice? - -Now the theory to which my work and thought have led me is that the -megalithic structures at Stonehenge--the worked sarsens with their -mortices and lintels, and above all the trilithons of the magnificent -naos--represent a re-dedication and a reconstruction, on a more imposing -plan and scale, of a much older temple, which was originally used for -worship in connection with the May year. - -[17] Plans and photographs of Stonehenge, &c., by Colonel Sir Henry -James, R.E., F.R.S., Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1867. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -THE MAY AND JUNE WORSHIPS IN BRITTANY - - -I purpose next to inquire whether in the wonderful series of Megalithic -remains in Brittany, remains more extensive than any in Britain, any -light is thrown on the suggestion I have made that the May Worship -preceded the Solstitial Worship at Stonehenge. - -It has long been known that the stones which compose the prehistoric -remains in Brittany are generally similar in size and shape to those at -Stonehenge, but, as I have already stated, in one respect there is a -vast difference. Instead of a few, arranged in circles as at Stonehenge, -we have an enormous multitude of the so-called menhirs arranged in many -parallel lines for great distances. Some of these are unhewn like the -Friar’s Heel, some have as certainly been trimmed. - -The literature which has been devoted to them is very considerable, but -the authors of it, for the most part, have taken little or no pains to -master the few elementary astronomical principles which are necessary to -regard the monuments from the point of view of orientation. - -It is consoling to know that this cannot be said of the last published -contribution to our knowledge of this region, which we owe to Monsieur -F. Gaillard, a member of the Paris Anthropological Society and of the -Polymathic Society of Morbihan at Plouharnel.[18] - -M. Gaillard is a firm believer in the orientation theory, and accepts -the view that a very considerable number of the alignments are -solstitial. But although he gives the correct azimuths for the -solstitial points and also figures showing the values of the obliquity -of the ecliptic as far as 2200 B.C., his observations are not -sufficiently precise to enable a final conclusion to be drawn, and his -method of fixing the alignments and the selection of the index menhir -are difficult to gather from his memoir and the small plans which -accompany it, which, alas! deal with compass bearings only. - -All the same, those interested in such researches owe a debt of -gratitude to M. Gaillard for his laborious efforts to increase our -knowledge, and will sympathise with him at the manner in which his -conclusions were treated by the Paris anthropologists. One of them, -apparently thinking that the place of sun rising is affected by the -precession of the equinoxes, used this convincing argument:--“Si, à -l’origine les alignements étaient orientés, comme le pense M. Gaillard, -ils ne le pourraient plus être aujourd’hui; au contraire, s’ils le sont -actuellement, on peut affirmer qu’ils ne l’étaient pas alors!” - -M. Gaillard is not only convinced of the solstitial orientation of the -avenues, but finds the same result in the case of the dolmens. - -I cannot find any reference in the text to any orientations dealing with -the farmers’ years, that is with amplitudes of about 25° N. and S. of -the E. and W. points; but in the diagrams on pp. 78 and 127 I find both -avenue and dolmen alignments, which within the limits of accuracy -apparently employed may perhaps with justice be referred to them; but -observations of greater accuracy must be made, and details of the -heights of the horizon at the various points given, before anything -certain can be said about them. - -I append a reproduction of one of M. Gaillard’s plans, which will give -an idea of his use of the index menhir. It shows the alignments at Le -Ménec, lat. 47¹⁄₂° (Fig. 26). The line A--Soleil runs across the stone -alignments and is fixed from A by the menhir B, but there does not seem -any good reason for selecting B except that it appears to fall in the -line of the solstitial azimuth according to M. Gaillard. But if we take -this azimuth as N. 54° E., then we find the alignments to have an -azimuth roughly of N. 66° E., which gives us the amplitude of 24° N. -marking the place of sunrise at the beginning of the May and November -years, and the alignments may have dealt principally with those times of -the year. - -I esteem it a most fortunate thing that while I have been casting about -as to the best way of getting more accurate data, Lieutenant Devoir, of -the French Navy and therefore fully equipped with all the astronomical -knowledge necessary; who resides at Brest and has been studying the -prehistoric monuments in his neighbourhood for many years, has been good -enough to give me the results of his work in that region, in which the -problems seem to be simpler than further south; for while in the -vicinity of Carnac the menhirs were erected in groups numbering five or -six thousand, near Brest, lat. 48¹⁄₂°, they are much more restricted in -number. I am much indebted to him for permission to use and publish his -results. - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Alignments at Le Ménec.] - -Lieutenant Devoir, by his many well-planned and approximately accurate -observations, has put the solstitial orientation beyond question, and, -further, has made important observations which prove that the May and -August sunrises were also provided for in the systems of alignments. I -give the following extracts from his letter:-- - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Menhir (A) on Melon Island.] - -“It is about twelve years ago that I remarked in the west part of the -Department of Morbihan (near Lorient) the parallelism of the lines -marked out by monuments of all sorts, and frequently oriented to the -N.E., or rather between N. 50° E. and N. 55° E. I had ascertained, -moreover, the existence of lines perpendicular to the first named, the -right angle being very well measured. - -“The plans, which refer to the cantons of Ploudalmézeau and of St. Renan -(district of Brest) and of Crozon (district of Chateaulin), have been -made on a plane-table; the orientations are exact to one or two degrees. - -“In the cantons of Ploudalmézeau and of St. Renan, the monuments are -generally simple; seven menhirs are visible of enormous dimensions, -remarkable by the polish of their surface and the regularity of their -section. The roughnesses hardly ever reach a centimetre; the sections -are more often ovals, sometimes rectangles with the angles rounded or -terminated by semicircles. In the canton of Crozon the monuments are, on -the contrary, complex; we find a cromlech with an avenue leading to it -of a length of 800 metres, another of 300 metres. Unfortunately, the -rocks employed (sandstone and schist from Plungastel and Crozon) have -resisted less well than the granulite from the north part of the -Department. The monuments are for the most part in a very bad condition; -the whole must, nevertheless, formerly have been comparable with that of -Carnac-Leomariaquer. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Melon Island, showing Menhir (A) and Cromlech -(B and C).] - -“For the two regions, granitic and schistose, the results of the -observations are identical. - -“The monuments lie along lines oriented S. 54° W. → N. 54° E. (54° = -azimuth at the solstices for L = 48° 30′ and _i_ = 23° 30′) and N. 54° -W. → S. 54° E. Some of them determine lines perpendicular to the -meridian. - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Menhirs of St. Dourzal, D, E, F.] - -“One menhir (A), 6m. 90 in height and 9m. 20 in circumference, erected -in the small island of Melon (canton of Ploudalmézeau, latitude 48° 29′ -05″) a few metres from a tumulus surrounded by the ruins of a cromlech -(B and C), has the section such that the faces, parallel and remarkably -plane, are oriented N. 54° E. (Figs. 27 and 28). - -“At 1300 metres in the same azimuth there is a line of three large -menhirs (D, E, F), of which one (E) is overthrown. The direction of the -line passes exactly by the menhir A. Prolonged towards the N.E. it -meets at 3k. 700m. an overturned block of 2m. 50 in height, which is -without doubt a menhir; towards the S.W. it passes a little to the south -some lines of the island of Molène.... (Fig. 29). - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Alignment at Lagatjar, G G′.] - -“There exists in the neighbourhood other groups, forming also lines of -the same orientation and that of the winter solstice. It is advisable to -remark that orientations well determined for the solstices are much less -so for the equinoxes, which is natural, the rising amplitude varying -very rapidly at this time of year. - -“The same general dispositions are to be found in the complex monuments -of the peninsula of Crozon. I take for example the alignments of -Lagatjar. Two parallel lines of menhirs, G G′ H H′, are oriented to S. -54° E. and cut perpendicularly by a third line, I I′. There existed less -than fifty years ago a menhir at K, 6 metres high, which is to-day -broken and overturned. This megalith, known in the country by the name -of ‘pierre du Conseil’ (a bronze axe was found underneath it) gives with -a dolmen situated near Camaret the direction of the sunrise on June 21 -(Fig. 31). - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Alignments at Lagatjar, showing the pierre du -Conseil and the direction of the dolmen. From the pierre du Conseil the -dolmen marks the sunrise place at the summer solstice, and the avenue G -G′ H H′ the sunset place on the same day.] - -“I have just spoken of the lines perpendicular to the solstitial one; -there exists more especially in the complex monuments another -particularity which merits attention. Between two monuments, M and N, on -a solstitial line, sometimes other menhirs are noticed, the line joining -them being inclined 12° to the solstitial line, always towards the east” -(Fig. 32). - -I must call particular attention to this important observation of -Lieutenant Devoir, for it gives us the amplitude 24° N., the direction -of sunrise at the beginning of the May and August years. It shows, -moreover, that, as at Le Ménec according to M. Gaillard, the solstitial -and May-August directions were both provided for at the monuments in -the neighbourhood of Brest so carefully studied by Lieutenant Devoir. - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Menhirs, M N on N.E.-S.W. solstitial alignment. -Menhirs 1, 2, on May-August years alignment, sunrise May-August, sunset -November-February.] - -Lieutenant Devoir points out the wonderful regularity of form and the -fine polish of many of the menhirs. It will have been gathered from his -account that those most carefully trimmed and tooled belong to the -solstitial alignments. The one at Kerloas (11 metres high) heads the -list in point of size; others in the island of Melon (7 metres), at -Kergadion (8 metres and 10 metres), Kerenneur, Kervaon and Kermabion -follow suit. He considers them to have been erected at the time of the -highest civilisation of the Megalithic peoples. He also states that -these regularly formed menhirs do not exist at Carnac, or in the region -of Pont l’Abbé, so rich in other remains which certainly refer chiefly -to the May-November year. It seems, then, that in these localities the -May-August worship first chiefly predominated, and that the index -menhirs of M. Gaillard which indicate the solstice and which do not form -part of the alignments were erected subsequently. - -Finally, then, the appeal to Brittany is entirely in favour of the -May-November year worship having preceded the solstitial one. - -I have already stated the evidence at Stonehenge that the sunrise at the -beginning of the May and August years was observed in an earlier temple -which existed before the present structure existed. Were this so we have -another point common to the British and Breton monuments. I therefore -think that I may justly claim the Brittany evidence as entirely in -favour of the suggestion put forward in Chap. IX with regard to -Stonehenge. - -[18] “L’Astronomie Préhistorique.” Published in “Les Sciences -Populaires, revue mensuelle internationale,” and issued separately by -the administration des “Sciences populaires,” 15 Rue Lebrun, Paris. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -ASTRONOMICAL HINTS FOR ARCHÆOLOGISTS - - -The foregoing chapters will have shown that in dealing with the ancient -monuments from an astronomical point of view, we have to consider -chiefly the direction of the sight-lines, whether they are marked as in -Brittany by long rows of stones--alignments; as at Stonehenge by an -avenue; as in some of our British circles, by two or more circles the -direction being indicated from the central stone of one to the central -stone of the other, or finally by a single standing stone or barrow. - -It is important then that before we proceed further in our inquiries we -should consider how a meaning is got out of these directions, and I -propose to devote this chapter to this question, so that the full use of -the “azimuths” already referred to and others which are to follow may be -fully understood. - -There is another matter, at which I hinted on pp. 36 and 42. We have to -inquire whether there are any stones or barrows marking the direction of -the rising or setting of _stars_, as well as those which deal with the -rising and setting of the _sun_ at different times of the year, which we -have already found at Stonehenge and in Brittany. To face this question -we have to consider the stellar as well as solar conditions of -observations, and as the former are the simpler I will begin with them, -especially as now there is no question whatever that the rising and -setting of stars were provided for. - -In continuation of my work in Egypt in 1891, and Mr. Penrose’s in Greece -in 1892, I have recently endeavoured to see whether there are any traces -in Britain of star observations, including those connected with the -worship of the sun at certain times of the year. We both discovered that -stars, far out of the sun’s course, especially in Egypt, were observed -in the dawn as heralds of sunrise--“warning-stars”--so that the priests -might have time to prepare the sunrise sacrifice. To do this properly -the star should rise while the sun is still about 10° below the horizon. -There is also reason to believe that stars rising not far from the north -point were also used as clock-stars to enable the time to be estimated -during the night in the same way as the time during the day could be -estimated by the position of the sun. - -I stated (_Dawn of Astronomy_, p. 319) that Spica was the star the -heliacal rising of which heralded the sun on May-day 3200 B.C. in the -temple of Menu at Thebes. Sirius was associated with the summer solstice -at about the same time. - -Mr. Penrose found this May-day worship continued at Athens on -foundations built in 1495 B.C. and 2020 B.C., on which the Hecatompedon -and older Erechtheum respectively were subsequently built, the warning -star being now no longer Spica, but the cluster of the Pleiades rising, -or Antares setting, in the dawn. - -It is generally known that Stonehenge is associated with the solstitial -year, and I have suggested that it was originally connected with the -May year; but the probable date of its re-dedication, 1680 B.C., was -determined by Mr. Penrose and myself by the change of obliquity. - -Now if Stonehenge or any other British stone circle could be proved to -have used observations of warning stars, the determination of the date -when such observations were made would be enormously facilitated. Mr. -Penrose and myself were content to think that our date might be within -200 years of the truth, whereas if we could use the rapid movement of -stars in declination brought about by the precession of the equinoxes, -instead of the slow change of the sun’s declination brought about by the -change of the value of the obliquity, a possible error of 200 years -would be reduced to one of 10 years. - -In spite of this enormous advantage, no one so far as I know has yet -made any inquiry to connect star observations with any of the British -circles. - -I have recently obtained clear evidence that some circles in different -parts of Britain were used for night work and also in relation to the -May year, which we know was general over the whole of Europe in early -times, and which still determines the quarter-days in Scotland. - -If the Egyptian and Greek practice were continued here, we should expect -then to find some indications of the star observations utilised at the -temple of Min and at the Hecatompedon for the beginning, or the other -chief months, of the May year. - -I have found them, and I will now show the method employed. - -To begin with, if we assume that the astronomer-priests here did -attempt such observations, what is the most likely way in which they -would have gone to work? - -The easiest way for the astronomer-priests to conduct such observations -in a stone circle would be to erect a stone or barrow indicating the -direction of the place on the horizon at which the star would rise as -seen from the centre of the circle. If the dawn the star was to herald -occurred in the summer, the stone or barrow itself might be visible if -not too far away, but there was a reason why they should not be too -close; in a solemn ceremonial the less seen of the machinery the better. - -Doubtless such stones and barrows would be rendered obvious in the dark -by a light placed on or near them. Cups which could hold oil or grease -are known in connection with such stones, and a light thus fed would -suffice in the open if there were no wind; but in windy weather a -cromlech or some similar shelter must have been provided for it. - -Now if these standing stones or barrows were ever erected and still -remain, accurate plans--not the slovenly plans with which Ferguson and -too many others have provided us, giving us either no indication of the -north or any other point, or else a rough compass bearing without taking -the trouble to state the variation at the time and place--will help us. - -I have already pointed out that much time has been lost in the -investigation of our stone circles, for the reason that in many cases -the exact relations of the monuments to the chief points of the horizon, -and therefore to the place of sunrise at different times of the year, -have not been considered; and when they were, the observations were -made only with reference to the magnetic north, which is different at -different places, and besides is always varying; few indeed have tried -to get at the real astronomical conditions of the problem. The first, I -think, was Mr. Jonathan Otley, who in 1849 showed the “orientation” of -the Keswick circle “according to the solar meridian,” giving true solar -bearings throughout the year. - -In my opinion the most accurate plans conceivable, in the absence of a -long and minute local inquiry, are the 25-inch maps of the Ordnance -Survey, on which, I have it on the authority of Colonel Johnston the -distinguished Director, each stone may be taken to be shown with a limit -of error of 6 feet. With a large circular protractor azimuths can be -read to one minute of arc, and in critical cases the true azimuth of the -side lines, which are not necessarily meridians as latitudes are not -marked, can be found on inquiry at the Ordnance Office, Southampton. - -Having then true azimuths, the next question concerns the declinations -of the stars which may have been observed. - -The work of Stockwell in America, Danckworth in Germany,[19] and Dr. W. -J. S. Lockyer in England, has provided us with tables of the changing -declinations of stars throughout past time, or enough of it for our -purpose. - -An accurate determination on the 25-inch map of either the _azimuth_ -(angular distance from the N. or S. points) or _amplitude_ (angular -distance from the E. or W. points) of the stone or barrow as seen from -the centre of the stone circle will enable us to determine the -declination of the star at the time when it was observed. - -I give a diagram which enables this determination to be made with the -greatest ease for any monuments between Land’s End and John o’ Groats, -whether the direction is recorded by amplitude or azimuth; the -declination is read at the side from the value of either indicated, say, -by a dot, at the proper latitude. - -This, of course, only gives us a first approximation. The angular height -of the point on the horizon to which the alignment or sight-line is -directed by the stone or barrow from the centre of the circle must be -most accurately determined, otherwise the declinations may be one or two -degrees out. - -In the absence of measurements it is convenient to assume, in the first -instance, that the horizon is half a degree high, as with this elevation -refraction is compensated, as the following table will show: - - Elevation of actual Bessel’s - horizon. refraction. Combined effect. - 0°0′0″ 34′54″ -34′54″ - 0°10′ 32′49″ -22′49″ - 20′ 30′52″ -10′52″ - 30′ 29′3·5″ +0′56·5″ - 40′ 27′22·7″ +12′37·3″ - 50′ 25′49·8″ +24′10·2″ - 1°0′ 24′24·6″ +35′35·4″ - -In the absence of theodolite observations the actual elevation of the -horizon can be roughly found by a study of the contour lines on the -1-inch map. The following heights will agree with the previous -assumption of hills ¹⁄₂° high: - - Distance 1 mile Height = 46 feet - „ 2 miles „ = 92 „ - „ 4 „ „ = 184 „ - „ 8 „ „ = 368 „ - „ 10 „ „ = 460 „ - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Diagram for finding declination from given -amplitudes or azimuths in British latitudes. - -~Curves represent (from top) Lat. 49°, 51°, 53°, 55°, 57° and 59°.~] - -I also give other diagrams showing the changing declinations of the -brightest stars, those which would naturally be observed, between the -years 150 A.D. and 2150 B.C. These have been plotted from the -calculations of the authorities I have named. - -Fig. 34 deals with the Northern stars. The stars are numbered as -follows:-- - - Number. Name of star. - 1 β Ursae Minoris. - 2 α Ursae Minoris (Polaris). - 3 α Draconis. - 4 α Ursae Majoris (Dubhe). - 5 γ Ursae Majoris. - 6 η Ursae Majoris (Benetnasch). - 7 γ Draconis. - 8 β Cassiopeiae. - 9 α Cassiopeiae. - 10 α Persei. - 11 α Aurigae (Capella). - 12 α Cygni. - 13 α Lyrae (Vega). - 14 α Coronae. - 15 α Geminorum (Castor). - 16 β Geminorum (Pollux). - 17 α Boötes (Arcturus). - 18 β Leonis. - 19 α Leonis (Regulus). - 20 α Andromedae. - 21 η Tauri (Alcyone). - 22 α Tauri (Aldebaran). - 23 α Canis Minoris (Procyon). - 24 α Aquilae. - 25 α Orionis (Betelgeuse). - 26 α Virginis (Spica). - -On Fig. 35, dealing with the Southern stars, the names are given along -the curves. - - * * * * * - -Now supposing that we have our plans; that we have determined the -azimuth of the sight lines; and have found the declination of the star -observed; we may find more than one star occupying that declination at -various dates. - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Declinations of Northern Stars from 250 A.D. to -2150 B.C.] - -Which of these stars, then, must we consider? - -Obviously those most conveniently situated for enabling the time to be -estimated during the night, or those which could have been used as -warning stars. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Declinations of Southern Stars from 250 A.D. to -2150 B.C. - -α Ceti, α Aquarii, β Orionis, α Capricorni, α Canis Majoris, α Scorpii, -α Columbæ, α Pisces Austr., η Argûs, α Centauri, α Argûs, α Crucis, α -Gruis, and α Eridani.] - -The warning stars can be conveniently picked up by using a precessional -globe. From it we gather that about 1900, 1400 and 800 B.C. they were as -follows for the critical times of the May year, _i.e._ May, August, -November, February:-- - - 1900 B.C. 1400 B.C. 800 B.C. - May Castor rising Pleiades rising Pleiades rising - N. 41° E. N. 77° E. N. 71° E. - Antares setting Antares setting - S. 75° W. S. 72° W. - - August Arcturus Arcturus rising Sirius rising - circumpolar. N. 17° E. S. 63° E. - With hill 3′ high:-- - Rising. - Date 2170 B.C. N. 11°15′ E. - „ 2090 B.C. N. 14°18′ E. - „ 1900 B.C. N. 18°44′ E. - - November Betelgeuse setting - N. 87° W. - - February Capella rising Capella rising Capella rising - N. 36° E. N. 28° E. N. 21° E. - -For the solstices, that is, June and December, the following stars might -be used as warners:-- - - 1900 B.C. 1400 B.C. 800 B.C. - Summer Solstice Betelgeuse rising Betelgeuse γ Geminorum - N. 87° E. rising N. 90° E. rising - Arcturus setting Arcturus setting N. 68° E. - with hill 3′ high (late) N. 16° W. (“Alhena” - N. 18° W. α Serpentis mag. 1·9.) - setting N. 53° W. - - Winter Solstice Sheat rising (early) Castor α Capricorni - N. 72° E. setting N. 37° W. rising - Markab rising (late) Pollux S. 66° E. - S. 89° E. setting N. 42° W. - -It is obvious that a star used all the year round for night work will -warn the sunrise at some one of the yearly festivals. - -When the stars having the same declinations are considered from this -point of view, the star actually used, and _therefore the date of its -use_, may generally be gathered. I shall show subsequently that some of -the stars in the above lists were actually observed in British as well -as in Grecian temples. - -[19] Dr. O. Danckworth, _Vierteljahrschrift der Astronomischen -Gesellschaft_, 16. Jahrgang 1881, p. 9. Dr. Stockwell’s results have -been communicated to me by letter. Some, but not all, of Dr. Lockyer’s -calculations appeared in _The Dawn of Astronomy_. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -ASTRONOMICAL HINTS FOR ARCHÆOLOGISTS--_Continued._ - - -I next come to the sun observations. - -First we must consider the astronomical differences between the rising -of a star and of the sun, by which we generally mean that small part of -the sun’s limb first visible. - -It is frequently imagined that for determining the exact place of -sunrise or sunset in connection with these ancient monuments we have to -deal with the sun’s centre, as we should do with the sun half risen. As -a matter of fact, we must consider that part of the sun’s limb which -first makes its appearance above the horizon; the first glimpse of the -upper limb of the sun is in question, say, when the visible limb is 2′ -high; and we must carefully take the height of the hills over which it -rises into account. - -The accompanying diagram will at once show the difference between the -rising conditions we have now to consider. It deals with the summer -solstice, as being the most precise case, in Lat. 59° N. - -At this time the position of the sun, _that is of the sun’s centre_, as -given in the “Nautical Almanac,” is represented by the double circle on -the sea horizon. - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.--The Conditions of “Sunrise” at the Summer -Solstice in Lat. 59° N. - -~Vertical axis from bottom: Altitudes SEA HORIZON, HILL ¹⁄₂° HIGH, HILL -1° HIGH, HILL 1¹⁄₂° HIGH.~ - -~Horizontal axis from left: Azimuths N 37°-42° E.~] - -The azimuth of this position is N. 39° 16′ E. This is the equivalent of -the declination of a star, but it will be seen that the real azimuths we -want are very different. The dotted circles represent the actual -position of the sun with regard to the horizon, the continuous circles -the apparent positions caused by the lifting-up effect of refraction. We -have the positions in azimuth of the apparent sun as it appears on a sea -horizon, and when the horizon is formed by hills up to 1¹⁄₂° in vertical -height. - -To make this quite clear I give a table which has been computed by Mr. -Rolston, of the Solar Physics Observatory, showing azimuths with hills -up to 1¹⁄₂° high for lat. 59° N., and 51° N. nearly the latitude of -Stonehenge, of the sun’s upper limb for the summer solstice:-- - - Lat. 59° Lat. 51° - - SUMMER Rising N-E or Rising N-E or - SOLSTICE. Setting N-W. Setting N-W. - ° ′ ° ′ - Sun’s centre; uncorrected 39 16 50 40 - {sea horizon 37 1 49 20 - Sun’s upper limb; corrected{hill ¹⁄₂° high 38 34 50 16 - for semi-diameter and { „ 1° „ 40 8 51 12 - refraction { „ 1¹⁄₂° „ 41 30 52 4 - - WINTER Rising S-E or Rising S-E or - SOLSTICE. Setting S-W. Setting S-W. - ° ′ ° ′ - Sun’s centre; uncorrected 39 16 50 40 - {sea horizon 41 24 52 0 - Sun’s upper limb; corrected{hill ¹⁄₂° high 39 54 51 4 - for semi-diameter and { „ 1° „ 38 23 50 8 - refraction { „ 1¹⁄₂° „ 36 54 49 14 - -The first important thing we learn from the table is that although at -both solstices the azimuths of the rising and setting of the sun’s -centre are the same, these azimuths of the upper limb at the summer and -winter solstices differ in a high northern latitude by some 5°. The -difference arises, of course, from the fact that the limb is some 16′ -from the sun’s centre, so that considering the sun’s centre as a star -with fixed declination, at rising the limb appears before the centre, -and at setting it lags behind it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 37.--The Azimuths of the Sunrise (upper limb) at the -Summer Solstice. - -The values given in the table have been plotted, and the effect of the -height of hills on the azimuth is shown. The range of latitude given -enables the diagram to be used in connection with the solstitial -alignments at Carnak, Le Ménac, and other monuments in Brittany. - -~Vertical axis from bottom: LAT. 47-59.~ - -~Horizontal axis from left: AZIMUTHS 37-56.~ - -~Curves from left: SEA HORIZON, HILLS ¹⁄₂°, 1°, 1¹⁄₂°~] - -It will also be seen that at sunrise hills increase the azimuth from N., -and refraction reduces it; while at setting, hills reduce the azimuth -from S. and refraction increases it. - -This diagram and table should fully explain the variation of azimuth at -sunrise caused by the fact that from our present point of view we do not -deal with the sun as a star. - -To make the foregoing applicable for monuments in all latitudes between -Brittany and the Orkneys, I give still another diagram, Fig. 37, also -prepared for me by Mr. Rolston which will enable any archæologist to -determine approximately, _for the present time_, the azimuth of sunrise -at the summer solstice, without waiting for the 21st of June in any year -actually to observe it. - -As before stated, I have dealt with the solstice in this chapter because -it affords us the most precise case. I hope to be able to deal with the -May year sun in the same way later on. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -STENNESS (Lat. 59° N.). - - -I wrote a good deal in _Nature_[20] on sun and star temples in 1891, and -Mr. Lewis the next year expressed the opinion that the British stone -monuments, or some of them, were sun and star temples. - -Mr. Magnus Spence, of Deerness, in Orkney, published a pamphlet, -“Standing Stones and Maeshowe of Stenness,”[21] in 1894; it is a reprint -of an article in the _Scottish Review_, October, 1893, showing that the -stones were set up for solar worship. Mr. Cursiter, F.S.A., of Kirkwall, -in a letter to me dated March 15, 1894, a letter suggested by my “Dawn -of Astronomy,” which appeared in that year, and in which the articles -which had been published in _Nature_ in 1891 had been expanded, directed -my attention to the pamphlet. - -I began the consideration of the Stenness circles and alignments in -1901, but other pressing calls on my time then caused me to break off -the inquiry. Quite recently it occurred to me that a complete study of -the Stenness circles might throw light on the question of an earlier -Stonehenge, so I have gone over the old papers, plotting the results on -the Ordnance map. - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Maeshowe, in the foreground, and the Stones of -Stenness. From “Notice of Runic Inscriptions,” by James Farrer, M.P. -(1862).] - -Now that the inquiry is as complete as I can make it without spending -some time in Orkney with a theodolite, I will begin my reference to -other circles besides Stonehenge by stating the conclusions at which I -have arrived with regard to the stones of Stenness. - -In the first place I may state that although many of the alignments to -which Mr. Spence refers in his pamphlet on Maeshowe prove to be very -different from those he supposed and drew on the map which accompanies -his paper, the main point of his contention is amply confirmed. - -I give a copy of the Ordnance map showing the true orientation of these -and of other sight-lines I have made out. - -The alignments on which Mr. Spence chiefly depended were two, one -running from the stone circle past the entrance of Maeshowe to the place -of sunrise at Hallowe’en (November 1), another from the same circle by -the Barnhouse standing stone to the mid-winter sunrise at the solstice. - -Although the map gives these sight-lines, I shall show that they had not -the use Mr. Spence attributes to them; but still observations of the sun -were provided for on the days in question, and the circles and -outstanding stones were undoubtedly set up to guide astronomical -observations relating to the different times of the year. Of course, as -I have shown elsewhere, such astronomical observations were always -associated with religious celebrations of one kind or another, as the -astronomer and the priest were one. - -[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Copy of Ordnance Map showing chief sight-lines -from the stones of Stenness.] - -I shall not refer to all the sight-lines indicated, but deal only with -those which I have without local knowledge been able to test and justify -by means of the 25-inch Ordnance map. - -Not only does calculation prove the worship of the May and June years, -but I think the facts now before us really go to show that in Orkney the -May year was the first established, and that the solstitial (June) year -came afterwards, and this was one of the chief questions I had in view. - -I will begin with the May year. I have already shown, p. 22, that the -half-way time between an equinox and a solstice is when the sun’s centre -has a declination approximately 16° 20′ N. or S. In Orkney, with the -latitude of 59°, assuming a sea horizon, the approximate amplitude of -sunrise or sunset is 33° 6′, the corresponding azimuth being 56° 54′. - -Now the most interesting and best defined line near this azimuth on the -Ordnance map is the one stretching S.E. from the centre of the Stenness -circle to the Barnstone, with an azimuth of 57° 15′. The line contains -between the two points I have named another stone, the Watchstone, 18¹⁄₂ -feet high, in the precise alignment; and from the statements made and -measures given it is to be inferred that a still more famous and -perforated stone, the “Stone of Odin,” demolished seventy years since, -was also in the same line within the extremities named. - -If we may accept this we learn something about perforated stones, and -can understand most of the folk lore associated with them, and few have -more connected with them than the one at Stenness. I suggest that the -perforation, which was in this case 5 feet from the ground, was used by -the astronomer-priest to view the sunrise in November over the Barnhouse -stone in one direction, and the sunset in May over the circle in the -other. I hope to be able to return to this question subsequently. - -There is another echo of this fundamental line; that joining the Ring of -Bookan and the Stones of Via has the same azimuth and doubtless served -the same purpose for the May year. - -But this line, giving us the May sunset and November sunrise, _not_ the -December solstitial sunrise as Mr. Spence shows it, is not the only -orientation connected with the May year at the stones of Stenness. The -November sunset is provided for by a sight-line from the circle to a -stone across the Loch of Stenness with an azimuth of S. 53° 30′ W. - -To apply the table, given on p. 120, to the solstitial risings and -settings at Stenness, and the sight-lines which I have plotted on the -map, it will be seen that the table shows us that the lines marked - - S. 41° 0′ E. - N. 41° 16′ E. S. 36° 30′ W. - -are solstitial lines; to get exact agreement with the table the heights -of the hills must be found and allowed for. - -I have roughly determined this height from the 1-inch map in the case of -the Barnstone-Maeshowe alignment. On the N.E. horizon are the Burrien -Hills, four miles away, 600 feet high at the sunrise place, gradually -ascending to the E., vertical angle = 1° 36′ 30″. The near alignment is -on and over the centre of Maeshowe. Colonel Johnston, the -Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, has informed me that the true -azimuth of this bearing is N. 41° 16′ E., and in all probability it -represents the place of sunrise as seen from the Barnstone when Maeshowe -was erected. What is most required in Orkney now is that some one with a -good 6-inch theodolite should observe the sun’s place of rising and the -angular height of the hills at the next summer solstice in order to -determine the date of the erection of Maeshowe. Mr. Spence and others -made an attempt to determine this value with a sextant in 1899, but not -from the Barnstone. - -In the absence of this observation we may use the diagram given on p. -121. With the height of hill previously given the sun should rise -according to calculation at about the azimuth N. 41° 50′ E. - -The difference between the new and old azimuth then, on the assumption -that az. N. 41° 16′ E. really represents an observation over Maeshowe, -gives us the difference of date. - -Treating these figures then as we have done in the case of Stonehenge in -Chapter VII, the result is as follows. The Barnhouse-Maeshowe line was -established about 700 B.C., when the obliquity had a value of 23° 48′ -according to Stockwell’s tables. (Fig. 40.) - -I confess the late date does not surprise me. The masonry of Maeshowe -differs widely from that of other similar structures in that the sides -of the gallery and chamber, instead of being composed of upright stones, -are built in regular courses. - -I do not believe that the Maeshowe structure was built to observe a -winter sunrise twenty days from the solstice, nor can I think it was set -up at midsummer by someone who had only dealt with a high sun and a sea -horizon, and imagined that the sunrise and sunset points were exactly -opposite to each other. It was a priest’s house, and the alignment of -the passage to the Barnstone was for the exchange of signals, probably -by lights in Maeshowe itself. - -[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Variation of the Obliquity of the Ecliptic, 100 -A.D.-4000 B.C. (Stockwell’s Values.) - -~Horizontal axis: Years. From left: AD 0-BC 4000.~ - -~Vertical axis: Obliquity. From bottom: 23.40-24.10.~] - -The Ordnance maps give no indication of stones, &c., by which the -direction of the midsummer setting or the midwinter rising and setting -might have been indicated from either the Maeshowe or the Barnstone. - -To sum up the solar alignments from the circle. - -We have the May sunrise marked by the top of Burrien Hill, from 600 to -700 feet high, Az. 59° 30′. - -We have the November sunset marked by a standing stone on the other side -of the Loch of Stenness, Az. 53° 30′. - -June rising, Line from Barnstone over Maeshowe tumulus. - -December rising, tumulus (Az. 41°) on Ward Hill. - -December setting, tumulus Onston 36° 30′. - -It is not a little remarkable that the summer solstice rising and the -winter solstice rising and setting seem to have been provided for at the -Stenness circle by alignment on the centres of tumuli, two of them, -across the Loch, one the Onston tumulus to the S.W. (Az. 36° 30′), the -other tumulus being on Ward Hill to the S.E., Az. 41° (rough -measurement). - -If the Maeshowe tumulus was a structure erected at the time I have -suggested to use the Barnstone for the summer solstice rising; then -these two other tumuli, to deal with the winter solstice at Stenness -circle, may have been built at the same time. All these provided for a -new cult. - -There are also tumuli near the line (which cannot be exactly determined -because the heights of the hills are unknown) of the summer solstice -setting; none was required for the sunrise at this date, as the line -passes over the highest point of Hindera fiold, a natural tumulus more -than 500 feet high, and on that account a triangulation station. - -Another argument in favour of the tumuli being additions to the original -design is that the place of the _November_ setting from the Stenness -circle is marked, _not_ by a tumulus, but by a standing stone. As this -stone, near Deepdale, and the tumulus at Onston are only about 1200 -yards apart, the suggestion may be made that under certain unknown -conditions and possibly in later times tumuli in some cases replaced -stones as collimation marks. - -With regard to the clock-star, it is to be feared that the stones in the -N.E. quadrant as viewed from the circle which might have given us a clue -have been removed. As the latitude of Stenness is N. 59°, some star with -a less declination than N. 31° would have been chosen, assuming that the -sky-line towards the N. point is not very high. - -[20] See especially _Nature_, July 2, 1891, p. 201. - -[21] Gardner: Paisley and London. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -THE HURLERS (Lat. 50° 31′ N.) - - -The sight-lines to which I have drawn attention in relation to the -stones of Stenness had to do with the places of sunrise and sunset in -the May and Solstitial years. I now pass to another group of circles in -which we deal chiefly with the places of star-rise and star-set, some of -the stars being used as warners for sunrise at the critical times of the -two years in question. - -Following the clue given me in the case of the Egyptian temples, such as -Luxor, by successive small changes of the axis necessitated by the -change in a star’s place due to precession, I began this stellar branch -of the inquiry by looking out for this peculiarity in an examination of -many maps and plans of circles. - -I very soon came across two examples in which the sight-line had been -changed in the Egyptian manner. The first is the three circles of the -Hurlers, some 5 miles to the north of Liskeard, a plan of which is given -in “Prehistoric Stone Monuments of the British Isles: Cornwall,” by W. -C. Lukis, Rector of Wath, Yorkshire, published by the Society of -Antiquaries, who were so good as to furnish me with a copy, and also -some _unfolded_ plans on which sight-lines could be accurately drawn and -their azimuths determined. I am anxious to express my obligations to the -council and officers of the society for the help thus afforded me. - -The three circles are thus referred to by Lukis in the valuable -monograph which I have already mentioned. - -“On the moor, about a mile to the south of the singular pile of granite -slabs, which rest upon and overlap each other, and is vulgarly called -the Cheesewring, there are three large circles of granite stones placed -in a nearly straight line in a north-north-east, and south-south-west -direction, of which the middle one is the largest, being 135 feet in -diameter, the north 110 feet, and the south 105 feet. - -“The north Circle is 98 feet, and the south 82 feet from the central -one. If a line be drawn uniting the centres of the extreme Circles, the -centre of the middle ring is found to be 12 feet 6 inches to the west of -it. - -“These Circles have been greatly injured. The largest consists of 9 -erect and 5 prostrate stones; the north Circle has 6 erect and 6 -prostrate, and a fragment of a seventh; and the south has 3 erect and 8 -prostrate. In Dr. Borlase’s time they were in a slightly better -condition. A pen-and-ink sketch made by him, which is extant in one of -Dr. Stukeley’s volumes of original drawings, represents the middle -Circle as consisting of 7 erect and 10 prostrate stones; the north of 10 -erect and 6 prostrate; and the south of 3 erect and 9 prostrate. The -stone to the east of that marked C in the plan of the middle Circle is -the highest, and is 5 feet 8 inches out of the ground, and appears to -have been wantonly mutilated recently. Two of the prostrate stones of -the north Circle are 6 feet 6 inches in length. - -“About 17 feet south from the centre of the middle Circle there is a -prostrate stone 4 feet long and 15 inches wide at one end. It may -possibly have been of larger dimensions formerly, and been erected on -the spot where it now lies, but as Dr. Borlase has omitted it in his -sketch it is probably a displaced stone of the ring. - -“If we allow, as before, an average interval of 12 feet between the -stones, there will have been about 28 pillars in the north, 26 in the -south, and 33 in the middle Circle. - -“At a distance of 409 feet westwards from K in the middle Circle there -are 2 stones, 7 feet apart, both inclined northwards. One is 4 feet 11 -inches in height out of the ground, and overhangs its base 2 feet 7 -inches; the other is 5 feet 4 inches high, and overhangs 18 inches.” - -I now pass from a general description of the circles to the azimuths of -the sight-lines already referred to, so far as they can be determined -from the published Ordnance maps. - -To investigate them as completely as possible without local observations -in the first instance, I begged Colonel Johnston, R.E., C.B., the -Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, to send me the 25-inch maps of -the site giving the exact azimuth of the side lines. This he obligingly -did, and I have to express my great indebtedness to him. - -In Fig. 41 I show the sight-lines from the south and north Circles as -determined by the stones and barrows marked on the map. The sight-lines -on Arcturus are from the centres of the three circles in succession. I -shall point out later the significance of the fact that the November -alignments are from the south, the solstitial ones from the north -Circle. - -[Illustration: FIG. 41.--The Sight-lines at the Hurlers.] - -Of the various sight-lines found, those to which I wish to direct -attention in the first instance, and which led me to the others, are -approximately, reading the azimuths to the nearest degree, - - Lat. 50° 31′ N. Az. - S. circle to central circle N. 12° E. - Central to N. circle N. 15° E. - N. circle to tumulus N. 19° E. - -In a preliminary inquiry in anticipation of the necessary local -observations with a theodolite, I assumed hills half a degree high, for -the reason given on p. 112. We have the following declinations -approximately:-- - - Dec. N. 38¹⁄₂° - „ 38° - „ 37° - -Here, then, we have declinations to work on, but declinations of what -star? To endeavour to answer this question I studied the declinations of -the three brightest stars in the northern heavens, having approximately -the declinations in question some time or other during the period 0 to -2500 B.C. - -Vega is ruled out as its declination was too high. The remaining stars -Capella and Arcturus may have been observed so far as the declinations -go. For time limits we have:-- - - Dec. N. Capella. Arcturus. - 38¹⁄₂° 500 B.C. 1600 B.C. - 36° 1050 „ 1150 „ - -Now there is no question as to which of these two stars we have to deal -with, for the northern circle is evidently less ancient than the -others, for some of the stones are squared and the others are less -irregular than those in the S. circle. - -This being so, the approximate dates of the use of the three circles at -the Hurlers can be derived. They are, with the above assumption:-- - - B.C. - Southern circle aligning Arcturus over centre of central circle 1600 - Central „ „ „ N. circle 1500 - Northern „ „ „ tumulus 1300 - -The next step was to obtain, by means of a large circular protractor, -more accurate readings of the Ordnance Map. This I could do, but the all -important question of the angular height of the horizon remained. As it -was impossible for me to leave London when the significance of the -alignments was made out, I appealed to the authorities of the Royal -Cornwall Polytechnic Society for aid in obtaining the necessary angles, -and as a result, Captain J. S. Henderson, of Falmouth, an accomplished -surveyor, volunteered his aid and shortly sent me the angular heights -along some of the alignments, the means of eight readings obtained with -a 6-inch theodolite, both verniers and reversed telescopes being -employed. Other students of science besides myself will, I am sure, feel -their indebtedness for such opportune help. - -The combination of the large protractor and theodolite work gives the -following final values. The difference between them and the provisional -ones given above speaks volumes as to the necessity of a local study of -the height of the horizon, a point I believe invariably neglected by -archæologists. - -FINAL VALUES. - - _Arcturus from S. circle to central circle._ - - Az. N. 11° 15′ E. Hills, 3° 23′ 52″ high. - _Dec._ = 41° 38′ DATE, 2170 B.C. - - _Arcturus from central circle to N. circle._ - - Az. N. 14° 18′ E. Same hills. - _Dec._ = 41° 9′ DATE, 2090 B.C. - - _Arcturus from N. circle to Barrow._ - - Az. N. 18° 14′ E. Same hills. - _Dec._ = 40° 6′ DATE, 1900 B.C. - -Now before this evidence of star worship, so important if it can be -depended on, could be accepted, it was necessary to make a special -inquiry as to the existence of similar star observations in other -places. Many have been found of which more in the sequel. - -The next point which arose was that Arcturus used as a clock-star (p. -108) would serve as a warner for August. This necessitated another -inquiry into the chief festivals in Cornwall: among these the August -(Harvest) festival is one. - -Another point to consider was whether there was any evidence of a local -August festival. It happens that the Hurlers are in the parish of St. -Cleer, and some of the other Arcturus sight-lines are in that of St. -Just. Now, a local festival in old days was often associated with the -local Saint. As most of the Cornish Saints are common to Cornwall and -Brittany, I looked up the Calendar of the _Annuaire_ of the _Institut de -France_, and found that the days dedicated to SS. Justin and Claire are -the 9th and 12th of August. It seems, then, that at the Hurlers it was -really a question of a clock-star also used as a warning star for the -August festival. I think we have at last, then, run to earth the origin -of some of the northerly alignments referred to on pages 36 and 43. - -It will have been noted that the last sight-line on Arcturus was marked -by a barrow. Captain Henderson inspected it and found it much ruined by -explorers, remains of a chamber inside being visible. - -In a subsequent visit, in which Captain Henderson was accompanied by Mr. -Horton Bolitho, my wife and myself, we not only visited this barrow, but -found that the whole hill had been honeycombed to such an extent by -mining operations that it was very difficult to discriminate between -“investigated” barrows and other heaps and holes, unless the barrow -showed the remains of a chamber. - -Our examination was not limited to barrows. Captain Henderson had spent -a long bleak day in examining and measuring the stones marked on the -Ordnance Map, to which I had called his special attention. We went over -part of the ground with him, and came to the conclusion that the whole -question of the Cornish treatment of “ancient stones” would have to be -gone into--an inquiry which Mr. Bolitho is now carrying on. - -It must be remembered that any stone or barrow used in the sight-lines -we are now considering must have been put up nearly 4,000 years ago, so -long ago, in fact, that many of the chief barrows have been reduced to -the skeletons of their former selves, the enclosed stone chamber, built -of mighty stones, alone remaining. - -Cromlechs and standing stones then formed important points in the -landscape long before ecclesiastical divisions were thought of, or any -attempt was made to indicate the boundaries of private property. - -We should expect then to find these ancient monuments freely made use of -to mark what we now term “parish boundaries.” This is so. Four parishes -have thus used one of the larger cromlechs, and it is more than probable -that something beside the denunciation of the _cultus lapidum_, which we -have seen at work in Brittany (p. 39), has been responsible for the many -stone crosses in Cornwall. Of some of them near circles I have gathered -the astronomical use, while now they “mark the bounds,” as do some of -the stone rows in Dartmoor. - -I believe that in later times this practice of the Church was followed -by those among whom the land was distributed, and this has gone on till -at last there are many ancient stones trimmed on one side and bearing -initials and so having a modern appearance. The astronomer, and even the -archæologist, may regret this practice, but as the habit in Cornwall -appears to be for anybody to use the nearest uncrossed and uninitialled -stone for a wall or a pigsty, Mr. Bolitho’s inquiry may show that in -some cases, at all events, it has been a blessing in disguise, for the -stones are still there. - -In the case of a long chambered barrow, the top of which nearly touches -the horizon, as seen from a circle near it, there is less danger of -being misled. - -In my notes on the stones of Stenness (Chapter XIII) I pointed out that -the chambered Cairns at Onston and Maeshowe suggested that such -structures were later variants of the more ancient standing stones. Some -barrows at the Hurlers lend further confirmation of this view. I will -deal with them first. Of one the data are Az. from N. Circle S. 72° 49′ -W., height of horizon 12′ (Capt. Henderson). The resulting declination -is S. 11° 5′, the declination of Antares 1720 B.C. But why should -Antares be thus singled out? The table on page 117 shows the reason. At -the date involved the setting of Antares in the dawn was the warner of -the sunrise on May morning, the greatest day in all the year. - -Is there any precedent for this use of Antares? - -I have already pointed out (p. 108) that Mr. Penrose found the warning -stars for May morning at the dates of foundation of the Hecatompedon, -and the older Erechtheum, to be the group of the Pleiades rising and -_Antares_ setting. As the foundations of the Hecatompedon were built -only some few years after the stones of the central circle of the -Hurlers were used, we ought to find traces of the observations of the -same May-morning stars. - -We have, then, now a third term in the astronomical use of stars to -herald the sunrise on May morning. - - Temple of Min Thebes 3200 B.C. Spica. - Temple at the Hurlers Liskeard 1720 „ Antares. - Older Erechtheum Athens 1070 „ „ - -The next barrow to be referred to--it is shown to be a long one on the -Ordnance Map--is situated near the top of Caradon Hill, and is visible -on the sky-line from the circles. Data: Az. from N. Circle S. 65° E., -height of horizon 1° 38′ (Henderson). This corresponds almost exactly -with the azimuth of the rise of the sun’s upper limb with declination S. -16° 20′ on the two critical dates in November and February of the -May-year (Halloween and Candlemas, see p. 23), so I am inclined to -consider it more than a mere coincidence that the azimuths coincide so -closely. It, however, may be urged that there are other barrows on -Caradon Hill, but judging from the Ordnance Map they seem to be of the -round variety used for burials, perhaps a thousand years after the -circles were in use, and in my opinion by a different race of men; but -this matter must not detain us now, I hope to return to it later. - -Still one more barrow and a stone, uncrossed and uninitialled, in the -same sight-line, data: Az. from N. circle S. 59° 35′ E. Height of -horizon 1° 38′ 23″ (Henderson), resulting declination S. 19° 50′. This -was the declination of Sirius 1690 B.C. Why Sirius? The table on p. 117 -gives us the answer. Sirius replaced Arcturus as a warning star for the -August festival, and we have seen that the last use of Arcturus was -connected with the sight-line to the barrow about 1900 B.C. - -I pass now from barrows to stones. There is one about which there can be -no question. It is a famous Cross, a “Longstone” at which all travellers -stop on their way from St. Cleer to the Hurlers. It occupies nearly the -same position on the S.W. horizon as does the long tumulus on Caradon -Hill in the S.E. quadrant. From the _South_ Circle, and this is -important, its Azimuth, S. 64° W., is nearly the same; it marked, and -still marks, the sunset point on the critical days of the May year in -November and February. - -There is another stone marked on the Ordnance Map Az. N. 88° E. from the -N. circle. It has been removed, so I may fairly assume that it was -really an ancient stone. Captain Henderson’s value for the height of the -horizon is 11′ 31″. The table on p. 117 will show that in this direction -we have to deal with Betelgeuse as a warner for the summer solstice. The -resulting date is 1730 B.C. - -It would appear that possibly this is not the only stone dealing with -(later) solstitial alignments. Lukis gives two stones on the west side -of the circles which on the Ordnance Map are classed as boundary stones: -they lie on a boundary beyond all question, but also beyond all question -they are as ancient as the stones of the circles themselves. From the N. -circle they are almost but not quite in a line, and the azimuth of the -south stone is S. 49° W. This is a solstitial azimuth. I think, -therefore, that we may accept this as another evidence of the worship of -the setting sun at the winter solstice, _from the N. circle_, and in -this we have still further evidence that to the worship of the May year -in the south circle was added later one dealing with the solstitial year -which was chiefly carried on in the N. circle. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -THE DARTMOOR AVENUES - - -In Chapter XI. I referred to the very numerous alignments of stones in -Brittany, and I was allowed by Lieutenant Devoir, of the French Navy, to -give some of his theodolite observations of the directions along which -the stones had been set up. - -The conclusion was that we were really dealing with monuments connected -with the worship of the sun of the May year, a year which the recent -evidence has shown to have been the first used after the length of the -year had been determined; thus replacing the lunar unit of time which -was in vogue previously, and the use of which is brought home to us by -the reputed ages of Methuselah and other biblical personages, who knew -no other measurer of time than the moon. - -There was also evidence to the effect that in later times solstitial -alignments had been added, so that the idea that we were dealing with -astronomically oriented rows of stones was greatly strengthened, not to -say established. - -So long as the Brittany alignments were things of mystery, their origin, -as well as that of the more or less similar monuments in Britain, was -variously explained; they were models in stone of armies in battle -array, or they represented funeral processions, to mention only two -suggestions. I should add that Mr. H. Worth, who has devoted much time -to their study, considers that some sepulchral interest attaches to -them, though he thinks it may be argued that that was secondary, even as -are interments in cathedrals and churches. About burials associated with -them, of course, there is no question, for the kistvaens and cairns are -there; but my observations suggest that they were added long after the -avenues were built, because some cairns _block_ avenues. Perhaps a -careful study of the modes of burial adopted may throw light on this -point. - -The equivalents of the Brittany alignments are not common in Britain; -they exist in the greatest number on Dartmoor, whither I went recently -to study them. The conditions on high Dartmoor are peculiar; dense -blinding mists are common, and, moreover, sometimes come on almost -without warning. From its conformation the land is full of streams. -There are stones everywhere. What I found, therefore, as had others -before me, was that as a consequence of the conditions to which I have -referred, directions had been indicated by rows of stones for quite -other than ceremonial purposes. Here, then, was another possible origin. -It was a matter of great importance to discriminate most carefully -between these alignments, and to endeavour to sort them out. My special -inquiry, of course, was to see if they, like their apparent equivalents -in Brittany, could have had an astronomical origin. The first thing to -do, then, was to see which might have been erected for worship or which -for practical purposes. - -In doing this there is no difficulty in dealing with extremes. Thus one -notable line of large flat stones has been claimed by Messrs. R. N. -Worth and R. Burnard as a portion of the Great Fosseway (Rowe’s -_Perambulation_, third edition, p. 63); it has been traced for eighteen -miles from beyond Hameldon nearly to Tavistock, the stones being about 2 -feet thick and the road 10 feet wide. - -[Illustration: _Photo. by Lady Lockyer._ - -FIG. 42.--The Southern Avenue at Merrivale, looking East.] - -There are two notable avenues of upright stones at Merrivale; they are -in close connection with a circle, and could have had no practical use. -These stones, then, we may claim as representing the opposite extreme of -the Fosseway and as suggesting an astronomical, as opposed to a -practical, use; the adjacent circle, of course greatly strengthens this -view. - -It is between these extremes that difficulties may arise, but the -verdict can, in a great many cases at all events, be settled without any -very great hesitation, especially where practical or astronomical -uselessness can be established. But even here care is necessary, as I -shall show. - -The stones now in question, originally upright, are variously called -avenues, rows, alignments or parallelithons. Their study dates from -1827, when Rowe and Colonel Hamilton Smith examined those at Merrivale -(Rowe, _op. cit._, p. 31). Their number has increased with every careful -study of any part of the moor, and doubtless many are still -unmapped.[22] The late Mr. R. N. Worth, of Plymouth, and his son, Mr. H. -Worth, have given great attention to these monuments, and the former -communicated a paper on them to the Devonshire Association for the -Advancement of Science in 1892 (_Trans._, xxv. pp. 387-417). - -A word of caution must be said before I proceed. We must not take for -granted that the stone-rows are now as they left the hands of the -builders. The disastrous carelessness of the Government in the matter of -our national antiquities is, I am locally informed, admirably imitated -by the Devonshire County and other lesser councils, and, indeed, by -anybody who has a road to mend or a wall to build. On this account, any -of the rows may once have been much longer and with an obvious practical -use; and those which now appear to be far removed from circles may once -have been used for sacred processions at shrines which have disappeared. - -Again, the rows of stones we are now considering must not be confounded -with the “track lines” or “boundary banks” which are so numerous on -Dartmoor, and are represented in Wiltshire according to Sir R. C. Hoare; -these serve for bounds and pathways, and for connecting and enclosing -fields or houses. - -Dealing, then, with stone rows or avenues, which may be single, double, -or multiple; any which are very long and crooked, following several -directions, are certainly not astronomical; and it is easy to see in -some cases that they might have been useful guides at night or in mist -in difficult country with streams to cross. This possible utility must -not be judged wholly by the present conformation of the ground or the -present beds of streams. - -For multiple avenues it is hard to find practical uses such as the -above, and we know how such avenues were used in Brittany for sun -worship. Mr. Baring Gould considers there were eight rows in an avenue -on Challacombe Down 528 feet long; of these only three rows remain, the -others being represented by single stones here and there (Rowe, p. 33). -I shall have something to say about this avenue further on. - -Although, as I have said, long rows bending in various directions are -not likely to have had an astronomical origin, it must not be assumed -that all astronomical avenues must be _exactly_ straight. This, of -course, would be true for level ground, but if the avenue has to pass -over ridges and furrows, the varying height of the horizon must be -reckoned with, and therefore the azimuth of the avenue at any point -along it. - -I think it possible that in the Stalldon Moor row we have the mixture of -religious and practical intention at which I have before hinted. Both -Mr. Lukis and Mr. Hansford Worth have studied this monument, which is -two miles and a quarter long. There is a circle at the south end about -60 feet in diameter, while at its northern end there is a cairn. - -Where the line starts from the circle the direction of the row is -parallel to many sight-lines in Cornwall, and Arcturus would rise in the -azimuth indicated. But this direction is afterwards given up for one -which leads towards an important collection of hut circles, and it -crosses the Erme, no doubt at the most convenient spot. More to the -north it crosses another stream and the bog of Red Lake. All this is -surely practical enough, although the way indicated might have been -followed by the priests of the hut circles to the stone circle to -prepare the morning sacrifice and go through the ritual. - -But there is still another method of discrimination. If any of these -avenues were used at all for purposes of worship, their azimuths should -agree with those already found in connection with circles in other parts -of Britain, for we need not postulate a special race with a special cult -limited to Dartmoor; and in my inquiries what I have to do is to -consider the general question of orientation wherever traces of it can -be found. The more the evidences coincide the better it is for the -argument, while variations afford valuable tests. - -Now, speaking very generally (I have not yet compared all my numerous -notes), in Cornwall the chief alignments from the circles there are with -azimuths N. 10°-20° E. watching the rise of the clock-star, N. 64°-68° -E. watching the rise of the May sun, N. 75°-82° E. watching the rise of -the Pleiades. The variation in the azimuths is largely due to the -different heights of the horizon towards which the sight-lines are -directed. - -The conclusion I have come to is that these alignments, depending upon -circles and menhirs in Cornwall, are all well represented on Dartmoor -associated with the avenues; and further, so far as I have learned at -present, in the case of the avenues connected with circles, there are -not many alignments I have not met with in connection with circles in -Cornwall and elsewhere. - -This is not only a _prima facie_ argument in favour of the astronomical -use underlying the structures, but it is against the burial theory, for -certainly there must have been burials in Cornwall. - -In order, therefore, to proceed with the utmost caution, I limit myself -in the first instance to the above azimuths, and will begin by applying -a test which should be a rigid one. - -If the avenues on Dartmoor had to deal with the same practices and cults -as did the circles in Cornwall, they ought to prove themselves to have -been in use at _about_ the same time, and from this point of view the -investigation of the avenues becomes of very great importance, because -of the destruction of circles and menhirs which has been going on, and -is still going on, on Dartmoor. We have circles without menhirs and -menhirs without circles, so that the azimuths of the avenues alone -remain to give us any chance of dating the monuments if they were used -in connection with star worship. The case is far different in Cornwall, -where both circles and menhirs have in many cases been spared. - -On Dartmoor, where in some cases the menhirs still remain, they have -been annexed as crosses and perhaps as boundary stones, and squared and -initialed; hence the Ordnance surveyors have been misled, and they are -not shown as ancient stones on the map. In some cases the azimuth of the -stones suggests that this has been the sequence of events. - -It will be seen from the above that I have not tackled a question full -of pitfalls without due caution, and this care was all the more -necessary as the avenues have for long been the meeting ground of the -friends and foes of what Rowe calls “Druidical speculations”; even yet -the war rages, and my writing and Lieut. Devoir’s observing touching the -similar but grander avenues of Brittany have so far been all in vain; -chiefly, I think, because no discrimination has been considered possible -between different uses of avenues, and because the statements made by -archæologists as to their direction have been quite useless to anybody -in consequence of their vagueness, and last of all because the recent -work on the Brittany remains is little known. - -I began my acquaintance with the Dartmoor monuments by visiting -Merrivale, and the result of my inquiries there left absolutely no doubt -whatever on my mind. I was armed, thanks to the kindness of Colonel -Johnston, the Director of the Ordnance Survey, with the 25-inch map, -while Mr. Hansford Worth had been so good as to send me one showing his -special survey. - -The Merrivale avenues (lat. 50° 33′ 15″) are composed of two double -rows, roughly with the azimuth N. 82° E.; the northern row is shorter -than the other. Rowe, in his original description (1830), makes the -northern 1143 feet long; they are not quite parallel, and the southern -row has a distinct “kink” or change of direction in it at about the -centre. The stones are mostly 2 or 3 feet high, and in each row they are -about 3 feet apart; the distance between the rows is about 80 feet. - -I have before pointed out (p. 149) that an avenue directed to the rising -place of a star, if it is erected over undulating ground, cannot be -straight. I may now mention another apparent paradox. If two avenues are -directed to the rising place of the same star _at different times_, they -cannot be parallel. It is not a little curious that absence of -parallelism has been used against avenues having had an astronomical -use! - -Both the Ordnance surveyors and Mr. Worth have shown the want of -parallelism of the two avenues, and Mr. Worth has noted the kink in the -southern one. The height of the horizon, as determined from my measures, -is 3° 18′. The results of these inquiries, assuming the Pleiades to have -been observed warning May morning, are as follows:-- - - Azimuth. Authority. N. Declination. Date B.C. - ° ° ′ ″ - N. 83·15 E. Worth 6 47 47 1710 - 82·30 Worth 7 16 20 1630 - 82·10 Ordnance 7 32 0 1580 - 80·40 Worth 8 26 0 1420 - 80·30 Ordnance 8 30 0 1400 - -To simplify matters we may deal with the Ordnance values and neglect the -small change of direction in the southern avenue. We have, then, the two -dates 1580 B.C. and 1420 B.C. for the two avenues. The argument for the -Pleiades is strengthened by the fact that at Athens the Hecatompedon was -oriented to these stars in 1495 B.C. according to Mr. Penrose’s -determination of the azimuth. - -[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Plan, from the Ordnance Map, showing the -avenues, circle and stones at Merrivale, with their azimuths.] - -Now this is not the first time I have referred to avenues in these -notes. The azimuth of one at Stonehenge was used to fix the date at -which sun worship went on there. That avenue, unlike the Dartmoor ones, -was built of earth, and it is not alone. There is another nearly two -miles long called the Cursus. So far, I have found no solstitial worship -on Dartmoor, so there are no avenues parallel to the one at Stonehenge -leading N.E. from the temple. But how about the other? _It is roughly -parallel to the avenues at Merrivale, and I think, therefore, was, like -them, used as a processional road, a via sacra, to watch the rising of -the Pleiades._ - -[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Reprint of Ordnance Map showing that the Cursus -at Stonehenge is nearly parallel to the Merrivale Avenue. The azimuth is -82° and not 84° as shown in the figure.] - -I said roughly parallel; its azimuth is about the same (N. 82° E. -roughly); but the horizon is only about 1° high; it was therefore in use -before those at Merrivale; the exact date of use must wait for -theodolite values of the height of the horizon, but in the meantime we -can see from the above estimates that the declination of the Pleiades -was about N. 5° 28′ 30″ and the date of use 1950 B.C., that is some 300 -years before the solstitial restoration. - -Mr. Worth’s survey gives another line of stones. It is undoubtedly, I -think, an ancient line, although it is not shown in the Ordnance map, a -clear indication of the difficulty of discriminating these avenues on -land cumbered with stones in all directions. Its azimuth is N. 24° 25′ -E., and the height of the horizon 5° 10′. This gives us Arcturus at the -date 1860 B.C., showing that, as at the Hurlers, Arcturus was used as a -clock-star. Hence a possible _astronomical_ use is evident, while this -row, like the others, could have been of no _practical_ use to anybody. -It is interesting to note that this single row of stones is older than -the double ones; this seems natural. - -It is worth while to say a word as to the different treatment of the -ends of the south avenue now that it seems probable that it was used to -watch the rising of the Pleiades. At the east end there is what -archæologists term a “blocking stone”; these observations suggest that -it was really a _sighting_ stone. At the west end such a stone is -absent, but the final stones in the avenue are longer than the rest. -This may help us in the true direction of the sight-lines in other -avenues; and, indeed, I shall show in the sequel that this consideration -affords a criterion which, in the cases I have come across, is entirely -in harmony with others. - -[22] On June 15, 1905, that excellent guide of the Chagford part of the -moor, Mr. S. Perrott, showed me an avenue (Azimuth N. 20° E. true) near -Hurston Ridge which is not given in the 1-inch map. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -THE DARTMOOR AVENUES (_continued_) - - -My inquiries began at Merrivale because there is a circle associated -with the avenues a little to the south of the west end of the longest; -and again nearly, or quite, south of this there is a fine menhir, -possibly used to give a north-south line. There is another menhir given -on the Ordnance map, azimuth N. 70° 30′ E., which, with hills 3° high, -points out roughly the place of sunrise from the circle in May (April -29). Although this stone has been squared and initialed, I think I am -justified in claiming it as an ancient monument. There is still another, -azimuth N. 83° E., giving a line from the circle almost parallel to the -avenue. I hope some local archæologist will examine it, for if ancient -it will tell us whether the N. avenue or the circle was built first, a -point of which it is difficult to overrate the importance, as it will -show the strict relationship between the astronomy of the avenues and -that of the circle, and we can now, I think, deal with the astronomical -use of circles after the results obtained at Stonehenge, Stenness and -the Hurlers as an accepted fact. With the above approximate values the -date comes out 1750 B.C., the declination of the Pleiades being N. 6° -35′. - -I now pass on from Merrivale as an example of those avenues the -direction of which lies somewhere in the E.-W. direction. Others which I -have not seen, given by Rowe, are at Assacombe, Drizzlecombe and -Trowlesworthy; to these Mr. Worth adds Harter or Har Tor (or Black Tor). - -The avenues which lie nearly N. and S. are more numerous. Rowe gives the -following:--Fernworthy, Challacombe, Trowlesworthy, Stalldon Moor, -Battendon, Hook Lake, and Tristis Rock. Of these I have visited the -first two, as well as one on Shovel Down not named by Rowe, and the next -two I have studied on the 6-inch Ordnance map. - -_Fernworthy_ (lat. 50° 38′).--Here are two avenues, one with azimuth N. -15° 45′ E., hills 1° 15′. There is a sighting stone at the N. end. We -appear to be dealing with Arcturus as clock-star 1610 B.C. This is about -the date of the erection of the N. avenue at Merrivale. - -The second avenue has its sighting stone built into a wall at the south -end. Looking south along the avenue, the conditions are azimuth S. 8° -42′ W., hills 3° 30′. - -Both these avenues are aligned on points within, but _not_ at the centre -of, the circle. - -_Challacombe_ (lat. 50° 36′).--This is a case of a triple avenue, -probably the remains of eight rows, in a depression between two hills, -Challacombe Down and Warrington. There is no circle. The azimuth is 23° -37′ N.W. or S.E., according to direction. The northern end has been -destroyed by an old stream work; there is no blocking stone to the south -on either of the remaining avenues, but one large menhir terminates one -row of stones. The others may have been removed. So it is probable that -the alignment was to the north. If so, we are dealing with the setting -of Arcturus, warning the summer solstice sunrise in 1860 B.C. To the S. -the hills are 4° 48′, to the N. 4° 50′. - -To this result some importance must be attached, first, because it -brings us into presence of the cult of the solstitial year, secondly, -because it shows us that the system most in vogue in Brittany was -introduced in relation to that year. In Brittany, as I have before -shown, the complicated alignments, there are 11 parallel rows at Le -Ménac (p. 99) (there _were_ 8 parallel rows at Challacombe), were set up -to watch the May and August sunrises, and the solstitial alignments came -afterwards. The Brittany May alignments, therefore, were probably used -long before 1860 B.C., the date we have found for Challacombe, where not -the sunrise but the setting star which gave warning of it was observed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 45.--The remains of the eight rows of the -Challacombe Avenue. Looking North of East. Terminal Menhir on the -extreme right.] - -It is worth while to point out that at Challacombe, as elsewhere, the -priest-astronomers so located their monuments that the nearly -circumpolar stars which were so useful to them should rise over an -horizon of some angular height. In this way the direction-lines would be -available for a longer period of time, for near the north point the -change of azimuth with change in the declination of the star observed is -very rapid. - -_Shovel Down_, near Batworthy (lat. 50° 39′ 20″).--A group of five rows -of stones, four double, one single, with two sets of azimuths. - -One set gives az. 22° 25°, and 28°. They seem to be associated. I will -call them A, B, and C. A is directed to the circle on Godleigh Common. -Its ends are free. B is a single line of stones to the E. of the triple -circle, about which more presently. It is not marked on the Ordnance -map; its ends are also free. C has its south end blocked, I think in -later times, by a kistvaen. The astronomical direction may be, -therefore, either N.W. or S.E. We find a probable use in the N.W. -quadrant, as at Challacombe, Arcturus setting at daybreak as a warner of -the summer solstice. - -The height of hills is 46′; we have then:-- - - Az. N. Dec. Star. Date. - N. 22° W. 36° 19′ 40″ Arcturus 1210 B.C. - N. 25° W. 35° 23′ 20″ „ 1040 „ - N. 28° W. 34° 19′ 30″ „ 850 „ - -Adjacent to A, B, C, is another avenue, which I will call D. Unlike the -others, its northern end points 2° E. of N. Its southern end is blocked -by a remarkable triple circle, the end of the avenue close to it being -defined by two tall terminal stones. We are justified, then, in thinking -that its orientation was towards the north; the height of the horizon I -measured as 45′. It may have been an attempt to mark the N. point of -the horizon. - -The triple circle to which I have referred is not an ordinary circle. I -believe it to be a later added, much embellished, cairn. According to -Ormerod, the diameters are 26, 20, and 3 feet, and there are three small -stones at the centre. - -All the above avenues are on the slope of the hill to the north. On the -south slope we find the longest of all, as shown on the Ordnance map -survey of 1885. There is a “long stone” in its centre, and at the -southern end was formerly a cromlech, the “three boys.” Part of this -avenue, and two of the three “boys,” have been taken to build a wall. -The long stone remains, because it is a boundary stone! - -The azimuth is 2° 30′ W. of north or E. of south. Looking N. from the -long stone, the height of the horizon is 2° 30′. I think this avenue was -an attempt to mark the S. point. - -_Trowlesworthy_ (lat. 50° 27′ 30″).--The remains here are most -interesting. This is the only monument on Dartmoor in which I have so -far traced any attempt to locate the sun’s place at rising either for -the May or solstitial year. But I will deal with the N.-S. avenue first, -as it is this feature which associates it with Fernworthy and -Challacombe. - -As at Merrivale, the avenue has a decided “kink” or change of direction. -The facts as gathered from the 6-inch map are as follows:-- - - Az. Hills. Dec. N. Star. Date. - S. part of Avenue N. 7° E. 2° 52′ 41° 29′ 10″ Arcturus 2130 B.C. - N. „ „ N. 12° E. 2° 52′ 41° 6′ 20″ „ 2080 B.C. - -[Illustration: FIG. 46.--The sight-lines at Trowlesworthy, showing high -northern azimuths. From the Ordnance map.] - -This date is very nearly that of the use of the S. circle at the -Hurlers, and it is early for Dartmoor; but it is quite possible that -local observations on an associated avenue a little to the west of the -circle which terminates the N.-S. avenue will justify it. This is not -far from parallel to that at Merrivale, but its northern azimuth is -greater, so that if it turns out to have been aligned on the Pleiades -its date will be some time before that of Merrivale, that is, before -1580 B.C. I can say nothing more about it till I have visited it. - -The new features to which I have referred are two tumuli which in all -probability represent more recent additions to the original scheme of -observation, as we have found at Stenness, and show that Trowlesworthy -was for long one of the chief centres of worship on Dartmoor. Their -azimuths are S. 64° E. and S. 49° W., dealing, therefore, with the May -year sunrises in November and February and the solstitial sunset in -December. It is probable that, as at the Hurlers, tumuli were used -instead of stones not earlier than 1900 B.C. - -_Stalldon Moor_ (lat. 50° 27′ 45″) I have already incidentally referred -to. The azimuth of the stone row as it leaves the circle, _not_ from its -centre as I read the 6-inch map, is N. 3° E.; as the azimuth gradually -increases for a time, we may be dealing with Arcturus, but local -observation is necessary. - -The differences between the Cornish and Dartmoor monuments give much -food for thought, and it is to be hoped that they will be carefully -studied by future students of orientation, as so many questions are -suggested. I will refer to some of them. - -(1) Are the avenues, chiefly consisting of two rows of stones, a -reflection of the sphinx avenues of Egypt? and, if so, how can the -intensification of them on Dartmoor be explained? - -(2) Was there a double worship going on in the avenues and the circles -at the same time? If not, why were the former not aligned on the -circles? On a dead level, of course, if the avenues were aligned on the -centre of the circle towards the rising or setting of the sun or a star, -the procession in the _via sacra_ would block the view of those in the -circle. We have the avenue at Stonehenge undoubtedly aligned on the -centre of the circle, but there the naos was on an eminence, so that the -procession in the avenue was always below the level of the horizon, and -so did not block the view. - -(3) Do all the cairns and cists in the avenues represent later -additions, so late, indeed, that they may have been added after the -avenues had ceased to be used for ceremonial purposes? The cairn at -nearly the central point of the S. avenue at Merrivale was certainly not -there as a part of the structure when the avenue was first used as a -_via sacra_ for observing the rising of the Pleiades. I have always held -that these ancient temples, and even their attendant long and chambered -barrows, were for the living and not for the dead, and this view has -been strengthened by what I have observed on Dartmoor. - -There was good reason for burials after the sacred nature of the spot -had been established, and they may have taken place at any time since; -the most probable time being after 1000 B.C. up to a date as recent as -archæologists may consider probable. - -Mr. Worth, whose long labours on the Dartmoor avenues give such -importance to his opinions, objects to the astronomical use of those -avenues because there are so many of them; he informs me that he knows -of 50; I think this objection may be considered less valid if the -avenues show that they were dedicated to different uses, some practical -and others sacred, at different times of the year. For instance, -Challacombe is not a duplicate of Merrivale; one is solstitial, the -other deals with the May year; and a complete examination of them--I -have only worked on the fringe--may show other differences having the -same bearing. - -In favour of the astronomical view it must be borne in mind that the -results obtained in Devon and Cornwall are remarkably similar, and the -dates are roughly the same. Among the whole host of heaven from which -objectors urge it is free for me to select any star I choose, at present -only six stars have been considered, two of which were certainly used, -as in Egypt, as clock-stars as they just dipped below the northern -horizon, and other two afterwards at Athens; and these six stars are -shown by nothing more recondite than an inspection of a precessional -globe to have been precisely the stars, the “morning stars,” wanted by -the priest-astronomers who wished to be prepared for the instant of -sunrise at the critical points of the May or solstitial year. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -STANTON DREW (Lat. 51° 10′ N.) - - -Other circles to which I have given some attention are at Stanton Drew -in Somerset. I regret to say that I have not as yet had an opportunity -of visiting them. But a cursory inspection on the Ordnance map of the -possible sight-lines from circle to circle, for there are three, -suggested at once that we were dealing with the same problem as that -worked out, if somewhat differently, at the Hurlers. - -The three circles, two avenues leading from two of the circles towards -the river, and some outstanding stones were most carefully surveyed by -Mr. C. E. Dymond some years ago. He was good enough to send me copies of -his plans and levelling sections. I have not had the advantage of -perusing his memoir, but I have studied the monuments as well as I could -by means of the 25-inch Ordnance map. This, combined with an azimuth -which Colonel Johnston, the Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, was -kind enough to send me, should give me bearings within a degree. - -I will begin by giving a short account of the stones which remain, -abridged from the convenient pamphlet prepared for the British -Association meeting at Bristol in 1898 by Prof. Lloyd Morgan. - -The circles at Stanton Drew, though far less imposing than those of -Avebury and Stonehenge, are thought to be more ancient than are the -latter, for the rough-hewn uprights and plinths of Stonehenge bear the -marks of a higher and presumably later stage of mechanical development. -Taken as a group, the Somersetshire circles are in some respects more -complex than their better known rivals in Wiltshire. There are three -circles, from two of which “avenues” proceed for a short distance in a -more or less easterly direction; there is a shattered but large -dolmen--if we may so regard the set of stones called “the cove”; and -there are outlying stones--the “quoit,” and those in Middle Ham--which -bear such relations to the circles as to suggest that they too formed -parts of some general scheme of construction. - -From the photograph of the Ordnance map (Fig. 47) it will be seen, as -pointed out by Prof. Lloyd Morgan, - -(1) That the centre of the great circle, that of the S.W. circle, and -that of the quoit, are nearly in the same straight line. - -(2) That the cove, the centre of the great circle, and that of the N.E. -circle, are nearly in the same straight line. - -The quoit, which generally means the covering stone of a -cromlech--“Hautville’s Quoit,” as it is named on the Ordnance map--looms -large in Stanton Drew tradition; it is locally as much respected as the -circles themselves. It is pointed to most unmistakably by the fact that -a line from it to the S.W. circle passes nearly through the centre of -the great circle. - -If the observation line, then, meant anything astronomically, it can -only have had to do with the rising of a star far to the north, in a -position far more northerly than the sun ever reaches. - -The “quoit,” lying in an orchard by the roadside, has nothing very -impressive about its appearance--a recumbent mass of greyish sandstone; -but it seems to be a brick in the Stanton Drew building. By some -regarded as a sarsen block from Wiltshire, it is, in Prof. Lloyd -Morgan’s opinion, more probably derived from the Old Red Sandstone of -Mendip. In any case it is not, geologically speaking, _in situ_; nor has -it reached its present position by natural agency. - -With regard to two of the megalithic circles, at first sight the -constituent stones seem irregularly dotted about the field; but as we -approach them the unevenly spaced stones group themselves. - -The material of which the greater number of the rude blocks is composed -is peculiar and worthy of careful examination. It is a much altered rock -consisting, in most of the stones, of an extremely hard siliceous -breccia with angular fragments embedded in a red or deep brown matrix, -and with numerous cavities which give it a rough slaggy appearance. Many -of these hollows are coated internally with a jasper-like material, the -central cavity being lined with gleaming quartz-crystals. - -[Illustration: FIG. 47.--The Circles and Avenues at Stanton Drew. -Photograph of 25-inch Ordnance map, shewing approximate azimuths of -sight-lines.] - -The majority of the stones were probably brought from Harptree Ridge on -Mendip, distant some six miles. Weathered blocks of Triassic breccia, -showing various stages of silicification, there lie on the surface; and -there probably lay the weathered monoliths which have been transported -to Stanton Drew. It is important to note that they were erected -unhewn and untouched by the tool. A few stones are of other -material--sandstone, like the “quoit,” or oolite from Dundry. - -In the great circle, of the visible stones some retain their erect -position, others are recumbent, several are partially covered by -accumulation of grass-grown soil. Others are completely buried, their -position being revealed in dry seasons by the withering of the grass -above them. - -To the east of this circle a short avenue leads out, there being three -visible stones and one buried block on the one hand, and two visible -stones on the other. But one’s attention is apt to be diverted from -these to the very large and massive megaliths of the small N.E. circle. -This is composed of eight weathered masses, one of which (if indeed it -do not represent more than one), Prof. Lloyd Morgan tells us, is -recumbent and shattered. From this circle, all the stones of which are -of the siliceous breccia, a short avenue of small stones also opens out -eastwards. - -The third or S.W. circle lies at some little distance from the others. -The average size of the stones is smaller than in either of the other -circles, and not all are composed of the same material. - -“The Cove,” which has been variously regarded as a dolmen, a druidical -chair of state, and a shelter for sacrificial fire, is close to the -church. - -The dimensions and numbers of the stones are as follow: - - Great circle, diameter 368 feet, 30 stones. - N.E. „ „ 97 „ 8 „ - S.W. „ „ 145 „ 12 „ - -As I was not able to visit Stanton Drew when the significance of the -northerly alignments struck me, I made an appeal to Prof. Lloyd Morgan, -of whose pamphlet I have so largely made use, to obtain some theodolite -observations. As a result such observations have been made by himself -and Mr. Morrow, from whom I have recently received a report with full -permission to make use of it in this place. - -The monuments are not easy to measure, as the centres of the circles are -not readily determined, as so many of the stones are either absent, -recumbent or buried. - -In my rough reading of the Ordnance map given in Fig. 47, I thought I -might be guided by taking centres, such that the avenues would be -aligned on them as at Stonehenge. I had not then seen the Dartmoor -avenues, which in some cases are not aligned on the centres. In this it -is possible that I was wrong, as both Mr. Dymond’s and Mr. Morrow’s -observations suggest that the avenues are really of the Dartmoor -pattern. Mr. Morrow writes: “The centres of the circles are (to a -certain small extent) a matter of choice, a difference of a few minutes -may easily occur. In dealing with the avenues a larger discrepancy may -occur. I have taken what, in my opinion, was the best centre line of -each avenue and thus determined its azimuth. But I believe that -originally the southern line of stones forming each avenue was directed -towards the centre of the corresponding circle, and that the avenue was -then completed by the erection of a parallel line of stones. A -difference of a few degrees may thus be accounted for in the azimuth -supposed to have been originally marked out.” - -About Mr. Morrow’s azimuths there can be no question. He writes: - -“The instruments used were, first, a 6″ theodolite, and second, a 6″ -transit theodolite. The final results were obtained with the latter. It -cannot be reversed when measuring elevations. I tested it very carefully -for the adjustments of (_a_) line of collimation at right angles to the -horizontal axis, (_b_) horizontal axis perpendicular to vertical axis, -and (_c_) line of collimation and spirit level parallel to each other. -The instrument was in first-rate order, the error in elevation, for -example, being within that corresponding to a slope of 1 in 40,000; that -is well within the limit of 20″ to which vertical angles can be read. - -“The meridian was obtained by two different methods applied several -times, the results agreeing very closely. Readings of azimuths and -altitude of sun were taken between three and four hours after noon, -corrected for semi-diameter, &c., and the true bearing obtained with the -aid of the latitude and the declination given in Nautical Almanac -(corrected for time). - -“With regard to the elevations of the horizon, the existence of trees on -or just below the sky-line renders readings to the nearest minute -uncertain. In all cases I have tried to give the most probable value, -supposing the trees to be absent. In some places the heights will have -altered slightly during recent years owing to the construction of -railways. - -“The values given are the means of observations. They are not corrected -for height of instrument above ground, which might increase the angles -by about 5 mins. Trees on the sky-line appear to make a difference of -some 35 mins.” - -The azimuths as found by Mr. Morrow and myself are as under: - - Height of horizon - (excluding trees). - Morrow. Lockyer. Morrow. - [23]From centre of great circle - to Hauteville’s quoit N. 17° 59′ E. 17° 2° 23′ - From centre of great circle - to N.E. circle 53° 0′ 51° 1° 5′ - From centre of great circle - along great circle avenue 68° 43′ 65° 0° 38′ - From centre of N.E. circle - along N.E. circle avenue S. 83° 52′ E. 79° 1° 40′ - From centre of S.W. circle - to centre of great circle N. 19° 51′ E. 20° 1° 44′ - -The azimuths to which I first direct attention are these: - - Az. - Great circle to quoit N. 17° E. - S.W. circle to great circle N. 20° E. - -These azimuths indicate that at Stanton Drew as at the Hurlers and -elsewhere we are dealing with Arcturus as a clock-star. The facts are: - - Az. N. Decln. Height Star. Date. - of hills. - N. 17° E. 38° 59′ 0″ 2° 23′ Arcturus 1690 - 20° 37° 26′ 50″ 1° 44′ „ 1410 - -One of the greatest differences between Mr. Morrow’s local observation -and my reading of the 25-inch Ordnance map occurs in the case of the -direction of the avenue from the great circle. It may be suggested that -the use of this avenue was to observe the May and August sunrises of the -May year. If we take the sun’s declination at 16° 20′ N., see p. 22, the -azimuth should be about N. 64° E.; this is 1° from my value and 5° from -that given by Mr. Morrow, but it must not be forgotten that the choice -of a day in May and August slightly differing from the normal date might -easily produce such a variation. - -It seems probable that the great circle was one of the first erected, -and the fact that, like Stonehenge, it had an avenue, but that, unlike -Stonehenge, the avenue was directed towards the May and not the June -(solstitial) sunrise further, I think, suggests that the May worship was -considered the most important and was the first provided for. - -There is reason for supposing that the great circle was at all events -built before the S.W. one. The great circle is situated at a lower level -than the S.W. one. The angular elevation of the hills over which -Arcturus rose would appear, therefore, to be higher from the great than -from the S.W. circle. Arcturus has been reducing its declination for -centuries in consequence of the precessional movement. It would -therefore rise gradually in a greater azimuth, that is, nearer the east. -An observer in the centre of the great circle, to follow this more -easterly rising over the quoit, would have to change his position -gradually to the westward. But there was another way. The original -direction could be nearly maintained if the observation were made at a -higher level near the original line, as then the relative elevation of -the rising-place would be reduced. - -This is what possibly was done, and this indeed may be the _vera causa_ -of the building of the S.W. circle. - -This view of the possible function of the “quoit” is, of course, -strengthened by the fact that we find traces of high northerly alignment -in other stone circles. I have already shown that there are such -alignments in Cornwall. - -The “quoit” is nearly on a level with the great circle, while the hills -rise behind it. It has been suggested that it would have been more -useful on the top of the hill, but this suggestion cannot be accepted -for a moment if it were used in the way I have indicated. On a dark -night it would have been invisible, and it also would have prevented the -observation of star-rise if it were truly aligned. Being comparatively -near the circle it could easily have been illuminated at the critical -time, and thus have anticipated the bright line micrometer of more -modern times. - -So far I have found no obvious use for the avenue attached to the N.E. -circle. The conditions are: - - Az. Height of Dec. - Hills. - Morrow. Lockyer. Morrow. Morrow. Lockyer. - S. 83° 52′ E. S. 79° E. 1° 40′ 3° 52′ 30″ S. 5° 49′ 30″ S. - -With regard to this N.E. circle, in relation to the large circle, the -data are as follows: - - Az. Height of Dec. N. - Hills. - Morrow. Lockyer. Morrow. Morrow. Lockyer. - N. 53° E. N. 51° E. 1° 5′ 22° 43′ 50″ 23° 48′ 46″ - -As Mr. Morrow states, the choice of centre of the circle may alter the -azimuth obtained by as much as “a few degrees,” but the value obtained -from the Ordnance map is, definitely, N. 51° E., and with the height of -hills determined by Mr. Morrow this would suggest that the N.E. circle -was really erected to provide the alignment, from the centre of the -great circle, or from the Cove, to the summer solstitial sun, about the -year 870 B.C., Stockwell’s values for the obliquity being taken. This -result is the more striking as it gives a date for the substitution of -the June for the May worship at Stanton Drew, which is in full -accordance with that obtained for the similar change at Stenness. - -There is other evidence, to which I attach importance, as it deals with -a method and policy found in many temple fields in Egypt, that of -blocking the alignment of an older star- or sun-cult, which the -astronomer-priests replaced by their own. The stones of the avenue of -the solstitial N.E. circle I expect once blocked the May sunrise line -from the great circle; judging from the Ordnance map, and remembering -the number of stones that have disappeared, this is probable if not -certain. - -If this were so, then the N.E. circle was the last to be erected, and -this suggestion is strengthened by Mr. Lewis’s statement that it is the -most perfect of the three. - -Prof. Lloyd Morgan concludes his interesting account of which I have -made so much use with the following remarks: - -“In what order the circles were constructed we do not know. Whether the -small N.E. circle with its more massive megaliths preceded or succeeded -the great circle with its more numerous but, on the average, less -massive stones, is a matter of mere conjecture. They may have been -contemporaneous: but it is more likely that so large a work took a long -time in execution; nor does the unity of plan of the final product -preclude a gradual process of development. Finally as to the purpose of -the erection, and its hidden astronomical, mythological, or social -meaning (if it have one), we are once more at the mercy of more or less -plausible conjecture. There stand the circles in a quiet Somersetshire -valley, silent memorials of a race concerning whose modes of life, of -labour, and of thought we can but speculate.” - -It is to be hoped that before the monument has disappeared like so many -of its fellows, some student with more knowledge and time to devote to -the inquiry than myself will endeavour to answer more of the questions -raised by it. - -[23] With regard to these values Mr. Morrow writes: “At present -Hauteville’s quoit is not visible from the centre of great circle. If -the stone were erect, however, and any intervening trees and walls -removed, the top of the stone would no doubt be within view. The -Hauteville quoit line is thus rather a difficult one to obtain with -accuracy, but the azimuth given should be correct to the nearest -minute.” - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -FOLKLORE AND TRADITION - - -We have so far considered the circles at Stonehenge, Stenness, the -Hurlers and Stanton Drew, and the avenues in Brittany and on Dartmoor. -Before I refer to my later work in the south-west of England or attempt -to present a summary of the results of the inquiry, I think it will be -convenient to turn for a time to another branch of it, for that there is -another closely connected series of facts to be considered in relation -to the monuments folklore and tradition abundantly prove. - -So far in this book I have dealt chiefly with stones--as I hold, -associated with, or themselves composing, sanctuaries. We have become -acquainted with circles, menhirs, dolmens, altars, viæ sacræ, various -structures built up of stones. Barrows and earthern banks represented -them later. - -The view which I have been led to bring forward so far is that these -structures had in one way or another to do with the worship of the sun -and stars; that they had for the most part an astronomical use in -connection with religious ceremonials. - -The next question which concerns us in an attempt to get at the bottom -of the matter is to see whether there are any concomitant phenomena, -and, if there be any, to classify them and study the combined results. - -Tradition and folklore, which give dim references to the ancient uses of -the stones, show in most unmistakable fashion that the stones were not -alone; associated with them almost universally were many practices -referred to on p. 26, such as the lighting of fires, passing through -them, and dancing round them; in the neighbourhood of the stones and -associated with the fire practices were also sacred trees and sacred -wells or streams. - -Folklore and tradition not only thus may help us, but I think they will -be helped by such a general survey, brief though it must be. So far as -my reading has gone each special tradition has been considered by -itself; there has been no general inquiry having for its object the -study of the possible origin and _connection_ of many of the ancient -practices and ideas which have so dimly come down to us in many cases -and which we can only completely reconstruct by piecing together the -information derived from various sources. - -I now propose to refer to all these matters with the view of seeing -whether there be any relation between practices apparently disconnected -in so many cases if we follow the literature in which they are -chronicled. We must not blame the literature, since the facts which -remain to be recorded now here, now there, are but a small fraction of -those that have been forgotten. Fortunately, the practices forgotten in -one locality have been remembered in another, so that it is possible the -picture can be restored more completely than one might have thought at -first. - -It will be seen at once that from the point of view with which we are -at present concerned, one of the chief relations we must look for is -that of time, seeing that my chief affirmation with regard to the stone -monuments is that they were used for ceremonial purposes at certain -seasons, those seasons being based first upon the agricultural, and -later upon the astronomical divisions of the year, to which I drew -attention in Chapter III. In Chapter IV., when referring to the -agricultural and astronomical new years’ days, I indicated a possible -relation between the temple worship and the floral celebrations of that -time, and later on (p. 40), in connection with the monuments in -Brittany, I pointed out the coincidence of fire customs at the same time -of the year. - -But in a matter of this kind it will not do to depend upon isolated -cases; the general trend of all the facts available along several lines -of inquiry must be found and studied, first separately and then _inter -se_, if any final conclusion is to be reached. - -This is what I now propose to do in a very summary manner. It is not my -task to arrange the facts of folklore and tradition, but simply to cull -from the available sources precise statements which bear upon the -questions before us. These statements, I think, may be accepted as -trustworthy, and all the more so as many of the various recorders have -had no idea either of the existence of a May year at all or of the -connection between the different classes of the phenomena which ought to -exist if my theory of their common origin in connection with ancient -worship and the monuments is anywhere near the truth. - -This question of time relations is surrounded by difficulties. - -I gave in Fig. 7 the Gregorian dates of the beginning of the quarters -of the May year, if nothing but the sun’s declination of 16° 20′ N. or -S., four times in its yearly path, be considered. These were:-- - - May Greek Roman - Year. Calendar. Calendar. - End of Winter } Feb. 4 Feb. 7 Feb. 7 - Beginning of Spring } - „ Summer May 6 May 6 May 9 - End of Summer } Aug. 8 Aug. 11 Aug. 8 - Beginning of Autumn } - „ Winter Nov. 8 Nov. 10 Nov. 9 - -In the table I also give, for comparison, the dates in the Greek and -Roman calendars (p. 20). - -There is no question that on or about the above days festivals were -anciently celebrated in these islands; possibly not all at all holy -places, but some at one and some at another; this, perhaps, may help to -explain the variation in the local traditions and even some of the -groupings of orientations. - -The earliest information on this point comes from Ireland. - -Cormac, Archbishop of Cashel in the tenth century, states, according to -Vallancey, that “in his time four great fires were lighted up on the -four great festivals of the Druids, viz., in February, May, August and -November.”[24] - -I am not aware of any such general statement as early as this in -relation to the four festivals of the May year in Great Britain, but in -spite of its absence the fact is undoubted that festivals were held, and -many various forms of celebration used, during those months. - -From the introduction of Christianity attempts of different kinds were -made to destroy this ancient time system and to abolish the so-called -“pagan” worships and practices connected with it. Efforts were made to -change the date and so obliterate gradually the old traditions; another -way, and this turned out to be the more efficacious, was to change the -venue of the festival, so to speak, in favour of some Christian -celebration or saint’s day. The old festivals took no account of -week-days, so it was ruled that the festivals were to take place on the -first day of the week; later on some of them were ruled to begin on the -first day of the month. - -When Easter became a movable feast, the efforts of the priests were -greatly facilitated, and indeed it would seem as if this result of such -a change was not absent from the minds of those who favoured it. - -The change of style was, as I have before stated, a fruitful source of -confusion, and this was still further complicated by another difficulty. -Piers[25] tells us that consequent upon the change “the Roman Catholics -light their fires by the new style, as the correction originated from a -pope; and for that very same reason the Protestants adhere to the old.” - -I will refer to each of the festivals and their changes of date. - - -_February 4._ - -Before the movable Easter the February festival had been transformed -into Ash Wednesday (February 4). The eve of the festival was Shrove -Tuesday, and it is quite possible that the ashes used by the priests on -Wednesday were connected with the bonfires of the previous night. - -It would seem that initially the festival, with its accompanying -bonfire, was transferred to the first Sunday in Lent, February 8. - -I quote the following from Hazlitt[26]:-- - -“Durandus, in his ‘Rationale,’ tells us, Lent was counted to begin on -that which is now the first Sunday in Lent, and to end on Easter Eve; -which time, saith he, containing forty-two days, if you take out of them -the six Sundays (on which it was counted not lawful at any time of the -year to fast), then there will remain only thirty-six days: and, -therefore, that the number of days which Christ fasted might be -perfected, Pope Gregory added to Lent four days of the week -before-going, viz., that which we now call Ash Wednesday, and the three -days following it. So that we see the first observation of Lent began -from a superstitious, unwarrantable, and indeed profane, conceit of -imitating Our Saviour’s miraculous abstinence. Lent is so called from -the time of the year wherein it is observed: Lent in the Saxon language -signifying Spring.” - -Whether this be the origin of the lenten fast or not it is certain that -the connection thus established between an old pagan feast and a new -Christian one is very ingenious: 24 days in February plus 22 days in -March (March 22 being originally the fixed date for Easter) gives us 46 -days (6 × 7) + 4, and from the point of view of priestcraft the result -was eminently satisfactory, for thousands of people still light fires -on Shrove Tuesday or on the first Sunday of Lent, whether those days -occur in February or March. They are under the impression that they are -doing homage to a church festival, and the pagan origin is entirely -forgotten not only by them but even by those who chronicle the practices -as “Lent customs.”[27] - -Finally, after the introduction of the movable Easter, the priests at -Rome, instead of using the “pagan” ashes produced on the eve of the -first Sunday in Lent or Ash Wednesday in each year, utilised those -derived from the burning of the palms used on Palm Sunday of the year -before. - -Further steps were taken to conceal from future generations the origin -of the “pagan” custom due on February 4. February 3 was dedicated to St. -“Blaze.” How well this answered is shown by the following quotation from -Percy.[28] “The anniversary of St. Blazeus is the 3rd February, when it -is still the custom in many parts of England to light up fires on the -hills on St. Blayse night: _a custom antiently taken up perhaps for no -better reason than the jingling resemblance of his name to the word -Blaze_.” - -This even did not suffice. A great candle church festival was -established on February 2. This was called “Candlemas,” and Candlemas is -still the common name of the beginning of the Scotch legal year. In the -Cathedral of Durham when Cosens was bishop he “busied himself from two -of the clocke in the afternoone till foure, in climbing long ladders to -stick up wax candles in the said Cathedral Church; the number of all the -candles burnt that evening was 220, besides 16 torches; 60 of those -burning tapers and torches standing upon and near the high altar.”[29] - -There is evidence that the pagan fires at other times of the year were -also gradually replaced by candles in the churches. - - -_May 6._ - -The May festival has been treated by the Church in the same way as the -February one. With a fixed Easter Sunday on March 22, 46 days after -brought us to a Thursday (May 7), hence Holy Thursday[30] and Ascension -Day. With Easter movable there of course was more confusion. Whit -Sunday, the Feast of Pentecost, was only nine days after Holy Thursday, -and it occurred, in some years, on the same day of the month as -Ascension Day in others. In Scotland the festival now is ascribed to -Whit Sunday. - -It is possibly in consequence of this that the festival before even the -change of style was held on the 1st of the month. - -In Cornwall, where the celebrations still survive, the day chosen is May -8. - - -_August 8._ - -For the migrations of the dates of the “pagan” festival in the beginning -of August from the 1st to the 12th, migrations complicated by the old -and new style, I refer to Prof. Rhys’ Hibbert Lectures, p. 418, in -which work a full account of the former practices in Ireland and Wales -is given. The old festival in Ireland was associated with Lug, a form of -the Sun-God; the most celebrated one was held at Tailetin. This -feast--Lugnassad--was changed into the church celebration Lammas, from -A.S. hl’áfmaesse--that is loaf-mass or bread-mass, so named as a mass or -feast of thanksgiving for the first fruits of the corn harvest. The old -customs in Wales and the Isle of Alan included the ascent of hills in -the early morning, but so far I have found no record of fires in -connection with this date.[31] - - -_November 8._ - -The facts that November 11 is quarter day in Scotland, that mayors are -elected on or about that date, show, I think, pretty clearly that we are -here dealing with the old “pagan” date. - -The fact that the Church anticipated it by the feast of All Souls’ on -November 1 reminds us of what happened in the case of the February -celebration; later I give a reference to the change of date; and perhaps -this date was also determined by the natural gravitation to the first of -the month, as in the case of May, and because it marked at one time the -beginning of the Celtic year. - -But what seems quite certain is that the feast which should have been -held on November 8 on astronomical grounds was first converted by the -Church into the feast of St. Martin on November 11. The _Encyclopædia -Britannica_ tells us: “The feast of St. Martin (Martinmas) took the -place of an old pagan festival, and inherited some of its usages, such -as the Martinsmännchen, Martinsfeuer, Martinshorn, and the like, in -various parts of Germany.” - -St. Martin lived about A.D. 300. As the number of saints increased, it -became impossible to dedicate a feast-day to each. Hence it was found -expedient to have an annual aggregate commemoration of such as had not -special days for themselves. So a church festival “All Hallows,” or -“Hallowmass,” was instituted about A.D. 610 in memory of the martyrs, -and it was to take place on May 1. For some reason or another this was -changed in A.D. 834; May was given up, and the date fixed as November 1. -This was a commemoration of all the saints, so we get the new name “All -Saints’ Day.” - -There can be little doubt that the intention of the Church was to -anticipate, and therefore gradually to obliterate the pagan festival -still held at Martinmas, and it has been successful in many places. In -Ireland, for instance; at Samhain,[32] November 1, “the proper time for -prophecy and the unveiling of mysteries.”... It was then that fire was -lighted at a place called after Mog Ruith’s daughter Tlachtga. From -Tlachtga all the hearths in Ireland are said to have been annually -supplied, just as the Lemnians had once a year to put their fires out -and light them anew from that brought in the sacred ship from Delos. The -habit of celebrating _Nos Galan-galaf_ in Wales by lighting bonfires on -the hills is possibly not yet extinct. - -Here, then, we find the pagan fires transferred from the 8th to the 1st -of November in Ireland, but in the Isle of Man this is not so. I will -anticipate another reference to Rhys by stating that Martinmas had -progressed from the 11th to the 24th before the change of style brought -it back, “old Martinmas,” November 24, being one of the best recognised -“old English holidays,” “old Candlemas” being another, at the other end -of the May year; this last had slipped from February 2 to February 15 -before it was put back again. - -With regard to the Isle of Man Rhys writes[33] that the feast is there -called Hollantide, and is kept on November 12, a reckoning which he -states “is according to the old style.” The question is, are we not -dealing here with the Martinmas festival _not_ antedated to November 1? -He adds, “that is the day when the tenure of land terminates, and when -serving men go to their places. In other words it is the beginning of a -new year.” This is exactly what happens in Scotland, and the day is -still called Martinmas. - -There is a custom in mid-England which strikingly reminds us of the -importance of Martinmas in relation to old tenures, if even the custom -does not carry us still further back. This is the curious and -interesting ceremony of collecting the wroth silver, due and payable to -his Grace the Duke of Buccleuch and Queensbury on “Martinmas Eve.” -The payment is made on an ancient mound on the summit of Knightlow -Hill, about five miles out of Coventry, and in the parish of -Ryton-on-Dunsmore. One feature about this singular ceremonial is that it -must take place before sun-rising. - -[24] Hazlitt, _Dictionary of Faiths and Folklore_, under Gule of August. - -[25] _Survey of the South of Ireland_, p. 232. - -[26] Under Ash Wednesday. - -[27] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, iii., 238 _et seq._ - -[28] _Notes to Northumberland Household Book_, 1770, p. 333. - -[29] Quoted by Hazlitt. - -[30] Much confusion has arisen with regard to the Holy Thursday in -Rogation week because there is another Holy or Maundy Thursday in Easter -week. Archæologists have also been often misled by the practice of many -writers of describing the May festivals as midsummer festivals. The -first of May, of course, marked the beginning of summer. - -[31] Mr. Frazer informs me that the 13th August was Diana’s day at Nemi -and there was a fire festival. - -[32] _Rhys’ Hibbert Lectures_, p. 514. - -[33] _Celtic Folklore_, p. 315. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -SACRED FIRES - - -The magnificent collection of facts bearing on this subject which has -been brought together by Mr. Frazer in _The Golden Bough_ renders it -unnecessary for me to deal with the details of this part of my subject -at any great length. - -We have these records of fires:-- - -(1) In February, May, August and November of the original May year. - -(2) In June and December on the longest and shortest days of the -solstitial year, concerning which there could not be, and has not been, -any such change of date as has occurred in relation to the May year -festivals. - -(3) A fire at Easter, in all probability added not long before or at the -introduction of Christianity. I find no traces of a fire festival at the -corresponding equinox in September. - -We learn from Cormac that the fires were generally double and that -cattle were driven between them. - -Concerning this question of fire, both Mr. Frazer and the Rev. S. -Baring-Gould[34] suggest that we are justified in considering the -Christian treatment of the sacred fire as a survival of pagan times. Mr. -Baring-Gould writes as follows:--“When Christianity became dominant, it -was necessary to dissociate the ideas of the people from the central -fire as mixed up with the old gods; at the same time the central fire -was an absolute need. Accordingly the Church was converted into the -sacred depository of the perpetual fire.” - -He further points out that there still remain in some of our churches -(in Cornwall, York, and Dorset) the contrivances--now called -cresset-stones--used. They are blocks of stone with cups hollowed out. -Some are placed in lamp-niches furnished with flues. On these he remarks -(p. 122):-- - -“Now although these lamps and cressets had their religious -signification, yet this religious signification was an afterthought. The -origin of them lay in the necessity of there being in every place a -central light, from which light could at any time be borrowed; and the -reason why this central light was put in the church was to dissociate it -from the heathen ideas attached formerly to it. As it was, the good -people of the Middle Ages were not quite satisfied with the central -church fire, and they had recourse in times of emergency to other, and -as the Church deemed them unholy, fires. When a plague and murrain -appeared among cattle, then they lighted need-fires from two pieces of -dry wood, and drove the cattle between the flames, believing that this -new flame was wholesome to the purging away of the disease. For kindling -the need-fires the employment of flint and steel was forbidden. The fire -was only efficacious when extracted in prehistoric fashion, out of -wood. The lighting of these need-fires was forbidden by the Church in -the eighth century. What shows that this need-fire was distinctly -heathen is that in the Church new fire was obtained at Easter annually -by striking flint and steel together. It was supposed that the old fire -in a twelvemonth had got exhausted, or perhaps that all light expired -with Christ, and that new fire must be obtained. Accordingly the priest -solemnly struck new fire out of flint and steel. But fire from flint and -steel was a novelty; and the people, Pagan at heart, had no confidence -in it, and in time of adversity went back to the need-fire kindled in -the time-honoured way from wood by friction, before this new-fangled way -of drawing it out of stone and iron was invented.” - -The same authority informs us that before Christianity was introduced -into Ireland by St. Patrick there was a temple at Tara “where fire -burned ever, and was on no account suffered to go out.” - -Mr. Frazer,[35] quoting Cerbied, shows that in the ancient religion of -Armenia the new fire was kindled at the February festival of the May -year, in honour of the fire-god Mihr. “A bonfire was made in a public -place, and lamps kindled at it were kept burning throughout the year in -each of the fire-god’s temples.” This festival now takes place at -Candlemas, February 2. - -We must assume, then, that the pagan fires were produced by the friction -of dry wood, and possibly in connection with an ever-burning fire. In -either case the priests officiating at the various circles must have had -a place handy where the wood was kept dry or the fire kept burning, and -on this ground alone we may again inquire whether such structures as -Maeshowe at the Stenness circle, the Fougou at that of the Merry -Maidens, and indeed chambered barrows and cairns generally, were not -used for these purposes amongst others; whether indeed they were not -primarily built for the living and not for the dead, and whether this -will explain the finding of traces of fires and of hollowed stones in -them, as well as some points in their structure. Mr. MacRitchie[36] has -brought together several of these points, among them fireplaces and -flues for carrying away smoke. - -At both solstices it would appear that a special fire-rite was -practised. This consisted of tying straw on a wheel and rolling it when -lighted down a hill. There is much evidence for the wheel at the summer, -but less at the winter, solstice; still, we learn from the old Runic -_fasti_ that a wheel was used to denote the festival of Christmas. With -regard to the summer solstice I quote the following from Hazlitt (under -John, St.):-- - -[Illustration: FIG. 48.--The Carro, Florence. From Baring-Gould’s -_Strange Survivals_.] - -“Durandus, speaking of the rites of the Feast of St. John Baptist, -informs us of this curious circumstance, that in some places they roll a -wheel about to signify that the sun, then occupying the highest place in -the Zodiac, is beginning to descend. ‘Rotam quoque hoc die in quibusdam -locis volvunt, ad significandum quod Sol altissimum tunc locum in Cœlo -occupet, et descendere incipiat in Zodiaco.’ Harl. MSS. 2345 (on -vellum), Art. 100, is an account of the rites of St. John Baptist’s Eve, -in which the wheel is also mentioned. In the amplified account of these -ceremonies given by Naogeorgus, we read that this wheel was taken up to -the top of a mountain and rolled down thence; and that, as it had -previously been covered with straw, twisted about it and set on fire, it -appeared at a distance as if the sun had been falling from the sky. And -he further observes, that the people imagine that all their ill-luck -rolls away from them together with this wheel. At Norwich, says a writer -in _Current Notes_ for March, 1854, the rites of St. John the Baptist -were anciently observed, ‘when it was the custom to turn or roll a wheel -about, in signification of the sun’s annual course, or the sun, then -occupying the highest place in the Zodiac, was about descending.’” - -At Magdalen College, Oxford, the May and June years are clearly -differentiated. There is a vocal service at sunrise on May morning, -followed by boys blowing horns. At the summer solstice there is a sermon -preached during the day in the quadrangle. - -One of the most picturesque survivals of this ancient custom takes place -at Florence each year at Easter. This is fully described by -Baring-Gould. The moment the sacred fire is produced at the high altar a -dove (in plaster) carries it along a rope about 200 yards long to a car -in the square outside the west door of the cathedral and sets fire to a -fuse, thus causing the explosion of fireworks. - -The car with its explosives is the survival of the ancient bonfire. - -It would appear that the lighting of these fires on a large scale -lingered longest in Ireland and Brittany. - -A correspondent of the _Gentleman’s Magazine_ (February, 1795) thus -describes the Irish Beltane fires in 1782, “the most singular sight in -Ireland”:-- - -“Exactly at midnight, the fires began to appear, and taking the -advantage of going up to the leads of the house, which had a widely -extended view, I saw on a radius of thirty miles, all around, the fires -burning on every eminence which the country afforded. I had a farther -satisfaction in learning, from undoubted authority, that the people -danced round the fires, and at the close went through these fires, and -made their sons and daughters, together with their cattle, pass through -the fire; and the whole was conducted with religious solemnity.” - -It will have been observed with reference to these fire festivals that -although there were undoubtedly four, in May, August, November and -February, those in May and November were more important than the others. -This no doubt arose from the fact that at different times the May and -November celebrations were _New Year_ festivals. With regard to the New -Year in November in Celtic and later times. Rhys writes as follows -(_Hibbert Lectures_, p. 514):-- - -“The Celts were in the habit formerly of counting winters, and of -giving precedence in their reckoning to night and winter over day and -summer (p. 360); I should argue that the last day of the year in the -Irish story of Diarmait’s death meant the eve of November or -All-halloween, the night before the Irish _Samhain_, and known in Welsh -as _Nos Galan-gaeaf_, or the Night of the Winter Calends. But there is -no occasion to rest on this alone, as we have the evidence of Cormac’s -Glossary that the month before the beginning of winter was the last -month; so that the first day of the first month of winter was also the -first day of the year.” - -That the November bonfire was recognised as heralding the dominion of -the gods and spirits of darkness,[37] that the old ideas surrounding -Horus and Set in Egypt were not forgotten, is evidenced by the fact that -when it was extinct the whole company round it would suddenly take to -their heels, shouting at the top of their voices:-- - - Yr hwch đu gwta | The cropped black sow - A gipio ’r ola’! | Seize the hindmost! - -A piecing together of the folklore and traditions of different districts -suggests that sacrifices were made in connection with the fire -festivals, in fact that the fire at one of the critical times of the May -year at least was a sacrificial one. - -I will quote two cases given by Gomme[38] for May Day and All Souls’ Day -respectively:-- - -“At the village of Holne, situated on one of the spurs of Dartmoor, is a -field of about two acres, the property of the parish, and called the -Ploy Field. In the centre of this field stands a granite pillar (Menhir) -six or seven feet high. On May-morning, before daybreak, the young men -of the village used to assemble there, and then proceed to the moor, -where they selected a ram lamb, and after running it down, brought it in -triumph to the Ploy Field, fastened it to the pillar, cut its throat and -then roasted it whole, skin, wool, &c. At midday a struggle took place, -at the risk of cut hands, for a slice, it being supposed to confer luck -for the ensuing year on the fortunate devourer. As an act of gallantry -the young men sometimes fought their way through the crowd to get a -slice for the chosen amongst the young women, all of whom, in their best -dresses, attended the Ram Feast, as it was called. Dancing, wrestling, -and other games, assisted by copious libations of cider during the -afternoon, prolonged the festivity till midnight.” - -In the parish of King’s Teignton, Devonshire, “a lamb is drawn about the -parish on Whitsun Monday in a cart covered with garlands of lilac, -laburnum and other flowers, when persons are requested to give something -towards the animal and attendant expenses; on Tuesday it is then killed -and roasted whole in the middle of the village. The lamb is then sold in -slices to the poor at a cheap rate.” - -The popular legend concerning the origin of this custom introduces two -important elements--a reference to “heathen days” and the title of -“sacrifice” ascribed to the killing of the lamb (p. 31). - -“At St. Peter’s, Athlone, every family of a village on St. Martin’s Day -kills an animal of some kind or other; those who are rich kill a cow or -sheep, others a goose or turkey, while those who are poor kill a hen or -cock; with the blood of the animal they sprinkle the threshold and also -the four corners of the house, and ‘this performance is done to exclude -every kind of evil spirit from the dwelling where the sacrifice is made -till the return of the same day the following year’” (p. 163). - -Other traditions indicate that human sacrifices were in question, and -that lots were drawn, or some other method of the choice of a victim was -adopted. I quote from Hazlitt (i., 44) the following report of the -Minister of Callender in 1794:-- - -“The people of this district have two customs, which are fast wearing -out, not only here, but all over the Highlands, and therefore ought to -be taken notice of, while they remain. Upon the first day of May, which -is called Beltan, or Bàl-tein-day, all the boys in a township or hamlet -meet in the moors. They cut a table in the green sod, of a round figure, -by casting a trench in the ground of such a circumference as to hold the -whole company. They kindle a fire, and dress a repast of eggs and milk -in the consistence of a custard. They knead a cake of oatmeal, which is -toasted at the embers against a stone. After the custard is eaten up, -they divide the cake into so many portions, as similar as possible to -one another in size and shape, as there are persons in the company. They -daub one of these portions all over with charcoal, until it be perfectly -black. They put all the bits of the cake into a bonnet. Everyone, -blindfold, draws out a portion. He who holds the bonnet is entitled to -the last bit. Whoever draws the black bit is the devoted person, who is -to be sacrificed to Baal, whose favour they mean to implore in rendering -the year productive of the sustenance of man and beast. There is little -doubt of these inhuman sacrifices having been once offered in this -country as well as in the East, although they now pass from the act of -sacrificing, and only compel the devoted person to leap three times -through the flames; with which the ceremonies of the festival are -closed.” - -I may conclude this chapter by referring to similar practices in -Brittany, where Baring-Gould[39] has so successfully studied them. - -The present remnants of the old cult in the different parishes are now -called “pardons”;[40] they are still numerous. I give those for the May -and August festivals (p. 83). - - _May._ - - Ascension Day. Bodilis, Penhars, Spezet (at the well of - S. Gouzenou), Landevennec, Plougonnec. - Sunday after Ascension Day. Trégoat, S. Divy. - Whit Sunday. Kernilis; Plouider; Edern; Coray; Spezet - (Chapel of Cran). - Whit Monday. Quimperlé (Pardon des Oiseaux); Pont - l’Abbé (Pardon des Enfants); Ergué-Armel, - La Forêt, Landudal, Ploneis, Landeleau, - Carantec. - Whit Thursday. Gouezec (Les Fontaines). - - _August._ - - 1st Sunday in August. Pleyben (horse races); Plébannalec; - Pouldreuzic; Plougomelin; Huelgoët; S. - Nicodème in Plumeliau (M.) (Cattle - blessed; second day horse fair, and girls - sell their tresses to hair merchants). - -Judging by the “pardons,” the solstitial celebrations are not so -numerous as those connected with the May year; the bonfire is built up -by the head of a family in which the right is hereditary. The fire has -to be lighted only by a pure virgin, and the sick and feeble are carried -to the spot, as the bonfire flames are held to be gifted with miraculous -healing powers. - -When the flames are abated, stones are placed for the souls of the dead -to sit there through the remainder of the night and enjoy the heat. -“Every member of the community carries away a handful of ashes as a -sovereign cure for sundry maladies. The whole proceeding is instinct -with paganism” (p. 75). With regard to the accompanying sacrifices we -read: “In ancient times sacrifices were made of cocks and oxen at -certain shrines--now they are still presented, but it is to the chapels -of saints. S. Herbot receives cow’s tails, and these may be seen heaped -upon his altar in Loqeffret. At Coadret as many as seven hundred are -offered on the day of the “pardon.” At S. Nicolas-des-Eaux, it is S. -Nicodemus who in his chapel receives gifts of whole oxen, and much the -same takes place at Carnac.” - -[34] _Strange Survivals_, p. 120 _et seq._ - -[35] _Golden Bough_, iii. 248. - -[36] _The Testimony of Tradition._ - -[37] _Hibbert Lectures_, p. 516; _Dawn of Astronomy_, p. 215. - -[38] _Ethnology in Folklore_, pp. 32 and 163. - -[39] _A Book of Brittany._ - -[40] These “pardons” run strangely parallel with the “Feast Days” in E. -and W. Penrith, in Cornwall, where of 26 feasts, 13 occur around the -chief days of the May year. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -SACRED TREES - - -The subject of tree-worship is a vast one, as anyone may gather who will -read the _Golden Bough_. Fortunately for my readers it is not necessary -to discuss the whole or even any great part of it in connection with the -inquiry which now concerns us. I may say that only rarely is the old -tree-worship considered with its concomitant of temple-worship, so that -I now have to bring together information widely separated because the -connection which I have to show was intimate has not been enlarged upon; -indeed, in many cases it has not been suspected. - -There is another limitation of the inquiry. We have only to deal chiefly -with those plants and trees recorded as worshipped at the chief festival -times of the year, which have already been marked out for us by the fire -ceremonials. These fires were like the chronofer installed in modern -days at the General Post Office, their practical function being to give -the time; they announced the beginning of a new season. - -In Chapter IV. I referred to the association of Mistletoe with the -Solstitial worship. When we deal with the May year we meet constantly -with references to the Rowan and the Hawthorn in the folklore connected -with it. We seem in presence, then, not only of tree cult generally, but -of sacred trees special to each of the two worships we have been -considering. I propose now, therefore, to bring together some of the -information to be gathered from a very cursory reference to the vast -literature which exists on the subject. - -In the first instance I begged my friend, Professor Bayley Balfour, -Keeper of the King’s Garden at Edinburgh, to give me some particulars of -the Rowan Tree, which I imagined (1) to have been chosen on account of -its flowers being prominent about May Day (Beltane) and its berries in -early November (Hallowe’en), and (2) to have a different habitat from -the Mistletoe. I have to thank my friend for much valuable information. - -The Rowan Tree, called also the Mountain Ash (_Pyrus Aucuparia_), seems -to grow pretty freely all over the _Northern_ parts of Europe. Professor -Balfour tells me: “Rowan is essentially a Northern plant--an immigrant -to Europe from N.W. Asia--and now is spread all over North and Central -Europe in abundance, with only some ‘feelers’ passing south into the -Mediterranean Basin. It does not go south of Cappadocia in Asia Minor. -It does not reach Greece. In Italy it occurs on the Eastern Apennines, -and also in N.E. Sicily. In Spain it runs over the higher regions in the -N. and into the centre, passing just into Portugal. Its occurrence in -Madeira is not certainly established as a natural phenomenon; perhaps it -is only introduced there. In all these Southern outruns the tree cannot -be said to have any dominance, and its area and abundance are infinitely -less than in the North. Scandinavia is one of its best homes. Everywhere -it is found right north to 71°, there becoming a bush only, but yet -ripening seed. It reaches Iceland, where trees of some size occur. All -over Great Britain and Ireland it is generally spread. You may certainly -say there is much in Norway, and there is equally certainly less, even -little, in Italy.” - -In Pratt’s _Flowering Plants of Great Britain_ (vol. 2, p. 260) it is -stated, “The flowers, which grow in dense clusters, and are -greenish-white, appear in May.... In autumn, however, the tree is more -beautiful than in summer, for at that season the rich cluster of red -fruits gleams among the foliage, each berry having the form of a tiny -apple, and containing a little core and seeds within.” - -At Christiania the mean of ten years’ flowering is given by Professor -Schübeler[41] as--first flowers, June 19; general flowering, June 30. -This, then, is later than in Britain. On high grounds the fruit is -conspicuous here on November 1; on lower levels the birds attack it and -reduce its striking appearance before that date. - -Associated with the Rowan in the folklore connected with temple worship -is the Hawthorn, Whitethorn or “May” (_Crategus oxyocantha_), which also -flowers at the beginning of May, while its berries or “haws,” like those -of the Rowan, are conspicuous in November. We see, then, that there is a -most obvious reason in this for the association of the two trees. -According to Rhys,[42] the English name appears to be of Scandinavian -origin, the Old Norse being _reynir_, Danish _rönne_, Swedish _rönn_; -and the old Norsemen treated the tree as holy and sacred to Thor. - -These two trees interest us from three points of view. We find them -connected with:-- - - 1. May and November celebrations. - - 2. Superstitions concerning witchcraft, &c. - - 3. Holy wells. - -In this chapter I shall deal with the two former. - - -I. _The May Celebrations._ - -Seeing that the year beginning in May was established because that month -really opened the vegetation year, it is little to be wondered at that -among the chief features of New Year’s Day was what we may term a flower -worship; it is probable that we are here dealing with the sacred-tree -side of the general festival at all the monuments erected in connection -with the May year worship. The old traditions have lingered longest -around the things we have still with us, the trees and flowers; and it -is in connection with this side of the worship that most information is -available. From the facts I have already stated, for Britain the Rowan -and Hawthorn were most naturally selected as the typical forms.[43] - -Many poets have written of this festival[44]: Chaucer, Shakspere, -Milton, Bourne, Herrick and others. Chaucer writes: - - “Fourth goeth al the Court both most and lest, - To fetch the flouris fresh and branche and blome,” - -when not the courtiers only, but lowliest of men and maidens sallied -forth - - “To do observaunce to a morn of May.” - -There is a vast literature connected with May Day celebrations, among it -references to Celtic customs, and I may add that, besides May Day, -August, November and February had their flower festivals also. I shall, -however, deal chiefly with May in this book to keep it within bounds. - -May Day in Manx was termed _Shenn Laa Boaldyn_; it is the _belltaine_ of -Cormac’s _Glossary_, the Scotch Gaelic equivalent of which is -_bealtuinn_. - -The traditions and customs connected with May Day in Great Britain have -survived longest in the West of England; even now, as will be seen by -the account of recent celebrations at Helston in Cornwall, given below, -they are still continued. - -Altogether the customs, ancient and modern, of which the flower worship -formed a part, may be summed up as follows:-- - - 1. Lighting of bonfires,[45] and, in the evening, houses illuminated - with candles, torches carried about, and fireballs played with. - - 2. Man and beast passed through the fire or between two fires. - - 3. Going out at daybreak to gather Whitethorn or May (Sycamore in - Cornwall), and making whistles of the branches for the May-music and - merry-making. Blowing of tin horns at daybreak by boys, and from money - received getting breakfast at a farmhouse. - - 4. Flower-bedecked girls dance round a Maypole, and one chosen as - “Queen of the May.” - - 5. In Cornwall the custom prevailed till lately of going out with - buckets or any available vessels full of water and thoroughly wetting - anyone who was not wearing a piece of May. - - 6. The “Furry Dance” (in Cornwall), which consists in dancing through - the town and also through as many houses as desired. If resistance is - offered it is permitted to break open the door, and no penalty can be - imposed. - - 7. Sacrifices made (Isle of Man) at a very ancient date, and probably - human ones still earlier (Scotland). - - 8. Special worship at holy wells. - -Flowers are public property on Flora Day, and this custom of dancing -through the _houses_ is supposed to have originated probably for the -purpose of picking the flowers in the gardens behind. - -The following is a short abstract of a very interesting account given in -_The Western Weekly News_, May 13th, 1905, of the “Flora Day” at -Helston, Cornwall, which took place this year. It gives us an idea of -former festivals which are so quickly dying out:-- - -The Furry Dance is always the feature of the day. The first part took -place at seven o’clock in the morning, at which hour two couples started -out and danced through the streets and through some houses of residents. -The great dance was at noon, and those taking part in it assembled in -the Corn Exchange. - -When all was ready the whole company, headed by a band playing the old -Furry Dance, started out and danced through the town and through many -houses. - -The rest of the day was given over to a Horse Show and to much -merry-making. Excursions had been run from all parts. - - -II. _The Rowan Tree and Witchcraft._ - -There is little doubt that in the constant association of the Rowan with -the May worship and the holy wells which were adjacent to the stone -circles where the worship was conducted, we find the reason of the -selection of the wood of the Rowan Tree as an antidote to all the ills -which witchcraft was supposed to bring about. Rhys tells us that “The -tree has also the old names of Quicken-tree, Roddon, and Witchen-tree.” - -To quote again from Pratt (_op. cit._ vol. 2, p. 261): “The old notion -that the Mountain Ash, or Rowan Tree, as it is called in the North, was -efficacious against witchcraft and the evil eye, still prevails in the -North of England and the Scottish Highlands. Pennant remarks, in his -_Tour of Scotland_, that the farmers carefully preserve their cattle -against witchcraft by placing branches of Honeysuckle and Mountain Ash -in their cowhouses on the 2nd of May. The milkmaid in Westmorland may -often be seen, even now, with a branch of this tree either in her hand -or tied to her milking-pail, from a similar superstition; and in earlier -days crosses cut out of its wood were worn about the person. In an old -song called “Laidley Wood,” in the _Northumberland Garland_, we find a -reference to this: - - “The spells were vain, the hag return’d - To the Queen in sorrowful mood, - Crying, that witches have no power - Where there is Rown-tree wood.” - -Rhys, referring to May Day customs in the Isle of Man, writes[46]: “This -was a day when systematic efforts were made to protect man and beast -against elves and witches; for it was then that people carried crosses -of rowan in their hats and placed may-flowers over the tops of their -doors and elsewhere as preservatives against all malignant influences. -With the same object in view, crosses of rowan were likewise fastened to -the tails of the cattle, small crosses which had to be made without the -help of a knife.” - -In connection with this last reference, Rhys quotes a passage showing -that a similar thing is done in Wales on May Eve.[47] “Another bad -papistic habit which prevails among some Welsh people is that of placing -some of the wood of the rowan-tree (_coed cerdin_ or criafol) in their -corn lands (_ttafyrieu_) and their fields on May-eve (_Nos Glamau_) with -the idea that such a custom brings a blessing on their fields, a -proceeding which would better become atheists and pagans than -Christians.” - -Rhys also tells us that in Lincolnshire,[48] “a twig of the rowan-tree, -or wicken, as it is called, was effective against all evil things, -including witches. It is useful in many ways to guard the welfare of the -household, and to preserve both the live stock and the crops; while -placed on the churn it prevents any malign influence from retarding the -coming of the butter.” - -We also read (p. 358): “Not only the Celts, but some also of the -Teutons, have been in the habit of attaching great importance to the -rowan or roan tree, and regarding it as a preservative against the -malignant influence of witches and all things uncanny.... Moreover, the -Swede of modern times believes the rowan a safeguard against witchcraft, -and likes to have on board his ship something or other made of its wood, -to protect him against tempests and the demons of the water world.” - -In the Hibbert Lectures, 1886, we have another interesting reference to -this tree. Rhys first relates an old Irish fairy story, the scene of -which is supposed to have been “on the plain near the Lake of Lein of -the Crooked Teeth, that is to say, the Lake of Killarney.” In it we are -told that the scarlet quicken-berries were first brought from the “Land -of Promise,” that one was accidentally dropped and took root, and “from -the berry there grew up a tree which had the virtues of the quicken-tree -growing in fairy-land, for all the berries on it had many virtues.” Then -we learn (page 358) that these berries “formed part of the sustenance of -the gods, according to Goidelic notions; and the description which has -been quoted of the berries makes them a sort of Celtic counterpart to -the soma-plant of Hindu mythology.” - -This suggests that at the November Celebration a decoction or brew of -Rowan berries was used for curative or superstitious purposes. - - * * * * * - -I have thought it desirable to enter at some length into the use of the -Rowan as a protection against witchcraft and as the basis of a brew used -for different purposes, because the Mistletoe has been dealt with in -exactly the same manner; indeed, it was to the later Solstitial worship -what the Rowan and Maythorn were to the earlier May worship. - -Mr. Frazer has collected in his _Golden Bough_[49] much information -bearing on these points. - -In Sweden, on Midsummer Eve, Mistletoe is sought after, the people -“believing it to be, in a high degree, possessed of mystic qualities; -and that if a sprig of it be attached to the ceiling of the -dwelling-house, the horse’s stall, or the cow’s crib, the ‘Troll’ will -then be powerless to injure either man or beast.” The Oak Mistletoe, we -are told, is “held in the highest repute in Sweden, and is commonly seen -in farmhouses hanging from the ceiling to protect the dwelling from all -harm, but especially from fire; and persons afflicted with the falling -sickness think they can ward off attacks of the malady by carrying about -with them a knife which has a handle of Oak Mistletoe. - -“A Swedish remedy for other complaints is to hang a sprig of Mistletoe -round the sufferer’s neck, or to make him wear on his finger a ring made -from the plant.” - -It would appear from Mr. Frazer’s inquiries that the Mistletoe was _en -évidence_ at both the summer and winter solstice--precisely as the Rowan -and Hawthorn were associated with the May and November festivals. - -He writes:-- - -“The sacred mistletoe may have acquired, in the eyes of the Druids, a -double portion of its mystic qualities at the solstice in June, and -accordingly they may have regularly cut it with solemn ceremony on -Midsummer Eve. The conjecture is confirmed when we find it to be still a -rule of folklore that the mistletoe should be cut on this day. Further, -the peasants of Piedmont and Lombardy still go out on Midsummer-morning -to search the oak-leaves for the ‘oil of St. John,’ which is supposed to -heal all wounds made with cutting instruments. Originally, perhaps, the -‘oil of St. John’ was simply the mistletoe, or a decoction made from it. -For in Holstein the mistletoe, especially oak-mistletoe, is still -regarded as a panacea for green wounds; and if, as is alleged, -‘all-healer’ is the name of the plant in the modern Celtic speech of -Brittany, Wales, Ireland and Scotland, this can be nothing but a -survival of the name by which, as we have seen, the Druids addressed the -oak, or rather, perhaps, the mistletoe. At Lacaune, in France, the old -Druidical belief in the mistletoe as an antidote to all poisons still -survives among the people; they apply the plant to the stomach of the -sufferer, or give him a decoction of it to drink.” - -If we attempt to collate the different festivals with the vegetation -most striking or abundant at each, in different countries naturally -possessing different floras, a great variety of plants and trees has to -be considered. It is probable that the Rowan-tree was chiefly taken here -as the representative of the ash in more southern and eastern lands, and -the ash indeed did not always take second rank, especially in the -worship connected with wells, as we shall see. Grimm[50] calls the ash -“a world tree which links heaven, earth and hell together; of all trees -the greatest and holiest.” - -In the same way at the later established Vernal Equinox festival, the -palm which grows in lower latitudes was replaced here by the willow. -Coles, in his _Adam in Eden_,[51] writes: “The willow blossoms come -forth before any leaves appear, and are in their most flourishing state -usually before Easter, divers gathering them to deck up their houses on -Palm Sunday, and therefore the said flowers are called palme.” Willows -are still used to deck churches at this time. - -As in the case of the Rowan, the willow (or palm) was a protection -against witchcraft; small crosses and palm were carried about in the -purses and placed upon doors. These crosses had to be made on Palm -Sunday out of the wood used in the church. Sometimes box replaced the -willow. - -We are driven to the conclusion that practices connected with magic, the -precursor of the later “witchcraft,” were associated with the festivals -now in question, and that the products of the vegetable world at the -different seasons were utilized for these purposes. - -The putting on of a special garb by the vegetable world at each season -in turn would be one of the first things to be manifested, and the close -association of it with the stars and the sun in their yearly course -would cause the representatives of it to be worshipped together with -them, and it would appear from the records that the astronomer priests -did not neglect those magical arts which were practised by man in the -early stages of civilisation. - -Indeed, these magical practices seem to have taken such firm root that -it was difficult to get rid of them even in much later times. Newton[52] -writes: “I once knew a foolish cock-brained priest which ministered to a -certaine young man the ashes of boxe, being (forsooth) hallowed on Palme -Sunday, according to the superstitious order and doctrine of the Romish -Church, which ashes he mingled with their unholie holie water using to -the same a kind of... exorcisme; which... medicine (as he persuaded the -standers by) had vertue to drive away any ague.” - -Among the virtues attributed to the May thorn was that of preserving the -beauty of those maidens who at daybreak on May morning each year would -wash themselves in hawthorn dew. As late as 1515 it was recorded that -Catherine of Aragon, accompanied by twenty-five of her ladies, sallied -out on May morning for this purpose. - -[41] Schübeler, _Die Pflanzenwelt Norwegens_, Christiania, 1873-75, p. -439. - -[42] _Hibbert Lectures_, p. 358. - -[43] The Rowan had to be cut on Ascension Day, _Golden Bough_, III, p. -448. - -[44] Pratt’s _British Flowering Plants_, vol. 2, p. 266. - -[45] The word bonfire, according to the _Century Dictionary_, comes from -the “early modern English, boonfire, bondfire, bounfire, later burnfire; -Scotch, banefire; the earliest known instance is banefyre. ‘ignis -ossium,’ in the _Catholicon Anglicum_, A.D. 1483; from bone (Scotch, -bane, Middle English, bone, bon, bane, &c.) + fire.” - -Hence the word seems formerly to have meant a fire of bones; a funeral -pile, a pyre. And it has gradually developed into a fire out in the -open, whatever its object. - -[46] _Celtic Folklore_, vol. i. p. 308. - -[47] Vol. ii. p. 691. - -[48] _Celtic Folklore_, vol. i. p. 325. - -[49] Second Edition, vol. iii. pp. 343 _et seq._ - -[50] _Teutonic Mythology_, Stallybrass’s translation, ii. 796. - -[51] Quoted by Hazlitt under Palm Sunday. - -[52] _Herbal for the Bible_, p. 207. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -HOLY WELLS AND STREAMS - - -I have thought it most important to look up this subject with a view of -seeing whether any clues were available which could help us to associate -the introduction of the well ceremonials with the worshippers of the May -or of the Solstitial year. For shortness I will call the ceremonial -“baptism,” not necessarily baptism in the modern sense, but as implying -the use of water for purifying or other religious purpose. - -That baptism was pre-Christian is shown by John the Baptist using the -Jordan for this purpose before Christ’s ministration began. (Matt. 3. -6.) - -There is a tremendous literature[53] dealing with the folklore of holy -wells and streams. The number of holy wells and streams in Britain is -legion; there are 3,000 in Ireland alone, and the first thing which -strikes us in a casual study of the folklore is the close association of -the wells with sacred trees. Almost equally distinctly we gather that -both were situated near holy stones, and that the worship included -ceremonials connected with all three. - -The folklore dealing with holy wells and well-worship is so various that -it will be useful for our present purpose to classify the portions we -need under the following headings. - -1. Well-worship outcome of pre-Christian days and customs. - -2. Wells generally situated near circles, dolmens, cromlechs or cairns, -or churches which have replaced them. - -3. Association with sacred trees. - -4. Well-worship and offerings. - -5. Time of the chief festivals. - - -1. _Pagan origin._--It seems to be accepted now that well-worship in -Britain originated long before the Christian era; that it was not -introduced by the Christian missionaries, but rather they found it in -vogue on their arrival, and tolerated it at first and utilized it -afterwards, as they did a great many other Pagan customs. - -With regard to this point Wood-Martin writes:[54] - -“In many Irish MSS. there are allusions to this pre-Christian worship. -For example, Tirehan relates that St. Patrick, in his progress through -Ireland, came to a fountain called Slaun, to which the Druids offered -sacrifices, and which they worshipped as a God; and in Adamnan’s _Life -of St. Columkille_ it is recounted that this saint, when in the country -of the Picts, heard of a notable fountain to which the Pagans paid -divine honour.” - -He adds (p. 50): - -“It evidently did not originate in the blessing of wells by early saints -and thus spread downwards, until it became almost, if not quite, -universal; on the contrary, it began from the people, who were being -Christianized, and thence permeated the entire system of Irish -Christianity.” - -Baring-Gould tells us much concerning the transitional state (pp. 28 _et -seq._). Wood-Martin divides holy wells into three classes: (1) those -which “derive their reputed virtues from Pagan superstition”; (2) those -which were “transferred from Pagan to so-called Christian uses,” and (3) -“a few which may lay claim to a merely Christian origin.”[55] - -It is very easy to understand how the purely devout custom developed in -course of time, in the case of some wells at any rate, into a more -superstitious one, how some wells came to be called “wishing-wells” and -others were regarded as prophetic. Rhys gives us several instances of -these two classes in Wales.[56] - -Wishing-wells are known all over the United Kingdom; many authors give -accounts of them.[57] - -There can be no doubt that in the most ancient times magical practices -were carried on at wells or at the religious centre of which the well -formed a constituent part. Local practices of witchcraft would be a -natural survival of these. Gomme (p. 87) thus refers to the well of St. -Aelian, not far from Bettws Abergeley, in Denbighshire. - -“Near the well resided a woman who officiated as a kind of priestess. -Anyone who wished to inflict a curse upon an enemy resorted to this -priestess, and for a trifling sum she registered, in a book kept for the -purpose, the name of the person on whom the curse was wished to fall. A -pin was then dropped into the well in the name of the victim, and the -curse was complete.” - -The magical associations with wells appear in the following extract -(given by Quiller-Couch, p. 134) of a letter from Dr. O’Connor, the -author of the letters of Columbanus, to his brother. - -“I have often inquired of your tenants what they themselves thought of -their pilgrimages to the wells of _Kill-Aracht_, _Tobbar Brighde_, -_Tobbar Muir_, near Elphin, _Moor_, near _Castlereagh_, where multitudes -annually assembled to celebrate what they, in broken English, termed -_Patterns_ (Patron’s days); and when I pressed a very old man, Owen -Hester, to state what possible advantage he expected to derive from the -singular custom of frequenting in particular such wells as were -contiguous to an old blasted oak, _or an upright hewn stone_, and what -the meaning was of the yet more singular custom of _sticking rags_ on -the branches of such trees and spitting on them, his answer, and the -answer of the oldest men, was that their ancestors always did it, and -that it was a preservation against _Geasa Draoidecht_, _i.e._, the -sorceries of the Druids, and that their cattle were preserved by it from -infectious disorders; that the _daoini maithe_, _i.e._, the fairies, -were kept in good humour by it; and so thoroughly persuaded were they of -the sanctity of these Pagan practices that they would travel bareheaded -and barefooted from ten to twenty miles for the purpose of crawling on -their knees round these wells, upright stones, and oak trees, westward, -as the sun travels, some three times, some six, some nine, and so on in -uneven numbers until their voluntary penances were completely -fulfilled.” - - -2. _Wells generally situated near stone monuments or churches which have -replaced them._--We find many instances of wells near stone circles and -dolmens. - -It may even be that the existence of the spring determined the position -of the circle, for the officiating astronomer-priest must like other -mortals have had a water supply available. “Where a spring or a river -flows,” says Seneca, “there should we build altars and offer sacrifices” -(Hope, p. 47). The following shows how closely connected they were.[58] - -“Closely associated with the circles, and occupying an equally important -position in the religious rites and ceremonies of the ancient -inhabitants, were sacred wells. These were more numerous than circles, -no doubt owing to the fact that their acquisition was more easily -accomplished: but amongst sacred wells we find some, as we find certain -circles, occupying a position of pre-eminence in the religious cult of -their votaries, and these, as a rule, in close proximity to sun and moon -temples. At Tillie Beltane, in Aberdeenshire, in close proximity to the -remains of a larger and smaller circle, is a well which was held sacred -by the people. According to Col. Leslie, on Beltane and Midsummer days, -those on whom the dire hand of disease had fallen, or those desirous of -averting that calamity, went seven times round the sacred wells sunwise -(deasil)[59] and then proceeded to the circles, where a like ceremony -was performed.” - -“In Stenness we find the same association of the well and the circles. -But in harmony with the unrivalled completeness of these monuments... we -find the sacred well here in a closer and deeper connection with the -circles than elsewhere.” - -“In the parish of Stenness there is a district called Bigswell, in the -centre of which is a sacred well, and from which the district takes its -name, Big(s)well.... Be that as it may, we know from tradition that down -to the time when the Stone of Odin was demolished, parents came to the -well with children, on Beltane and Midsummer, passed round it sunwise, -and having bathed their little ones (a healthy ordeal), carried them -thence to the Stone of Odin, and passed them through the hole as a -divine protection against the malignant influences of the evil one.” - -Borlase records an instance of a well near a stone-circle in Ireland in -the Townland of Ballyferriter, in County Kerry.[60] - -The same author also gives examples in Ireland of wells near dolmens, -and of wells _covered_ by dolmens.[61] - -It may be remarked that in Cornwall Chapel Euny well is associated with -the circles at Bartinné and Carn Euny; St. Cleer with the three circles -at the Hurlers, and Alsia well is near the Bolleit circle. Mr. Horton -Bolitho is my authority for these statements. - -A well is often found near a cell, cairn or _keeill_. Rhys gives us two -examples in the Isle of Man.[62] At Ardmore Bay the holy well is within -the ruined chapel of the saint.[63] A vast pile of stones surrounds the -holy well in Glencolumbkille in Donegal.[64] - -It might be useful to add here that it is a very common thing to find a -well by a so-called tomb of a saint. - -Let us turn now to wells situated near churches. - -It is very generally known that many churches have been built on the -sites of stone-circles, menhirs, &c. This leads us to think that some -form of worship must have taken place at the “ancient-stones” -originally. The following extract from Wilson’s _Archæology_ (page 110) -is given in _Stonehenge_ by Sir Henry James (page 17): - -“The common Gaelic phrase--Am bheil thu dol don chlachan--Are you going -to the stones?--by which the Scottish Highlander still enquires at a -neighbour if he is bound for church, seems in itself no doubtful -tradition of ancient worship within the monolithic ring.” - -Rhys[65] gives us many instances of wells near churches, and here it may -be useful to add that the Welsh for well is Ffynnon. - -Ffynnon Faglan is described as being near a church, also Ffynnon Fair, a -wishing-well. Criccieth Church is supposed to have had a well near it at -one time. Again, Ffynnon Beris is near the parish church of Llanberis -(p. 366), and Ffynnon Elian near to the church of Llanelian, -Denbighshire. Then there are St. Teilo’s Church and Well at Llandeilo -Llwydarth, near Maen Clochog, North Pembrokeshire. - -Wood-Martin[66] refers to the rites at the well of Tubberpatrick, part -of the ceremony taking place in the church near by. - - -3. _Association of sacred wells with sacred trees._--Rhys, and many -other authors, give us several instances of a tree by the side of a -well.[67] - -When we come to deal with well offerings we shall find, in fact, that in -almost every case a tree has been a necessary companion of the well, as -the well offerings were hung on them. - -In many cases, of course, the kind of tree is not specified. When it is, -it is almost invariably the rowan or hawthorn. Rhys tells us: “The tree -to expect by a sacred well is doubtless some kind of thorn.”[68] - -Then again, with reference to Ireland, Rhys, p. 335, quotes a passage -from a letter by the late Mr. W. C. Borlase, on Rag Offerings and -Primitive Pilgrimages in Ireland, to the effect that a hawthorn almost -invariably stands by the brink of the typical Irish “holy well.” - -There are also many references to thorn trees in the same position in -Wales. - -There are thorn trees at St. Madron’s well in Cornwall, and at Chapel -well St. Breward in the same county near Bodmin, there is a thorn tree -over the well. - -Not only are wells often recorded as near sacred trees, but in the case -of some we learn that at the chief annual festival they were decked with -flowers and garlands, and “encircled with a jovial band of young people -celebrating the day with song and dance.” This is recorded of the -“blessing of the Brine” at Nantwich (Hope, p. 7). - - -4. _Well worship and offerings._--Although the traditions and -superstitions connected with wells are fast becoming things of the past, -in certain parts they are still believed and practised. - -Gomme[69] informs us that well-worship prevails in every county of the -three kingdoms. He finds it “most vital in the Gaelic countries, -somewhat less so in the British, and almost entirely wanting in the -Teutonic south-east. In some cases wells were resorted to for the cure -of diseases; in others to obtain change of weather or good luck. -Offerings were made to them to propitiate their guardian gods and -nymphs. Pennant tells us that in olden times the rich would sacrifice -one of their horses at a well near Abergelen to secure a blessing upon -the rest.[70] Fowls were offered at St. Tegla’s Well, near Wrexham, by -epileptic patients,[71] but of late years the well spirits have had to -be content with much smaller tributes--such trifles as pins, rags, -coloured pebbles and small coins.” - -In consequence of this dwindling down of the offering we have chiefly to -do with rags, but I think we may learn from the traditions that -originally it was an offering of a garment, and to the officiating -priest, at the well, or temple with which the well was connected. It is -also a question whether the almost universal association of pins with -the garment or part of it might not have originated at a time when such -an offering--it was probably originally a skin--to a priest without a -pin (of bone) to fasten it on would not have been complete. In Kent’s -cavern pins of bone have been found associated with bones of palæolithic -mammals. - -Mr. Gomme tells us,[72] “In the case of some wells, especially in -Scotland, at one time the whole garment was put down as an offering. -Gradually these offerings of clothes became less and less till they came -down to rags.” He also points out, as we have already seen, that “the -geographical distribution of rag-offerings coincides with the existence -of monoliths and dolmens.” - -As has been noted, almost invariably by the side of every well there -grows the “sacred tree,” a rowan or thorn for the most part; on this -tree the rags are hung, then the bent pin is dropped in. If there -happens to be no tree, or if it is so old that only the stump is left, -then the rags may sometimes be seen wedged in between the stones of the -well. - -Quiller-Couch (p. 135) tells us that at Ahagour in Mayo is a well much -frequented by pilgrims, for penance chiefly, where among other offerings -they cut up their clothes, be they ever so new, and tie them to the two -old trees growing near, “lest, on the day of judgment,” thinks the -superstitious peasant, “the Almighty should forget that he came there, -and in order that the tokens should be known, when St. Patrick should -lay them before the tribunal.” - -When the original well-worship in relation with the temples became -disestablished, if the well-worship were kept up at all, reasons other -than the old one would soon be invented, and many of these would -naturally be connected with magic and sorcery. In the oldest days the -priest would be a physician as well as an astronomer and a magician, and -his advice might be good for various disorders, but after he had -disappeared there was only magic to depend upon; and this atmosphere is -reflected in the traditions. - -I will now give a few extracts to show what goes on at present in -certain localities with regard to the offerings, and the frame of mind -of the devotees. - -With reference to the reasons for the offerings made in the present day, -Wood-Martin writes:[73] - -“Wells were the haunts of spirits that proved to be propitious if -remembered, but were vindictive if neglected, and hence no devotee -approached the sacred precincts empty-handed, the principle being no -gift no cure; therefore the modern devotee, when tying up a fragment -from the clothing, or dropping a cake, a small coin, or a crooked pin -into the well, is unconsciously worshipping the old presiding spirit of -the place.” - -Rhys[74] gives us a great deal of information on this. The ritual varies -at some of them. People came from far and near; it is the custom to make -some sort of offering, rags and pins being the most modern, and about -these we have most information as a matter of course. - -Rhys quotes statements he has received about three wells in the county -of Glamorgan (Vol. 1, p. 356). At the first it was the custom “that the -person who wishes his health to be benefited should wash in the water of -the well, and throw a pin into it afterwards.” At another “the custom -prevails of tying rags to the branches of a tree growing close at hand”; -and at the third, “it is the custom for those who are healed in it to -tie a shred of linen or cotton to the branches of a tree that stands -close by; and there the shreds are almost as numerous as the leaves.” - -Further (p. 363) we read of another Ffynnon Faglan, and of this Rhys -says, “One told me his mother used to take him to it when he was a child -for sore eyes, bathe them with the water, and then drop in a pin. The -other man, when he was young, bathed in it for rheumatism.” Of this well -it is recorded that when it was cleaned out about fifty years ago “two -basinfuls of pins were taken out,” which were all bent, but no coins -were found in it. - -Wood-Martin[75] also gives an interesting account of the rite performed -at a certain well in Ireland; it is a little more elaborate than at -some, but affords an idea of what was probably at one time a very usual -ceremony in connection with stones in other places. - -“In a statistical account of the parish of Dungiven, written in 1813, it -is stated that at the well of Tubberpatrick, after performing the usual -rounds, devotees wash their hands and feet with the water and tear off a -small rag from their clothes, which they tie on a bush overhanging the -well; from whence they all proceed to a large stone in the River Roe, -immediately below the old church, and having performed an oblation they -walk round the stone, bowing to it, and repeating prayers as at the -well. Their next movement is to the old church, within which a similar -ceremony goes on, and they finish this rite by a procession and prayers -round the upright stone.” - - -5. _Time of the chief festival._--On this point there is not a great -quantity of precise information, but what we have points to May 1 as -being about the time when the holy wells are most frequented and -considered most efficacious. - -This lack of information arises from the fact that the existence of the -May year in prehistoric times has not been even dreamt of by those who -have compiled the various accounts of the fast fading traditions, and in -very many instances a reference to an unknown saint’s day is the only -information given as to the time of the annual celebration. Wide -generalisation, therefore, from the material at hand is risky. - -I will refer in the first instance to the May worship, and begin with -the famous Madron well in Cornwall, the walls of which I found to be -oriented to the May sunrise, so that the priest officiating at the altar -would face the sunrise. Quiller-Couch (p. 137) thus refers to what -happened there. - -“Children used to be taken to this well on the first three Sunday -mornings in May to be dipped in the water, that they might be cured of -the rickets, or any other disorder with which they were troubled. Three -times they were plunged into the water, after having been stripped -naked; the parent, or person dipping them, standing facing the sun; -after the dipping they were passed nine times round the well from east -to west; then they were dressed and laid on St. Madern’s bed; should -they sleep, and the water in the well bubble, it was considered a good -omen. Strict silence had to be kept during the entire performance, or -the spell was broken. At the present time the people go to the well in -crowds on the first Sunday in May, when the Wesleyans hold a service -there, and a sermon is preached; after which the people throw in two -pins or pebbles to consult the spirit, or try for sweethearts; if the -two articles sink together, they will soon be married. - -“Here divination is performed on May morning by rustic maidens anxious -to know when they are to be married. Two pieces of straw about an inch -long are crossed and transfixed with a pin. This, floated on the waters, -elicits bubbles, the number of which, carefully counted, denotes the -years before the happy day.” - -Chapel Euny in Cornwall, near the Bartinné circle, has a wishing (lucky) -well near it. It was used on one of the three first Wednesdays in May. -Children suffering from mesenteric disease are dipped three times -“widderschynnes,” that is contrary to the sun’s motion, and dragged -round the well three times in the same direction.[76] - -Edmunds[77] thus refers to this well:-- - -“Some years since I had the curiosity to go with a friend to Chapel Euny -on one of these Wednesdays, and, whilst watching at a distance, we saw -two women come to the well at the appointed hour, and perform this -ceremony on an infant.” - -_Alsia Well_, in the parish of Buryan, same parish as Bolleit circle, -has its well ceremonials on the first three Wednesdays in May. - -In Cornwall the May bathing ceremonial is even carried out in salt -water.[78] The time chosen is the same as that at Madron and Chapel -Euny, the first three Sundays in May. - -This Sunday in May celebration is not confined to Cornwall. At Eden -Hall, Giant’s Cave, water with sugar is drunk on the third Sunday in -May. A vast concourse of both sexes is present.[79] - -At Rorrington, a township in the parish of Chirbury, was a holy well at -which a wake was celebrated on Ascension Day. - -In the account of this well given by Gomme (p. 82) we get a glimpse of -many associated usages. - -“The well was adorned with a bower of green boughs, rushes, and flowers, -and a may-pole was set up. The people walked round the well, dancing and -frolicking as they went. They threw pins into the well to bring good -luck and to preserve them from being bewitched, and they also drank some -of the water. Cakes were also eaten; they were round flat buns from -three to four inches across, sweetened, spiced, and marked with a cross, -and they were supposed to bring good luck if kept.” - -The legend given by Quiller-Couch (p. 55) respecting St. Cuthbert’s well -in North Cornwall is that “in olden times mothers on Ascension Day -brought their deformed or sickly children here, and dipped them in, at -the same time passing them through the aperture connecting the two -cisterns; and thus, it is said, they became healed of their disease or -deformity. It would seem that other classes also believed virtue to -reside in its water; for it is said that the cripples were accustomed to -leave their crutches in the hole at the head of the well.” - -At the village of Tissington, near Ashbourne, in Derbyshire, the custom -of well-flowering is still observed on every anniversary of the -Ascension (Hope, p. 48). - -We may gather from these associated observances at different places that -the wells themselves were situated near circles, for the worshippers -would not be distributed at such a time. This argument is strengthened -by the custom of “waking the well” which took place on the patron -saint’s day. - -With regard to the time of the day or night at which well-worship took -place, there seems little doubt that for the most part it was carried on -at night. The practices connected with the “waking of the well” indicate -this clearly, and when it is remembered that these ancient worships were -carried on at a time when marriage had not been instituted, we can -understand that many ‘pagan’ rituals savoured of sensualism as we should -now think and call it. - -The particular times when it was considered most propitious for the -_sick_ to visit the wells appear anciently to have been at daybreak or -sunrise. - -At the well at Farr, in Sutherlandshire, it is held that the patient, -after undergoing his plunge, drinking of the water, and making his -offering, “must be away from the banks so as to be fairly out of sight -of the water before the sun rises, else no cure is effected.” At Roche -Holywell, in Cornwall, before sunrise on holy Thursday was the appointed -time. - -Sometimes the moment of sunrise is chosen. To bathe in the well of St. -Medan, at Kirkmaiden in Wigtonshire, as the sun rose on the first Sunday -in May was considered an infallible cure for almost any disease. - -On the other hand, in some cases, as at St. Madron’s well, noon is -chosen on the first three Sundays in May, “not believing that these -waters have any virtue if resorted to on any other days of the year, or -at any other hour of the day.” - -With regard to the August festival, there is a holy well at St. Cleer, -near the Hurlers; the festival is held on August 9th.[80] I have no -special references to August wells in Ireland, but there is evidence -given by Piers[81] that at that time cattle were bathed. - -“On the first Sunday in harvest, viz., in August, they will be sure to -drive their cattle into some pool or river and therein swim them; this -they observe as inviolable as if it were a point of religion, for they -think no beast will live the whole year thro’ unless they be thus -drenched. I deny not but that swimming cattle, and chiefly in this -season of the year, is healthful unto them, as the poet hath observed:-- - - “Balantemque gregem fluvio mersare salubri.”--_Virg._ - - In th’ healthful flood to plunge the bleating flock. - -but precisely to do this on the first Sunday in harvest, I look on as -not only superstitious but profane.” - -I next come to the solstice in June. - -There is evidence concerning wells quite akin to that furnished by the -astronomical use of the circles, that the May year festivals were -subsequently changed to solstitial dates. The well worship does not -appear to have been carried on in the cold weather--hence the absence of -references to February and November; for the same reason we have only -now to do with the summer solstice. - -Hazlitt quotes the following from the Irish Hudibras (1689) concerning -June worship at a well in the North of Ireland:-- - - “Have you beheld, when people pray - At St. John’s well on Patron-Day, - By charm of priest and miracle, - To cure diseases at this well; - The valleys filled with blind and lame, - And go as limping as they came.” - -At Barnwell (Beirna-well = youths’ well), near Cambridge, the festival -took place on St. John’s Day.[82] - -Brand, in his history of Newcastle (ii. 54), refers to a well still -called Bede’s Well, near Jarrow. “As late as 1740 it was a prevailing -custom to bring children troubled with any disease or infirmity; a -crooked pin was put in, and the well laved dry between each dipping. My -informant has seen twenty children brought together on a Sunday, to be -dipped in this well, at which also, on Midsummer Eve, there was a great -resort of neighbouring people, with bonfires, music, etc.” - -Hope gives references to seven wells dedicated to “St. John,” one to -“St. John the Baptist,” and four to St. Peter. These _may_ have been -solstitial wells, but the information given is very slight and not to -the present point. He states (xxii) that the most important celebrations -were first held in May and at the summer solstice. He then adds, “later -Easter and Ascensiontide were the favoured seasons.” May, Summer -Solstice and Easter was, I think, the true order. - -Finally, I may refer to the earliest holy well known to history. This is -the famous well at Heliopolis where Rā used to wash himself, and -Piankhi, B.C. 740, went and washed his face in it. At this same well the -Virgin sat and washed her Son’s swaddling bands in it. Its water made -the balsam trees to grow. It is now called by the Arabs “The Fountain of -the Sun” ‘Êyn ash-Shems. - -[53] The literature that I have chiefly consulted is as follows:-- - - R. C. Hope _Holy Wells; their Legends and Traditions._ - R. L. Quiller-Couch _Ancient and Holy Wells of Cornwall._ - W. G. Wood-Martin _Traces of the Elder Faiths of Ireland._ - G. L. Gomme _Ethnology in Folklore._ - Prof. Rhys _Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh._ - W. C. Borlase _Dolmens of Ireland._ - S. Baring-Gould _A Book of the West._ - - -[54] _Traces of the Elder Faiths of Ireland, A Folklore Sketch_, ii., p. -47. - -[55] Pp. 11, 47. - -[56] _Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh_, ii., p. 366. - -[57] Wood-Martin, _loc. cit._, ii., p. 80. - -[58] _Standing Stones and Maeshowe of Stenness_, by Magnus Spence, p. -13. - -[59] That is from W. to E. through N., or E. to W. through S.; in the -same direction as the hands of a clock. - -[60] _The Dolmens of Ireland_, i., p. 3. - -[61] _Ibid._, pp. 95, 765. - -[62] _Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh_, i., p. 332. - -[63] Borlase, _loc. cit._, p. 760. - -[64] _Ibid._, p. 426. - -[65] Rhys, _Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh_, p. 363. - -[66] _Pagan Ireland_, p. 160. - -[67] Rhys, _Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh_, i., pp. 354, 356, 357, &c. - -[68] Rhys, _ibid._, p. 332. - -[69] _Ethnology in Folklore_, p. 78. - -[70] Sikes: _British Goblins_, p. 351. - -[71] Sikes, _idem._, p. 329. - -[72] _Folklore_, 1892, p. 89. - -[73] _Pagan Ireland_, p. 145. - -[74] _Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh._ - -[75] _Pagan Ireland_, p. 160. - -[76] Hope, p. 14. - -[77] _The Land’s End District_, p. 72. - -[78] Edmunds, p. 72. - -[79] Hope, p. 40. - -[80] St. Cleer = St. Cledod, A.D. 482. The arms of St. Cleer are the Sun -in its glory. - -[81] Description of Westmeath, 1682, quoted by Vallencey, i., 121. - -[82] Hazlitt, ii., 616. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -WHERE DID THE BRITISH WORSHIP ORIGINATE? - - -The recent chapters have, I think, established, by the evidence derived -from folklore and tradition, that there was in the long past a combined -worship of trees, wells and streams in the neighbourhood of sacred -places, the sacred place being a stone circle or some other monument -built up of stones. - -We have gathered also that the chief times of worship were on or near -the most important dates defined for us by the May year, the original -year marked out by the various agricultural and other operations proper -to the various seasons. - -It is again imperative that I should point out that if the basis of this -worship was not utility it must have been started by men sufficiently -skilled to indicate by their astronomical knowledge the proper times for -the various operations to which I have referred. In this we see the -reason for the local combination of the worship in the neighbourhood of -the stones, for the stones were really the instruments which enabled the -astronomer-priest to be useful to the community; that he in process of -time became powerful and sacred because he was wise, and added medicine -and magic to his other qualifications, was only what was to be expected. - -I am not the first to have been driven by the facts to note the close -association to which I have referred, that the cults were not separate -but were parts of one whole. - -Wood-Martin speaks with the most certain sound on this point. “It will -be seen that, from a review of the whole subject, stone, water, tree, -and animal-worship are intimately connected.”[83] - -What the analysis in the recent chapters, taken in connection with the -astronomical results previously stated, has done is perhaps to give a -clear reason for the connection. Not only were the cults started -together, but they remained together for a long time; it is only in -quite late years that the traditions have become so dim that practices -once closely connected are now dealt with apart from the rest. - -Hope points out (p. xxii) that the 16th of the canons of the reign of -Edgar, A.D. 963, which enjoins the clergy to be diligent, advance -Christianity, and extinguish heathenism, mentions especially the worship -of stones, trees, and fountains. The laws of Knut (A.D. 1018) specify -the worship “of heathen gods, the sun, moon, fire, rivers, fountains, -rocks, or trees.” - -Now, although the folklore evidence I have brought together has been -gathered for the most part from the British Isles, my inquiries have not -been limited to that area. - -It was natural that when the study of folklore had suggested that there -was a close connection between the worship carried on in Britain at -stone monuments, sacred trees, and sacred wells an attempt should have -been made to see whether these three cults had been associated out of -Britain with the ceremonials of any of the early peoples for which -complete and trustworthy information is available. - -On this point the traditions of widely sundered countries is amazingly -strong. - -The folklore of the Pyrenees, France, Spain and Portugal regarding -sacred wells is very similar to that of Ireland. Borlase writes:[84] - -“It is interesting to notice that the pre-Christian custom called -_dessil_, or circuit around a venerated spot, which is practised in -Ireland in the case of one dolmen at least, as well as at wells and -Churches innumerable, is found also in Portugal.” - -In the Pyrenees, too, fairies and spirits are thought much of in this -connection. Borlase tells us:[85] “They are the presiding genii of -certain wells.” He adds: - -“It is not in Ireland alone that dolmens are associated with the notion -of wells and water springs. The Portuguese names, Anta do Fontao, Fonte -Coberta, Anta do Fonte-de Mouratao, and the French names, Fonte de -Rourre, and Fonte nay le Marmion, show this to be the case.”[86] - -In Persia Sir Wm. Ouseley saw a tree covered with rags, and similar -trees in the Himalayas are associated with large heaps of stones (Gomme, -p. 105). - -The late General Pitt-Rivers affirms that the customs of well-offerings -I referred to in the last chapter are invariably associated with cairns, -megalithic monuments or some such early Pagan institutions, and he adds -that the area in which traces of well-offerings are found is -conterminous with the area of the megalithic monuments.[87] - -The idea that the waters of certain wells have marvellous healing powers -is also not confined to the British Isles, for in a great many parts of -Europe, perhaps more especially in France, Spain and Portugal, we find -instances. - -The practice of worshipping in connection with wells and the sacred -stones and sacred trees which were associated with them, as we have -seen, was indeed in ancient days almost, if not quite, universal -wherever man existed. The traditions of the past, therefore, are to be -gathered over a very wide area. I quote a summary of the universality of -this practice given by the late General Pitt-Rivers in the paper already -noticed: - -“Burton says it extends throughout northern Africa from west to east; -Mungo Park mentions it in western Africa; Sir Samuel Baker speaks of it -on the confines of Abyssinia, and says that the people who practised it -were unable to assign a reason for doing so; Burton also found the same -custom in Arabia during his pilgrimage to Mecca; in Persia Sir William -Ouseley saw a tree _close to a large monolith_ covered with these rags, -and he describes it as a practice appertaining to a religion long since -proscribed in that country; in the Dekkan and Ceylon Colonel Leslie says -that the trees in the neighbourhood of wells may be seen covered with -similar scraps of cotton: Dr. A. Campbell speaks of it as being -practised by the Limboos near Darjeeling in the Himalaya, where it is -associated, as in Ireland, with large heaps of stones; and Huc in his -travels mentions it among the Tartars.” - -The astronomical facts given in this book, gathered from a study of the -monuments in these islands, can only give us information touching the -introduction of the combined worship here. - -My investigations have strongly suggested, to say the least, that there -were men here with knowledge enough to utilise the movements of the sun -and stars for temple, and no doubt practical purposes before 2000 B.C., -that is, a thousand years before Solomon was born, and at about the time -that the Hecatompedon was founded at Athens. - -If this is anywhere near the truth, these men must have been -representatives of a very old civilisation. - -Now the civilisation principally considered by archæologists in -connection with the building of the monuments which I have studied is -the Aryan, of which the Celts formed a branch. This view, however, is -not universally held; the late General Pitt-Rivers, and I know of no -higher authority, stated his opinion that “The megalithic monuments... -take us back to pre-Aryan people, and suggest the spread of this people -over the area covered by their remains.”[88] - -Mr. Gomme is of the same opinion (p. 27): - -“Ceremonies which are demonstrably non-Aryan in India, even in the -presence of Aryan people, must in origin have been non-Aryan in Europe, -though the race from whom they have descended is not at present -identified by ethnologists.” - -Sergi also points out:-- - -“Indo-Germanism led to almost entire forgetfulness of the most ancient -civilisations of the earth, those born in the valleys of the Euphrates -and the Tigris, and in the valley of the Nile; no influence was granted -to them over Greco-Roman classic civilisation, almost none anywhere in -the Mediterranean.”[89] - -It is not necessary for me to deal at length with the great Aryan -controversy in this book, even if the subject were within my competence, -which it is not; but now that we have a large number of monuments dated, -say, within twenty years of their use, it is important to bring forward -some dates arrived at by archæologists and philologists to compare with -those which the astronomical method of inquiry has revealed. - -Hall[90] gives evidence to show that the Aryans did not reach Greece -till after the earlier period of the Mycenæan age, which he dates at -about 1700 B.C. - -With regard to the date of the Aryan invasion of Britain, Mr. Read, of -the Department of Ethnography, British Museum, informs me that it may be -taken as about 1000 B.C.; it was associated with cremation. It is highly -probable that these Aryans were the Goidels or the Gael. These were -followed some 700 years later by another Aryan sept--the Brythons. Mr. -Read is also of opinion that the Goidels reached Britain from the -country round the South Baltic, and the Brythons from or through -north-east France. - -Archæologists, however, recognise a pre-Aryan invasion, about 1800 B.C. -(a date determined by the introduction of bronze), of a brachycephalic -folk who built covered barrows, different in these respects from the -neolithic folk, who were long-skulled and built long barrows. Now, in -relation to the stone structures to which this book especially refers, -the question arises, are we then dealing with this swarm or the people -whom they found on the soil? - -There are some indications in the traditions which imply that we are -really dealing with an early stone age, when flints were the only -weapons, and there were no clothes to speak of. I will give one or two -examples of these traditions. Gomme (p. 53) refers to a singular fact -preserved among the ceremonies of witchcraft in Scotland: - -“In order to injure the waxen image of the intended victim, the -implements used in some cases by the witches were stone arrowheads, or -elf-shots, as they were called, and their use was accompanied by an -incantation. Here we have, in the undoubted form of a prehistoric -implement, the oldest untouched detail of early life which has been -preserved by witchcraft.” - -Gomme (p. 39) also tells us that one of the May practices at Stirling is -for boys of ten and twelve years old to divest themselves of their -clothing, and in a state of nudity to run round certain natural or -artificial circles. “Formerly the rounded summit of Demyat, an eminence -in the Ochil range, was a favourite scene of this strange pastime, but -for many years it has been performed at the King’s Knot, in Stirling, an -octagonal mound in the Royal Gardens. The performances are not -infrequently repeated at Midsummer and Lammas.” He adds, “The fact that -in this instance the practice is continued only by ‘boys of ten and -twelve years old,’ shows that we have here one of the last stages of an -old rite before its final abolition.” - -Baring-Gould (p. 21) provides us with a practice in Brittany which would -seem to be a remnant of a pre-clothing age. - -Near Carnac is a menhir, at which a singular “ceremony took place till -comparatively recently, and may perhaps still be practised in secret. A -married couple that have no family repair to this stone when the moon is -full, strip themselves stark naked and course one another round it a -prescribed number of times, whilst their relations keep guard against -intrusion at a respectful distance.” - -Now it is in connection with this question that I am in hopes that some -help may be got from the astronomical results recorded in the present -volume. The dates revealed by the orientation of the circles and -outstanding stones already dealt with (and there is a large number to -follow) indicate that it is among the records of some people of whom the -civilisation is very ancient that we must look in the first instance -with a view of tracing the origin of our British monuments. - -Further, now that we have been able to follow their astronomical -methods, to note how sound they were, and to gather the purposes of -utility they were intended to serve, it is simply common sense to -inquire, in the first instance, if they may have been connected with -these ancient peoples whose astronomical skill is universally -recognised, and whose records and even observations have come down to -us. - -Now, while we know nothing of the astronomy of the Aryans generally, or -that of the Celts in particular, the astronomical knowledge of the -Babylonians and Egyptians is one of the wonders of the ancient world. - -Hence Babylonia and Egypt are at once suggested, and the suggestion is -not rendered a less probable one when we remember that both these -peoples studied and utilised astronomy at least some 8,000 years ago. - -But here we are dealing with two peoples. It is more than probable that -they both were associated more or less near the origin with one race, -the ideas of which permeated both civilisations. - -I have it on the highest authority, that of Dr. Budge, that in Babylonia -there were originally the Sumerians and the Semites. The primitive race -which conquered the Egyptians seems to have been connected with the -former as regards civilisation, and with the latter as regards some -aspects of the Egyptian language. - -This race was Semitic, and as the pyramids, built some 6,000 years ago, -are a proof of the interaction of the two civilisations at that time, -for the Easter festival celebrated on the banks of the Nile came from -the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates, we may omit the pre-Semites -from our consideration. - -There is other evidence that the connection between the Semites and -Egyptians was close astronomically, so that any Semitic influence in -later times or in other lands would be sure to show traces of this -connection, and in temple worship it would be traceable. While the -carefully oriented Egyptian temples built of stone remain and have been -carefully studied, those erected in the centres of Semitic power, built -of unbaked brick, have for the most part disappeared, but for the most -part only; some stone structures remain, but in regard to them there has -been no Lepsius; of their orientation, too, little is known. This is all -the more to be regretted since Layard, in addition to many E. and N. -buildings found at Nimrood, noted at the mound of Kouyunjik, the site of -Nineveh, lat. 36° 20′ N., that Sennacherib’s palace, which appears to -have been built round a central temple, was oriented to the May -year.[91] (Az. N. 68° 30′ E. = Dec. N. 16°.) - -Now, calling in the Babylonians as the originators of what went on in -Britain 4,000 years ago may seem to some to be far-fetched in more ways -than one; but the Babylonians were a remarkable people; according to -some they originated all the voyaging of the early world, though other -authorities point out that the first ships in the eastern seas must have -been Indian. - -Ihering[92] adduces a series of facts which indicate clearly that the -Babylonians carried on maritime navigation at least as early as about -3500 B.C. But, whatever this time was, the Semites and Egyptians had -already a rich culture behind them at a time when the Aryans, whatever -or wherever their origin, had not made themselves a place in the world’s -history. An ancient sea connection between Babylonia and India may -explain the similarity of the British and Indian folklore. - -Some facts with regard to long distance ancient travel are the -following. Our start-point may be that Gudea, a Babylonian king who -reigned about 2500 B.C., brought stones from Melukhkha and Makan, that -is, Egypt and Sinai (Budge, _History of Egypt_, ii., 130). Now these -stones were taken coastwise Sinai to Eridu, at the head of the Persian -Gulf, a distance of 4,000 miles, and it is also said that then, or even -before then, there was a coast-wise traffic to and from Malabar, where -teak was got to be used in house- and boat-building. The distance from -Eridu coastwise to Malabar, say the present Cannanore, is 2,400 miles. - -The distance, coastwise, from Alexandria to Sandwich, where we learn -that Phœnicians and others shipped the tin extracted from the mines in -Cornwall, is only 5,300 miles, so that a voyage of this length was quite -within the powers of the compassless navigators of 2500 B.C. - -The old idea that the ancient merchants could make a course from Ushant -to, say, Falmouth or Penzance need no longer be entertained; the -crossing from Africa to Gibraltar and from Cape Grisnez to Sandwich were -both to visible land, _i.e._ coastwise. The cliffs on the opposite land -are easily seen on a clear day. - -Hence it would have been easier before the days of astronomical -knowledge and compasses to have reached England, and therefore Ireland -and the Orkneys, than to get to some of the islands in the -Mediterranean itself.[93] - -It is seen then that it is possible that Semites might have built our -stone monuments between 2000 and 1200 B.C., while it is quite certain -that the Aryans did not build them, if the archæologists are not widely -wrong in their dates. - -Let us, then, begin our inquiries by considering the information -available with regard to the Semites. Let us see in the first instance -whether they had stone monuments, and sacred trees and sacred wells; a -system of worship; and whether this worship was connected with the sun -and stars. - -It is fortunate for us in this matter that one of the most fully -equipped scholars which the last century produced, Robertson Smith, -devoted his studies for many years to _The Religion of the Semites_, and -information on the points raised is to our hand; all I need do is to -give as shortly as possible a statement of the various conclusions he -had reached on the points to which our attention may in the first -instance be confined. I quote from his book _The Religion of the -Semites_. - -The Semites include the Babylonians, who spoke a Semitic dialect, for -there were Sumerian speaking peoples among them, Assyrians, Phœnicians, -Hebrews, Arabs and Aramæans, who in ancient times occupied the fertile -lands of Syria, Mesopotamia and Irak from the Mediterranean coast to the -base of the mountains of Iran and Armenia. They also embrace the -inhabitants of the great Arabian peninsula, which is believed to have -been the centre of dispersion. - -The ordinary artificial mark of a Semitic sanctuary was the sacrificial -pillar, cairn, or rude altar (p. 183): it was a fixed point where, -according to primitive rule, the blood of the offering was applied to -the sacred stones; or where a sacred tree, as we shall see presently, -was hung with gifts; the stones and tree being symbols of the God (p. -151). - -Further, it is certain that the original altar among the northern -Semites was a great unhewn[94] stone, or a cairn, at which the blood of -the victim was shed (p. 185). - -Monolithic pillars or cairns of stones are frequently mentioned in the -more ancient parts of the Old Testament as marking sanctuaries; Shechem, -Bethel, Gilead, Gilgal, Mizpah, Gibeon, and En-Rogel are referred to (p. -186). - -There is evidence that in very early times the sanctuary was a cave (p. -183). The obvious successors of a natural cave are, (1) an artificial -cave made in the earth like the natural one, and (2) a model or -representation of a cave built of stone, with a small entrance which -would be barred, and covered over with earth, thus protecting the -priests from wild animals and the weather. - -The dolmens and cromlechs which are found in the Semitic area where -there are stones doubtless had this origin. - -The use of a cave was probably borrowed both by the Egyptians and Greeks -(there is a cave, for instance, at Eleusis) from the Semites. - -In later times, when caves or their equivalents were no longer in vogue -and temples were erected, they enclosed a Bit-ili or Beth-el, an upright -stone, consecrated by oil.[95] - -We next learn (pp. 170 and 183) that no Canaanite high place was -complete without its sacred tree standing beside the altar. - -In tree-worship pure and simple as in Arabia, the tree is adored at an -annual feast (? May), when it is hung with clothes and women’s ornaments -(p. 169). - -The tree at Mecca to which offerings are made is spoken of as a “tree to -hang things on.” - -The references to “groves” given in the Bible as associated with temple -worship are misleading, “groves” being a wrong translation of the word -Asherah, which was a pole made of wood which the Jews adopted from the -Canaanites. It was ornamented and perhaps draped, and was most probably -originally a tree. It may have been used in the “high places” because -single trees would not grow there in the East any more than on the moors -in Devon and Cornwall. - -The antiquity of this emblem is proved by Smith’s statement (p. 171) -that in an Assyrian monument from Khorsābād an ornamental pole is shown -beside a portable altar. “Priests stand before it engaged in an act of -worship and touch the pole with their hands or perhaps anoint it with -some liquid substance.” - -The draping of the tree seems to be proved by the passage which -suggested the mistranslation to me before I wrote to some Hebrew -scholars among my friends who allowed me to consult them. The passage is -as follows (II. Kings, xxiii., 6, 7):-- - -“And he brought out the grove from the house of the Lord, without -Jerusalem, unto the brook Kidron, and burned it at the brook Kidron, and -stamped it small to powder, and cast the powder thereof upon the graves -of the children of the people. - -“And he brake down the houses of the Sodomites, that were by the house -of the Lord, where the women wove hangings for the grove.” - -To show how little variation there was in the Semitic practices to those -recorded in British folklore I may state that one of my friends--one of -the revision committee--informed me that his impression was that the -Asherah was furnished with pegs or hooks, so that the garments, &c., -might be easily hung on it. - - * * * * * - -I next come to the sacred waters. A sacred fountain, as well as the -sacred tree, was a common symbol at Semitic sanctuaries (p. 183). -Nevertheless, they were sometimes absent, the main place being given to -altar worship. Further, Robertson Smith was of opinion that this altar -worship did not originate with tree [? or water] worship (p. 170); but -still, sacred wells are among the oldest and most ineradicable objects -of reverence among all the Semites, and were credited with oracular -powers (pp. 128, 154). The fountain or stream was not a mere adjunct to -the temple, but was itself one of the principal _sacra_ of the spot (p. -155). - -Undoubtedly there were ordeals among other things at these wells (p. -163). One case is given in Numbers, v., 17, where the words “holy water” -occur, and other water “that causeth the curse” is referred to. Ordeal -by water is not unknown among British customs. - -It is interesting to note that special sanctity was attached to groups -of seven wells (p. 167), and that one such group was called -Thorayga=Pleiades (p. 153).[96] We may gather from this that one of the -most sacred times for Semitic worship was at the May festival, marked by -the rising of the Pleiades. - -Although I do not find many references in Robertson Smith’s book as to -great festival days, there is other evidence which shows that the May -festival was the greatest, and represented New Year’s Day. I have -already shown that the May-November year is the one recognised in the -present Turkish, Armenian and I believe Persian calendars (p. 29). As -this was the year used at Thebes 3200 B.C., we may take it that at that -time it was universal in W. Asia and the adjacent lands. The Jews -afterwards adopted the equinoctial year. - -It seems highly probable that we may learn from many passages in the -Old Testament what the Semitic temple practices were generally. There -were sacrifices of men and beasts, burnt offerings, and lighting of -fires, through which the children were made to pass. - -I give some references to these fire practices. - -“And thou shalt not let any of thy seed pass through the fire to -Molech.”--Leviticus, xviii., 21. - -“There shall not be found among you any one that maketh his son or his -daughter to pass through the fire, or that useth divination, or an -observer of times, or an enchanter, or a witch, - -“Or a charmer, or a consulter with familiar spirits, or a wizard, or a -necromancer.”--Deuteronomy, xviii., 10, 11. - -“He walked in the way of the kings of Israel, yea, and made his son to -pass through the fire.”--II. Kings, xvi., 3. - -“And they caused their sons and their daughters to pass through the -fire, and used divination and enchantments.”--II. Kings, xvii., 17. - -“And he defiled Topheth, which is in the valley of the children of -Hinnom, that no man might make his son or his daughter to pass through -the fire to Molech.”--II. Kings, xxiii., 10. (See also 4 and 5.) - -Fire sacrifices which were interpreted as offerings of fragrant smoke -were prevalent among the settled Semites (p. 218). Sacrificial fat was -burned on the altar. Smith remarks: “This could be done without any -fundamental modification of the old type of sacred stone or altar -pillar, simply by making a hollow on the top to receive the grease, and -there is some reason to think that fire-altars of this simple kind, -which in certain Phœnician types are developed into altar candlesticks, -are older than the broad platform altar proper for receiving a burnt -offering” (p. 364). - - * * * * * - -With regard to the worship of the sun and stars by the Semites, we read -that the Semite addressed his God as Baal or Bal. The simple form of -Baal was the sun.[97] - -By the Semites the stars were, on account of their movements, held to be -alive; they were therefore gods, and it was in consequence of this -widespread belief that the stars were worshipped (p. 127). The -worshippers “burned incense unto Baal, to the sun, to the moon and to -the planets, and to all the hosts of heaven” (II. Kings, xxiii., 5). Job -congratulated himself that “his heart had not been enticed, nor his -mouth kissed his hand, if he beheld the sun when it shined, or the moon -walking in her brightness” (Job, xxxi., 26-27). The worship of the -morning star as a god is the old Semitic conception (Isa., xiv., 12), -“Lucifer son of the Dawn.” - -We gather from the later practices of the Saracens that the sacrifices -to the morning star could not be made after the star had disappeared in -the dawn.[98] The God had to be in the presence of the worshippers. - - * * * * * - -The Semitic worship was generally carried on in “high places”; in the -Babylonian temples built in a river valley the “high places” were -secured by building towers with the sanctuary on the top. - -These high places were necessary because exact observations of the -risings of the heavenly bodies formed part of the ceremonial, and a -clear horizon was absolutely imperative. That this was generally -understood and acted on is well evidenced by the fact that in the Old -Testament the mention of high places is nearly always associated with -the references to the religion of the Canaanites and other Semitic -nations as if the high places were among the most important points in -it. - - * * * * * - -Other arguments may be founded upon linguistic considerations. Prof. J. -Morris Jones[99] finds that the syntax of Welsh and Irish differs from -that of other Aryan languages in many important respects, _e.g._ the -verb is put first in every simple sentence. Prof. Rhys had suggested -that these differences represented the persistence in Welsh and Irish of -the syntax of a pre-Aryan dialect, and as the anthropologists hold that -the pre-Aryan population of these islands came from North Africa, it -seemed to Prof. Jones that that was the obvious place to look for the -origin of these syntactical peculiarities. He finds the similarities -between Old Egyptian and neo-Celtic syntax to be astonishing; he shows -that practically all the peculiarities of Welsh and Irish syntax are -found in the Hamitic languages. - -This conclusion practically implies that the bulk of the population of -these islands, before the arrival of the Celts, spoke dialects allied to -those of North Africa. The syntactical peculiarities must have -represented the habits of thought of the people, which survived in the -Celtic vocabulary imposed upon them. - -These conclusions were not known to me when I began to see the necessity -of separating the cult of the June from that of the May year, and the -identity of the conclusions drawn from astronomical and linguistic data -is to me very striking and also suggests further special inquiries. - -It is also worth while to state that the Semites, including the Hebrews -and Phœnicians, did not burn their dead. Finally, I may quote a remark -made by General Pitt-Rivers in the paper already referred to:--“If we do -not accept one old civilization as the origin of the various practices, -then we must assume accidental origins in each country.” - -[83] Wood-Martin, p. 265. - -[84] _Dolmens of Ireland_, ii., p. 696. - -[85] _Ibid._, ii., p. 580. - -[86] _Ibid._, p. 772. - -[87] _Journal Eth. Soc._, N.S., i., 64. - -[88] _Journ. Eth. Soc._, N.S. i., 64. - -[89] _The Mediterranean Races_, p. 4. - -[90] _The Oldest Civilisation of Greece_, p. 105. - -[91] This I gather from the plan prepared by Lieut. Glascott, R.N., who -apparently accompanied Mr. Layard. He indicates the true north point -with a sailor’s precision in such matters. (See p. 305). - -[92] _Evolution of the Aryan_, Translation by Drucker, § 32. - -[93] The prevalence of solstitial customs in Sardinia and Corsica, with -apparently no trace of the May year, tends to support this view, which -is also strengthened by the fact that the solstitial customs in Morocco -are very similar to those we read of in Britain: the May year is -unnoticed, and there is a second feast at Easter (March 16th). See -Westermarck in _Folk-lore_, vol. xxi., p. 27. - -[94] And if thou wilt make me an altar of stone, thou shalt not build it -of hewn stone: for if thou lift up thy tool upon it, thou hast polluted -it.--Exodus, xx., 25. - -[95] And Jacob rose up early in the morning, and took the stone that he -had put for his pillows, and set it up for a pillar, and poured oil upon -the top of it. - -And this stone, which I have set for a pillar, shall be God’s house; and -of all that thou shalt give me I will surely give the tenth unto -thee.--Genesis, xxviii., 18, 22. - -[96] Herodotus, iii., 8, refers to an Arabian rite in which seven stones -are smeared with blood among peoples whose only gods were Dionysos and -Urania, whom they called Orotalt and Alilat. - -[97] Sayce, _Babylonians and Assyrians_, p. 234. - -[98] _Nili op. quaedam_ (Paris, 1639), pp. 28, 117, quoted by Robertson -Smith, p. 151. - -[99] “Pre-Aryan Syntax in Insular Celtic,” in the _Welsh People_, by -Rhys and Brynmor-Jones, pp. 617-641. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -THE SIMILARITY OF THE SEMITIC AND BRITISH WORSHIPS - - -I propose in this chapter to bring into juxtaposition the various -British and Semitic-Egyptian practices which we have so far considered. - -I confess I am amazed at the similarities we have come across in the -first cast of the net; we have found so much that is common to both -worships in connection with all the points we considered separately. I -will, for convenience, deal with the various points seriatim. - - -1. The cult of sacred stones or cairns. - -The only objection which, so far as I can see, may be raised to these -practices being absolutely common is the idea among many British -archæologists that the cairns, in which term I include chambered barrows -or dolmens and their skeletons, the cromlechs and stone passages, were -set up for burial and not for worship. This idea has arisen because some -of them have been used for burials. But I cannot accept this argument, -because since the burials might have taken place at any time subsequent -to their erection they prove nothing as to the reason of the erection; -and further, if these chambered cairns were meant for burials, there -should be burials in all of them, and yet there are none in the most -majestic of them all, Maeshowe. - -Let us consider a few facts in relation to the Semitic use of cairns -referred to on p. 244. - -That the cromlechs found both in Britain and Syria--there are 780 in -Ireland and 700 in Moab--are the remains of chambered cairns is pretty -clear from the evidence brought forward by Borlase.[100] - -Mr. John Bell, of Dundalk, disinterred over sixty cromlechs from cairns -in Ulster. All dolmens were covered by tumuli according to Mr. Bell and -Mr. Lukis. Monuments called cairns in the earliest Ordnance Survey have -been marked dolmens in subsequent surveys (_e.g._ Townland of Leana in -Clare) because the earth covering the stones had disappeared in the -meantime. - -Among the evidences of natural and artificial caves preceding cairns -which replaced them are the twenty-four caves which have been explored -in France (_op. cit._, p. 568).[101] - -Borlase points out with regard to the Irish dolmens that large tumuli -were not essential; all that was necessary was that the walls of the -cell or crypt should be impervious to the elements and to wild animals. -A creep or passage communicating with the edge of the mound is common to -Ireland, Wales, Portugal and Brittany (_op. cit._, p. 428). - -The facts that the cairns so often had their open ends facing the N.E. -or S.E., and that the west end was generally higher, like the naos -trilithons at Stonehenge, must be borne in mind. - -Most of what we know of earliest man has been obtained from their lives -in caves; what they ate, the contemporary fauna and their art are thus -known to us, but caves have not been considered as tombs, though men -have died and left their remains in them. - -In the case of a dolmen, however, an artificial cave, as we shall see, -the possibility of people living in them appears never to have been -considered seriously, and the tomb theory has led to bad reasoning and -forced argument. - -When burials are absent it has been suggested that “owing to some -peculiarity of the soil, the entire of the human remains have become -decomposed, only the imperishable stone implements entombed with the -body remaining.”[102] - -Mr. Spence has pointed out the extreme improbability of Maeshowe being -anything but a temple, and I may now add on the Semitic model. There -were a large central hall and side rooms for sleeping, a stone door -which could have been opened or shut _from the inside_, and a niche for -a guard, janitor or hall porter! So high an authority as Colonel Leslie -has pointed out that neither Maeshowe, New Grange and Dowth on the -Boyne, nor Gavr Innis in Brittany bear any internal proof of being -specially prepared as tombs.[103] - -There is another point connected with these dolmens and cromlechs. An -origin in the Semitic area easily explains why in Asia and Britain the -dolmens are so alike, down to small details, such as the perforation of -one of the side stones. Borlase has remarked also upon the similarity of -Indian and Irish dolmens (_op. cit._, p. 755), similar holes also being -common to them. The curious concentric circles, &c., found on some -dolmen stones are common to Assyrian vessels.[104] - -The most philosophical study of this question I have seen[105] certainly -suggests that much light may be expected from this source. - -Part of the cult of the sacred stones was the ceremony of _anointing -them_. Robertson Smith (p. 214) gives us the meaning and history of -anointing among the Semites, and notes its continuation from Jacob’s -pouring oil on sacred stones at Bethel, through the time of Pausanias to -that of the Pilgrims of the fourth century A.D. - -The anointing of stones was certainly carried on in ancient times in -Britain and Brittany. Baring-Gould tells us:[106] - -“Formerly the menhir was beplastered with oil and honey and wax, and -this anointing of the stones was condemned by the bishops. In certain -places the local clergy succeeded in diverting the practice to the -Churches. There are still some in Lower Brittany whose exterior walls -are strung with wax lines arranged in festoons and patterns. - -“In some places childless women still rub themselves against menhirs, -expecting thereby to be cured of barrenness, but in others, instead, -they rub themselves against stone images of saints.” - -When I visited the Cave of Elephanta in 1871 I was told that the barren -women of Bombay visit the cave once a year and anoint the standing stone -in the chief chamber. In Egypt they still rub their bodies on the -Colossi. - - -2. Sacred fires. - -Among the Semites the sacrificial fat was burned on the altar. And we -have seen that “this could be done without any fundamental modification -of the old type of sacred stone or altar pillar, simply by making a -hollow on the top to receive the grease.”[107] - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Cresset-stone, Lewannick. From Baring-Gould’s -_Strange Survivals_.] - -Baring-Gould[108] has written on the question of sacrificial and sacred -fires in ancient times in Britain, and points out that there still -remain in some of our churches (in Cornwall, York and Dorset) the -contrivances--now called cresset-stones--used. They are blocks of stone -with cups hollowed out precisely as described by Robertson Smith. Some -are placed in lamp-niches furnished with flues. On these he remarks (p. -122):-- - -“Now although these lamps and cressets had their religious -signification, yet this religious signification was an afterthought. The -origin of them lay in the necessity of there being in every place a -central light, from which light could at any time be borrowed.” - - -3. The cult of the sacred tree. - -I have shown that the sacred trees in Britain, whether rowan, thorn or -mistletoe, were at their best at the times of the festivals at which -they were chiefly worshipped. Mrs. J. H. Philpot, in her valuable book -on “the sacred tree,” gives us the names of some used in different -countries; it would be interesting to inquire whether the same -consideration applies to them in the Semitic and other areas. - -There seems to be no doubt that the Semitic Asherah was the precursor of -the British Maypole, even to its dressing of many coloured ribands, and -from the Maypole customs we may infer something of the Semitic practices -which have not come down to us. Even “Jack o’ the Green” may eventually -be traced to Al-Khidr (p. 29) of the old May festivals. - - -4. The cult of the sacred well. - -Here we find only trifling differences. The chief one is the use of -pins in Britain. If we knew more about the Asherah with its hooks this -difference might disappear. - -It has been pointed out by several authors that the worship of wells and -water would be most likely to arise in a dry and thirsty land. - - -5. The time of the chief festivals. - -Here we find beyond all question that the festival times were the same -to begin with. May is the chief month both in West Asia and West Europe. - -It was not till a subsequent time that June and December were added in -Egypt and Britain, and April and September among the Jews. - - -6. The characteristics of the festivals. - -Here again is precise agreement. The list I gave on p. 205 of what can -be gathered from British folklore is identical with the statements as to -Semitic practices which I quoted from Robertson Smith in the last -chapter. - - -7. The worship in high places. - -Absolute identity; and from this we can gather that the ancient -condition of the high places wherever selected for temple worship was as -treeless as it is now; otherwise the observations of sun- and star-rise -and -set would be greatly interfered with. - -Of course, there may have been “groves” associated with, but away from, -sanctuaries in both Semitic and British areas: but it is not impossible -that much which has been written on this subject with regard to Britain -and the “Druids” may have been suggested in part by the erroneous -translation of Asherah to which I have referred. It has also been stated -that an early transcriber who, in error, substituted lucus for locus may -also be held partly responsible, even if lucus does not mean a clearing -in a grove, as some maintain. - - -8. The god or gods worshipped. - -The year-gods in Babylonia and Egypt respectively were Baal and Thoth. -It is worth while to inquire whether either name has made its appearance -as a loan-word in the traditions of Western Europe. - -About Baal there can be no question as to the coincidence, whether -accidental, as some philologists affirm, or not. - -We find Bel or Baal common to the two areas. Mr. Borlase informs us -(_op. cit._, p. 1164) that in Western Europe Bel, Beal, Balor, Balder, -and Phol, Fal, Fáil are the equivalents of the Semitic Baal. Balus, -indeed, is named as the first king of Orkney. A May worship is connected -with all the above. Beltaine and many variants describe the fires -lighted at the festival, and it is worthy of note that although this -fire worship has been extended to the solstitial ceremonials in June, -the name Baltaine has never been applied to it at that time except by -writers who think that the term “midsummer” may be applied -indiscriminately to the beginning of May and the end of June. - -I next deal with the Egyptian year-god Thoth. In Greece he became -Hermes, among the Romans Mercury. In this connection I can most usefully -refer to Rhys’s Hibbert Lectures and his chapter on the Gaulish -Pantheon. He tells us (p. 5) that “Mercury is the god with whom the -monuments lead one to begin.” There is also mention of a god Toutates or -Teutates, and a Toutius, who might have been a public official (? priest -of Toutates). Only Celtic or other later origins of the words are -suggested; it is not said whether the possible Egyptian root has been -considered. - -We may even, I think, go further and ask whether some of the -constellations were not figured as in Egypt, otherwise it is difficult -to account for the horror of the black pig (p. 195) at Hallowe’en. The -whole Egyptian story is told in my _Dawn of Astronomy_[109] in -connection with the worship of Set, that is the stars visible at night, -blotted out at dawn by the rising sun, or becoming predominant after -sunset. - - -9. The worship of the sun and stars. - -Here also, as I have shown, is complete agreement. The same astronomical -methods have been employed for the same purpose. The chief difference -lies in the fact that by lapse of time the precessional movement caused -different stars to be observed as clock stars or to herald the sunrise -on the chief ceremonial days. - -[100] _Dolmens of Ireland_, p. 426. - -[101] “France, indeed, furnishes us with a stepping-stone, as it were, -between the natural cave and the dolmen in certain artificial caves -which offer comparison both with the former and the latter... the -natural cave was scooped out into a large chamber or chambers either by -the swirling of water pent up in the limestone or other yielding rock -and finding its way out through some narrow crevice. The ground plan and -section, therefore, is that of an _allée couverte_ with a vestibule... -the artificial cave is modelled on the natural one, and yet bears, as M. -Mortillet points out, a close resemblance to the dolmen.” - -[102] Wandle, _Remains of Prehistoric Age in England_, p. 147. - -[103] It is interesting to point out in relation to the fact that -different swarms successively introduced the May and solstitial years -that the “sleeping rooms” of the May year cairns at New Grange are about -3 feet square, while at the solstitial Maeshowe, built very much later, -the dimensions are 6 feet × 4¹⁄₂ feet. There were differences of -sleeping posture in the old days among different peoples as well as -different methods of burial. - -[104] Borlase, p. 617. - -[105] “The Builders and the Antiquity of our Cornish Dolmens,” by Rev. -D. Gath Whitley (_Journal R.I. Cornwall_, No. 4). - -[106] _Book of Brittany_, p. 21. - -[107] _History of the Semites_, p. 364. - -[108] _Strange Survivals_, p. 122. - -[109] Pp. 146, 215, and elsewhere. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -THE MAY-YEAR IN SOUTH-WEST CORNWALL - - -The previous pages of this volume have apparently dealt with two -distinct subjects; the use of the British monuments on the orientation -theory, and the folklore and tradition which enable us to get some -glimpses into the lives, actions, habits and beliefs of the early -inhabitants of these islands, and the region whence these early -inhabitants had migrated. - -But although these subjects are apparently distinct, I think my readers -will agree that the study of each has led to an identical result, -namely, that in early times it was a question of the May year, and that -the solstitial year was introduced afterwards. This was the chief -revelation of the monuments when they were studied from the astronomical -point of view. - -Without confirmation from some other sources this result might have been -considered as doubtful, and the orientation theory might have been -thought valueless. It has, however, been seen that folklore and -tradition confirm it up to the hilt. I think it may be said, therefore, -that the theory I put forward in this book touching the astronomical use -of our ancient temples is so far justified. - -The British monuments I had considered before this appeal to tradition -was made were the circles at Stonehenge, Stenness, The Hurlers and -Stanton Drew, and the avenues on Dartmoor. These were studied generally, -the main special result being that to which I have referred; we not only -found alignments to sunrise and sunset on the critical quarter-days of -the May years, but we found alignments to the stars which should have -been observed either at rising or setting to control the morning -sacrifices. - -But this inquiry had left out of account several circles in south-west -Cornwall, of which I had vaguely heard but never seen. When I had -written the previous chapters showing how fully May-year practices are -referred to in the folklore of that part of the country, I determined to -visit the circles, dealing with them as test objects in regard to this -special branch of orientation. I had not time to make a complete survey; -this I must leave to others; but with the help so readily afforded me, -which I shall acknowledge in its proper place, I thought it possible in -a brief visit to see whether or not there were any May-year alignments. -In the following chapters I will give an account of the observations -made, but before doing so, in order to prove how solid the evidence -afforded by the Cornish monuments is, I will state the details of the -local astronomical conditions depending upon the latitude of the Land’s -End region, N. 50°. In the chapter containing some astronomical hints to -archæologists I referred (p. 122) to the solstice conditions for -Stenness beyond John o’ Groat’s, because those conditions afforded a -special case, the solstice being determined by the arrival of the sun at -its highest or lowest declination, which happens on particular dates -which recur each year. But with regard to the May year, during the -first week of May the sun’s declination is changing by over a quarter of -a degree daily, so that we must not expect to find the declination of -16° 20′ (see p. 22) rigidly adhered to. - -As I have shown (p. 23), the sun’s passage through this declination four -times on its annual path on the dates stated accurately divides the year -into four equal parts. But this accuracy might have been neglected by -the early observers, so that, for instance, the sun’s position on the -4th or 8th of May instead of that on the 6th might have been chosen as -being in greater harmony with the agricultural conditions at the place. - -The conditions of the sunrise from John o’ Groat’s to Land’s End, 2′ of -the sun being visible above the sky-line, can be gathered from the -following diagram:-- - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Place of first appearance of the May sun, in -British latitudes. - -~Vertical axis: N. LAT. From bottom: 48-59.~ - -~Horizontal axis: AZIMUTHS. From left: 55-67.~ - -~Curves, from left: HORIZON, 0° HILL, 2°HILL.~] - -The exact azimuths for this sunrise in the Land’s End region (Lat. 50°) -in relation to the place of the sunrise when half the sun has risen, -with a sea horizon, are shown in Fig. 51. - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Showing the influence of the height of the -sky-line on the apparent place of sunrise in May and August. The double -circle shows the tabular place of sun’s centre.] - - - - -CHAPTER XXV - -THE MERRY MAIDENS CIRCLE (LAT. 50° 4′ N.) - - -One of the best preserved circles that I know of is near Penzance. It is -called the Merry Maidens[110] (Dawns-Maen), and is thus described by -Lukis[111] (p. 1):-- - -“This very perfect Circle, which is 75 feet 8 inches in diameter, stands -in a cultivated field which slopes gently to the south. - -“It consists of 19 granite stones placed at tolerably regular distances -from each other, but there is a gap on the east side, where another -stone was most probably once erected. - -“Many of the stones are rectangular in plan at the ground level, vary -from 3 feet 3 inches to 4 feet in height, and are separated by a space -of from 10 to 12 feet. There is a somewhat shorter interval between -four of the stones on the south side. - -“In the vicinity of this monument are two monoliths called the Pipers; -another called Goon-Rith; a holed stone (not long ago there were two -others); and several [5] Cairns.” - -Lukis thus describes the “Pipers”:-- - -“Two rude stone pillars of granite stand erect, 317 feet apart, and -about 400 yards to the north-east of the Circle of Dawns-Maen. No. 1 is -15 feet high, 4 feet 6 inches in breadth, and has an average thickness -of 22 inches, and is 2 feet 9 inches out of the perpendicular. The stone -is of a laminated nature, and a thin fragment has flaked off from the -upper part. No. 2 is 13 feet 6 inches high, and is much split -perpendicularly. At the ground level its plan in section is nearly a -square of about 3 feet.” - -Goon-Rith is next described:--“No. 3 is naturally of a rectangular form -in plan, and is 10 feet 6 inches in height. The land on which it stands -is called Goon-Rith, or Red Downs. The upper part of the stone is of -irregular shape.” - -Borlase, in his _History of Cornwall_ (1769), only mentions the circle, -but W. C. Borlase, in his _Nænia Cornubiæ_ (1872), gives a very rough -plan including the stones before mentioned and several barrows, some of -which have been ploughed up. - -At varying distances from the circle and in widely different azimuths -are other standing stones, ancient crosses and holed stones, while some -of the barrows can still be traced. - -The descriptions of the locality given by Borlase and Lukis, however, -do not exhaust the points of interest. Edmonds[112] writes as follows:-- - -“A cave still perfect... is on an eminence in the tenement of Boleit -(Boleigh) in St. Buryan, and about a furlong south-west of the village -of Trewoofe (Trove). It is called the ‘Fowgow,’ and consists of a trench -6 feet deep and 36 long, faced on each side with unhewn and uncemented -stones, across which, to serve as a roof, long stone posts or slabs are -laid covered with thick turf, planted with furze. The breadth of the -cave is about 5 feet. On its north-west side, near the south-west end, a -narrow passage leads into a branch cave of considerable extent, -constructed in the same manner. At the south-west end is an entrance by -a descending path; but this, as well as the cave itself, is so well -concealed by the furze that the whole looks like an ordinary furze break -without any way into it. The direction of the line of this cave is about -north-east and south-west, which line, if continued towards the -south-west, would pass close to the two ancient pillars called the -Pipers, and the Druidical temple of Dawns Myin, all within half of a -mile.” - -This fougou is situated on a hill on the other side of the Lamorna -Valley, near the village of Castallack, and the site of the Roundago -shown in the 1-inch Ordnance map. - -Borlase[113] says that many similar caves were to be seen “in these -parts” in his time, and others had been destroyed by converting the -stones to other uses. - -There is evidence that the circle conditions at the Merry Maidens were -once similar to those at Stenness, Stanton Drew, the Hurlers, Tregaseal -and Botallack, that is that there was more than one, the numbers running -from 2 to 7. Mr. Horton Bolitho, without whose aid in local -investigations this chapter in all probability would never have been -written, in one of his visits came across “the oldest inhabitant,” who -remembered a second circle. He said, “It was covered with furze and -never shown to antiquarians”; ultimately the field in which it stood was -ploughed up and the stones removed. It is to prevent a similar fate -happening to the “Merry Maidens” themselves that Lord Falmouth will not -allow the field in which they stand to be ploughed, and all antiquarians -certainly owe him a debt of gratitude for this and other proofs of his -interest in antiquities. Mr. Bolitho carefully marked the site thus -indicated on a copy of the 25-inch map. I shall subsequently show that -the circle which formerly existed here, like the others named, was -located on an important sight-line. - -Mr. Horton Bolitho was good enough to make a careful examination of the -barrows A and B of Borlase.[114] In A (S. 69° W.) he found a long stone -still lying in the barrow, suggesting that the barrow had been built -round it, and that the apex of the barrow formed a new alignment. In B -there is either another recumbent long stone or the capstone of a -dolmen. This suggests work for the local antiquarians. - -I should state that there may be some doubt about barrow A, for there -are two not far from each other with approximate azimuths S. 69° W. and -S. 64° W. The destruction of these and other barrows was probably the -accompaniment of the reclamation of waste lands and the consequent -interference with antiquities which in Cornwall has mostly taken place -since 1800. - -[Illustration: _Photo. by Lady Lockier._ - -FIG. 52.--The Merry Maidens (looking East).] - -But it did not begin then, nor has it been confined to barrows. Dr. -Borlase, in his parochial memoranda under date September 29, 1752, -describes a monolith 20 feet above ground, and planted 4 feet in it, the -“Men Peru” (stone of sorrow) in the parish of Constantine. A farmer -acknowledged that he had cut it up, and had made twenty gate-posts out -of it. - -My wife and I visited the Merry Maidens at Easter, 1905, for the -purpose of making a reconnaissance. Mr. Horton Bolitho and Mr. Cornish -were good enough to accompany us. - -On my return to London I began work on the 25-inch Ordnance map, and -subsequently Colonel R. C. Hellard, R.E., director of the Ordnance -Survey, was kind enough to send me the true azimuths of the Pipers. In -October, 1905, Mr. Horton Bolitho and Captain Henderson, whose help at -the Hurlers I have already had an opportunity of acknowledging, made a -much more complete survey of the adjacent standing stones and barrows. - -In this survey they not only made use of the 25-inch map, but of the old -plan given by W. C. Borlase dating from about 1870. Although the -outstanding stones shown by Borlase remain, some of the barrows -indicated by him have disappeared. - -In January, 1906, my wife and I paid other visits to the monuments, and -Mr. Horton Bolitho was again good enough to accompany us. Thanks to him -permission had been obtained to break an opening in the high -wall-boundary which prevented any view along the “Pipers” sight-line. I -may here add that unfortunately in Cornwall the field boundaries often -consist of high stone walls topped by furze, so that the outstanding -stones once visible from the circles can now no longer be seen from -them; another trouble is that from this cause the angular height of the -sky-line along the alignment cannot be measured in many cases. - -I will now proceed to refer to the chief sight-lines seriatim. The first -is that connecting the circle which still exists with the site of the -ancient one. On this line exactly I found four points, a barrow (L) -which Borlase had missed (further from the circle than his barrow A), -the site, the present circle, and the fougou; azimuth from centre of -circle N. 64° E. and S. 64° W. This is the May-year line found at -Stonehenge, Stenness, the Hurlers and Stanton Drew. - -In connection with this there is another sight-line which must not be -passed over; from the circle the bearing of the church of St. Burian is -about N. 64° W.; like the fougou it is situated on a hill, and near it -are ancient crosses which I suspect were menhirs first and crosses -afterwards.[115] However this may be, we see in this azimuth of 64° -three times repeated that the May and August sunrises and sunsets and -the February and November sunsets were provided for. - -With regard to the other sight-lines I will begin with that of the -Pipers, as it is quite obviously connected with the eastern circle only; -the stones could not have been seen from the other on account of rising -ground. The barrow shown in this direction by Borlase has now entirely -disappeared, and the earth has evidently been spread over the -surrounding field; its surface is therefore higher than formerly, so -that when the opening was made in the wall the top of the nearest piper -could not be seen from the centre of the circle; an elevation of about 2 -feet from the ground level was necessary. Walking straight from the -circle to the first piper, the second piper was exactly in a line, -though at a much lower level. This showed that the Ordnance values were -not quite accurate, which was not to be wondered at as no direct -observation had been possible. I therefore adopted the mean of the -Ordnance values as the true azimuth:-- - - Piper 1.--N. 37° 58′ 36″ E. - Piper 2.-- 38 52 36 - ---------- - Mean 38 25 36 - -The sky-line from the centre of the circle was defined by the site of -the vanished barrow, angular elevation 20′, and it is highly probable -that the function of the barrow when built was to provide a new -sight-line when the star-rise place was no longer exactly pointed out by -the piper line. - -With these data the star in question was Capella, dec. 29° 58′ N., -heralding the February sunrise, 2160 B.C. - -I next come to the famous menhir Goon-Rith. The conditions are as -follows:--from the circle Az. S. 81° 35′ W. Altitude of sky-line 34′. - -Concerning this alignment from the circle, it may be stated that it cuts -across many ancient stones, including one resembling a rock basin or -laver, and another either a holed stone or the socket of a stone cross. -I suspect also the presence in old days of a holy well attached to the -circle, for there is a pool of water in a depression which is shown in -the 25-inch map. - -I regard it as quite possible that we are here in presence of the -remains of a cursus, an old _via sacra_, for processions between the -circle and the monolith. - -I have not been able to find any astronomical use for this stone from -the circle or from the site of the old one, but if we suppose it to have -been used like the Barnstone at Stenness for observations _over_ the -circle its object at once becomes obvious. - -From the azimuth given, the declination of the star was 5° 24′ N. Now -this was the position of the Pleiades B.C. 1960, when they would have -warned the rising of the May sun. - -So that it is possible that the erection of the Pipers and of Goon-Rith -took place at about the same time, and represent the first operations. - -The next alignment has an azimuth of S. 69° W. from the circle; it would -be the same within a degree from the site of the one which has -disappeared; altitude of sky-line 32′; this line is to a stone cross on -rising ground,[116] doubtless a re-dressing of an old menhir, and on the -line nearer the circle are the remains of a barrow. - -With these data the star in question was Antares, dec. S. 13° 18′, -heralding the May sunrise 1310 B.C. - -There is another stone cross defining a line az. N. 11° 45′ E. from the -circle, altitude of sky-line about the same as along the Piper azimuth; -an intervening house prevents measurement. These values give us N. dec. -38° 46′, referring to Arcturus warning the August sunrise in 1640 B.C. - -The three alignments already referred to, then, give us the warning -stars for three out of the four quarter-days of the May year. - -There is still another stone cross, Az. N. 82° 5′ W., hills about 34′. -This has no connection with the May year, but may refer to the -equinoctial one. - -W. C. Borlase refers to several holed stones. The data for two of these, -supplied by Capt. Henderson, are as follows:-- - - Az. Alt. of sky-line - Stone in hedge N. of road S. 50°33′ E. 45′ - Stone, half still standing S. 79 25 W. 49 - -Azimuths near these have been noted before at other circles, and it must -not be forgotten that as the holed stones on my view were used for -observation, these azimuths must be reversed, since it is probable that -the observations were made over the circle. If this were so, then S.E. -would be changed into N.W., and we should get N. 50° 33′ W. indicating -the solstitial sunset. Similarly, S.W. would become N.E., and we should -have N. 79° 25′ E., possibly a Pleiades alignment. - -I have brought together in the following table all the sight-lines so -far referred to. Where the altitude of the sky-line has been measured it -is marked with a *. - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.--25-inch Ordnance Map of Merry Maidens, showing -alignments.] - -In the map the probable site of the second circle and the barrows have -special marks attached to them. The numbers of the alignments in the -table are also shown in the map. - -TABLE OF ALIGNMENTS. - - ------+-------------+-----+----------+------------+------+------------ - Align-| Azimuth. |Hill.| Decl. |Sun or Star.| Date.| Mark. - ment. | | | | | | - ------+-------------+-----+----------+------------+------+------------ - | | | | | B.C. | - 1 |N. 11° 45′ E.| 20′ |38° 46′ N.|Arcturus | 1650 |Stone in - | | | |(warning | |road. - | | | |August) | | - | | | | | | - 2 |N. 38° 25′ E.| 20′*|29° 58′ N.|Capella | 2160 |The Pipers - | | | |(warning | |and barrow. - | | | |February) | | - | | | | | | - 3 |N. 64° E. | ¹⁄₃°|16° 21′ N.|May year | -- |Fougou. - | | | | | | - 4 |S. 38° 22′ N.| 20′ |30° 27′ S.|Pipers line | -- |Barrrow B. - | | | | | | - 5 |S. 64° W. | 20′ |16° 26′ S.|May year | -- |Barrow L. - | | | |(February- | | - | | | |November | | - | | | |setting) | | - | | | | | | - 6 |S. 69° W. | 32′*|13° 18′ S.|Antares | 1310 |Stone cross - | | | |(warning | |on hill and - | | | |May) | |Barrow A. - | | | | | | - 7 |S. 81° 35′ W.| 32′*| 5° 24′ N.|_Reversed | 1960 |Goon-Rith. - | | | |line._ | | - | | | |Pleiades | | - | | | |elev. ¹⁄₂° | | - | | | |(warning | | - | | | |May) | | - | | | | | | - 8 |N. 64° W. | 42′ | 16° N.|May year | -- |St. Burian - | | | |(May eve | |Church. - | | | |setting) | | - ------+-------------+-----+----------+------------+------+------------ - -[110] I may here remark that “9 maidens” is very common as a name for a -circle in Cornwall. It is a short title for 19 maidens. Lukis implies -that Dawns-Maen once consisted of 20 stones. If all the circles followed -suit it would be interesting to note if the present number of 19 is -always associated with a gap on the eastern side. The “pipers” are, of -course, the musicians who keep the maidens merry, as does the “blind -fiddler” at Boscowen-un Circle. - -[111] _Prehistoric Stone Monuments, Cornwall._ - -[112] _The Land’s End District_, p. 46. - -[113] _Antiquities_, p. 274. - -[114] _Nænia_, p. 214. - -[115] In A.D. 658 a council assembled at Nantes decreed:--“As in remote -places and in woodlands there stand certain stones which the people -often worship, and at which vows are made, and to which oblations are -presented--we decree that they be all cast down and concealed in such a -place that their worshippers may not be able to find them.” - -“Now the carrying out of their order was left to the country parsons, -and partly because they had themselves been brought up to respect these -stones, and partly because the execution of the decree would have -brought down a storm upon their heads, they contented themselves with -putting a cross on top of the stones.”--_Book of Brittany_, by -Baring-Gould, p. 20. - -[116] With regard to this Mr. Horton Bolitho has sent me the following -note:--“The rising ground here is called locally ‘Lanine Hill’ (spelt -Lanyon and pronounced Lanine); this is worth noticing, as it is the same -name as the dolmen six or seven miles away from Boleit, and in the same -district as the Men an Tôl and Boskednan Circle, to say nothing of -Lannion in Brittany. Lan signifies something sacred, the place of the -saint, or belonging to the saint.” - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI - -THE TREGASEAL CIRCLES (LAT. 50° 8′ 25″ N., LONG. 5° 39′ 25″ W.) - - -There are two circles situated on Truthwall Common near to Tregaseal and -not far from St. Just; the one is nearly to the east of the other, and -there are outstanding stones, including four holed stones, and several -barrows. The eastern temple has a diameter of 69 feet, and includes, at -the present time, nine erect and four prostrate stones; the original -structure seems to have contained twenty-eight stones according to -Lukis. - -My wife and I visited the region in January, 1906, but previously to our -going Mr. Horton Bolitho, accompanied by Mr. Thomas, whose knowledge of -the local antiquities is very great, had explored the region and taught -us what to observe. - -The chief interest appears to lie on the N.E. quadrant, where, in -addition to a famous longstone on a hill about a mile away, the nest of -holed stones and several of the barrows are located. Carn Kenidjack, a -famous landmark, lies to the north. - -Of the two circles, I confined my attention almost exclusively to the -eastern one, as the other is in a fragmentary condition, though it is -still traceable. It is hidden almost entirely from the eastern circle by -a modern hedge. - -Mr. Horton Bolitho, who accompanied us in January, has again visited the -spot, with Mr. Thomas, for the purpose of further exploration, and -determining the angular height of the sky-line along the different -alignments, which I have plotted from the 6-inch and 25-inch maps. My -readers will therefore see that my part of the work has been a small -one, and that they are chiefly indebted to those I have named. - -No theodolite survey has as yet been made for determining the azimuths -and the height of the hills. The following approximate azimuths have -been determined by myself from a 25-inch map, and the elevations by Mr. -Horton Bolitho by means of a miner’s dial. - - Alignments. Azimuth. Elevation. - 1. Apex of Carn N. 12° 8′E. 4′ 0′ - 2. Barrow 800′ distant N. 20 8 E. 3 50 - 3. Two barrows 900′ distant N. 50 8 E. 1 50 - 4. Holed stones N. 53 20 E. 1 15 - 5. Longstone N. 66 38 E. 2 10 - 6. Stone N. 76 13 E. - -The carn referred to in the above table is Carn Kenidjack, called “the -hooting cairn.” The rocks on the summit, in which there is a remarkable -depression, are still by local superstition supposed to emit evil sounds -by night. - -[Illustration: _Photo. by Lady Lockyer._ - -FIG. 54.--The Eastern Circle at Tregaseal.] - -Of the sight-lines studied so far, those to and from the Longstone and -the holed stones seem the most important. The Longstone,[117] 1¹⁄₂ miles -to the N.E., is a monolith 10 feet high on the western side of a hill; -it is visible from the circle though furze has grown round and partly -hidden it. - -The meanings of the various alignments seem to be as follows:-- - - Decl. N. Star. Date. - 1. Apex of Carn 42° 33′ 0″ Arcturus 2330 B.C. - 2. Barrow 800′ distant 40 29 0 „ 1970 „ - 3. Two barrows 900′ distant 25 20 21 ? Solstitial - 4. Holed stones 23 2 20 ? „ - 5. Longstone 16 2 0 May sun - 6. Stone 9 15 0 Pleiades 1270 B.C. - -Regarding the possible solstitial alignments, the declinations obtained -may be neglected until the azimuths and angular heights of the hills -have been determined with a good theodolite. A change of -10′ in the -angular elevation, and hence about that in the resulting declination, -would bring the date given by the barrows to about 2000 B.C. - -The position of the Longstone is well worthy of attention. Several very -fine monuments which mark the surrounding horizon are visible from it in -azimuths with which other monuments have made us familiar. They are as -follows:-- - - Alignment. Az. Hills. - Longstone to Mên-an-tol N. 50° 30′ E. 0° 34′ - „ Nine Maidens (Boskednan) N. 54 0 E. 1 0 - „ W. Lanyon Quoit N. 67 0 E. 0 0 - „ Lanyon Quoit N. 72 45 E. 0 0 - -These values, of which the angular heights of the hills were determined -approximately from the contours on the 1-inch Ordnance map, lead us to -the following declinations:-- - - Alignment. Decl. Star. Date. - Longstone to Mên-an-tol 24° 7′ N. Solstitial sun. - „ Nine Maidens 22 37 N. „ - (Boskednan) - „ W. Lanyon Quoit 14 3 N. May sun. - „ Lanyon Quoit 10 30 N. Pleiades 1030 B.C. - -[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Photograph of Ordnance Map, showing -sight-lines.] - -The May-sun alignment, it may be noted, differs from that from the -circle. The heights of hills when determined may give us the same solar -declination; that now used gives the declination for April 28 and August -15 in our present calendar. - -Regarding the alignment on Lanyon Quoit, it need only be pointed out -that the Pleiades date obtained is some 200 years after the date -obtained for the analagous alignment from the circle, showing that if -these two monuments--the Tregaseal circle and the Longstone--have any -relationship, the removal to the high plain, now known as Woon Gumpus -and Boswen Commons, was an afterthought improvement. - -I next come to the holed stones, not only the nest of them not far from -the circle, but the famous Mên-an-tol itself. - -I had heard before going to Tregaseal that the four holed stones shown -on the Ordnance map had been knocked down and set up again (not -necessarily in their old places) two or three times. Mr. Horton Bolitho -and Mr. Thomas, however, in their examination were convinced that the -largest of them has never been moved. They also express the belief that -the others are not more than a foot or so from their original positions, -and that this change is only due to their re-erection by Mr. Cornish -after they had fallen down. So far I have heard nothing of the direction -of the hole in the stone which retains its original position. - -Another interesting matter is that the explorers in question were able -to trace an ancient stone alignment from the circle to the holed -stones. - -I have long held that these holed stones were arrangements for -determining an alignment. The famous Odin stone at Stenness, long since -disappeared, was, if we may trust the very definite statements made -about its position, used to observe the Barnstone in one direction and -the chief circle in the other. - -[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Plan of the Mên-an-tol from Lukis, showing that -it was an apparatus for observing the sunrise in May and August in one -direction and the sunset in February and November in the other. Sun’s -declination, 16° N. or S.] - -The azimuths suggest that theodolite measures may show that the -Tregaseal stones might have been used in the same way; they, the -Longstone and Lanyon Quoit, are in nearly the same straight line, the -alignment, holed stones to Longstone and Lanyon Quoit, being N. 67° E., -so that the May sunrise may have been noted in this way. - -[Illustration: _Photo. by Lady Lockyer._ - -FIG. 57.--The Mên-an-tol.] - -Several other monuments, _e.g._, Chûn Castle and Cromlech, are to be -found in the immediate neighbourhood of the Tregaseal circle and the -Longstone, but these will have to await further investigation as to -their character and antiquity before any conclusions concerning their -astronomical use can be deduced. - -[Illustration: FIG. 58.--The Mên-an-tol. Front view and section, from -Lukis. - -~Front view: D. LOOKING S.W., SCALE 1 INCH TO 1 FOOT.~ - -~Section: SECTION OF D.~] - -Not only do we find in this neighbourhood the nest of holed stones to -which I have referred, but the Mên-an-tol, the most famous of them all, -in England at all events. This, then, is the place to say a few words -about them. I have before stated my opinion that these stones, instead -of being used as slaughter stones or posts at which to tie up the victim -before sacrifice, or in any other similar employment, were really -sighting stones to enable an alignment to be easily picked up. As such -these were, of course, treated as sacred, and hence the folk-lore -connected with them. This folk-lore seems to be most complete in the -case of the famous stone of Odin at Stenness, so I condense Mr. Spence’s -account of it. - -Children brought to the stone at Beltaine and Midsummer, after being -carried sunwise round the holy well were passed through the hole as a -protection against the powers of the evil one. Marriage ceremony -consisted of joining hands through the hole, a vow held as sacred as -the legal marriage of to-day. Pains in the head cured by inserting the -head in the cavity, cure of palsy in children. Children and adults -travelled many miles to secure relief in this way. - -At the Mên-an-tol the curative effects could only be obtained by -crawling through the aperture, which is of considerable size. - -As a rule, however, the aperture is much more restricted. The general -size of the holed stone and the position of the aperture in it may be -well gathered from the fact that almost all of them have been used for -gateposts, and are now to be seen fulfilling that function. In some -cases the old special use can be inferred, but in others this is more -difficult, as the stones have been shifted or slewed round, or the -ancient monument to which the sighting stone was directed has -disappeared. - -The astronomical origin of the Mên-an-tol, which obviously has never -been disturbed, is quite obvious. Fig. 56 (from Lukis) shews that it was -arranged along the May year alignment, the advent of May and August, -February and November being indicated by the shadows cast by the stones -through the aperture on to the opposite ones. - -To the south-west the alignment for the February and November sunsets -passes exactly over Chûn Castle. - -The “Tolmen” near Gweek, Constantine, another famous holed stone 7 feet -9 inches high and with an aperture of 17 inches, is according to a -magnetic bearing I took last Easter parallel to the Mên-an-tol, and -doubtless was used for the same purpose. - -[117] In Cornwall this is the name generally given to a monolith. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII - -SOME OTHER CORNISH MONUMENTS - -_Boscawen-un_, _N. Lat._ 50° 5′ 20″ - - -My wife and I visited Boscawen-un on a pouring day, when it was -impossible to make any observations. Mr. Horton Bolitho, who was with -us, introduced us to the tenant of Boscawen-noon--Mr. Hannibal Rowe--who -very kindly, in spite of the bad weather, took us to the circle and the -stone cross to the N.E. of it. - -Lukis thus described this monument:[118]-- - -“The enclosed ground on which this circle stands is uncultivated and -heathy, and slopes gently to the south. Twenty years ago a hedge ran -across it and bisected the circle. - -“This monument is composed of nineteen standing stones, and is of an -oval form, the longer diameter being 80 feet and the shorter 71 feet 6 -inches. One of the stones is a block of quartz 4 feet high, and the -rest, which are of granite, vary from 2 feet 9 inches to 4 feet 7 inches -in height. On the west side there is a gap, whence it is probable that -a stone has been removed. Within the area, 9 feet to the south-west from -the centre, is a tall monolith, 8 feet out of the ground, which inclines -to the north-east, and is 3 feet 3 inches out of the perpendicular. - -[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Photograph of the Ordnance Map.] - -“In 1594 Camden describes this monument as consisting of nineteen -stones, 12 feet from each other, with one much larger than the rest in -the centre. It must have been much in the same condition then as now. As -he does not say that the monolith enclosed within it was inclined, it is -possible that it was upright at that time. - -“Dr. Stukeley’s supposition was that it originally stood upright, and -that ‘somebody digging by it to find treasure disturbed it.’ - -“On the north-east side there are two fallen stones which Dr. Borlase, -in 1749, imagined to have formed part of a Cromlech. It is more probable -that they are the fragments of a second pillar which was placed to the -north-east of the centre, and as far from it as the existing one is. -There are instances, I believe, of two pillars occupying similar -positions within a circle. One of the stones, that marked C in my plan, -on the eastern side of the ring, was prostrate in the Doctor’s time. - -“At a short distance to the south-east and south-west there are cairns, -which have been explored.” - -For this monument I have used the 6-inch map, as the circle lies nearly -at the centre, and all the outstanding stones are within its limits. The -heights of the sky-line were measured by Mr. H. Bolitho at a subsequent -visit with a miner’s dial; the resulting declinations have been -calculated by Mr. Rolston. A theodolite survey will doubtless revise -some of them:-- - - Marks. Az. Hills. Dec. Star. Date. - 1. F. Stone cross N. 43° 15′ E. 2° 7′ +29° 26′ Capella 2250 - 2. P. Fine menhir N. 53 30 E. 1 15 22 58 Solstitial -- - sun - 3. B. Blind N. 54 30 E. 1 15 22 24 Solstitial -- - Fiddler sun - 4. Two large N. 66 50 E. 1 0 14 55 May sun -- - menhirs - 5. Stone cross N. 78 0 E. 1 0(?) + 8 8 Pleiades 1480 - (May) - 6. Stone S. 66 30 E. 1 0(?) -14 32 November -- - sun - 7. Stone N. 83 30 W. 1 0(?) + 4 36 Pleiades 2120 - (September) - -[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Showing azimuths in Lat. N. 50° for the summer -solstice sunrise, with different heights of hills for 1905 A.D. and 1680 -B.C. - -~Vertical axis from bottom: SEA LEVEL, ¹⁄₂°, 1°, 1¹⁄₂°, 2°.~ - -~Horizontal axis, top, from left: 1905 A.D., 49° 20′-54° 20′.~ - -~Horizontal axis, bottom, from left: 1680 B.C. (DATE OF STONEHENGE), 48° -40′-53° 40′.~] - -I gather from a report which Mr. H. Bolitho has been good enough to send -me that modern hedges and farming operations have changed the conditions -of the sight-lines, so that 1 and 3 are just invisible from the circle. -This is by no means the only case in which the sighting stone has just -been hidden over the brow of a hill and in which signals from an -observer on the brow itself have been suggested, or a _via sacra_ to the -brow from the circle; there are many monoliths in this direction which -certainly never belonged to the circle. - -From the menhir P (No. 2) a fine view is obtained from N. to S. through -E., so that the Blind Fiddler and the two large menhirs, and almost the -circle, are visible. The curious shapes of 1 and 2 are noted, the east -face vertical and the west boundary curved, like several sighting stones -on Dartmoor. - -The circle itself has several peculiarities. In the first place, as -shown by Lukis, it is not circular, the diameters being about 85 and 65 -feet; the minor axis runs through the pillar stone in the centre and the -“fallen stones” of Dr. Borlase towards the “stone cross” (which is no -cross but a fine menhir) in Az. N. 43° 15′ E. This would suggest that -this was the original alignment in 2250 B.C., but against this is the -fact that the two stones of the circle between which the “fallen stones” -lie are more carefully squared than the rest. It is true, however, that -this might have been done afterwards, and this seems probable, for they -are closer together than the other circle stones. - -The one quartz stone occupies an azimuth S. 66° W. It was obviously -placed in a post of honour. As a matter of fact, from it the May sun -was seen to rise over the centre of the circle. - -As there are both at Tregaseal and Boscawen-un alignments suggesting the -observation of the summer solstice sunrise, it is desirable here to -refer to the azimuths as calculated. For this purpose Fig. 60 has been -prepared, which shows these for lat. 50° both at the present day and at -the date of the restoration at Stonehenge. - -My readers should compare this with Fig. 36, which gives the solstice -sunrise conditions of Stenness in Lat. N. 59°. Such a comparison will -show how useless it is to pursue these inquiries without taking the -latitude and the height of the sky-line into account. - - -“_Stripple Stones_” (lat. 50° 32′ 50″ N., long. 4° 37′ W.) - -This is a very remarkable circle consisting of 5 erect and 11 prostrate -stones situated on a circular level platform 175 feet in diameter on the -boggy south slope of Hawk’s Tor on the Hawkstor Downs in the parish of -Blisland. The circle itself is about 148 feet in diameter, and the whole -monument is, in Lukis’s opinion, the most interesting and remarkable in -the country. Surrounding the platform is a ditch 11 feet wide, and -beyond that a penannular vallum about 10 feet in width. The peculiarity -of the vallum is that it has three bastions situate on the north-east, -north-west, and east sides. It is to the north-east bastion that I wish -to refer. - -Sighting from the huge monolith, which is now prostrate but originally -marked the centre of the circle, along a line bisecting the arc of this -bastion we find that the azimuth of the sight-line is N. 25° E.; the -angular elevation of the horizon from the 1-inch Ordnance map appears to -be about 0° 22′. From these values, proceeding as in the former cases, -we find - - Alignment. Decl. Star. Date. - Centre of circle to centre of bastion 35° 1′ N. Capella 1250 B.C. - -indicating that this alignment was formed for the same purpose as that -which dominated the erection of the “Pipers.” - - -“_Nine Maidens_” (lat. 50° 28′ 20″ N., long. 4° 54′ 35″ W.) - -In this monument we find a very different type from those considered -previously. - -The Nine Maidens are simply 9 stones in a straight line 262 feet in -length at the present day; possibly, as suggested by Lukis, it may have -extended originally to the monolith known as “The Fiddler,” situated -some 800 yards away in a north-easterly direction. Measuring the azimuth -of the alignment on Lukis’s plan, and finding the horizon elevations -from the 1-inch Ordnance map, we have the following:-- - - Az. Hills. Decl. Star. Date. - N. 28° E. 0° 0′ 37° 47′ N. Capella 1480 B.C. - -It may be remarked that here we have a date for the use of Capella -intermediate between those obtained for the “Pipers” and the “Strippie -Stones” respectively. - -[118] _Prehistoric Stone Monuments of the British Isles: Cornwall._ W. -C. Lukis. P. 1. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVIII - -THE CLOCK-STARS IN EGYPT AND BRITAIN. - - -I have now finished my astronomical reconnaissance of the British -monuments. I trust I have shown how important it is that my holiday task -should be followed by a serious inquiry by other workers so that the -approximate values with which I have had to content myself for want of -time may be replaced by others to which the highest weight can be -attached. This means at each circle reversed observations with a -six-inch theodolite and determination of azimuths by means of -observations of the sun if necessary. - -I propose in the present chapter to bring together the general results -already obtained in cases where the inquiry has been complete enough to -warrant definite conclusions to be drawn. - -The first result to be gathered from the observations, and one to which -I attach the highest importance, is that the practice, so long employed -in Egypt, of determining time at night by the revolution of a star round -the pole, was almost universally followed in the British circles. This -practice was to watch a first-magnitude star, which I named a -“clock-star,”[119] of such a declination that it just dipped below the -northern horizon so that it was visible for almost the whole of its -path. - -Doubtless this same method of determining the flow of time during the -night watches was also employed in Babylonia,[120] but there, alas! the -temples, or, in other words, the astronomical observatories, have -disappeared, so that only the Egyptian practice remains for us to study. - - -_Egypt._ - -Let us, before we proceed, consider some results which have been -gathered from the study of the Egyptian observations. - -One of the earliest temples in Egypt concerning which we have historical -references to check the orientation results was built to carry on these -night observations at Denderah, lat. N. 26° 10′. The star observed was α -Ursae Majoris, decl. N. 58° 52′, passing 5° below the northern horizon; -date (assuming horizon 1° high) about 4950 B.C., _i.e._, in the times of -the Shemsu Heru, before Mena, as is distinctly stated in the -inscriptions. - -After α Ursae Majoris had become circumpolar in the latitude of -Denderah, γ Draconis, which had ceased to be circumpolar, and so -fulfilled the conditions to which I have referred, replaced it. Its -declination was 58° 52′ N. about 3100 B.C., and it, therefore, could -have been watched rising in the axis prolonged of the old temple in the -time of Pepi, who restored it then, no doubt on account of the advent -of the new star, and is stated to have deposited a copy of the old plan -in a cavity in the new walls. - -Here, then, we have two dates given by orientation of a clock-star -temple entirely agreeing with the most recent views of Egyptian -chronology. - -In Dr. Budge’s _History of Egypt_ (iii. 14) the story of the rebuilding -of the temple at Annu by Usertsen (2433 B.C., Brugsch) is given from an -ancient roll. Supposing this temple built parallel with the faces of the -remaining obelisk, γ Draconis would rise in its axis prolonged 2500 -B.C., proving that Usertsen did at Annu what Pepi previously did at -Denderah, and that the same reason for restoration and even the same -star were in question.[121] - -When the clock-star ceased to be visible in the chief temple other -subsidiary temples were subsequently built to watch it. Thus γ Draconis -was watched at Thebes from 3500 B.C. to the times of the Ptolemys by -temples oriented successively from that of Mut Az. N. 72° 30′ E. to 68° -30′, 63° 30′, and 62°.[122] - -It is worth while to show that what we know now of the Egyptian methods -of observation enables us to carry the matter further, while we gather -at the same time that in consequence of the difference of latitude the -method employed in Egypt could not be followed in Britain. - -I showed in the _Dawn of Astronomy_ that several ancient shrines -consisted of two temples at right angles to each other (see Fig. 13), -one axis pointing high N.E. to observe the clock-star--the worship of -Set--the other low N.W. to observe either the sun by itself, or in -association with some important star of the same declination as the sun. - -The temples of Mut and Menu (or Min), and of Amen, with the associated -temple M. of Lepsius, at Karnak, are the best extant examples of this -principle of temple building. - -There is evidence that both at Annu and Memphis the same principle was -followed, but at Annu one obelisk alone remains, and at Memphis one -temple; from these, however, Captain Lyons and myself have obtained -sufficient data to enable the original directions of the temple-systems -to be gathered. - -At Denderah, if such a N.W. temple ever existed it has disappeared, but -as the monument stands there are still two temples at right angles to -each other, but the second one faces S.E. instead of N.W. - -This premised, I will now give, in anticipation of another one dealing -with the British monuments, a list of the most ancient star temples in -Egypt, with their azimuths and the first-magnitude clock-stars which -could have been observed in them at different dates. These dates have -been approximately determined by the use of a precessional globe, an -horizon of 1° elevation being assumed. As I have shown, the present -views of Egyptian chronology and the inscriptions carry us back to α -Ursae Majoris, at Denderah. But there is a suggestion at Luxor, and -perhaps also at Abydos, that Vega was used before that star, though -there are, so far as I know, no temple traces of Arcturus. - - --------------+-------+------+-------+-----+------+--------+--------- - Temple. |N. Lat.| Az. | N. |Vega.| Arc- |α Ursae | γ - | | N.E. | Decl. | |turus.|Majoris.|Draconis. - --------------+-------+------+-------+-----+------+--------+--------- - Annu |30° 10′|14° 0′|57° 25′| 6250| 5550 | *5200 | *2500 - Memphis |29 50 |12 45 |58 20 | 6450| 6000 | 5000 | 2850 - Denderah |26 10 |18 30 |58 52 | 6550| 6200 | *4950 | *3100 - Thebes (Mut) |25 40 |17 30 |59 46 | 6700| 6700 | 4800 | *3500 - Tell-el-Amarna|27 40 |13 0 |60 12 | 6800| 6800 | 4750 | 3700 - Nagada |26 10 |12 0 |61 16 | 7000| 7400 | 4600 | 4000 - --------------+------+-------+-------+-----+------+--------+--------- - -There is a very great difference between determining the date of a -temple erected to the rising or setting of a particular star, and of one -erected to the rising or setting of the sun on a particular day of the -year. In the latter case no date can be given unless we have reason to -believe that both the sun _and_ a star rose or set at the same point of -the horizon at the same date; in other words, the sun and star had the -same declination, and the rising or setting of both could be seen in the -same temple. - -I assumed, without historical data, that this view was acted on in -Egypt, at the temple of Menu; Mr. Penrose found, with historical data, -that it was actually acted on in Greece at the Parthenon. To show that -we are at all justified in this view we must study the association of -gods with temple worship, and look for temples in different azimuths -erected at different times if the god is a star; and we can run the star -home if the dates fall in with the star’s precessional change. Thus -there is reason for supposing that the god Ptah and the star Capella -were associated. There is a temple of Ptah at Memphis, Az. N. 77° 15′ -W., hills 50′, decl. N. 11°, star Capella, date 5200. In the rectangular -system at Memphis, then, α Ursae Majoris was watched in one temple and -Capella in the other at that date. There is also evidence that the god -Menu was associated with the star Spica. In the temple system of Mut at -Thebes, in 3200 B.C., γ Draconis was used as a clock-star in one temple, -while the setting of Spica was watched in the other. - -If a temple is erected to the sun with no specially named cult, it may -be a sun-temple pure and simple, not connected with star worship because -there was no star with the proper declination at the time. - -In Greece temple-building was carried on at a much later time, so late -that perhaps water clocks were available, so that we should not expect -to find many clock-star temples in that country. As a matter of fact -there is only one, of which the data, according to Mr. Penrose, are as -follows:-- - - N. Decl. Star. Date. - Thebes, The City of the Dragon +54° 28′ γ Draconis 1160 - -It will be seen that the star used in Greece was the last clock-star -traced in the Egyptian temples. - - -_Britain._ - -I now come to Britain. So far as my inquiries have gone, these -clock-star observations were introduced into these islands about 2300 -B.C. - -In my statement concerning them I will deal with the astronomical -conditions for lat. 50° N., as it is in Cornwall that the evidence is -most plentiful and conclusive. - -In that latitude and at that time Arcturus, decl. N. 41°, was just -circumpolar with a sea horizon, and therefore neither rose nor set. -Capella, decl. N. 31°, when northing was 9° below the horizon, so that -it rose and set in azimuths N. 37° E. and N. 37° W. respectively; it was -therefore invisible for a long time and was an awkward clock-star in -consequence. - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.--Arcturus and Capella as clock-stars in Britain. - - AB = sea horizon. - A′B′ = horizon 3° high. -] - -Fig. 61 represents diagrammatically the conditions named, the -circumpolar paths of Arcturus and Capella being shown by the smaller and -larger circle respectively. _A B_ represents the actual sea horizon and -_A′ B′_ a locally raised horizon 3° high, whilst the dotted portion of -the larger circle represents the non-visible part of Capella’s apparent -path. - -What the British astronomer-priests did, therefore, in the majority of -cases was to set up their temples in a locality where the N.E. horizon -was high, so that Arcturus rose and set over it and was invisible for -only a short time, as shown in the diagram by the raised horizon _A′ -B′_. - -The two lists following contain the names of the monuments where I -suggest Arcturus was used as a clock-star. In the first, the angular -elevation of the sky-line as seen from the circle in each case has been -actually measured, and the date of the alignment is, therefore, fairly -trustworthy; but in the second list the elevations have been estimated -from the differences of contour shown on the one-inch Ordnance map, and -the dates must be accepted as open to future revision. - - -ARCTURUS AS A CLOCK-STAR. - -I. - - -------------+-------------------+---------------------------------+ - | Position. | | - Monument. +---------+---------+ Alignment. | - | Lat. N. | Long. W.| | - -------------+---------+---------+---------------------------------+ - Tregaseal |50° 8′ 0″| 5°39′20″|Circ. to Carn Kenidjack | - | | | | - The Hurlers |50 31 0 | 4 27 20 |S. circ. over cent. circ. | - | | |Cent. circ. over N. circ. | - | | |N. circ. over N.E. barrow | - | | | | - Merrivale |50 33 15 | 4 2 30 |Circ. to remains of cromlech | - | | |Direction of smaller avenue | - | | | | - Fernworthy |50 38 30 | 3 54 10 |Direction of Avenue | - | | | | - Stanton Drew |51 22 0 | 2 34 20 |Cent. of Gt. Circ. to Quoit | - | | | | - Fernworthy |50 38 30 | 3 54 10 |Direction of Avenue | - | | | | - Merry Maidens|50 3 40 | 5 35 25 |Circ. to stone in the road | - | | | | - Stanton Drew |51 22 0 | 2 34 20 |S.W. circ. to centre of Gt. Circ.| - -------------+---------+---------+---------------------------------+ - -------------+------------+------+-------+---- - Monument. | Az. |Hills.| Decl. |Date - | | | N. |B.C. - -------------+------------+------+-------+---- - Tregaseal |N. 12° 8′ E.| 4° 0′|42° 33′|2330 - | | | | - The Hurlers |N. 11 15 E.| 3 24 |41 38 |2170 - |N. 14 18 E.| 3 24 |41 9 |2090 - |N. 18 44 E.| 3 24 |40 6 |1900 - | | | | - Merrivale |N. 15 0 E.| 3 1 |40 36 |1990 - |N. 24 25 E.| 5 0 |39 55 |1860 - | | | | - Fernworthy |N. 13 0 E.| 1 15 |39 7 |1720 - |N. 14 20 E.| 1 15 |38 51 |1670 - | | | | - Stanton Drew |N. 17 59 E.| 2 33 |38 38 |1620 - | | | | - Fernworthy |N. 15 45 E.| 1 15 |38 34 |1610 - | | | | - Merry Maidens|N. 11 45 E.| 0 12 |38 27 |1590 - | | | | - Stanton Drew |N. 19 51 E.| 1 44 |37 30 |1420 - -------------+------------+------+-------+---- - -II. - - -------------+-------------------+---------------------------+ - | Position. | | - Monument. +---------+---------+ Alignment. | - | Lat. N. | Long. W.| | - -------------+---------+---------+---------------------------+ - Trowlesworthy|50°27′30″| 4° 0′20″|Direction of primary avenue| - | | |Direction of final avenue | - | | | | - Longstone |50 8 10 | 5 38 20 |Longstone to Chûn Cromlech | - (Tregaseal) | | | | - | | | | - Lee Moor |50 26 30 | 3 59 40 |Direction of avenue | - -------------+---------+---------+---------------------------+ - -------------+------------+------+-------+---- - Monument. | Az. |Hills.| Decl. |Date - | | | N. |B.C. - -------------+------------+------+-------+---- - Trowlesworthy|N. 7° 0′ E.|2° 52′|41° 24′|2130 - |N. 12 0 E.|2 52 |41 6 |2080 - | | | | - Longstone |N. 9 0 E.|1 43 |40 39 |2000 - (Tregaseal) | | | | - | | | | - Lee Moor |N. 22 0 E.|2 28 |38 17 |1500 - -------------+------------+------+-------+---- - -In some cases, for one reason or another, this arrangement was not -carried out, and Capella, in spite of the objection I have stated, was -used in the following circles:-- - - -CAPELLA AS A CLOCK-STAR. - - -------------+-------------------+-----------------------------+ - | Position. | | - Monument. +---------+---------+ Alignment. | - | Lat. N. | Long. W.| | - -------------+---------+---------+-----------------------------+ - I. | | | | - | | | | - Boscawen-un |50° 5′20″| 5°37′ 0″|Circ. to Stone Cross | - | | | | - Merry Maidens|50 3 40 | 5 35 25 |Circ. over the “Pipers” | - | | | | - II. | | | | - | | | | - The Nine |50 28 20 | 4 54 30 |Direction of Nine Maidens row| - Maidens | | | | - | | | | - Stripple |50 32 51 | 4 37 35 |Centre to N.E. bastion | - Stones | | | | - -------------+---------+---------+-----------------------------+ - -------------+------------+------+-------+---- - Monument. | Az. |Hills.| Decl. |Date - | | | N. |B.C. - -------------+------------+------+-------+---- - I. | | | | - | | | | - Boscawen-un |N. 43°15′ E.|2° 7′|29° 36′|2250 - | | | | - Merry Maidens|N. 38 26 E.|0 20 |29 58 |2100 - | | | | - II. | | | | - | | | | - The Nine |N. 28 0 E.|0 0 |33 47 |1480 - Maidens | | | | - | | | | - Stripple |N. 26 0 E.|0 22 |34 38 |1320 - Stones | | | | - -------------+------------+------+-------+---- - -At the Merry Maidens, however, with nearly a sea horizon, when Arcturus -ceased to be circumpolar and rose in Azimuth N. 11° 45′ E., it replaced -Capella, and was used as a clock-star after 1600 B.C. - -In this system of night observation we have the germ of the use in later -times of an instrument called the “night-dial,” specimens of which, -dating from the fourteenth century, can be seen in our museums. The -introduction of graduated circles permitted the employment of -circumpolar stars, and the “guards” of the Little Bear or the “pointers” -of the Great Bear were thus used. There was a disc with a central -aperture through which the pole star could be observed; the disc could -be adjusted for every night in the year; an arm was then moved round so -that the direction of the pointers (or the guards) with regard to the -vertical could be measured; on a second concentric circle the time of -night could be read off. - -[Illustration: FIG. 62.--A “night-dial.”] - -[119] _Dawn of Astronomy_, 1894, p. 343. - -[120] Jensen, _Kosmologie der Babylonier_, p. 147. - -[121] _Dawn of Astronomy_, p. 215. - -[122] _Ibid._, p. 214. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIX - -A SHORT HISTORY OF SUN TEMPLES - - -_The Original Cult_ - -I have given detailed evidence showing that the first circle builders in -Britain worshipped the May-year sun, whether they brought it with them -or not. This year was used in Babylon, Egypt, and afterwards in Greece. -In the two former countries May was the harvest month, and thus became -the chief month in the year. The dates were apt to vary with the local -harvest time. - -The earliest extant temple aligned to the sun at this festival seems to -have been that of Ptah at Memphis, 5200 B.C. I have already referred to -this temple in relation to the clock-star observations carried on in it. - -This approximate date of the building of the temple is obtained by the -evidence afforded (1) by the associated clock-star (see p. 298), and (2) -by the fact that the god Ptah represented the star Capella, since there -is a Ptah temple at Thebes aligned on Capella at a later time, when by -the processional movement it had been carried outside the solar limit. -There was also a similar temple at Annu (Heliopolis, lat. N. 30° 10′), -but it has disappeared. The light of the sun fell along the axis when -the sun had the declination N. 11°, the Gregorian dates being April 18 -and August 24. - -Another May-year temple was that of Menu at Thebes, Az. N. 72° 30′ W. -(lat. N. 25°; sun’s declination N. 15°; Gregorian date, May 1). - -[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Layard’s plan of the Palace of Sennacherib -discovered in the mound of Kouyunjik. The temple axis, XXXVI., XXXIV., -XXIX., XIX. (XXII. is on a lower level), faces the rising of the May -sun.] - -As we have seen (p. 299), Spica had this declination in 3200 B.C., and -the coincidence may have been the reason for the erection, or, more -probably, the restoration, of the temple,[123] especially as γ Draconis -came into play as a new clock-star at the same date. - -[Illustration: FIG. 64.--Layard’s plan of the Mound at Nimrood showing -its equinoctial orientation.] - -The researches of Mr. Penrose in Greece have provided us with temples -oriented to the May-year sun. I shall return to them afterwards, as they -are later in time than the British monuments. - -[Illustration: FIG. 65.--The Temples at Chichen Itza.] - -The explorations of Sir H. Layard at Nineveh, lat. 36° N., have shown -that the temple in Sennacherib’s palace, which may have been a -restoration of a much older temple, was also oriented to the May sun. - -It is a pity that our present-day archæologists do not more strictly -follow the fine example set by Sir Henry Layard in his explorations of -Kouyunjik. When he had unearthed Sennacherib’s palace (700 B.C.) he was -careful to give the astronomical and magnetic bearings of the buildings -and of the temple which seemed to form the core of them. The bearing is -Az. N. 68° 30′ E., giving the sun’s declination as N. 16°. - -I am enabled by the kindness of Mr. John Murray to give copies of the -plans which Sir H. Layard prepared of the excavations both at Kouyunjik -and Nimrood, showing the careful orientation which enables us to claim -Sennacherib’s temple as one consecrated to the May year, while at -Nimrood (Babylon) the equinoctial worship was in vogue as at the -pyramids. - -In association with these plans of Layard’s, I give another by Mr. -Maudslay of the as carefully oriented temples at Chichen Itza (N. lat. -20°) explored by him. In these temples, of unknown date and origin, the -azimuths of two show that the May year was worshipped.[124] - - -_The May-Year Monuments in Britain._ - -In the first glimpses of the May year in Egypt we have dates from 5000 -B.C. It does not follow that it did not reach Great Britain before about -2000 B.C. because monuments made their appearance about that time. It is -clear, also, that with the possibilities of coastwise traffic as we have -found it, it might as easily have reached Ireland by then; 2000 B.C., -therefore, is a probable date for the May worship to have reached -Britain arguing on general principles; we now come to a detailed summary -of the facts showing that it really reached Britain earlier. - -Alignments in British monuments designed to mark the place of the sun’s -rising or setting on the quarter-days of the May year have been found as -follows:-- - - -------------+----------------------+----------------+---------------- - | Position. | May and Aug. | Feb. and Nov. - Monument. +----------+-----------+-------+--------+-------+-------- - | Lat. N. | Long. W. |Rising.|Setting.|Rising.|Setting. - -------------+----------+-----------+-------+--------+-------+-------- - Merry Maidens|50° 3′ 40″| 5° 35′ 25″| * | * | | * - Boscawen-un |50 5 20 | 5 37 0 | * | | * | - Tregaseal |50 7 50 | 5 39 20 | * | | | - Longstone |50 8 10 | 5 38 20 | * | | | - (Tregaseal) | | | | | | - Down Tor |50 30 10 | 3 59 30 | * | | | - Merrivale |50 33 15 | 4 2 30 | * | | | - The Hurlers |50 31 0 | 4 27 20 | | | * | - Stonehenge |51 10 40 | 1 49 30 | * | * | | - Stanton Drew |51 22 0 | 2 34 30 | * | | | - | | | | | | ? - | | | circle| | |avenue - | | | along | | | to - | | | avenue| | |circle - | | | | | | * - Stenness |59 0 10 | 3 13 40| * | * | * | - -------------+----------+-----------+-------+--------+-------+-------- - -I have already shown that it was the practice in ancient times for the -astronomer-priests not only to watch the clock-stars during the night, -but also other stars which rose or set about an hour before sunrise, to -give warning of its approach on the days of the principal festivals. - -Each clock-star, if it rose and set very near the north point, might be -depended on to herald the sunrise on _one_ of the critical days of the -year, but for the others other stars would require to be observed. This -practice was fully employed in Britain. - - -_May Warnings._--The following table gives the stars I have so far noted -which were used as warners for the May festival. - - ---------------------+------------+------------- - | |Date or dates - Monument. | Star. | B.C. - | | - ---------------------+------------+------------- - Stonehenge |Pleiades (R)| 1950 - | | - Merry Maidens |Pleiades (R)| 1930 - |Antares (S)| 1310 - | | - The Hurlers |Antares (S)| 1720 - |Pleiades (R)| 1610 - Merrivale |Pleiades (R)| 1610 - | „ | 1420 - | | - Boscawen-un |Pleiades (R)| 1480 - | | - Tregaseal |Pleiades (R)| 1270 - | | - Stenness |Pleiades (R)| 1230 - | | - Longstone (Tregaseal)|Pleiades (R)| 1030 - ---------------------+------------+------------- - - (R) = rising. (S) = setting. - -It is convenient here to give a list of the May warning stars found by -Mr. Penrose in Greece, as it shows that the same stars were observed for -the same purpose. - - +-------------------------------+------------+--------+--------+----- - | | | Decl. | Day. |Year. - +-------------------------------+------------+--------+--------+----- - | | | | |B.C. - |Archaic temple of Minerva |Pleiades (R)| +7° 50′|April 20|2020 - |Hiero of Epidaurus, Asclepieion| „ (R)| +9 15 | „ 28|1275 - |Hecatompedon | „ (R)| +9 58 | „ 26|1150 - |Older Erechtheum |Antares (S)|-14 31 | „ 29|1070 - |Temple of Bacchus |Pleiades (R)|+10 35 | „ 29|1030 - |Corinth |Antares (S)|-16 0 | May 6| 770 - |Aegina | „ (S)|-16 45 | „ 7| 630 - +-------------------------------+------------+--------+--------+----- - -The warning stars at Athens were the Pleiades for temples facing the -east, and Antares for temples using the western horizon. - - -_August warnings._--Sunrise at the August festival was heralded by the -rising of Arcturus, which, as we have seen, was also used as a -clock-star. The alignments and dates given in the Arcturus table -therefore hold good for August. At the Hurlers, where the hill over -which Arcturus was observed fell away abruptly, we find Sirius -supplanting Arcturus as the warning star for August in 1690 B.C. - - -_November warnings._--So far I have discovered no evidence that any star -was employed to herald the November sun. There may be two reasons for -this. In the first place the November festival “Halloween” took place at -sun_set_ and the sun itself could be watched, no heralding star being -necessary. - -Secondly, the atmospheric conditions which prevail in Britain during -November would not be conducive to the making of stellar observations -_at the horizon_, and only risings or settings were observed with regard -to the quarter-days. - - -_February Warnings._--In the same way that Arcturus served the double -purpose of clock-star and herald for the August sun, so did Capella -serve to warn the February sun in addition to its use at night. The -alignments and dates given in the Capella table will therefore hold good -for its employment at the February quarter-day. - - -_The Solstitial Year Monuments._ - -In Egypt generally, the solstitial worship followed that of the May and -equinoctial years. The religion of Thothmes III. and the Rameses was in -greatest vogue 2200-1500 B.C. - -We find little trace of it in Greece proper, though Mr. Penrose has -traced it in Calabria and Pompeii, and in some of the islands. - -The solstitial cult was born in Egypt; it is a child of the Nile-rise. I -have shown in my _Dawn of Astronomy_ that the long series of temples -connected with the solstice may have commenced about 3000 B.C.; but for -long it was a secondary cult; it was parochial until the twelfth -dynasty, say 2300 B.C. Egypt’s solstitial “golden age” may be given as -1700 B.C., and her influence abroad was very great, so that much travel, -“coastwise” and other, may be anticipated. It is for some centuries -after the first date that the introduction of the solstitial worship -into Britain may be anticipated. It, for instance, is quite probable -that the pioneers of this worship should have reached Stonehenge in 2000 -B.C. - -The solstitial alignments found by Mr. Penrose in Greece are as -follows:-- - - +----------------+-----------------+--------+-------+----- - |Temples. | | Decl. | Day. |Year. - +----------------+-----------------+--------+-------+----- - | | | | |B.C. - | | JUNE. | | | - |Athens, Dionysus|Antares (setting)|-11° 2′|June 20|1700 - |(Upper Temple) | | | | - |Pompeii (Isis) |β-Geminorum |-16 44 | „ 19| 750 - | | | | | - | | DECEMBER. | | | - |Metapontum |β-Geminorum |+29° 38′|Dec. 21| 610 - | | (setting) | | | - |Locri | „ |+29 40 | „ 21| 610 - +----------------+-----------------+--------+-------+----- - -We find plentiful evidence that the worship of the solstitial sun such -as was carried on in Egypt at Karnak and at other places[125] was -introduced into Britain some time after the May-year worship was -provided for in the monuments. - -Although some of the alignments already discovered are in all -probability solstitial, the variation of the sun’s solstitial -declination is so slow and takes place between such narrow limits that a -most careful determination of the actual azimuths and of the angular -heights of the various horizons must be made before any definite -conclusion as to dates can be arrived at. The necessity for this care is -illustrated in the paper on Stonehenge[126] communicated to the Royal -Society by Mr. Penrose and myself in 1891, where, after taking the -greatest precautions, the resulting date was in doubt to the amount of -200 years in either direction. - -So far Stonehenge is the only temple at which these observations have -been made, so that for the other alignments contained in the following -list no dates can yet be given. - - -----------+---------------+--------------+------------+---------+---- - Monument. | Alignment. | Az. | Decl. | Season. |Date - | | | (provi- | |B.C. - | | | sional). | | - -----------+---------------+--------------+------------+---------+---- - Stonehenge |Direction of |N.49°34′18″ E.|23°54′30″ N.|Summer(R)|1680 - |avenue | | | | - | | | | | - Boscawen- |Circ. to fine |N.53 30 0 E.|22 58 13 |Summer(R)| - un |menhir | | | | - |Circ. to Blind |N.54 30 0 E.|22 24 12 | „ | - |Fiddler | | | | - | | | | | - Tregaseal |Circ. to row of|N.53 20 25 E.|22 53 26 |Summer(R)| - |holed stones | | | | - |Circ. to two |N.50 0 0 E.|24 7 0 | „ | - |barrows 900′ | | | | - |distant | | | | - | | | | | - Longstone |Mèn-an-tol to |S.50 30 0 W.|24 33 0 S.|Winter(S)| - (Tregaseal)|Longstone | | | | - | | | | | - The |N. circ. to |S.50 50 0 E.|24 17 20 S.|Winter(S)| - Hurlers |S.E. stone | | | | - | | | | | - Stanton |Gt. Circle to |N.51 0 0 E.|23 48 46 N.|Summer(R)| - Drew |N.E. circle | | | | - | | | | | - Stenness |Circle to |N.39 30 0 E.|24 3 15 N.|Summer(R)| - |Hindera Fiold | | | | - |Barnstone to |N.41 16 0 E.| -- | „ | - |Maeshowe | | | | - |Circ. to Ward |S.41 0 0 E.| -- |Winter(R)| - |Hill tumulus | | | | - |Circ. to Onston|S.36 30 0 W.| -- | „ (S)| - |tumulus | | | | - |Circ. to tumuli|N.37 0 0 W.| -- |Summer(S)| - -----------+---------------+--------------+------------+---------+---- - (R) = rising. (S) = setting. - -I cited an alignment at the Hurlers which marked the rising point of -Betelgeuse. This star warned the summer solstice sunrise at about the -Hurlers’ date. So far, however, I have not yet found any suggestion of -its use elsewhere. - -At Shovel Down and Challacombe on Dartmoor there are avenues pointing a -few degrees west of north. The sight-lines along these avenues would -mark the setting-point of Arcturus at the time that that star (setting) -warned the rising of the sun at the summer solstice; but this use cannot -be considered as established, as Arcturus would scarcely set before its -light was drowned in that of the rising sun. The absence of darkness in -high summer in these latitudes and the bad weather in the winter may -both be responsible for so few alignments for the solstices. - - -_The Equinoctial Year Monuments._ - -The equinoctial pyramid and Babylonian cult in vogue in Egypt in the -early dynasties (4000 B.C.), with the warning stars Aldebaran (March) -and Vega (September), was represented in Greece at a much later period. -The facts for Greece, according to Mr. Penrose, are as follows:-- - - +---------------------------+---------------+------+--------+----- - | | | Decl.| Day. |Year. - +---------------------------+---------------+------+--------+----- - | | | | |B.C. - | |MARCH. | | | - | | | | | - |Nike Apteros |Spica (setting)|+6°10′|Mar. 17|1130 - |Juno Lacinia (near Croton) |α-Arietis |+7 27 | „ 28|1000 - |Paestum (Neptune) |Spica (setting)|+3 5 | „ 22| 535 - |Gergenti (Hercules) | „ |+2 30 | „ 30| 470 - | | | | | - | |SEPTEMBER. | | | - | | | | | - |Rhamnus (Themis) |Spica (rising) |+6° 0′|Sept. 17|1092 - |Tegea (Minerva) | „ „ |+5 51 | „ 18|1075 - |Syracuse (? Minerva) | „ |+4 30 | „ 20| 815 - |Athens (dedication unknown)| „ |+4 17 | „ 23| 780 - |Rhamnus (Nemesis) | „ „ |+4 5 | „ 22| 747 - |Bassæ (Apollo) | „ „ |+3 57 | „ 22| 728 - |Ephesus (Diana) | „ „ |+3 57 | „ 25| 715 - |Syracuse (Diana) | „ „ |+2 22 | „ 26| 450 - |Ephesus (Diana) | „ | -- |Oct. 6| 355 - |(re-orientation) | | | | - +---------------------------+---------------+------+--------+---- - -In Britain equinoctial alignments are not wanting, but so few have been -traced that I have reserved them for future inquiry. - -[123] See _Dawn of Astronomy_, p. 318. - -[124] The temple conditions are approximately as follows:-- - -_PALENQUE._ - - Azimuths. Decl. - N. 21° 30′ E. 60° 15′ } - N. 18 0 E. 62 36 }Stellar temples. Clock-stars. - S. 27 0 W. 56 17 } - S. 66 0 E. 23 0 Solstice}Solar temples. - S. 73 0 E. 16 0 May } - -_CHICHEN ITZA._ - - Azimuths. Decl. - N. 26° 0′ E. 59° 0′ Stellar temple. Clock-star. - S. 70 0 E. 19 0 (?) - N. 70 0 W. 19 0 (?) - N. 67 0 W. 22 0 Solstitial}Solar temples. - N. 72 30 16 0 May } - - -[125] _Dawn of Astronomy_, p. 78. - -[126] _Proc. Roy. Soc._, vol. 69. - - - - -CHAPTER XXX - -THE LIFE OF THE ASTRONOMER-PRIESTS - - -The facts contained in the preceding chapters have suggested, at all -events, that whatever else went on some four thousand years ago in the -British circles there was much astronomical observation and a great deal -of preparation for it. - -In a colony of the astronomer-priests who built and used the ancient -temples we had of necessity:-- - -(1) Observatories, _i.e._, circles in the first place; next something to -mark the sight-lines to the clock-star for night work, to the rising or -setting of the warning stars, and to the places of sunrise and sunset at -the chief festivals. This something, we have learned, might be another -circle, a standing stone, a dolmen, a cove, or a holed stone. - -A study of the sight-lines shows us that these collimation marks, as we -may call them, were of set purpose, generally placed some distance away -from the circles, so far that they would require to be illuminated in -some way for the night and dawn observations. When there was no wind, -one or more hollows in a stone, whether a menhir or a quoit, might have -held grease to feed a wick or a pine-wood torch. But in a wind some -shelter would be necessary, and the light might have been used in a -cromlech or allée couverte. Stones have been found with such cups, and -débris of fires have been found in cromlechs. - -It must not be forgotten that here there was no oil as in the Semitic -countries whence, as we have seen, the immigrants came; and it was not a -question of a light on the sight-line alone. If wood were used, it must -have been kept dry for use, and whether wood or animal fat were employed -the most practical and convenient way of lighting up would have been to -keep a fire ever burning in some sheltered place. - -(2) Dwellings, which would be cromlechs or many-chambered barrows, -according to the number of astronomer-priests at the station. These -dwellings would require to be protected against the invasions of the -local fauna, very different from what it is now, and for this a small, -and on that account easily blocked, entrance would be an essential. - -These dwellings would naturally suggest themselves as the shelter place -for the ever-burning fire or the supply of dry wood. Tradition points -with no uncertain sound to the former existence of life and light in -these “hollow hills.” Mr. MacRitchie’s book[127] contains a mine of most -valuable and interesting information on this subject. - -(3) A water supply for drinking and bathing, which might be a spring, -river or lake, according to the locality. - -Given a supply of food we have now provided for the shelter and -protection of the astronomer and the man. - -But the man who brought this new astronomical knowledge was, before he -came, astrologer and magician as well, and, further, he was a priest; -hence on account of his knowledge of the seasons, he could not only help -the aboriginal tiller of the soil as he had never been helped before, by -his knowledge; but he could appeal in the strongest way to his -superstitious fears and feelings, by his function as the chief -sacrificer and guardian of the sacrificial altars and fires. Hence it -was that everything relating to the three different classes of things to -which I have referred was regarded as very holy because they were -closely associated with the astronomer-priests, on whom the early -peoples depended for guidance in all things, not only of economic, but -of religious, medical and superstitious value. - -The perforated stones were regarded as sacred, so that passing through -them was supposed to cure disease. Whether men and women, or children -only, passed through the hole depended upon its size. But a hole large -enough for a head to be inserted was good for head complaints. - -The wells, rivers, and lakes used by the priests were, as holy places, -also invested with curative properties, and offerings of garments -(skins?), and pins to fasten them on, as well as bread and wine and -cheese, were made at these places to the priests. - -The fact that the tree on which the garment was hung was either a rowan -or a thorn shows that these offerings commenced as early as the -May-November worship. - -The holed stones, besides being curative, were in long after years, -when marriage had been instituted, used for the interchange of marriage -vows by clasping hands through the opening. - -The cups for the light would also be sacred objects; and many of them -have been since used for holy water. - -The cursus at Stonehenge and the avenues on Dartmoor may be regarded as -evidences that sacred processions formed part of the ceremonial on the -holy days, but sacrifices and sacred ceremonials were not alone in -question; many authors have told us that feasts, games and races were -not forgotten. This, so far as racing is concerned, is proved, I think, -by the facts that the cursus at Stonehenge is 10,000 feet long and 350 -feet broad, that it occupies a valley between two hills, thus permitting -of the presence of thousands of spectators, and that our horses are -still decked in gaudy trappings on May Day. - -Nor is this all. It is hard to understand some of the folklore and -tradition unless we recognise that at a time before marriage was -instituted, at some of the sacred festivals the intercourse of the sexes -was permitted if not encouraged. This view is strengthened by the -researches of Westermarck[128] and Rhys.[129] Given such a practice, the -origin of matriarchal customs and of the _couvade_ is at once explained; -and it is clear that the charges against the Druids of special cruelty -and impurity must be withdrawn. Their sacrifices and customs were those -common to all priesthoods in the ancient world. - -I have shown that some circles used in the worship of the May year were -in operation 2200 B.C., and that there was the introduction of a new -cult about 1600 B.C., or shortly afterwards, in southern Britain, so -definite that the changes in the chief orientation lines in the stone -circles can be traced. - -To the worship of the sun in May, August, November and February was -added a solstitial worship in June and December. - -The associated phenomena are that the May-November Balder and Beltaine -cult made much of the rowan and may thorn. The June-December cult -brought the worship of the mistletoe. - -The flowering of the rowan and thorntree in May, and their berries in -early November, made them the most appropriate and striking floral -accompaniments of the May and November worships, and the same ideas -would point to a similar use of the mistletoe in June and December. - -The fact that the June-December cult succeeded and largely replaced the -May-November one could hardly have been put in a cryptic and poetic -statement more happily than it appears in folklore: Balder was killed by -mistletoe. - -This change of cult may be due to the intrusion of a new tribe, but I am -inclined to attribute it to a new view taken by the priests themselves -due to a greater knowledge, among it being the determination, in Egypt, -of the true length of the year which could be observed by the recurrence -of the solstices, and of the intervals between the festivals reckoned in -days. - -However this may have been, all the old practices and superstitions -were retained, only the time of year at which they took place was -changed. As the change of cult was slow, in any one locality the -celebrations would be continued at _both_ times of the year, and for -long both sets of holidays were retained. - -Since I have shewn that the solstitial worship came last, traces of -this, as a rule, would be most obvious in places where it eventually -prevailed over the cult of the May year. In such places the absence of -traces of the May festival would be no valid argument against its former -prevalence. In other places, like Scotland, where the solstitial cult -was apparently introduced late and was never prevalent, we should expect -strong traces of the May worship, and, as a matter of fact, it is very -evident in the folk lore and customs of Scotland; even the old May year -quarter days are still maintained. - -Between the years 2300 B.C. and 1600 B.C., whether we are dealing with -the same race of immigrants or not, we pass from unhewn to worked -stones. The method of this working and its results have been admirably -shown to us by Prof. Gowland’s explorations at Stonehenge. - -From the tables, given in Chap. XXVIII, it can be seen that, so far as -the present evidence goes, there was a pretty definite time--about 2300 -B.C.--of beginning the astronomical work at the chief monuments; -Cornwall came first, Dartmoor was next. - -Almost as marked as the simultaneous beginning are the dates of ending -the observations, if we may judge of the time of ending by the fact that -the precessional changes in the star places were no longer marked by the -marking out of new sight lines. - -The clock-star work was the first to go, about 1500 B.C. The May-warning -stars followed pretty quickly. - -We may say, then, that we have full evidence of astronomical activity of -all kinds at the circles for a period of some 700 years. - -What prevented its continuance on the old lines? It may have been that -the invention of some other method of telling time by night had rendered -the old methods of observation, and therefore the apparatus to carry -them on, no longer necessary. - -On the other hand, it may have been that some new race, less -astronomically inclined, had swept over the land. - -I am inclined to take the former view. It is quite certain that for the -clock-stars other observations besides those on the horizon would soon -have suggested themselves for determining the lapse of time during the -night. The old, high, bleak, treeless moorlands might then in process of -time have been gradually forsaken, and life may have gone on in valleys -and even in sheltered woods, except on the chief festivals. When this -was so astronomy and superstition would give way to politics and other -new human interests, and the priests would become in a wider sense the -leaders and the teachers of the more highly organised community. - -It is clear that in later days as at the commencement they were still -ahead in the knowledge of the time. “Hi terrae mundique magnitudinem et -formam, motus coeli ac siderum, ac quod dii velunt sciere profitentur” -is Pomponius Mela’s statement concerning them.[130] From 1500 B.C. to -Cæsar’s time is a long interval, and yet the astronomical skill of the -so-called Druids, who beyond all question were the descendants of our -astronomical-priests, was then a matter of common repute. Cæsar’s -account of the Druids in Gaul (_Bello Gallico_, vi. c. 13, 14, 15) is -extremely interesting because it indicates, I think, that the Druid -culture had not passed through Gaul and had therefore been waterborne to -Britain, whither the Gauls therefore went to study it.[131] - -Simultaneously with the non-use of the ancient stones, we may imagine -that the priests--of ever-increasing importance--no longer dwelt in -their cromlechs, but, rather, occupied such buildings as those which -remain at Chysoister, and from this date it is possible that burials may -have taken place in some of the mounds then given up as dwelling places. -As sacred places they were subsequently used for burials, as Westminster -Abbey has been; but burials were not the object of their erection.[132] -This new habit may have started the practice of cist burial by later -people in barrows thrown up for that special purpose. - -I cannot close this Chapter without expressing my admiration of the -learning and acumen displayed by Dr. Borlase in his treatment of the -subject of the Druids in his _History of Cornwall_, published in 1769; I -find he has anticipated me in suggesting that the hollowed stones were -used for fires. It is clear, now that the monuments have been dated, -that the astronomical knowledge referred to by Cæsar and Pomponius Mela -was no new importation; if, therefore, the present view of ethnologists -that the Celtic intrusion took place about 1000 B.C. is correct, it is -certain the Celts brought no higher intelligence with them than was -possessed by those whom they found here; nor is this to be expected if, -as the inquiry has suggested, the latter were the representatives of the -highest civilisation of the East with which possibly the former had -never been brought into contact. - -[127] _The Testimony of Tradition._ - -[128] _History of Human Marriage_, Chapter II. - -[129] _Celtic Folklore_, ii., 654. - -[130] _Pomp. Mela_, Lib. II. c. 2. I have already (p. 52) quoted Cæsar’s -testimony to the same effect. - -[131] “Disciplina in Britannia reperta, atque in Galliam translata esse -existimatur.”--_C. Bell. Gall._ lib. vi. c. 13. This “discipline” also -included magic according to Pliny. “Britannia hodie eam (_i.e._ Magiam) -attonite celebrat tantis ceremoniis, ut eam Persis dedisse videri -possit” (lib. xxx. c. 1.) - -[132] Bertrand and Reinach, _Les Celtes et les Gaulois dans les Vallées -du Pô et du Danube_, p. 82. Tregellis, “Stone Circles in Cornwall.” -_Trans._ Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society, 1893-4. - - - - -APPENDICES - - -I. DETAILS OF THE THEODOLITE OBSERVATIONS AT STONEHENGE - -The instrument chiefly employed was a six-inch transit theodolite by -Cooke with verniers reading to 20″ in altitude and azimuth. Most of the -observations were made at two points very near the axis, which may be -designated by _a_, _b_. Station _a_ was at a distance of 61 feet to the -south-west of the centre of the temple, and _b_ 364 feet to the -north-east. The distance from the centre of Stonehenge to Salisbury -Spire being 41,981 feet, the calculated corrections for parallax at the -points of observation with reference to Salisbury Spire are:-- - - Station _a_ + 4′ 12″. - „ _b_ - 25′ 20″. - -(1) _Relative Azimuths._--Theodolite at station _a_-- - - Salisbury Spire 0° 0′ 0″ - N. side of opening in N.E. trilithon of the external ring 237 27 40 - Tree in middle of clump on Sidbury Hill 237 40 20 - Highest point of Friar’s Heel 239 47 25 - S. side of opening in N.E. trilithon 240 14 40 - Middle „ „ „ 238 51 10 - -(2) _Absolute Azimuths._--All the azimuths were referred to that of -Salisbury Spire, the azimuth of which was determined by observations of -the Sun and Polaris. - -(_a_) _Observation of Sun_, _June 23, 1901_, 3.30-3.40 P.M. - - Mean of observed altitudes of Sun 41° 26′ 35″ - Refraction -1′ 4″} 0 0 58 - Parallax + 6 } - ----------- - True altitude of Sun’s centre 41 25 37 - -Latitude = 51° 10′ 42″. Sun’s declination = 23° 26′ 43″. Using the -formula - - sin ¹⁄₂(Δ + _c_ - _z_) sin ¹⁄₂(Δ + _z_ - _c_) - cos² ¹⁄₂ A = -------------------------------------------- - sin _c_ . sin _z_ - - where A = azimuth from south, Δ = polar distance, _c_ = co-latitude, - and _z_ = zenith distance, - -we get - - Azimuth of Sun S. 75° 30′ 30″ W. - Mean circle reading on Sun 84 38 35 - ---------- - Azimuth of Salisbury Spire S. 9 8 5 E. - -(_b_) _Observations of Polaris._--June 23, 1901. Time of greatest -easterly elongation, calculated by formula cos _h_ = tan φ cot δ, is -G.M.T. 1.34 A.M. - -Azimuth at greatest easterly elongation, calculated by the formula - - sin A = cos δ sec φ - -is 181° 57′ 0″ from south. - - Observed maximum reading of circle 256° 33′ 0″ - True azimuth of star 181 57 0 - ---------- - Meridian (S.) reading of circle 74 36 0 - Circle reading on Salisbury Spire 65 28 0 - --------- - Azimuth of Salisbury Spire S. 9 8 0 E. - -The mean of the two determinations gives for the azimuth of Salisbury -Spire S. 9° 8′ 2″ E. This result agrees well with the value of the -azimuth communicated by the Ordnance Survey Office, namely, 9° 4′ 8″ -from the centre of the circle, which being corrected by +4′ 12″ for the -position of station _a_, is increased to 9° 8′ 20″. - -Hence, from the point of observation _a_, 9° 8′ 20″ has been adopted as -the azimuth of Salisbury Spire. - -We thus get the following absolute values of the principal azimuths from -the point _a_: - - Highest point of Friar’s Heel 239° 47′ 25″ - -9 8 20 - -------------- - 230 39 5 - or N. 50 39 5 E. - Middle of opening in N.E. trilithon 238 51 10 - -9 8 20 - -------------- - 229 42 50 - or N. 49 42 50 E. - -The difference of 8¹⁄₂′ between this and the assumed axis 49° 34′ 18″ is -so slight that considering the indirect method which has necessarily -been employed in determining the axis of the temple from the position of -the leaning stone, and the want of verticality, parallelism and -straightness of the inner surfaces of the opening in the N.E. trilithon, -we are justified in adopting the azimuth of the avenue as that of the -temple. - -Next, with regard to the determination of the azimuth of the avenue as -indicated by the line of pegs to which reference is made on p. 65. The -small angle between the nearest pegs A and B (which are supposed to be -parallel to the axis of the avenue), observed from station _a_, was -measured, and the corresponding calculated correction was applied to the -ascertained true bearing of the more distant peg B. - -Thus - - True bearing of peg B = 238° 35′ 0″ - Calculated correction to peg A = 0 12 8 - ------------ - True bearing of line AB 238 47 8 - Bearing of Salisbury Spire 189 8 20 - ------------ - True bearing of a line parallel to - the axis of near part of avenue N. 49 38 48 E. - -The mean of the three independent determinations by another observer was -49° 39′ 6″. - -The calculated bearing of the more distant part of the axis of the -avenue determined in the same manner by observations from station _b_ is -49° 32′ 54″. The mean of the two, namely, 49° 35′ 51″, justifies the -adoption of the value 49° 34′ 18″ as given by the Ordnance Survey for -the straight line from Stonehenge to Sidbury Hill. - -(3) _Observation of Sunrise._--On the morning of June 25, 1901, sunrise -was observed from station _a_, and a setting made as nearly as possible -on the middle of the visible segment as soon as could be done after the -Sun appeared. - -The telescope was then set on the highest point of the Friar’s Heel, and -the latter was found to be 8′ 40″ south of the Sun. - - Sun’s declination at time of observation 23° 25′ 5″ - Elevation of horizon at point of sunrise 0 35 48 - Assuming 2′ vertical of Sun to have been visible at - observation, we have apparent altitude of Sun’s upper - limb 0 37 48 - Refraction - 27′ 27″ } -0 27 18 - Parallax + 0 9 } - ----------- - True altitude of upper limb 0 10 30 - Sun’s semi-diameter 0 15 46 - ----------- - True altitude of Sun’s centre -0 5 16 - - From this it results that the true azimuth of - the Sun at the time of observation = N. 50° 30′ 54″ E. - - And since azimuth of Friar’s Heel = 50 39 5 - ----------- - 2′ of sunrise should be N. of Friar’s Heel 0 8 11 - Observed difference of azimuth = 0 8 40 - ----------- - Observed - calculated = 0 0 29 - -The observation thus agrees with calculation, if we suppose about 2′ of -the Sun’s limb to have been above the horizon when it was made, and -therefore substantially confirms the azimuth above given of the Friar’s -Heel and generally the data adopted. - - -II. HINTS ON MAKING, AND METHOD OF REDUCING, THE FIELD OBSERVATIONS. - -It will probably be found useful if I give here a few hints as to the -precautions which must be taken in making the field observations and an -example of their reduction to an astronomical basis. - -For the _azimuths_ of the sight-lines the investigator of these -monuments cannot do better than use the 25-inch, or 6-inch, maps -published by the Ordnance Survey. Their accuracy is of a very high order -and is not likely to be exceeded, even if approached, by any casual -observer having to make his own special arrangements for correct time -before he can begin his surveying work. - -In some cases, however, it may be found that the Survey has not included -every outstanding stone which may be found by an investigator on making -a careful search; many of the stones are covered by gorse, &c., and are -not, therefore, easily found. - -In such cases the azimuth of some object that is marked on the map -should be taken as a reference line and the difference of azimuth -between that and the unmarked objects determined. By this means the -azimuths of all the sight-lines may be obtained. - -When using the 25-inch maps for determining azimuths it must be borne in -mind that the side-lines are not, necessarily, due north and south. The -Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, Southampton, will probably on -application state the correction to be applied to the azimuths on this -account, and this should be applied, of course, to each of the values -obtained. - -If for any reason it is found necessary or desirable to make -observations of the azimuths independently of the Ordnance Survey, full -instructions as to the method of procedure may be found in an -inexpensive instruction book[133] issued by the Board of Education. The -instructions given on p. 49, § 3, are most generally applicable, and -the form on p. 76 will be found very handy for recording and reducing -the observations. - -In making observations of the angular elevation of the horizon a good -theodolite is essential. Both verniers should be read, the mean taken, -and then the telescope should be reversed in its Ys, reset, and both -readings taken again. One setting and reading are of little use. - -The Ordnance Survey maps may also be employed _in a preliminary -reconnaissance_ to obtain approximate values of the horizon elevations. -This may be done by measuring the distances and contour-lines shown on -the one-inch maps. This method, however, is only very roughly -approximate owing to the fact that sharp but very local elevations close -to the monuments may not appear on these maps and yet be of sufficient -magnitude to cause large errors in the results. - -Where trees, houses, &c., top the horizon, they should, of course, be -neglected and the elevation of the ground level, at that spot, taken. -Should the top of the azimuth mark (stone, &c.) show above the actual -horizon, its elevation should be recorded and not that of the horizon. - -Having measured the angular elevation of the horizon along the -sight-line, it is necessary to convert this into actual zenith distance -and to apply the refraction correction before the computations of -declination can be made. - -The process of doing this and of calculating the declination will be -gathered from the examples given below:-- - - _Data._ - - Monument:--E. circle Tregeseal, lat. 50° 8′ N. _i.e._ colat = 39° 52′. - - Alignment. Centre of circle to Longstone. - - Az. (from 25″ Ordnance Map). N. 66° 38′ E. - - Elevation of horizon (measured) 2° 10′. - -Reference to the May-Sun curve, given on p. 263, indicates that this is -probably an alignment to the sunrise on May morning. Therefore, in -determining the zenith distance, the correction for the sun’s -semi-diameter (16′) must be taken into account, allowing that 2′ of the -sun’s disc was above the horizon when the observation was made. - -_Zenith Distance_:-- - - Zenith distance of true horizon = 90° - „ „ local „ = 90° - 2° 10′ = 87° 50′ - -Bessel’s tables show that refraction, at altitude 2° 10′, raises sun -17′. If 2′ of sun’s limb is above horizon, sun’s centre is 14′ below. - -∴ True zenith distance of sun’s centre = 87° 50′ + 17′ + 14′ = 88° 21′. - -_Declination_:-- - -Having obtained the zenith distance, and the azimuth, the latitude being -known, the N.P.D. (North Polar Distance) of the sun may be found by the -following equations:-- - - (1) tan θ = tan _z_. cos A, - -where θ is the subsidiary angle which must be determined for the purpose -of computation, _z_ is the true zenith distance, and A is the distance -from the _North_ point. - - cos _z_. cos (c - θ)[134] - (2) cos Δ = -------------------------, - cos θ - -where Δ is the N.P.D. of the celestial object, and _c_ is the colatitude -(90° - lat.) of the place of observation. - -In the example taken this gives us-- - - (1) tan θ = tan 88° 21′. cos 66° 38′ - θ = 85° 50′ 45″ - - cos 88° 21′. cos (39° 52′ - 85° 50′ 45″) - (2) cos Δ = ---------------------------------------- - cos 85° 50′ 45″ - - Δ = 73° 57′ 50″ - - Declination, δ, = (90° - Δ) = 16° 2′ 10″ N. - -Reference to the Nautical Almanac shows that this is the sun’s -declination on May 5 and August 9. We may therefore conclude that the -Long-stone was erected to mark the May sunrise, as seen from the -Tregeseal Circle. - -Had we been dealing with a star, instead of the sun, the only -modification necessary in the process of calculating the declination -would have been to omit the semi-diameter correction of 14′. - -Having obtained a declination, we must refer to the curves given on pp. -115-6 in order to see if there is any star which fits it, and to find -the date. - -Take, for example, the case of the apex of Carn Kenidjack, as seen from -the Tregeseal circle-- - -Az. = N. 12° 8′ E.; hill = 4° 0.′ lat. = 50° 8′. - -This gives us a declination of 42° 33′ N., and a reference to the -stellar-declination curves (p. 115-6) shows that Arcturus had that -declination in 2330 B.C. From the table given on p. 117, we see that at -that epoch Arcturus acted as warning-star for the August sun. - -In cases where the elevation of the horizon is 30′, or in preliminary -examinations, where it may be assumed as 30′, the refraction exactly -counterbalances the hill, and therefore the true zenith distance at the -moment of star-rise is 90°. Hence the N.P.D. of the star may be found -from the following simple equation-- - - (3) cos Δ = cos A cos λ - -where Δ and A have the same significance as before and λ is the -_latitude_ of the place of observation. - -[133] _Demonstrations and Practical Work in Astronomical Physics at the -Royal College of Science, South Kensington._ Wyman and Sons, 1_s._ - -[134] cos (c - θ) = cos -(c - θ). - - - - -INDEX - - - A. - - =Abydos=, clock star at, 297. - - =Africa=, sacred stones and trees, 235. - - =Aldebaran=, _see_ Tauri α. - - “=Allée couverte=,” 41, 317. - - “=All Hallows=,” 187; - Irish and Welsh equivalents, 195. - - “=All Souls=,” change of date, 186. - - =Alsia well=, 227. - - =Altar stone=, Stonehenge, 81; - Aberdeen type, 36. - - =Amen-Rā=, 2; - temple of, 55, 297. - - =Amplitude=, 10, 111. - - =Animals=, sacrifices of, 197. - - =Annu=, temples at, 296, 297, 304. - - =Antares=, _see_ Scorpionis α. - - =Antiquaries=, Society of, 69, 133. - - =Antrobus=, Sir Edward, 49, 69, 94. - - =Apollo=, 52. - - =Arabia=, sacred stones and trees in, 235. - - =Archæology=, relation to astronomy, 4. - - =Arcturus=, _see_ Boötis α. - - =Aries=, 15, 315. - - =Armenia=, calendar in, 29; - fire festival in, 191. - - =Aryans=, 40, 236. - - =Ascension Day=, 185, 231. - - _Asherah_, 245, 257. - - =Ash Wednesday=, 182. - - =Assacombe=, 158. - - =Assyria=, sacred trees, &c., 245. - - =Astronomer-priests=, procedure of, 110, 316. - - =Athens=, May-day worship, 108; - temples at, 32; - warning stars at, 311. - - =August-festival=, dates of, 185; - in Brittany, 199; - in Ireland and Wales, 186; - warning-stars, 311. - - =Aurigae= α (=Capella=), clock- and warning-star, 117, 272, 290, 292, - 293, 298, 299, 304, 312; - associated with Ptah, 304. - - =Avebury=, cove at, 37. - - =Avenue=, at Stonehenge, 63, 65. - - =Avenues=, in Brittany, 149; - on Dartmoor, 146, 319; - definition of, 37. - - =Axis= (=of temple=), Stonehenge, 55, 60; - Karnak, 56; - Kouyunjik, 305; - Annu, 305; - change of, 42. - - =Azimuth=, defined, 10, 111; - changes in, 122; - of May sunrise, 264. - - =Azimuth-marks=, illumination of, 110. - - - B. - - =Baal=, 197, 249, 259. - - “=Baal’s Fire=” (=Beltan=), 40. - - =Babylon=, 24, 240, 259, 295, 308; - May year in, 304. - - =Babylonians=, astronomical knowledge of, 240; - early navigators, 241. - - =Baker=, Sir Samuel, 235. - - =Balder=, 320. - - =Balfour=, Prof. Bayley, 201. - - =Ball=, Dr. Henry, 26. - - =Balus=, first king of Orkney, 259. - - =Baring-Gould=, Rev. S., 149, 190, 194, 198, 213, 215, 239, 256. - - =Barnstone-Maeshowe= (=Orkney=), 129. - - =Barrows=, burials in, 323; - chambered, 164, 192, 317; - date of, 78, 238; - employment of, 38, 110, 140, 268; - varieties of, 143. - - =Bartinné=, Cornwall, 219. - - =Battendon=, 158. - - =Batworthy=, avenues near, 160. - - =Bede’s well=, near Jarrow, 230. - - =Beirna-well= (=Barnwell=), 230. - - =Bell=, Mr. J., of Dundalk, 253. - - =Beltaine=, ceremonies at, 40, 197, 285, 320; - variations of, 201, 204, 218, 259. - - =Betelgeuse=, _see_ Orionis α. - - =Bethel=, 245, 255. - - =Bigswell=, 218. - - “=Blind Fiddler=,” The, 291. - - =Blisland=, Cornwall, 291. - - =Blocking-stones=, 156, 176. - - =Blow=, Mr., 69. - - “=Blue stones=,” at Stonehenge, 80, 91. - - =Bolitho=, Mr. Horton, 140, 219, 268, 270, 277, 282, 287, 289, 291. - - =Bonfires=, _see_ Fires. - - =Bookan=, Ring of, 128. - - =Boötis α= (=Arcturus=), 117, 137, 150, 151, 156, 158, 159, 160, 161, - 163, 174, 273, 280, 299, 301, 311, 314. - - =Borlase=, Dr., 134, 218, 219, 234, 254, 255, 267, 289, 323. - - =Borlase=, Mr. W. C., 37, 213, 266, 274. - - =Boscawen-Un=, 287, 290, 309, 314. - - =Boswens Common=, 282. - - =Britain=, introduction of clock-stars, 299; - May-year temples, 309; - pre-Celtic inhabitants, 250. - - =Brittany=, festivals, 198; - megalithic remains, 96; - solstitial fires, 194. - - =Britons=, Saxon slaughter of, 95. - - =Bronze-age=, 75, 78. - - =Brugsch=, 1, 296. - - =Budge=, Dr., 296. - - =Burials=, 146, 164; - in mounds, 323. - - =Burton=, Captain, 235. - - - C. - - =Cæsar=, 52, 323, 324. - - =Cairns=, employment of, 38, 142, 164, 192, 289; - Biblical references to, 244; - burials in, 252; - orientation of, 254. - - =Calabria=, 312. - - =Calends=, the winter, 195. - - =Calendar=, changes in the, 23; - Armenian and Turkish, 29; - Celtic, 186; - Koptic, 28. - - =Camden=, 289. - - =Canaan=, sacred stones and trees in, 245. - - =Canis Majoris= α (=Sirius=), 108, 117, 143, 311. - - =Candlemas=, 143, 184, 185, 188, 191. - - =Canopus=, 18. - - =Capella=, _see_ Aurigae α. - - =Capricorni= α, 117. - - =Caradon Hill=, 143. - - =Carn Kenidjack=, 278. - - =Carnac=, bonfires at, 40; - menhirs at, 98, 105, 239; - sacrifices at, 199. - - =Carruthers=, Mr., 69. - - =Castallack=, Cornwall, 267. - - =Castor=, _see_ Geminorum. - - =Cattle=, drenching in holy wells, 230. - - =Caves=, purpose of, 244, 254. - - “=Cave of Elephanta=,” 256. - - =Celts=, calendar of the, 186, 195; - intrusion of, 324; - worship, 32. - - =Ceylon=, 235. - - =Chabas=, 1. - - =Chaldea=, 12. - - =Challacombe=, 158; - multiple avenue, 149, 159; - solstitial worship, 314. - - =Chapel Euny=, Cornwall, 219, 226. - - =Chaucer=, 203. - - “=Cheesewring, The=,” 134. - - =Chichén-Itzá=, 32, 308. - - “=Choir Gawr=,” 53. - - =Chûn Castle=, Cornwall, 284, 286. - - =Chûn Cromlech=, Cornwall, 284. - - =Churches=, replaced stone circles, 219. - - =Chysoister=, 323. - - =Circles (stone)=, employment of, 232, 316; - associated with wells, 228; - classification of, 36, 37; - star observations in, 109. - - =Cists=, 164; - burials in, 323. - - =Clock-stars=, employment of, 108, 294, 296, 298, 299, 304, 308; - fall into disuse, 322. - - =Coinage=, early British, 52. - - =Collimation-marks=, 316. - - =Constantine=, Cornwall, 269. - - =Cord=, The stretching of the, 1. - - =Cormac=, Archbishop, 181, 189, 195, 204. - - =Cornish=, Mr., 270, 282. - - =Cornwall=, astronomical conditions in, 262; - azimuths of May sunrise, 264; - clock-stars in, 299; - May bathing in, 227; - stone circles in, 36, 262; - wells and circles in, 219. - - =Cosens=, Bishop, of Durham, 184. - - =Council of Nice=, 23. - - _Couvade_, 319. - - =Coves=, 37, 316. - - =Cresset-stones=, 190, 256. - - =Cromlechs=, defined, 37; - employed, 101, 102, 161, 253; - in cairns, 253; - uses of, 110, 141, 245, 252, 317. - - =Crosses (stone)=, old monoliths, 141, 273. - - =Crozon=, monuments at, 101. - - =Cult=, change of, 320. - - “=Cultus Lapidum=,” denouncement of, 39. - - =Cumberland=, stone circle in, 36. - - =Cunnington=, Mr., 79, 81, 90. - - =Cups=, for containing lamps, 319. - - =Cursiter=, Mr., 35, 123. - - =Cursus=, The, at Stonehenge, 154, 155, 319. - - - D. - - =Danams=, 90. - - =Danckworth=, Dr., 111. - - =Dartmoor=, avenues on, 146, 151, 319. - - =Davies=, Mr., 27, 95. - - =Declination=, defined, 10; - change of, 111. - - =Deepdale=, 132. - - =Dekkan=, sacred stones and trees in the, 235. - - =Denderah=, 295, 297. - - _Dessil_, pre-Christian custom, 234. - - =Devoir=, Lieut., 98, 104, 105, 145, 152. - - =Diana=, temple of, 31. - - =Diodorus Siculus=, 51. - - =Diseases=, cure of, 318. - - =Divination=, at holy well, 226. - - =Dolmens=, 255, 316; - derivation of name, 38; - _à galerie_, described, 38; - _à l’allée couverte_, described, 38; - in tumuli, 253; - in Ireland, 37; - purpose of, 41, 252, 254; - Semitic origin of, 245. - - =Down Tor=, May-year at, 309. - - =Draconis= γ, 295, 296, 299, 305. - - =Drizzlecombe=, 158. - - =Druids=, arrival of, 27; - customs of, 259, 319, 323; - mistletoe and the, 210; - teachings of, 52. - - =Dümichen=, 1. - - =Durandus=, 183, 192. - - =Durham=, cathedral customs at, 184. - - =Dwellings of priests=, 317, 323. - - =Dymond=, Mr., 166, 171. - - - E. - - =Easter=, 40, 182, 183; - May festival replaced by, 231; - variation of date, 24. - - =Ecliptic=, change of obliquity, 15. - - =Eden Hall=, 227. - - =Edgar= (A.D. 963), 233. - - =Edmonds=, Mr., 267. - - =Egypt=, astronomy in, 249; - calendar, 28; - clock-stars, 295; - equinoxes in Lower, 108; - May-year, 304; - sequence of worships, 312; - solstices, 258; - temple azimuths, 298; - year-gods, of, 259. - - =Elias= (Elijah), or Al-Khidr or El-Khidr, 29, 257. - - =Ephesus=, 32. - - =Equator=, apparent path of stars at, 7. - - =Equinoxes=, the, 13, 18, 108, 211; - temples for, 32; - in Britain, 64, 315. - - =Erechtheum=, the older, 31, 108, 142. - - =Euphrates=, rise of the, 30. - - =Evans=, Sir John, 76. - - - F. - - =Falmouth=, Lord, 268. - - =Farr=, Sutherlandshire, 229. - - =Farmer=, Prof., 27. - - =Feasts=, 187, 319. - - =February=, warning-stars in Britain, 312. - - =Ferguson=, Dr., 110. - - =Fernworthy=, avenues at, 158. - - =Festivals=, 182, 185, 258; - Cornish, 139; - May, 40, 185, 196, 198, 226, 247, 258. - - =Fires=, at various seasons, 30, 32, 39, 183, 184, 189, 194, 204; - Druidical, 181; - in cromlechs, 317; - in hollowed stones, 323; - pagan, 191; - Roman Catholic and Protestant, 182; - sacred, 195, 248, 256; - customs, 190, 199; - festivals, 194; - rites, 192; - signals, 21; - wheels, 193. - - =Flints=, 79. - - =Florence=, fire customs, 193. - - =Folklore=, 179; - Babylonian and Indian, 242; - Semitic and British, 246. - - =Fosseway=, the Great, 147. - - =Fougou=, 192, 267. - - =Fountains=, 246. - - =France=, place names derived from wells, 234. - - =Frazer=, Dr., 26, 28, 40, 189, 209. - - =Friar’s Heel=, the (Stonehenge), 53, 60, 68, 90, 93. - - “=Furry Dance=,” the, 206. - - - G. - - =Gaillard=, 96, 104. - - “=Galgal=,” description of, 38. - - =Games=, 319. - - =Garments=, offerings of, 318. - - =Gauls=, 323. - - =Gavr Innis=, 38, 255. - - =Gemini=, 15. - - =Geminorum=, α, β and γ, 117. - - =Geoffrey of Monmouth=, 52. - - =Glamorgan=, rites at holy wells, 223. - - =Globe=, celestial, 8; - precessional, 114. - - =Goidels=, 237. - - =Gomme=, Mr., 195, 213, 216, 221, 222, 227, 236, 238. - - “=Goon-Rith=,” 266. - - =Gould=, Baring-, _see_ Baring-Gould. - - =Gowland=, Prof., 3, 45, 69, 72, 74, 75, 76, 80, 82, 87, 91, 321. - - =Greece=, astronomical observations in, 34, 298, 311; - divisions of year in, 20, 304; - temples in, 34, 306, 311, 313, 315; - temple building in, 299. - - =Grimm=, 26, 211. - - =Grovely Castle=, 66. - - =Groves=, Biblical reference to, 245; - sacred, 27, 258. - - =Giraldus Cambrensis=, 52. - - =Gudea= (2500 B.C.), 242. - - =Guest=, Dr., 95. - - - H. - - =Hall=, Mr., 237. - - =Halley=, 54. - - =Hallowe’en=, 125, 143, 201, 311. - - =Hallowmass=, 187. - - =Hameldon=, 147. - - =Hammerstones=, and axes, 74. - - =Harrison=, Mr., 50. - - =Har-Tor=, 158. - - =Harvest=, season of, 139, 304. - - “=Hautville’s Quoit=,” 167, 168. - - =Hawthorn=, 201, 202, 221. - - =Hawk’s Tor=, 291. - - =Hazlitt=, 183, 197, 239. - - =Hecatæus=, of Abdera, 51. - - =Hecatompedon=, the, 31, 108, 154. - - =Helios=, 29. - - =Hellard=, Colonel, 270. - - =Helston=, May-day at, 205. - - =Henderson=, Capt., 140, 270, 274. - - =Henry of Huntingdon=, 52. - - =Hermes=, 259. - - =Hieroglyphics=, 38. - - =Higgins=, Mr., 62. - - =Hills=, actual and angular heights, 112; - effects of, 120, 264, 291. - - =Hoare=, Sir R. C., 61, 149. - - =Holed stones=, _see_ stones. - - =Hollantide=, 188. - - =Holne= (Dartmoor), 195. - - =Holy of Holies=, 16, 55. - - =Holy Thursday=, 185. - - =Honeysuckle=, 207. - - =Hook Lake=, 158. - - =Hope=, 213, 228, 231, 233. - - =Horizon=, angular elevation of, 112; - early employment of, 2, 5, 250. - - =Horses=, at May-day festivals, 319. - - =Horus=, 32, 195. - - =Huc=, 236. - - “=Hurlers=, The” (Cornwall), 36, 133, 134, 135; - alignments at, 137; - change of warning star at, 311; - dates of construction, 139; - May-year at, 309; - solstices at, 314. - - =Hyperboreans=, 51. - - - I. - - =Ihering=, 241. - - =Illuminations=, collimation-mark, 317; - May-day, 204. - - =Implements=, flint, 74. - - =Inverness=, type of circle at, 36. - - =Ireland=, division of the year in, 30; - festivals in, 187, 197, 309. - - =Isis=, 32. - - =Isle-of-Man=, festivals in the, 187, 207; - wells and circles in the, 219. - - - J. - - =James=, Sir Henry, 219. - - =Japan=, 3, 84. - - =Jews=, equinoctial festivals among the, 258. - - =Johnston=, Colonel, 111, 129, 135, 152, 166. - - =Jones=, Inigo, 53. - - =Jones=, Prof. J. M., 250. - - =Josephus=, 32. - - =Judd=, Prof., 80, 91. - - =June-Year=, 93, 251. - - - K. - - =Karnak=, temples at, 55, 297. - - =Kenidjack=, Carn, 278. - - =Kerenneur=, 105. - - =Kerlescant=, 39. - - =Kerloas=, 105. - - =Keswick=, 35, 111. - - =King’s Teignton=, 196. - - =Kingstone=, The, at Roll-Rich (Oxon.), 36. - - =Kit’s Coity House=, 37. - - =Knightlow Hill= (Coventry), 188. - - =Knut= (A.D. 1018), 233. - - =Kouyunjik=, 308, 322. - - - L. - - “=Lammas=,” 186. - - =Lanyon=, 273. - - =Lanyon Quoit=, 280. - - =Latitude=, results of, 291. - - =Layard=, Sir H., 241, 307, 308. - - =Lent=, origin and customs of, 183, 184. - - =Leslie=, Colonel, 218, 235, 255. - - =Lewis=, Mr. A. L., 35, 123, 176. - - =Lockyer=, Dr., 111. - - =Longstones=, found in barrows, 268. - - =Longstone=, The (Tregeseal), 278, 280, 309, 314. - - “=Lug=,” the Irish Sun-God, 186. - - =Lugnassad=, Irish feast, 186. - - =Lukis=, Dr., 37, 133, 144, 150, 253, 265, 287, 291, 292. - - =Luxor=, 297. - - =Lyrae=, α (Vega), 297, 315. - - - M. - - =MacRitchie=, Mr., 192, 317. - - =Madron (Cornwall)=, 225. - - =Maeshowe (Orkney)=, 35, 123, 125, 253, 254; - date of, 129; - use of, 192. - - =Markab=, _see_ Pegasi α. - - =Marriage=, customs, 285, 319. - - =Martin=, St., in Germany, 187. - - =Martinmas=, old, 188. - - =Maudslay=, Mr., 32, 308. - - =Mauls=, 75. - - =May-day=, 108, 201, 204. - - =May-eve=, 95, 207. - - =May-festivals=, 40, 185, 196, 198, 226, 247, 258. - - =Maypole=, 205, 227. - - =May-sun=, 36, 151, 262, 263. - - =May-thorn=, 202, 212, 320. - - =May-year=, the, 19, 181, 232, 304, 320; - divisions of, 263, 304; - provided for, 18, 35, 64, 93, 98, 104, 105, 127, 174, 241, 247, 271, - 280, 284, 286, 290, 304, 306, 307, 308, 309, 321; - relation to June-year, 106, 230, 251, 261; - warning-stars, 117, 142; - worship, 95, 96, 109. - - =Mecca=, 245. - - _Meinrethydd_ (May-eve), 95. - - =Melon=, island of, 102. - - =Memphis=, Capella at, 304; - May-worship, 18; - temples at, 297, 298. - - =Mên-an-tol=, 284, 286. - - =Ménec (Le)=, 39, 98, 159. - - =Menhirs=, 37, 105; - ceremonies at, 256; - in Brittany, 96; - near holy wells, 225; - various, 39, 101, 102, 103, 152, 157. - - =Men-Peru=, 269. - - =Menu or Min=, temple of, 29, 31, 108, 142, 297, 298, 305; - associated with Spica, 299. - - =Mercury=, 259. - - =Merrivale=, avenues at, 147, 153, 154; - May-year at, 309. - - =Merry Maidens=, 265; - alignments at, 271, 276; - clock-stars at, 302; - May-year at, 309. - - =Midsummer=, ceremonies at, 231, 285. - - =Midsummer eve=, mistletoe on, 210. - - =Mihr=, Armenian fire-god, 191. - - =Mistletoe=, 26, 27, 201, 210, 320; - as a medicine, 210; - “Oil of St. John,” 210; - Swedish notions concerning, 209. - - =Mitchell’s Egyptian Calendar=, 28. - - =Molech=, 248. - - =Molene Island=, 103. - - =Monoliths=, 81, 216, 244. - - =Montelius=, 76. - - =Moon=, employment of the, 18; - worship of the, 249. - - =Morbihan=, alignments at, 100. - - =Morgan=, Lloyd, Prof., 167, 170, 176. - - =Morgan=, Mr., 53. - - =Morrow=, Mr., 171, 174. - - =Mountain-ash=, 206. - - =Mungo-Park=, 235. - - =Murray=, Mr. George, 27. - - =Murray=, Mr. John, 308. - - =Mut=, temple of, 297. - - =Mythology=, origin of, 19. - - - N. - - =Nantwich=, 221. - - =Naos=, The, at Stonehenge, 16, 41, 63, 95. - - =Need fires=, 190. - - =Neolithic-age=, 75, 76. - - =New-Grange (Meath)=, 38. - - =Newton’s herbal=, 212. - - =New-year=, change of date, 194. - - =Night-dial=, use of, 302. - - =Nile=, 3, 18, 312. - - =Nimrood=, temples at, 241, 308. - - “=Nine Maidens=” (The), 292, 293. - - =Nineveh=, May temple at, 307. - - =Norwich=, sun-wheel at, 193. - - _Nos Galan-galaf_, 187. - - _Nos Glamau_, 207. - - =November=, festival, 186, 195, 290, 311. - - - O. - - =Oak=, contiguous to sacred wells, 216. - - =Obliquity of the Ecliptic=, change of the, 15, 43. - - =Observations=, astronomical and religious, 125, 322. - - =O’Connor=, Dr., 216. - - =Odin stone=, Stenness, 127, 218, 283, 285. - - =Offerings=, at holy places, 222, 318. - - =Onston=, 132. - - =Ordeals=, 247. - - =Ordnance Survey=, 111, 253. - - =Orientation=, first use of, 18. - - =Orionis, α (Betelgeuse)=, 117, 144, 314. - - =Orkney=, 125, 259. - - =Otley=, Mr. Jonathan, 35, 111. - - =Ouseley=, Sir William, 234. - - - P. - - =Palenque=, 32, 308. - - =Palæolithic age=, 75. - - =Palm=, at vernal equinox, 211. - - =Palm Sunday=, 184, 211. - - =Panathenæa=, 31. - - =Parallelithons=, 148. - - “=Pardons=,” in Brittany, 198. - - =Parthenon=, 298. - - =Payn=, Mr. Howard, 66, 94. - - =Pegasi=, α and β, 117. - - =Pennant=, tour of Scotland, 206. - - =Penrose=, Mr., 31, 34, 38, 42, 51, 62, 78, 89, 93, 94, 109, 142, 154, - 298, 306, 310, 312, 313, 315. - - =Pentecost=, feast of, 32, 185. - - =Pepi=, 295. - - =Percy’s Northumberland Notes=, 184. - - =Perrott=, Mr., 148. - - =Persia=, rag-offerings in, 234. - - =Petrie=, Flinders, Prof., 62. - - =Pet-ser=, 2. - - =Philpot=, Mrs., 257. - - =Picks=, of deer’s-horn, 78. - - “=Pierre du Conseil=” (Lagatjar), 104. - - =Piers’= Survey of S. Ireland, 182, 229. - - =Pins=, as offerings at sacred wells, 222, 227, 258, 318. - - “=Pipers=, The,” 266, 271. - - =Pitt-Rivers=, General, 235, 236. - - =Plato=, 7. - - =Pleiades=, at British monuments, 153, 273, 274, 280, 290; - employed by Semites, 247; - elsewhere, 108, 117, 151, 155, 162, 310, 311. - - =Ploudalmezeau=, monuments at, 100. - - =Ploy-field=, the, at Holne, 196. - - =Pole=, apparent path of stars at the north, 6; - elevation of the, 9; - motion of stars, round, 300, 303. - - =Pollux=, _see_ Geminorum. - - =Pompeii=, 312. - - =Pomponius Mela=, 322, 324. - - =Pont l’Abbé=, menhirs at, 105. - - =Portugal=, place-names from wells, 234. - - =Pratt’s flowering plants=, 202, 206. - - =Precession=, effects of, 64, 295. - - =Prestwich=, Prof., 79. - - =Priests=, 316, 317. - - =Processions=, sacred, 319. - - =Ptah=, 29, 31, 298, 304. - - =Pylons=, use of, 55. - - =Pyramids=, building of, 18; - worship at, 29. - - =Pyrenees=, genii at holy-wells, 234. - - _Pyrus aucuparia_, 201. - - - Q. - - =Quicken-tree=, 206, 208. - - =Quiller-Couch=, holy wells, 213, 216, 223, 226, 228. - - =Quoit=, definition of, 38. - - - R. - - =Racing=, at festivals, 319. - - =Rags=, as offerings in sacred places, 216, 222, 223, 225. - - =Ram Feast=, at Holne (Dartmoor), 196. - - =Read=, Mr. C. H., 237. - - =Refraction=, effect of, 112, 120. - - =Rent-day=, date of, in Ireland, 30. - - =Rhys=, Prof., 26, 30, 186, 188, 202, 206, 207, 208, 213, 215, 219, - 220, 223, 250, 260, 319. - - =Roddon=, = Rowan, 206. - - =Roll-Rich=, Oxon., 36. - - =Rolston=, Sir. W. E., 120, 122, 290. - - =Rorrington=, Chirbury, 227. - - =Rowan-tree=, 201, 211, 318, 320; - and witchcraft, 206, 208; - near sacred wells, 220. - - =Rowe’s perambulation of Dartmoor=, 147, 148, 152, 158, 287. - - =Rūz Kāsim=, 29. - - =Rūs Khidr=, 29. - - - S. - - =Sacred-fires=, _see_ fires. - - =Sacrifices=, 197, 205, 319. - - =Sagittarius=, 15. - - =Sainhain=, feast of, 187. - - =Sanctuary=, at Stonehenge, 55. - - =St. Aelian=, Derbyshire, 216. - - =St. Blaze= (“=Blayse=,” “=Blazeus=”), anniversary of, 184. - - =St. Burian=, Cornwall, 267, 271. - - =St. Claire=, 140. - - =St. Cleer=, holy well at, 229. - - =St. Cuthbert=, Cornwall, 228. - - =St. Herbot=, sacrifices to, 199. - - =St. John’s Day=, festivals on, 230. - - =St. John’s Eve=, fire customs, 192. - - =St. Just=, Cornwall, stone circle at, 277. - - =St. Justin=, 140. - - =St. Martin=, feast of, 186. - - =St. Medan=, holy well at Kirkmaiden, 229. - - =St. Michael’s Mount=, 40. - - =St. Nicodemus=, sacrifices to, 199. - - =St. Peter’s=, Rome, 32. - - =St. Renan=, monuments at, 100. - - =Salisbury=, position of cathedral, 65; - solstitial custom at, 43. - - =Saracens=, star-worship among the, 249. - - =Sardonyx=, employment of, 32. - - =Sarsens=, stones, 15, 45, 79, 91. - - =Scandinavia=, temples in, 63. - - =Schübeler=, Prof., 202. - - =Scorpionis α (Antares)=, 117, 142, 273, 310, 311. - - =Scotland=, May-year in, 109, 186, 321; - types of stone circles in, 36. - - =Scott=, Sir Walter, 40. - - =Seasons=, astronomical and vegetational, 212. - - =Semites=, beliefs concerning the stars, 249; - in Britain, 243, 246; - temple practices among the, 240, 248, 256. - - =Sennacherib=, May temple of, 308. - - =Sergi=, Prof., 237. - - =Serpentis α=, 117. - - =Sesheta=, 2. - - =Set=, British equivalent of, 195. - - =Shakspeare=, 204. - - =Sheat=, _see_ Pegasi β. - - _Shenn Laa Boaldyn_ (Manx May-day), 204. - - =Shinto=, cult of, 3. - - =Shovel Down=, Devon, 158, 160, 314. - - =Shrines=, trilithons as, 37. - - =Shrove Tuesday=, 182. - - =Sight-lines=, 316; - different methods of marking, 107; - methods of using, 41. - - =Silbury (or Sidbury)=, 66. - - =Sirius=, _see_ Canis Majoris α. - - =Skins=, offerings of, 318. - - “=Slaughter Stone=,” the, 90, 93. - - =Smith=, Colonel Hamilton, 148. - - =Smith=, Dr. J., 52. - - =Smith=, Robertson, Prof., 243, 245, 248, 255, 257. - - =Society of Antiquaries=, 69. - - =Solstices=, the, 13, 108, 120; - azimuths of sunrise at, 43, 291; - at Palenque and Chichén Itza, 308; - celebration of, 40, 193; - date of introduction into Britain, 313; - determination of, 16; - in Egypt, 3, 13; - in France, 99, 103, 104; - in Morocco and Britain, 243; - provided for at British monuments, 93, 129, 176, 274, 280, 290, 312, - 314; - sunrise at, 36; - warning stars for, 117, 314; - worship at, 259, 320. - - =Spence=, Mr., 35, 123, 128, 254, 285. - - =Spica=, _see_ Virginis α. - - =Stalldon Moor=, 150, 163. - - =Standen (near Hungerford)=, 79. - - =Stanton Drew=, 166, 167, 170, 173; - cove at, 37; - dates of, 174; - dimensions of circles at, 171; - May-year at, 309; - solstitial worship at, 314. - - =Stars=, changes in declination of, 42, 109; - northern, 114; - heliacal risings of, 108; - reason for observations of, 42; - worship of, 139, 249. - _See_ clock-stars. - - =Stenness=, 35, 123, 218; - azimuths of sunrise at, 120; - observations required at, 129; - seasons provided for at, 127, 131, 309, 314. - - =Sterility=, 239, 256. - - =Stirling=, festivals at, 238. - - =Stockwell=, 67, 111, 129, 176. - - =Stone-age=, 75. - - =Stonehenge=, 41, 50, 51, 52, 58, 88, 91; - amplitudes of stars at, 11; - apparent paths of stars at, 7; - architecture of, 83; - avenue, 63, 65; - axis, 55, 60; - azimuth of sunrise at, 120; - the “Cursus” at, 319; - custom at, 43; - date of, 62, 67, 93; - desecration of, 47; - erection of, 84; - “Leaning Stone” at, 69, 84; - May-year at, 109; - origin of stones, 90; - position of, 65; - rededication of, 109; - solstitial temple, 108, 314; - “_Stanenges_,” 52; - tools found at, 74. - - =Stones=, as azimuth marks, 110; - anointing of, 255; - cresset-, 190, 256; - holed, 37, 128, 282, 285, 286, 316, 318; - hollowed, 192, 248, 323; - Semitic, sacred, 244; - unhewn and worked, 321. - - =Stone-worship=, proscribed, 271. - - =Stripple Stones=, Cornwall, 36, 292. - - =Stukeley=, Dr., 37, 53, 134, 289. - - =Sunrise=, apparent, 120; - azimuth of, 64; - determination of, 118; - observation of, 63, 66, 99; - November, 93. - - =Sunset=, determination of, 118; - the May-, 93. - - =Sycamore=, 204. - - - T. - - “=Tan Heol=,” 40. - - “=Tan St. Jean=,” 40. - - =Tanta Fair=, 28, 29. - - =Tara=, perpetual fire at temple of, 191. - - =Tauri α=, Aldebaran, 315. - - =Tavistock=, 147. - - =Temenos mound=, at Stonehenge, 47, 93. - - =Temple-axis=, fixing of, 1. - - =Temples=, associated, 297; - Egyptian, 55; - solstitial, 313. - - =Thebes= (Egypt), 8, 108; - amplitudes at, 11; - stars used at, 299, 304; - May-year at, 247, 305. - - =Thebes= (Greece), 299. - - =Theodolite=, adjustments of, 172, 329. - - =Thomas=, Mr., 277, 282. - - =Thorn-trees=, associated with holy wells, 221. - - =Thoth=, 259. - - =Thurnham=, Dr., 63. - - =Tigris=, rise of the, 30. - - =Tirehan=, 214. - - =Tissington=, Derbyshire, 228. - - =Tlachtaga=, the fire of, 187. - - =Tombs=, dolmens not intended for, 254. - - =Torches=, 317. - - =Toutates=, 260. - - =Track-lines=, 149. - - =Tradition=, 179. - - “=Treachery of the Long Knives=,” 95. - - =Trees=, sacred, 200, 220, 257; - Arabian worship of, 245; - Semitic, 244, 246. - - =Tregaseal=, 277, 278, 280, 309, 314. - - =Trilithons=, 81; - at Stonehenge, 58; - functions of, 37, 41; - in Japan, 3. - - =Trippet stones=, 36. - - =Tristis rock=, 158. - - =Trowlesworthy=, 158, 161, 162. - - =Truthwall Common=, 277. - - =Tubberpatrick=, well at, 225. - - =Tumuli=, 93, 102, 254; - at Stenness, 131. - - =Turkey=, calendar in, 29. - - - U. - - =Ursae Majoris α=, 295, 298. - - - V. - - =Vallum=, 47, 291. - - =Vega=, _see_ Lyrae α. - - “_Via Sacra_,” 60, 155, 163. - - =Via=, stones of, 128. - - =Virginis α=, (Spica), 108, 142, 299, 305, 315. - - - W. - - =Wales=, wells near churches, 229. - - =Warning-stars=, 108; - in Britain, 310; - in Greece, 311. - - =Water=, near holy places, 246, 317. - - =Wells=, associated with trees, 219, 220; - curative powers, 235; - sacred associations, 206, 214, 216, 217, 218, 219, 228, 229, 234, - 257, 273; - “Waking the Well,” 228; - wishing, 215; - worship at, 215, 233; - worship, modern, 221, 223, 225, 226. - - =Westermarck=, Mr., 319. - - =Westmorland=, May-day customs, 207. - - =Whitethorn=, 202. - - =Whitley=, Rev. D., 255. - - =Whitsuntide=, 185, 196. - - =Willow=, blossoms used on Palm Sunday, 211. - - =Wiltshire Archæological Society=, 50. - - =Windle=, Mr., 37. - - =Witchcraft=, 206, 212, 216. - - =Witchen-tree=, 206. - - =Wood-Martin=, Mr., 213, 214, 220, 223, 233. - - =Woon Gumpus Common=, 282. - - =Worship=, British and Semitic, 252; - flower-, 203; - sun- and star-, 260; - well-, 228. - - =Worth=, Mr. Hansford, 146, 148, 150, 153, 164. - - =Worth=, Mr., R.N., 147, 148. - - “=Wroth silver=,” payment of, 188. - - - Y. - - =Year=, the astronomical, 16, 25; - the Celtic, 186; - division of the, 18; - the Julian, 23; - the lunar-, in Babylon, 24; - the solstitial-, 19, 139, 261; - the vegetation-, 18, 19, 25, 97, 109, 203. - - =Yucatan=, the temples of, 33. - - -THE END - - -R. CLAY AND SONS, LTD., BREAD STREET HILL, E.C., AND BUNGAY, SUFFOLK. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - - Inconsistent, archaic and unusual spelling, hyphenation and - capitalisation have been retained, except as mentioned below. This - includes proper and geographical names. - - Depending on the hard- and software used, not all elements may display - as intended. Some tables are best viewed in a wide browser window. - - Index: the occasional error in the order of entries has not been - corrected. - - For the illustrated versions: Where the quality of the illustration in - the source document permits and where the visibility of details in or - the legibility of the illustration requires, larger versions of - illustrations have been provided. Availability of these larger - illustrations depends on the version used. - - Page 100, Fig. 27, Menhir (A): the reference letter is missing from - the illustration. - - Page 101, Carnac-Leomariaquer: probably Carnac-Locmariaquer (as on - Page 38). - - Footnote [124], table Chichen Itza, last line: the E. or W. is missing - in the source document. - - - Changes made - - Illustrations and tables have been moved out of text paragraphs; - footnotes were moved to the end of the chapter. Some tables have been - re-arranged. Ditto marks have occasionally been replaced with the - dittoed text. - - Some obvious minor typographical and punctuation errors have been - corrected silently; some minor formatting inconsistencies have been - standardised silently. Some Greek accents and diacritics have been - ignored. - - Page 29: closing bracket inserted after 185-6 days respectively - - Page 90, Fig. 24: reference letters A, B, C and D inside the - illustration have been enlarged for better visibility. - - Page 97: alignments changed to alignements; aujourdhui changed to - aujourd’hui - - Page 173, first table: 19° 51′ E. changed to N. 19° 51′ E. - - Page 220: footnote marker [65] inserted after Rhys where it seems to - fit best (lacking in source document). - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Stonehenge and other British Stone -Monuments Astronomically Considere, by Joseph Norman Lockyer - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STONEHENGE AND OTHER BRITISH *** - -***** This file should be named 62342-0.txt or 62342-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/3/4/62342/ - -Produced by Tim Lindell, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian -Libraries) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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