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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1d1ca47 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #62342 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/62342) diff --git a/old/62342-0.txt b/old/62342-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 3b13c4b..0000000 --- a/old/62342-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11346 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Stonehenge and other British Stone -Monuments Astronomically Considere, by Joseph Norman Lockyer - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Stonehenge and other British Stone Monuments Astronomically Considered - -Author: Joseph Norman Lockyer - -Release Date: June 8, 2020 [EBook #62342] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STONEHENGE AND OTHER BRITISH *** - - - - -Produced by Tim Lindell, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian -Libraries) - - - - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - Text printed in italics has been transcribed _between underscores_, - bold face text =between equal signs=. Small capitals have been - replaced with ALL CAPITALS. Texts ~between tildes~ have been - transcribed from illustrations, and have been included here for the - sake of consistency with the illustrated versions. - - More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text. - - - - - STONEHENGE - - - - - LIST OF WORKS BY SIR NORMAN - LOCKYER. - - PRIMER OF ASTRONOMY. - ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN ASTRONOMY. - MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH. - CONTRIBUTIONS TO SOLAR PHYSICS. - CHEMISTRY OF THE SUN. - THE METEORITIC HYPOTHESIS. - THE SUN’S PLACE IN NATURE. - INORGANIC EVOLUTION. - RECENT AND COMING ECLIPSES. - STARGAZING, PAST AND PRESENT. - (_In conjunction with G. M. Seabroke._) - THE DAWN OF ASTRONOMY. - STONEHENGE AND OTHER BRITISH STONE MONUMENTS. - - STUDIES IN SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. - THE SPECTROSCOPE AND ITS APPLICATIONS. - - THE RULES OF GOLF. - (_In conjunction with W. Rutherford._) - -_In the Press._ - - EDUCATION AND NATIONAL PROGRESS. - - - - - STONEHENGE - AND OTHER - BRITISH STONE MONUMENTS - _Astronomically Considered_ - - BY - SIR NORMAN LOCKYER, K.C.B., F.R.S. - DIRECTOR OF THE SOLAR PHYSICS OBSERVATORY - - HON. LL. D., GLASGOW; HON. SC.D., CAMBRIDGE; CORRESPONDENT OF THE - INSTITUTE OF FRANCE; CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE IMPERIAL ACADEMY OF - SCIENCES OF ST. PETERSBURG; THE SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF NATIONAL - INDUSTRY OF FRANCE; THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, GÖTTINGEN; THE - FRANKLIN INSTITUTE, PHILADELPHIA; THE ROYAL MEDICAL SOCIETY OF - BRUSSELS; SOCIETY OF ITALIAN SPECTROSCOPISTS; THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF - PALERMO; THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF GENEVA; OF THE ASTRONOMICAL - SOCIETY OF MEXICO; MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF LYNCEI, ROME; AND - THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, PHILADELPHIA; HONORARY MEMBER OF - THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCE OF CATANIA; PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF - YORK; LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF MANCHESTER; ROYAL CORNWALL - POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION; AND LEHIGH UNIVERSITY - - London - MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED - 1906 - _All rights reserved_ - - - RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED - BREAD STREET HILL, E.C., AND - BUNGAY, SUFFOLK. - - - - -PREFACE - - -In continuation of my work on the astronomical uses of the Egyptian -Temples, I have from time to time, when leisure has permitted, given -attention to some of the stone circles and other stone monuments -erected, as I believed, for similar uses in this country. One reason for -doing so was that in consequence of the supineness of successive -Governments, and the neglect and wanton destruction by individuals, the -British monuments are rapidly disappearing. - -Although, and indeed because, these inquiries are still incomplete, I -now bring together some of the notes I have collected, as they may -induce other inquirers to go on with the work. Some of the results -already obtained have been communicated to the Royal Society, and others -have appeared in articles published in _Nature_, but only a small -percentage of the monuments available has so far been examined. Further -observations are required in order that the hypothesis set forth in this -book may be rejected or confirmed. - -In the observations made at Stonehenge referred to in Chapter VII. I had -the inestimable advantage of the collaboration of the late Mr. Penrose. -Our work there would not have been possible without the sympathetic -assistance of Sir Edmund Antrobus, Bart.; Colonel Duncan A. Johnston, -R.E., Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, also was good enough on -several occasions to furnish us with much valuable information which is -referred to in its place. Messrs. Howard Payn and Fowler skilfully and -zealously helped in the observations and computations. To all these I am -glad to take this opportunity of expressing my obligations. - -With regard to the other monuments besides Stonehenge, I have to tender -my thanks to the following gentlemen for most valuable local -assistance:-- - - Brittany--Lieut. de Vaisseau Devoir. - - Stenness--Mr. Spence. - - Stanton Drew--Professor Lloyd Morgan, Mr. Morrow, and Mr. Dymond. - - The Hurlers, and the Merry Maidens--the Right Hon. Viscount Falmouth, - Capt. Henderson, Mr. Horton Bolitho and Mr. Wallis. - - Tregaseal--Mr. Horton Bolitho and Mr. Thomas. - - The Dartmoor Avenues--Mr. Worth. - -The following have helped me in many ways, among them with advice and -criticism:--Principal Rhys, Dr. Wallis Budge, Dr. J. G. Frazer, and Mr. -A. L. Lewis. - -The assistance so generously afforded in the case of Stonehenge by -Colonel Johnston, R.E., in furnishing me with accurate azimuths was -continued for the monuments subsequently investigated till his -retirement. To his successor, Colonel R. C. Hellard, R.E., I am already -under deep obligations. - -For the use of some of the Illustrations my thanks are due to the Royal -Society, the Society of Antiquaries, the Royal Institute of British -Architects, Messrs. Macmillan, and Mr. John Murray. - -I have to thank Mr. Rolston, F.R.A.S., one of my staff, for assistance -in the computations involved. - - NORMAN LOCKYER. - - SOLAR PHYSICS OBSERVATORY, - _17th May, 1906_. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - PREFACE v - - CHAPTER - - I. INTRODUCTORY 1 - - II. THE ASTRONOMICAL DIVISIONS OF THE YEAR 12 - - III. THE AGRICULTURAL DIVISIONS OF THE YEAR 17 - - IV. THE VARIOUS NEW-YEAR DAYS 25 - - V. CONDITIONS AND TRADITIONS AT STONEHENGE 34 - - VI. GENERAL ARCHITECTURE OF STONEHENGE 55 - - VII. ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS AT STONEHENGE IN 1901 62 - - VIII. ARCHÆOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT STONEHENGE, 1901 69 - - IX. WAS THERE AN EARLIER CIRCLE? 88 - - X. THE MAY AND JUNE WORSHIPS IN BRITTANY 96 - - XI. ASTRONOMICAL HINTS FOR ARCHÆOLOGISTS 107 - - XII. ASTRONOMICAL HINTS FOR ARCHÆOLOGISTS (_Continued_) 118 - - XIII. STENNESS (Lat. 59° N.) 123 - - XIV. THE HURLERS (Lat. 50° 31′ N.) 133 - - XV. THE DARTMOOR AVENUES 145 - - XVI. THE DARTMOOR AVENUES (_Continued_) 157 - - XVII. STANTON DREW (Lat. 51° 10′ N.) 166 - - XVIII. FOLKLORE AND TRADITION 178 - - XIX. SACRED FIRES 189 - - XX. SACRED TREES 200 - - XXI. HOLY WELLS AND STREAMS 213 - - XXII. WHERE DID THE BRITISH WORSHIP ORIGINATE? 232 - - XXIII. THE SIMILARITY OF THE SEMITIC AND BRITISH WORSHIPS 252 - - XXIV. THE MAY YEAR IN SOUTH-WEST CORNWALL 261 - - XXV. THE MERRY MAIDENS CIRCLE (Lat. 50° 4′ N.) 265 - - XXVI. THE TREGASEAL CIRCLES 277 - - XXVII. SOME OTHER CORNISH MONUMENTS 287 - - XXVIII. THE CLOCK-STARS IN EGYPT AND BRITAIN 294 - - XXIX. A SHORT HISTORY OF SUN-TEMPLES 304 - - XXX. THE LIFE OF THE ASTRONOMER-PRIESTS 316 - - - APPENDICES. - - I. DETAILS OF THE THEODOLITE OBSERVATIONS AT STONEHENGE 325 - - II. SUGGESTIONS ON FIELD OBSERVATIONS 329 - - INDEX 333 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - FIG. PAGE - - 1. Present Sun Worship in Japan 4 - - 2. The Celestial Sphere, Conditions at the North Pole 5 - - 3. The Celestial Sphere, Conditions at the Equator 6 - - 4. The Celestial Sphere, Conditions in a Middle Latitude 6 - - 5. The Four Astronomical Divisions of the Year 14 - - 6. The Various Bearings of the Sun Risings and Settings in N. - latitude 51° 14 - - 7. The Astronomical and Vegetation Divisions of the Year 23 - - 8. Original Tooling of the Stones at Stonehenge 44 - - 9. View of Stonehenge from the West 45 - - 10. Copy of Hoare’s Plan of Stonehenge, 1810 46 - - 11. The Leaning Stone in 1901 48 - - 12. The Axis of the Temple of Karnak 56 - - 13. Plan of the Temple of Ramses II. in the Memnonia at Thebes 57 - - 14. One of the remaining Trilithons at Stonehenge 59 - - 15. General Plan of Stonehenge 60 - - 16. The Arrangements for raising the Stone 70 - - 17. The Cradle and Supports 71 - - 18. The Frame used to locate the Finds 73 - - 19. Some of the Flint Implements 77 - - 20. Showing the careful Tooling of the Sarsens 82 - - 21. Face of Rock against which a Stone was made to rest 83 - - 22. The Leaning Stone Upright 85 - - 23. Stonehenge, 1905 86 - - 24. Map of the Stones made by the Ordnance Survey 89 - - 25. Rod placed in the Common Axis of the Circle and Avenue 94 - - 26. Alignments at Le Ménec 99 - - 27. Menhir on Melon Island 100 - - 28. Melon Island, showing Menhir and Cromlech 101 - - 29. Menhirs of St. Dourzal 102 - - 30. Alignment at Lagatjar (photograph) 103 - - 31. Alignments at Lagatjar (plan) 104 - - 32. Menhirs on Solstitial and May Alignments 105 - - 33. Diagram for finding Declination from given Amplitudes or - Azimuths in British Latitudes 113 - - 34. Declinations of Northern Stars from 250 A.D. to 2150 B.C. 115 - - 35. Declinations of Southern Stars from 250 A.D. to 2150 B.C. 116 - - 36. The Conditions of Sunrise at the Summer Solstice in Lat. - 59° N. 119 - - 37. The Azimuths of the Sunrise (upper limb) at the Summer - Solstice. Lats. N. 59°-47° 121 - - 38. Maeshowe and the Stones of Stenness 124 - - 39. Chief Sight-Lines from the Stones of Stenness 126 - - 40. Variation of the Obliquity of the Ecliptic 100 A.D.-4000 B.C. 130 - - 41. The Sight-Lines at the Hurlers 136 - - 42. The Southern Avenue at Merrivale, looking East 147 - - 43. Avenues, Circle and Stones at Merrivale, with their Azimuths 154 - - 44. Cursus at Stonehenge, nearly parallel to the Merrivale Avenue 155 - - 45. The remains of the Challacombe Avenue 159 - - 46. The Sight-Lines at Trowlesworthy 162 - - 47. The Circles and Avenues at Stanton Drew 169 - - 48. The Carro, Florence 194 - - 49. Cresset-Stone, Lewannick 257 - - 50. First Appearance of May Sun in British Latitudes 263 - - 51. Azimuths of the May Sunrise 264 - - 52. The Merry Maidens 269 - - 53. 25-inch Ordnance Map of Merry Maidens showing Alignments 275 - - 54. The Eastern Circle at Tregaseal 279 - - 55. Photograph of Ordnance Map showing Sight-lines 281 - - 56. Plan of the Mên-an-Tol 283 - - 57. Photograph of the Mên-an-Tol 284 - - 58. The Mên-an-Tol. Front View and Section 285 - - 59. Photograph of the Ordnance Map of Boscawen-un 288 - - 60. Diagram showing Azimuths of Sunrise 1680 B.C. and 1905 A.D. 290 - - 61. Arcturus and Capella as Clock-Stars in Britain 300 - - 62. A Night-Dial 303 - - 63. Layard’s Plan of the Palace of Sennacherib 305 - - 64. Layard’s Plan of the Mound at Nimrood 306 - - 65. The Temples at Chichen Itza 307 - - - - - STONEHENGE - - - - -CHAPTER I - -INTRODUCTORY - - -In the book I published ten years ago, entitled “The Dawn of Astronomy,” -I gave a pretty full account of the principles and the methods of -observation which enable us to trace the ideas which were in the minds -of the ancient Egyptians when they set out the line of a temple they -proposed to build. - -Numerous references to the ceremonial of laying the foundation-stones of -temples exist, and we learn from the works of Chabas, Brugsch, -Dümichen[1] and others, that the foundation of an Egyptian temple was -associated with a series of ceremonies which are repeatedly described -with great minuteness. Amongst these ceremonies, one especially refers -to the fixing of the temple-axis; it is called, technically, “the -stretching of the cord,” and is not only illustrated by inscriptions on -the walls of the temples of Karnak, Denderah and Edfu--to mention the -best-known cases--but is referred to elsewhere. - -During the ceremony the king proceeded to the site where the temple was -to be built, accompanied mythically by the goddess Sesheta, who is -styled “the mistress of the laying of the foundation-stone.” - -Each was armed with a stake. The two stakes were connected by a cord. -Next the cord was aligned towards the sun on some day of the year, or a -star, as the case might be; when the alignment was perfect the two -stakes were driven into the ground by means of a wooden mallet. One -boundary wall parallel to the main axis of the temple was built along -the line marked out by this stretched cord. - -If the moment of the rising or setting of the sun or star were chosen, -as we have every reason to believe was the case, seeing that all the -early observations were made on the horizon, it is obvious that the -light from the body towards which the temple was thus aligned would -penetrate the axis of the temple from one end to the other in the -original direction of the cord. - -We learn from Chabas that the Egyptian word which expresses the idea of -founding or laying the foundation-stone of a temple is _Senti_--a word -which still exists in Coptic. But in the old language another word -_Pet-ser_, which no longer remains in Coptic, has been traced. It has -been established that _pet_ means to stretch, and _ser_ means cord, so -that that part of the ceremonial which consisted in stretching a cord in -the direction of a star was considered of so great an importance that it -gave its name to the whole ceremonial. - -Dealing with the existing remains of Egyptian temples, it may be said -that the most majestic among them was that of Amen-Rā at Karnak, -dedicated to the Sun-God, and oriented to catch the light of the sun -setting at the summer solstice, the time of the year at which the -all-important rise of the Nile began. - -Although the sun is no longer worshipped in Egypt or Britain, -sun-worship has not yet disappeared from the world. Professor Gowland -has recently[2] brought to notice a surviving form of sun-worship in -Japan. I quote his statement:-- - -“There on the seashore at Fûta-mi-ga-ura (as will be seen in a copy of a -print which I obtained at that ancient place) the orientation of the -shrine of adoration is given by two gigantic rocks which rise from the -sea as natural pillars. The sun as it rises over the mountains of the -distant shore is observed between them, and the customary prayers and -offerings made in that direction (Fig. 1). - -“It is, too, specially worthy of note that the point from which the sun -is revered is marked by a structure of the form of a trilithon, but made -of wood, placed immediately behind the altar. This representative of the -trilithon is of very remote date in Japan, and has been in use there -from the earliest times in connection with the observances of the -ancient Shintō cult in which the Sun-Goddess is the chief deity. One of -its important uses, which still survives, was to indicate the direction -of the position of some sacred place or object of veneration, in order -that worshippers might make their prayers and oblations towards the -proper quarter.” - -The table of offerings must also be noted. - -In the book to which I have referred, I also endeavoured to show that a -knowledge of even elementary astronomy may be of very great assistance -to students of archæology, history, folk-lore and all that learning -which deals with man’s first attempts to grasp the meaning and phenomena -of the universe in which he found himself before any scientific methods -were available to him; before he had any idea of the origins or the -conditionings of the things around him. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Present sun worship in Japan.] - -It may be well, however, in the present book to restate the underlying -astronomical principles in the briefest possible manner; and this is the -more easily done because, in the absence of measuring instruments, the -horizon was the only circle which the ancient peoples could employ -effectively, and we need only therefore consider it. - -Indeed, whether we regard the Rig-Veda or the Egyptian monuments from an -astronomical point of view, we are struck by the fact that the early -worship and all the early observations related to the horizon. This was -true not only for the sun, but for all the stars which studded the -general expanse of sky. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--The celestial sphere, conditions at the North -Pole. A parallel sphere. _N.P._, North celestial Pole; _N_, position of -observer.] - -We have therefore chiefly to consider the relation of the horizon of any -place to the apparent movements of celestial bodies at that place. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--The celestial sphere, conditions at the Equator. -A right sphere. _Q_, standpoint of observer; _PP_, the celestial poles; -_EW_, east and west points.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--The celestial sphere, conditions in a middle -latitude. An oblique sphere. In this woodcut _DD′_ shows the apparent -path of a circumpolar star; _BB′B″_ the path and rising and setting -points of an equatorial star; _CC′C″_ and _AA′A″_, those of stars of mid -declination, one north and the other south; _O_, standpoint of -observer.] - -We now know that the earth rotates on its axis, but this idea was of -course quite unknown to these early peoples. Since the earth rotates, -with stars infinitely removed surrounding it on all sides, the apparent -movements of the stars will depend very much upon the position we -happen to occupy on the earth. An observer at the North Pole of the -earth, for instance, would see the stars moving round in circles -parallel to the horizon (Fig. 2). No star could therefore either rise or -set--one half of the heavens would be always visible above his horizon, -and the other half invisible. An observer at the South Pole would of -course see that half of the stars invisible to the observer at the -northern one. - -If the observer be on the equator, the movements of the stars will -appear to be as indicated in this diagram (Fig. 3)--that is, all the -stars will rise and set, and each star will be, in turn, twelve hours -above the horizon, and the same time below it. But if we consider the -position of an observer in a middle latitude, say at Stonehenge, we find -that some stars will always be above the horizon, some always -below--that is, they will neither rise nor set. All other stars will -both rise and set, but some of them will be above the horizon for a long -time and below for a short time, whereas others will be a very short -time above the horizon and a long time below it, each star completing a -circle in a day (Fig. 4). - -Wherever we are upon the earth we always imagine that we are on the top -of it. The idea held by all the early peoples was that the surface of -the earth near them was an extended plain: they imagined that the land -that they knew and just the surrounding lands were really in the centre -of the extended plain. Plato, for instance, was content to think the -Mediterranean and Greece upon the top of a cube, and Anaximander placed -the same region at the top of a cylinder. - -By the use of a terrestrial globe we can best study the conditions of -observation at the poles of the earth, the equator and some place in -middle latitude. The wooden horizon of the globe is parallel to the -horizon of a place at the top of the globe, which horizon we can -represent by a wafer. By inclining the axis of the globe and watching -the movement of the wafer as the globe is turned round, we can get a -very concrete idea of the different relations of the observer’s horizon -to the apparent paths of the stars in different latitudes. - -We have next to deal with the astronomical relations of the horizon of -any place, in connection with the observation of the sun and stars at -the times of rising or setting, when of course they are on or near the -horizon; and in order to bring this matter nearer to the ancient -monuments, we will study this question for both Thebes and Stonehenge. -We may take the latitude of Thebes as 25°, Stonehenge as 51°, and we -will begin with Thebes. - -To consider an observer on the Nile at Thebes and to adjust things -properly we must rectify a celestial globe to the latitude of 25° N., -or, in other words, incline the axis of the globe at that angle to the -wooden horizon. - -Since all the stars which pass between the North Pole and the horizon -cannot set, all their apparent movements will take place above the -horizon. All the stars between the horizon and the South Pole will never -rise. Hence, stars within the distance of 25° from the North Pole will -never set at Thebes, and those stars within 25° of the South Pole will -never be visible there. At any place the latitude and the elevation of -the pole are the same. It so happens that many of those places with -which archæologists have to do in studying the history of early -peoples--Chaldæa, Egypt, Babylonia, &c.--are in low middle latitudes, -therefore we have to deal with bodies in the skies which do set and -bodies which do not, and the elevation of the pole is neither very great -nor very small. But although in each different latitude the inclination -of the equator to the horizon as well as the elevation of the pole will -vary, there will be a strict relationship between the inclination of the -equator at each place and the elevation of the pole. Except at the poles -themselves the equator will cut the horizon due east and due west; -therefore every celestial body to the north of the celestial equator -which rises and sets will cut the horizon between the east and west -point and the north point; those bodies which do not rise will of course -not cut the horizon at all. - -The stars near the equator, and the sun, in such a latitude as that of -Thebes, will appear to rise or set at no very considerable angle from -the vertical; but when we deal with stars very near to the north or -south points of the horizon they will seem to skim along the horizon -instead of rising directly. - - * * * * * - -We now pass on to Stonehenge. To represent the new condition the axis of -the globe will now require to be inclined 51° to the horizon. The number -of northern stars which do not set and of southern stars which do not -rise will be much greater than at Thebes. The most northern and southern -stars visible will in their movement hug the horizon more closely than -was observed under the Thebes condition. - -The sun, both at Thebes and Stonehenge, since it moves among the stars -from 23¹⁄₂° N. to 23¹⁄₂° S. each year, will change its place of rising -and setting at different times of the year. - -Now it will at once be obvious that there must be a strict law -connecting the position of a star with its place of rising or setting. -Stars at the same distance from the celestial pole or equator will rise -or set at the same point of the horizon, and if a star does not change -its place in the heavens it will always rise or set in the same place. - -The sun as it changes its position each day, in its swing N. and S. of -the equator, will rise and set on any day in the same place as a star -which permanently has the same distance from the equator as that -temporarily occupied by the sun. - -Here it will be convenient to introduce one or two technical terms: we -generally define a star’s place by giving, as one ordinate, its distance -in degrees from the equator: this distance is called its _declination_. - -Further, we generally define points on the horizon by dividing its whole -circumference into 360°, so that we can have _azimuths_ up to 90° from -the north and south points to the east and west points. We also have -_amplitudes_ from the east and west points towards the north and south -points. We can say, then, that a star of a certain declination, or the -sun when it occupies that declination, will rise or set at such an -azimuth, or at such an amplitude. This will apply to both north and -south declinations. - -Then supposing the azimuth to be 39° in the N.E. quadrant, it is written -N. 39° E. For the other quadrants we have N. 39° W., S. 39° E., and S. -39° W., respectively. - -The following table gives the amplitudes of rising or setting (north or -south) of celestial bodies having declinations from 0° to 64°, at Thebes -and Stonehenge respectively. - -AMPLITUDES AT THEBES AND STONEHENGE. - - ------------+-------------------- - | Amplitude. - Declination.+-------+----------- - |Thebes.|Stonehenge. - ------------+-------+----------- - 0° | 0° 0′| 0° 0′ - 1 | 1 7 | 1 36 - 2 | 2 13 | 3 11 - 3 | 3 20 | 4 46 - 4 | 4 26 | 6 22 - 5 | 5 33 | 7 58 - 6 | 6 40 | 9 34 - 7 | 7 47 | 11 10 - 8 | 8 53 | 12 47 - 9 | 9 59 | 14 23 - 10 | 11 6 | 16 1 - 11 | 12 13 | 17 39 - 12 | 13 20 | 19 18 - 13 | 14 27 | 20 57 - 14 | 15 34 | 22 36 - 15 | 16 41 | 24 17 - 16 | 17 49 | 25 58 - 17 | 18 56 | 27 45 - 18 | 20 3 | 29 24 - 19 | 21 10 | 31 10 - 20 | 22 17 | 32 55 - 21 | 23 25 | 34 43 - 22 | 24 33 | 36 32 - 23 | 25 41 | 38 23 - 24 | 26 49 | 40 16 - 25 | 27 58 | 42 11 - 26 | 29 6 | 44 10 - 27 | 30 15 | 46 10 - 28 | 31 23 | 48 15 - 29 | 32 32 | 50 22 - 30 | 33 41 | 52 36 - 31 | 34 51 | 54 55 - 32 | 36 1 | 57 21 - 33 | 37 11 | 59 56 - 34 | 38 21 | 62 42 - 35 | 39 31 | 65 44 - 36 | 40 42 | 69 4 - 37 | 41 53 | 73 0 - 38 | 43 5 | 78 4 - 39 | 44 17 | 90 0 - 40 | 45 30 | - 41 | 46 43 | - 42 | 47 56 | - 43 | 49 10 | - 44 | 50 25 | - 45 | 51 41 | - 46 | 52 57 | - 47 | 54 14 | - 48 | 55 32 | - 49 | 56 51 | - 50 | 58 12 | - 51 | 59 34 | - 52 | 60 58 | - 53 | 62 23 | - 54 | 63 51 | - 55 | 65 21 | - 56 | 66 54 | - 57 | 68 31 | - 58 | 70 12 | - 59 | 71 59 | - 60 | 73 55 | - 61 | 76 1 | - 62 | 78 25 | - 63 | 81 19 | - 64 | 85 42 | - ------------+-------+------------ - -The amplitude is always the complement of the azimuth, so that amplitude -+ azimuth = 90°. Later on I shall give amplitudes for latitudes higher -than that of Stonehenge, so that still more northerly monuments can be -considered. - -[1] “Baugeschichte des Dendera-Tempels.” 1877. - -[2] “Archæologia,” vol. lviii. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE ASTRONOMICAL DIVISIONS OF THE YEAR - - -It is next important to deal with the yearly path of the sun, with a -view of studying the relation of the various points of the horizon -occupied by the sun at different times in the year. In the very early -observations that were made in Egypt, Chaldæa and elsewhere, when the -sun was considered to be a god who every morning got into his boat and -floated across space, there was no particular reason for considering the -amplitude at which the boat left, or came to, shore. But a few centuries -showed that this rising or setting of the sun in widely varying -amplitudes at different times of the year at the same place obeyed a -very definite law. - -In its northward passage it reaches the highest point at our summer -solstice, and then goes down again till it reaches its greatest southern -declination, as it does in our winter. At both these points the sun -appears to stand still in its north or south movement, and the Latin -word solstice exactly expresses that idea. The change of declination -brought about by these movements will affect the place of the sun’s -rising and setting; this is why the sun sets most to the north in -summer and most to the south in winter. At the equinoxes the sun has -always 0° Decl., so it rises and sets due east and west all over the -world. But at the solstices it has its greatest declination of 23¹⁄₂° N. -or S.; it will rise and set therefore furthest from the east and west -points; how far, will depend upon the latitude of the place, as will -have been gathered from the preceding table (p. 11). - -These solstices and their accompaniments are among the striking things -in the natural world. In the winter solstice we have the depth of -winter, in the summer solstice we have the height of summer, while at -the equinoxes we have but transitional changes; in other words, while -the solstices point out for us the conditions of greatest heat and -greatest cold, the equinoxes point out for us those two times of the -year at which the temperature conditions are very nearly equal, although -of course in the one case we are saying good-bye to summer and in the -other to winter. - -Did the ancients know anything about these solstices and these -equinoxes? Dealing with the monumental evidence in Egypt alone, the -answer is absolutely overwhelming. Many thousand years ago the Egyptians -were perfectly familiar with the solstices, and therefore with the -yearly path of the sun. - -This fundamental division of the sun’s apparent revolution and course -which define our year into four nearly equal parts may be indicated as -in Fig. 5, the highest point reached by the sun in our northern -hemisphere being represented at the top. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--The four Astronomical Divisions of the year.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--The various bearings of the sun risings and -settings in a place with a N. latitude of 51°.] - -In order better to consider the problem as it was presented to the early -astronomers who built observatories (temples) to mark these points, we -may deal with the bearings of the points occupied by the sun on the -horizon (either at rising or setting) at the times indicated. These -points are defined, as we have seen, by their “amplitude” or their -distance in degrees from the E. or W. points of the horizon. In the -diagram (Fig. 6) I represent the conditions of our chief British -sun-temple, Stonehenge, in latitude 51° N. approximately. - -Taking the astronomical facts regarding the solstices and equinoxes for -the first year (1901) of the present century, we find-- - - Sun enters Aries, Spring equinox, March 21. - „ „ Gemini, Summer solstice, June 21. - „ „ Libra, Autumn equinox, September 23. - „ „ Sagittarius, Winter solstice, December 23. - -These points, then, are approximately ninety-one days apart (91 × 4 = -364). - -In Fig. 6 I deal with the “amplitudes” at Stonehenge, that is, the -angular distance along the horizon from the E. and W. points, at which -the sunrise and sunset are seen at the solstices; at the equinoxes they -are seen at the E. and W. points. But as these amplitudes vary with the -latitude and therefore depend upon the place of observation, a more -general treatment is possible if we deal with the declination of the sun -itself, that is, its angular distance from the equator. - -The maximum declination depends upon the obliquity of the ecliptic, that -is, the angle between the plane of the ecliptic and that of the equator -at the time of observation. When the Stonehenge Sarsen Stones were -erected this angle was, as I shall show later on, 23° 54′ 30″. Its mean -value for the present year (1906) is 23° 27′ 5″; it is decreasing very -slowly. - -It will be obvious from Fig. 6 that in temples built to observe the -solstices or equinoxes, if they were open from end to end, looking in -one direction we should see the sun rising at a solstice or equinox, and -looking in the other we should see the sun setting at the opposite one. -I shall show later on that this statement requires a slight -modification. - -But temples so built interfered with the ceremonial, which required that -the light should illuminate a naos--that is, the Sanctuary or Holy of -Holies, only entered by the High Priest, and generally kept dark. -Usually, therefore, two temples were built back to back, with a common -axis, as at Karnak. - -And here a very important point comes in; which time of the year and day -of the year are most easy to fix by astronomical observation? As a -matter of fact the summer solstice, the position of the sun on the -longest day, is a point easily fixed. All we have to do is to observe -the sun rising more and more to the north as the summer approaches, -until at the very height of the summer we have the extreme -north-easterly point of the horizon reached, and the sun stands still. -We have the solstice. We can then put a row of stakes up, and so fix the -solstitial line. Of course we find, as mankind has found generally, that -the sun comes back next year to that same solstitial place of rising or -setting. So that when we have once got such an alignment for the rising -of the sun at midsummer, we can determine the length of the year in -days, and therefore the beginning of each year as it comes round. - -So much, then, for the chief points in what we may term the astronomical -year, those at which the sun’s declination is greatest and least. We see -that they are approximately ninety-one days apart--say three months. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE AGRICULTURAL DIVISIONS OF THE YEAR - - -The early peoples have been very much misrepresented, and held to have -been uninstructed, by several writers who have not considered what they -were really driving at. It was absolutely essential for early man, -including the inhabitants of Britain as it was then--townless, -uncivilised--that the people should know something about the proper time -for performing their agricultural operations. We now go into a shop and -for a penny buy an almanack which gives us everything we want to know -about the year, the month and the day, and that is the reason why so few -of us care about astronomy: we can get all we want from astronomy for a -penny or twopence. But these poor people, unless they found out the time -of the year and the month and the day for themselves, or got some one to -tell them--and their priests were the men who knew, and they were -priests because they knew--had absolutely no means of determining when -their various agricultural operations should take place. So that we find -all over the world temples erected in the very first flush of -civilisation. - -On this a point comes in of very considerable interest. If we study the -civilisations in Egypt, we find that, so far as we know, one of the -first peoples who used this principle of orientation for agricultural -purposes was some tribe that came down the Nile about 6400 years B.C. -They used the star Canopus, and their determination was that of the -autumnal equinox, which practically was the time when the Nile began to -go down, and when their sowing might begin. There was another race who, -instead of being interested in the sun, and therefore in agriculture, at -the time of the autumnal equinox, were interested in the year about the -time of Easter as well. This race built the Pyramids about four thousand -years B.C. There was an interval of about two or three thousand years -between these races. As we shall see there were others, who at Thebes -started the solstitial worship--that is to say, the worship of the sun -at midsummer--and at Memphis in May, so as to enable them to go on with -their agricultural operations with greater certainty. We must not forget -that first of all the farmers tried to plough and sow by the moon. We -can see how hopeless agriculture must have been under such conditions. -The month, indeed, was the only unit of time employed, even of human -life. We hear of people who lived 1200 years; that means 1200 -months--there is no question whatever about that now. - -When we study the history of our own country--when we come back from -Egypt to Britain, leaving alone Greece and Rome--we find that in various -times in our country we have had a year, a farmer’s year, beginning in -the month of May; we have had another farmer’s year beginning in the -month of August; we have had another farmer’s year beginning at the -longest day; and it appears that the year beginning at the longest day -was really the last year to be introduced. So that while we have in -Stonehenge a solstitial temple--that is to say, a temple to make -observations of the length of the year by observing the rise of the sun -on the longest day of the year--in other parts of England there were -other temples observing the sun, not on the 21st of June, but early in -May and early in August. - -Now, as I have indicated, the priest-astronomers in these temples could -only have won and kept the respect of the agricultural population with -whom alone they were surrounded in early times, and by whom they were -supported, by being useful to them in some way or another. This could -only have been in connection with what we may term generally the -_farming_ operations necessary at different times of the year, whether -in the shape of preparing the ground or gathering the produce. For this -they must have watched the stars. - -A very large part of mythology has sprung out of the temple cults, -prayer, sacrifices and thanksgiving connected with these farming -operations in different lands and ages. - -I wish to show next that by studying the orientation of temples erected -to watch the stars and sunrise and sunset at times other than the -solstices or equinoxes, an immense amount of information may be gained -if we endeavour to find the way in which the problem must have been -attacked before the year was thoroughly established, and when it was -still a question of grass- or corn-kings or gods who had to be -propitiated; and we may even be enabled to understand why the particular -divisions of the year were chosen. - -In a solstitial temple the sun makes its appearance only once a year, -when it reaches its greatest north or south declination; but in the -temples dealing with lower declinations the sun appears twice, once on -its journey from the summer to the winter solstice, and again on its -return. - -The first difficulty of the inquiry in the direction I have indicated -arises from the fact that the products of different countries vary, and -that identical farming operations have to be carried on at different -times in these countries. We must, then, begin with some one country, -and as the record is fullest for Greece I will begin with it. - -The first thing we find is that the chief points in the farmer’s year in -Greece are about as far from the fixed points in the astronomical year -as they well can be. - -In the Greek information so admirably collated by M. Ruelle in the -article on the calendar in Daremberg and Saglio’s monumental -“Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et Romaines,” the earlier -Gregorian dates on which the seasons were reckoned to commence in -ancient Greece were as follows:-- - - Summer May 6. - Autumn (φθινοπωρον) August 11. - Winter November 10. - Spring February 7. - -I may also add from the same source that in the calendars of the Latins -the dates become:-- - - Summer May 9. - Autumn August 8. - Winter November 9. - Spring February 7. - -Now we see at once that these dates are, roughly, half-way between the -solstices and equinoxes. - -This, then, at once brings us back to the orientation problem, which was -to fix by means of a temple in the ordinary way dates nearer to these -turning-points in the local farmer’s years than those fixed by the -solstitial and equinoctial temples. - -It must be borne in mind that it is not merely a question of stately -piles such as Karnak and the Parthenon in populous centres, but of the -humblest dolmen or stone circle, in scattered agricultural communities, -which was as certainly used for orientation purposes, that is, for -recording the lapse of time at night or return of some season important -to the tiller of the soil. The advent of the season thus determined -could be announced to outlying districts by fire signals at night. - -I have already pointed out that any temple, dolmen or cromlech oriented -to a sunrise or sunset at any dates between the solstices will receive -the sunlight twice a year. - -If the temple is pointed nearly solstitially the two dates at which the -sun appears in it will be near the solstice; similarly, for a temple -pointed nearly equinoctially the dates will be near the equinox; but if -the ancients wished to divide the ninety-one days’ interval between the -solstice and equinox, a convenient method of doing this would be to -observe the sun at the half-time interval, such that the same temple -would serve on both occasions. This could be done by orienting the -temple to the sun’s place on the horizon when it had the declination 16° -20′ on its upward and downward journey, or, in other words, was, _in -days_, half-way between the equinox and solstice. Thus, for the 45 days - - ( 91 days ) - ( = ------- ) - ( 2 ) - -from March 22, we have in-- - - March 9 - April 30 - May 6 - --- - 45 - -What, then, are the non-equinoctial, non-solstitial days of the year -when the sun has this declination? - -They are, in the sun’s journey from the vernal equinox to the summer -solstice and back again, - - May 6 and August 8 Sun’s decl. N. 16° 20′. - -Similarly, for the journey to the winter solstice and return we have - - November 8 and February 4 Sun’s decl. S. 16° 20′. - -We get, then, a year symmetrical with the astronomical year, which can -be indicated with it as in Fig. 7; a year roughly halving the intervals -between the chief dates of the astronomical year. - -With regard to the dates shown I have already pointed out that farming -operations would not occur at the same time in different lands; that -ploughing and seed time and harvest would vary with crops and latitudes; -and I must now add that when we wish to determine the exact days of the -month we have to struggle with all the difficulties introduced by the -various systems adopted by different ancient nations to bring together -the reckoning of months by the moon and of years by the sun. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.--The astronomical and vegetation divisions of the -year.] - -In more recent times there is an additional difficulty owing to the -incomplete reconstruction of the calendar by Julius Cæsar, who gave us -the Julian year. Thus, while the spring equinox occurred on March 21 at -the time of the Council of Nice, in 325 A.D., by the year 1751 the -dating of the year on which it took place had slipped back to the 10th. -Hence the Act 24 George II. c. 23, by which September 2, 1752, was -followed by September 14 instead of by the 3rd, thus regaining the -eleven days lost. This change from the so-called “old style” to the “new -style” is responsible for a great deal of confusion. - -Another cause of trouble was the forsaking by the Jews of the solar -year, with which they commenced, in favour of the Babylonian lunar year, -which has been continued for the purposes of worship by Christians, -giving us “movable feasts” to such an extent that Easter Day, which once -invariably marked the spring equinox, may vary from March 22 to April -25, and Whit Sunday from May 10 to June 13. It is at once obvious that -no fixed operations of Nature can be indicated by such variable dates as -these. - -Hence in what follows I shall only deal with the months involved; these -amply suffice for a general statement, but a discussion as to exact -dates may come later. - -To sum up, then, the astronomer-priests had (1) to watch the time at -night by observing a star rising near the north point of the horizon. -This star would act as a warner of sunrise at some time of the year. - -(2) To watch for the rising or setting of other stars in various -azimuths warning sunrise at the other critical times of the May or -Solstitial years. - -(3) To watch the sunrise and sunset. - -(4) To mark all rising or setting places of the warning stars and sun by -sight-lines from the circle. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE VARIOUS NEW-YEAR DAYS - - -With regard to the astronomical year it may be stated that each solstice -and equinox has in turn in some country or another, and even in the same -country at different times, been taken as the beginning of the year. - -We have, then, to begin with, the following which may be called -_astronomical_ years:-- - - Solstitial { June December June. - year. { December June December. - - Equinoctial { March September March. - year. { September March September. - -Next, if we treat the intermediate points we have found in the same way, -we have the following _vegetation_ years:-- - - Flower { May November May. - year. { November May November. - - Harvest { August February August. - year. { February August February. - -It will have been gathered from Fig. 7 that the temples or cromlechs -erected to watch the first sunrise of the May-November-May year could -also perform the same office for the August-February-August year; and in -a stone circle the priests, by looking along the axis almost in an -opposite direction, could note the sunsets marking the completion of the -half of the sun’s yearly round in November and February. - -Now to those who know anything of the important contributions of Grimm, -Rhŷs, Frazer, and many others we might name, to our knowledge of the -mythology, worships, and customs in the Mediterranean basin and western -Europe, an inspection of the first columns in the above tables will show -that here we have a common meeting-ground for temple orientation, -vegetation and customs depending on it, religious festivals, and -mythology. From the Egyptian times at least to our own a generic sun-god -has been specifically commemorated in each of the named months. Generic -customs with specific differences are as easily traced in the same -months; while generic vegetation with specific representatives proper to -the season of the year has been so carefully regarded that even -December, though without May flowers or August harvests, not to be -outdone, brings forward its offering in the shape of the berries of the -mistletoe and holly. - -About the mistletoe there is this difficulty. Innumerable traditions -associate it with worship and the oak tree. Undoubtedly the year in -question was the solstitial year, so that so far as this goes the -association is justified. But as a rule the mistletoe does not grow on -oaks. This point has been frequently inquired into, especially by Dr. -Henry Ball (_Journal of Botany_, vol. ii. p. 361, 1864) in relation to -the growth of the plant in Herefordshire, and by a writer in the -_Quarterly Review_ (vol. cxiv.), who spoke of the mistletoe “deserting -the oak” in modern times and stated, “it is now so rarely found on that -tree as to have led to the suggestion that we must look for the -mistletoe of the Druids, not in the _Viscum album_ of our own trees and -orchards, but in the _Loranthus Europaeus_ which is frequently found on -oaks in the south of Europe.” - -On this point I consulted two eminent botanical friends, Mr. Murray, of -the British Museum, and Prof. Farmer, from whom I have learned that the -distribution of _V. album_ is in Europe universal except north of Norway -and north of Russia; in India in the temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to -Nepaul, altitude 3000 to 7000 feet. - -The _Viscum aureum_, otherwise called _Loranthus Europaeus_, is a near -relation of the familiar mistletoe, and in Italy grows on the oak almost -exclusively. There are fifty species of Loranthus in the Indian flora, -but _L. Europaeus_ does not occur. - -In the _Viscum aureum_ we have the “golden bough,” the oak-borne _Aurum -frondens_ and _Ramus aureus_ of Virgil; and it can easily be imagined -that when the Druids reached our shores from a country which had -supplied them with the _Viscum aureum_, this would be replaced by the -_V. album_ growing chiefly on apple trees and not on oaks; indeed, Mr. -Davies, in his “Celtic Researches,” tells us that the apple was the next -sacred tree to the oak, and that apple orchards were planted in the -vicinity of the sacred groves. The transplanting of the mistletoe from -the apple to the oak tree before the mystic ceremonies began was not -beyond the resources of priestcraft. - -It must not be forgotten that these ceremonies took place at both -solstices--once in June, when the oak was in full leaf, and again in -December, when the parasitic plant was better visible in the light of -the young moon. Mr. Frazer, in his “Golden Bough” (iii. p. 328), points -out that at the summer solstice not only was mistletoe gathered, but -many other “magic plants, whose evanescent virtue can be secured at this -mystic season alone.” - -It is the ripening of the berries at the winter solstice which secured -for the mistletoe the paramount importance the ceremonials connected -with it possessed at that time, when the rest of the vegetable world was -dormant. - -With regard especially to the particular time of the year chosen for -sun-worship and the worship of the gods and solar heroes connected with -the years to which I have referred, I may add that the vague year in -Egyptian chronology makes it a very difficult matter to determine the -exact Gregorian dates for the ancient Egyptian festivals, but, -fortunately, there is another way of getting at them. Mr. Roland -Mitchell, when compiling his valuable “Egyptian Calendar” (Luzac and -Co., 1900), found that the Koptic calendar really presents to us the old -Egyptian year, “which has been in use for thousands of years, and has -survived all the revolutions.” - -Of the many festivals included in the calendar, the great Tanta fair, -which is also a Mohammedan feast. “is the most important of all held in -Egypt. Religion, commerce, and pleasure offer combined attractions.” As -many as 600,000 or 700,000 often attend this great fair, “no doubt the -survival of one of the ancient Egyptian national festivals.” - -It is held so as to end on a Friday, and in 1901 the Friday was August -9! - -This naturally suggests that we should look for a feast in the early -part of May. We find the Festival of Al-Khidr, or Elias in the middle of -the wheat harvest in Lower Egypt; of this we read:-- - -“Al-Khidr is a mysterious personage, who, according to learned opinion, -was a just man, or saint, the Visīr of Dhu’l-Karnên (who was a great -conqueror, contemporary with Ibrahīm--Abraham--and identified in other -legends with Alexander the Great, St. George, &c.). Al-Khidr, it is -believed, still lives, and will live until the Day of Judgment. He is -clad in green garments, whence probably the name. He is commonly -identified with Elias (Elijah), and this confusion seems due to a -confusion or similarity of some of the attributes that tradition assigns -to both.” - -“The ‘Festival of El-Khidr and of Elias,’ falling generally on May 6, -marks the two-fold division of the year, in the Turkish and Armenian -calendars, into the Rūz Kāsim and the Rūz Khidr (of 179-80 and 185-6 -days respectively).” - -This last paragraph is important, as it points to ancient sun-worship, -Helios being read for Elias; and 179 days from May 6 bring us to -November 1. So we find that the modern Turks and Armenians have the old -May-November year as well as the ancient Egyptians who celebrated it in -the Temple of Menu at Thebes. - -The traces of the Ptah worship are not so obvious. Finally, it may be -stated that the second Tanta fair occurs at the spring equinox, so that -the pyramid worship can still be traced in the modern Egyptian -calendar. The proof that this was an exotic[3] is established, I think, -by the fact that no important agricultural operations occur at this -period in Egypt, while in May we have the harvest, in August and -November sowing, going on. - -A cursory examination of Prof. Rhŷs’ book containing the Hibbert -Lectures of 1886, in the light of these years, used as clues, suggests -that in Ireland the sequence was May-November (Fomori and Fir Bolg), -August-February (Lug and the Tuatha Dé Danann), and, lastly, -June-December (Cúchulainn). Should this be confirmed we see that the -farmers’ years were the first to be established, and it is interesting -to note that the agricultural rent year in many parts of Ireland still -runs from May to November. It is well also to bear in mind, if it be -established that the solstitial year did really arrive last, that the -facts recorded by Mr. Frazer in his “Golden Bough” indicate that the -custom of lighting fires on hills has been in historic times most -prevalent at the summer solstice; evidently maps showing the -geographical distribution of the May, June, and August fires would be of -great value. - -Some customs of the May and August years are common to the solstitial -and equinoctial years. Each was ushered in by fires on hills and the -like; flowers in May and the fruits of the earth in August are -associated with them; there are also special customs in the case of -November. In western Europe, however, it does not seem that such -traditions exist over such a large area as that over which the remnants -of the solstitial practices have been traced. - -I have pointed out that both the May and August years began when the sun -had the same declination (16° N. or thereabouts); once, on its ascent -from March to the summer solstice in June, again in its decline from the -solstice to September. Hence it may be more difficult in this case to -disentangle and follow the mythology, but the two years stand out here -and there. With regard to August, Mr. Penrose’s orientation data for the -Panathenæa fix the 19th day (Gregorian) for the festival in the -Hecatompedon; similar celebrations were not peculiar to western Europe -and Greece, as a comparison of dates of worship will show. - - Hecatompedon April 28 and August 16. - Older Erechtheum April 29 „ August 13. - Temple of Diana, Ephesus April 29 „ August 13. - „ Min, Thebes May 1 „ August 12. - „ Ptah, Memphis April 18 „ August 24. - „ „ Annu April 18 „ August 24. - „ Solar Disc, Tell el-Amarna April 18 „ August 24. - -In the above table I have given both the dates on which the sunlight (at -rising or setting) entered the temple, but we do not know for certain, -except in the case of the Hecatompedon, on which of the two days the -temples were used; it is likely they were all used on both days, and -that the variation from the dates proper to the sun’s declination of N. -16° indicates that they were very accurately oriented to fit the local -vegetation conditions in the most important and extensive temple fields -in the world. - -This is the more probable because the Jews also, after they had left -Egypt, established their feast of Pentecost fifty days after Easter = -May 10, on which day loaves made of newly harvested corn formed the -chief offering. - -With regard to the equinoctial year, the most complete account of the -temple arrangements is to be found in Josephus touching that at -Jerusalem. The temple had to be so erected that at the spring equinox -the sunrise light should fall on, and be reflected to, the worshippers -by the sardonyx stones on the high priest’s garment. At this festival -the first barley was laid upon the altar. - -But this worship was in full swing in Egypt for thousands of years -before we hear of it in connection with the Jews. It has left its -temples at Ephesus, Athens, and other places, and with the opening of -this year as well as of the solstitial one the custom of lighting fires -is associated, not only on hills, but also in churches. - -Here the sequence of cult cannot be mistaken. We begin with Isis and the -young Sun-god Horus at the Pyramids, and we end with “Lady Day,” a -British legal date; while St. Peter’s at Rome is as truly oriented to -the equinox as the Pyramids themselves, so that we have a distinct -change of cult with no change of orientation. - -If such considerations as these help us to connect Egyptian with British -worships we may hope that they will be no less useful when we go further -afield. I gather from a study of Mr. Maudslay’s admirable plans of -Palenque and Chichén-Itzá that the solstitial and farmers’ years’ -worships were provided for there. How did these worships and associated -temples with naos and sphinxes[4] get from Egypt to Yucatan? The more we -know of ancient travel the more we are convinced that it was coastwise, -that is, from one point of visible land to the next. Are the cults as -old as differences in the coast-lines which would most easily explain -their wide distribution? - -[3] In Babylonia the spring equinox was the critical time of the year -because the Tigris and Euphrates then began to rise. - -[4] See _Dawn of Astronomy_, Plate facing p. 182, for the lines of -sphinxes at Karnak. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -CONDITIONS AND TRADITIONS AT STONEHENGE - - -After Mr. Penrose, by his admirable observations in Greece, had shown -that the orientation theory accounted as satisfactorily for the -directions in which the chief temples in Greece had been built as I had -shown it did for some in Egypt, it seemed important to apply the same -methods of inquiry with all available accuracy to some example, at all -events, of the various stone circles in Britain which have so far -escaped destruction. Many attempts had been previously made to secure -data, but the instruments and methods employed did not seem to be -sufficient. - -Much time has, indeed, been lost in the investigation of a great many of -these circles, for the reason that in many cases the relations of the -monuments to the chief points of the horizon have not been considered; -and when they were, the observations were made only with reference to -the magnetic north, which is different at different places, and besides -is always varying; few indeed have tried to get at the astronomical -conditions of the problem. - -The first, I think, was Mr. Jonathan Otley, who in 1849 showed the -“Orientation” of the Keswick Circle “according to the solar meridian,” -giving true solar bearings throughout the year. - -I wrote a good deal in _Nature_[5] on sun and star temples in 1891, and -Mr. Lewis the next year expressed the opinion that the British Stone -Monuments, or some of them, were sun and star temples. - -Mr. Magnus Spence of Deerness in Orkney published a pamphlet, “Standing -Stones and Maeshowe of Stenness,[6]” in 1894; it is a reprint of an -article in the _Scottish Review_, Oct. 1893. Mr. Cursiter, F.S.A., of -Kirkwall, in a letter to me dated 15 March 1894, a letter suggested by -my _Dawn of Astronomy_ which appeared in that year and in which the -articles which had appeared in _Nature_ in 1891 had been expanded, drew -my attention to the pamphlet; the observations had no pretension to -scientific accuracy, and although some of the sight-lines were -incorrectly shown in an accompanying map, May year and solstitial -alignments were indicated. - - * * * * * - -So far as I know, there has never been a complete inquiry into the stone -circles in Britain, but Mr. Lewis, who has paid great attention to these -matters, has dealt in a general manner with them (_Archaeological -Journal_, vol. xlix. p. 136), and has further described (_Journal_ -Anthropological Institute, n.s., iii., 1900) the observations made by -him of stone circles in various parts of Scotland. From an examination -of the latter he concludes that they may be divided into different -types, each of which has its centre in a different locality. The types -are--(1) the Western Scottish type, consisting of a rather irregular -single ring or sometimes of two concentric rings; (2) the Inverness -type, consisting of a more regular ring of better-shaped stones, -surrounding a tumulus with a retaining wall, containing a built-up -chamber and passage leading to it, or a kist without a passage; (3) the -Aberdeen type, consisting of a similar ring with the addition of a -so-called “altar-stone” and usually having traces of a tumulus and kist -in the middle. In addition to these three types of circles, there are in -Britain generally what Mr. Lewis calls sun and star circles, with their -alignments of stones, and apparently proportioned measurements. He has -shown that there is a great preponderance of outlying stones and -hill-tops lying between the circles and the N.E. quarter of the horizon. -From what has been stated in Chapter III with regard to the nightly -observations of stars it will be gathered that these may have been used -for this purpose. - -The following list gives some of the bearings of outlying stones and -other circles from the centres of the named circles:-- - - Roll-rich, Oxon.--Kingstone N. 27° E. - Stripple Stones, Cornwall--Bastion on bank N. 26 E. - Long Meg, Cumberland--Small circle N. 27 E. - The Hurlers, Cornwall--Two outlying circles N. 13-16 E. - Trippet Stones--Leaze circle N. 11 E. - -If these alignments mean anything they must of course refer to the -rising of _stars_, as the position on the horizon is outside the sun’s -path. - -The many circles in Cornwall have been dealt with by Mr. Lukis in a -volume published by the Society of Antiquaries in 1895.[7] A carefully -prepared list of circles will be found in Mr. Windle’s recently -published work entitled “Remains of the Prehistoric Age in England.” - -It may be useful here to state, with regard to megalithic remains -generally, that they may be classed as follows; some details will be -discussed later on. - -(_a_) Circles. These may be single, double, or multiple, and either -concentric or not. - -(_b_) Menhirs, large single stones, used to mark sight-lines from -circles. - -(_c_) Alignments, _i.e._, lines of stones in single, double, or in many -parallel lines. If these alignments are short they are termed avenues. - -(_d_) Holed-stones, doubtless used for observing sight-lines, sometimes -_over_ a circle. - -(_e_) Coves. A term applied by Dr. Stukeley and others to what they -considered shrines formed by three upright stones, thus leaving one side -open. I take them to be partially protected observing places. There are -well-marked examples at Avebury, Stanton Drew and Kit’s Coity House. - -(_f_) Cromlechs. This term generally means a grouping of upright stones; -it is applied to irregular circles in Brittany. It also applies to a -stone or stones raised on the summits of three or more pillar stones -forming the end and sides of an irregular vault generally open at one -end (“Dolmens of Ireland,” Borlase, p. 429). The top stone is called in -S.W. England a “quoit.” Cromlechs in most cases have been covered by -barrows or cairns. - -(_g_) Dolmens, from Dol Men, a table stone. These consist of stones, -resting on two or more upright stones forming a more or less complete -chamber, some of which are of great length. I note the following -subdivisions: “Dolmen à galerie” having an entrance way of sufficient -height, and “Galgal,” similar but smaller. In the “Dolmen à l’allée -couverte” there is a covered passage way to the centre. It is a more -elaborate cove. For the relation between cromlechs and dolmens, see -Borlase (_loc. cit._ and p. 424 _et seq._). - -With regard to dolmens, I give the following quotation from Mr. Penrose -(_Nature_, vol. lxiv., September 12, 1901):-- - -“Near Locmariaquer in the estuary named Rivière d’Auray, there is an -island named Gavr’ Inis, or Goat Island, which contains a good specimen -of the kind of dolmen which has been named ‘Galgal.’ - -“At the entrance our attention is at once arrested by the profusion of -tracery which covers the walls. From the entrance to the wall facing us -the distance is between 50 and 60 feet. The square chamber to which the -gallery leads is composed of two huge slabs, the sides of the room and -gallery being composed of upright stones, about a dozen on each side. -The mystic lines and hieroglyphics similar to those above mentioned -appear to have a decorative character. - -“An interesting feature of Gavr’ Inis is its remarkable resemblance to -the New Grange tumulus at Meath. In construction there is again a -strong resemblance to Mæs-Howe, in the island of Orkney. There is also -some resemblance in smaller details.” - -While we generally have circles in Britain without, or with small, -alignments; in Brittany we have alignments without circles, some of them -being on an enormous scale;[8] thus at Menec (the place of stones) we -have eleven lines of menhirs, terminating towards the west in a -cromlech, and, notwithstanding that great numbers have been converted to -other uses, 1169 menhirs still remain, some reaching as much as 18 feet -in height. - -The alignments of Kermario (the place of the dead) contain 989 menhirs -in ten lines. Those of Kerlescant (the place of burning), which -beginning with eleven rows are afterwards increased to thirteen, contain -altogether 579 stones and thirty-nine in the cromlech, with some -additional stones. The adoration paid these stones yielded very slowly -to Christianity. In the church history of Brittany the _Cultus Lapidum_ -was denounced in 658 A.D. - -Many of the fallen menhirs in these alignments have been restored to -their upright position by the French Government. Some of them may have -been overturned in compliance with the decree of 658 A.D. above referred -to. Several of the loftier menhirs are surmounted by crosses of stone or -iron. - -Both circles and alignments are associated with holidays and the -lighting of fires on certain days of the year. This custom has remained -more general in Brittany than in Britain. At Mount St. Michael, near -Carnac, the custom still prevails of lighting a large bonfire on its -summit at the time of the summer solstice; others, kindled on prominent -eminences for a distance of twenty or thirty miles round, reply to it. -These fires are locally called “Tan Heol,” and also by a later use, Tan -St. Jean. In Scotland there was a similar custom in the first week in -May under the name of Bel Tan, or Baal’s Fire; the synonym for summer -used by Sir Walter Scott in the “Lady of the Lake”:-- - - Ours is no sapling chance-sown by the fountain, - Blooming at Beltane in winter to fade. - -At Kerlescant the winter solstice is celebrated by a holiday, whilst -Menec greets the summer solstice, and Kermario the equinoxes, with -festivals. Concerning these fires and the associated customs Mr. -Frazer’s “Golden Bough” is a perfect mine of information and should be -consulted. It may simply be said here that the May and November, and -June and December fires seem to be the most ancient. It is stated that -the Balder bale fires on Mayday Eve were recognised by the primitive -race, and I shall prove this in the sequel when British customs are -referred to. On the introduction of Christianity the various customs -were either transferred to or reorganised in association with church -festivals; but as some of these, such as Easter, are movable feasts, it -is difficult to follow the dates. - -Regarding both circles and alignments in the light of the orientation -theory, we may consider simple circles with a central stone as a -collection of sight-lines from the central stone to one or more of the -outer ones, or the interval between any two; indicating the place of the -rise or setting of either the sun or a star on some particular day of -the year, which day, in the case of the sun, will be a new year’s day. - -Alignments, on the other hand, will play the same part as the -sight-lines in the circles. - -Sometimes the sight-line may be indicated by a menhir outside, and even -at a considerable distance from, the circle; later on tumuli replaced -menhirs. - -The dolmens have, I am convinced, been in many cases not graves -originally, but darkened observing places whence to observe along a -sight-line; this would be best done by means of an _allée couverte_, the -predecessor of the darkened naos at Stonehenge, shielded by its covered -trilithons. - -In order to obtain some measurements to test the orientation theory in -Britain, I found that Stonehenge is the ancient monument in this country -which lends itself to accurate theodolite work better than any other. -Mr. Spence’s excellent work on astronomical lines at Stenness, where the -stones, till some years ago at all events, have been more respected than -further south, suggested a beginning there, but the distance from London -made it impossible. - -Avebury and Stanton Drew are well known to a great many archæologists; -there are also other very wonderful stone circles near Keswick and in -other parts of England; but unfortunately it is very much more difficult -to get astronomical data from these ancient monuments than it is in the -case of Stonehenge, one reason being that Stonehenge itself lies high, -and the horizon round it in all directions is pretty nearly the same -height, so that the important question of the heights of the hills along -the sight-line--a matter which is fundamental from an astronomical point -of view, although it has been neglected, so far as I can make out, by -most who have made observations on these ancient monuments--is quite a -simple one at Stonehenge. Hence it was much easier to determine a date -there than by working at any of the other ancient remains to which I -have referred. - -In orientation generally--such orientation as has been dealt with by Mr. -Penrose and myself in Egypt and in Greece--the question frequently was a -change in direction in the axis of a temple, or the laying down of the -axis of a temple, by means of observations of stars. Unfortunately for -us as archæologists, not as astronomers, the changes of position of the -stars, owing to certain causes, chiefly the precessional movement, are -very considerable; so that if a temple pointed to a star in one year, in -two or three hundred years it would no longer point to the same star, -but to another. - -These star observations were requisite in order to warn the priests -about an hour before sunrise so that they might prepare for the morning -sacrifice which always took place at the first appearance of the sun. -Hence the morning star to be visible in the dawn must be a bright one, -and the further north or south of the sun’s rising place it rose, the -more easily it would be seen. Some stars so chosen rose not far from -the north point of the horizon. The alignments with small azimuths -referred to in the British circles (p. 36) I believe to be connected -with the Egyptian and Greek practice. - -Acting on a very old tradition, some people from Salisbury and other -surrounding places go to observe the sunrise on the longest day of the -year at Stonehenge. We therefore are perfectly justified in assuming -that it was a solar temple used for observation in the height of -midsummer. But at dawn in midsummer in these latitudes the sky is so -bright that it is not easy to see stars even if we get up in the morning -to look for them; stars, therefore, were not in question, so that some -other principle had to be adopted, and that was to point the temple -directly to the position on the horizon at which the sun rose on that -particular day of the year, and no other. - -Now, if there were no change in the position of the sun, that, of -course, would go on for ever and ever; but, fortunately for -archæologists, there is a slight change in the position of the sun, as -there is in the case of a star, but for a different reason; the planes -of the ecliptic and of the equator undergo a slight change in the angle -included between them. So far as we know, that angle has been gradually -getting less for many thousands of years, so that, in the case of -Stonehenge, if we wish to determine the date, having no stars to help -us, the only thing that we can hope to get any information from is the -very slow change of this angle; that, therefore, was the special point -which Mr. Penrose and I were anxious to study at Stonehenge, for the -reason that we seemed in a position to do it there more conveniently -than anywhere else in Britain. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--The original tooling of the stone protected from -the action of the weather.] - -But while the astronomical conditions are better at Stonehenge than -elsewhere, the ruined state of the monument makes accurate measurements -very difficult. - -Great age and the action of weather are responsible for much havoc, so -that very many of the stones are now recumbent, as will be gathered from -an article by Mr. Lewis, who described the condition of the monument in -1901, in _Man_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.--View of Stonehenge from the west. A, stone which -fell in 1900; _BB_, stones which fell in 1797. (Reproduced from an -article on the fallen stones by Mr. Lewis in _Man_.)] - -Professor Gowland in his excavations at Stonehenge, to which I shall -refer in the sequel, found the original tooled surface near the bottom -of one of the large sarsens which had been protected from the action of -the weather by having been buried in the ground. It enables us to -imagine the appearance of the monument as it left the hands of the -builders (Fig. 8). - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Copy of Hoare’s plan of 1810, showing the -unbroken Vallum and its relation with the Avenue.] - -But the real destructive agent has been man himself; savages could not -have played more havoc with the monument than the English who have -visited it at different times for different purposes. It is said the -fall of one great stone was caused in 1620 by some excavations, but this -has been doubted; the fall of another in 1797 was caused by gipsies -digging a hole in which to shelter, and boil their kettle; many of the -stones have been used for building walls and bridges; masses weighing -from 56 lb. downwards have been broken off by hammers or cracked off as -a result of fires lighted by excursionists. - -It appears that the temenos wall or vallum, which is shown complete in -Hoare’s plan of 1810, is now broken down in many places by vehicles -indiscriminately driven over it. Indeed, its original importance has now -become so obliterated that many do not notice it as part of the -structure--that, in fact, it bears the same relation to the interior -stone circle as the nave of St. Paul’s does to the Lady Chapel (Fig. -10). - -It is within the knowledge of all interested in archæology that not long -ago Sir Edmund Antrobus, the owner of Stonehenge, advised by the famous -Wiltshire local society, the Society for the Protection of Ancient -Buildings, and the Society of Antiquaries, enclosed the monument in -order to preserve it from further wanton destruction, and--a first step -in the way of restoration--with the skilled assistance of Prof. Gowland -and Messrs. Carruthers, Detmar Blow and Stallybrass, set upright the -most important menhir, which threatened to fall or else break off at one -of the cracks. This menhir, the so-called “leaning stone,” once formed -one of the uprights of the trilithon the fall of the other member of -which is stated by Mr. Lewis to have occurred before 1574. The latter, -broken in two pieces, and the supported impost, now lie prostrate -across the altar stone. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.--The Leaning Stone in 1901.] - -This piece of work was carried out with consummate skill and care, and -most important conclusions, as we shall see in a subsequent chapter, -were derived from the minute inquiry into the conditions revealed in the -excavations which were necessary for the proper conduct of the work. - -Let us hope that we have heard the last of the work of devastators, and -even that, before long, some of the other larger stones, now inclined or -prostrate, may be set upright. - -Since Sir Edmund Antrobus, the present owner, has acted on the advice of -the societies I have named to enclose the monument, with a view to guard -it from destruction and desecration, he has been assailed on all sides. -It is not a little surprising that the “unclimbable wire fence” -recommended by the societies in question (the Bishop of Bristol being -the president of the Wiltshire society at the time) is by some regarded -as a suggestion that the property is not national, the fact being that -the nation has not bought the property, and that it has been private -property for centuries, and treated in the way we have seen. - -Let us hope also that before long the gaps in the vallum may be filled -up. These, as I have already stated, take away from the meaning of an -important part of one of the most imposing monuments of the world. In -the meantime, it is comforting to know that, thanks to what Sir Edmund -Antrobus has done, no more stones will be stolen, or broken by -sledge-hammers; that fires; that excavations such as were apparently the -prime cause of the disastrous fall of one of the majestic trilithons in -1797; that litter, broken bottles and the like, with which too many -British sightseers mark their progress, besides much indecent -desecration, are things of the past. - -If Stonehenge had been built in Italy, or France, or Germany, it would -have been in charge of the State long ago. - - * * * * * - -I now pass from the monument itself to a reference to some of the -traditions and historical statements concerning it. - -Those who are interested in these matters should thank the Wiltshire -Archæological and Natural History Society, which is to be warmly -congratulated on its persistent and admirable efforts to do all in its -power to enable the whole nation to learn about the venerable monuments -of antiquity which it has practically taken under its scientific charge. -It has published two most important volumes[9] dealing specially with -Stonehenge, including both its traditions and history. - -With regard to Mr. Long’s memoir, it may be stated that it includes -important extracts from notices of Stonehenge from the time of Henry of -Huntingdon (twelfth century) to Hoare (1812), and that all extant -information is given touching on the questions by whom the stones were -erected, whence they came, and what was the object of the structure. - -From Mr. Harrison’s more recently published bibliography, no reference -to Stonehenge by any ancient author, no letter to the _Times_ for the -last twenty years dealing with any question touching the monuments, -seems to be omitted. - -It is very sad to read, both in Mr. Long’s volume and the bibliography, -of the devastation which has been allowed to go on for so many years and -of the various forms it has taken. - - * * * * * - -As almost the whole of the notes which follow deal with the assumption -of Stonehenge having been a solar temple, a short reference to the -earliest statements concerning this view is desirable; and, again, as -the approximate date arrived at by Mr. Penrose and myself in 1901 is an -early one, a few words may be added indicating the presence in Britain -at that time of a race of men capable of designing and executing such -work. I quote from the paper communicated by Mr. Penrose and myself to -the Royal Society:-- - -“As to the first point, Diodorus Siculus (ii., 47, ed. Didot, p. 116) -has preserved a statement of Hecatæus in which Stonehenge alone can by -any probability be referred to. - -“‘We think that no one will consider it foreign to our subject to say a -word respecting the Hyperboreans. - -“‘Amongst the writers who have occupied themselves with the mythology of -the ancients, Hecatæus and some others tell us that opposite the land of -the Celts [ἑν τοις ἁντιπεραν της Κελτικης τοποις] there exists in the -Ocean an island not smaller than Sicily, and which, situated under the -constellation of The Bear, is inhabited by the Hyperboreans; so called -because they live beyond the point from which the North wind blows.... -If one may believe the same mythology, Latona was born in this island, -and for that reason the inhabitants honour Apollo more than any other -deity. A sacred enclosure [νησον] is dedicated to him in the island, as -well as a magnificent circular temple adorned with many rich -offerings.... The Hyperboreans are in general very friendly to the -Greeks.’” - -“The Hecatæus above referred to was probably Hecatæus of Abdera, in -Thrace, fourth century B.C.; a friend of Alexander the Great. This -Hecatæus is said to have written a history of the Hyperboreans: that it -was Hecatæus of Miletus, an historian of the sixth century B.C., is less -likely. - -“As to the second point, although we cannot go so far back in evidence -of the power and civilisation of the Britons, there is an argument of -some value to be drawn from the fine character of the coinage issued by -British kings early in the second century B.C., and from the statement -of Julius Cæsar (‘De Bello Gallico,’ vi., c. 14) that in the schools of -the Druids the subjects taught included the movements of the stars, the -size of the earth, and the nature of things (multa præterea de sideribus -et eorum motu, de mundi magnitudine, de rerum natura, de deorum -immortalium vi ac potestate disputant et juventuti tradunt). - -“Studies of such a character seem quite consistent with, and to demand, -a long antecedent period of civilisation.” - -Henry of Huntingdon is the first English writer to refer to Stonehenge, -which he calls Stanenges. Geoffrey of Monmouth (1138) and Giraldus -Cambrensis come next. - -In 1771, Dr. John Smith, in a work entitled “Choir Gawr, the Grand -Orrery of the Ancient Druids, called Stonehenge, Astronomically -Explained, and proved to be a Temple for Observing the Motions of the -Heavenly Bodies,” wrote as follows:-- - -“From many and repeated visits, I conceived it to be an astronomical -temple; and from what I could recollect to have read of it, no author -had as yet investigated its uses. Without an instrument or any -assistance whatever, but White’s ‘Ephemeris,’ I began my survey. I -suspected the stone called _The Friar’s Heel_ to be the index that would -disclose the uses of this structure; nor was I deceived. This stone -stands in a right line with the centre of the temple, pointing to the -north-east. I first drew a circle round the vallum of the ditch and -divided it into 360 equal parts; and then a right line through the body -of the temple to the Friar’s Heel; at the intersection of these lines I -reckoned the sun’s greatest amplitude at the summer solstice, in this -latitude, to be about 60 degrees, and fixed the eastern points -accordingly. Pursuing this plan, I soon discovered the uses of all the -detached stones, as well as those that formed the body of the temple.” - -With regard to this “Choir Gawr,” translated Chorea Gigantum, Leland’s -opinion is quoted (Long, p. 51) that we should read Choir vawr, the -equivalent of which is Chorea nobilis or magna.[10] - -In spite of Inigo Jones’s (1600) dictum that Stonehenge was of Roman -origin, Stukeley came to the conclusion in 1723 that the Druids were -responsible for its building; and Halley, who visited it in -1720--probably with Stukeley--concluded from the weathering of the -stones that it was at least 3000 years old; if he only had taken his -theodolite with him, how much his interest in the monument would have -been increased! - -[5] See especially _Nature_, July 2, 1891 p. 201. - -[6] Gardner, Paisley and London. - -[7] “The Prehistoric Stone Monuments of the British Isles--Cornwall.” - -[8] “The French Stonehenge: An Account of the Principal Megalithic -Remains in the Morbihan Archipelago.” By T. Cato Worsfold, F. R. Hist. -S., F.R.S.I. (London: Bemrose and Sons, Ltd.) - -[9] _The Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine_: -“Stonehenge and its Barrows.” By William Long, M.A., F.S.A. 1876. _The -Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine_: “Stonehenge -Bibliography Number.” By W. Jerome Harrison. 1902. - -[10] Mr. Morien Morgan informs me that Cor y Gawres is correct, and -means Choir of the Giantess Cariadwen, the Welsh Neith, Nyth (Nydd). - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -GENERAL ARCHITECTURE OF STONEHENGE - - -Although I have before hinted that the astronomical use of the Egyptian -temples and British circles was the same, there is at first sight a vast -difference in the general plan of structure. - -This has chiefly depended upon the fact that the riches and population -of ancient Egypt were so great that that people could afford to build a -temple to a particular star, or to the sun’s position on any particular -day of the year. The temple axis along the line pointing to the -celestial body involved, then became the chief feature, and tens of -years were spent in lengthening, constricting and embellishing it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.--The axis of the Temple of Karnak, looking -south-east, from outside the north-west pylon (from a photograph by the -author).] - -From one end of an Egyptian temple to the other we find the axis marked -out by narrow apertures in the various pylons, and many walls with doors -crossing the axis. There are seventeen or eighteen of these apertures in -the solar temple of Amen-Rā at Karnak, limiting the light which falls -into the Holy of Holies or Sanctuary. This construction gives one a very -definite impression that every part of the temple was built to subserve -a special object, viz., to limit the sunlight which fell on its front -into a narrow beam, and to carry it to the other extremity of the -temple--into the sanctuary, where the high priest performed his -functions. The sanctuary was always blocked. There is no case in which -the beam of light can pass absolutely through a temple (Figs. 12 and -13). - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Plan of the Temple of Ramses II. in the -Memnonia at Thebes (from Lepsius), showing the pylon at the open end, -the various doors along the axis, the sanctuary at the closed end, and -the temple at right angles.] - -In Britain the case was different, there was neither skill nor workers -sufficient to erect such stately piles, and as a consequence one -structure had to do the work of several and it had to be done in the -most economical way. Hence the circle with the observer at the centre -and practically a temple axis in every direction among which could be -chosen the chief directions required, each alignment being defined by -stones, more or less distant, or openings in the circle itself. - -Now for some particulars with regard to those parts of Stonehenge which -lend themselves to the inquiry. - -The main architecture of Stonehenge consisted of an external circle of -about 100 feet in diameter, composed of thirty large upright stones, -named sarsens, connected by continuous lintels. The upright stones -formerly stood 14 feet above the surface of the ground. They have nobs -or tenons on the top which fit into mortice holes in the lintels. Within -this peristyle there was originally an inner structure of ten still -larger upright stones, arranged in the shape of a horseshoe, formed by -five isolated trilithons which rose progressively from N.E. to S.W., the -loftiest stones being 25 feet above the ground. About one-half of these -uprights have fallen, and a still greater number of the imposts which -they originally carried. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.--One of the remaining Trilithons.] - -There is also another circle of smaller upright stones, respecting which -the only point requiring notice now is that none of them would have -interrupted the line of the axis of the avenue. The circular temple was -also surrounded by the earthen bank, shown in Fig. 15, of about 300 -feet in diameter, interrupted towards the north-east by receiving into -itself the banks forming the avenue before mentioned, which is about 50 -feet across. Within this avenue, no doubt an old _via sacra_, and -looking north-east from the centre of the temple, at about 250 feet -distance and considerably to the right hand of the axis, stands an -isolated stone, which from a mediæval legend has been named the Friar’s -Heel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.--General plan; the outer circle, naos and avenue -of Stonehenge. - -_F.H._ = Friar’s Heel.] - -The axis passes very nearly centrally through an intercolumniation (so -to call it) between two uprights of the external circle and between the -uprights of the westernmost trilithon as it originally stood. Of this -trilithon the southernmost upright with the lintel stone fell in 1620, -but the companion survived as the leaning stone which formed a -conspicuous and picturesque object for many years, but happily now -restored to its original more dignified and safer condition of -vertically. The inclination of this stone, however, took place in the -direction of the axis of the avenue, and as the distance between it and -its original companion is known both by the analogy of the two perfect -trilithons and by the measure of the mortice holes on the lintel they -formerly supported, we obtain by bisection the distance, 11 inches, from -its edge, of a point in the continuation of the central axis of the -avenue and temple. - -The banks which form the avenue have suffered much degradation. It -appears from Sir Richard Colt Hoare’s account that at the beginning of -the last century they were distinguishable for a much greater distance -than at present, but they are still discernible, especially on the -northern side, for more than 1300 feet from the centre of the temple, -and particularly the line of the bottom of the ditch from which the -earth was taken to form the bank, and which runs parallel to it. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS AT STONEHENGE IN 1901[11] - - -An investigation was undertaken by Mr. Penrose and myself in the spring -of 1901, as a sequel to analogous work in Egypt and Greece, with a view -to determine whether the orientation theory could throw any light upon -the date of the foundation of Stonehenge, concerning which authorities -vary in their estimates by some thousands of years. Ours was not the -first attempt to obtain the date of Stonehenge by means of astronomical -considerations. In Mr. Godfrey Higgins’ work[12] he refers to a method -of attack connected with precession. This furnished him with the date -4000 B.C. - -More recently, Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie,[13] whose plan of the stones -is a valuable contribution to the study of Stonehenge, was led by his -measures of the orientation to a date very greatly in the opposite -direction, but, owing to an error in his application of the change of -obliquity, clearly a mistaken one. - -The chief astronomical evidence in favour of the solar temple theory -lies in the fact that the “avenue,” as it is called, formed by two -ancient earthen banks, extends for a considerable distance from the -structure, in the general direction of the sunrise at the summer -solstice, precisely in the same way as in Egypt a long avenue of -sphinxes indicates the principal outlook of a temple. - -These earthen banks defining the avenue do not exist alone. As will be -seen from the sketch plan (Fig. 15), there is a general common line of -direction for the avenue and the principal axis of the structure; and -the general design of the building, together with the position and shape -of the naos, indicates a close connection of the whole temple structure -with the direction of the avenue. There may have been other pylon and -screen equivalents as in other ancient temples, which have disappeared, -the object being to confine the illumination to a small part of the -naos. There can be little doubt, also, that the temple was originally -roofed in, and that the sun’s first ray, suddenly shining into the -darkness, formed a fundamental part of the cultus. - -With regard to the question of the roof, however, the above suggestion, -I now find, is not new, the view having been held by no less an -authority than Dr. Thurnham, who apparently was led to it by the -representations of the Scandinavian temples as covered and enclosed -structures. - -Since the actual observation of sunrise was doubtless made within the -sanctuary itself, we seem justified in taking the orientation of the -axis to be the same as that of the avenue, and since in the present -state of the S.W. trilithon the direction of the avenue can probably be -determined with greater accuracy than that of the temple axis itself, -the estimate of date must be based upon the orientation of the avenue. -Further evidence will be given, however, to show that the direction of -the axis of the temple, so far as it can now be determined, is -sufficiently accordant with the direction of the avenue. - -The orientation of this avenue may be examined upon the same principles -that have been found successful in the case of Greek and Egyptian -temples--that is, on the assumption that Stonehenge was a solar temple, -and that the greatest function took place at sunrise on the longest day -of the year. This not only had a religious motive; it had also the -economic value of marking officially and distinctly that time of the -year and the beginning of an annual period. - -It is, indeed, possible that the present structure may have had other -capabilities, such as being connected with the May year, the equinoxes -or the winter solstice; but it is with its uses at the summer solstice -alone that we now deal. - -There is a difference in treatment between the observations required for -Stonehenge and those which are available for Greek or Egyptian solar -temples. In the case of the latter, the effect of the precession of the -equinoxes upon the stars, which as warning clock stars were almost -invariably connected with those temples, offers the best measure of the -dates of foundation; but in Britain, owing to the brightness of the dawn -at the summer solstice, such a star could not have been employed, so -that we can rely only on the secular change of the obliquity as -affecting the azimuth of the point of sunrise. This requires the -measurements to be taken with very great precision, and as the azimuth -of the place of sunrise varies with the latitude, and as a datum point -on the horizon in a known position was also required, Colonel Johnston, -R.E., the Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, was asked for and -obligingly supplied the following particulars: - - { Lat. 51° 10′ 42″ - Centre of stone circle, Stonehenge { Long. W. 1 49 99 - - { Lat. 51° 3′ 52″ - Centre of spire, Salisbury Cathedral { Long. 1 47 45 - -The real point was to determine the direction of the so-called avenue. -Measurements taken from the line of the bottom of the ditch assisted -materially those taken from the crown of the bank itself. With this help -and by using the southern bank and ditch whenever it admitted of -recognition, a fair estimate of the central line could be arrived at. To -verify this, two pegs were placed at points 140 feet apart along the -line near the commencement of the avenue, and four others at distances -averaging 100 feet apart nearer the further recognisable extremity, and -their directions were measured with the theodolite, independently by two -observers, the reference point being Salisbury Spire, of which the exact -bearing had been communicated by Colonel Johnston. - -This bearing was also measured locally by observations of the Sun and of -Polaris, the mean of which differed by less than 20″ from the Ordnance -value. The resulting observations gave for the axis of the avenue -nearest the commencement an azimuth of 49° 38′ 48″, and for that of the -more distant part 49° 32′ 54″. The mean of these two lines drawn from -the central interval of the great trilithon, already referred to, passes -between two of the sarsens of the exterior circle, which have an opening -of about 4 feet, within a few inches of their middle point, the -deviation being northwards. This may be considered to prove the close -coincidence of the original axis of the temple with the direction of the -avenue. - -This value of the azimuth, the mean of which is 49° 35′ 51″, is -confirmed by the information, also supplied from the Ordnance Survey, -that from the centre of the temple, the bearing to the N.E. of the -principal bench mark on a hill, about 8 miles distant, the bench mark -being very near a well-known ancient fortified British encampment named -Silbury or Sidbury, is 49° 34′ 18″; and that the same line continued -through Stonehenge, to the south-west, strikes another ancient -fortification, namely, Grovely Castle, about 6 miles distant, and at -practically the same azimuth, viz., 49° 35′ 51″. For the above reasons -49° 34′ 18″ has been adopted for the azimuth of the avenue. - -The summer solstice sunrise in 1901 was also watched for by Mr. Howard -Payn on five successive mornings, viz., June 21 to 25, and was -successfully observed on the last occasion. As soon as the Sun’s limb -was sufficiently above the horizon for its bisection to be well -measured, it was found to be 8′ 40″ northwards of the peak of the -Friar’s Heel, which was used as the reference point; the altitude of the -horizon being 35′ 48″. The azimuth of this peak from the point of -observation had been previously ascertained to be 50° 39′ 5″, giving for -that of the Sun when measured, 50° 30′ 25″; by calculation that of the -Sun, with the limb 2′ above the horizon, should be 50° 30′ 54″. This -observation was therefore completely in accordance with the results -which had been obtained otherwise. - -The time which would elapse between geometrical sunrise, that is, with -the upper limb tangential with the horizon, and that which is here -supposed, would be about 17 seconds, and the difference of azimuth would -be 3′ 15″. - -The remaining point was to find what value should be given to the Sun’s -declination when it appeared showing itself 2′ above the horizon, the -azimuth being 49° 34′ 18″. - -The data obtained for the determination of the required epoch were as -follows:-- - -(1.) The elevation of the local horizon at the sunrise point seen by a -man standing between the uprights of the great trilithon (a distance of -about 8000 feet) is about 35′ 30″, and 2′ additional for Sun’s upper -limb makes 37′ 30″. - -(2.) -Refraction + parallax, 27′ 20″. - -(3.) Sun’s semi-diameter, allowance being made for greater eccentricity -than at present, 15′ 45″. - -(4.) Sun’s azimuth, 49° 34′ 18″, and N. latitude, 51° 10′ 42″. - -From the above data the Sun’s declination works out 23° 54′ 30″ N., and -by Stockwell’s tables of the obliquity, which are based upon modern -determinations of the elements of the solar system,[14] the date is -found to be 1680 B.C. - -It is to be understood that on account of the slight uncertainty as to -the original line of observation and the very slow rate of change in -the obliquity of the ecliptic, the date thus derived may possibly be in -error by 200 years more or less; this gives us a date of construction -lying between say 1900 and 1500 B.C. - -In this investigation the so-called Friar’s Heel was used only as a -convenient point for reference and verification in measurement, and no -theory was formed as to its purpose. It is placed at some distance, as -before mentioned, to the south of the axis of the avenue, so that at the -date arrived at for the erection of the temple the Sun must have -completely risen before it was vertically over the summit of the stone. -It may be remarked, further, that more than 500 years must yet elapse -before such a coincidence can take place at the beginning of sunrise. - -In an Appendix certain details of the observations are given. - -In the next chapter I propose to show that an independent archæological -inquiry carried out, in a most complete and admirable way, just after -Mr. Penrose and myself had obtained our conclusion, entirely -corroborates the date at which we had arrived. - -[11] This chapter and the end of the previous one are mainly based on -the paper communicated by Mr. Penrose and myself to the Royal Society -(see _Proceedings_, _Royal Society_, vol. 69, p. 137 _et seq._). - -[12] _The Celtic Druids_. 4to. London. 1827. - -[13] _Stonehenge, &c._ 1880. - -[14] _Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge_, vol. xviii. No. 232, -table 9. Washington. 1873. For curve, see page 130. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -ARCHÆOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT STONEHENGE, 1901 - - -Soon after Mr. Penrose and myself had made our astronomical survey of -Stonehenge in 1901, some archæological results of the highest importance -were obtained by Professor Gowland. The operations which secured them -were designed and carried out in order to re-erect the leaning stone -which threatened to fall, a piece of work recommended to Sir Edmund -Antrobus by the Society of Antiquaries of London and other learned -bodies, and conducted at his desire and expense. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.--The arrangements for raising the stone, looking -north-east.] - -They were necessarily on a large scale, for the great monolith, “the -leaning stone,” is the largest in England, the Rudston monolith -excepted. It stood behind the altar stone, over which it leant at an -angle of 65 degrees, resting at one point against a small stone of -syenite. Half-way up it had a fracture one-third across it; the weight -of stone above this fracture was a dangerous strain on it, so that both -powerful machinery and great care and precautions had to be used. -Professor Gowland was charged by the Society of Antiquaries with the -conduct of the excavations necessary in the work. The engineering -operations were planned by Mr. Carruthers, and Mr. Detmar Blow was -responsible for the local superintendence. Mr. Blow thus describes the -arrangements (_Journal_ Institute of British Architects, 3rd series, -ix., January, 1902):-- - -“A strong cradle of 12-inch square baulks of timber was bolted round the -stone, with packing and felt, to prevent any marking of the stone. To -the cradle were fixed two 1-inch steel eyebolts to receive the blocks -for two six-folds of 6-inch ropes. These were secured and wound on to -two strong winches fifty feet away, with four men at each winch. When -the ropes were thoroughly tight, the first excavation was made as the -stone was raised on its west side.” - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.--The cradle and supports, looking west.] - -The method employed by Professor Gowland in the excavation should be a -model for all future work of the kind. - -Above each space to be excavated was placed a frame of wood, bearing on -its long sides the letters A to H, and on its short sides the letters R -M L, each letter being on a line one foot distant from the next. By this -means the area to be excavated was divided into squares each having the -dimension of a square foot. A long rod divided into 6-inch spaces, -numbered from 1 to 16, was also provided for indicating the depth from -the datum line of anything found. In this way a letter on the long sides -of the frame, together with one on the short sides, and a number on the -vertical rod, indicated the position of any object found in any part of -the excavation. - -Excavations were necessary because to secure the stone for the future -the whole of the adjacent soil had to be removed down to the rock level, -so that it could be replaced by concrete. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.--The frame used to locate the finds.] - -All results were registered by Professor Gowland in relation to a datum -line 337·4 feet above sea level. The material was removed in buckets, -and carefully sifted through a series of sieves 1-inch, ¹⁄₂-inch, -¹⁄₄-inch, and ¹⁄₈-inch mesh, in order that the smallest object might -not be overlooked. - -From the exhaustive account of his work given by Professor Gowland to -the Society of Antiquaries (_Archaeologia_, lviii.), I gather three -results of the highest importance from the point of view I am -considering. These were, first, the finding of an enormous number of -implements; secondly, the disposition and relative quantities of the -chippings of the sarsen and blue stones; and thirdly, the discovery of -the method by which the stones were originally erected. - -I will take the implements first. This, in a condensed form, is what -Professor Gowland says about them:-- - -More than a hundred flint implements were found, and the greater number -occurred in the stratum of chalk rubble which either directly overlaid -or was on a level with the bed rock. They may all be arranged generally -in the following classes:-- - -_Class I._--Axes roughly chipped and of rude forms, but having -well-defined, more or less sharp cutting edges. - -_Class II._--Hammerstones, with more or less well-chipped, sharp curved -edges. Most may be correctly termed hammer-axes. They are chipped to an -edge at one end, but at the other are broad and thick, and in many -examples terminated there by a more or less flat surface. In some the -natural coating of the flint is left untouched at the thick end. - -_Class III._--Hammerstones, more or less rounded. Some specimens appear -to have once had distinct working edges, but they are now much blunted -and battered by use. - -In addition to the above flint implements were found about thirty -hammerstones, consisting of large pebbles or small boulders of the hard -quartzite variety of sarsen. Some have been roughly broken into -convenient forms for holding in the hand, whilst a few have been rudely -trimmed into more regular shapes. They vary in weight from about a pound -up to six and a half pounds. To these we have to add mauls, a more -remarkable kind of hammerstone than those just enumerated. They are -ponderous boulders of the quartzite variety of sarsen with their -broadest sides more or less flat. Their weights range from about 40 lb. -to 64 lb. - -How came these flints and stones where they were found? Prof. Gowland -gives an answer which everybody will accept. The implements must be -regarded as the discarded tools of the builders of Stonehenge, dumped -down into the holes as they became unfit for use, and, in fact, used to -pack the monoliths as they were erected. We read:--“Dealing with the -cavity occupied by No. 55 before its fall, the mauls were found wedged -in below the front of its base to act together with the large blocks of -sarsen as supports” (p. 54). Nearly all bear evidence of extremely rough -usage, their edges being jagged and broken, just as we should expect to -find after such rough employment. We evidently have to deal with -builders doing their work in the Stone and not in the Bronze age. But -was the age Palæolithic or Neolithic? - -Prof. Gowland writes:-- - -“Perhaps the most striking features of the flint implements is their -extreme rudeness, and that there is not a single ground or polished -specimen among them. This, at first sight and without due consideration, -might be taken to indicate an extremely remote age. But in this -connection it must be borne in mind that in the building of such a -stupendous structure as Stonehenge, the tools required must have been -numbered by thousands. The work, too, was of the roughest character, and -for such only rude tools were required. The highly finished and polished -implements which we are accustomed to consider, and rightly so, as -characteristic of Neolithic man, would find no place in such work. They -required too much labour and time for their manufacture, and, when made, -could not have been more effective than the hammer-axes and hammerstones -found in the excavations, which could be so easily fashioned by merely -rudely shaping the natural flints, with which the district abounds, by a -few well directed blows of a sarsen pebble.” - -On this ground Prof. Gowland is of opinion that, notwithstanding their -rudeness, they may be legitimately ascribed to the Neolithic age, and, -it may be, near its termination, that is, before the Bronze age, the -commencement of which has been placed at 1400 B.C. by Sir John Evans for -Britain, though he is inclined to think that estimate too low, and 2000 -B.C. by Montelius for Italy. - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Some of the Flint Implements.] - -Prof. Gowland guardedly writes:-- - -“The occurrence of stone tools does not alone prove with absolute -certainty that Stonehenge belongs to the Neolithic age, although it -affords a strong presumption in favour of that view. But, and this is -important, had bronze been in general or even moderately extensive use -when the stones were set up, it is in the highest degree probable that -some implement of that metal would have been lost within the area of the -excavations, and if so lost, it would certainly have been found together -with the stone tools. Further, the employment of deer’s horn picks for -the extensive excavations made in the chalk around the base of the -monoliths also tends to support the view that bronze implements cannot -have been in common use. If they had it would seem not unreasonable to -assume that they would have been employed, as they would have been so -much more effective for such work than the picks of deer’s horn. - -“Again, the chippings of the stones of Stonehenge in two of the Bronze -age barrows[15] in its neighbourhood show that it is of earlier date -than they.” - -And finally:-- - -“In my opinion, the date when copper or bronze was first known in -Britain is a very remote one, as no country in the world presented -greater facilities for their discovery. The beginning of their -application to practical uses should, I think, be placed at least as far -back as 1800 B.C., and that date I am inclined to give, until further -evidence is forthcoming, as the approximate date of the erection of -Stonehenge.” - -Now the date arrived at by Mr. Penrose and myself on astronomical -grounds was about 1700 B.C. It is not a little remarkable that -independent astronomical and archæological inquiries conducted in the -same year should have come so nearly to the same conclusion. If a -general agreement be arrived at regarding it, we have a firm basis for -the study of other similar ancient monuments in this country. - -I have previously in this book referred to the fact that the trilithons -of the naos and the stones of the outer circle are all built up of -so-called “sarsen” stones. To describe their geological character, I -cannot do better than quote, from Mr. Cunnington’s “Geology of -Stonehenge,”[16] their origin according to Prestwich. - -“Among the _Lower Tertiaries_ (the Eocene of Sir Charles Lyell) are -certain sands and mottled clays, named by Mr. Prestwich the Woolwich and -Reading beds, from their being largely developed at these places, and -from these he proves the sarsens to have been derived; although they are -seldom found _in situ_, owing to the destruction of the stratum to which -they belonged. They are large _masses of sand concreted together_ by a -siliceous cement, and when the looser portions of the stratum were -washed away, the blocks of sandy rocks were left scattered over the -surface of the ground. - -“At Standen, near Hungerford, large masses of sarsen are found, -consisting almost _entirely_ of flints, formed into conglomerate with -the sand. Flints are also common in some of the large stones forming the -ancient temple of Avebury. - -“The abundance of these remains, especially in some of the valleys of -North Wilts, is very remarkable. Few persons who have not seen them can -form an adequate idea of the extraordinary scene presented to the eye -of the spectator, who standing on the brow of one of the hills near -Clatford, sees stretching for miles before him, countless numbers of -these enormous stones, occupying the middle of the valley, and winding -like a mighty stream towards the south.” - -These stones, then, may be regarded as closely associated with the local -geology. - -The exact nature of the stones, called “blue stones,” can best be -gathered from a valuable “Note” by Prof. Judd which accompanies Prof. -Gowland’s paper. These blue stones are entirely unconnected with the -local geology; they must, therefore, represent boulders of the Glacial -drift, or they must have been brought by man, from distant localities. -Prof. Judd inclines to the first opinion. - -The distinction between these two kinds of stone are well shown by Prof. -Gowland:-- - -“The large monoliths of the outer circle, and the trilithons of the -horse-shoe are all sarsens. [See general plan, Fig. 15.] These sarsens -in their composition are sandstones, consisting of quartz-sand, either -fine or coarse, occasionally mixed with pebbles and angular bits of -flint, all more or less firmly cemented together with silica. They are -the relics of the concretionary masses which had become consolidated in -the sandstone beds that once overlaid the chalk of the district, and had -resisted the destructive agencies by which the softer parts of the beds -were removed in geological times. They range in structure from a -granular rock resembling loaf sugar in internal appearance to one of -great compactness similar to and sometimes passing into quartzite. - -“The monoliths and trilithons all consist of the granular rock. The -examples of the compact quartzite variety, of which many were found in -the excavations, were almost without exception either hammerstones that -had been used in shaping and dressing the monoliths, or fragments which -had been broken from off them in these operations. - -“The small monoliths, the so-called ‘blue stones,’ which form the inner -circle and the inner horse-shoe, are, with the undermentioned -exceptions, all of diabase more or less porphyritic. Two are porphyrite -(formerly known as felstone or hornstone). Two are argillaceous -sandstone. - -“Mr. William Cunnington, in his valuable paper, ‘Stonehenge Notes,’ -records the discovery of two stumps of ‘blue stones’ now covered by the -turf. One of these lies in the inner horseshoe between Nos. 61 and 62, -and 9 feet distant from the latter. It is diabase. The other is in the -inner circle between Nos. 32 and 33, 10 feet from the former, and -consists of a soft calcareous altered tuff, afterwards designated for -the sake of brevity fissile rock. - -“The altar stone is of micaceous sandstone.” - -I now come to the second point, to which I shall return in the next -chapter. - -In studying the material obtained from the excavations, it was found in -almost every case that the number of chippings and fragments of blue -stone largely exceeded that of the sarsens; more than this, diabase -(blue stone) and sarsen were found together in the layer overlying the -solid chalk (p. 15). Chippings of diabase were the most abundant, but -there were few large pieces of it. Sarsen, on the other hand, occurred -most abundantly in lumps (p. 20); very few small chips of sarsen were -found (p. 42). Hence Prof. Gowland is of opinion that the sarsen blocks -were roughly hewn where they were found (p. 40); the local tooling, -executed with the small quartzite hammers and mauls, would produce not -chips but dust. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Showing the careful tooling of the Sarsens.] - -Finally, I reach the third point of importance from the present -standpoint; the excavations produced clear evidence touching the mode of -erection. Prof. Gowland’s memoir deals only with the leaning stone, but -I take it for granted that the same method was employed throughout: the -method was this. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Face of rock against which a stone was made to -rest.] - -(1) The ground in the site a stone was to occupy was removed, the chalk -rock being cut into in such a manner as to leave a ledge, on which the -base of the stone was to rest, _and a perpendicular face rising from it, -against which as a buttress_ one side would bear when set up. From the -bottom of this hole an inclined plane was cut to the surface down which -the monolith which had already been dressed was slid until its base -rested on the ledge. - -(2) It was then gradually raised into a vertical position by means first -of levers and afterwards of ropes. The levers would be long trunks of -trees, to one end of which a number of ropes was attached (this method -is still employed in Japan); so that the weights and pulling force of -many men might be exerted on them. The stronger ropes were probably of -hide or hair, but others of straw, or of withes of hazel or willow, may -have been in use for minor purposes. - -(3) As the stone was raised, it was packed up with logs of timber and -probably also with blocks of stone placed beneath it. - -(4) After its upper end had reached a certain elevation, ropes were -attached to it, and it was then hauled by numerous men into a vertical -position, _so that its back rested against the perpendicular face of the -chalk which had been prepared for it_. During this part of the -operation, struts of timber would probably be placed against its sides -to guard against slip, a precaution taken when the leaning stone was -raised and until the foundation was properly set. - -As regards the raising of the lintels, and imposts, and the placing of -them on the tops of the uprights, there would be even less difficulty -than in the erection of the uprights themselves. - -[Illustration: FIG. 22.--The leaning stone upright before the struts -were removed.] - -It could be easily effected by the simple method practised in Japan for -placing heavy blocks of stone in position. The stone, when lying on the -ground, would be raised a little at one end by means of long wooden -levers. A packing of logs would then be placed under the end so raised, -the other extremity of the stone would be similarly raised and packed, -and the raising and packing at alternate ends would be continued until -the block had gradually reached the height of the uprights. It would -then be simply pushed forward by levers until it rested upon them. - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Stonehenge, 1905.] - -It is not often that an engineering operation has been made so -subservient to the interests of science as the one we have dealt with in -this chapter. It is satisfactory to know not only that much new -knowledge has been acquired by Professor Gowland and his coadjutors, but -that the famous leaning stone has now been set upright in such fashion -that it will remain upright for hundreds of years. May the other leaning -stones soon receive the same treatment. - -[15] Sir Richard Colt Hoare, _Ancient History of South Wiltshire_, p. -127. (London, 1812); W. Stukeley, _Stonehenge_, p. 46. (London, 1740). - -[16] _Wilts Archaeological and Natural History Magazine_, xxi. pp. -141-149. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -WAS THERE AN EARLIER CIRCLE? - - -When we come to examine Stonehenge carefully in relation to the -orientation theory, it soon becomes clear that its outer circle of -upright stones with lintels, and the inner naos, built of trilithons, -oriented in the line of the “avenue” and the summer solstice sunrise, -are not the only things to be considered. These stones, all composed of -sarsen, which, be it remarked, have been trimmed and tooled, are not -alone in question. We have:-- - -(1) An interior circle broken in many places, and other stones near the -naos, composed of stones, “blue stones,” which, as we have seen, are of -an entirely different origin and composition. - -(2) Two smaller _untrimmed_ sarsen stones lying near the vallum, _not_ -at the same distance from it, the line joining them passing nearly, but -not quite, through the centre of the sarsen circle. The amplitude of the -line joining them is approximately 26° S. of E. and 26° N. of W. Of -these stones, the stump of the N.W. one is situated 22 feet from the top -of the vallum according to the Ordnance plan. The S.E. stone has fallen, -but according to careful observations and measurements by Mr. Penrose, -when erect its centre was 14 feet from the top of the vallum. The centre -of the line joining the stones is therefore about 4 feet to the S.E. of -the axis of the present circles, which, it may be stated, passes 3 feet -to the N.W. of the N.W. edge of the Friar’s Heel (see Fig. 24). - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Map of the Stones made by the Ordnance -Survey.[17] A, N.W. stone; B, S.E. stone; C, Friar’s Heel; D, Slaughter -stone.] - -There are besides these two large _untrimmed_ sarsen stones, one -standing some distance outside the vallum, one recumbent lying on the -vallum; both nearly, but not quite, in the sunrise line as viewed from -the centre of the sarsen circle. These are termed the “Friar’s Heel” and -“Slaughter Stone” respectively. - -I will deal with (1) first, and begin by another quotation from Mr. -Cunnington, who displayed great acumen in dealing with the smaller -stones not sarsens. - -“The most important consideration connected with the smaller stones, and -one which in its archæological bearing has been too much overlooked, is -the fact of their having been brought from a great distance. I expressed -an opinion on this subject in a lecture delivered at Devizes more than -eighteen years ago, and I have been increasingly impressed with it -since. I believe that these stones would not have been brought from such -a distance to a spot where an abundance of building stones equally -suitable in every respect already existed, unless some special or -religious value had been attached to them. This goes far to prove that -Stonehenge was _originally a temple_, and neither a monument raised to -the memory of the dead, nor an astronomical calendar or almanac. - -“It has been suggested that they were Danams, or the offerings of -successive votaries. Would there in such case have been such uniformity -of design, or would they have been all alike of foreign materials? I -would make one remark about the small impost of a trilithon of syenite, -now lying prostrate within the circle. One writer has followed another -in taking it for granted that there must have been a second, -corresponding with it, on the opposite side. Of this there is neither -proof nor record, not a trace of one having been seen by any person who -has written on the subject. This small impost, not being of sarsen, but -syenite, must have belonged to the original old circle; _it may even -have suggested to the builders of the present Stonehenge the idea of the -large imposts, and trilithons with their tenons and mortices_.” - -In Prof. Gowland’s examination of the contents of the holes necessarily -dug in his operations, it was found over and over again, indeed almost -universally, that the quantity of blue stone chippings was much greater -than that from the sarsen stones. While the sarsen stones had only been -worked or tooled on their surface, the blue stones had been hewed and -trimmed in extraordinary fashion; indeed it is stated by Prof. Judd that -they had been reduced to half their original dimensions in this process, -the chippings almost equalling the volume of the stones themselves. - -It seems, then, that when the sarsen stones were set up, the sarsen and -blue stones were treated very differently. This being so, the following -quotation from Prof. Judd’s “Note” is interesting (_Archaeologia_, -lviii., p. 81):-- - -“I may repeat my conviction that if the prevalent beliefs and traditions -concerning Stonehenge were true, and the “bluestone” circles were -transported from some distant locality, either as trophies of war or as -the sacred treasures of a wandering tribe, it is quite inconceivable -that they should have been hewed and chipped, as we now know them to -have been, and reduced in some cases to half their dimensions, _after -having been carried with enormous difficulty over land and water, and -over hills and valleys_. On the other hand, in the glacial drift, which -once probably thinly covered the district, the glacial deposits dying -out very gradually as we proceed southwards, we have a source from which -such stones might probably have been derived. It is quite a well-known -peculiarity of the glacial drift to exhibit considerable assemblages of -stones of a particular character at certain spots, each of these -assemblages having probably been derived from the same source. - -“I would therefore suggest as probable that when the early inhabitants -of this island commenced the erection of Stonehenge, Salisbury Plain was -sprinkled over thickly with the great white masses of the sarsen-stones -(‘grey wethers’), and much more sparingly with darker coloured boulders -(the so-called ‘blue-stones’), the last relics of the glacial drift, -which have been nearly denuded away. From these two kinds of materials -the stones suitable for the contemplated temple were selected. It is -even possible that the abundance and association of these two kinds of -materials so strikingly contrasted in colour and appearance, at a -particular spot, may not only have decided the site, but to some extent -have suggested the architectural features of the noble structure of -Stonehenge.” - -If we grant everything that Prof. Judd states, the question remains--why -did the same men in the same place at the same time treat the sarsen and -blue stones so differently? - -I shall show subsequently that there is a definite answer to the -question on one assumption. - -I next come to (2). The important point about these stones is that with -the amplitude 26°, at Stonehenge, a line from the centre of the circle -over the N.W. stone would mark the sunset place in the first week in -May, and a line over the S.E. stone would similarly deal with the -November sunrise. We are thus brought in presence of the May-November -year. - -Another point about these stones is that they are not at the same -distance from the centre of the sarsen stone circle, which itself is -concentric with the temenos mound; this is why they lie at different -distances from the mound. Further, a line drawn from the point of the -Friar’s Heel over the now recumbent Slaughter Stone with the amplitude -determined by Mr. Penrose and myself for the summer solstice sunrise in -1680 B.C. cuts the line joining the stones at the middle point, -suggesting that the four untrimmed sarsen stones provided alignments -both for the May and June years at about that date. - -Nor is this all; the so-called tumuli within the vallum (Fig. 10) may -have been observation mounds, for the lines passing from the northern -tumulus over the N.W. stone and from the southern tumulus over the S.E. -one are parallel to the avenue, and therefore represent the solstitial -orientation. - -So much, then, for the stones. We see that, dealing only with the -untrimmed sarsens that remain, the places of the May sunset and June and -November sunrises were marked from the same central point. - -Statements have been made that there was the stump of another stone -near the vallum to the S.W., in the line of the Friar’s Heel and -Slaughter Stone, produced backwards, at the same distance from the old -centre as the N.W. and S.E. stones. This stone was _not_ found in an -exploration by Sir Edmund Antrobus, Mr. Penrose and Mr. Howard Payn by -means of a sword and an auger. But the question will not be settled -until surface digging is permitted, as a “road” about which there is a -present contention passes near the spot. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.--The rod on the recumbent stone is placed in and -along the common axis of the present circle and avenue. It is seen that -the Friar’s Heel, the top of which is shown in the distance, would hide -the sunrise place if the axis were a little further to the S.E.] - -But even this is not the only evidence we have for the May worship in -early times. There is an old tradition of the slaughter of Britons by -the Saxons at Stonehenge, known as “The Treachery of the Long Knives”; -according to some accounts, 460 British chieftains were killed while -attending a banquet and conference. Now at what time of the year did -this take place? Was it at the summer solstice on June 21? I have -gathered from Guest’s “Mabinogion,” vol. ii. p. 433, and Davies’s -“Mythology of the British Druids,” p. 333, that _the banquet took place -on May eve_ “_Meinvethydd_.” Is it likely that this date would have been -chosen in a solar temple dedicated exclusively to the solstice? - -Now the theory to which my work and thought have led me is that the -megalithic structures at Stonehenge--the worked sarsens with their -mortices and lintels, and above all the trilithons of the magnificent -naos--represent a re-dedication and a reconstruction, on a more imposing -plan and scale, of a much older temple, which was originally used for -worship in connection with the May year. - -[17] Plans and photographs of Stonehenge, &c., by Colonel Sir Henry -James, R.E., F.R.S., Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1867. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -THE MAY AND JUNE WORSHIPS IN BRITTANY - - -I purpose next to inquire whether in the wonderful series of Megalithic -remains in Brittany, remains more extensive than any in Britain, any -light is thrown on the suggestion I have made that the May Worship -preceded the Solstitial Worship at Stonehenge. - -It has long been known that the stones which compose the prehistoric -remains in Brittany are generally similar in size and shape to those at -Stonehenge, but, as I have already stated, in one respect there is a -vast difference. Instead of a few, arranged in circles as at Stonehenge, -we have an enormous multitude of the so-called menhirs arranged in many -parallel lines for great distances. Some of these are unhewn like the -Friar’s Heel, some have as certainly been trimmed. - -The literature which has been devoted to them is very considerable, but -the authors of it, for the most part, have taken little or no pains to -master the few elementary astronomical principles which are necessary to -regard the monuments from the point of view of orientation. - -It is consoling to know that this cannot be said of the last published -contribution to our knowledge of this region, which we owe to Monsieur -F. Gaillard, a member of the Paris Anthropological Society and of the -Polymathic Society of Morbihan at Plouharnel.[18] - -M. Gaillard is a firm believer in the orientation theory, and accepts -the view that a very considerable number of the alignments are -solstitial. But although he gives the correct azimuths for the -solstitial points and also figures showing the values of the obliquity -of the ecliptic as far as 2200 B.C., his observations are not -sufficiently precise to enable a final conclusion to be drawn, and his -method of fixing the alignments and the selection of the index menhir -are difficult to gather from his memoir and the small plans which -accompany it, which, alas! deal with compass bearings only. - -All the same, those interested in such researches owe a debt of -gratitude to M. Gaillard for his laborious efforts to increase our -knowledge, and will sympathise with him at the manner in which his -conclusions were treated by the Paris anthropologists. One of them, -apparently thinking that the place of sun rising is affected by the -precession of the equinoxes, used this convincing argument:--“Si, à -l’origine les alignements étaient orientés, comme le pense M. Gaillard, -ils ne le pourraient plus être aujourd’hui; au contraire, s’ils le sont -actuellement, on peut affirmer qu’ils ne l’étaient pas alors!” - -M. Gaillard is not only convinced of the solstitial orientation of the -avenues, but finds the same result in the case of the dolmens. - -I cannot find any reference in the text to any orientations dealing with -the farmers’ years, that is with amplitudes of about 25° N. and S. of -the E. and W. points; but in the diagrams on pp. 78 and 127 I find both -avenue and dolmen alignments, which within the limits of accuracy -apparently employed may perhaps with justice be referred to them; but -observations of greater accuracy must be made, and details of the -heights of the horizon at the various points given, before anything -certain can be said about them. - -I append a reproduction of one of M. Gaillard’s plans, which will give -an idea of his use of the index menhir. It shows the alignments at Le -Ménec, lat. 47¹⁄₂° (Fig. 26). The line A--Soleil runs across the stone -alignments and is fixed from A by the menhir B, but there does not seem -any good reason for selecting B except that it appears to fall in the -line of the solstitial azimuth according to M. Gaillard. But if we take -this azimuth as N. 54° E., then we find the alignments to have an -azimuth roughly of N. 66° E., which gives us the amplitude of 24° N. -marking the place of sunrise at the beginning of the May and November -years, and the alignments may have dealt principally with those times of -the year. - -I esteem it a most fortunate thing that while I have been casting about -as to the best way of getting more accurate data, Lieutenant Devoir, of -the French Navy and therefore fully equipped with all the astronomical -knowledge necessary; who resides at Brest and has been studying the -prehistoric monuments in his neighbourhood for many years, has been good -enough to give me the results of his work in that region, in which the -problems seem to be simpler than further south; for while in the -vicinity of Carnac the menhirs were erected in groups numbering five or -six thousand, near Brest, lat. 48¹⁄₂°, they are much more restricted in -number. I am much indebted to him for permission to use and publish his -results. - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Alignments at Le Ménec.] - -Lieutenant Devoir, by his many well-planned and approximately accurate -observations, has put the solstitial orientation beyond question, and, -further, has made important observations which prove that the May and -August sunrises were also provided for in the systems of alignments. I -give the following extracts from his letter:-- - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Menhir (A) on Melon Island.] - -“It is about twelve years ago that I remarked in the west part of the -Department of Morbihan (near Lorient) the parallelism of the lines -marked out by monuments of all sorts, and frequently oriented to the -N.E., or rather between N. 50° E. and N. 55° E. I had ascertained, -moreover, the existence of lines perpendicular to the first named, the -right angle being very well measured. - -“The plans, which refer to the cantons of Ploudalmézeau and of St. Renan -(district of Brest) and of Crozon (district of Chateaulin), have been -made on a plane-table; the orientations are exact to one or two degrees. - -“In the cantons of Ploudalmézeau and of St. Renan, the monuments are -generally simple; seven menhirs are visible of enormous dimensions, -remarkable by the polish of their surface and the regularity of their -section. The roughnesses hardly ever reach a centimetre; the sections -are more often ovals, sometimes rectangles with the angles rounded or -terminated by semicircles. In the canton of Crozon the monuments are, on -the contrary, complex; we find a cromlech with an avenue leading to it -of a length of 800 metres, another of 300 metres. Unfortunately, the -rocks employed (sandstone and schist from Plungastel and Crozon) have -resisted less well than the granulite from the north part of the -Department. The monuments are for the most part in a very bad condition; -the whole must, nevertheless, formerly have been comparable with that of -Carnac-Leomariaquer. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Melon Island, showing Menhir (A) and Cromlech -(B and C).] - -“For the two regions, granitic and schistose, the results of the -observations are identical. - -“The monuments lie along lines oriented S. 54° W. → N. 54° E. (54° = -azimuth at the solstices for L = 48° 30′ and _i_ = 23° 30′) and N. 54° -W. → S. 54° E. Some of them determine lines perpendicular to the -meridian. - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Menhirs of St. Dourzal, D, E, F.] - -“One menhir (A), 6m. 90 in height and 9m. 20 in circumference, erected -in the small island of Melon (canton of Ploudalmézeau, latitude 48° 29′ -05″) a few metres from a tumulus surrounded by the ruins of a cromlech -(B and C), has the section such that the faces, parallel and remarkably -plane, are oriented N. 54° E. (Figs. 27 and 28). - -“At 1300 metres in the same azimuth there is a line of three large -menhirs (D, E, F), of which one (E) is overthrown. The direction of the -line passes exactly by the menhir A. Prolonged towards the N.E. it -meets at 3k. 700m. an overturned block of 2m. 50 in height, which is -without doubt a menhir; towards the S.W. it passes a little to the south -some lines of the island of Molène.... (Fig. 29). - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Alignment at Lagatjar, G G′.] - -“There exists in the neighbourhood other groups, forming also lines of -the same orientation and that of the winter solstice. It is advisable to -remark that orientations well determined for the solstices are much less -so for the equinoxes, which is natural, the rising amplitude varying -very rapidly at this time of year. - -“The same general dispositions are to be found in the complex monuments -of the peninsula of Crozon. I take for example the alignments of -Lagatjar. Two parallel lines of menhirs, G G′ H H′, are oriented to S. -54° E. and cut perpendicularly by a third line, I I′. There existed less -than fifty years ago a menhir at K, 6 metres high, which is to-day -broken and overturned. This megalith, known in the country by the name -of ‘pierre du Conseil’ (a bronze axe was found underneath it) gives with -a dolmen situated near Camaret the direction of the sunrise on June 21 -(Fig. 31). - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Alignments at Lagatjar, showing the pierre du -Conseil and the direction of the dolmen. From the pierre du Conseil the -dolmen marks the sunrise place at the summer solstice, and the avenue G -G′ H H′ the sunset place on the same day.] - -“I have just spoken of the lines perpendicular to the solstitial one; -there exists more especially in the complex monuments another -particularity which merits attention. Between two monuments, M and N, on -a solstitial line, sometimes other menhirs are noticed, the line joining -them being inclined 12° to the solstitial line, always towards the east” -(Fig. 32). - -I must call particular attention to this important observation of -Lieutenant Devoir, for it gives us the amplitude 24° N., the direction -of sunrise at the beginning of the May and August years. It shows, -moreover, that, as at Le Ménec according to M. Gaillard, the solstitial -and May-August directions were both provided for at the monuments in -the neighbourhood of Brest so carefully studied by Lieutenant Devoir. - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Menhirs, M N on N.E.-S.W. solstitial alignment. -Menhirs 1, 2, on May-August years alignment, sunrise May-August, sunset -November-February.] - -Lieutenant Devoir points out the wonderful regularity of form and the -fine polish of many of the menhirs. It will have been gathered from his -account that those most carefully trimmed and tooled belong to the -solstitial alignments. The one at Kerloas (11 metres high) heads the -list in point of size; others in the island of Melon (7 metres), at -Kergadion (8 metres and 10 metres), Kerenneur, Kervaon and Kermabion -follow suit. He considers them to have been erected at the time of the -highest civilisation of the Megalithic peoples. He also states that -these regularly formed menhirs do not exist at Carnac, or in the region -of Pont l’Abbé, so rich in other remains which certainly refer chiefly -to the May-November year. It seems, then, that in these localities the -May-August worship first chiefly predominated, and that the index -menhirs of M. Gaillard which indicate the solstice and which do not form -part of the alignments were erected subsequently. - -Finally, then, the appeal to Brittany is entirely in favour of the -May-November year worship having preceded the solstitial one. - -I have already stated the evidence at Stonehenge that the sunrise at the -beginning of the May and August years was observed in an earlier temple -which existed before the present structure existed. Were this so we have -another point common to the British and Breton monuments. I therefore -think that I may justly claim the Brittany evidence as entirely in -favour of the suggestion put forward in Chap. IX with regard to -Stonehenge. - -[18] “L’Astronomie Préhistorique.” Published in “Les Sciences -Populaires, revue mensuelle internationale,” and issued separately by -the administration des “Sciences populaires,” 15 Rue Lebrun, Paris. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -ASTRONOMICAL HINTS FOR ARCHÆOLOGISTS - - -The foregoing chapters will have shown that in dealing with the ancient -monuments from an astronomical point of view, we have to consider -chiefly the direction of the sight-lines, whether they are marked as in -Brittany by long rows of stones--alignments; as at Stonehenge by an -avenue; as in some of our British circles, by two or more circles the -direction being indicated from the central stone of one to the central -stone of the other, or finally by a single standing stone or barrow. - -It is important then that before we proceed further in our inquiries we -should consider how a meaning is got out of these directions, and I -propose to devote this chapter to this question, so that the full use of -the “azimuths” already referred to and others which are to follow may be -fully understood. - -There is another matter, at which I hinted on pp. 36 and 42. We have to -inquire whether there are any stones or barrows marking the direction of -the rising or setting of _stars_, as well as those which deal with the -rising and setting of the _sun_ at different times of the year, which we -have already found at Stonehenge and in Brittany. To face this question -we have to consider the stellar as well as solar conditions of -observations, and as the former are the simpler I will begin with them, -especially as now there is no question whatever that the rising and -setting of stars were provided for. - -In continuation of my work in Egypt in 1891, and Mr. Penrose’s in Greece -in 1892, I have recently endeavoured to see whether there are any traces -in Britain of star observations, including those connected with the -worship of the sun at certain times of the year. We both discovered that -stars, far out of the sun’s course, especially in Egypt, were observed -in the dawn as heralds of sunrise--“warning-stars”--so that the priests -might have time to prepare the sunrise sacrifice. To do this properly -the star should rise while the sun is still about 10° below the horizon. -There is also reason to believe that stars rising not far from the north -point were also used as clock-stars to enable the time to be estimated -during the night in the same way as the time during the day could be -estimated by the position of the sun. - -I stated (_Dawn of Astronomy_, p. 319) that Spica was the star the -heliacal rising of which heralded the sun on May-day 3200 B.C. in the -temple of Menu at Thebes. Sirius was associated with the summer solstice -at about the same time. - -Mr. Penrose found this May-day worship continued at Athens on -foundations built in 1495 B.C. and 2020 B.C., on which the Hecatompedon -and older Erechtheum respectively were subsequently built, the warning -star being now no longer Spica, but the cluster of the Pleiades rising, -or Antares setting, in the dawn. - -It is generally known that Stonehenge is associated with the solstitial -year, and I have suggested that it was originally connected with the -May year; but the probable date of its re-dedication, 1680 B.C., was -determined by Mr. Penrose and myself by the change of obliquity. - -Now if Stonehenge or any other British stone circle could be proved to -have used observations of warning stars, the determination of the date -when such observations were made would be enormously facilitated. Mr. -Penrose and myself were content to think that our date might be within -200 years of the truth, whereas if we could use the rapid movement of -stars in declination brought about by the precession of the equinoxes, -instead of the slow change of the sun’s declination brought about by the -change of the value of the obliquity, a possible error of 200 years -would be reduced to one of 10 years. - -In spite of this enormous advantage, no one so far as I know has yet -made any inquiry to connect star observations with any of the British -circles. - -I have recently obtained clear evidence that some circles in different -parts of Britain were used for night work and also in relation to the -May year, which we know was general over the whole of Europe in early -times, and which still determines the quarter-days in Scotland. - -If the Egyptian and Greek practice were continued here, we should expect -then to find some indications of the star observations utilised at the -temple of Min and at the Hecatompedon for the beginning, or the other -chief months, of the May year. - -I have found them, and I will now show the method employed. - -To begin with, if we assume that the astronomer-priests here did -attempt such observations, what is the most likely way in which they -would have gone to work? - -The easiest way for the astronomer-priests to conduct such observations -in a stone circle would be to erect a stone or barrow indicating the -direction of the place on the horizon at which the star would rise as -seen from the centre of the circle. If the dawn the star was to herald -occurred in the summer, the stone or barrow itself might be visible if -not too far away, but there was a reason why they should not be too -close; in a solemn ceremonial the less seen of the machinery the better. - -Doubtless such stones and barrows would be rendered obvious in the dark -by a light placed on or near them. Cups which could hold oil or grease -are known in connection with such stones, and a light thus fed would -suffice in the open if there were no wind; but in windy weather a -cromlech or some similar shelter must have been provided for it. - -Now if these standing stones or barrows were ever erected and still -remain, accurate plans--not the slovenly plans with which Ferguson and -too many others have provided us, giving us either no indication of the -north or any other point, or else a rough compass bearing without taking -the trouble to state the variation at the time and place--will help us. - -I have already pointed out that much time has been lost in the -investigation of our stone circles, for the reason that in many cases -the exact relations of the monuments to the chief points of the horizon, -and therefore to the place of sunrise at different times of the year, -have not been considered; and when they were, the observations were -made only with reference to the magnetic north, which is different at -different places, and besides is always varying; few indeed have tried -to get at the real astronomical conditions of the problem. The first, I -think, was Mr. Jonathan Otley, who in 1849 showed the “orientation” of -the Keswick circle “according to the solar meridian,” giving true solar -bearings throughout the year. - -In my opinion the most accurate plans conceivable, in the absence of a -long and minute local inquiry, are the 25-inch maps of the Ordnance -Survey, on which, I have it on the authority of Colonel Johnston the -distinguished Director, each stone may be taken to be shown with a limit -of error of 6 feet. With a large circular protractor azimuths can be -read to one minute of arc, and in critical cases the true azimuth of the -side lines, which are not necessarily meridians as latitudes are not -marked, can be found on inquiry at the Ordnance Office, Southampton. - -Having then true azimuths, the next question concerns the declinations -of the stars which may have been observed. - -The work of Stockwell in America, Danckworth in Germany,[19] and Dr. W. -J. S. Lockyer in England, has provided us with tables of the changing -declinations of stars throughout past time, or enough of it for our -purpose. - -An accurate determination on the 25-inch map of either the _azimuth_ -(angular distance from the N. or S. points) or _amplitude_ (angular -distance from the E. or W. points) of the stone or barrow as seen from -the centre of the stone circle will enable us to determine the -declination of the star at the time when it was observed. - -I give a diagram which enables this determination to be made with the -greatest ease for any monuments between Land’s End and John o’ Groats, -whether the direction is recorded by amplitude or azimuth; the -declination is read at the side from the value of either indicated, say, -by a dot, at the proper latitude. - -This, of course, only gives us a first approximation. The angular height -of the point on the horizon to which the alignment or sight-line is -directed by the stone or barrow from the centre of the circle must be -most accurately determined, otherwise the declinations may be one or two -degrees out. - -In the absence of measurements it is convenient to assume, in the first -instance, that the horizon is half a degree high, as with this elevation -refraction is compensated, as the following table will show: - - Elevation of actual Bessel’s - horizon. refraction. Combined effect. - 0°0′0″ 34′54″ -34′54″ - 0°10′ 32′49″ -22′49″ - 20′ 30′52″ -10′52″ - 30′ 29′3·5″ +0′56·5″ - 40′ 27′22·7″ +12′37·3″ - 50′ 25′49·8″ +24′10·2″ - 1°0′ 24′24·6″ +35′35·4″ - -In the absence of theodolite observations the actual elevation of the -horizon can be roughly found by a study of the contour lines on the -1-inch map. The following heights will agree with the previous -assumption of hills ¹⁄₂° high: - - Distance 1 mile Height = 46 feet - „ 2 miles „ = 92 „ - „ 4 „ „ = 184 „ - „ 8 „ „ = 368 „ - „ 10 „ „ = 460 „ - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Diagram for finding declination from given -amplitudes or azimuths in British latitudes. - -~Curves represent (from top) Lat. 49°, 51°, 53°, 55°, 57° and 59°.~] - -I also give other diagrams showing the changing declinations of the -brightest stars, those which would naturally be observed, between the -years 150 A.D. and 2150 B.C. These have been plotted from the -calculations of the authorities I have named. - -Fig. 34 deals with the Northern stars. The stars are numbered as -follows:-- - - Number. Name of star. - 1 β Ursae Minoris. - 2 α Ursae Minoris (Polaris). - 3 α Draconis. - 4 α Ursae Majoris (Dubhe). - 5 γ Ursae Majoris. - 6 η Ursae Majoris (Benetnasch). - 7 γ Draconis. - 8 β Cassiopeiae. - 9 α Cassiopeiae. - 10 α Persei. - 11 α Aurigae (Capella). - 12 α Cygni. - 13 α Lyrae (Vega). - 14 α Coronae. - 15 α Geminorum (Castor). - 16 β Geminorum (Pollux). - 17 α Boötes (Arcturus). - 18 β Leonis. - 19 α Leonis (Regulus). - 20 α Andromedae. - 21 η Tauri (Alcyone). - 22 α Tauri (Aldebaran). - 23 α Canis Minoris (Procyon). - 24 α Aquilae. - 25 α Orionis (Betelgeuse). - 26 α Virginis (Spica). - -On Fig. 35, dealing with the Southern stars, the names are given along -the curves. - - * * * * * - -Now supposing that we have our plans; that we have determined the -azimuth of the sight lines; and have found the declination of the star -observed; we may find more than one star occupying that declination at -various dates. - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Declinations of Northern Stars from 250 A.D. to -2150 B.C.] - -Which of these stars, then, must we consider? - -Obviously those most conveniently situated for enabling the time to be -estimated during the night, or those which could have been used as -warning stars. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Declinations of Southern Stars from 250 A.D. to -2150 B.C. - -α Ceti, α Aquarii, β Orionis, α Capricorni, α Canis Majoris, α Scorpii, -α Columbæ, α Pisces Austr., η Argûs, α Centauri, α Argûs, α Crucis, α -Gruis, and α Eridani.] - -The warning stars can be conveniently picked up by using a precessional -globe. From it we gather that about 1900, 1400 and 800 B.C. they were as -follows for the critical times of the May year, _i.e._ May, August, -November, February:-- - - 1900 B.C. 1400 B.C. 800 B.C. - May Castor rising Pleiades rising Pleiades rising - N. 41° E. N. 77° E. N. 71° E. - Antares setting Antares setting - S. 75° W. S. 72° W. - - August Arcturus Arcturus rising Sirius rising - circumpolar. N. 17° E. S. 63° E. - With hill 3′ high:-- - Rising. - Date 2170 B.C. N. 11°15′ E. - „ 2090 B.C. N. 14°18′ E. - „ 1900 B.C. N. 18°44′ E. - - November Betelgeuse setting - N. 87° W. - - February Capella rising Capella rising Capella rising - N. 36° E. N. 28° E. N. 21° E. - -For the solstices, that is, June and December, the following stars might -be used as warners:-- - - 1900 B.C. 1400 B.C. 800 B.C. - Summer Solstice Betelgeuse rising Betelgeuse γ Geminorum - N. 87° E. rising N. 90° E. rising - Arcturus setting Arcturus setting N. 68° E. - with hill 3′ high (late) N. 16° W. (“Alhena” - N. 18° W. α Serpentis mag. 1·9.) - setting N. 53° W. - - Winter Solstice Sheat rising (early) Castor α Capricorni - N. 72° E. setting N. 37° W. rising - Markab rising (late) Pollux S. 66° E. - S. 89° E. setting N. 42° W. - -It is obvious that a star used all the year round for night work will -warn the sunrise at some one of the yearly festivals. - -When the stars having the same declinations are considered from this -point of view, the star actually used, and _therefore the date of its -use_, may generally be gathered. I shall show subsequently that some of -the stars in the above lists were actually observed in British as well -as in Grecian temples. - -[19] Dr. O. Danckworth, _Vierteljahrschrift der Astronomischen -Gesellschaft_, 16. Jahrgang 1881, p. 9. Dr. Stockwell’s results have -been communicated to me by letter. Some, but not all, of Dr. Lockyer’s -calculations appeared in _The Dawn of Astronomy_. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -ASTRONOMICAL HINTS FOR ARCHÆOLOGISTS--_Continued._ - - -I next come to the sun observations. - -First we must consider the astronomical differences between the rising -of a star and of the sun, by which we generally mean that small part of -the sun’s limb first visible. - -It is frequently imagined that for determining the exact place of -sunrise or sunset in connection with these ancient monuments we have to -deal with the sun’s centre, as we should do with the sun half risen. As -a matter of fact, we must consider that part of the sun’s limb which -first makes its appearance above the horizon; the first glimpse of the -upper limb of the sun is in question, say, when the visible limb is 2′ -high; and we must carefully take the height of the hills over which it -rises into account. - -The accompanying diagram will at once show the difference between the -rising conditions we have now to consider. It deals with the summer -solstice, as being the most precise case, in Lat. 59° N. - -At this time the position of the sun, _that is of the sun’s centre_, as -given in the “Nautical Almanac,” is represented by the double circle on -the sea horizon. - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.--The Conditions of “Sunrise” at the Summer -Solstice in Lat. 59° N. - -~Vertical axis from bottom: Altitudes SEA HORIZON, HILL ¹⁄₂° HIGH, HILL -1° HIGH, HILL 1¹⁄₂° HIGH.~ - -~Horizontal axis from left: Azimuths N 37°-42° E.~] - -The azimuth of this position is N. 39° 16′ E. This is the equivalent of -the declination of a star, but it will be seen that the real azimuths we -want are very different. The dotted circles represent the actual -position of the sun with regard to the horizon, the continuous circles -the apparent positions caused by the lifting-up effect of refraction. We -have the positions in azimuth of the apparent sun as it appears on a sea -horizon, and when the horizon is formed by hills up to 1¹⁄₂° in vertical -height. - -To make this quite clear I give a table which has been computed by Mr. -Rolston, of the Solar Physics Observatory, showing azimuths with hills -up to 1¹⁄₂° high for lat. 59° N., and 51° N. nearly the latitude of -Stonehenge, of the sun’s upper limb for the summer solstice:-- - - Lat. 59° Lat. 51° - - SUMMER Rising N-E or Rising N-E or - SOLSTICE. Setting N-W. Setting N-W. - ° ′ ° ′ - Sun’s centre; uncorrected 39 16 50 40 - {sea horizon 37 1 49 20 - Sun’s upper limb; corrected{hill ¹⁄₂° high 38 34 50 16 - for semi-diameter and { „ 1° „ 40 8 51 12 - refraction { „ 1¹⁄₂° „ 41 30 52 4 - - WINTER Rising S-E or Rising S-E or - SOLSTICE. Setting S-W. Setting S-W. - ° ′ ° ′ - Sun’s centre; uncorrected 39 16 50 40 - {sea horizon 41 24 52 0 - Sun’s upper limb; corrected{hill ¹⁄₂° high 39 54 51 4 - for semi-diameter and { „ 1° „ 38 23 50 8 - refraction { „ 1¹⁄₂° „ 36 54 49 14 - -The first important thing we learn from the table is that although at -both solstices the azimuths of the rising and setting of the sun’s -centre are the same, these azimuths of the upper limb at the summer and -winter solstices differ in a high northern latitude by some 5°. The -difference arises, of course, from the fact that the limb is some 16′ -from the sun’s centre, so that considering the sun’s centre as a star -with fixed declination, at rising the limb appears before the centre, -and at setting it lags behind it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 37.--The Azimuths of the Sunrise (upper limb) at the -Summer Solstice. - -The values given in the table have been plotted, and the effect of the -height of hills on the azimuth is shown. The range of latitude given -enables the diagram to be used in connection with the solstitial -alignments at Carnak, Le Ménac, and other monuments in Brittany. - -~Vertical axis from bottom: LAT. 47-59.~ - -~Horizontal axis from left: AZIMUTHS 37-56.~ - -~Curves from left: SEA HORIZON, HILLS ¹⁄₂°, 1°, 1¹⁄₂°~] - -It will also be seen that at sunrise hills increase the azimuth from N., -and refraction reduces it; while at setting, hills reduce the azimuth -from S. and refraction increases it. - -This diagram and table should fully explain the variation of azimuth at -sunrise caused by the fact that from our present point of view we do not -deal with the sun as a star. - -To make the foregoing applicable for monuments in all latitudes between -Brittany and the Orkneys, I give still another diagram, Fig. 37, also -prepared for me by Mr. Rolston which will enable any archæologist to -determine approximately, _for the present time_, the azimuth of sunrise -at the summer solstice, without waiting for the 21st of June in any year -actually to observe it. - -As before stated, I have dealt with the solstice in this chapter because -it affords us the most precise case. I hope to be able to deal with the -May year sun in the same way later on. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -STENNESS (Lat. 59° N.). - - -I wrote a good deal in _Nature_[20] on sun and star temples in 1891, and -Mr. Lewis the next year expressed the opinion that the British stone -monuments, or some of them, were sun and star temples. - -Mr. Magnus Spence, of Deerness, in Orkney, published a pamphlet, -“Standing Stones and Maeshowe of Stenness,”[21] in 1894; it is a reprint -of an article in the _Scottish Review_, October, 1893, showing that the -stones were set up for solar worship. Mr. Cursiter, F.S.A., of Kirkwall, -in a letter to me dated March 15, 1894, a letter suggested by my “Dawn -of Astronomy,” which appeared in that year, and in which the articles -which had been published in _Nature_ in 1891 had been expanded, directed -my attention to the pamphlet. - -I began the consideration of the Stenness circles and alignments in -1901, but other pressing calls on my time then caused me to break off -the inquiry. Quite recently it occurred to me that a complete study of -the Stenness circles might throw light on the question of an earlier -Stonehenge, so I have gone over the old papers, plotting the results on -the Ordnance map. - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Maeshowe, in the foreground, and the Stones of -Stenness. From “Notice of Runic Inscriptions,” by James Farrer, M.P. -(1862).] - -Now that the inquiry is as complete as I can make it without spending -some time in Orkney with a theodolite, I will begin my reference to -other circles besides Stonehenge by stating the conclusions at which I -have arrived with regard to the stones of Stenness. - -In the first place I may state that although many of the alignments to -which Mr. Spence refers in his pamphlet on Maeshowe prove to be very -different from those he supposed and drew on the map which accompanies -his paper, the main point of his contention is amply confirmed. - -I give a copy of the Ordnance map showing the true orientation of these -and of other sight-lines I have made out. - -The alignments on which Mr. Spence chiefly depended were two, one -running from the stone circle past the entrance of Maeshowe to the place -of sunrise at Hallowe’en (November 1), another from the same circle by -the Barnhouse standing stone to the mid-winter sunrise at the solstice. - -Although the map gives these sight-lines, I shall show that they had not -the use Mr. Spence attributes to them; but still observations of the sun -were provided for on the days in question, and the circles and -outstanding stones were undoubtedly set up to guide astronomical -observations relating to the different times of the year. Of course, as -I have shown elsewhere, such astronomical observations were always -associated with religious celebrations of one kind or another, as the -astronomer and the priest were one. - -[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Copy of Ordnance Map showing chief sight-lines -from the stones of Stenness.] - -I shall not refer to all the sight-lines indicated, but deal only with -those which I have without local knowledge been able to test and justify -by means of the 25-inch Ordnance map. - -Not only does calculation prove the worship of the May and June years, -but I think the facts now before us really go to show that in Orkney the -May year was the first established, and that the solstitial (June) year -came afterwards, and this was one of the chief questions I had in view. - -I will begin with the May year. I have already shown, p. 22, that the -half-way time between an equinox and a solstice is when the sun’s centre -has a declination approximately 16° 20′ N. or S. In Orkney, with the -latitude of 59°, assuming a sea horizon, the approximate amplitude of -sunrise or sunset is 33° 6′, the corresponding azimuth being 56° 54′. - -Now the most interesting and best defined line near this azimuth on the -Ordnance map is the one stretching S.E. from the centre of the Stenness -circle to the Barnstone, with an azimuth of 57° 15′. The line contains -between the two points I have named another stone, the Watchstone, 18¹⁄₂ -feet high, in the precise alignment; and from the statements made and -measures given it is to be inferred that a still more famous and -perforated stone, the “Stone of Odin,” demolished seventy years since, -was also in the same line within the extremities named. - -If we may accept this we learn something about perforated stones, and -can understand most of the folk lore associated with them, and few have -more connected with them than the one at Stenness. I suggest that the -perforation, which was in this case 5 feet from the ground, was used by -the astronomer-priest to view the sunrise in November over the Barnhouse -stone in one direction, and the sunset in May over the circle in the -other. I hope to be able to return to this question subsequently. - -There is another echo of this fundamental line; that joining the Ring of -Bookan and the Stones of Via has the same azimuth and doubtless served -the same purpose for the May year. - -But this line, giving us the May sunset and November sunrise, _not_ the -December solstitial sunrise as Mr. Spence shows it, is not the only -orientation connected with the May year at the stones of Stenness. The -November sunset is provided for by a sight-line from the circle to a -stone across the Loch of Stenness with an azimuth of S. 53° 30′ W. - -To apply the table, given on p. 120, to the solstitial risings and -settings at Stenness, and the sight-lines which I have plotted on the -map, it will be seen that the table shows us that the lines marked - - S. 41° 0′ E. - N. 41° 16′ E. S. 36° 30′ W. - -are solstitial lines; to get exact agreement with the table the heights -of the hills must be found and allowed for. - -I have roughly determined this height from the 1-inch map in the case of -the Barnstone-Maeshowe alignment. On the N.E. horizon are the Burrien -Hills, four miles away, 600 feet high at the sunrise place, gradually -ascending to the E., vertical angle = 1° 36′ 30″. The near alignment is -on and over the centre of Maeshowe. Colonel Johnston, the -Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, has informed me that the true -azimuth of this bearing is N. 41° 16′ E., and in all probability it -represents the place of sunrise as seen from the Barnstone when Maeshowe -was erected. What is most required in Orkney now is that some one with a -good 6-inch theodolite should observe the sun’s place of rising and the -angular height of the hills at the next summer solstice in order to -determine the date of the erection of Maeshowe. Mr. Spence and others -made an attempt to determine this value with a sextant in 1899, but not -from the Barnstone. - -In the absence of this observation we may use the diagram given on p. -121. With the height of hill previously given the sun should rise -according to calculation at about the azimuth N. 41° 50′ E. - -The difference between the new and old azimuth then, on the assumption -that az. N. 41° 16′ E. really represents an observation over Maeshowe, -gives us the difference of date. - -Treating these figures then as we have done in the case of Stonehenge in -Chapter VII, the result is as follows. The Barnhouse-Maeshowe line was -established about 700 B.C., when the obliquity had a value of 23° 48′ -according to Stockwell’s tables. (Fig. 40.) - -I confess the late date does not surprise me. The masonry of Maeshowe -differs widely from that of other similar structures in that the sides -of the gallery and chamber, instead of being composed of upright stones, -are built in regular courses. - -I do not believe that the Maeshowe structure was built to observe a -winter sunrise twenty days from the solstice, nor can I think it was set -up at midsummer by someone who had only dealt with a high sun and a sea -horizon, and imagined that the sunrise and sunset points were exactly -opposite to each other. It was a priest’s house, and the alignment of -the passage to the Barnstone was for the exchange of signals, probably -by lights in Maeshowe itself. - -[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Variation of the Obliquity of the Ecliptic, 100 -A.D.-4000 B.C. (Stockwell’s Values.) - -~Horizontal axis: Years. From left: AD 0-BC 4000.~ - -~Vertical axis: Obliquity. From bottom: 23.40-24.10.~] - -The Ordnance maps give no indication of stones, &c., by which the -direction of the midsummer setting or the midwinter rising and setting -might have been indicated from either the Maeshowe or the Barnstone. - -To sum up the solar alignments from the circle. - -We have the May sunrise marked by the top of Burrien Hill, from 600 to -700 feet high, Az. 59° 30′. - -We have the November sunset marked by a standing stone on the other side -of the Loch of Stenness, Az. 53° 30′. - -June rising, Line from Barnstone over Maeshowe tumulus. - -December rising, tumulus (Az. 41°) on Ward Hill. - -December setting, tumulus Onston 36° 30′. - -It is not a little remarkable that the summer solstice rising and the -winter solstice rising and setting seem to have been provided for at the -Stenness circle by alignment on the centres of tumuli, two of them, -across the Loch, one the Onston tumulus to the S.W. (Az. 36° 30′), the -other tumulus being on Ward Hill to the S.E., Az. 41° (rough -measurement). - -If the Maeshowe tumulus was a structure erected at the time I have -suggested to use the Barnstone for the summer solstice rising; then -these two other tumuli, to deal with the winter solstice at Stenness -circle, may have been built at the same time. All these provided for a -new cult. - -There are also tumuli near the line (which cannot be exactly determined -because the heights of the hills are unknown) of the summer solstice -setting; none was required for the sunrise at this date, as the line -passes over the highest point of Hindera fiold, a natural tumulus more -than 500 feet high, and on that account a triangulation station. - -Another argument in favour of the tumuli being additions to the original -design is that the place of the _November_ setting from the Stenness -circle is marked, _not_ by a tumulus, but by a standing stone. As this -stone, near Deepdale, and the tumulus at Onston are only about 1200 -yards apart, the suggestion may be made that under certain unknown -conditions and possibly in later times tumuli in some cases replaced -stones as collimation marks. - -With regard to the clock-star, it is to be feared that the stones in the -N.E. quadrant as viewed from the circle which might have given us a clue -have been removed. As the latitude of Stenness is N. 59°, some star with -a less declination than N. 31° would have been chosen, assuming that the -sky-line towards the N. point is not very high. - -[20] See especially _Nature_, July 2, 1891, p. 201. - -[21] Gardner: Paisley and London. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -THE HURLERS (Lat. 50° 31′ N.) - - -The sight-lines to which I have drawn attention in relation to the -stones of Stenness had to do with the places of sunrise and sunset in -the May and Solstitial years. I now pass to another group of circles in -which we deal chiefly with the places of star-rise and star-set, some of -the stars being used as warners for sunrise at the critical times of the -two years in question. - -Following the clue given me in the case of the Egyptian temples, such as -Luxor, by successive small changes of the axis necessitated by the -change in a star’s place due to precession, I began this stellar branch -of the inquiry by looking out for this peculiarity in an examination of -many maps and plans of circles. - -I very soon came across two examples in which the sight-line had been -changed in the Egyptian manner. The first is the three circles of the -Hurlers, some 5 miles to the north of Liskeard, a plan of which is given -in “Prehistoric Stone Monuments of the British Isles: Cornwall,” by W. -C. Lukis, Rector of Wath, Yorkshire, published by the Society of -Antiquaries, who were so good as to furnish me with a copy, and also -some _unfolded_ plans on which sight-lines could be accurately drawn and -their azimuths determined. I am anxious to express my obligations to the -council and officers of the society for the help thus afforded me. - -The three circles are thus referred to by Lukis in the valuable -monograph which I have already mentioned. - -“On the moor, about a mile to the south of the singular pile of granite -slabs, which rest upon and overlap each other, and is vulgarly called -the Cheesewring, there are three large circles of granite stones placed -in a nearly straight line in a north-north-east, and south-south-west -direction, of which the middle one is the largest, being 135 feet in -diameter, the north 110 feet, and the south 105 feet. - -“The north Circle is 98 feet, and the south 82 feet from the central -one. If a line be drawn uniting the centres of the extreme Circles, the -centre of the middle ring is found to be 12 feet 6 inches to the west of -it. - -“These Circles have been greatly injured. The largest consists of 9 -erect and 5 prostrate stones; the north Circle has 6 erect and 6 -prostrate, and a fragment of a seventh; and the south has 3 erect and 8 -prostrate. In Dr. Borlase’s time they were in a slightly better -condition. A pen-and-ink sketch made by him, which is extant in one of -Dr. Stukeley’s volumes of original drawings, represents the middle -Circle as consisting of 7 erect and 10 prostrate stones; the north of 10 -erect and 6 prostrate; and the south of 3 erect and 9 prostrate. The -stone to the east of that marked C in the plan of the middle Circle is -the highest, and is 5 feet 8 inches out of the ground, and appears to -have been wantonly mutilated recently. Two of the prostrate stones of -the north Circle are 6 feet 6 inches in length. - -“About 17 feet south from the centre of the middle Circle there is a -prostrate stone 4 feet long and 15 inches wide at one end. It may -possibly have been of larger dimensions formerly, and been erected on -the spot where it now lies, but as Dr. Borlase has omitted it in his -sketch it is probably a displaced stone of the ring. - -“If we allow, as before, an average interval of 12 feet between the -stones, there will have been about 28 pillars in the north, 26 in the -south, and 33 in the middle Circle. - -“At a distance of 409 feet westwards from K in the middle Circle there -are 2 stones, 7 feet apart, both inclined northwards. One is 4 feet 11 -inches in height out of the ground, and overhangs its base 2 feet 7 -inches; the other is 5 feet 4 inches high, and overhangs 18 inches.” - -I now pass from a general description of the circles to the azimuths of -the sight-lines already referred to, so far as they can be determined -from the published Ordnance maps. - -To investigate them as completely as possible without local observations -in the first instance, I begged Colonel Johnston, R.E., C.B., the -Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, to send me the 25-inch maps of -the site giving the exact azimuth of the side lines. This he obligingly -did, and I have to express my great indebtedness to him. - -In Fig. 41 I show the sight-lines from the south and north Circles as -determined by the stones and barrows marked on the map. The sight-lines -on Arcturus are from the centres of the three circles in succession. I -shall point out later the significance of the fact that the November -alignments are from the south, the solstitial ones from the north -Circle. - -[Illustration: FIG. 41.--The Sight-lines at the Hurlers.] - -Of the various sight-lines found, those to which I wish to direct -attention in the first instance, and which led me to the others, are -approximately, reading the azimuths to the nearest degree, - - Lat. 50° 31′ N. Az. - S. circle to central circle N. 12° E. - Central to N. circle N. 15° E. - N. circle to tumulus N. 19° E. - -In a preliminary inquiry in anticipation of the necessary local -observations with a theodolite, I assumed hills half a degree high, for -the reason given on p. 112. We have the following declinations -approximately:-- - - Dec. N. 38¹⁄₂° - „ 38° - „ 37° - -Here, then, we have declinations to work on, but declinations of what -star? To endeavour to answer this question I studied the declinations of -the three brightest stars in the northern heavens, having approximately -the declinations in question some time or other during the period 0 to -2500 B.C. - -Vega is ruled out as its declination was too high. The remaining stars -Capella and Arcturus may have been observed so far as the declinations -go. For time limits we have:-- - - Dec. N. Capella. Arcturus. - 38¹⁄₂° 500 B.C. 1600 B.C. - 36° 1050 „ 1150 „ - -Now there is no question as to which of these two stars we have to deal -with, for the northern circle is evidently less ancient than the -others, for some of the stones are squared and the others are less -irregular than those in the S. circle. - -This being so, the approximate dates of the use of the three circles at -the Hurlers can be derived. They are, with the above assumption:-- - - B.C. - Southern circle aligning Arcturus over centre of central circle 1600 - Central „ „ „ N. circle 1500 - Northern „ „ „ tumulus 1300 - -The next step was to obtain, by means of a large circular protractor, -more accurate readings of the Ordnance Map. This I could do, but the all -important question of the angular height of the horizon remained. As it -was impossible for me to leave London when the significance of the -alignments was made out, I appealed to the authorities of the Royal -Cornwall Polytechnic Society for aid in obtaining the necessary angles, -and as a result, Captain J. S. Henderson, of Falmouth, an accomplished -surveyor, volunteered his aid and shortly sent me the angular heights -along some of the alignments, the means of eight readings obtained with -a 6-inch theodolite, both verniers and reversed telescopes being -employed. Other students of science besides myself will, I am sure, feel -their indebtedness for such opportune help. - -The combination of the large protractor and theodolite work gives the -following final values. The difference between them and the provisional -ones given above speaks volumes as to the necessity of a local study of -the height of the horizon, a point I believe invariably neglected by -archæologists. - -FINAL VALUES. - - _Arcturus from S. circle to central circle._ - - Az. N. 11° 15′ E. Hills, 3° 23′ 52″ high. - _Dec._ = 41° 38′ DATE, 2170 B.C. - - _Arcturus from central circle to N. circle._ - - Az. N. 14° 18′ E. Same hills. - _Dec._ = 41° 9′ DATE, 2090 B.C. - - _Arcturus from N. circle to Barrow._ - - Az. N. 18° 14′ E. Same hills. - _Dec._ = 40° 6′ DATE, 1900 B.C. - -Now before this evidence of star worship, so important if it can be -depended on, could be accepted, it was necessary to make a special -inquiry as to the existence of similar star observations in other -places. Many have been found of which more in the sequel. - -The next point which arose was that Arcturus used as a clock-star (p. -108) would serve as a warner for August. This necessitated another -inquiry into the chief festivals in Cornwall: among these the August -(Harvest) festival is one. - -Another point to consider was whether there was any evidence of a local -August festival. It happens that the Hurlers are in the parish of St. -Cleer, and some of the other Arcturus sight-lines are in that of St. -Just. Now, a local festival in old days was often associated with the -local Saint. As most of the Cornish Saints are common to Cornwall and -Brittany, I looked up the Calendar of the _Annuaire_ of the _Institut de -France_, and found that the days dedicated to SS. Justin and Claire are -the 9th and 12th of August. It seems, then, that at the Hurlers it was -really a question of a clock-star also used as a warning star for the -August festival. I think we have at last, then, run to earth the origin -of some of the northerly alignments referred to on pages 36 and 43. - -It will have been noted that the last sight-line on Arcturus was marked -by a barrow. Captain Henderson inspected it and found it much ruined by -explorers, remains of a chamber inside being visible. - -In a subsequent visit, in which Captain Henderson was accompanied by Mr. -Horton Bolitho, my wife and myself, we not only visited this barrow, but -found that the whole hill had been honeycombed to such an extent by -mining operations that it was very difficult to discriminate between -“investigated” barrows and other heaps and holes, unless the barrow -showed the remains of a chamber. - -Our examination was not limited to barrows. Captain Henderson had spent -a long bleak day in examining and measuring the stones marked on the -Ordnance Map, to which I had called his special attention. We went over -part of the ground with him, and came to the conclusion that the whole -question of the Cornish treatment of “ancient stones” would have to be -gone into--an inquiry which Mr. Bolitho is now carrying on. - -It must be remembered that any stone or barrow used in the sight-lines -we are now considering must have been put up nearly 4,000 years ago, so -long ago, in fact, that many of the chief barrows have been reduced to -the skeletons of their former selves, the enclosed stone chamber, built -of mighty stones, alone remaining. - -Cromlechs and standing stones then formed important points in the -landscape long before ecclesiastical divisions were thought of, or any -attempt was made to indicate the boundaries of private property. - -We should expect then to find these ancient monuments freely made use of -to mark what we now term “parish boundaries.” This is so. Four parishes -have thus used one of the larger cromlechs, and it is more than probable -that something beside the denunciation of the _cultus lapidum_, which we -have seen at work in Brittany (p. 39), has been responsible for the many -stone crosses in Cornwall. Of some of them near circles I have gathered -the astronomical use, while now they “mark the bounds,” as do some of -the stone rows in Dartmoor. - -I believe that in later times this practice of the Church was followed -by those among whom the land was distributed, and this has gone on till -at last there are many ancient stones trimmed on one side and bearing -initials and so having a modern appearance. The astronomer, and even the -archæologist, may regret this practice, but as the habit in Cornwall -appears to be for anybody to use the nearest uncrossed and uninitialled -stone for a wall or a pigsty, Mr. Bolitho’s inquiry may show that in -some cases, at all events, it has been a blessing in disguise, for the -stones are still there. - -In the case of a long chambered barrow, the top of which nearly touches -the horizon, as seen from a circle near it, there is less danger of -being misled. - -In my notes on the stones of Stenness (Chapter XIII) I pointed out that -the chambered Cairns at Onston and Maeshowe suggested that such -structures were later variants of the more ancient standing stones. Some -barrows at the Hurlers lend further confirmation of this view. I will -deal with them first. Of one the data are Az. from N. Circle S. 72° 49′ -W., height of horizon 12′ (Capt. Henderson). The resulting declination -is S. 11° 5′, the declination of Antares 1720 B.C. But why should -Antares be thus singled out? The table on page 117 shows the reason. At -the date involved the setting of Antares in the dawn was the warner of -the sunrise on May morning, the greatest day in all the year. - -Is there any precedent for this use of Antares? - -I have already pointed out (p. 108) that Mr. Penrose found the warning -stars for May morning at the dates of foundation of the Hecatompedon, -and the older Erechtheum, to be the group of the Pleiades rising and -_Antares_ setting. As the foundations of the Hecatompedon were built -only some few years after the stones of the central circle of the -Hurlers were used, we ought to find traces of the observations of the -same May-morning stars. - -We have, then, now a third term in the astronomical use of stars to -herald the sunrise on May morning. - - Temple of Min Thebes 3200 B.C. Spica. - Temple at the Hurlers Liskeard 1720 „ Antares. - Older Erechtheum Athens 1070 „ „ - -The next barrow to be referred to--it is shown to be a long one on the -Ordnance Map--is situated near the top of Caradon Hill, and is visible -on the sky-line from the circles. Data: Az. from N. Circle S. 65° E., -height of horizon 1° 38′ (Henderson). This corresponds almost exactly -with the azimuth of the rise of the sun’s upper limb with declination S. -16° 20′ on the two critical dates in November and February of the -May-year (Halloween and Candlemas, see p. 23), so I am inclined to -consider it more than a mere coincidence that the azimuths coincide so -closely. It, however, may be urged that there are other barrows on -Caradon Hill, but judging from the Ordnance Map they seem to be of the -round variety used for burials, perhaps a thousand years after the -circles were in use, and in my opinion by a different race of men; but -this matter must not detain us now, I hope to return to it later. - -Still one more barrow and a stone, uncrossed and uninitialled, in the -same sight-line, data: Az. from N. circle S. 59° 35′ E. Height of -horizon 1° 38′ 23″ (Henderson), resulting declination S. 19° 50′. This -was the declination of Sirius 1690 B.C. Why Sirius? The table on p. 117 -gives us the answer. Sirius replaced Arcturus as a warning star for the -August festival, and we have seen that the last use of Arcturus was -connected with the sight-line to the barrow about 1900 B.C. - -I pass now from barrows to stones. There is one about which there can be -no question. It is a famous Cross, a “Longstone” at which all travellers -stop on their way from St. Cleer to the Hurlers. It occupies nearly the -same position on the S.W. horizon as does the long tumulus on Caradon -Hill in the S.E. quadrant. From the _South_ Circle, and this is -important, its Azimuth, S. 64° W., is nearly the same; it marked, and -still marks, the sunset point on the critical days of the May year in -November and February. - -There is another stone marked on the Ordnance Map Az. N. 88° E. from the -N. circle. It has been removed, so I may fairly assume that it was -really an ancient stone. Captain Henderson’s value for the height of the -horizon is 11′ 31″. The table on p. 117 will show that in this direction -we have to deal with Betelgeuse as a warner for the summer solstice. The -resulting date is 1730 B.C. - -It would appear that possibly this is not the only stone dealing with -(later) solstitial alignments. Lukis gives two stones on the west side -of the circles which on the Ordnance Map are classed as boundary stones: -they lie on a boundary beyond all question, but also beyond all question -they are as ancient as the stones of the circles themselves. From the N. -circle they are almost but not quite in a line, and the azimuth of the -south stone is S. 49° W. This is a solstitial azimuth. I think, -therefore, that we may accept this as another evidence of the worship of -the setting sun at the winter solstice, _from the N. circle_, and in -this we have still further evidence that to the worship of the May year -in the south circle was added later one dealing with the solstitial year -which was chiefly carried on in the N. circle. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -THE DARTMOOR AVENUES - - -In Chapter XI. I referred to the very numerous alignments of stones in -Brittany, and I was allowed by Lieutenant Devoir, of the French Navy, to -give some of his theodolite observations of the directions along which -the stones had been set up. - -The conclusion was that we were really dealing with monuments connected -with the worship of the sun of the May year, a year which the recent -evidence has shown to have been the first used after the length of the -year had been determined; thus replacing the lunar unit of time which -was in vogue previously, and the use of which is brought home to us by -the reputed ages of Methuselah and other biblical personages, who knew -no other measurer of time than the moon. - -There was also evidence to the effect that in later times solstitial -alignments had been added, so that the idea that we were dealing with -astronomically oriented rows of stones was greatly strengthened, not to -say established. - -So long as the Brittany alignments were things of mystery, their origin, -as well as that of the more or less similar monuments in Britain, was -variously explained; they were models in stone of armies in battle -array, or they represented funeral processions, to mention only two -suggestions. I should add that Mr. H. Worth, who has devoted much time -to their study, considers that some sepulchral interest attaches to -them, though he thinks it may be argued that that was secondary, even as -are interments in cathedrals and churches. About burials associated with -them, of course, there is no question, for the kistvaens and cairns are -there; but my observations suggest that they were added long after the -avenues were built, because some cairns _block_ avenues. Perhaps a -careful study of the modes of burial adopted may throw light on this -point. - -The equivalents of the Brittany alignments are not common in Britain; -they exist in the greatest number on Dartmoor, whither I went recently -to study them. The conditions on high Dartmoor are peculiar; dense -blinding mists are common, and, moreover, sometimes come on almost -without warning. From its conformation the land is full of streams. -There are stones everywhere. What I found, therefore, as had others -before me, was that as a consequence of the conditions to which I have -referred, directions had been indicated by rows of stones for quite -other than ceremonial purposes. Here, then, was another possible origin. -It was a matter of great importance to discriminate most carefully -between these alignments, and to endeavour to sort them out. My special -inquiry, of course, was to see if they, like their apparent equivalents -in Brittany, could have had an astronomical origin. The first thing to -do, then, was to see which might have been erected for worship or which -for practical purposes. - -In doing this there is no difficulty in dealing with extremes. Thus one -notable line of large flat stones has been claimed by Messrs. R. N. -Worth and R. Burnard as a portion of the Great Fosseway (Rowe’s -_Perambulation_, third edition, p. 63); it has been traced for eighteen -miles from beyond Hameldon nearly to Tavistock, the stones being about 2 -feet thick and the road 10 feet wide. - -[Illustration: _Photo. by Lady Lockyer._ - -FIG. 42.--The Southern Avenue at Merrivale, looking East.] - -There are two notable avenues of upright stones at Merrivale; they are -in close connection with a circle, and could have had no practical use. -These stones, then, we may claim as representing the opposite extreme of -the Fosseway and as suggesting an astronomical, as opposed to a -practical, use; the adjacent circle, of course greatly strengthens this -view. - -It is between these extremes that difficulties may arise, but the -verdict can, in a great many cases at all events, be settled without any -very great hesitation, especially where practical or astronomical -uselessness can be established. But even here care is necessary, as I -shall show. - -The stones now in question, originally upright, are variously called -avenues, rows, alignments or parallelithons. Their study dates from -1827, when Rowe and Colonel Hamilton Smith examined those at Merrivale -(Rowe, _op. cit._, p. 31). Their number has increased with every careful -study of any part of the moor, and doubtless many are still -unmapped.[22] The late Mr. R. N. Worth, of Plymouth, and his son, Mr. H. -Worth, have given great attention to these monuments, and the former -communicated a paper on them to the Devonshire Association for the -Advancement of Science in 1892 (_Trans._, xxv. pp. 387-417). - -A word of caution must be said before I proceed. We must not take for -granted that the stone-rows are now as they left the hands of the -builders. The disastrous carelessness of the Government in the matter of -our national antiquities is, I am locally informed, admirably imitated -by the Devonshire County and other lesser councils, and, indeed, by -anybody who has a road to mend or a wall to build. On this account, any -of the rows may once have been much longer and with an obvious practical -use; and those which now appear to be far removed from circles may once -have been used for sacred processions at shrines which have disappeared. - -Again, the rows of stones we are now considering must not be confounded -with the “track lines” or “boundary banks” which are so numerous on -Dartmoor, and are represented in Wiltshire according to Sir R. C. Hoare; -these serve for bounds and pathways, and for connecting and enclosing -fields or houses. - -Dealing, then, with stone rows or avenues, which may be single, double, -or multiple; any which are very long and crooked, following several -directions, are certainly not astronomical; and it is easy to see in -some cases that they might have been useful guides at night or in mist -in difficult country with streams to cross. This possible utility must -not be judged wholly by the present conformation of the ground or the -present beds of streams. - -For multiple avenues it is hard to find practical uses such as the -above, and we know how such avenues were used in Brittany for sun -worship. Mr. Baring Gould considers there were eight rows in an avenue -on Challacombe Down 528 feet long; of these only three rows remain, the -others being represented by single stones here and there (Rowe, p. 33). -I shall have something to say about this avenue further on. - -Although, as I have said, long rows bending in various directions are -not likely to have had an astronomical origin, it must not be assumed -that all astronomical avenues must be _exactly_ straight. This, of -course, would be true for level ground, but if the avenue has to pass -over ridges and furrows, the varying height of the horizon must be -reckoned with, and therefore the azimuth of the avenue at any point -along it. - -I think it possible that in the Stalldon Moor row we have the mixture of -religious and practical intention at which I have before hinted. Both -Mr. Lukis and Mr. Hansford Worth have studied this monument, which is -two miles and a quarter long. There is a circle at the south end about -60 feet in diameter, while at its northern end there is a cairn. - -Where the line starts from the circle the direction of the row is -parallel to many sight-lines in Cornwall, and Arcturus would rise in the -azimuth indicated. But this direction is afterwards given up for one -which leads towards an important collection of hut circles, and it -crosses the Erme, no doubt at the most convenient spot. More to the -north it crosses another stream and the bog of Red Lake. All this is -surely practical enough, although the way indicated might have been -followed by the priests of the hut circles to the stone circle to -prepare the morning sacrifice and go through the ritual. - -But there is still another method of discrimination. If any of these -avenues were used at all for purposes of worship, their azimuths should -agree with those already found in connection with circles in other parts -of Britain, for we need not postulate a special race with a special cult -limited to Dartmoor; and in my inquiries what I have to do is to -consider the general question of orientation wherever traces of it can -be found. The more the evidences coincide the better it is for the -argument, while variations afford valuable tests. - -Now, speaking very generally (I have not yet compared all my numerous -notes), in Cornwall the chief alignments from the circles there are with -azimuths N. 10°-20° E. watching the rise of the clock-star, N. 64°-68° -E. watching the rise of the May sun, N. 75°-82° E. watching the rise of -the Pleiades. The variation in the azimuths is largely due to the -different heights of the horizon towards which the sight-lines are -directed. - -The conclusion I have come to is that these alignments, depending upon -circles and menhirs in Cornwall, are all well represented on Dartmoor -associated with the avenues; and further, so far as I have learned at -present, in the case of the avenues connected with circles, there are -not many alignments I have not met with in connection with circles in -Cornwall and elsewhere. - -This is not only a _prima facie_ argument in favour of the astronomical -use underlying the structures, but it is against the burial theory, for -certainly there must have been burials in Cornwall. - -In order, therefore, to proceed with the utmost caution, I limit myself -in the first instance to the above azimuths, and will begin by applying -a test which should be a rigid one. - -If the avenues on Dartmoor had to deal with the same practices and cults -as did the circles in Cornwall, they ought to prove themselves to have -been in use at _about_ the same time, and from this point of view the -investigation of the avenues becomes of very great importance, because -of the destruction of circles and menhirs which has been going on, and -is still going on, on Dartmoor. We have circles without menhirs and -menhirs without circles, so that the azimuths of the avenues alone -remain to give us any chance of dating the monuments if they were used -in connection with star worship. The case is far different in Cornwall, -where both circles and menhirs have in many cases been spared. - -On Dartmoor, where in some cases the menhirs still remain, they have -been annexed as crosses and perhaps as boundary stones, and squared and -initialed; hence the Ordnance surveyors have been misled, and they are -not shown as ancient stones on the map. In some cases the azimuth of the -stones suggests that this has been the sequence of events. - -It will be seen from the above that I have not tackled a question full -of pitfalls without due caution, and this care was all the more -necessary as the avenues have for long been the meeting ground of the -friends and foes of what Rowe calls “Druidical speculations”; even yet -the war rages, and my writing and Lieut. Devoir’s observing touching the -similar but grander avenues of Brittany have so far been all in vain; -chiefly, I think, because no discrimination has been considered possible -between different uses of avenues, and because the statements made by -archæologists as to their direction have been quite useless to anybody -in consequence of their vagueness, and last of all because the recent -work on the Brittany remains is little known. - -I began my acquaintance with the Dartmoor monuments by visiting -Merrivale, and the result of my inquiries there left absolutely no doubt -whatever on my mind. I was armed, thanks to the kindness of Colonel -Johnston, the Director of the Ordnance Survey, with the 25-inch map, -while Mr. Hansford Worth had been so good as to send me one showing his -special survey. - -The Merrivale avenues (lat. 50° 33′ 15″) are composed of two double -rows, roughly with the azimuth N. 82° E.; the northern row is shorter -than the other. Rowe, in his original description (1830), makes the -northern 1143 feet long; they are not quite parallel, and the southern -row has a distinct “kink” or change of direction in it at about the -centre. The stones are mostly 2 or 3 feet high, and in each row they are -about 3 feet apart; the distance between the rows is about 80 feet. - -I have before pointed out (p. 149) that an avenue directed to the rising -place of a star, if it is erected over undulating ground, cannot be -straight. I may now mention another apparent paradox. If two avenues are -directed to the rising place of the same star _at different times_, they -cannot be parallel. It is not a little curious that absence of -parallelism has been used against avenues having had an astronomical -use! - -Both the Ordnance surveyors and Mr. Worth have shown the want of -parallelism of the two avenues, and Mr. Worth has noted the kink in the -southern one. The height of the horizon, as determined from my measures, -is 3° 18′. The results of these inquiries, assuming the Pleiades to have -been observed warning May morning, are as follows:-- - - Azimuth. Authority. N. Declination. Date B.C. - ° ° ′ ″ - N. 83·15 E. Worth 6 47 47 1710 - 82·30 Worth 7 16 20 1630 - 82·10 Ordnance 7 32 0 1580 - 80·40 Worth 8 26 0 1420 - 80·30 Ordnance 8 30 0 1400 - -To simplify matters we may deal with the Ordnance values and neglect the -small change of direction in the southern avenue. We have, then, the two -dates 1580 B.C. and 1420 B.C. for the two avenues. The argument for the -Pleiades is strengthened by the fact that at Athens the Hecatompedon was -oriented to these stars in 1495 B.C. according to Mr. Penrose’s -determination of the azimuth. - -[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Plan, from the Ordnance Map, showing the -avenues, circle and stones at Merrivale, with their azimuths.] - -Now this is not the first time I have referred to avenues in these -notes. The azimuth of one at Stonehenge was used to fix the date at -which sun worship went on there. That avenue, unlike the Dartmoor ones, -was built of earth, and it is not alone. There is another nearly two -miles long called the Cursus. So far, I have found no solstitial worship -on Dartmoor, so there are no avenues parallel to the one at Stonehenge -leading N.E. from the temple. But how about the other? _It is roughly -parallel to the avenues at Merrivale, and I think, therefore, was, like -them, used as a processional road, a via sacra, to watch the rising of -the Pleiades._ - -[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Reprint of Ordnance Map showing that the Cursus -at Stonehenge is nearly parallel to the Merrivale Avenue. The azimuth is -82° and not 84° as shown in the figure.] - -I said roughly parallel; its azimuth is about the same (N. 82° E. -roughly); but the horizon is only about 1° high; it was therefore in use -before those at Merrivale; the exact date of use must wait for -theodolite values of the height of the horizon, but in the meantime we -can see from the above estimates that the declination of the Pleiades -was about N. 5° 28′ 30″ and the date of use 1950 B.C., that is some 300 -years before the solstitial restoration. - -Mr. Worth’s survey gives another line of stones. It is undoubtedly, I -think, an ancient line, although it is not shown in the Ordnance map, a -clear indication of the difficulty of discriminating these avenues on -land cumbered with stones in all directions. Its azimuth is N. 24° 25′ -E., and the height of the horizon 5° 10′. This gives us Arcturus at the -date 1860 B.C., showing that, as at the Hurlers, Arcturus was used as a -clock-star. Hence a possible _astronomical_ use is evident, while this -row, like the others, could have been of no _practical_ use to anybody. -It is interesting to note that this single row of stones is older than -the double ones; this seems natural. - -It is worth while to say a word as to the different treatment of the -ends of the south avenue now that it seems probable that it was used to -watch the rising of the Pleiades. At the east end there is what -archæologists term a “blocking stone”; these observations suggest that -it was really a _sighting_ stone. At the west end such a stone is -absent, but the final stones in the avenue are longer than the rest. -This may help us in the true direction of the sight-lines in other -avenues; and, indeed, I shall show in the sequel that this consideration -affords a criterion which, in the cases I have come across, is entirely -in harmony with others. - -[22] On June 15, 1905, that excellent guide of the Chagford part of the -moor, Mr. S. Perrott, showed me an avenue (Azimuth N. 20° E. true) near -Hurston Ridge which is not given in the 1-inch map. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -THE DARTMOOR AVENUES (_continued_) - - -My inquiries began at Merrivale because there is a circle associated -with the avenues a little to the south of the west end of the longest; -and again nearly, or quite, south of this there is a fine menhir, -possibly used to give a north-south line. There is another menhir given -on the Ordnance map, azimuth N. 70° 30′ E., which, with hills 3° high, -points out roughly the place of sunrise from the circle in May (April -29). Although this stone has been squared and initialed, I think I am -justified in claiming it as an ancient monument. There is still another, -azimuth N. 83° E., giving a line from the circle almost parallel to the -avenue. I hope some local archæologist will examine it, for if ancient -it will tell us whether the N. avenue or the circle was built first, a -point of which it is difficult to overrate the importance, as it will -show the strict relationship between the astronomy of the avenues and -that of the circle, and we can now, I think, deal with the astronomical -use of circles after the results obtained at Stonehenge, Stenness and -the Hurlers as an accepted fact. With the above approximate values the -date comes out 1750 B.C., the declination of the Pleiades being N. 6° -35′. - -I now pass on from Merrivale as an example of those avenues the -direction of which lies somewhere in the E.-W. direction. Others which I -have not seen, given by Rowe, are at Assacombe, Drizzlecombe and -Trowlesworthy; to these Mr. Worth adds Harter or Har Tor (or Black Tor). - -The avenues which lie nearly N. and S. are more numerous. Rowe gives the -following:--Fernworthy, Challacombe, Trowlesworthy, Stalldon Moor, -Battendon, Hook Lake, and Tristis Rock. Of these I have visited the -first two, as well as one on Shovel Down not named by Rowe, and the next -two I have studied on the 6-inch Ordnance map. - -_Fernworthy_ (lat. 50° 38′).--Here are two avenues, one with azimuth N. -15° 45′ E., hills 1° 15′. There is a sighting stone at the N. end. We -appear to be dealing with Arcturus as clock-star 1610 B.C. This is about -the date of the erection of the N. avenue at Merrivale. - -The second avenue has its sighting stone built into a wall at the south -end. Looking south along the avenue, the conditions are azimuth S. 8° -42′ W., hills 3° 30′. - -Both these avenues are aligned on points within, but _not_ at the centre -of, the circle. - -_Challacombe_ (lat. 50° 36′).--This is a case of a triple avenue, -probably the remains of eight rows, in a depression between two hills, -Challacombe Down and Warrington. There is no circle. The azimuth is 23° -37′ N.W. or S.E., according to direction. The northern end has been -destroyed by an old stream work; there is no blocking stone to the south -on either of the remaining avenues, but one large menhir terminates one -row of stones. The others may have been removed. So it is probable that -the alignment was to the north. If so, we are dealing with the setting -of Arcturus, warning the summer solstice sunrise in 1860 B.C. To the S. -the hills are 4° 48′, to the N. 4° 50′. - -To this result some importance must be attached, first, because it -brings us into presence of the cult of the solstitial year, secondly, -because it shows us that the system most in vogue in Brittany was -introduced in relation to that year. In Brittany, as I have before -shown, the complicated alignments, there are 11 parallel rows at Le -Ménac (p. 99) (there _were_ 8 parallel rows at Challacombe), were set up -to watch the May and August sunrises, and the solstitial alignments came -afterwards. The Brittany May alignments, therefore, were probably used -long before 1860 B.C., the date we have found for Challacombe, where not -the sunrise but the setting star which gave warning of it was observed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 45.--The remains of the eight rows of the -Challacombe Avenue. Looking North of East. Terminal Menhir on the -extreme right.] - -It is worth while to point out that at Challacombe, as elsewhere, the -priest-astronomers so located their monuments that the nearly -circumpolar stars which were so useful to them should rise over an -horizon of some angular height. In this way the direction-lines would be -available for a longer period of time, for near the north point the -change of azimuth with change in the declination of the star observed is -very rapid. - -_Shovel Down_, near Batworthy (lat. 50° 39′ 20″).--A group of five rows -of stones, four double, one single, with two sets of azimuths. - -One set gives az. 22° 25°, and 28°. They seem to be associated. I will -call them A, B, and C. A is directed to the circle on Godleigh Common. -Its ends are free. B is a single line of stones to the E. of the triple -circle, about which more presently. It is not marked on the Ordnance -map; its ends are also free. C has its south end blocked, I think in -later times, by a kistvaen. The astronomical direction may be, -therefore, either N.W. or S.E. We find a probable use in the N.W. -quadrant, as at Challacombe, Arcturus setting at daybreak as a warner of -the summer solstice. - -The height of hills is 46′; we have then:-- - - Az. N. Dec. Star. Date. - N. 22° W. 36° 19′ 40″ Arcturus 1210 B.C. - N. 25° W. 35° 23′ 20″ „ 1040 „ - N. 28° W. 34° 19′ 30″ „ 850 „ - -Adjacent to A, B, C, is another avenue, which I will call D. Unlike the -others, its northern end points 2° E. of N. Its southern end is blocked -by a remarkable triple circle, the end of the avenue close to it being -defined by two tall terminal stones. We are justified, then, in thinking -that its orientation was towards the north; the height of the horizon I -measured as 45′. It may have been an attempt to mark the N. point of -the horizon. - -The triple circle to which I have referred is not an ordinary circle. I -believe it to be a later added, much embellished, cairn. According to -Ormerod, the diameters are 26, 20, and 3 feet, and there are three small -stones at the centre. - -All the above avenues are on the slope of the hill to the north. On the -south slope we find the longest of all, as shown on the Ordnance map -survey of 1885. There is a “long stone” in its centre, and at the -southern end was formerly a cromlech, the “three boys.” Part of this -avenue, and two of the three “boys,” have been taken to build a wall. -The long stone remains, because it is a boundary stone! - -The azimuth is 2° 30′ W. of north or E. of south. Looking N. from the -long stone, the height of the horizon is 2° 30′. I think this avenue was -an attempt to mark the S. point. - -_Trowlesworthy_ (lat. 50° 27′ 30″).--The remains here are most -interesting. This is the only monument on Dartmoor in which I have so -far traced any attempt to locate the sun’s place at rising either for -the May or solstitial year. But I will deal with the N.-S. avenue first, -as it is this feature which associates it with Fernworthy and -Challacombe. - -As at Merrivale, the avenue has a decided “kink” or change of direction. -The facts as gathered from the 6-inch map are as follows:-- - - Az. Hills. Dec. N. Star. Date. - S. part of Avenue N. 7° E. 2° 52′ 41° 29′ 10″ Arcturus 2130 B.C. - N. „ „ N. 12° E. 2° 52′ 41° 6′ 20″ „ 2080 B.C. - -[Illustration: FIG. 46.--The sight-lines at Trowlesworthy, showing high -northern azimuths. From the Ordnance map.] - -This date is very nearly that of the use of the S. circle at the -Hurlers, and it is early for Dartmoor; but it is quite possible that -local observations on an associated avenue a little to the west of the -circle which terminates the N.-S. avenue will justify it. This is not -far from parallel to that at Merrivale, but its northern azimuth is -greater, so that if it turns out to have been aligned on the Pleiades -its date will be some time before that of Merrivale, that is, before -1580 B.C. I can say nothing more about it till I have visited it. - -The new features to which I have referred are two tumuli which in all -probability represent more recent additions to the original scheme of -observation, as we have found at Stenness, and show that Trowlesworthy -was for long one of the chief centres of worship on Dartmoor. Their -azimuths are S. 64° E. and S. 49° W., dealing, therefore, with the May -year sunrises in November and February and the solstitial sunset in -December. It is probable that, as at the Hurlers, tumuli were used -instead of stones not earlier than 1900 B.C. - -_Stalldon Moor_ (lat. 50° 27′ 45″) I have already incidentally referred -to. The azimuth of the stone row as it leaves the circle, _not_ from its -centre as I read the 6-inch map, is N. 3° E.; as the azimuth gradually -increases for a time, we may be dealing with Arcturus, but local -observation is necessary. - -The differences between the Cornish and Dartmoor monuments give much -food for thought, and it is to be hoped that they will be carefully -studied by future students of orientation, as so many questions are -suggested. I will refer to some of them. - -(1) Are the avenues, chiefly consisting of two rows of stones, a -reflection of the sphinx avenues of Egypt? and, if so, how can the -intensification of them on Dartmoor be explained? - -(2) Was there a double worship going on in the avenues and the circles -at the same time? If not, why were the former not aligned on the -circles? On a dead level, of course, if the avenues were aligned on the -centre of the circle towards the rising or setting of the sun or a star, -the procession in the _via sacra_ would block the view of those in the -circle. We have the avenue at Stonehenge undoubtedly aligned on the -centre of the circle, but there the naos was on an eminence, so that the -procession in the avenue was always below the level of the horizon, and -so did not block the view. - -(3) Do all the cairns and cists in the avenues represent later -additions, so late, indeed, that they may have been added after the -avenues had ceased to be used for ceremonial purposes? The cairn at -nearly the central point of the S. avenue at Merrivale was certainly not -there as a part of the structure when the avenue was first used as a -_via sacra_ for observing the rising of the Pleiades. I have always held -that these ancient temples, and even their attendant long and chambered -barrows, were for the living and not for the dead, and this view has -been strengthened by what I have observed on Dartmoor. - -There was good reason for burials after the sacred nature of the spot -had been established, and they may have taken place at any time since; -the most probable time being after 1000 B.C. up to a date as recent as -archæologists may consider probable. - -Mr. Worth, whose long labours on the Dartmoor avenues give such -importance to his opinions, objects to the astronomical use of those -avenues because there are so many of them; he informs me that he knows -of 50; I think this objection may be considered less valid if the -avenues show that they were dedicated to different uses, some practical -and others sacred, at different times of the year. For instance, -Challacombe is not a duplicate of Merrivale; one is solstitial, the -other deals with the May year; and a complete examination of them--I -have only worked on the fringe--may show other differences having the -same bearing. - -In favour of the astronomical view it must be borne in mind that the -results obtained in Devon and Cornwall are remarkably similar, and the -dates are roughly the same. Among the whole host of heaven from which -objectors urge it is free for me to select any star I choose, at present -only six stars have been considered, two of which were certainly used, -as in Egypt, as clock-stars as they just dipped below the northern -horizon, and other two afterwards at Athens; and these six stars are -shown by nothing more recondite than an inspection of a precessional -globe to have been precisely the stars, the “morning stars,” wanted by -the priest-astronomers who wished to be prepared for the instant of -sunrise at the critical points of the May or solstitial year. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -STANTON DREW (Lat. 51° 10′ N.) - - -Other circles to which I have given some attention are at Stanton Drew -in Somerset. I regret to say that I have not as yet had an opportunity -of visiting them. But a cursory inspection on the Ordnance map of the -possible sight-lines from circle to circle, for there are three, -suggested at once that we were dealing with the same problem as that -worked out, if somewhat differently, at the Hurlers. - -The three circles, two avenues leading from two of the circles towards -the river, and some outstanding stones were most carefully surveyed by -Mr. C. E. Dymond some years ago. He was good enough to send me copies of -his plans and levelling sections. I have not had the advantage of -perusing his memoir, but I have studied the monuments as well as I could -by means of the 25-inch Ordnance map. This, combined with an azimuth -which Colonel Johnston, the Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, was -kind enough to send me, should give me bearings within a degree. - -I will begin by giving a short account of the stones which remain, -abridged from the convenient pamphlet prepared for the British -Association meeting at Bristol in 1898 by Prof. Lloyd Morgan. - -The circles at Stanton Drew, though far less imposing than those of -Avebury and Stonehenge, are thought to be more ancient than are the -latter, for the rough-hewn uprights and plinths of Stonehenge bear the -marks of a higher and presumably later stage of mechanical development. -Taken as a group, the Somersetshire circles are in some respects more -complex than their better known rivals in Wiltshire. There are three -circles, from two of which “avenues” proceed for a short distance in a -more or less easterly direction; there is a shattered but large -dolmen--if we may so regard the set of stones called “the cove”; and -there are outlying stones--the “quoit,” and those in Middle Ham--which -bear such relations to the circles as to suggest that they too formed -parts of some general scheme of construction. - -From the photograph of the Ordnance map (Fig. 47) it will be seen, as -pointed out by Prof. Lloyd Morgan, - -(1) That the centre of the great circle, that of the S.W. circle, and -that of the quoit, are nearly in the same straight line. - -(2) That the cove, the centre of the great circle, and that of the N.E. -circle, are nearly in the same straight line. - -The quoit, which generally means the covering stone of a -cromlech--“Hautville’s Quoit,” as it is named on the Ordnance map--looms -large in Stanton Drew tradition; it is locally as much respected as the -circles themselves. It is pointed to most unmistakably by the fact that -a line from it to the S.W. circle passes nearly through the centre of -the great circle. - -If the observation line, then, meant anything astronomically, it can -only have had to do with the rising of a star far to the north, in a -position far more northerly than the sun ever reaches. - -The “quoit,” lying in an orchard by the roadside, has nothing very -impressive about its appearance--a recumbent mass of greyish sandstone; -but it seems to be a brick in the Stanton Drew building. By some -regarded as a sarsen block from Wiltshire, it is, in Prof. Lloyd -Morgan’s opinion, more probably derived from the Old Red Sandstone of -Mendip. In any case it is not, geologically speaking, _in situ_; nor has -it reached its present position by natural agency. - -With regard to two of the megalithic circles, at first sight the -constituent stones seem irregularly dotted about the field; but as we -approach them the unevenly spaced stones group themselves. - -The material of which the greater number of the rude blocks is composed -is peculiar and worthy of careful examination. It is a much altered rock -consisting, in most of the stones, of an extremely hard siliceous -breccia with angular fragments embedded in a red or deep brown matrix, -and with numerous cavities which give it a rough slaggy appearance. Many -of these hollows are coated internally with a jasper-like material, the -central cavity being lined with gleaming quartz-crystals. - -[Illustration: FIG. 47.--The Circles and Avenues at Stanton Drew. -Photograph of 25-inch Ordnance map, shewing approximate azimuths of -sight-lines.] - -The majority of the stones were probably brought from Harptree Ridge on -Mendip, distant some six miles. Weathered blocks of Triassic breccia, -showing various stages of silicification, there lie on the surface; and -there probably lay the weathered monoliths which have been transported -to Stanton Drew. It is important to note that they were erected -unhewn and untouched by the tool. A few stones are of other -material--sandstone, like the “quoit,” or oolite from Dundry. - -In the great circle, of the visible stones some retain their erect -position, others are recumbent, several are partially covered by -accumulation of grass-grown soil. Others are completely buried, their -position being revealed in dry seasons by the withering of the grass -above them. - -To the east of this circle a short avenue leads out, there being three -visible stones and one buried block on the one hand, and two visible -stones on the other. But one’s attention is apt to be diverted from -these to the very large and massive megaliths of the small N.E. circle. -This is composed of eight weathered masses, one of which (if indeed it -do not represent more than one), Prof. Lloyd Morgan tells us, is -recumbent and shattered. From this circle, all the stones of which are -of the siliceous breccia, a short avenue of small stones also opens out -eastwards. - -The third or S.W. circle lies at some little distance from the others. -The average size of the stones is smaller than in either of the other -circles, and not all are composed of the same material. - -“The Cove,” which has been variously regarded as a dolmen, a druidical -chair of state, and a shelter for sacrificial fire, is close to the -church. - -The dimensions and numbers of the stones are as follow: - - Great circle, diameter 368 feet, 30 stones. - N.E. „ „ 97 „ 8 „ - S.W. „ „ 145 „ 12 „ - -As I was not able to visit Stanton Drew when the significance of the -northerly alignments struck me, I made an appeal to Prof. Lloyd Morgan, -of whose pamphlet I have so largely made use, to obtain some theodolite -observations. As a result such observations have been made by himself -and Mr. Morrow, from whom I have recently received a report with full -permission to make use of it in this place. - -The monuments are not easy to measure, as the centres of the circles are -not readily determined, as so many of the stones are either absent, -recumbent or buried. - -In my rough reading of the Ordnance map given in Fig. 47, I thought I -might be guided by taking centres, such that the avenues would be -aligned on them as at Stonehenge. I had not then seen the Dartmoor -avenues, which in some cases are not aligned on the centres. In this it -is possible that I was wrong, as both Mr. Dymond’s and Mr. Morrow’s -observations suggest that the avenues are really of the Dartmoor -pattern. Mr. Morrow writes: “The centres of the circles are (to a -certain small extent) a matter of choice, a difference of a few minutes -may easily occur. In dealing with the avenues a larger discrepancy may -occur. I have taken what, in my opinion, was the best centre line of -each avenue and thus determined its azimuth. But I believe that -originally the southern line of stones forming each avenue was directed -towards the centre of the corresponding circle, and that the avenue was -then completed by the erection of a parallel line of stones. A -difference of a few degrees may thus be accounted for in the azimuth -supposed to have been originally marked out.” - -About Mr. Morrow’s azimuths there can be no question. He writes: - -“The instruments used were, first, a 6″ theodolite, and second, a 6″ -transit theodolite. The final results were obtained with the latter. It -cannot be reversed when measuring elevations. I tested it very carefully -for the adjustments of (_a_) line of collimation at right angles to the -horizontal axis, (_b_) horizontal axis perpendicular to vertical axis, -and (_c_) line of collimation and spirit level parallel to each other. -The instrument was in first-rate order, the error in elevation, for -example, being within that corresponding to a slope of 1 in 40,000; that -is well within the limit of 20″ to which vertical angles can be read. - -“The meridian was obtained by two different methods applied several -times, the results agreeing very closely. Readings of azimuths and -altitude of sun were taken between three and four hours after noon, -corrected for semi-diameter, &c., and the true bearing obtained with the -aid of the latitude and the declination given in Nautical Almanac -(corrected for time). - -“With regard to the elevations of the horizon, the existence of trees on -or just below the sky-line renders readings to the nearest minute -uncertain. In all cases I have tried to give the most probable value, -supposing the trees to be absent. In some places the heights will have -altered slightly during recent years owing to the construction of -railways. - -“The values given are the means of observations. They are not corrected -for height of instrument above ground, which might increase the angles -by about 5 mins. Trees on the sky-line appear to make a difference of -some 35 mins.” - -The azimuths as found by Mr. Morrow and myself are as under: - - Height of horizon - (excluding trees). - Morrow. Lockyer. Morrow. - [23]From centre of great circle - to Hauteville’s quoit N. 17° 59′ E. 17° 2° 23′ - From centre of great circle - to N.E. circle 53° 0′ 51° 1° 5′ - From centre of great circle - along great circle avenue 68° 43′ 65° 0° 38′ - From centre of N.E. circle - along N.E. circle avenue S. 83° 52′ E. 79° 1° 40′ - From centre of S.W. circle - to centre of great circle N. 19° 51′ E. 20° 1° 44′ - -The azimuths to which I first direct attention are these: - - Az. - Great circle to quoit N. 17° E. - S.W. circle to great circle N. 20° E. - -These azimuths indicate that at Stanton Drew as at the Hurlers and -elsewhere we are dealing with Arcturus as a clock-star. The facts are: - - Az. N. Decln. Height Star. Date. - of hills. - N. 17° E. 38° 59′ 0″ 2° 23′ Arcturus 1690 - 20° 37° 26′ 50″ 1° 44′ „ 1410 - -One of the greatest differences between Mr. Morrow’s local observation -and my reading of the 25-inch Ordnance map occurs in the case of the -direction of the avenue from the great circle. It may be suggested that -the use of this avenue was to observe the May and August sunrises of the -May year. If we take the sun’s declination at 16° 20′ N., see p. 22, the -azimuth should be about N. 64° E.; this is 1° from my value and 5° from -that given by Mr. Morrow, but it must not be forgotten that the choice -of a day in May and August slightly differing from the normal date might -easily produce such a variation. - -It seems probable that the great circle was one of the first erected, -and the fact that, like Stonehenge, it had an avenue, but that, unlike -Stonehenge, the avenue was directed towards the May and not the June -(solstitial) sunrise further, I think, suggests that the May worship was -considered the most important and was the first provided for. - -There is reason for supposing that the great circle was at all events -built before the S.W. one. The great circle is situated at a lower level -than the S.W. one. The angular elevation of the hills over which -Arcturus rose would appear, therefore, to be higher from the great than -from the S.W. circle. Arcturus has been reducing its declination for -centuries in consequence of the precessional movement. It would -therefore rise gradually in a greater azimuth, that is, nearer the east. -An observer in the centre of the great circle, to follow this more -easterly rising over the quoit, would have to change his position -gradually to the westward. But there was another way. The original -direction could be nearly maintained if the observation were made at a -higher level near the original line, as then the relative elevation of -the rising-place would be reduced. - -This is what possibly was done, and this indeed may be the _vera causa_ -of the building of the S.W. circle. - -This view of the possible function of the “quoit” is, of course, -strengthened by the fact that we find traces of high northerly alignment -in other stone circles. I have already shown that there are such -alignments in Cornwall. - -The “quoit” is nearly on a level with the great circle, while the hills -rise behind it. It has been suggested that it would have been more -useful on the top of the hill, but this suggestion cannot be accepted -for a moment if it were used in the way I have indicated. On a dark -night it would have been invisible, and it also would have prevented the -observation of star-rise if it were truly aligned. Being comparatively -near the circle it could easily have been illuminated at the critical -time, and thus have anticipated the bright line micrometer of more -modern times. - -So far I have found no obvious use for the avenue attached to the N.E. -circle. The conditions are: - - Az. Height of Dec. - Hills. - Morrow. Lockyer. Morrow. Morrow. Lockyer. - S. 83° 52′ E. S. 79° E. 1° 40′ 3° 52′ 30″ S. 5° 49′ 30″ S. - -With regard to this N.E. circle, in relation to the large circle, the -data are as follows: - - Az. Height of Dec. N. - Hills. - Morrow. Lockyer. Morrow. Morrow. Lockyer. - N. 53° E. N. 51° E. 1° 5′ 22° 43′ 50″ 23° 48′ 46″ - -As Mr. Morrow states, the choice of centre of the circle may alter the -azimuth obtained by as much as “a few degrees,” but the value obtained -from the Ordnance map is, definitely, N. 51° E., and with the height of -hills determined by Mr. Morrow this would suggest that the N.E. circle -was really erected to provide the alignment, from the centre of the -great circle, or from the Cove, to the summer solstitial sun, about the -year 870 B.C., Stockwell’s values for the obliquity being taken. This -result is the more striking as it gives a date for the substitution of -the June for the May worship at Stanton Drew, which is in full -accordance with that obtained for the similar change at Stenness. - -There is other evidence, to which I attach importance, as it deals with -a method and policy found in many temple fields in Egypt, that of -blocking the alignment of an older star- or sun-cult, which the -astronomer-priests replaced by their own. The stones of the avenue of -the solstitial N.E. circle I expect once blocked the May sunrise line -from the great circle; judging from the Ordnance map, and remembering -the number of stones that have disappeared, this is probable if not -certain. - -If this were so, then the N.E. circle was the last to be erected, and -this suggestion is strengthened by Mr. Lewis’s statement that it is the -most perfect of the three. - -Prof. Lloyd Morgan concludes his interesting account of which I have -made so much use with the following remarks: - -“In what order the circles were constructed we do not know. Whether the -small N.E. circle with its more massive megaliths preceded or succeeded -the great circle with its more numerous but, on the average, less -massive stones, is a matter of mere conjecture. They may have been -contemporaneous: but it is more likely that so large a work took a long -time in execution; nor does the unity of plan of the final product -preclude a gradual process of development. Finally as to the purpose of -the erection, and its hidden astronomical, mythological, or social -meaning (if it have one), we are once more at the mercy of more or less -plausible conjecture. There stand the circles in a quiet Somersetshire -valley, silent memorials of a race concerning whose modes of life, of -labour, and of thought we can but speculate.” - -It is to be hoped that before the monument has disappeared like so many -of its fellows, some student with more knowledge and time to devote to -the inquiry than myself will endeavour to answer more of the questions -raised by it. - -[23] With regard to these values Mr. Morrow writes: “At present -Hauteville’s quoit is not visible from the centre of great circle. If -the stone were erect, however, and any intervening trees and walls -removed, the top of the stone would no doubt be within view. The -Hauteville quoit line is thus rather a difficult one to obtain with -accuracy, but the azimuth given should be correct to the nearest -minute.” - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -FOLKLORE AND TRADITION - - -We have so far considered the circles at Stonehenge, Stenness, the -Hurlers and Stanton Drew, and the avenues in Brittany and on Dartmoor. -Before I refer to my later work in the south-west of England or attempt -to present a summary of the results of the inquiry, I think it will be -convenient to turn for a time to another branch of it, for that there is -another closely connected series of facts to be considered in relation -to the monuments folklore and tradition abundantly prove. - -So far in this book I have dealt chiefly with stones--as I hold, -associated with, or themselves composing, sanctuaries. We have become -acquainted with circles, menhirs, dolmens, altars, viæ sacræ, various -structures built up of stones. Barrows and earthern banks represented -them later. - -The view which I have been led to bring forward so far is that these -structures had in one way or another to do with the worship of the sun -and stars; that they had for the most part an astronomical use in -connection with religious ceremonials. - -The next question which concerns us in an attempt to get at the bottom -of the matter is to see whether there are any concomitant phenomena, -and, if there be any, to classify them and study the combined results. - -Tradition and folklore, which give dim references to the ancient uses of -the stones, show in most unmistakable fashion that the stones were not -alone; associated with them almost universally were many practices -referred to on p. 26, such as the lighting of fires, passing through -them, and dancing round them; in the neighbourhood of the stones and -associated with the fire practices were also sacred trees and sacred -wells or streams. - -Folklore and tradition not only thus may help us, but I think they will -be helped by such a general survey, brief though it must be. So far as -my reading has gone each special tradition has been considered by -itself; there has been no general inquiry having for its object the -study of the possible origin and _connection_ of many of the ancient -practices and ideas which have so dimly come down to us in many cases -and which we can only completely reconstruct by piecing together the -information derived from various sources. - -I now propose to refer to all these matters with the view of seeing -whether there be any relation between practices apparently disconnected -in so many cases if we follow the literature in which they are -chronicled. We must not blame the literature, since the facts which -remain to be recorded now here, now there, are but a small fraction of -those that have been forgotten. Fortunately, the practices forgotten in -one locality have been remembered in another, so that it is possible the -picture can be restored more completely than one might have thought at -first. - -It will be seen at once that from the point of view with which we are -at present concerned, one of the chief relations we must look for is -that of time, seeing that my chief affirmation with regard to the stone -monuments is that they were used for ceremonial purposes at certain -seasons, those seasons being based first upon the agricultural, and -later upon the astronomical divisions of the year, to which I drew -attention in Chapter III. In Chapter IV., when referring to the -agricultural and astronomical new years’ days, I indicated a possible -relation between the temple worship and the floral celebrations of that -time, and later on (p. 40), in connection with the monuments in -Brittany, I pointed out the coincidence of fire customs at the same time -of the year. - -But in a matter of this kind it will not do to depend upon isolated -cases; the general trend of all the facts available along several lines -of inquiry must be found and studied, first separately and then _inter -se_, if any final conclusion is to be reached. - -This is what I now propose to do in a very summary manner. It is not my -task to arrange the facts of folklore and tradition, but simply to cull -from the available sources precise statements which bear upon the -questions before us. These statements, I think, may be accepted as -trustworthy, and all the more so as many of the various recorders have -had no idea either of the existence of a May year at all or of the -connection between the different classes of the phenomena which ought to -exist if my theory of their common origin in connection with ancient -worship and the monuments is anywhere near the truth. - -This question of time relations is surrounded by difficulties. - -I gave in Fig. 7 the Gregorian dates of the beginning of the quarters -of the May year, if nothing but the sun’s declination of 16° 20′ N. or -S., four times in its yearly path, be considered. These were:-- - - May Greek Roman - Year. Calendar. Calendar. - End of Winter } Feb. 4 Feb. 7 Feb. 7 - Beginning of Spring } - „ Summer May 6 May 6 May 9 - End of Summer } Aug. 8 Aug. 11 Aug. 8 - Beginning of Autumn } - „ Winter Nov. 8 Nov. 10 Nov. 9 - -In the table I also give, for comparison, the dates in the Greek and -Roman calendars (p. 20). - -There is no question that on or about the above days festivals were -anciently celebrated in these islands; possibly not all at all holy -places, but some at one and some at another; this, perhaps, may help to -explain the variation in the local traditions and even some of the -groupings of orientations. - -The earliest information on this point comes from Ireland. - -Cormac, Archbishop of Cashel in the tenth century, states, according to -Vallancey, that “in his time four great fires were lighted up on the -four great festivals of the Druids, viz., in February, May, August and -November.”[24] - -I am not aware of any such general statement as early as this in -relation to the four festivals of the May year in Great Britain, but in -spite of its absence the fact is undoubted that festivals were held, and -many various forms of celebration used, during those months. - -From the introduction of Christianity attempts of different kinds were -made to destroy this ancient time system and to abolish the so-called -“pagan” worships and practices connected with it. Efforts were made to -change the date and so obliterate gradually the old traditions; another -way, and this turned out to be the more efficacious, was to change the -venue of the festival, so to speak, in favour of some Christian -celebration or saint’s day. The old festivals took no account of -week-days, so it was ruled that the festivals were to take place on the -first day of the week; later on some of them were ruled to begin on the -first day of the month. - -When Easter became a movable feast, the efforts of the priests were -greatly facilitated, and indeed it would seem as if this result of such -a change was not absent from the minds of those who favoured it. - -The change of style was, as I have before stated, a fruitful source of -confusion, and this was still further complicated by another difficulty. -Piers[25] tells us that consequent upon the change “the Roman Catholics -light their fires by the new style, as the correction originated from a -pope; and for that very same reason the Protestants adhere to the old.” - -I will refer to each of the festivals and their changes of date. - - -_February 4._ - -Before the movable Easter the February festival had been transformed -into Ash Wednesday (February 4). The eve of the festival was Shrove -Tuesday, and it is quite possible that the ashes used by the priests on -Wednesday were connected with the bonfires of the previous night. - -It would seem that initially the festival, with its accompanying -bonfire, was transferred to the first Sunday in Lent, February 8. - -I quote the following from Hazlitt[26]:-- - -“Durandus, in his ‘Rationale,’ tells us, Lent was counted to begin on -that which is now the first Sunday in Lent, and to end on Easter Eve; -which time, saith he, containing forty-two days, if you take out of them -the six Sundays (on which it was counted not lawful at any time of the -year to fast), then there will remain only thirty-six days: and, -therefore, that the number of days which Christ fasted might be -perfected, Pope Gregory added to Lent four days of the week -before-going, viz., that which we now call Ash Wednesday, and the three -days following it. So that we see the first observation of Lent began -from a superstitious, unwarrantable, and indeed profane, conceit of -imitating Our Saviour’s miraculous abstinence. Lent is so called from -the time of the year wherein it is observed: Lent in the Saxon language -signifying Spring.” - -Whether this be the origin of the lenten fast or not it is certain that -the connection thus established between an old pagan feast and a new -Christian one is very ingenious: 24 days in February plus 22 days in -March (March 22 being originally the fixed date for Easter) gives us 46 -days (6 × 7) + 4, and from the point of view of priestcraft the result -was eminently satisfactory, for thousands of people still light fires -on Shrove Tuesday or on the first Sunday of Lent, whether those days -occur in February or March. They are under the impression that they are -doing homage to a church festival, and the pagan origin is entirely -forgotten not only by them but even by those who chronicle the practices -as “Lent customs.”[27] - -Finally, after the introduction of the movable Easter, the priests at -Rome, instead of using the “pagan” ashes produced on the eve of the -first Sunday in Lent or Ash Wednesday in each year, utilised those -derived from the burning of the palms used on Palm Sunday of the year -before. - -Further steps were taken to conceal from future generations the origin -of the “pagan” custom due on February 4. February 3 was dedicated to St. -“Blaze.” How well this answered is shown by the following quotation from -Percy.[28] “The anniversary of St. Blazeus is the 3rd February, when it -is still the custom in many parts of England to light up fires on the -hills on St. Blayse night: _a custom antiently taken up perhaps for no -better reason than the jingling resemblance of his name to the word -Blaze_.” - -This even did not suffice. A great candle church festival was -established on February 2. This was called “Candlemas,” and Candlemas is -still the common name of the beginning of the Scotch legal year. In the -Cathedral of Durham when Cosens was bishop he “busied himself from two -of the clocke in the afternoone till foure, in climbing long ladders to -stick up wax candles in the said Cathedral Church; the number of all the -candles burnt that evening was 220, besides 16 torches; 60 of those -burning tapers and torches standing upon and near the high altar.”[29] - -There is evidence that the pagan fires at other times of the year were -also gradually replaced by candles in the churches. - - -_May 6._ - -The May festival has been treated by the Church in the same way as the -February one. With a fixed Easter Sunday on March 22, 46 days after -brought us to a Thursday (May 7), hence Holy Thursday[30] and Ascension -Day. With Easter movable there of course was more confusion. Whit -Sunday, the Feast of Pentecost, was only nine days after Holy Thursday, -and it occurred, in some years, on the same day of the month as -Ascension Day in others. In Scotland the festival now is ascribed to -Whit Sunday. - -It is possibly in consequence of this that the festival before even the -change of style was held on the 1st of the month. - -In Cornwall, where the celebrations still survive, the day chosen is May -8. - - -_August 8._ - -For the migrations of the dates of the “pagan” festival in the beginning -of August from the 1st to the 12th, migrations complicated by the old -and new style, I refer to Prof. Rhys’ Hibbert Lectures, p. 418, in -which work a full account of the former practices in Ireland and Wales -is given. The old festival in Ireland was associated with Lug, a form of -the Sun-God; the most celebrated one was held at Tailetin. This -feast--Lugnassad--was changed into the church celebration Lammas, from -A.S. hl’áfmaesse--that is loaf-mass or bread-mass, so named as a mass or -feast of thanksgiving for the first fruits of the corn harvest. The old -customs in Wales and the Isle of Alan included the ascent of hills in -the early morning, but so far I have found no record of fires in -connection with this date.[31] - - -_November 8._ - -The facts that November 11 is quarter day in Scotland, that mayors are -elected on or about that date, show, I think, pretty clearly that we are -here dealing with the old “pagan” date. - -The fact that the Church anticipated it by the feast of All Souls’ on -November 1 reminds us of what happened in the case of the February -celebration; later I give a reference to the change of date; and perhaps -this date was also determined by the natural gravitation to the first of -the month, as in the case of May, and because it marked at one time the -beginning of the Celtic year. - -But what seems quite certain is that the feast which should have been -held on November 8 on astronomical grounds was first converted by the -Church into the feast of St. Martin on November 11. The _Encyclopædia -Britannica_ tells us: “The feast of St. Martin (Martinmas) took the -place of an old pagan festival, and inherited some of its usages, such -as the Martinsmännchen, Martinsfeuer, Martinshorn, and the like, in -various parts of Germany.” - -St. Martin lived about A.D. 300. As the number of saints increased, it -became impossible to dedicate a feast-day to each. Hence it was found -expedient to have an annual aggregate commemoration of such as had not -special days for themselves. So a church festival “All Hallows,” or -“Hallowmass,” was instituted about A.D. 610 in memory of the martyrs, -and it was to take place on May 1. For some reason or another this was -changed in A.D. 834; May was given up, and the date fixed as November 1. -This was a commemoration of all the saints, so we get the new name “All -Saints’ Day.” - -There can be little doubt that the intention of the Church was to -anticipate, and therefore gradually to obliterate the pagan festival -still held at Martinmas, and it has been successful in many places. In -Ireland, for instance; at Samhain,[32] November 1, “the proper time for -prophecy and the unveiling of mysteries.”... It was then that fire was -lighted at a place called after Mog Ruith’s daughter Tlachtga. From -Tlachtga all the hearths in Ireland are said to have been annually -supplied, just as the Lemnians had once a year to put their fires out -and light them anew from that brought in the sacred ship from Delos. The -habit of celebrating _Nos Galan-galaf_ in Wales by lighting bonfires on -the hills is possibly not yet extinct. - -Here, then, we find the pagan fires transferred from the 8th to the 1st -of November in Ireland, but in the Isle of Man this is not so. I will -anticipate another reference to Rhys by stating that Martinmas had -progressed from the 11th to the 24th before the change of style brought -it back, “old Martinmas,” November 24, being one of the best recognised -“old English holidays,” “old Candlemas” being another, at the other end -of the May year; this last had slipped from February 2 to February 15 -before it was put back again. - -With regard to the Isle of Man Rhys writes[33] that the feast is there -called Hollantide, and is kept on November 12, a reckoning which he -states “is according to the old style.” The question is, are we not -dealing here with the Martinmas festival _not_ antedated to November 1? -He adds, “that is the day when the tenure of land terminates, and when -serving men go to their places. In other words it is the beginning of a -new year.” This is exactly what happens in Scotland, and the day is -still called Martinmas. - -There is a custom in mid-England which strikingly reminds us of the -importance of Martinmas in relation to old tenures, if even the custom -does not carry us still further back. This is the curious and -interesting ceremony of collecting the wroth silver, due and payable to -his Grace the Duke of Buccleuch and Queensbury on “Martinmas Eve.” -The payment is made on an ancient mound on the summit of Knightlow -Hill, about five miles out of Coventry, and in the parish of -Ryton-on-Dunsmore. One feature about this singular ceremonial is that it -must take place before sun-rising. - -[24] Hazlitt, _Dictionary of Faiths and Folklore_, under Gule of August. - -[25] _Survey of the South of Ireland_, p. 232. - -[26] Under Ash Wednesday. - -[27] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, iii., 238 _et seq._ - -[28] _Notes to Northumberland Household Book_, 1770, p. 333. - -[29] Quoted by Hazlitt. - -[30] Much confusion has arisen with regard to the Holy Thursday in -Rogation week because there is another Holy or Maundy Thursday in Easter -week. Archæologists have also been often misled by the practice of many -writers of describing the May festivals as midsummer festivals. The -first of May, of course, marked the beginning of summer. - -[31] Mr. Frazer informs me that the 13th August was Diana’s day at Nemi -and there was a fire festival. - -[32] _Rhys’ Hibbert Lectures_, p. 514. - -[33] _Celtic Folklore_, p. 315. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -SACRED FIRES - - -The magnificent collection of facts bearing on this subject which has -been brought together by Mr. Frazer in _The Golden Bough_ renders it -unnecessary for me to deal with the details of this part of my subject -at any great length. - -We have these records of fires:-- - -(1) In February, May, August and November of the original May year. - -(2) In June and December on the longest and shortest days of the -solstitial year, concerning which there could not be, and has not been, -any such change of date as has occurred in relation to the May year -festivals. - -(3) A fire at Easter, in all probability added not long before or at the -introduction of Christianity. I find no traces of a fire festival at the -corresponding equinox in September. - -We learn from Cormac that the fires were generally double and that -cattle were driven between them. - -Concerning this question of fire, both Mr. Frazer and the Rev. S. -Baring-Gould[34] suggest that we are justified in considering the -Christian treatment of the sacred fire as a survival of pagan times. Mr. -Baring-Gould writes as follows:--“When Christianity became dominant, it -was necessary to dissociate the ideas of the people from the central -fire as mixed up with the old gods; at the same time the central fire -was an absolute need. Accordingly the Church was converted into the -sacred depository of the perpetual fire.” - -He further points out that there still remain in some of our churches -(in Cornwall, York, and Dorset) the contrivances--now called -cresset-stones--used. They are blocks of stone with cups hollowed out. -Some are placed in lamp-niches furnished with flues. On these he remarks -(p. 122):-- - -“Now although these lamps and cressets had their religious -signification, yet this religious signification was an afterthought. The -origin of them lay in the necessity of there being in every place a -central light, from which light could at any time be borrowed; and the -reason why this central light was put in the church was to dissociate it -from the heathen ideas attached formerly to it. As it was, the good -people of the Middle Ages were not quite satisfied with the central -church fire, and they had recourse in times of emergency to other, and -as the Church deemed them unholy, fires. When a plague and murrain -appeared among cattle, then they lighted need-fires from two pieces of -dry wood, and drove the cattle between the flames, believing that this -new flame was wholesome to the purging away of the disease. For kindling -the need-fires the employment of flint and steel was forbidden. The fire -was only efficacious when extracted in prehistoric fashion, out of -wood. The lighting of these need-fires was forbidden by the Church in -the eighth century. What shows that this need-fire was distinctly -heathen is that in the Church new fire was obtained at Easter annually -by striking flint and steel together. It was supposed that the old fire -in a twelvemonth had got exhausted, or perhaps that all light expired -with Christ, and that new fire must be obtained. Accordingly the priest -solemnly struck new fire out of flint and steel. But fire from flint and -steel was a novelty; and the people, Pagan at heart, had no confidence -in it, and in time of adversity went back to the need-fire kindled in -the time-honoured way from wood by friction, before this new-fangled way -of drawing it out of stone and iron was invented.” - -The same authority informs us that before Christianity was introduced -into Ireland by St. Patrick there was a temple at Tara “where fire -burned ever, and was on no account suffered to go out.” - -Mr. Frazer,[35] quoting Cerbied, shows that in the ancient religion of -Armenia the new fire was kindled at the February festival of the May -year, in honour of the fire-god Mihr. “A bonfire was made in a public -place, and lamps kindled at it were kept burning throughout the year in -each of the fire-god’s temples.” This festival now takes place at -Candlemas, February 2. - -We must assume, then, that the pagan fires were produced by the friction -of dry wood, and possibly in connection with an ever-burning fire. In -either case the priests officiating at the various circles must have had -a place handy where the wood was kept dry or the fire kept burning, and -on this ground alone we may again inquire whether such structures as -Maeshowe at the Stenness circle, the Fougou at that of the Merry -Maidens, and indeed chambered barrows and cairns generally, were not -used for these purposes amongst others; whether indeed they were not -primarily built for the living and not for the dead, and whether this -will explain the finding of traces of fires and of hollowed stones in -them, as well as some points in their structure. Mr. MacRitchie[36] has -brought together several of these points, among them fireplaces and -flues for carrying away smoke. - -At both solstices it would appear that a special fire-rite was -practised. This consisted of tying straw on a wheel and rolling it when -lighted down a hill. There is much evidence for the wheel at the summer, -but less at the winter, solstice; still, we learn from the old Runic -_fasti_ that a wheel was used to denote the festival of Christmas. With -regard to the summer solstice I quote the following from Hazlitt (under -John, St.):-- - -[Illustration: FIG. 48.--The Carro, Florence. From Baring-Gould’s -_Strange Survivals_.] - -“Durandus, speaking of the rites of the Feast of St. John Baptist, -informs us of this curious circumstance, that in some places they roll a -wheel about to signify that the sun, then occupying the highest place in -the Zodiac, is beginning to descend. ‘Rotam quoque hoc die in quibusdam -locis volvunt, ad significandum quod Sol altissimum tunc locum in Cœlo -occupet, et descendere incipiat in Zodiaco.’ Harl. MSS. 2345 (on -vellum), Art. 100, is an account of the rites of St. John Baptist’s Eve, -in which the wheel is also mentioned. In the amplified account of these -ceremonies given by Naogeorgus, we read that this wheel was taken up to -the top of a mountain and rolled down thence; and that, as it had -previously been covered with straw, twisted about it and set on fire, it -appeared at a distance as if the sun had been falling from the sky. And -he further observes, that the people imagine that all their ill-luck -rolls away from them together with this wheel. At Norwich, says a writer -in _Current Notes_ for March, 1854, the rites of St. John the Baptist -were anciently observed, ‘when it was the custom to turn or roll a wheel -about, in signification of the sun’s annual course, or the sun, then -occupying the highest place in the Zodiac, was about descending.’” - -At Magdalen College, Oxford, the May and June years are clearly -differentiated. There is a vocal service at sunrise on May morning, -followed by boys blowing horns. At the summer solstice there is a sermon -preached during the day in the quadrangle. - -One of the most picturesque survivals of this ancient custom takes place -at Florence each year at Easter. This is fully described by -Baring-Gould. The moment the sacred fire is produced at the high altar a -dove (in plaster) carries it along a rope about 200 yards long to a car -in the square outside the west door of the cathedral and sets fire to a -fuse, thus causing the explosion of fireworks. - -The car with its explosives is the survival of the ancient bonfire. - -It would appear that the lighting of these fires on a large scale -lingered longest in Ireland and Brittany. - -A correspondent of the _Gentleman’s Magazine_ (February, 1795) thus -describes the Irish Beltane fires in 1782, “the most singular sight in -Ireland”:-- - -“Exactly at midnight, the fires began to appear, and taking the -advantage of going up to the leads of the house, which had a widely -extended view, I saw on a radius of thirty miles, all around, the fires -burning on every eminence which the country afforded. I had a farther -satisfaction in learning, from undoubted authority, that the people -danced round the fires, and at the close went through these fires, and -made their sons and daughters, together with their cattle, pass through -the fire; and the whole was conducted with religious solemnity.” - -It will have been observed with reference to these fire festivals that -although there were undoubtedly four, in May, August, November and -February, those in May and November were more important than the others. -This no doubt arose from the fact that at different times the May and -November celebrations were _New Year_ festivals. With regard to the New -Year in November in Celtic and later times. Rhys writes as follows -(_Hibbert Lectures_, p. 514):-- - -“The Celts were in the habit formerly of counting winters, and of -giving precedence in their reckoning to night and winter over day and -summer (p. 360); I should argue that the last day of the year in the -Irish story of Diarmait’s death meant the eve of November or -All-halloween, the night before the Irish _Samhain_, and known in Welsh -as _Nos Galan-gaeaf_, or the Night of the Winter Calends. But there is -no occasion to rest on this alone, as we have the evidence of Cormac’s -Glossary that the month before the beginning of winter was the last -month; so that the first day of the first month of winter was also the -first day of the year.” - -That the November bonfire was recognised as heralding the dominion of -the gods and spirits of darkness,[37] that the old ideas surrounding -Horus and Set in Egypt were not forgotten, is evidenced by the fact that -when it was extinct the whole company round it would suddenly take to -their heels, shouting at the top of their voices:-- - - Yr hwch đu gwta | The cropped black sow - A gipio ’r ola’! | Seize the hindmost! - -A piecing together of the folklore and traditions of different districts -suggests that sacrifices were made in connection with the fire -festivals, in fact that the fire at one of the critical times of the May -year at least was a sacrificial one. - -I will quote two cases given by Gomme[38] for May Day and All Souls’ Day -respectively:-- - -“At the village of Holne, situated on one of the spurs of Dartmoor, is a -field of about two acres, the property of the parish, and called the -Ploy Field. In the centre of this field stands a granite pillar (Menhir) -six or seven feet high. On May-morning, before daybreak, the young men -of the village used to assemble there, and then proceed to the moor, -where they selected a ram lamb, and after running it down, brought it in -triumph to the Ploy Field, fastened it to the pillar, cut its throat and -then roasted it whole, skin, wool, &c. At midday a struggle took place, -at the risk of cut hands, for a slice, it being supposed to confer luck -for the ensuing year on the fortunate devourer. As an act of gallantry -the young men sometimes fought their way through the crowd to get a -slice for the chosen amongst the young women, all of whom, in their best -dresses, attended the Ram Feast, as it was called. Dancing, wrestling, -and other games, assisted by copious libations of cider during the -afternoon, prolonged the festivity till midnight.” - -In the parish of King’s Teignton, Devonshire, “a lamb is drawn about the -parish on Whitsun Monday in a cart covered with garlands of lilac, -laburnum and other flowers, when persons are requested to give something -towards the animal and attendant expenses; on Tuesday it is then killed -and roasted whole in the middle of the village. The lamb is then sold in -slices to the poor at a cheap rate.” - -The popular legend concerning the origin of this custom introduces two -important elements--a reference to “heathen days” and the title of -“sacrifice” ascribed to the killing of the lamb (p. 31). - -“At St. Peter’s, Athlone, every family of a village on St. Martin’s Day -kills an animal of some kind or other; those who are rich kill a cow or -sheep, others a goose or turkey, while those who are poor kill a hen or -cock; with the blood of the animal they sprinkle the threshold and also -the four corners of the house, and ‘this performance is done to exclude -every kind of evil spirit from the dwelling where the sacrifice is made -till the return of the same day the following year’” (p. 163). - -Other traditions indicate that human sacrifices were in question, and -that lots were drawn, or some other method of the choice of a victim was -adopted. I quote from Hazlitt (i., 44) the following report of the -Minister of Callender in 1794:-- - -“The people of this district have two customs, which are fast wearing -out, not only here, but all over the Highlands, and therefore ought to -be taken notice of, while they remain. Upon the first day of May, which -is called Beltan, or Bàl-tein-day, all the boys in a township or hamlet -meet in the moors. They cut a table in the green sod, of a round figure, -by casting a trench in the ground of such a circumference as to hold the -whole company. They kindle a fire, and dress a repast of eggs and milk -in the consistence of a custard. They knead a cake of oatmeal, which is -toasted at the embers against a stone. After the custard is eaten up, -they divide the cake into so many portions, as similar as possible to -one another in size and shape, as there are persons in the company. They -daub one of these portions all over with charcoal, until it be perfectly -black. They put all the bits of the cake into a bonnet. Everyone, -blindfold, draws out a portion. He who holds the bonnet is entitled to -the last bit. Whoever draws the black bit is the devoted person, who is -to be sacrificed to Baal, whose favour they mean to implore in rendering -the year productive of the sustenance of man and beast. There is little -doubt of these inhuman sacrifices having been once offered in this -country as well as in the East, although they now pass from the act of -sacrificing, and only compel the devoted person to leap three times -through the flames; with which the ceremonies of the festival are -closed.” - -I may conclude this chapter by referring to similar practices in -Brittany, where Baring-Gould[39] has so successfully studied them. - -The present remnants of the old cult in the different parishes are now -called “pardons”;[40] they are still numerous. I give those for the May -and August festivals (p. 83). - - _May._ - - Ascension Day. Bodilis, Penhars, Spezet (at the well of - S. Gouzenou), Landevennec, Plougonnec. - Sunday after Ascension Day. Trégoat, S. Divy. - Whit Sunday. Kernilis; Plouider; Edern; Coray; Spezet - (Chapel of Cran). - Whit Monday. Quimperlé (Pardon des Oiseaux); Pont - l’Abbé (Pardon des Enfants); Ergué-Armel, - La Forêt, Landudal, Ploneis, Landeleau, - Carantec. - Whit Thursday. Gouezec (Les Fontaines). - - _August._ - - 1st Sunday in August. Pleyben (horse races); Plébannalec; - Pouldreuzic; Plougomelin; Huelgoët; S. - Nicodème in Plumeliau (M.) (Cattle - blessed; second day horse fair, and girls - sell their tresses to hair merchants). - -Judging by the “pardons,” the solstitial celebrations are not so -numerous as those connected with the May year; the bonfire is built up -by the head of a family in which the right is hereditary. The fire has -to be lighted only by a pure virgin, and the sick and feeble are carried -to the spot, as the bonfire flames are held to be gifted with miraculous -healing powers. - -When the flames are abated, stones are placed for the souls of the dead -to sit there through the remainder of the night and enjoy the heat. -“Every member of the community carries away a handful of ashes as a -sovereign cure for sundry maladies. The whole proceeding is instinct -with paganism” (p. 75). With regard to the accompanying sacrifices we -read: “In ancient times sacrifices were made of cocks and oxen at -certain shrines--now they are still presented, but it is to the chapels -of saints. S. Herbot receives cow’s tails, and these may be seen heaped -upon his altar in Loqeffret. At Coadret as many as seven hundred are -offered on the day of the “pardon.” At S. Nicolas-des-Eaux, it is S. -Nicodemus who in his chapel receives gifts of whole oxen, and much the -same takes place at Carnac.” - -[34] _Strange Survivals_, p. 120 _et seq._ - -[35] _Golden Bough_, iii. 248. - -[36] _The Testimony of Tradition._ - -[37] _Hibbert Lectures_, p. 516; _Dawn of Astronomy_, p. 215. - -[38] _Ethnology in Folklore_, pp. 32 and 163. - -[39] _A Book of Brittany._ - -[40] These “pardons” run strangely parallel with the “Feast Days” in E. -and W. Penrith, in Cornwall, where of 26 feasts, 13 occur around the -chief days of the May year. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -SACRED TREES - - -The subject of tree-worship is a vast one, as anyone may gather who will -read the _Golden Bough_. Fortunately for my readers it is not necessary -to discuss the whole or even any great part of it in connection with the -inquiry which now concerns us. I may say that only rarely is the old -tree-worship considered with its concomitant of temple-worship, so that -I now have to bring together information widely separated because the -connection which I have to show was intimate has not been enlarged upon; -indeed, in many cases it has not been suspected. - -There is another limitation of the inquiry. We have only to deal chiefly -with those plants and trees recorded as worshipped at the chief festival -times of the year, which have already been marked out for us by the fire -ceremonials. These fires were like the chronofer installed in modern -days at the General Post Office, their practical function being to give -the time; they announced the beginning of a new season. - -In Chapter IV. I referred to the association of Mistletoe with the -Solstitial worship. When we deal with the May year we meet constantly -with references to the Rowan and the Hawthorn in the folklore connected -with it. We seem in presence, then, not only of tree cult generally, but -of sacred trees special to each of the two worships we have been -considering. I propose now, therefore, to bring together some of the -information to be gathered from a very cursory reference to the vast -literature which exists on the subject. - -In the first instance I begged my friend, Professor Bayley Balfour, -Keeper of the King’s Garden at Edinburgh, to give me some particulars of -the Rowan Tree, which I imagined (1) to have been chosen on account of -its flowers being prominent about May Day (Beltane) and its berries in -early November (Hallowe’en), and (2) to have a different habitat from -the Mistletoe. I have to thank my friend for much valuable information. - -The Rowan Tree, called also the Mountain Ash (_Pyrus Aucuparia_), seems -to grow pretty freely all over the _Northern_ parts of Europe. Professor -Balfour tells me: “Rowan is essentially a Northern plant--an immigrant -to Europe from N.W. Asia--and now is spread all over North and Central -Europe in abundance, with only some ‘feelers’ passing south into the -Mediterranean Basin. It does not go south of Cappadocia in Asia Minor. -It does not reach Greece. In Italy it occurs on the Eastern Apennines, -and also in N.E. Sicily. In Spain it runs over the higher regions in the -N. and into the centre, passing just into Portugal. Its occurrence in -Madeira is not certainly established as a natural phenomenon; perhaps it -is only introduced there. In all these Southern outruns the tree cannot -be said to have any dominance, and its area and abundance are infinitely -less than in the North. Scandinavia is one of its best homes. Everywhere -it is found right north to 71°, there becoming a bush only, but yet -ripening seed. It reaches Iceland, where trees of some size occur. All -over Great Britain and Ireland it is generally spread. You may certainly -say there is much in Norway, and there is equally certainly less, even -little, in Italy.” - -In Pratt’s _Flowering Plants of Great Britain_ (vol. 2, p. 260) it is -stated, “The flowers, which grow in dense clusters, and are -greenish-white, appear in May.... In autumn, however, the tree is more -beautiful than in summer, for at that season the rich cluster of red -fruits gleams among the foliage, each berry having the form of a tiny -apple, and containing a little core and seeds within.” - -At Christiania the mean of ten years’ flowering is given by Professor -Schübeler[41] as--first flowers, June 19; general flowering, June 30. -This, then, is later than in Britain. On high grounds the fruit is -conspicuous here on November 1; on lower levels the birds attack it and -reduce its striking appearance before that date. - -Associated with the Rowan in the folklore connected with temple worship -is the Hawthorn, Whitethorn or “May” (_Crategus oxyocantha_), which also -flowers at the beginning of May, while its berries or “haws,” like those -of the Rowan, are conspicuous in November. We see, then, that there is a -most obvious reason in this for the association of the two trees. -According to Rhys,[42] the English name appears to be of Scandinavian -origin, the Old Norse being _reynir_, Danish _rönne_, Swedish _rönn_; -and the old Norsemen treated the tree as holy and sacred to Thor. - -These two trees interest us from three points of view. We find them -connected with:-- - - 1. May and November celebrations. - - 2. Superstitions concerning witchcraft, &c. - - 3. Holy wells. - -In this chapter I shall deal with the two former. - - -I. _The May Celebrations._ - -Seeing that the year beginning in May was established because that month -really opened the vegetation year, it is little to be wondered at that -among the chief features of New Year’s Day was what we may term a flower -worship; it is probable that we are here dealing with the sacred-tree -side of the general festival at all the monuments erected in connection -with the May year worship. The old traditions have lingered longest -around the things we have still with us, the trees and flowers; and it -is in connection with this side of the worship that most information is -available. From the facts I have already stated, for Britain the Rowan -and Hawthorn were most naturally selected as the typical forms.[43] - -Many poets have written of this festival[44]: Chaucer, Shakspere, -Milton, Bourne, Herrick and others. Chaucer writes: - - “Fourth goeth al the Court both most and lest, - To fetch the flouris fresh and branche and blome,” - -when not the courtiers only, but lowliest of men and maidens sallied -forth - - “To do observaunce to a morn of May.” - -There is a vast literature connected with May Day celebrations, among it -references to Celtic customs, and I may add that, besides May Day, -August, November and February had their flower festivals also. I shall, -however, deal chiefly with May in this book to keep it within bounds. - -May Day in Manx was termed _Shenn Laa Boaldyn_; it is the _belltaine_ of -Cormac’s _Glossary_, the Scotch Gaelic equivalent of which is -_bealtuinn_. - -The traditions and customs connected with May Day in Great Britain have -survived longest in the West of England; even now, as will be seen by -the account of recent celebrations at Helston in Cornwall, given below, -they are still continued. - -Altogether the customs, ancient and modern, of which the flower worship -formed a part, may be summed up as follows:-- - - 1. Lighting of bonfires,[45] and, in the evening, houses illuminated - with candles, torches carried about, and fireballs played with. - - 2. Man and beast passed through the fire or between two fires. - - 3. Going out at daybreak to gather Whitethorn or May (Sycamore in - Cornwall), and making whistles of the branches for the May-music and - merry-making. Blowing of tin horns at daybreak by boys, and from money - received getting breakfast at a farmhouse. - - 4. Flower-bedecked girls dance round a Maypole, and one chosen as - “Queen of the May.” - - 5. In Cornwall the custom prevailed till lately of going out with - buckets or any available vessels full of water and thoroughly wetting - anyone who was not wearing a piece of May. - - 6. The “Furry Dance” (in Cornwall), which consists in dancing through - the town and also through as many houses as desired. If resistance is - offered it is permitted to break open the door, and no penalty can be - imposed. - - 7. Sacrifices made (Isle of Man) at a very ancient date, and probably - human ones still earlier (Scotland). - - 8. Special worship at holy wells. - -Flowers are public property on Flora Day, and this custom of dancing -through the _houses_ is supposed to have originated probably for the -purpose of picking the flowers in the gardens behind. - -The following is a short abstract of a very interesting account given in -_The Western Weekly News_, May 13th, 1905, of the “Flora Day” at -Helston, Cornwall, which took place this year. It gives us an idea of -former festivals which are so quickly dying out:-- - -The Furry Dance is always the feature of the day. The first part took -place at seven o’clock in the morning, at which hour two couples started -out and danced through the streets and through some houses of residents. -The great dance was at noon, and those taking part in it assembled in -the Corn Exchange. - -When all was ready the whole company, headed by a band playing the old -Furry Dance, started out and danced through the town and through many -houses. - -The rest of the day was given over to a Horse Show and to much -merry-making. Excursions had been run from all parts. - - -II. _The Rowan Tree and Witchcraft._ - -There is little doubt that in the constant association of the Rowan with -the May worship and the holy wells which were adjacent to the stone -circles where the worship was conducted, we find the reason of the -selection of the wood of the Rowan Tree as an antidote to all the ills -which witchcraft was supposed to bring about. Rhys tells us that “The -tree has also the old names of Quicken-tree, Roddon, and Witchen-tree.” - -To quote again from Pratt (_op. cit._ vol. 2, p. 261): “The old notion -that the Mountain Ash, or Rowan Tree, as it is called in the North, was -efficacious against witchcraft and the evil eye, still prevails in the -North of England and the Scottish Highlands. Pennant remarks, in his -_Tour of Scotland_, that the farmers carefully preserve their cattle -against witchcraft by placing branches of Honeysuckle and Mountain Ash -in their cowhouses on the 2nd of May. The milkmaid in Westmorland may -often be seen, even now, with a branch of this tree either in her hand -or tied to her milking-pail, from a similar superstition; and in earlier -days crosses cut out of its wood were worn about the person. In an old -song called “Laidley Wood,” in the _Northumberland Garland_, we find a -reference to this: - - “The spells were vain, the hag return’d - To the Queen in sorrowful mood, - Crying, that witches have no power - Where there is Rown-tree wood.” - -Rhys, referring to May Day customs in the Isle of Man, writes[46]: “This -was a day when systematic efforts were made to protect man and beast -against elves and witches; for it was then that people carried crosses -of rowan in their hats and placed may-flowers over the tops of their -doors and elsewhere as preservatives against all malignant influences. -With the same object in view, crosses of rowan were likewise fastened to -the tails of the cattle, small crosses which had to be made without the -help of a knife.” - -In connection with this last reference, Rhys quotes a passage showing -that a similar thing is done in Wales on May Eve.[47] “Another bad -papistic habit which prevails among some Welsh people is that of placing -some of the wood of the rowan-tree (_coed cerdin_ or criafol) in their -corn lands (_ttafyrieu_) and their fields on May-eve (_Nos Glamau_) with -the idea that such a custom brings a blessing on their fields, a -proceeding which would better become atheists and pagans than -Christians.” - -Rhys also tells us that in Lincolnshire,[48] “a twig of the rowan-tree, -or wicken, as it is called, was effective against all evil things, -including witches. It is useful in many ways to guard the welfare of the -household, and to preserve both the live stock and the crops; while -placed on the churn it prevents any malign influence from retarding the -coming of the butter.” - -We also read (p. 358): “Not only the Celts, but some also of the -Teutons, have been in the habit of attaching great importance to the -rowan or roan tree, and regarding it as a preservative against the -malignant influence of witches and all things uncanny.... Moreover, the -Swede of modern times believes the rowan a safeguard against witchcraft, -and likes to have on board his ship something or other made of its wood, -to protect him against tempests and the demons of the water world.” - -In the Hibbert Lectures, 1886, we have another interesting reference to -this tree. Rhys first relates an old Irish fairy story, the scene of -which is supposed to have been “on the plain near the Lake of Lein of -the Crooked Teeth, that is to say, the Lake of Killarney.” In it we are -told that the scarlet quicken-berries were first brought from the “Land -of Promise,” that one was accidentally dropped and took root, and “from -the berry there grew up a tree which had the virtues of the quicken-tree -growing in fairy-land, for all the berries on it had many virtues.” Then -we learn (page 358) that these berries “formed part of the sustenance of -the gods, according to Goidelic notions; and the description which has -been quoted of the berries makes them a sort of Celtic counterpart to -the soma-plant of Hindu mythology.” - -This suggests that at the November Celebration a decoction or brew of -Rowan berries was used for curative or superstitious purposes. - - * * * * * - -I have thought it desirable to enter at some length into the use of the -Rowan as a protection against witchcraft and as the basis of a brew used -for different purposes, because the Mistletoe has been dealt with in -exactly the same manner; indeed, it was to the later Solstitial worship -what the Rowan and Maythorn were to the earlier May worship. - -Mr. Frazer has collected in his _Golden Bough_[49] much information -bearing on these points. - -In Sweden, on Midsummer Eve, Mistletoe is sought after, the people -“believing it to be, in a high degree, possessed of mystic qualities; -and that if a sprig of it be attached to the ceiling of the -dwelling-house, the horse’s stall, or the cow’s crib, the ‘Troll’ will -then be powerless to injure either man or beast.” The Oak Mistletoe, we -are told, is “held in the highest repute in Sweden, and is commonly seen -in farmhouses hanging from the ceiling to protect the dwelling from all -harm, but especially from fire; and persons afflicted with the falling -sickness think they can ward off attacks of the malady by carrying about -with them a knife which has a handle of Oak Mistletoe. - -“A Swedish remedy for other complaints is to hang a sprig of Mistletoe -round the sufferer’s neck, or to make him wear on his finger a ring made -from the plant.” - -It would appear from Mr. Frazer’s inquiries that the Mistletoe was _en -évidence_ at both the summer and winter solstice--precisely as the Rowan -and Hawthorn were associated with the May and November festivals. - -He writes:-- - -“The sacred mistletoe may have acquired, in the eyes of the Druids, a -double portion of its mystic qualities at the solstice in June, and -accordingly they may have regularly cut it with solemn ceremony on -Midsummer Eve. The conjecture is confirmed when we find it to be still a -rule of folklore that the mistletoe should be cut on this day. Further, -the peasants of Piedmont and Lombardy still go out on Midsummer-morning -to search the oak-leaves for the ‘oil of St. John,’ which is supposed to -heal all wounds made with cutting instruments. Originally, perhaps, the -‘oil of St. John’ was simply the mistletoe, or a decoction made from it. -For in Holstein the mistletoe, especially oak-mistletoe, is still -regarded as a panacea for green wounds; and if, as is alleged, -‘all-healer’ is the name of the plant in the modern Celtic speech of -Brittany, Wales, Ireland and Scotland, this can be nothing but a -survival of the name by which, as we have seen, the Druids addressed the -oak, or rather, perhaps, the mistletoe. At Lacaune, in France, the old -Druidical belief in the mistletoe as an antidote to all poisons still -survives among the people; they apply the plant to the stomach of the -sufferer, or give him a decoction of it to drink.” - -If we attempt to collate the different festivals with the vegetation -most striking or abundant at each, in different countries naturally -possessing different floras, a great variety of plants and trees has to -be considered. It is probable that the Rowan-tree was chiefly taken here -as the representative of the ash in more southern and eastern lands, and -the ash indeed did not always take second rank, especially in the -worship connected with wells, as we shall see. Grimm[50] calls the ash -“a world tree which links heaven, earth and hell together; of all trees -the greatest and holiest.” - -In the same way at the later established Vernal Equinox festival, the -palm which grows in lower latitudes was replaced here by the willow. -Coles, in his _Adam in Eden_,[51] writes: “The willow blossoms come -forth before any leaves appear, and are in their most flourishing state -usually before Easter, divers gathering them to deck up their houses on -Palm Sunday, and therefore the said flowers are called palme.” Willows -are still used to deck churches at this time. - -As in the case of the Rowan, the willow (or palm) was a protection -against witchcraft; small crosses and palm were carried about in the -purses and placed upon doors. These crosses had to be made on Palm -Sunday out of the wood used in the church. Sometimes box replaced the -willow. - -We are driven to the conclusion that practices connected with magic, the -precursor of the later “witchcraft,” were associated with the festivals -now in question, and that the products of the vegetable world at the -different seasons were utilized for these purposes. - -The putting on of a special garb by the vegetable world at each season -in turn would be one of the first things to be manifested, and the close -association of it with the stars and the sun in their yearly course -would cause the representatives of it to be worshipped together with -them, and it would appear from the records that the astronomer priests -did not neglect those magical arts which were practised by man in the -early stages of civilisation. - -Indeed, these magical practices seem to have taken such firm root that -it was difficult to get rid of them even in much later times. Newton[52] -writes: “I once knew a foolish cock-brained priest which ministered to a -certaine young man the ashes of boxe, being (forsooth) hallowed on Palme -Sunday, according to the superstitious order and doctrine of the Romish -Church, which ashes he mingled with their unholie holie water using to -the same a kind of... exorcisme; which... medicine (as he persuaded the -standers by) had vertue to drive away any ague.” - -Among the virtues attributed to the May thorn was that of preserving the -beauty of those maidens who at daybreak on May morning each year would -wash themselves in hawthorn dew. As late as 1515 it was recorded that -Catherine of Aragon, accompanied by twenty-five of her ladies, sallied -out on May morning for this purpose. - -[41] Schübeler, _Die Pflanzenwelt Norwegens_, Christiania, 1873-75, p. -439. - -[42] _Hibbert Lectures_, p. 358. - -[43] The Rowan had to be cut on Ascension Day, _Golden Bough_, III, p. -448. - -[44] Pratt’s _British Flowering Plants_, vol. 2, p. 266. - -[45] The word bonfire, according to the _Century Dictionary_, comes from -the “early modern English, boonfire, bondfire, bounfire, later burnfire; -Scotch, banefire; the earliest known instance is banefyre. ‘ignis -ossium,’ in the _Catholicon Anglicum_, A.D. 1483; from bone (Scotch, -bane, Middle English, bone, bon, bane, &c.) + fire.” - -Hence the word seems formerly to have meant a fire of bones; a funeral -pile, a pyre. And it has gradually developed into a fire out in the -open, whatever its object. - -[46] _Celtic Folklore_, vol. i. p. 308. - -[47] Vol. ii. p. 691. - -[48] _Celtic Folklore_, vol. i. p. 325. - -[49] Second Edition, vol. iii. pp. 343 _et seq._ - -[50] _Teutonic Mythology_, Stallybrass’s translation, ii. 796. - -[51] Quoted by Hazlitt under Palm Sunday. - -[52] _Herbal for the Bible_, p. 207. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -HOLY WELLS AND STREAMS - - -I have thought it most important to look up this subject with a view of -seeing whether any clues were available which could help us to associate -the introduction of the well ceremonials with the worshippers of the May -or of the Solstitial year. For shortness I will call the ceremonial -“baptism,” not necessarily baptism in the modern sense, but as implying -the use of water for purifying or other religious purpose. - -That baptism was pre-Christian is shown by John the Baptist using the -Jordan for this purpose before Christ’s ministration began. (Matt. 3. -6.) - -There is a tremendous literature[53] dealing with the folklore of holy -wells and streams. The number of holy wells and streams in Britain is -legion; there are 3,000 in Ireland alone, and the first thing which -strikes us in a casual study of the folklore is the close association of -the wells with sacred trees. Almost equally distinctly we gather that -both were situated near holy stones, and that the worship included -ceremonials connected with all three. - -The folklore dealing with holy wells and well-worship is so various that -it will be useful for our present purpose to classify the portions we -need under the following headings. - -1. Well-worship outcome of pre-Christian days and customs. - -2. Wells generally situated near circles, dolmens, cromlechs or cairns, -or churches which have replaced them. - -3. Association with sacred trees. - -4. Well-worship and offerings. - -5. Time of the chief festivals. - - -1. _Pagan origin._--It seems to be accepted now that well-worship in -Britain originated long before the Christian era; that it was not -introduced by the Christian missionaries, but rather they found it in -vogue on their arrival, and tolerated it at first and utilized it -afterwards, as they did a great many other Pagan customs. - -With regard to this point Wood-Martin writes:[54] - -“In many Irish MSS. there are allusions to this pre-Christian worship. -For example, Tirehan relates that St. Patrick, in his progress through -Ireland, came to a fountain called Slaun, to which the Druids offered -sacrifices, and which they worshipped as a God; and in Adamnan’s _Life -of St. Columkille_ it is recounted that this saint, when in the country -of the Picts, heard of a notable fountain to which the Pagans paid -divine honour.” - -He adds (p. 50): - -“It evidently did not originate in the blessing of wells by early saints -and thus spread downwards, until it became almost, if not quite, -universal; on the contrary, it began from the people, who were being -Christianized, and thence permeated the entire system of Irish -Christianity.” - -Baring-Gould tells us much concerning the transitional state (pp. 28 _et -seq._). Wood-Martin divides holy wells into three classes: (1) those -which “derive their reputed virtues from Pagan superstition”; (2) those -which were “transferred from Pagan to so-called Christian uses,” and (3) -“a few which may lay claim to a merely Christian origin.”[55] - -It is very easy to understand how the purely devout custom developed in -course of time, in the case of some wells at any rate, into a more -superstitious one, how some wells came to be called “wishing-wells” and -others were regarded as prophetic. Rhys gives us several instances of -these two classes in Wales.[56] - -Wishing-wells are known all over the United Kingdom; many authors give -accounts of them.[57] - -There can be no doubt that in the most ancient times magical practices -were carried on at wells or at the religious centre of which the well -formed a constituent part. Local practices of witchcraft would be a -natural survival of these. Gomme (p. 87) thus refers to the well of St. -Aelian, not far from Bettws Abergeley, in Denbighshire. - -“Near the well resided a woman who officiated as a kind of priestess. -Anyone who wished to inflict a curse upon an enemy resorted to this -priestess, and for a trifling sum she registered, in a book kept for the -purpose, the name of the person on whom the curse was wished to fall. A -pin was then dropped into the well in the name of the victim, and the -curse was complete.” - -The magical associations with wells appear in the following extract -(given by Quiller-Couch, p. 134) of a letter from Dr. O’Connor, the -author of the letters of Columbanus, to his brother. - -“I have often inquired of your tenants what they themselves thought of -their pilgrimages to the wells of _Kill-Aracht_, _Tobbar Brighde_, -_Tobbar Muir_, near Elphin, _Moor_, near _Castlereagh_, where multitudes -annually assembled to celebrate what they, in broken English, termed -_Patterns_ (Patron’s days); and when I pressed a very old man, Owen -Hester, to state what possible advantage he expected to derive from the -singular custom of frequenting in particular such wells as were -contiguous to an old blasted oak, _or an upright hewn stone_, and what -the meaning was of the yet more singular custom of _sticking rags_ on -the branches of such trees and spitting on them, his answer, and the -answer of the oldest men, was that their ancestors always did it, and -that it was a preservation against _Geasa Draoidecht_, _i.e._, the -sorceries of the Druids, and that their cattle were preserved by it from -infectious disorders; that the _daoini maithe_, _i.e._, the fairies, -were kept in good humour by it; and so thoroughly persuaded were they of -the sanctity of these Pagan practices that they would travel bareheaded -and barefooted from ten to twenty miles for the purpose of crawling on -their knees round these wells, upright stones, and oak trees, westward, -as the sun travels, some three times, some six, some nine, and so on in -uneven numbers until their voluntary penances were completely -fulfilled.” - - -2. _Wells generally situated near stone monuments or churches which have -replaced them._--We find many instances of wells near stone circles and -dolmens. - -It may even be that the existence of the spring determined the position -of the circle, for the officiating astronomer-priest must like other -mortals have had a water supply available. “Where a spring or a river -flows,” says Seneca, “there should we build altars and offer sacrifices” -(Hope, p. 47). The following shows how closely connected they were.[58] - -“Closely associated with the circles, and occupying an equally important -position in the religious rites and ceremonies of the ancient -inhabitants, were sacred wells. These were more numerous than circles, -no doubt owing to the fact that their acquisition was more easily -accomplished: but amongst sacred wells we find some, as we find certain -circles, occupying a position of pre-eminence in the religious cult of -their votaries, and these, as a rule, in close proximity to sun and moon -temples. At Tillie Beltane, in Aberdeenshire, in close proximity to the -remains of a larger and smaller circle, is a well which was held sacred -by the people. According to Col. Leslie, on Beltane and Midsummer days, -those on whom the dire hand of disease had fallen, or those desirous of -averting that calamity, went seven times round the sacred wells sunwise -(deasil)[59] and then proceeded to the circles, where a like ceremony -was performed.” - -“In Stenness we find the same association of the well and the circles. -But in harmony with the unrivalled completeness of these monuments... we -find the sacred well here in a closer and deeper connection with the -circles than elsewhere.” - -“In the parish of Stenness there is a district called Bigswell, in the -centre of which is a sacred well, and from which the district takes its -name, Big(s)well.... Be that as it may, we know from tradition that down -to the time when the Stone of Odin was demolished, parents came to the -well with children, on Beltane and Midsummer, passed round it sunwise, -and having bathed their little ones (a healthy ordeal), carried them -thence to the Stone of Odin, and passed them through the hole as a -divine protection against the malignant influences of the evil one.” - -Borlase records an instance of a well near a stone-circle in Ireland in -the Townland of Ballyferriter, in County Kerry.[60] - -The same author also gives examples in Ireland of wells near dolmens, -and of wells _covered_ by dolmens.[61] - -It may be remarked that in Cornwall Chapel Euny well is associated with -the circles at Bartinné and Carn Euny; St. Cleer with the three circles -at the Hurlers, and Alsia well is near the Bolleit circle. Mr. Horton -Bolitho is my authority for these statements. - -A well is often found near a cell, cairn or _keeill_. Rhys gives us two -examples in the Isle of Man.[62] At Ardmore Bay the holy well is within -the ruined chapel of the saint.[63] A vast pile of stones surrounds the -holy well in Glencolumbkille in Donegal.[64] - -It might be useful to add here that it is a very common thing to find a -well by a so-called tomb of a saint. - -Let us turn now to wells situated near churches. - -It is very generally known that many churches have been built on the -sites of stone-circles, menhirs, &c. This leads us to think that some -form of worship must have taken place at the “ancient-stones” -originally. The following extract from Wilson’s _Archæology_ (page 110) -is given in _Stonehenge_ by Sir Henry James (page 17): - -“The common Gaelic phrase--Am bheil thu dol don chlachan--Are you going -to the stones?--by which the Scottish Highlander still enquires at a -neighbour if he is bound for church, seems in itself no doubtful -tradition of ancient worship within the monolithic ring.” - -Rhys[65] gives us many instances of wells near churches, and here it may -be useful to add that the Welsh for well is Ffynnon. - -Ffynnon Faglan is described as being near a church, also Ffynnon Fair, a -wishing-well. Criccieth Church is supposed to have had a well near it at -one time. Again, Ffynnon Beris is near the parish church of Llanberis -(p. 366), and Ffynnon Elian near to the church of Llanelian, -Denbighshire. Then there are St. Teilo’s Church and Well at Llandeilo -Llwydarth, near Maen Clochog, North Pembrokeshire. - -Wood-Martin[66] refers to the rites at the well of Tubberpatrick, part -of the ceremony taking place in the church near by. - - -3. _Association of sacred wells with sacred trees._--Rhys, and many -other authors, give us several instances of a tree by the side of a -well.[67] - -When we come to deal with well offerings we shall find, in fact, that in -almost every case a tree has been a necessary companion of the well, as -the well offerings were hung on them. - -In many cases, of course, the kind of tree is not specified. When it is, -it is almost invariably the rowan or hawthorn. Rhys tells us: “The tree -to expect by a sacred well is doubtless some kind of thorn.”[68] - -Then again, with reference to Ireland, Rhys, p. 335, quotes a passage -from a letter by the late Mr. W. C. Borlase, on Rag Offerings and -Primitive Pilgrimages in Ireland, to the effect that a hawthorn almost -invariably stands by the brink of the typical Irish “holy well.” - -There are also many references to thorn trees in the same position in -Wales. - -There are thorn trees at St. Madron’s well in Cornwall, and at Chapel -well St. Breward in the same county near Bodmin, there is a thorn tree -over the well. - -Not only are wells often recorded as near sacred trees, but in the case -of some we learn that at the chief annual festival they were decked with -flowers and garlands, and “encircled with a jovial band of young people -celebrating the day with song and dance.” This is recorded of the -“blessing of the Brine” at Nantwich (Hope, p. 7). - - -4. _Well worship and offerings._--Although the traditions and -superstitions connected with wells are fast becoming things of the past, -in certain parts they are still believed and practised. - -Gomme[69] informs us that well-worship prevails in every county of the -three kingdoms. He finds it “most vital in the Gaelic countries, -somewhat less so in the British, and almost entirely wanting in the -Teutonic south-east. In some cases wells were resorted to for the cure -of diseases; in others to obtain change of weather or good luck. -Offerings were made to them to propitiate their guardian gods and -nymphs. Pennant tells us that in olden times the rich would sacrifice -one of their horses at a well near Abergelen to secure a blessing upon -the rest.[70] Fowls were offered at St. Tegla’s Well, near Wrexham, by -epileptic patients,[71] but of late years the well spirits have had to -be content with much smaller tributes--such trifles as pins, rags, -coloured pebbles and small coins.” - -In consequence of this dwindling down of the offering we have chiefly to -do with rags, but I think we may learn from the traditions that -originally it was an offering of a garment, and to the officiating -priest, at the well, or temple with which the well was connected. It is -also a question whether the almost universal association of pins with -the garment or part of it might not have originated at a time when such -an offering--it was probably originally a skin--to a priest without a -pin (of bone) to fasten it on would not have been complete. In Kent’s -cavern pins of bone have been found associated with bones of palæolithic -mammals. - -Mr. Gomme tells us,[72] “In the case of some wells, especially in -Scotland, at one time the whole garment was put down as an offering. -Gradually these offerings of clothes became less and less till they came -down to rags.” He also points out, as we have already seen, that “the -geographical distribution of rag-offerings coincides with the existence -of monoliths and dolmens.” - -As has been noted, almost invariably by the side of every well there -grows the “sacred tree,” a rowan or thorn for the most part; on this -tree the rags are hung, then the bent pin is dropped in. If there -happens to be no tree, or if it is so old that only the stump is left, -then the rags may sometimes be seen wedged in between the stones of the -well. - -Quiller-Couch (p. 135) tells us that at Ahagour in Mayo is a well much -frequented by pilgrims, for penance chiefly, where among other offerings -they cut up their clothes, be they ever so new, and tie them to the two -old trees growing near, “lest, on the day of judgment,” thinks the -superstitious peasant, “the Almighty should forget that he came there, -and in order that the tokens should be known, when St. Patrick should -lay them before the tribunal.” - -When the original well-worship in relation with the temples became -disestablished, if the well-worship were kept up at all, reasons other -than the old one would soon be invented, and many of these would -naturally be connected with magic and sorcery. In the oldest days the -priest would be a physician as well as an astronomer and a magician, and -his advice might be good for various disorders, but after he had -disappeared there was only magic to depend upon; and this atmosphere is -reflected in the traditions. - -I will now give a few extracts to show what goes on at present in -certain localities with regard to the offerings, and the frame of mind -of the devotees. - -With reference to the reasons for the offerings made in the present day, -Wood-Martin writes:[73] - -“Wells were the haunts of spirits that proved to be propitious if -remembered, but were vindictive if neglected, and hence no devotee -approached the sacred precincts empty-handed, the principle being no -gift no cure; therefore the modern devotee, when tying up a fragment -from the clothing, or dropping a cake, a small coin, or a crooked pin -into the well, is unconsciously worshipping the old presiding spirit of -the place.” - -Rhys[74] gives us a great deal of information on this. The ritual varies -at some of them. People came from far and near; it is the custom to make -some sort of offering, rags and pins being the most modern, and about -these we have most information as a matter of course. - -Rhys quotes statements he has received about three wells in the county -of Glamorgan (Vol. 1, p. 356). At the first it was the custom “that the -person who wishes his health to be benefited should wash in the water of -the well, and throw a pin into it afterwards.” At another “the custom -prevails of tying rags to the branches of a tree growing close at hand”; -and at the third, “it is the custom for those who are healed in it to -tie a shred of linen or cotton to the branches of a tree that stands -close by; and there the shreds are almost as numerous as the leaves.” - -Further (p. 363) we read of another Ffynnon Faglan, and of this Rhys -says, “One told me his mother used to take him to it when he was a child -for sore eyes, bathe them with the water, and then drop in a pin. The -other man, when he was young, bathed in it for rheumatism.” Of this well -it is recorded that when it was cleaned out about fifty years ago “two -basinfuls of pins were taken out,” which were all bent, but no coins -were found in it. - -Wood-Martin[75] also gives an interesting account of the rite performed -at a certain well in Ireland; it is a little more elaborate than at -some, but affords an idea of what was probably at one time a very usual -ceremony in connection with stones in other places. - -“In a statistical account of the parish of Dungiven, written in 1813, it -is stated that at the well of Tubberpatrick, after performing the usual -rounds, devotees wash their hands and feet with the water and tear off a -small rag from their clothes, which they tie on a bush overhanging the -well; from whence they all proceed to a large stone in the River Roe, -immediately below the old church, and having performed an oblation they -walk round the stone, bowing to it, and repeating prayers as at the -well. Their next movement is to the old church, within which a similar -ceremony goes on, and they finish this rite by a procession and prayers -round the upright stone.” - - -5. _Time of the chief festival._--On this point there is not a great -quantity of precise information, but what we have points to May 1 as -being about the time when the holy wells are most frequented and -considered most efficacious. - -This lack of information arises from the fact that the existence of the -May year in prehistoric times has not been even dreamt of by those who -have compiled the various accounts of the fast fading traditions, and in -very many instances a reference to an unknown saint’s day is the only -information given as to the time of the annual celebration. Wide -generalisation, therefore, from the material at hand is risky. - -I will refer in the first instance to the May worship, and begin with -the famous Madron well in Cornwall, the walls of which I found to be -oriented to the May sunrise, so that the priest officiating at the altar -would face the sunrise. Quiller-Couch (p. 137) thus refers to what -happened there. - -“Children used to be taken to this well on the first three Sunday -mornings in May to be dipped in the water, that they might be cured of -the rickets, or any other disorder with which they were troubled. Three -times they were plunged into the water, after having been stripped -naked; the parent, or person dipping them, standing facing the sun; -after the dipping they were passed nine times round the well from east -to west; then they were dressed and laid on St. Madern’s bed; should -they sleep, and the water in the well bubble, it was considered a good -omen. Strict silence had to be kept during the entire performance, or -the spell was broken. At the present time the people go to the well in -crowds on the first Sunday in May, when the Wesleyans hold a service -there, and a sermon is preached; after which the people throw in two -pins or pebbles to consult the spirit, or try for sweethearts; if the -two articles sink together, they will soon be married. - -“Here divination is performed on May morning by rustic maidens anxious -to know when they are to be married. Two pieces of straw about an inch -long are crossed and transfixed with a pin. This, floated on the waters, -elicits bubbles, the number of which, carefully counted, denotes the -years before the happy day.” - -Chapel Euny in Cornwall, near the Bartinné circle, has a wishing (lucky) -well near it. It was used on one of the three first Wednesdays in May. -Children suffering from mesenteric disease are dipped three times -“widderschynnes,” that is contrary to the sun’s motion, and dragged -round the well three times in the same direction.[76] - -Edmunds[77] thus refers to this well:-- - -“Some years since I had the curiosity to go with a friend to Chapel Euny -on one of these Wednesdays, and, whilst watching at a distance, we saw -two women come to the well at the appointed hour, and perform this -ceremony on an infant.” - -_Alsia Well_, in the parish of Buryan, same parish as Bolleit circle, -has its well ceremonials on the first three Wednesdays in May. - -In Cornwall the May bathing ceremonial is even carried out in salt -water.[78] The time chosen is the same as that at Madron and Chapel -Euny, the first three Sundays in May. - -This Sunday in May celebration is not confined to Cornwall. At Eden -Hall, Giant’s Cave, water with sugar is drunk on the third Sunday in -May. A vast concourse of both sexes is present.[79] - -At Rorrington, a township in the parish of Chirbury, was a holy well at -which a wake was celebrated on Ascension Day. - -In the account of this well given by Gomme (p. 82) we get a glimpse of -many associated usages. - -“The well was adorned with a bower of green boughs, rushes, and flowers, -and a may-pole was set up. The people walked round the well, dancing and -frolicking as they went. They threw pins into the well to bring good -luck and to preserve them from being bewitched, and they also drank some -of the water. Cakes were also eaten; they were round flat buns from -three to four inches across, sweetened, spiced, and marked with a cross, -and they were supposed to bring good luck if kept.” - -The legend given by Quiller-Couch (p. 55) respecting St. Cuthbert’s well -in North Cornwall is that “in olden times mothers on Ascension Day -brought their deformed or sickly children here, and dipped them in, at -the same time passing them through the aperture connecting the two -cisterns; and thus, it is said, they became healed of their disease or -deformity. It would seem that other classes also believed virtue to -reside in its water; for it is said that the cripples were accustomed to -leave their crutches in the hole at the head of the well.” - -At the village of Tissington, near Ashbourne, in Derbyshire, the custom -of well-flowering is still observed on every anniversary of the -Ascension (Hope, p. 48). - -We may gather from these associated observances at different places that -the wells themselves were situated near circles, for the worshippers -would not be distributed at such a time. This argument is strengthened -by the custom of “waking the well” which took place on the patron -saint’s day. - -With regard to the time of the day or night at which well-worship took -place, there seems little doubt that for the most part it was carried on -at night. The practices connected with the “waking of the well” indicate -this clearly, and when it is remembered that these ancient worships were -carried on at a time when marriage had not been instituted, we can -understand that many ‘pagan’ rituals savoured of sensualism as we should -now think and call it. - -The particular times when it was considered most propitious for the -_sick_ to visit the wells appear anciently to have been at daybreak or -sunrise. - -At the well at Farr, in Sutherlandshire, it is held that the patient, -after undergoing his plunge, drinking of the water, and making his -offering, “must be away from the banks so as to be fairly out of sight -of the water before the sun rises, else no cure is effected.” At Roche -Holywell, in Cornwall, before sunrise on holy Thursday was the appointed -time. - -Sometimes the moment of sunrise is chosen. To bathe in the well of St. -Medan, at Kirkmaiden in Wigtonshire, as the sun rose on the first Sunday -in May was considered an infallible cure for almost any disease. - -On the other hand, in some cases, as at St. Madron’s well, noon is -chosen on the first three Sundays in May, “not believing that these -waters have any virtue if resorted to on any other days of the year, or -at any other hour of the day.” - -With regard to the August festival, there is a holy well at St. Cleer, -near the Hurlers; the festival is held on August 9th.[80] I have no -special references to August wells in Ireland, but there is evidence -given by Piers[81] that at that time cattle were bathed. - -“On the first Sunday in harvest, viz., in August, they will be sure to -drive their cattle into some pool or river and therein swim them; this -they observe as inviolable as if it were a point of religion, for they -think no beast will live the whole year thro’ unless they be thus -drenched. I deny not but that swimming cattle, and chiefly in this -season of the year, is healthful unto them, as the poet hath observed:-- - - “Balantemque gregem fluvio mersare salubri.”--_Virg._ - - In th’ healthful flood to plunge the bleating flock. - -but precisely to do this on the first Sunday in harvest, I look on as -not only superstitious but profane.” - -I next come to the solstice in June. - -There is evidence concerning wells quite akin to that furnished by the -astronomical use of the circles, that the May year festivals were -subsequently changed to solstitial dates. The well worship does not -appear to have been carried on in the cold weather--hence the absence of -references to February and November; for the same reason we have only -now to do with the summer solstice. - -Hazlitt quotes the following from the Irish Hudibras (1689) concerning -June worship at a well in the North of Ireland:-- - - “Have you beheld, when people pray - At St. John’s well on Patron-Day, - By charm of priest and miracle, - To cure diseases at this well; - The valleys filled with blind and lame, - And go as limping as they came.” - -At Barnwell (Beirna-well = youths’ well), near Cambridge, the festival -took place on St. John’s Day.[82] - -Brand, in his history of Newcastle (ii. 54), refers to a well still -called Bede’s Well, near Jarrow. “As late as 1740 it was a prevailing -custom to bring children troubled with any disease or infirmity; a -crooked pin was put in, and the well laved dry between each dipping. My -informant has seen twenty children brought together on a Sunday, to be -dipped in this well, at which also, on Midsummer Eve, there was a great -resort of neighbouring people, with bonfires, music, etc.” - -Hope gives references to seven wells dedicated to “St. John,” one to -“St. John the Baptist,” and four to St. Peter. These _may_ have been -solstitial wells, but the information given is very slight and not to -the present point. He states (xxii) that the most important celebrations -were first held in May and at the summer solstice. He then adds, “later -Easter and Ascensiontide were the favoured seasons.” May, Summer -Solstice and Easter was, I think, the true order. - -Finally, I may refer to the earliest holy well known to history. This is -the famous well at Heliopolis where Rā used to wash himself, and -Piankhi, B.C. 740, went and washed his face in it. At this same well the -Virgin sat and washed her Son’s swaddling bands in it. Its water made -the balsam trees to grow. It is now called by the Arabs “The Fountain of -the Sun” ‘Êyn ash-Shems. - -[53] The literature that I have chiefly consulted is as follows:-- - - R. C. Hope _Holy Wells; their Legends and Traditions._ - R. L. Quiller-Couch _Ancient and Holy Wells of Cornwall._ - W. G. Wood-Martin _Traces of the Elder Faiths of Ireland._ - G. L. Gomme _Ethnology in Folklore._ - Prof. Rhys _Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh._ - W. C. Borlase _Dolmens of Ireland._ - S. Baring-Gould _A Book of the West._ - - -[54] _Traces of the Elder Faiths of Ireland, A Folklore Sketch_, ii., p. -47. - -[55] Pp. 11, 47. - -[56] _Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh_, ii., p. 366. - -[57] Wood-Martin, _loc. cit._, ii., p. 80. - -[58] _Standing Stones and Maeshowe of Stenness_, by Magnus Spence, p. -13. - -[59] That is from W. to E. through N., or E. to W. through S.; in the -same direction as the hands of a clock. - -[60] _The Dolmens of Ireland_, i., p. 3. - -[61] _Ibid._, pp. 95, 765. - -[62] _Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh_, i., p. 332. - -[63] Borlase, _loc. cit._, p. 760. - -[64] _Ibid._, p. 426. - -[65] Rhys, _Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh_, p. 363. - -[66] _Pagan Ireland_, p. 160. - -[67] Rhys, _Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh_, i., pp. 354, 356, 357, &c. - -[68] Rhys, _ibid._, p. 332. - -[69] _Ethnology in Folklore_, p. 78. - -[70] Sikes: _British Goblins_, p. 351. - -[71] Sikes, _idem._, p. 329. - -[72] _Folklore_, 1892, p. 89. - -[73] _Pagan Ireland_, p. 145. - -[74] _Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh._ - -[75] _Pagan Ireland_, p. 160. - -[76] Hope, p. 14. - -[77] _The Land’s End District_, p. 72. - -[78] Edmunds, p. 72. - -[79] Hope, p. 40. - -[80] St. Cleer = St. Cledod, A.D. 482. The arms of St. Cleer are the Sun -in its glory. - -[81] Description of Westmeath, 1682, quoted by Vallencey, i., 121. - -[82] Hazlitt, ii., 616. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -WHERE DID THE BRITISH WORSHIP ORIGINATE? - - -The recent chapters have, I think, established, by the evidence derived -from folklore and tradition, that there was in the long past a combined -worship of trees, wells and streams in the neighbourhood of sacred -places, the sacred place being a stone circle or some other monument -built up of stones. - -We have gathered also that the chief times of worship were on or near -the most important dates defined for us by the May year, the original -year marked out by the various agricultural and other operations proper -to the various seasons. - -It is again imperative that I should point out that if the basis of this -worship was not utility it must have been started by men sufficiently -skilled to indicate by their astronomical knowledge the proper times for -the various operations to which I have referred. In this we see the -reason for the local combination of the worship in the neighbourhood of -the stones, for the stones were really the instruments which enabled the -astronomer-priest to be useful to the community; that he in process of -time became powerful and sacred because he was wise, and added medicine -and magic to his other qualifications, was only what was to be expected. - -I am not the first to have been driven by the facts to note the close -association to which I have referred, that the cults were not separate -but were parts of one whole. - -Wood-Martin speaks with the most certain sound on this point. “It will -be seen that, from a review of the whole subject, stone, water, tree, -and animal-worship are intimately connected.”[83] - -What the analysis in the recent chapters, taken in connection with the -astronomical results previously stated, has done is perhaps to give a -clear reason for the connection. Not only were the cults started -together, but they remained together for a long time; it is only in -quite late years that the traditions have become so dim that practices -once closely connected are now dealt with apart from the rest. - -Hope points out (p. xxii) that the 16th of the canons of the reign of -Edgar, A.D. 963, which enjoins the clergy to be diligent, advance -Christianity, and extinguish heathenism, mentions especially the worship -of stones, trees, and fountains. The laws of Knut (A.D. 1018) specify -the worship “of heathen gods, the sun, moon, fire, rivers, fountains, -rocks, or trees.” - -Now, although the folklore evidence I have brought together has been -gathered for the most part from the British Isles, my inquiries have not -been limited to that area. - -It was natural that when the study of folklore had suggested that there -was a close connection between the worship carried on in Britain at -stone monuments, sacred trees, and sacred wells an attempt should have -been made to see whether these three cults had been associated out of -Britain with the ceremonials of any of the early peoples for which -complete and trustworthy information is available. - -On this point the traditions of widely sundered countries is amazingly -strong. - -The folklore of the Pyrenees, France, Spain and Portugal regarding -sacred wells is very similar to that of Ireland. Borlase writes:[84] - -“It is interesting to notice that the pre-Christian custom called -_dessil_, or circuit around a venerated spot, which is practised in -Ireland in the case of one dolmen at least, as well as at wells and -Churches innumerable, is found also in Portugal.” - -In the Pyrenees, too, fairies and spirits are thought much of in this -connection. Borlase tells us:[85] “They are the presiding genii of -certain wells.” He adds: - -“It is not in Ireland alone that dolmens are associated with the notion -of wells and water springs. The Portuguese names, Anta do Fontao, Fonte -Coberta, Anta do Fonte-de Mouratao, and the French names, Fonte de -Rourre, and Fonte nay le Marmion, show this to be the case.”[86] - -In Persia Sir Wm. Ouseley saw a tree covered with rags, and similar -trees in the Himalayas are associated with large heaps of stones (Gomme, -p. 105). - -The late General Pitt-Rivers affirms that the customs of well-offerings -I referred to in the last chapter are invariably associated with cairns, -megalithic monuments or some such early Pagan institutions, and he adds -that the area in which traces of well-offerings are found is -conterminous with the area of the megalithic monuments.[87] - -The idea that the waters of certain wells have marvellous healing powers -is also not confined to the British Isles, for in a great many parts of -Europe, perhaps more especially in France, Spain and Portugal, we find -instances. - -The practice of worshipping in connection with wells and the sacred -stones and sacred trees which were associated with them, as we have -seen, was indeed in ancient days almost, if not quite, universal -wherever man existed. The traditions of the past, therefore, are to be -gathered over a very wide area. I quote a summary of the universality of -this practice given by the late General Pitt-Rivers in the paper already -noticed: - -“Burton says it extends throughout northern Africa from west to east; -Mungo Park mentions it in western Africa; Sir Samuel Baker speaks of it -on the confines of Abyssinia, and says that the people who practised it -were unable to assign a reason for doing so; Burton also found the same -custom in Arabia during his pilgrimage to Mecca; in Persia Sir William -Ouseley saw a tree _close to a large monolith_ covered with these rags, -and he describes it as a practice appertaining to a religion long since -proscribed in that country; in the Dekkan and Ceylon Colonel Leslie says -that the trees in the neighbourhood of wells may be seen covered with -similar scraps of cotton: Dr. A. Campbell speaks of it as being -practised by the Limboos near Darjeeling in the Himalaya, where it is -associated, as in Ireland, with large heaps of stones; and Huc in his -travels mentions it among the Tartars.” - -The astronomical facts given in this book, gathered from a study of the -monuments in these islands, can only give us information touching the -introduction of the combined worship here. - -My investigations have strongly suggested, to say the least, that there -were men here with knowledge enough to utilise the movements of the sun -and stars for temple, and no doubt practical purposes before 2000 B.C., -that is, a thousand years before Solomon was born, and at about the time -that the Hecatompedon was founded at Athens. - -If this is anywhere near the truth, these men must have been -representatives of a very old civilisation. - -Now the civilisation principally considered by archæologists in -connection with the building of the monuments which I have studied is -the Aryan, of which the Celts formed a branch. This view, however, is -not universally held; the late General Pitt-Rivers, and I know of no -higher authority, stated his opinion that “The megalithic monuments... -take us back to pre-Aryan people, and suggest the spread of this people -over the area covered by their remains.”[88] - -Mr. Gomme is of the same opinion (p. 27): - -“Ceremonies which are demonstrably non-Aryan in India, even in the -presence of Aryan people, must in origin have been non-Aryan in Europe, -though the race from whom they have descended is not at present -identified by ethnologists.” - -Sergi also points out:-- - -“Indo-Germanism led to almost entire forgetfulness of the most ancient -civilisations of the earth, those born in the valleys of the Euphrates -and the Tigris, and in the valley of the Nile; no influence was granted -to them over Greco-Roman classic civilisation, almost none anywhere in -the Mediterranean.”[89] - -It is not necessary for me to deal at length with the great Aryan -controversy in this book, even if the subject were within my competence, -which it is not; but now that we have a large number of monuments dated, -say, within twenty years of their use, it is important to bring forward -some dates arrived at by archæologists and philologists to compare with -those which the astronomical method of inquiry has revealed. - -Hall[90] gives evidence to show that the Aryans did not reach Greece -till after the earlier period of the Mycenæan age, which he dates at -about 1700 B.C. - -With regard to the date of the Aryan invasion of Britain, Mr. Read, of -the Department of Ethnography, British Museum, informs me that it may be -taken as about 1000 B.C.; it was associated with cremation. It is highly -probable that these Aryans were the Goidels or the Gael. These were -followed some 700 years later by another Aryan sept--the Brythons. Mr. -Read is also of opinion that the Goidels reached Britain from the -country round the South Baltic, and the Brythons from or through -north-east France. - -Archæologists, however, recognise a pre-Aryan invasion, about 1800 B.C. -(a date determined by the introduction of bronze), of a brachycephalic -folk who built covered barrows, different in these respects from the -neolithic folk, who were long-skulled and built long barrows. Now, in -relation to the stone structures to which this book especially refers, -the question arises, are we then dealing with this swarm or the people -whom they found on the soil? - -There are some indications in the traditions which imply that we are -really dealing with an early stone age, when flints were the only -weapons, and there were no clothes to speak of. I will give one or two -examples of these traditions. Gomme (p. 53) refers to a singular fact -preserved among the ceremonies of witchcraft in Scotland: - -“In order to injure the waxen image of the intended victim, the -implements used in some cases by the witches were stone arrowheads, or -elf-shots, as they were called, and their use was accompanied by an -incantation. Here we have, in the undoubted form of a prehistoric -implement, the oldest untouched detail of early life which has been -preserved by witchcraft.” - -Gomme (p. 39) also tells us that one of the May practices at Stirling is -for boys of ten and twelve years old to divest themselves of their -clothing, and in a state of nudity to run round certain natural or -artificial circles. “Formerly the rounded summit of Demyat, an eminence -in the Ochil range, was a favourite scene of this strange pastime, but -for many years it has been performed at the King’s Knot, in Stirling, an -octagonal mound in the Royal Gardens. The performances are not -infrequently repeated at Midsummer and Lammas.” He adds, “The fact that -in this instance the practice is continued only by ‘boys of ten and -twelve years old,’ shows that we have here one of the last stages of an -old rite before its final abolition.” - -Baring-Gould (p. 21) provides us with a practice in Brittany which would -seem to be a remnant of a pre-clothing age. - -Near Carnac is a menhir, at which a singular “ceremony took place till -comparatively recently, and may perhaps still be practised in secret. A -married couple that have no family repair to this stone when the moon is -full, strip themselves stark naked and course one another round it a -prescribed number of times, whilst their relations keep guard against -intrusion at a respectful distance.” - -Now it is in connection with this question that I am in hopes that some -help may be got from the astronomical results recorded in the present -volume. The dates revealed by the orientation of the circles and -outstanding stones already dealt with (and there is a large number to -follow) indicate that it is among the records of some people of whom the -civilisation is very ancient that we must look in the first instance -with a view of tracing the origin of our British monuments. - -Further, now that we have been able to follow their astronomical -methods, to note how sound they were, and to gather the purposes of -utility they were intended to serve, it is simply common sense to -inquire, in the first instance, if they may have been connected with -these ancient peoples whose astronomical skill is universally -recognised, and whose records and even observations have come down to -us. - -Now, while we know nothing of the astronomy of the Aryans generally, or -that of the Celts in particular, the astronomical knowledge of the -Babylonians and Egyptians is one of the wonders of the ancient world. - -Hence Babylonia and Egypt are at once suggested, and the suggestion is -not rendered a less probable one when we remember that both these -peoples studied and utilised astronomy at least some 8,000 years ago. - -But here we are dealing with two peoples. It is more than probable that -they both were associated more or less near the origin with one race, -the ideas of which permeated both civilisations. - -I have it on the highest authority, that of Dr. Budge, that in Babylonia -there were originally the Sumerians and the Semites. The primitive race -which conquered the Egyptians seems to have been connected with the -former as regards civilisation, and with the latter as regards some -aspects of the Egyptian language. - -This race was Semitic, and as the pyramids, built some 6,000 years ago, -are a proof of the interaction of the two civilisations at that time, -for the Easter festival celebrated on the banks of the Nile came from -the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates, we may omit the pre-Semites -from our consideration. - -There is other evidence that the connection between the Semites and -Egyptians was close astronomically, so that any Semitic influence in -later times or in other lands would be sure to show traces of this -connection, and in temple worship it would be traceable. While the -carefully oriented Egyptian temples built of stone remain and have been -carefully studied, those erected in the centres of Semitic power, built -of unbaked brick, have for the most part disappeared, but for the most -part only; some stone structures remain, but in regard to them there has -been no Lepsius; of their orientation, too, little is known. This is all -the more to be regretted since Layard, in addition to many E. and N. -buildings found at Nimrood, noted at the mound of Kouyunjik, the site of -Nineveh, lat. 36° 20′ N., that Sennacherib’s palace, which appears to -have been built round a central temple, was oriented to the May -year.[91] (Az. N. 68° 30′ E. = Dec. N. 16°.) - -Now, calling in the Babylonians as the originators of what went on in -Britain 4,000 years ago may seem to some to be far-fetched in more ways -than one; but the Babylonians were a remarkable people; according to -some they originated all the voyaging of the early world, though other -authorities point out that the first ships in the eastern seas must have -been Indian. - -Ihering[92] adduces a series of facts which indicate clearly that the -Babylonians carried on maritime navigation at least as early as about -3500 B.C. But, whatever this time was, the Semites and Egyptians had -already a rich culture behind them at a time when the Aryans, whatever -or wherever their origin, had not made themselves a place in the world’s -history. An ancient sea connection between Babylonia and India may -explain the similarity of the British and Indian folklore. - -Some facts with regard to long distance ancient travel are the -following. Our start-point may be that Gudea, a Babylonian king who -reigned about 2500 B.C., brought stones from Melukhkha and Makan, that -is, Egypt and Sinai (Budge, _History of Egypt_, ii., 130). Now these -stones were taken coastwise Sinai to Eridu, at the head of the Persian -Gulf, a distance of 4,000 miles, and it is also said that then, or even -before then, there was a coast-wise traffic to and from Malabar, where -teak was got to be used in house- and boat-building. The distance from -Eridu coastwise to Malabar, say the present Cannanore, is 2,400 miles. - -The distance, coastwise, from Alexandria to Sandwich, where we learn -that Phœnicians and others shipped the tin extracted from the mines in -Cornwall, is only 5,300 miles, so that a voyage of this length was quite -within the powers of the compassless navigators of 2500 B.C. - -The old idea that the ancient merchants could make a course from Ushant -to, say, Falmouth or Penzance need no longer be entertained; the -crossing from Africa to Gibraltar and from Cape Grisnez to Sandwich were -both to visible land, _i.e._ coastwise. The cliffs on the opposite land -are easily seen on a clear day. - -Hence it would have been easier before the days of astronomical -knowledge and compasses to have reached England, and therefore Ireland -and the Orkneys, than to get to some of the islands in the -Mediterranean itself.[93] - -It is seen then that it is possible that Semites might have built our -stone monuments between 2000 and 1200 B.C., while it is quite certain -that the Aryans did not build them, if the archæologists are not widely -wrong in their dates. - -Let us, then, begin our inquiries by considering the information -available with regard to the Semites. Let us see in the first instance -whether they had stone monuments, and sacred trees and sacred wells; a -system of worship; and whether this worship was connected with the sun -and stars. - -It is fortunate for us in this matter that one of the most fully -equipped scholars which the last century produced, Robertson Smith, -devoted his studies for many years to _The Religion of the Semites_, and -information on the points raised is to our hand; all I need do is to -give as shortly as possible a statement of the various conclusions he -had reached on the points to which our attention may in the first -instance be confined. I quote from his book _The Religion of the -Semites_. - -The Semites include the Babylonians, who spoke a Semitic dialect, for -there were Sumerian speaking peoples among them, Assyrians, Phœnicians, -Hebrews, Arabs and Aramæans, who in ancient times occupied the fertile -lands of Syria, Mesopotamia and Irak from the Mediterranean coast to the -base of the mountains of Iran and Armenia. They also embrace the -inhabitants of the great Arabian peninsula, which is believed to have -been the centre of dispersion. - -The ordinary artificial mark of a Semitic sanctuary was the sacrificial -pillar, cairn, or rude altar (p. 183): it was a fixed point where, -according to primitive rule, the blood of the offering was applied to -the sacred stones; or where a sacred tree, as we shall see presently, -was hung with gifts; the stones and tree being symbols of the God (p. -151). - -Further, it is certain that the original altar among the northern -Semites was a great unhewn[94] stone, or a cairn, at which the blood of -the victim was shed (p. 185). - -Monolithic pillars or cairns of stones are frequently mentioned in the -more ancient parts of the Old Testament as marking sanctuaries; Shechem, -Bethel, Gilead, Gilgal, Mizpah, Gibeon, and En-Rogel are referred to (p. -186). - -There is evidence that in very early times the sanctuary was a cave (p. -183). The obvious successors of a natural cave are, (1) an artificial -cave made in the earth like the natural one, and (2) a model or -representation of a cave built of stone, with a small entrance which -would be barred, and covered over with earth, thus protecting the -priests from wild animals and the weather. - -The dolmens and cromlechs which are found in the Semitic area where -there are stones doubtless had this origin. - -The use of a cave was probably borrowed both by the Egyptians and Greeks -(there is a cave, for instance, at Eleusis) from the Semites. - -In later times, when caves or their equivalents were no longer in vogue -and temples were erected, they enclosed a Bit-ili or Beth-el, an upright -stone, consecrated by oil.[95] - -We next learn (pp. 170 and 183) that no Canaanite high place was -complete without its sacred tree standing beside the altar. - -In tree-worship pure and simple as in Arabia, the tree is adored at an -annual feast (? May), when it is hung with clothes and women’s ornaments -(p. 169). - -The tree at Mecca to which offerings are made is spoken of as a “tree to -hang things on.” - -The references to “groves” given in the Bible as associated with temple -worship are misleading, “groves” being a wrong translation of the word -Asherah, which was a pole made of wood which the Jews adopted from the -Canaanites. It was ornamented and perhaps draped, and was most probably -originally a tree. It may have been used in the “high places” because -single trees would not grow there in the East any more than on the moors -in Devon and Cornwall. - -The antiquity of this emblem is proved by Smith’s statement (p. 171) -that in an Assyrian monument from Khorsābād an ornamental pole is shown -beside a portable altar. “Priests stand before it engaged in an act of -worship and touch the pole with their hands or perhaps anoint it with -some liquid substance.” - -The draping of the tree seems to be proved by the passage which -suggested the mistranslation to me before I wrote to some Hebrew -scholars among my friends who allowed me to consult them. The passage is -as follows (II. Kings, xxiii., 6, 7):-- - -“And he brought out the grove from the house of the Lord, without -Jerusalem, unto the brook Kidron, and burned it at the brook Kidron, and -stamped it small to powder, and cast the powder thereof upon the graves -of the children of the people. - -“And he brake down the houses of the Sodomites, that were by the house -of the Lord, where the women wove hangings for the grove.” - -To show how little variation there was in the Semitic practices to those -recorded in British folklore I may state that one of my friends--one of -the revision committee--informed me that his impression was that the -Asherah was furnished with pegs or hooks, so that the garments, &c., -might be easily hung on it. - - * * * * * - -I next come to the sacred waters. A sacred fountain, as well as the -sacred tree, was a common symbol at Semitic sanctuaries (p. 183). -Nevertheless, they were sometimes absent, the main place being given to -altar worship. Further, Robertson Smith was of opinion that this altar -worship did not originate with tree [? or water] worship (p. 170); but -still, sacred wells are among the oldest and most ineradicable objects -of reverence among all the Semites, and were credited with oracular -powers (pp. 128, 154). The fountain or stream was not a mere adjunct to -the temple, but was itself one of the principal _sacra_ of the spot (p. -155). - -Undoubtedly there were ordeals among other things at these wells (p. -163). One case is given in Numbers, v., 17, where the words “holy water” -occur, and other water “that causeth the curse” is referred to. Ordeal -by water is not unknown among British customs. - -It is interesting to note that special sanctity was attached to groups -of seven wells (p. 167), and that one such group was called -Thorayga=Pleiades (p. 153).[96] We may gather from this that one of the -most sacred times for Semitic worship was at the May festival, marked by -the rising of the Pleiades. - -Although I do not find many references in Robertson Smith’s book as to -great festival days, there is other evidence which shows that the May -festival was the greatest, and represented New Year’s Day. I have -already shown that the May-November year is the one recognised in the -present Turkish, Armenian and I believe Persian calendars (p. 29). As -this was the year used at Thebes 3200 B.C., we may take it that at that -time it was universal in W. Asia and the adjacent lands. The Jews -afterwards adopted the equinoctial year. - -It seems highly probable that we may learn from many passages in the -Old Testament what the Semitic temple practices were generally. There -were sacrifices of men and beasts, burnt offerings, and lighting of -fires, through which the children were made to pass. - -I give some references to these fire practices. - -“And thou shalt not let any of thy seed pass through the fire to -Molech.”--Leviticus, xviii., 21. - -“There shall not be found among you any one that maketh his son or his -daughter to pass through the fire, or that useth divination, or an -observer of times, or an enchanter, or a witch, - -“Or a charmer, or a consulter with familiar spirits, or a wizard, or a -necromancer.”--Deuteronomy, xviii., 10, 11. - -“He walked in the way of the kings of Israel, yea, and made his son to -pass through the fire.”--II. Kings, xvi., 3. - -“And they caused their sons and their daughters to pass through the -fire, and used divination and enchantments.”--II. Kings, xvii., 17. - -“And he defiled Topheth, which is in the valley of the children of -Hinnom, that no man might make his son or his daughter to pass through -the fire to Molech.”--II. Kings, xxiii., 10. (See also 4 and 5.) - -Fire sacrifices which were interpreted as offerings of fragrant smoke -were prevalent among the settled Semites (p. 218). Sacrificial fat was -burned on the altar. Smith remarks: “This could be done without any -fundamental modification of the old type of sacred stone or altar -pillar, simply by making a hollow on the top to receive the grease, and -there is some reason to think that fire-altars of this simple kind, -which in certain Phœnician types are developed into altar candlesticks, -are older than the broad platform altar proper for receiving a burnt -offering” (p. 364). - - * * * * * - -With regard to the worship of the sun and stars by the Semites, we read -that the Semite addressed his God as Baal or Bal. The simple form of -Baal was the sun.[97] - -By the Semites the stars were, on account of their movements, held to be -alive; they were therefore gods, and it was in consequence of this -widespread belief that the stars were worshipped (p. 127). The -worshippers “burned incense unto Baal, to the sun, to the moon and to -the planets, and to all the hosts of heaven” (II. Kings, xxiii., 5). Job -congratulated himself that “his heart had not been enticed, nor his -mouth kissed his hand, if he beheld the sun when it shined, or the moon -walking in her brightness” (Job, xxxi., 26-27). The worship of the -morning star as a god is the old Semitic conception (Isa., xiv., 12), -“Lucifer son of the Dawn.” - -We gather from the later practices of the Saracens that the sacrifices -to the morning star could not be made after the star had disappeared in -the dawn.[98] The God had to be in the presence of the worshippers. - - * * * * * - -The Semitic worship was generally carried on in “high places”; in the -Babylonian temples built in a river valley the “high places” were -secured by building towers with the sanctuary on the top. - -These high places were necessary because exact observations of the -risings of the heavenly bodies formed part of the ceremonial, and a -clear horizon was absolutely imperative. That this was generally -understood and acted on is well evidenced by the fact that in the Old -Testament the mention of high places is nearly always associated with -the references to the religion of the Canaanites and other Semitic -nations as if the high places were among the most important points in -it. - - * * * * * - -Other arguments may be founded upon linguistic considerations. Prof. J. -Morris Jones[99] finds that the syntax of Welsh and Irish differs from -that of other Aryan languages in many important respects, _e.g._ the -verb is put first in every simple sentence. Prof. Rhys had suggested -that these differences represented the persistence in Welsh and Irish of -the syntax of a pre-Aryan dialect, and as the anthropologists hold that -the pre-Aryan population of these islands came from North Africa, it -seemed to Prof. Jones that that was the obvious place to look for the -origin of these syntactical peculiarities. He finds the similarities -between Old Egyptian and neo-Celtic syntax to be astonishing; he shows -that practically all the peculiarities of Welsh and Irish syntax are -found in the Hamitic languages. - -This conclusion practically implies that the bulk of the population of -these islands, before the arrival of the Celts, spoke dialects allied to -those of North Africa. The syntactical peculiarities must have -represented the habits of thought of the people, which survived in the -Celtic vocabulary imposed upon them. - -These conclusions were not known to me when I began to see the necessity -of separating the cult of the June from that of the May year, and the -identity of the conclusions drawn from astronomical and linguistic data -is to me very striking and also suggests further special inquiries. - -It is also worth while to state that the Semites, including the Hebrews -and Phœnicians, did not burn their dead. Finally, I may quote a remark -made by General Pitt-Rivers in the paper already referred to:--“If we do -not accept one old civilization as the origin of the various practices, -then we must assume accidental origins in each country.” - -[83] Wood-Martin, p. 265. - -[84] _Dolmens of Ireland_, ii., p. 696. - -[85] _Ibid._, ii., p. 580. - -[86] _Ibid._, p. 772. - -[87] _Journal Eth. Soc._, N.S., i., 64. - -[88] _Journ. Eth. Soc._, N.S. i., 64. - -[89] _The Mediterranean Races_, p. 4. - -[90] _The Oldest Civilisation of Greece_, p. 105. - -[91] This I gather from the plan prepared by Lieut. Glascott, R.N., who -apparently accompanied Mr. Layard. He indicates the true north point -with a sailor’s precision in such matters. (See p. 305). - -[92] _Evolution of the Aryan_, Translation by Drucker, § 32. - -[93] The prevalence of solstitial customs in Sardinia and Corsica, with -apparently no trace of the May year, tends to support this view, which -is also strengthened by the fact that the solstitial customs in Morocco -are very similar to those we read of in Britain: the May year is -unnoticed, and there is a second feast at Easter (March 16th). See -Westermarck in _Folk-lore_, vol. xxi., p. 27. - -[94] And if thou wilt make me an altar of stone, thou shalt not build it -of hewn stone: for if thou lift up thy tool upon it, thou hast polluted -it.--Exodus, xx., 25. - -[95] And Jacob rose up early in the morning, and took the stone that he -had put for his pillows, and set it up for a pillar, and poured oil upon -the top of it. - -And this stone, which I have set for a pillar, shall be God’s house; and -of all that thou shalt give me I will surely give the tenth unto -thee.--Genesis, xxviii., 18, 22. - -[96] Herodotus, iii., 8, refers to an Arabian rite in which seven stones -are smeared with blood among peoples whose only gods were Dionysos and -Urania, whom they called Orotalt and Alilat. - -[97] Sayce, _Babylonians and Assyrians_, p. 234. - -[98] _Nili op. quaedam_ (Paris, 1639), pp. 28, 117, quoted by Robertson -Smith, p. 151. - -[99] “Pre-Aryan Syntax in Insular Celtic,” in the _Welsh People_, by -Rhys and Brynmor-Jones, pp. 617-641. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -THE SIMILARITY OF THE SEMITIC AND BRITISH WORSHIPS - - -I propose in this chapter to bring into juxtaposition the various -British and Semitic-Egyptian practices which we have so far considered. - -I confess I am amazed at the similarities we have come across in the -first cast of the net; we have found so much that is common to both -worships in connection with all the points we considered separately. I -will, for convenience, deal with the various points seriatim. - - -1. The cult of sacred stones or cairns. - -The only objection which, so far as I can see, may be raised to these -practices being absolutely common is the idea among many British -archæologists that the cairns, in which term I include chambered barrows -or dolmens and their skeletons, the cromlechs and stone passages, were -set up for burial and not for worship. This idea has arisen because some -of them have been used for burials. But I cannot accept this argument, -because since the burials might have taken place at any time subsequent -to their erection they prove nothing as to the reason of the erection; -and further, if these chambered cairns were meant for burials, there -should be burials in all of them, and yet there are none in the most -majestic of them all, Maeshowe. - -Let us consider a few facts in relation to the Semitic use of cairns -referred to on p. 244. - -That the cromlechs found both in Britain and Syria--there are 780 in -Ireland and 700 in Moab--are the remains of chambered cairns is pretty -clear from the evidence brought forward by Borlase.[100] - -Mr. John Bell, of Dundalk, disinterred over sixty cromlechs from cairns -in Ulster. All dolmens were covered by tumuli according to Mr. Bell and -Mr. Lukis. Monuments called cairns in the earliest Ordnance Survey have -been marked dolmens in subsequent surveys (_e.g._ Townland of Leana in -Clare) because the earth covering the stones had disappeared in the -meantime. - -Among the evidences of natural and artificial caves preceding cairns -which replaced them are the twenty-four caves which have been explored -in France (_op. cit._, p. 568).[101] - -Borlase points out with regard to the Irish dolmens that large tumuli -were not essential; all that was necessary was that the walls of the -cell or crypt should be impervious to the elements and to wild animals. -A creep or passage communicating with the edge of the mound is common to -Ireland, Wales, Portugal and Brittany (_op. cit._, p. 428). - -The facts that the cairns so often had their open ends facing the N.E. -or S.E., and that the west end was generally higher, like the naos -trilithons at Stonehenge, must be borne in mind. - -Most of what we know of earliest man has been obtained from their lives -in caves; what they ate, the contemporary fauna and their art are thus -known to us, but caves have not been considered as tombs, though men -have died and left their remains in them. - -In the case of a dolmen, however, an artificial cave, as we shall see, -the possibility of people living in them appears never to have been -considered seriously, and the tomb theory has led to bad reasoning and -forced argument. - -When burials are absent it has been suggested that “owing to some -peculiarity of the soil, the entire of the human remains have become -decomposed, only the imperishable stone implements entombed with the -body remaining.”[102] - -Mr. Spence has pointed out the extreme improbability of Maeshowe being -anything but a temple, and I may now add on the Semitic model. There -were a large central hall and side rooms for sleeping, a stone door -which could have been opened or shut _from the inside_, and a niche for -a guard, janitor or hall porter! So high an authority as Colonel Leslie -has pointed out that neither Maeshowe, New Grange and Dowth on the -Boyne, nor Gavr Innis in Brittany bear any internal proof of being -specially prepared as tombs.[103] - -There is another point connected with these dolmens and cromlechs. An -origin in the Semitic area easily explains why in Asia and Britain the -dolmens are so alike, down to small details, such as the perforation of -one of the side stones. Borlase has remarked also upon the similarity of -Indian and Irish dolmens (_op. cit._, p. 755), similar holes also being -common to them. The curious concentric circles, &c., found on some -dolmen stones are common to Assyrian vessels.[104] - -The most philosophical study of this question I have seen[105] certainly -suggests that much light may be expected from this source. - -Part of the cult of the sacred stones was the ceremony of _anointing -them_. Robertson Smith (p. 214) gives us the meaning and history of -anointing among the Semites, and notes its continuation from Jacob’s -pouring oil on sacred stones at Bethel, through the time of Pausanias to -that of the Pilgrims of the fourth century A.D. - -The anointing of stones was certainly carried on in ancient times in -Britain and Brittany. Baring-Gould tells us:[106] - -“Formerly the menhir was beplastered with oil and honey and wax, and -this anointing of the stones was condemned by the bishops. In certain -places the local clergy succeeded in diverting the practice to the -Churches. There are still some in Lower Brittany whose exterior walls -are strung with wax lines arranged in festoons and patterns. - -“In some places childless women still rub themselves against menhirs, -expecting thereby to be cured of barrenness, but in others, instead, -they rub themselves against stone images of saints.” - -When I visited the Cave of Elephanta in 1871 I was told that the barren -women of Bombay visit the cave once a year and anoint the standing stone -in the chief chamber. In Egypt they still rub their bodies on the -Colossi. - - -2. Sacred fires. - -Among the Semites the sacrificial fat was burned on the altar. And we -have seen that “this could be done without any fundamental modification -of the old type of sacred stone or altar pillar, simply by making a -hollow on the top to receive the grease.”[107] - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Cresset-stone, Lewannick. From Baring-Gould’s -_Strange Survivals_.] - -Baring-Gould[108] has written on the question of sacrificial and sacred -fires in ancient times in Britain, and points out that there still -remain in some of our churches (in Cornwall, York and Dorset) the -contrivances--now called cresset-stones--used. They are blocks of stone -with cups hollowed out precisely as described by Robertson Smith. Some -are placed in lamp-niches furnished with flues. On these he remarks (p. -122):-- - -“Now although these lamps and cressets had their religious -signification, yet this religious signification was an afterthought. The -origin of them lay in the necessity of there being in every place a -central light, from which light could at any time be borrowed.” - - -3. The cult of the sacred tree. - -I have shown that the sacred trees in Britain, whether rowan, thorn or -mistletoe, were at their best at the times of the festivals at which -they were chiefly worshipped. Mrs. J. H. Philpot, in her valuable book -on “the sacred tree,” gives us the names of some used in different -countries; it would be interesting to inquire whether the same -consideration applies to them in the Semitic and other areas. - -There seems to be no doubt that the Semitic Asherah was the precursor of -the British Maypole, even to its dressing of many coloured ribands, and -from the Maypole customs we may infer something of the Semitic practices -which have not come down to us. Even “Jack o’ the Green” may eventually -be traced to Al-Khidr (p. 29) of the old May festivals. - - -4. The cult of the sacred well. - -Here we find only trifling differences. The chief one is the use of -pins in Britain. If we knew more about the Asherah with its hooks this -difference might disappear. - -It has been pointed out by several authors that the worship of wells and -water would be most likely to arise in a dry and thirsty land. - - -5. The time of the chief festivals. - -Here we find beyond all question that the festival times were the same -to begin with. May is the chief month both in West Asia and West Europe. - -It was not till a subsequent time that June and December were added in -Egypt and Britain, and April and September among the Jews. - - -6. The characteristics of the festivals. - -Here again is precise agreement. The list I gave on p. 205 of what can -be gathered from British folklore is identical with the statements as to -Semitic practices which I quoted from Robertson Smith in the last -chapter. - - -7. The worship in high places. - -Absolute identity; and from this we can gather that the ancient -condition of the high places wherever selected for temple worship was as -treeless as it is now; otherwise the observations of sun- and star-rise -and -set would be greatly interfered with. - -Of course, there may have been “groves” associated with, but away from, -sanctuaries in both Semitic and British areas: but it is not impossible -that much which has been written on this subject with regard to Britain -and the “Druids” may have been suggested in part by the erroneous -translation of Asherah to which I have referred. It has also been stated -that an early transcriber who, in error, substituted lucus for locus may -also be held partly responsible, even if lucus does not mean a clearing -in a grove, as some maintain. - - -8. The god or gods worshipped. - -The year-gods in Babylonia and Egypt respectively were Baal and Thoth. -It is worth while to inquire whether either name has made its appearance -as a loan-word in the traditions of Western Europe. - -About Baal there can be no question as to the coincidence, whether -accidental, as some philologists affirm, or not. - -We find Bel or Baal common to the two areas. Mr. Borlase informs us -(_op. cit._, p. 1164) that in Western Europe Bel, Beal, Balor, Balder, -and Phol, Fal, Fáil are the equivalents of the Semitic Baal. Balus, -indeed, is named as the first king of Orkney. A May worship is connected -with all the above. Beltaine and many variants describe the fires -lighted at the festival, and it is worthy of note that although this -fire worship has been extended to the solstitial ceremonials in June, -the name Baltaine has never been applied to it at that time except by -writers who think that the term “midsummer” may be applied -indiscriminately to the beginning of May and the end of June. - -I next deal with the Egyptian year-god Thoth. In Greece he became -Hermes, among the Romans Mercury. In this connection I can most usefully -refer to Rhys’s Hibbert Lectures and his chapter on the Gaulish -Pantheon. He tells us (p. 5) that “Mercury is the god with whom the -monuments lead one to begin.” There is also mention of a god Toutates or -Teutates, and a Toutius, who might have been a public official (? priest -of Toutates). Only Celtic or other later origins of the words are -suggested; it is not said whether the possible Egyptian root has been -considered. - -We may even, I think, go further and ask whether some of the -constellations were not figured as in Egypt, otherwise it is difficult -to account for the horror of the black pig (p. 195) at Hallowe’en. The -whole Egyptian story is told in my _Dawn of Astronomy_[109] in -connection with the worship of Set, that is the stars visible at night, -blotted out at dawn by the rising sun, or becoming predominant after -sunset. - - -9. The worship of the sun and stars. - -Here also, as I have shown, is complete agreement. The same astronomical -methods have been employed for the same purpose. The chief difference -lies in the fact that by lapse of time the precessional movement caused -different stars to be observed as clock stars or to herald the sunrise -on the chief ceremonial days. - -[100] _Dolmens of Ireland_, p. 426. - -[101] “France, indeed, furnishes us with a stepping-stone, as it were, -between the natural cave and the dolmen in certain artificial caves -which offer comparison both with the former and the latter... the -natural cave was scooped out into a large chamber or chambers either by -the swirling of water pent up in the limestone or other yielding rock -and finding its way out through some narrow crevice. The ground plan and -section, therefore, is that of an _allée couverte_ with a vestibule... -the artificial cave is modelled on the natural one, and yet bears, as M. -Mortillet points out, a close resemblance to the dolmen.” - -[102] Wandle, _Remains of Prehistoric Age in England_, p. 147. - -[103] It is interesting to point out in relation to the fact that -different swarms successively introduced the May and solstitial years -that the “sleeping rooms” of the May year cairns at New Grange are about -3 feet square, while at the solstitial Maeshowe, built very much later, -the dimensions are 6 feet × 4¹⁄₂ feet. There were differences of -sleeping posture in the old days among different peoples as well as -different methods of burial. - -[104] Borlase, p. 617. - -[105] “The Builders and the Antiquity of our Cornish Dolmens,” by Rev. -D. Gath Whitley (_Journal R.I. Cornwall_, No. 4). - -[106] _Book of Brittany_, p. 21. - -[107] _History of the Semites_, p. 364. - -[108] _Strange Survivals_, p. 122. - -[109] Pp. 146, 215, and elsewhere. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -THE MAY-YEAR IN SOUTH-WEST CORNWALL - - -The previous pages of this volume have apparently dealt with two -distinct subjects; the use of the British monuments on the orientation -theory, and the folklore and tradition which enable us to get some -glimpses into the lives, actions, habits and beliefs of the early -inhabitants of these islands, and the region whence these early -inhabitants had migrated. - -But although these subjects are apparently distinct, I think my readers -will agree that the study of each has led to an identical result, -namely, that in early times it was a question of the May year, and that -the solstitial year was introduced afterwards. This was the chief -revelation of the monuments when they were studied from the astronomical -point of view. - -Without confirmation from some other sources this result might have been -considered as doubtful, and the orientation theory might have been -thought valueless. It has, however, been seen that folklore and -tradition confirm it up to the hilt. I think it may be said, therefore, -that the theory I put forward in this book touching the astronomical use -of our ancient temples is so far justified. - -The British monuments I had considered before this appeal to tradition -was made were the circles at Stonehenge, Stenness, The Hurlers and -Stanton Drew, and the avenues on Dartmoor. These were studied generally, -the main special result being that to which I have referred; we not only -found alignments to sunrise and sunset on the critical quarter-days of -the May years, but we found alignments to the stars which should have -been observed either at rising or setting to control the morning -sacrifices. - -But this inquiry had left out of account several circles in south-west -Cornwall, of which I had vaguely heard but never seen. When I had -written the previous chapters showing how fully May-year practices are -referred to in the folklore of that part of the country, I determined to -visit the circles, dealing with them as test objects in regard to this -special branch of orientation. I had not time to make a complete survey; -this I must leave to others; but with the help so readily afforded me, -which I shall acknowledge in its proper place, I thought it possible in -a brief visit to see whether or not there were any May-year alignments. -In the following chapters I will give an account of the observations -made, but before doing so, in order to prove how solid the evidence -afforded by the Cornish monuments is, I will state the details of the -local astronomical conditions depending upon the latitude of the Land’s -End region, N. 50°. In the chapter containing some astronomical hints to -archæologists I referred (p. 122) to the solstice conditions for -Stenness beyond John o’ Groat’s, because those conditions afforded a -special case, the solstice being determined by the arrival of the sun at -its highest or lowest declination, which happens on particular dates -which recur each year. But with regard to the May year, during the -first week of May the sun’s declination is changing by over a quarter of -a degree daily, so that we must not expect to find the declination of -16° 20′ (see p. 22) rigidly adhered to. - -As I have shown (p. 23), the sun’s passage through this declination four -times on its annual path on the dates stated accurately divides the year -into four equal parts. But this accuracy might have been neglected by -the early observers, so that, for instance, the sun’s position on the -4th or 8th of May instead of that on the 6th might have been chosen as -being in greater harmony with the agricultural conditions at the place. - -The conditions of the sunrise from John o’ Groat’s to Land’s End, 2′ of -the sun being visible above the sky-line, can be gathered from the -following diagram:-- - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Place of first appearance of the May sun, in -British latitudes. - -~Vertical axis: N. LAT. From bottom: 48-59.~ - -~Horizontal axis: AZIMUTHS. From left: 55-67.~ - -~Curves, from left: HORIZON, 0° HILL, 2°HILL.~] - -The exact azimuths for this sunrise in the Land’s End region (Lat. 50°) -in relation to the place of the sunrise when half the sun has risen, -with a sea horizon, are shown in Fig. 51. - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Showing the influence of the height of the -sky-line on the apparent place of sunrise in May and August. The double -circle shows the tabular place of sun’s centre.] - - - - -CHAPTER XXV - -THE MERRY MAIDENS CIRCLE (LAT. 50° 4′ N.) - - -One of the best preserved circles that I know of is near Penzance. It is -called the Merry Maidens[110] (Dawns-Maen), and is thus described by -Lukis[111] (p. 1):-- - -“This very perfect Circle, which is 75 feet 8 inches in diameter, stands -in a cultivated field which slopes gently to the south. - -“It consists of 19 granite stones placed at tolerably regular distances -from each other, but there is a gap on the east side, where another -stone was most probably once erected. - -“Many of the stones are rectangular in plan at the ground level, vary -from 3 feet 3 inches to 4 feet in height, and are separated by a space -of from 10 to 12 feet. There is a somewhat shorter interval between -four of the stones on the south side. - -“In the vicinity of this monument are two monoliths called the Pipers; -another called Goon-Rith; a holed stone (not long ago there were two -others); and several [5] Cairns.” - -Lukis thus describes the “Pipers”:-- - -“Two rude stone pillars of granite stand erect, 317 feet apart, and -about 400 yards to the north-east of the Circle of Dawns-Maen. No. 1 is -15 feet high, 4 feet 6 inches in breadth, and has an average thickness -of 22 inches, and is 2 feet 9 inches out of the perpendicular. The stone -is of a laminated nature, and a thin fragment has flaked off from the -upper part. No. 2 is 13 feet 6 inches high, and is much split -perpendicularly. At the ground level its plan in section is nearly a -square of about 3 feet.” - -Goon-Rith is next described:--“No. 3 is naturally of a rectangular form -in plan, and is 10 feet 6 inches in height. The land on which it stands -is called Goon-Rith, or Red Downs. The upper part of the stone is of -irregular shape.” - -Borlase, in his _History of Cornwall_ (1769), only mentions the circle, -but W. C. Borlase, in his _Nænia Cornubiæ_ (1872), gives a very rough -plan including the stones before mentioned and several barrows, some of -which have been ploughed up. - -At varying distances from the circle and in widely different azimuths -are other standing stones, ancient crosses and holed stones, while some -of the barrows can still be traced. - -The descriptions of the locality given by Borlase and Lukis, however, -do not exhaust the points of interest. Edmonds[112] writes as follows:-- - -“A cave still perfect... is on an eminence in the tenement of Boleit -(Boleigh) in St. Buryan, and about a furlong south-west of the village -of Trewoofe (Trove). It is called the ‘Fowgow,’ and consists of a trench -6 feet deep and 36 long, faced on each side with unhewn and uncemented -stones, across which, to serve as a roof, long stone posts or slabs are -laid covered with thick turf, planted with furze. The breadth of the -cave is about 5 feet. On its north-west side, near the south-west end, a -narrow passage leads into a branch cave of considerable extent, -constructed in the same manner. At the south-west end is an entrance by -a descending path; but this, as well as the cave itself, is so well -concealed by the furze that the whole looks like an ordinary furze break -without any way into it. The direction of the line of this cave is about -north-east and south-west, which line, if continued towards the -south-west, would pass close to the two ancient pillars called the -Pipers, and the Druidical temple of Dawns Myin, all within half of a -mile.” - -This fougou is situated on a hill on the other side of the Lamorna -Valley, near the village of Castallack, and the site of the Roundago -shown in the 1-inch Ordnance map. - -Borlase[113] says that many similar caves were to be seen “in these -parts” in his time, and others had been destroyed by converting the -stones to other uses. - -There is evidence that the circle conditions at the Merry Maidens were -once similar to those at Stenness, Stanton Drew, the Hurlers, Tregaseal -and Botallack, that is that there was more than one, the numbers running -from 2 to 7. Mr. Horton Bolitho, without whose aid in local -investigations this chapter in all probability would never have been -written, in one of his visits came across “the oldest inhabitant,” who -remembered a second circle. He said, “It was covered with furze and -never shown to antiquarians”; ultimately the field in which it stood was -ploughed up and the stones removed. It is to prevent a similar fate -happening to the “Merry Maidens” themselves that Lord Falmouth will not -allow the field in which they stand to be ploughed, and all antiquarians -certainly owe him a debt of gratitude for this and other proofs of his -interest in antiquities. Mr. Bolitho carefully marked the site thus -indicated on a copy of the 25-inch map. I shall subsequently show that -the circle which formerly existed here, like the others named, was -located on an important sight-line. - -Mr. Horton Bolitho was good enough to make a careful examination of the -barrows A and B of Borlase.[114] In A (S. 69° W.) he found a long stone -still lying in the barrow, suggesting that the barrow had been built -round it, and that the apex of the barrow formed a new alignment. In B -there is either another recumbent long stone or the capstone of a -dolmen. This suggests work for the local antiquarians. - -I should state that there may be some doubt about barrow A, for there -are two not far from each other with approximate azimuths S. 69° W. and -S. 64° W. The destruction of these and other barrows was probably the -accompaniment of the reclamation of waste lands and the consequent -interference with antiquities which in Cornwall has mostly taken place -since 1800. - -[Illustration: _Photo. by Lady Lockier._ - -FIG. 52.--The Merry Maidens (looking East).] - -But it did not begin then, nor has it been confined to barrows. Dr. -Borlase, in his parochial memoranda under date September 29, 1752, -describes a monolith 20 feet above ground, and planted 4 feet in it, the -“Men Peru” (stone of sorrow) in the parish of Constantine. A farmer -acknowledged that he had cut it up, and had made twenty gate-posts out -of it. - -My wife and I visited the Merry Maidens at Easter, 1905, for the -purpose of making a reconnaissance. Mr. Horton Bolitho and Mr. Cornish -were good enough to accompany us. - -On my return to London I began work on the 25-inch Ordnance map, and -subsequently Colonel R. C. Hellard, R.E., director of the Ordnance -Survey, was kind enough to send me the true azimuths of the Pipers. In -October, 1905, Mr. Horton Bolitho and Captain Henderson, whose help at -the Hurlers I have already had an opportunity of acknowledging, made a -much more complete survey of the adjacent standing stones and barrows. - -In this survey they not only made use of the 25-inch map, but of the old -plan given by W. C. Borlase dating from about 1870. Although the -outstanding stones shown by Borlase remain, some of the barrows -indicated by him have disappeared. - -In January, 1906, my wife and I paid other visits to the monuments, and -Mr. Horton Bolitho was again good enough to accompany us. Thanks to him -permission had been obtained to break an opening in the high -wall-boundary which prevented any view along the “Pipers” sight-line. I -may here add that unfortunately in Cornwall the field boundaries often -consist of high stone walls topped by furze, so that the outstanding -stones once visible from the circles can now no longer be seen from -them; another trouble is that from this cause the angular height of the -sky-line along the alignment cannot be measured in many cases. - -I will now proceed to refer to the chief sight-lines seriatim. The first -is that connecting the circle which still exists with the site of the -ancient one. On this line exactly I found four points, a barrow (L) -which Borlase had missed (further from the circle than his barrow A), -the site, the present circle, and the fougou; azimuth from centre of -circle N. 64° E. and S. 64° W. This is the May-year line found at -Stonehenge, Stenness, the Hurlers and Stanton Drew. - -In connection with this there is another sight-line which must not be -passed over; from the circle the bearing of the church of St. Burian is -about N. 64° W.; like the fougou it is situated on a hill, and near it -are ancient crosses which I suspect were menhirs first and crosses -afterwards.[115] However this may be, we see in this azimuth of 64° -three times repeated that the May and August sunrises and sunsets and -the February and November sunsets were provided for. - -With regard to the other sight-lines I will begin with that of the -Pipers, as it is quite obviously connected with the eastern circle only; -the stones could not have been seen from the other on account of rising -ground. The barrow shown in this direction by Borlase has now entirely -disappeared, and the earth has evidently been spread over the -surrounding field; its surface is therefore higher than formerly, so -that when the opening was made in the wall the top of the nearest piper -could not be seen from the centre of the circle; an elevation of about 2 -feet from the ground level was necessary. Walking straight from the -circle to the first piper, the second piper was exactly in a line, -though at a much lower level. This showed that the Ordnance values were -not quite accurate, which was not to be wondered at as no direct -observation had been possible. I therefore adopted the mean of the -Ordnance values as the true azimuth:-- - - Piper 1.--N. 37° 58′ 36″ E. - Piper 2.-- 38 52 36 - ---------- - Mean 38 25 36 - -The sky-line from the centre of the circle was defined by the site of -the vanished barrow, angular elevation 20′, and it is highly probable -that the function of the barrow when built was to provide a new -sight-line when the star-rise place was no longer exactly pointed out by -the piper line. - -With these data the star in question was Capella, dec. 29° 58′ N., -heralding the February sunrise, 2160 B.C. - -I next come to the famous menhir Goon-Rith. The conditions are as -follows:--from the circle Az. S. 81° 35′ W. Altitude of sky-line 34′. - -Concerning this alignment from the circle, it may be stated that it cuts -across many ancient stones, including one resembling a rock basin or -laver, and another either a holed stone or the socket of a stone cross. -I suspect also the presence in old days of a holy well attached to the -circle, for there is a pool of water in a depression which is shown in -the 25-inch map. - -I regard it as quite possible that we are here in presence of the -remains of a cursus, an old _via sacra_, for processions between the -circle and the monolith. - -I have not been able to find any astronomical use for this stone from -the circle or from the site of the old one, but if we suppose it to have -been used like the Barnstone at Stenness for observations _over_ the -circle its object at once becomes obvious. - -From the azimuth given, the declination of the star was 5° 24′ N. Now -this was the position of the Pleiades B.C. 1960, when they would have -warned the rising of the May sun. - -So that it is possible that the erection of the Pipers and of Goon-Rith -took place at about the same time, and represent the first operations. - -The next alignment has an azimuth of S. 69° W. from the circle; it would -be the same within a degree from the site of the one which has -disappeared; altitude of sky-line 32′; this line is to a stone cross on -rising ground,[116] doubtless a re-dressing of an old menhir, and on the -line nearer the circle are the remains of a barrow. - -With these data the star in question was Antares, dec. S. 13° 18′, -heralding the May sunrise 1310 B.C. - -There is another stone cross defining a line az. N. 11° 45′ E. from the -circle, altitude of sky-line about the same as along the Piper azimuth; -an intervening house prevents measurement. These values give us N. dec. -38° 46′, referring to Arcturus warning the August sunrise in 1640 B.C. - -The three alignments already referred to, then, give us the warning -stars for three out of the four quarter-days of the May year. - -There is still another stone cross, Az. N. 82° 5′ W., hills about 34′. -This has no connection with the May year, but may refer to the -equinoctial one. - -W. C. Borlase refers to several holed stones. The data for two of these, -supplied by Capt. Henderson, are as follows:-- - - Az. Alt. of sky-line - Stone in hedge N. of road S. 50°33′ E. 45′ - Stone, half still standing S. 79 25 W. 49 - -Azimuths near these have been noted before at other circles, and it must -not be forgotten that as the holed stones on my view were used for -observation, these azimuths must be reversed, since it is probable that -the observations were made over the circle. If this were so, then S.E. -would be changed into N.W., and we should get N. 50° 33′ W. indicating -the solstitial sunset. Similarly, S.W. would become N.E., and we should -have N. 79° 25′ E., possibly a Pleiades alignment. - -I have brought together in the following table all the sight-lines so -far referred to. Where the altitude of the sky-line has been measured it -is marked with a *. - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.--25-inch Ordnance Map of Merry Maidens, showing -alignments.] - -In the map the probable site of the second circle and the barrows have -special marks attached to them. The numbers of the alignments in the -table are also shown in the map. - -TABLE OF ALIGNMENTS. - - ------+-------------+-----+----------+------------+------+------------ - Align-| Azimuth. |Hill.| Decl. |Sun or Star.| Date.| Mark. - ment. | | | | | | - ------+-------------+-----+----------+------------+------+------------ - | | | | | B.C. | - 1 |N. 11° 45′ E.| 20′ |38° 46′ N.|Arcturus | 1650 |Stone in - | | | |(warning | |road. - | | | |August) | | - | | | | | | - 2 |N. 38° 25′ E.| 20′*|29° 58′ N.|Capella | 2160 |The Pipers - | | | |(warning | |and barrow. - | | | |February) | | - | | | | | | - 3 |N. 64° E. | ¹⁄₃°|16° 21′ N.|May year | -- |Fougou. - | | | | | | - 4 |S. 38° 22′ N.| 20′ |30° 27′ S.|Pipers line | -- |Barrrow B. - | | | | | | - 5 |S. 64° W. | 20′ |16° 26′ S.|May year | -- |Barrow L. - | | | |(February- | | - | | | |November | | - | | | |setting) | | - | | | | | | - 6 |S. 69° W. | 32′*|13° 18′ S.|Antares | 1310 |Stone cross - | | | |(warning | |on hill and - | | | |May) | |Barrow A. - | | | | | | - 7 |S. 81° 35′ W.| 32′*| 5° 24′ N.|_Reversed | 1960 |Goon-Rith. - | | | |line._ | | - | | | |Pleiades | | - | | | |elev. ¹⁄₂° | | - | | | |(warning | | - | | | |May) | | - | | | | | | - 8 |N. 64° W. | 42′ | 16° N.|May year | -- |St. Burian - | | | |(May eve | |Church. - | | | |setting) | | - ------+-------------+-----+----------+------------+------+------------ - -[110] I may here remark that “9 maidens” is very common as a name for a -circle in Cornwall. It is a short title for 19 maidens. Lukis implies -that Dawns-Maen once consisted of 20 stones. If all the circles followed -suit it would be interesting to note if the present number of 19 is -always associated with a gap on the eastern side. The “pipers” are, of -course, the musicians who keep the maidens merry, as does the “blind -fiddler” at Boscowen-un Circle. - -[111] _Prehistoric Stone Monuments, Cornwall._ - -[112] _The Land’s End District_, p. 46. - -[113] _Antiquities_, p. 274. - -[114] _Nænia_, p. 214. - -[115] In A.D. 658 a council assembled at Nantes decreed:--“As in remote -places and in woodlands there stand certain stones which the people -often worship, and at which vows are made, and to which oblations are -presented--we decree that they be all cast down and concealed in such a -place that their worshippers may not be able to find them.” - -“Now the carrying out of their order was left to the country parsons, -and partly because they had themselves been brought up to respect these -stones, and partly because the execution of the decree would have -brought down a storm upon their heads, they contented themselves with -putting a cross on top of the stones.”--_Book of Brittany_, by -Baring-Gould, p. 20. - -[116] With regard to this Mr. Horton Bolitho has sent me the following -note:--“The rising ground here is called locally ‘Lanine Hill’ (spelt -Lanyon and pronounced Lanine); this is worth noticing, as it is the same -name as the dolmen six or seven miles away from Boleit, and in the same -district as the Men an Tôl and Boskednan Circle, to say nothing of -Lannion in Brittany. Lan signifies something sacred, the place of the -saint, or belonging to the saint.” - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI - -THE TREGASEAL CIRCLES (LAT. 50° 8′ 25″ N., LONG. 5° 39′ 25″ W.) - - -There are two circles situated on Truthwall Common near to Tregaseal and -not far from St. Just; the one is nearly to the east of the other, and -there are outstanding stones, including four holed stones, and several -barrows. The eastern temple has a diameter of 69 feet, and includes, at -the present time, nine erect and four prostrate stones; the original -structure seems to have contained twenty-eight stones according to -Lukis. - -My wife and I visited the region in January, 1906, but previously to our -going Mr. Horton Bolitho, accompanied by Mr. Thomas, whose knowledge of -the local antiquities is very great, had explored the region and taught -us what to observe. - -The chief interest appears to lie on the N.E. quadrant, where, in -addition to a famous longstone on a hill about a mile away, the nest of -holed stones and several of the barrows are located. Carn Kenidjack, a -famous landmark, lies to the north. - -Of the two circles, I confined my attention almost exclusively to the -eastern one, as the other is in a fragmentary condition, though it is -still traceable. It is hidden almost entirely from the eastern circle by -a modern hedge. - -Mr. Horton Bolitho, who accompanied us in January, has again visited the -spot, with Mr. Thomas, for the purpose of further exploration, and -determining the angular height of the sky-line along the different -alignments, which I have plotted from the 6-inch and 25-inch maps. My -readers will therefore see that my part of the work has been a small -one, and that they are chiefly indebted to those I have named. - -No theodolite survey has as yet been made for determining the azimuths -and the height of the hills. The following approximate azimuths have -been determined by myself from a 25-inch map, and the elevations by Mr. -Horton Bolitho by means of a miner’s dial. - - Alignments. Azimuth. Elevation. - 1. Apex of Carn N. 12° 8′E. 4′ 0′ - 2. Barrow 800′ distant N. 20 8 E. 3 50 - 3. Two barrows 900′ distant N. 50 8 E. 1 50 - 4. Holed stones N. 53 20 E. 1 15 - 5. Longstone N. 66 38 E. 2 10 - 6. Stone N. 76 13 E. - -The carn referred to in the above table is Carn Kenidjack, called “the -hooting cairn.” The rocks on the summit, in which there is a remarkable -depression, are still by local superstition supposed to emit evil sounds -by night. - -[Illustration: _Photo. by Lady Lockyer._ - -FIG. 54.--The Eastern Circle at Tregaseal.] - -Of the sight-lines studied so far, those to and from the Longstone and -the holed stones seem the most important. The Longstone,[117] 1¹⁄₂ miles -to the N.E., is a monolith 10 feet high on the western side of a hill; -it is visible from the circle though furze has grown round and partly -hidden it. - -The meanings of the various alignments seem to be as follows:-- - - Decl. N. Star. Date. - 1. Apex of Carn 42° 33′ 0″ Arcturus 2330 B.C. - 2. Barrow 800′ distant 40 29 0 „ 1970 „ - 3. Two barrows 900′ distant 25 20 21 ? Solstitial - 4. Holed stones 23 2 20 ? „ - 5. Longstone 16 2 0 May sun - 6. Stone 9 15 0 Pleiades 1270 B.C. - -Regarding the possible solstitial alignments, the declinations obtained -may be neglected until the azimuths and angular heights of the hills -have been determined with a good theodolite. A change of -10′ in the -angular elevation, and hence about that in the resulting declination, -would bring the date given by the barrows to about 2000 B.C. - -The position of the Longstone is well worthy of attention. Several very -fine monuments which mark the surrounding horizon are visible from it in -azimuths with which other monuments have made us familiar. They are as -follows:-- - - Alignment. Az. Hills. - Longstone to Mên-an-tol N. 50° 30′ E. 0° 34′ - „ Nine Maidens (Boskednan) N. 54 0 E. 1 0 - „ W. Lanyon Quoit N. 67 0 E. 0 0 - „ Lanyon Quoit N. 72 45 E. 0 0 - -These values, of which the angular heights of the hills were determined -approximately from the contours on the 1-inch Ordnance map, lead us to -the following declinations:-- - - Alignment. Decl. Star. Date. - Longstone to Mên-an-tol 24° 7′ N. Solstitial sun. - „ Nine Maidens 22 37 N. „ - (Boskednan) - „ W. Lanyon Quoit 14 3 N. May sun. - „ Lanyon Quoit 10 30 N. Pleiades 1030 B.C. - -[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Photograph of Ordnance Map, showing -sight-lines.] - -The May-sun alignment, it may be noted, differs from that from the -circle. The heights of hills when determined may give us the same solar -declination; that now used gives the declination for April 28 and August -15 in our present calendar. - -Regarding the alignment on Lanyon Quoit, it need only be pointed out -that the Pleiades date obtained is some 200 years after the date -obtained for the analagous alignment from the circle, showing that if -these two monuments--the Tregaseal circle and the Longstone--have any -relationship, the removal to the high plain, now known as Woon Gumpus -and Boswen Commons, was an afterthought improvement. - -I next come to the holed stones, not only the nest of them not far from -the circle, but the famous Mên-an-tol itself. - -I had heard before going to Tregaseal that the four holed stones shown -on the Ordnance map had been knocked down and set up again (not -necessarily in their old places) two or three times. Mr. Horton Bolitho -and Mr. Thomas, however, in their examination were convinced that the -largest of them has never been moved. They also express the belief that -the others are not more than a foot or so from their original positions, -and that this change is only due to their re-erection by Mr. Cornish -after they had fallen down. So far I have heard nothing of the direction -of the hole in the stone which retains its original position. - -Another interesting matter is that the explorers in question were able -to trace an ancient stone alignment from the circle to the holed -stones. - -I have long held that these holed stones were arrangements for -determining an alignment. The famous Odin stone at Stenness, long since -disappeared, was, if we may trust the very definite statements made -about its position, used to observe the Barnstone in one direction and -the chief circle in the other. - -[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Plan of the Mên-an-tol from Lukis, showing that -it was an apparatus for observing the sunrise in May and August in one -direction and the sunset in February and November in the other. Sun’s -declination, 16° N. or S.] - -The azimuths suggest that theodolite measures may show that the -Tregaseal stones might have been used in the same way; they, the -Longstone and Lanyon Quoit, are in nearly the same straight line, the -alignment, holed stones to Longstone and Lanyon Quoit, being N. 67° E., -so that the May sunrise may have been noted in this way. - -[Illustration: _Photo. by Lady Lockyer._ - -FIG. 57.--The Mên-an-tol.] - -Several other monuments, _e.g._, Chûn Castle and Cromlech, are to be -found in the immediate neighbourhood of the Tregaseal circle and the -Longstone, but these will have to await further investigation as to -their character and antiquity before any conclusions concerning their -astronomical use can be deduced. - -[Illustration: FIG. 58.--The Mên-an-tol. Front view and section, from -Lukis. - -~Front view: D. LOOKING S.W., SCALE 1 INCH TO 1 FOOT.~ - -~Section: SECTION OF D.~] - -Not only do we find in this neighbourhood the nest of holed stones to -which I have referred, but the Mên-an-tol, the most famous of them all, -in England at all events. This, then, is the place to say a few words -about them. I have before stated my opinion that these stones, instead -of being used as slaughter stones or posts at which to tie up the victim -before sacrifice, or in any other similar employment, were really -sighting stones to enable an alignment to be easily picked up. As such -these were, of course, treated as sacred, and hence the folk-lore -connected with them. This folk-lore seems to be most complete in the -case of the famous stone of Odin at Stenness, so I condense Mr. Spence’s -account of it. - -Children brought to the stone at Beltaine and Midsummer, after being -carried sunwise round the holy well were passed through the hole as a -protection against the powers of the evil one. Marriage ceremony -consisted of joining hands through the hole, a vow held as sacred as -the legal marriage of to-day. Pains in the head cured by inserting the -head in the cavity, cure of palsy in children. Children and adults -travelled many miles to secure relief in this way. - -At the Mên-an-tol the curative effects could only be obtained by -crawling through the aperture, which is of considerable size. - -As a rule, however, the aperture is much more restricted. The general -size of the holed stone and the position of the aperture in it may be -well gathered from the fact that almost all of them have been used for -gateposts, and are now to be seen fulfilling that function. In some -cases the old special use can be inferred, but in others this is more -difficult, as the stones have been shifted or slewed round, or the -ancient monument to which the sighting stone was directed has -disappeared. - -The astronomical origin of the Mên-an-tol, which obviously has never -been disturbed, is quite obvious. Fig. 56 (from Lukis) shews that it was -arranged along the May year alignment, the advent of May and August, -February and November being indicated by the shadows cast by the stones -through the aperture on to the opposite ones. - -To the south-west the alignment for the February and November sunsets -passes exactly over Chûn Castle. - -The “Tolmen” near Gweek, Constantine, another famous holed stone 7 feet -9 inches high and with an aperture of 17 inches, is according to a -magnetic bearing I took last Easter parallel to the Mên-an-tol, and -doubtless was used for the same purpose. - -[117] In Cornwall this is the name generally given to a monolith. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII - -SOME OTHER CORNISH MONUMENTS - -_Boscawen-un_, _N. Lat._ 50° 5′ 20″ - - -My wife and I visited Boscawen-un on a pouring day, when it was -impossible to make any observations. Mr. Horton Bolitho, who was with -us, introduced us to the tenant of Boscawen-noon--Mr. Hannibal Rowe--who -very kindly, in spite of the bad weather, took us to the circle and the -stone cross to the N.E. of it. - -Lukis thus described this monument:[118]-- - -“The enclosed ground on which this circle stands is uncultivated and -heathy, and slopes gently to the south. Twenty years ago a hedge ran -across it and bisected the circle. - -“This monument is composed of nineteen standing stones, and is of an -oval form, the longer diameter being 80 feet and the shorter 71 feet 6 -inches. One of the stones is a block of quartz 4 feet high, and the -rest, which are of granite, vary from 2 feet 9 inches to 4 feet 7 inches -in height. On the west side there is a gap, whence it is probable that -a stone has been removed. Within the area, 9 feet to the south-west from -the centre, is a tall monolith, 8 feet out of the ground, which inclines -to the north-east, and is 3 feet 3 inches out of the perpendicular. - -[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Photograph of the Ordnance Map.] - -“In 1594 Camden describes this monument as consisting of nineteen -stones, 12 feet from each other, with one much larger than the rest in -the centre. It must have been much in the same condition then as now. As -he does not say that the monolith enclosed within it was inclined, it is -possible that it was upright at that time. - -“Dr. Stukeley’s supposition was that it originally stood upright, and -that ‘somebody digging by it to find treasure disturbed it.’ - -“On the north-east side there are two fallen stones which Dr. Borlase, -in 1749, imagined to have formed part of a Cromlech. It is more probable -that they are the fragments of a second pillar which was placed to the -north-east of the centre, and as far from it as the existing one is. -There are instances, I believe, of two pillars occupying similar -positions within a circle. One of the stones, that marked C in my plan, -on the eastern side of the ring, was prostrate in the Doctor’s time. - -“At a short distance to the south-east and south-west there are cairns, -which have been explored.” - -For this monument I have used the 6-inch map, as the circle lies nearly -at the centre, and all the outstanding stones are within its limits. The -heights of the sky-line were measured by Mr. H. Bolitho at a subsequent -visit with a miner’s dial; the resulting declinations have been -calculated by Mr. Rolston. A theodolite survey will doubtless revise -some of them:-- - - Marks. Az. Hills. Dec. Star. Date. - 1. F. Stone cross N. 43° 15′ E. 2° 7′ +29° 26′ Capella 2250 - 2. P. Fine menhir N. 53 30 E. 1 15 22 58 Solstitial -- - sun - 3. B. Blind N. 54 30 E. 1 15 22 24 Solstitial -- - Fiddler sun - 4. Two large N. 66 50 E. 1 0 14 55 May sun -- - menhirs - 5. Stone cross N. 78 0 E. 1 0(?) + 8 8 Pleiades 1480 - (May) - 6. Stone S. 66 30 E. 1 0(?) -14 32 November -- - sun - 7. Stone N. 83 30 W. 1 0(?) + 4 36 Pleiades 2120 - (September) - -[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Showing azimuths in Lat. N. 50° for the summer -solstice sunrise, with different heights of hills for 1905 A.D. and 1680 -B.C. - -~Vertical axis from bottom: SEA LEVEL, ¹⁄₂°, 1°, 1¹⁄₂°, 2°.~ - -~Horizontal axis, top, from left: 1905 A.D., 49° 20′-54° 20′.~ - -~Horizontal axis, bottom, from left: 1680 B.C. (DATE OF STONEHENGE), 48° -40′-53° 40′.~] - -I gather from a report which Mr. H. Bolitho has been good enough to send -me that modern hedges and farming operations have changed the conditions -of the sight-lines, so that 1 and 3 are just invisible from the circle. -This is by no means the only case in which the sighting stone has just -been hidden over the brow of a hill and in which signals from an -observer on the brow itself have been suggested, or a _via sacra_ to the -brow from the circle; there are many monoliths in this direction which -certainly never belonged to the circle. - -From the menhir P (No. 2) a fine view is obtained from N. to S. through -E., so that the Blind Fiddler and the two large menhirs, and almost the -circle, are visible. The curious shapes of 1 and 2 are noted, the east -face vertical and the west boundary curved, like several sighting stones -on Dartmoor. - -The circle itself has several peculiarities. In the first place, as -shown by Lukis, it is not circular, the diameters being about 85 and 65 -feet; the minor axis runs through the pillar stone in the centre and the -“fallen stones” of Dr. Borlase towards the “stone cross” (which is no -cross but a fine menhir) in Az. N. 43° 15′ E. This would suggest that -this was the original alignment in 2250 B.C., but against this is the -fact that the two stones of the circle between which the “fallen stones” -lie are more carefully squared than the rest. It is true, however, that -this might have been done afterwards, and this seems probable, for they -are closer together than the other circle stones. - -The one quartz stone occupies an azimuth S. 66° W. It was obviously -placed in a post of honour. As a matter of fact, from it the May sun -was seen to rise over the centre of the circle. - -As there are both at Tregaseal and Boscawen-un alignments suggesting the -observation of the summer solstice sunrise, it is desirable here to -refer to the azimuths as calculated. For this purpose Fig. 60 has been -prepared, which shows these for lat. 50° both at the present day and at -the date of the restoration at Stonehenge. - -My readers should compare this with Fig. 36, which gives the solstice -sunrise conditions of Stenness in Lat. N. 59°. Such a comparison will -show how useless it is to pursue these inquiries without taking the -latitude and the height of the sky-line into account. - - -“_Stripple Stones_” (lat. 50° 32′ 50″ N., long. 4° 37′ W.) - -This is a very remarkable circle consisting of 5 erect and 11 prostrate -stones situated on a circular level platform 175 feet in diameter on the -boggy south slope of Hawk’s Tor on the Hawkstor Downs in the parish of -Blisland. The circle itself is about 148 feet in diameter, and the whole -monument is, in Lukis’s opinion, the most interesting and remarkable in -the country. Surrounding the platform is a ditch 11 feet wide, and -beyond that a penannular vallum about 10 feet in width. The peculiarity -of the vallum is that it has three bastions situate on the north-east, -north-west, and east sides. It is to the north-east bastion that I wish -to refer. - -Sighting from the huge monolith, which is now prostrate but originally -marked the centre of the circle, along a line bisecting the arc of this -bastion we find that the azimuth of the sight-line is N. 25° E.; the -angular elevation of the horizon from the 1-inch Ordnance map appears to -be about 0° 22′. From these values, proceeding as in the former cases, -we find - - Alignment. Decl. Star. Date. - Centre of circle to centre of bastion 35° 1′ N. Capella 1250 B.C. - -indicating that this alignment was formed for the same purpose as that -which dominated the erection of the “Pipers.” - - -“_Nine Maidens_” (lat. 50° 28′ 20″ N., long. 4° 54′ 35″ W.) - -In this monument we find a very different type from those considered -previously. - -The Nine Maidens are simply 9 stones in a straight line 262 feet in -length at the present day; possibly, as suggested by Lukis, it may have -extended originally to the monolith known as “The Fiddler,” situated -some 800 yards away in a north-easterly direction. Measuring the azimuth -of the alignment on Lukis’s plan, and finding the horizon elevations -from the 1-inch Ordnance map, we have the following:-- - - Az. Hills. Decl. Star. Date. - N. 28° E. 0° 0′ 37° 47′ N. Capella 1480 B.C. - -It may be remarked that here we have a date for the use of Capella -intermediate between those obtained for the “Pipers” and the “Strippie -Stones” respectively. - -[118] _Prehistoric Stone Monuments of the British Isles: Cornwall._ W. -C. Lukis. P. 1. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVIII - -THE CLOCK-STARS IN EGYPT AND BRITAIN. - - -I have now finished my astronomical reconnaissance of the British -monuments. I trust I have shown how important it is that my holiday task -should be followed by a serious inquiry by other workers so that the -approximate values with which I have had to content myself for want of -time may be replaced by others to which the highest weight can be -attached. This means at each circle reversed observations with a -six-inch theodolite and determination of azimuths by means of -observations of the sun if necessary. - -I propose in the present chapter to bring together the general results -already obtained in cases where the inquiry has been complete enough to -warrant definite conclusions to be drawn. - -The first result to be gathered from the observations, and one to which -I attach the highest importance, is that the practice, so long employed -in Egypt, of determining time at night by the revolution of a star round -the pole, was almost universally followed in the British circles. This -practice was to watch a first-magnitude star, which I named a -“clock-star,”[119] of such a declination that it just dipped below the -northern horizon so that it was visible for almost the whole of its -path. - -Doubtless this same method of determining the flow of time during the -night watches was also employed in Babylonia,[120] but there, alas! the -temples, or, in other words, the astronomical observatories, have -disappeared, so that only the Egyptian practice remains for us to study. - - -_Egypt._ - -Let us, before we proceed, consider some results which have been -gathered from the study of the Egyptian observations. - -One of the earliest temples in Egypt concerning which we have historical -references to check the orientation results was built to carry on these -night observations at Denderah, lat. N. 26° 10′. The star observed was α -Ursae Majoris, decl. N. 58° 52′, passing 5° below the northern horizon; -date (assuming horizon 1° high) about 4950 B.C., _i.e._, in the times of -the Shemsu Heru, before Mena, as is distinctly stated in the -inscriptions. - -After α Ursae Majoris had become circumpolar in the latitude of -Denderah, γ Draconis, which had ceased to be circumpolar, and so -fulfilled the conditions to which I have referred, replaced it. Its -declination was 58° 52′ N. about 3100 B.C., and it, therefore, could -have been watched rising in the axis prolonged of the old temple in the -time of Pepi, who restored it then, no doubt on account of the advent -of the new star, and is stated to have deposited a copy of the old plan -in a cavity in the new walls. - -Here, then, we have two dates given by orientation of a clock-star -temple entirely agreeing with the most recent views of Egyptian -chronology. - -In Dr. Budge’s _History of Egypt_ (iii. 14) the story of the rebuilding -of the temple at Annu by Usertsen (2433 B.C., Brugsch) is given from an -ancient roll. Supposing this temple built parallel with the faces of the -remaining obelisk, γ Draconis would rise in its axis prolonged 2500 -B.C., proving that Usertsen did at Annu what Pepi previously did at -Denderah, and that the same reason for restoration and even the same -star were in question.[121] - -When the clock-star ceased to be visible in the chief temple other -subsidiary temples were subsequently built to watch it. Thus γ Draconis -was watched at Thebes from 3500 B.C. to the times of the Ptolemys by -temples oriented successively from that of Mut Az. N. 72° 30′ E. to 68° -30′, 63° 30′, and 62°.[122] - -It is worth while to show that what we know now of the Egyptian methods -of observation enables us to carry the matter further, while we gather -at the same time that in consequence of the difference of latitude the -method employed in Egypt could not be followed in Britain. - -I showed in the _Dawn of Astronomy_ that several ancient shrines -consisted of two temples at right angles to each other (see Fig. 13), -one axis pointing high N.E. to observe the clock-star--the worship of -Set--the other low N.W. to observe either the sun by itself, or in -association with some important star of the same declination as the sun. - -The temples of Mut and Menu (or Min), and of Amen, with the associated -temple M. of Lepsius, at Karnak, are the best extant examples of this -principle of temple building. - -There is evidence that both at Annu and Memphis the same principle was -followed, but at Annu one obelisk alone remains, and at Memphis one -temple; from these, however, Captain Lyons and myself have obtained -sufficient data to enable the original directions of the temple-systems -to be gathered. - -At Denderah, if such a N.W. temple ever existed it has disappeared, but -as the monument stands there are still two temples at right angles to -each other, but the second one faces S.E. instead of N.W. - -This premised, I will now give, in anticipation of another one dealing -with the British monuments, a list of the most ancient star temples in -Egypt, with their azimuths and the first-magnitude clock-stars which -could have been observed in them at different dates. These dates have -been approximately determined by the use of a precessional globe, an -horizon of 1° elevation being assumed. As I have shown, the present -views of Egyptian chronology and the inscriptions carry us back to α -Ursae Majoris, at Denderah. But there is a suggestion at Luxor, and -perhaps also at Abydos, that Vega was used before that star, though -there are, so far as I know, no temple traces of Arcturus. - - --------------+-------+------+-------+-----+------+--------+--------- - Temple. |N. Lat.| Az. | N. |Vega.| Arc- |α Ursae | γ - | | N.E. | Decl. | |turus.|Majoris.|Draconis. - --------------+-------+------+-------+-----+------+--------+--------- - Annu |30° 10′|14° 0′|57° 25′| 6250| 5550 | *5200 | *2500 - Memphis |29 50 |12 45 |58 20 | 6450| 6000 | 5000 | 2850 - Denderah |26 10 |18 30 |58 52 | 6550| 6200 | *4950 | *3100 - Thebes (Mut) |25 40 |17 30 |59 46 | 6700| 6700 | 4800 | *3500 - Tell-el-Amarna|27 40 |13 0 |60 12 | 6800| 6800 | 4750 | 3700 - Nagada |26 10 |12 0 |61 16 | 7000| 7400 | 4600 | 4000 - --------------+------+-------+-------+-----+------+--------+--------- - -There is a very great difference between determining the date of a -temple erected to the rising or setting of a particular star, and of one -erected to the rising or setting of the sun on a particular day of the -year. In the latter case no date can be given unless we have reason to -believe that both the sun _and_ a star rose or set at the same point of -the horizon at the same date; in other words, the sun and star had the -same declination, and the rising or setting of both could be seen in the -same temple. - -I assumed, without historical data, that this view was acted on in -Egypt, at the temple of Menu; Mr. Penrose found, with historical data, -that it was actually acted on in Greece at the Parthenon. To show that -we are at all justified in this view we must study the association of -gods with temple worship, and look for temples in different azimuths -erected at different times if the god is a star; and we can run the star -home if the dates fall in with the star’s precessional change. Thus -there is reason for supposing that the god Ptah and the star Capella -were associated. There is a temple of Ptah at Memphis, Az. N. 77° 15′ -W., hills 50′, decl. N. 11°, star Capella, date 5200. In the rectangular -system at Memphis, then, α Ursae Majoris was watched in one temple and -Capella in the other at that date. There is also evidence that the god -Menu was associated with the star Spica. In the temple system of Mut at -Thebes, in 3200 B.C., γ Draconis was used as a clock-star in one temple, -while the setting of Spica was watched in the other. - -If a temple is erected to the sun with no specially named cult, it may -be a sun-temple pure and simple, not connected with star worship because -there was no star with the proper declination at the time. - -In Greece temple-building was carried on at a much later time, so late -that perhaps water clocks were available, so that we should not expect -to find many clock-star temples in that country. As a matter of fact -there is only one, of which the data, according to Mr. Penrose, are as -follows:-- - - N. Decl. Star. Date. - Thebes, The City of the Dragon +54° 28′ γ Draconis 1160 - -It will be seen that the star used in Greece was the last clock-star -traced in the Egyptian temples. - - -_Britain._ - -I now come to Britain. So far as my inquiries have gone, these -clock-star observations were introduced into these islands about 2300 -B.C. - -In my statement concerning them I will deal with the astronomical -conditions for lat. 50° N., as it is in Cornwall that the evidence is -most plentiful and conclusive. - -In that latitude and at that time Arcturus, decl. N. 41°, was just -circumpolar with a sea horizon, and therefore neither rose nor set. -Capella, decl. N. 31°, when northing was 9° below the horizon, so that -it rose and set in azimuths N. 37° E. and N. 37° W. respectively; it was -therefore invisible for a long time and was an awkward clock-star in -consequence. - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.--Arcturus and Capella as clock-stars in Britain. - - AB = sea horizon. - A′B′ = horizon 3° high. -] - -Fig. 61 represents diagrammatically the conditions named, the -circumpolar paths of Arcturus and Capella being shown by the smaller and -larger circle respectively. _A B_ represents the actual sea horizon and -_A′ B′_ a locally raised horizon 3° high, whilst the dotted portion of -the larger circle represents the non-visible part of Capella’s apparent -path. - -What the British astronomer-priests did, therefore, in the majority of -cases was to set up their temples in a locality where the N.E. horizon -was high, so that Arcturus rose and set over it and was invisible for -only a short time, as shown in the diagram by the raised horizon _A′ -B′_. - -The two lists following contain the names of the monuments where I -suggest Arcturus was used as a clock-star. In the first, the angular -elevation of the sky-line as seen from the circle in each case has been -actually measured, and the date of the alignment is, therefore, fairly -trustworthy; but in the second list the elevations have been estimated -from the differences of contour shown on the one-inch Ordnance map, and -the dates must be accepted as open to future revision. - - -ARCTURUS AS A CLOCK-STAR. - -I. - - -------------+-------------------+---------------------------------+ - | Position. | | - Monument. +---------+---------+ Alignment. | - | Lat. N. | Long. W.| | - -------------+---------+---------+---------------------------------+ - Tregaseal |50° 8′ 0″| 5°39′20″|Circ. to Carn Kenidjack | - | | | | - The Hurlers |50 31 0 | 4 27 20 |S. circ. over cent. circ. | - | | |Cent. circ. over N. circ. | - | | |N. circ. over N.E. barrow | - | | | | - Merrivale |50 33 15 | 4 2 30 |Circ. to remains of cromlech | - | | |Direction of smaller avenue | - | | | | - Fernworthy |50 38 30 | 3 54 10 |Direction of Avenue | - | | | | - Stanton Drew |51 22 0 | 2 34 20 |Cent. of Gt. Circ. to Quoit | - | | | | - Fernworthy |50 38 30 | 3 54 10 |Direction of Avenue | - | | | | - Merry Maidens|50 3 40 | 5 35 25 |Circ. to stone in the road | - | | | | - Stanton Drew |51 22 0 | 2 34 20 |S.W. circ. to centre of Gt. Circ.| - -------------+---------+---------+---------------------------------+ - -------------+------------+------+-------+---- - Monument. | Az. |Hills.| Decl. |Date - | | | N. |B.C. - -------------+------------+------+-------+---- - Tregaseal |N. 12° 8′ E.| 4° 0′|42° 33′|2330 - | | | | - The Hurlers |N. 11 15 E.| 3 24 |41 38 |2170 - |N. 14 18 E.| 3 24 |41 9 |2090 - |N. 18 44 E.| 3 24 |40 6 |1900 - | | | | - Merrivale |N. 15 0 E.| 3 1 |40 36 |1990 - |N. 24 25 E.| 5 0 |39 55 |1860 - | | | | - Fernworthy |N. 13 0 E.| 1 15 |39 7 |1720 - |N. 14 20 E.| 1 15 |38 51 |1670 - | | | | - Stanton Drew |N. 17 59 E.| 2 33 |38 38 |1620 - | | | | - Fernworthy |N. 15 45 E.| 1 15 |38 34 |1610 - | | | | - Merry Maidens|N. 11 45 E.| 0 12 |38 27 |1590 - | | | | - Stanton Drew |N. 19 51 E.| 1 44 |37 30 |1420 - -------------+------------+------+-------+---- - -II. - - -------------+-------------------+---------------------------+ - | Position. | | - Monument. +---------+---------+ Alignment. | - | Lat. N. | Long. W.| | - -------------+---------+---------+---------------------------+ - Trowlesworthy|50°27′30″| 4° 0′20″|Direction of primary avenue| - | | |Direction of final avenue | - | | | | - Longstone |50 8 10 | 5 38 20 |Longstone to Chûn Cromlech | - (Tregaseal) | | | | - | | | | - Lee Moor |50 26 30 | 3 59 40 |Direction of avenue | - -------------+---------+---------+---------------------------+ - -------------+------------+------+-------+---- - Monument. | Az. |Hills.| Decl. |Date - | | | N. |B.C. - -------------+------------+------+-------+---- - Trowlesworthy|N. 7° 0′ E.|2° 52′|41° 24′|2130 - |N. 12 0 E.|2 52 |41 6 |2080 - | | | | - Longstone |N. 9 0 E.|1 43 |40 39 |2000 - (Tregaseal) | | | | - | | | | - Lee Moor |N. 22 0 E.|2 28 |38 17 |1500 - -------------+------------+------+-------+---- - -In some cases, for one reason or another, this arrangement was not -carried out, and Capella, in spite of the objection I have stated, was -used in the following circles:-- - - -CAPELLA AS A CLOCK-STAR. - - -------------+-------------------+-----------------------------+ - | Position. | | - Monument. +---------+---------+ Alignment. | - | Lat. N. | Long. W.| | - -------------+---------+---------+-----------------------------+ - I. | | | | - | | | | - Boscawen-un |50° 5′20″| 5°37′ 0″|Circ. to Stone Cross | - | | | | - Merry Maidens|50 3 40 | 5 35 25 |Circ. over the “Pipers” | - | | | | - II. | | | | - | | | | - The Nine |50 28 20 | 4 54 30 |Direction of Nine Maidens row| - Maidens | | | | - | | | | - Stripple |50 32 51 | 4 37 35 |Centre to N.E. bastion | - Stones | | | | - -------------+---------+---------+-----------------------------+ - -------------+------------+------+-------+---- - Monument. | Az. |Hills.| Decl. |Date - | | | N. |B.C. - -------------+------------+------+-------+---- - I. | | | | - | | | | - Boscawen-un |N. 43°15′ E.|2° 7′|29° 36′|2250 - | | | | - Merry Maidens|N. 38 26 E.|0 20 |29 58 |2100 - | | | | - II. | | | | - | | | | - The Nine |N. 28 0 E.|0 0 |33 47 |1480 - Maidens | | | | - | | | | - Stripple |N. 26 0 E.|0 22 |34 38 |1320 - Stones | | | | - -------------+------------+------+-------+---- - -At the Merry Maidens, however, with nearly a sea horizon, when Arcturus -ceased to be circumpolar and rose in Azimuth N. 11° 45′ E., it replaced -Capella, and was used as a clock-star after 1600 B.C. - -In this system of night observation we have the germ of the use in later -times of an instrument called the “night-dial,” specimens of which, -dating from the fourteenth century, can be seen in our museums. The -introduction of graduated circles permitted the employment of -circumpolar stars, and the “guards” of the Little Bear or the “pointers” -of the Great Bear were thus used. There was a disc with a central -aperture through which the pole star could be observed; the disc could -be adjusted for every night in the year; an arm was then moved round so -that the direction of the pointers (or the guards) with regard to the -vertical could be measured; on a second concentric circle the time of -night could be read off. - -[Illustration: FIG. 62.--A “night-dial.”] - -[119] _Dawn of Astronomy_, 1894, p. 343. - -[120] Jensen, _Kosmologie der Babylonier_, p. 147. - -[121] _Dawn of Astronomy_, p. 215. - -[122] _Ibid._, p. 214. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIX - -A SHORT HISTORY OF SUN TEMPLES - - -_The Original Cult_ - -I have given detailed evidence showing that the first circle builders in -Britain worshipped the May-year sun, whether they brought it with them -or not. This year was used in Babylon, Egypt, and afterwards in Greece. -In the two former countries May was the harvest month, and thus became -the chief month in the year. The dates were apt to vary with the local -harvest time. - -The earliest extant temple aligned to the sun at this festival seems to -have been that of Ptah at Memphis, 5200 B.C. I have already referred to -this temple in relation to the clock-star observations carried on in it. - -This approximate date of the building of the temple is obtained by the -evidence afforded (1) by the associated clock-star (see p. 298), and (2) -by the fact that the god Ptah represented the star Capella, since there -is a Ptah temple at Thebes aligned on Capella at a later time, when by -the processional movement it had been carried outside the solar limit. -There was also a similar temple at Annu (Heliopolis, lat. N. 30° 10′), -but it has disappeared. The light of the sun fell along the axis when -the sun had the declination N. 11°, the Gregorian dates being April 18 -and August 24. - -Another May-year temple was that of Menu at Thebes, Az. N. 72° 30′ W. -(lat. N. 25°; sun’s declination N. 15°; Gregorian date, May 1). - -[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Layard’s plan of the Palace of Sennacherib -discovered in the mound of Kouyunjik. The temple axis, XXXVI., XXXIV., -XXIX., XIX. (XXII. is on a lower level), faces the rising of the May -sun.] - -As we have seen (p. 299), Spica had this declination in 3200 B.C., and -the coincidence may have been the reason for the erection, or, more -probably, the restoration, of the temple,[123] especially as γ Draconis -came into play as a new clock-star at the same date. - -[Illustration: FIG. 64.--Layard’s plan of the Mound at Nimrood showing -its equinoctial orientation.] - -The researches of Mr. Penrose in Greece have provided us with temples -oriented to the May-year sun. I shall return to them afterwards, as they -are later in time than the British monuments. - -[Illustration: FIG. 65.--The Temples at Chichen Itza.] - -The explorations of Sir H. Layard at Nineveh, lat. 36° N., have shown -that the temple in Sennacherib’s palace, which may have been a -restoration of a much older temple, was also oriented to the May sun. - -It is a pity that our present-day archæologists do not more strictly -follow the fine example set by Sir Henry Layard in his explorations of -Kouyunjik. When he had unearthed Sennacherib’s palace (700 B.C.) he was -careful to give the astronomical and magnetic bearings of the buildings -and of the temple which seemed to form the core of them. The bearing is -Az. N. 68° 30′ E., giving the sun’s declination as N. 16°. - -I am enabled by the kindness of Mr. John Murray to give copies of the -plans which Sir H. Layard prepared of the excavations both at Kouyunjik -and Nimrood, showing the careful orientation which enables us to claim -Sennacherib’s temple as one consecrated to the May year, while at -Nimrood (Babylon) the equinoctial worship was in vogue as at the -pyramids. - -In association with these plans of Layard’s, I give another by Mr. -Maudslay of the as carefully oriented temples at Chichen Itza (N. lat. -20°) explored by him. In these temples, of unknown date and origin, the -azimuths of two show that the May year was worshipped.[124] - - -_The May-Year Monuments in Britain._ - -In the first glimpses of the May year in Egypt we have dates from 5000 -B.C. It does not follow that it did not reach Great Britain before about -2000 B.C. because monuments made their appearance about that time. It is -clear, also, that with the possibilities of coastwise traffic as we have -found it, it might as easily have reached Ireland by then; 2000 B.C., -therefore, is a probable date for the May worship to have reached -Britain arguing on general principles; we now come to a detailed summary -of the facts showing that it really reached Britain earlier. - -Alignments in British monuments designed to mark the place of the sun’s -rising or setting on the quarter-days of the May year have been found as -follows:-- - - -------------+----------------------+----------------+---------------- - | Position. | May and Aug. | Feb. and Nov. - Monument. +----------+-----------+-------+--------+-------+-------- - | Lat. N. | Long. W. |Rising.|Setting.|Rising.|Setting. - -------------+----------+-----------+-------+--------+-------+-------- - Merry Maidens|50° 3′ 40″| 5° 35′ 25″| * | * | | * - Boscawen-un |50 5 20 | 5 37 0 | * | | * | - Tregaseal |50 7 50 | 5 39 20 | * | | | - Longstone |50 8 10 | 5 38 20 | * | | | - (Tregaseal) | | | | | | - Down Tor |50 30 10 | 3 59 30 | * | | | - Merrivale |50 33 15 | 4 2 30 | * | | | - The Hurlers |50 31 0 | 4 27 20 | | | * | - Stonehenge |51 10 40 | 1 49 30 | * | * | | - Stanton Drew |51 22 0 | 2 34 30 | * | | | - | | | | | | ? - | | | circle| | |avenue - | | | along | | | to - | | | avenue| | |circle - | | | | | | * - Stenness |59 0 10 | 3 13 40| * | * | * | - -------------+----------+-----------+-------+--------+-------+-------- - -I have already shown that it was the practice in ancient times for the -astronomer-priests not only to watch the clock-stars during the night, -but also other stars which rose or set about an hour before sunrise, to -give warning of its approach on the days of the principal festivals. - -Each clock-star, if it rose and set very near the north point, might be -depended on to herald the sunrise on _one_ of the critical days of the -year, but for the others other stars would require to be observed. This -practice was fully employed in Britain. - - -_May Warnings._--The following table gives the stars I have so far noted -which were used as warners for the May festival. - - ---------------------+------------+------------- - | |Date or dates - Monument. | Star. | B.C. - | | - ---------------------+------------+------------- - Stonehenge |Pleiades (R)| 1950 - | | - Merry Maidens |Pleiades (R)| 1930 - |Antares (S)| 1310 - | | - The Hurlers |Antares (S)| 1720 - |Pleiades (R)| 1610 - Merrivale |Pleiades (R)| 1610 - | „ | 1420 - | | - Boscawen-un |Pleiades (R)| 1480 - | | - Tregaseal |Pleiades (R)| 1270 - | | - Stenness |Pleiades (R)| 1230 - | | - Longstone (Tregaseal)|Pleiades (R)| 1030 - ---------------------+------------+------------- - - (R) = rising. (S) = setting. - -It is convenient here to give a list of the May warning stars found by -Mr. Penrose in Greece, as it shows that the same stars were observed for -the same purpose. - - +-------------------------------+------------+--------+--------+----- - | | | Decl. | Day. |Year. - +-------------------------------+------------+--------+--------+----- - | | | | |B.C. - |Archaic temple of Minerva |Pleiades (R)| +7° 50′|April 20|2020 - |Hiero of Epidaurus, Asclepieion| „ (R)| +9 15 | „ 28|1275 - |Hecatompedon | „ (R)| +9 58 | „ 26|1150 - |Older Erechtheum |Antares (S)|-14 31 | „ 29|1070 - |Temple of Bacchus |Pleiades (R)|+10 35 | „ 29|1030 - |Corinth |Antares (S)|-16 0 | May 6| 770 - |Aegina | „ (S)|-16 45 | „ 7| 630 - +-------------------------------+------------+--------+--------+----- - -The warning stars at Athens were the Pleiades for temples facing the -east, and Antares for temples using the western horizon. - - -_August warnings._--Sunrise at the August festival was heralded by the -rising of Arcturus, which, as we have seen, was also used as a -clock-star. The alignments and dates given in the Arcturus table -therefore hold good for August. At the Hurlers, where the hill over -which Arcturus was observed fell away abruptly, we find Sirius -supplanting Arcturus as the warning star for August in 1690 B.C. - - -_November warnings._--So far I have discovered no evidence that any star -was employed to herald the November sun. There may be two reasons for -this. In the first place the November festival “Halloween” took place at -sun_set_ and the sun itself could be watched, no heralding star being -necessary. - -Secondly, the atmospheric conditions which prevail in Britain during -November would not be conducive to the making of stellar observations -_at the horizon_, and only risings or settings were observed with regard -to the quarter-days. - - -_February Warnings._--In the same way that Arcturus served the double -purpose of clock-star and herald for the August sun, so did Capella -serve to warn the February sun in addition to its use at night. The -alignments and dates given in the Capella table will therefore hold good -for its employment at the February quarter-day. - - -_The Solstitial Year Monuments._ - -In Egypt generally, the solstitial worship followed that of the May and -equinoctial years. The religion of Thothmes III. and the Rameses was in -greatest vogue 2200-1500 B.C. - -We find little trace of it in Greece proper, though Mr. Penrose has -traced it in Calabria and Pompeii, and in some of the islands. - -The solstitial cult was born in Egypt; it is a child of the Nile-rise. I -have shown in my _Dawn of Astronomy_ that the long series of temples -connected with the solstice may have commenced about 3000 B.C.; but for -long it was a secondary cult; it was parochial until the twelfth -dynasty, say 2300 B.C. Egypt’s solstitial “golden age” may be given as -1700 B.C., and her influence abroad was very great, so that much travel, -“coastwise” and other, may be anticipated. It is for some centuries -after the first date that the introduction of the solstitial worship -into Britain may be anticipated. It, for instance, is quite probable -that the pioneers of this worship should have reached Stonehenge in 2000 -B.C. - -The solstitial alignments found by Mr. Penrose in Greece are as -follows:-- - - +----------------+-----------------+--------+-------+----- - |Temples. | | Decl. | Day. |Year. - +----------------+-----------------+--------+-------+----- - | | | | |B.C. - | | JUNE. | | | - |Athens, Dionysus|Antares (setting)|-11° 2′|June 20|1700 - |(Upper Temple) | | | | - |Pompeii (Isis) |β-Geminorum |-16 44 | „ 19| 750 - | | | | | - | | DECEMBER. | | | - |Metapontum |β-Geminorum |+29° 38′|Dec. 21| 610 - | | (setting) | | | - |Locri | „ |+29 40 | „ 21| 610 - +----------------+-----------------+--------+-------+----- - -We find plentiful evidence that the worship of the solstitial sun such -as was carried on in Egypt at Karnak and at other places[125] was -introduced into Britain some time after the May-year worship was -provided for in the monuments. - -Although some of the alignments already discovered are in all -probability solstitial, the variation of the sun’s solstitial -declination is so slow and takes place between such narrow limits that a -most careful determination of the actual azimuths and of the angular -heights of the various horizons must be made before any definite -conclusion as to dates can be arrived at. The necessity for this care is -illustrated in the paper on Stonehenge[126] communicated to the Royal -Society by Mr. Penrose and myself in 1891, where, after taking the -greatest precautions, the resulting date was in doubt to the amount of -200 years in either direction. - -So far Stonehenge is the only temple at which these observations have -been made, so that for the other alignments contained in the following -list no dates can yet be given. - - -----------+---------------+--------------+------------+---------+---- - Monument. | Alignment. | Az. | Decl. | Season. |Date - | | | (provi- | |B.C. - | | | sional). | | - -----------+---------------+--------------+------------+---------+---- - Stonehenge |Direction of |N.49°34′18″ E.|23°54′30″ N.|Summer(R)|1680 - |avenue | | | | - | | | | | - Boscawen- |Circ. to fine |N.53 30 0 E.|22 58 13 |Summer(R)| - un |menhir | | | | - |Circ. to Blind |N.54 30 0 E.|22 24 12 | „ | - |Fiddler | | | | - | | | | | - Tregaseal |Circ. to row of|N.53 20 25 E.|22 53 26 |Summer(R)| - |holed stones | | | | - |Circ. to two |N.50 0 0 E.|24 7 0 | „ | - |barrows 900′ | | | | - |distant | | | | - | | | | | - Longstone |Mèn-an-tol to |S.50 30 0 W.|24 33 0 S.|Winter(S)| - (Tregaseal)|Longstone | | | | - | | | | | - The |N. circ. to |S.50 50 0 E.|24 17 20 S.|Winter(S)| - Hurlers |S.E. stone | | | | - | | | | | - Stanton |Gt. Circle to |N.51 0 0 E.|23 48 46 N.|Summer(R)| - Drew |N.E. circle | | | | - | | | | | - Stenness |Circle to |N.39 30 0 E.|24 3 15 N.|Summer(R)| - |Hindera Fiold | | | | - |Barnstone to |N.41 16 0 E.| -- | „ | - |Maeshowe | | | | - |Circ. to Ward |S.41 0 0 E.| -- |Winter(R)| - |Hill tumulus | | | | - |Circ. to Onston|S.36 30 0 W.| -- | „ (S)| - |tumulus | | | | - |Circ. to tumuli|N.37 0 0 W.| -- |Summer(S)| - -----------+---------------+--------------+------------+---------+---- - (R) = rising. (S) = setting. - -I cited an alignment at the Hurlers which marked the rising point of -Betelgeuse. This star warned the summer solstice sunrise at about the -Hurlers’ date. So far, however, I have not yet found any suggestion of -its use elsewhere. - -At Shovel Down and Challacombe on Dartmoor there are avenues pointing a -few degrees west of north. The sight-lines along these avenues would -mark the setting-point of Arcturus at the time that that star (setting) -warned the rising of the sun at the summer solstice; but this use cannot -be considered as established, as Arcturus would scarcely set before its -light was drowned in that of the rising sun. The absence of darkness in -high summer in these latitudes and the bad weather in the winter may -both be responsible for so few alignments for the solstices. - - -_The Equinoctial Year Monuments._ - -The equinoctial pyramid and Babylonian cult in vogue in Egypt in the -early dynasties (4000 B.C.), with the warning stars Aldebaran (March) -and Vega (September), was represented in Greece at a much later period. -The facts for Greece, according to Mr. Penrose, are as follows:-- - - +---------------------------+---------------+------+--------+----- - | | | Decl.| Day. |Year. - +---------------------------+---------------+------+--------+----- - | | | | |B.C. - | |MARCH. | | | - | | | | | - |Nike Apteros |Spica (setting)|+6°10′|Mar. 17|1130 - |Juno Lacinia (near Croton) |α-Arietis |+7 27 | „ 28|1000 - |Paestum (Neptune) |Spica (setting)|+3 5 | „ 22| 535 - |Gergenti (Hercules) | „ |+2 30 | „ 30| 470 - | | | | | - | |SEPTEMBER. | | | - | | | | | - |Rhamnus (Themis) |Spica (rising) |+6° 0′|Sept. 17|1092 - |Tegea (Minerva) | „ „ |+5 51 | „ 18|1075 - |Syracuse (? Minerva) | „ |+4 30 | „ 20| 815 - |Athens (dedication unknown)| „ |+4 17 | „ 23| 780 - |Rhamnus (Nemesis) | „ „ |+4 5 | „ 22| 747 - |Bassæ (Apollo) | „ „ |+3 57 | „ 22| 728 - |Ephesus (Diana) | „ „ |+3 57 | „ 25| 715 - |Syracuse (Diana) | „ „ |+2 22 | „ 26| 450 - |Ephesus (Diana) | „ | -- |Oct. 6| 355 - |(re-orientation) | | | | - +---------------------------+---------------+------+--------+---- - -In Britain equinoctial alignments are not wanting, but so few have been -traced that I have reserved them for future inquiry. - -[123] See _Dawn of Astronomy_, p. 318. - -[124] The temple conditions are approximately as follows:-- - -_PALENQUE._ - - Azimuths. Decl. - N. 21° 30′ E. 60° 15′ } - N. 18 0 E. 62 36 }Stellar temples. Clock-stars. - S. 27 0 W. 56 17 } - S. 66 0 E. 23 0 Solstice}Solar temples. - S. 73 0 E. 16 0 May } - -_CHICHEN ITZA._ - - Azimuths. Decl. - N. 26° 0′ E. 59° 0′ Stellar temple. Clock-star. - S. 70 0 E. 19 0 (?) - N. 70 0 W. 19 0 (?) - N. 67 0 W. 22 0 Solstitial}Solar temples. - N. 72 30 16 0 May } - - -[125] _Dawn of Astronomy_, p. 78. - -[126] _Proc. Roy. Soc._, vol. 69. - - - - -CHAPTER XXX - -THE LIFE OF THE ASTRONOMER-PRIESTS - - -The facts contained in the preceding chapters have suggested, at all -events, that whatever else went on some four thousand years ago in the -British circles there was much astronomical observation and a great deal -of preparation for it. - -In a colony of the astronomer-priests who built and used the ancient -temples we had of necessity:-- - -(1) Observatories, _i.e._, circles in the first place; next something to -mark the sight-lines to the clock-star for night work, to the rising or -setting of the warning stars, and to the places of sunrise and sunset at -the chief festivals. This something, we have learned, might be another -circle, a standing stone, a dolmen, a cove, or a holed stone. - -A study of the sight-lines shows us that these collimation marks, as we -may call them, were of set purpose, generally placed some distance away -from the circles, so far that they would require to be illuminated in -some way for the night and dawn observations. When there was no wind, -one or more hollows in a stone, whether a menhir or a quoit, might have -held grease to feed a wick or a pine-wood torch. But in a wind some -shelter would be necessary, and the light might have been used in a -cromlech or allée couverte. Stones have been found with such cups, and -débris of fires have been found in cromlechs. - -It must not be forgotten that here there was no oil as in the Semitic -countries whence, as we have seen, the immigrants came; and it was not a -question of a light on the sight-line alone. If wood were used, it must -have been kept dry for use, and whether wood or animal fat were employed -the most practical and convenient way of lighting up would have been to -keep a fire ever burning in some sheltered place. - -(2) Dwellings, which would be cromlechs or many-chambered barrows, -according to the number of astronomer-priests at the station. These -dwellings would require to be protected against the invasions of the -local fauna, very different from what it is now, and for this a small, -and on that account easily blocked, entrance would be an essential. - -These dwellings would naturally suggest themselves as the shelter place -for the ever-burning fire or the supply of dry wood. Tradition points -with no uncertain sound to the former existence of life and light in -these “hollow hills.” Mr. MacRitchie’s book[127] contains a mine of most -valuable and interesting information on this subject. - -(3) A water supply for drinking and bathing, which might be a spring, -river or lake, according to the locality. - -Given a supply of food we have now provided for the shelter and -protection of the astronomer and the man. - -But the man who brought this new astronomical knowledge was, before he -came, astrologer and magician as well, and, further, he was a priest; -hence on account of his knowledge of the seasons, he could not only help -the aboriginal tiller of the soil as he had never been helped before, by -his knowledge; but he could appeal in the strongest way to his -superstitious fears and feelings, by his function as the chief -sacrificer and guardian of the sacrificial altars and fires. Hence it -was that everything relating to the three different classes of things to -which I have referred was regarded as very holy because they were -closely associated with the astronomer-priests, on whom the early -peoples depended for guidance in all things, not only of economic, but -of religious, medical and superstitious value. - -The perforated stones were regarded as sacred, so that passing through -them was supposed to cure disease. Whether men and women, or children -only, passed through the hole depended upon its size. But a hole large -enough for a head to be inserted was good for head complaints. - -The wells, rivers, and lakes used by the priests were, as holy places, -also invested with curative properties, and offerings of garments -(skins?), and pins to fasten them on, as well as bread and wine and -cheese, were made at these places to the priests. - -The fact that the tree on which the garment was hung was either a rowan -or a thorn shows that these offerings commenced as early as the -May-November worship. - -The holed stones, besides being curative, were in long after years, -when marriage had been instituted, used for the interchange of marriage -vows by clasping hands through the opening. - -The cups for the light would also be sacred objects; and many of them -have been since used for holy water. - -The cursus at Stonehenge and the avenues on Dartmoor may be regarded as -evidences that sacred processions formed part of the ceremonial on the -holy days, but sacrifices and sacred ceremonials were not alone in -question; many authors have told us that feasts, games and races were -not forgotten. This, so far as racing is concerned, is proved, I think, -by the facts that the cursus at Stonehenge is 10,000 feet long and 350 -feet broad, that it occupies a valley between two hills, thus permitting -of the presence of thousands of spectators, and that our horses are -still decked in gaudy trappings on May Day. - -Nor is this all. It is hard to understand some of the folklore and -tradition unless we recognise that at a time before marriage was -instituted, at some of the sacred festivals the intercourse of the sexes -was permitted if not encouraged. This view is strengthened by the -researches of Westermarck[128] and Rhys.[129] Given such a practice, the -origin of matriarchal customs and of the _couvade_ is at once explained; -and it is clear that the charges against the Druids of special cruelty -and impurity must be withdrawn. Their sacrifices and customs were those -common to all priesthoods in the ancient world. - -I have shown that some circles used in the worship of the May year were -in operation 2200 B.C., and that there was the introduction of a new -cult about 1600 B.C., or shortly afterwards, in southern Britain, so -definite that the changes in the chief orientation lines in the stone -circles can be traced. - -To the worship of the sun in May, August, November and February was -added a solstitial worship in June and December. - -The associated phenomena are that the May-November Balder and Beltaine -cult made much of the rowan and may thorn. The June-December cult -brought the worship of the mistletoe. - -The flowering of the rowan and thorntree in May, and their berries in -early November, made them the most appropriate and striking floral -accompaniments of the May and November worships, and the same ideas -would point to a similar use of the mistletoe in June and December. - -The fact that the June-December cult succeeded and largely replaced the -May-November one could hardly have been put in a cryptic and poetic -statement more happily than it appears in folklore: Balder was killed by -mistletoe. - -This change of cult may be due to the intrusion of a new tribe, but I am -inclined to attribute it to a new view taken by the priests themselves -due to a greater knowledge, among it being the determination, in Egypt, -of the true length of the year which could be observed by the recurrence -of the solstices, and of the intervals between the festivals reckoned in -days. - -However this may have been, all the old practices and superstitions -were retained, only the time of year at which they took place was -changed. As the change of cult was slow, in any one locality the -celebrations would be continued at _both_ times of the year, and for -long both sets of holidays were retained. - -Since I have shewn that the solstitial worship came last, traces of -this, as a rule, would be most obvious in places where it eventually -prevailed over the cult of the May year. In such places the absence of -traces of the May festival would be no valid argument against its former -prevalence. In other places, like Scotland, where the solstitial cult -was apparently introduced late and was never prevalent, we should expect -strong traces of the May worship, and, as a matter of fact, it is very -evident in the folk lore and customs of Scotland; even the old May year -quarter days are still maintained. - -Between the years 2300 B.C. and 1600 B.C., whether we are dealing with -the same race of immigrants or not, we pass from unhewn to worked -stones. The method of this working and its results have been admirably -shown to us by Prof. Gowland’s explorations at Stonehenge. - -From the tables, given in Chap. XXVIII, it can be seen that, so far as -the present evidence goes, there was a pretty definite time--about 2300 -B.C.--of beginning the astronomical work at the chief monuments; -Cornwall came first, Dartmoor was next. - -Almost as marked as the simultaneous beginning are the dates of ending -the observations, if we may judge of the time of ending by the fact that -the precessional changes in the star places were no longer marked by the -marking out of new sight lines. - -The clock-star work was the first to go, about 1500 B.C. The May-warning -stars followed pretty quickly. - -We may say, then, that we have full evidence of astronomical activity of -all kinds at the circles for a period of some 700 years. - -What prevented its continuance on the old lines? It may have been that -the invention of some other method of telling time by night had rendered -the old methods of observation, and therefore the apparatus to carry -them on, no longer necessary. - -On the other hand, it may have been that some new race, less -astronomically inclined, had swept over the land. - -I am inclined to take the former view. It is quite certain that for the -clock-stars other observations besides those on the horizon would soon -have suggested themselves for determining the lapse of time during the -night. The old, high, bleak, treeless moorlands might then in process of -time have been gradually forsaken, and life may have gone on in valleys -and even in sheltered woods, except on the chief festivals. When this -was so astronomy and superstition would give way to politics and other -new human interests, and the priests would become in a wider sense the -leaders and the teachers of the more highly organised community. - -It is clear that in later days as at the commencement they were still -ahead in the knowledge of the time. “Hi terrae mundique magnitudinem et -formam, motus coeli ac siderum, ac quod dii velunt sciere profitentur” -is Pomponius Mela’s statement concerning them.[130] From 1500 B.C. to -Cæsar’s time is a long interval, and yet the astronomical skill of the -so-called Druids, who beyond all question were the descendants of our -astronomical-priests, was then a matter of common repute. Cæsar’s -account of the Druids in Gaul (_Bello Gallico_, vi. c. 13, 14, 15) is -extremely interesting because it indicates, I think, that the Druid -culture had not passed through Gaul and had therefore been waterborne to -Britain, whither the Gauls therefore went to study it.[131] - -Simultaneously with the non-use of the ancient stones, we may imagine -that the priests--of ever-increasing importance--no longer dwelt in -their cromlechs, but, rather, occupied such buildings as those which -remain at Chysoister, and from this date it is possible that burials may -have taken place in some of the mounds then given up as dwelling places. -As sacred places they were subsequently used for burials, as Westminster -Abbey has been; but burials were not the object of their erection.[132] -This new habit may have started the practice of cist burial by later -people in barrows thrown up for that special purpose. - -I cannot close this Chapter without expressing my admiration of the -learning and acumen displayed by Dr. Borlase in his treatment of the -subject of the Druids in his _History of Cornwall_, published in 1769; I -find he has anticipated me in suggesting that the hollowed stones were -used for fires. It is clear, now that the monuments have been dated, -that the astronomical knowledge referred to by Cæsar and Pomponius Mela -was no new importation; if, therefore, the present view of ethnologists -that the Celtic intrusion took place about 1000 B.C. is correct, it is -certain the Celts brought no higher intelligence with them than was -possessed by those whom they found here; nor is this to be expected if, -as the inquiry has suggested, the latter were the representatives of the -highest civilisation of the East with which possibly the former had -never been brought into contact. - -[127] _The Testimony of Tradition._ - -[128] _History of Human Marriage_, Chapter II. - -[129] _Celtic Folklore_, ii., 654. - -[130] _Pomp. Mela_, Lib. II. c. 2. I have already (p. 52) quoted Cæsar’s -testimony to the same effect. - -[131] “Disciplina in Britannia reperta, atque in Galliam translata esse -existimatur.”--_C. Bell. Gall._ lib. vi. c. 13. This “discipline” also -included magic according to Pliny. “Britannia hodie eam (_i.e._ Magiam) -attonite celebrat tantis ceremoniis, ut eam Persis dedisse videri -possit” (lib. xxx. c. 1.) - -[132] Bertrand and Reinach, _Les Celtes et les Gaulois dans les Vallées -du Pô et du Danube_, p. 82. Tregellis, “Stone Circles in Cornwall.” -_Trans._ Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society, 1893-4. - - - - -APPENDICES - - -I. DETAILS OF THE THEODOLITE OBSERVATIONS AT STONEHENGE - -The instrument chiefly employed was a six-inch transit theodolite by -Cooke with verniers reading to 20″ in altitude and azimuth. Most of the -observations were made at two points very near the axis, which may be -designated by _a_, _b_. Station _a_ was at a distance of 61 feet to the -south-west of the centre of the temple, and _b_ 364 feet to the -north-east. The distance from the centre of Stonehenge to Salisbury -Spire being 41,981 feet, the calculated corrections for parallax at the -points of observation with reference to Salisbury Spire are:-- - - Station _a_ + 4′ 12″. - „ _b_ - 25′ 20″. - -(1) _Relative Azimuths._--Theodolite at station _a_-- - - Salisbury Spire 0° 0′ 0″ - N. side of opening in N.E. trilithon of the external ring 237 27 40 - Tree in middle of clump on Sidbury Hill 237 40 20 - Highest point of Friar’s Heel 239 47 25 - S. side of opening in N.E. trilithon 240 14 40 - Middle „ „ „ 238 51 10 - -(2) _Absolute Azimuths._--All the azimuths were referred to that of -Salisbury Spire, the azimuth of which was determined by observations of -the Sun and Polaris. - -(_a_) _Observation of Sun_, _June 23, 1901_, 3.30-3.40 P.M. - - Mean of observed altitudes of Sun 41° 26′ 35″ - Refraction -1′ 4″} 0 0 58 - Parallax + 6 } - ----------- - True altitude of Sun’s centre 41 25 37 - -Latitude = 51° 10′ 42″. Sun’s declination = 23° 26′ 43″. Using the -formula - - sin ¹⁄₂(Δ + _c_ - _z_) sin ¹⁄₂(Δ + _z_ - _c_) - cos² ¹⁄₂ A = -------------------------------------------- - sin _c_ . sin _z_ - - where A = azimuth from south, Δ = polar distance, _c_ = co-latitude, - and _z_ = zenith distance, - -we get - - Azimuth of Sun S. 75° 30′ 30″ W. - Mean circle reading on Sun 84 38 35 - ---------- - Azimuth of Salisbury Spire S. 9 8 5 E. - -(_b_) _Observations of Polaris._--June 23, 1901. Time of greatest -easterly elongation, calculated by formula cos _h_ = tan φ cot δ, is -G.M.T. 1.34 A.M. - -Azimuth at greatest easterly elongation, calculated by the formula - - sin A = cos δ sec φ - -is 181° 57′ 0″ from south. - - Observed maximum reading of circle 256° 33′ 0″ - True azimuth of star 181 57 0 - ---------- - Meridian (S.) reading of circle 74 36 0 - Circle reading on Salisbury Spire 65 28 0 - --------- - Azimuth of Salisbury Spire S. 9 8 0 E. - -The mean of the two determinations gives for the azimuth of Salisbury -Spire S. 9° 8′ 2″ E. This result agrees well with the value of the -azimuth communicated by the Ordnance Survey Office, namely, 9° 4′ 8″ -from the centre of the circle, which being corrected by +4′ 12″ for the -position of station _a_, is increased to 9° 8′ 20″. - -Hence, from the point of observation _a_, 9° 8′ 20″ has been adopted as -the azimuth of Salisbury Spire. - -We thus get the following absolute values of the principal azimuths from -the point _a_: - - Highest point of Friar’s Heel 239° 47′ 25″ - -9 8 20 - -------------- - 230 39 5 - or N. 50 39 5 E. - Middle of opening in N.E. trilithon 238 51 10 - -9 8 20 - -------------- - 229 42 50 - or N. 49 42 50 E. - -The difference of 8¹⁄₂′ between this and the assumed axis 49° 34′ 18″ is -so slight that considering the indirect method which has necessarily -been employed in determining the axis of the temple from the position of -the leaning stone, and the want of verticality, parallelism and -straightness of the inner surfaces of the opening in the N.E. trilithon, -we are justified in adopting the azimuth of the avenue as that of the -temple. - -Next, with regard to the determination of the azimuth of the avenue as -indicated by the line of pegs to which reference is made on p. 65. The -small angle between the nearest pegs A and B (which are supposed to be -parallel to the axis of the avenue), observed from station _a_, was -measured, and the corresponding calculated correction was applied to the -ascertained true bearing of the more distant peg B. - -Thus - - True bearing of peg B = 238° 35′ 0″ - Calculated correction to peg A = 0 12 8 - ------------ - True bearing of line AB 238 47 8 - Bearing of Salisbury Spire 189 8 20 - ------------ - True bearing of a line parallel to - the axis of near part of avenue N. 49 38 48 E. - -The mean of the three independent determinations by another observer was -49° 39′ 6″. - -The calculated bearing of the more distant part of the axis of the -avenue determined in the same manner by observations from station _b_ is -49° 32′ 54″. The mean of the two, namely, 49° 35′ 51″, justifies the -adoption of the value 49° 34′ 18″ as given by the Ordnance Survey for -the straight line from Stonehenge to Sidbury Hill. - -(3) _Observation of Sunrise._--On the morning of June 25, 1901, sunrise -was observed from station _a_, and a setting made as nearly as possible -on the middle of the visible segment as soon as could be done after the -Sun appeared. - -The telescope was then set on the highest point of the Friar’s Heel, and -the latter was found to be 8′ 40″ south of the Sun. - - Sun’s declination at time of observation 23° 25′ 5″ - Elevation of horizon at point of sunrise 0 35 48 - Assuming 2′ vertical of Sun to have been visible at - observation, we have apparent altitude of Sun’s upper - limb 0 37 48 - Refraction - 27′ 27″ } -0 27 18 - Parallax + 0 9 } - ----------- - True altitude of upper limb 0 10 30 - Sun’s semi-diameter 0 15 46 - ----------- - True altitude of Sun’s centre -0 5 16 - - From this it results that the true azimuth of - the Sun at the time of observation = N. 50° 30′ 54″ E. - - And since azimuth of Friar’s Heel = 50 39 5 - ----------- - 2′ of sunrise should be N. of Friar’s Heel 0 8 11 - Observed difference of azimuth = 0 8 40 - ----------- - Observed - calculated = 0 0 29 - -The observation thus agrees with calculation, if we suppose about 2′ of -the Sun’s limb to have been above the horizon when it was made, and -therefore substantially confirms the azimuth above given of the Friar’s -Heel and generally the data adopted. - - -II. HINTS ON MAKING, AND METHOD OF REDUCING, THE FIELD OBSERVATIONS. - -It will probably be found useful if I give here a few hints as to the -precautions which must be taken in making the field observations and an -example of their reduction to an astronomical basis. - -For the _azimuths_ of the sight-lines the investigator of these -monuments cannot do better than use the 25-inch, or 6-inch, maps -published by the Ordnance Survey. Their accuracy is of a very high order -and is not likely to be exceeded, even if approached, by any casual -observer having to make his own special arrangements for correct time -before he can begin his surveying work. - -In some cases, however, it may be found that the Survey has not included -every outstanding stone which may be found by an investigator on making -a careful search; many of the stones are covered by gorse, &c., and are -not, therefore, easily found. - -In such cases the azimuth of some object that is marked on the map -should be taken as a reference line and the difference of azimuth -between that and the unmarked objects determined. By this means the -azimuths of all the sight-lines may be obtained. - -When using the 25-inch maps for determining azimuths it must be borne in -mind that the side-lines are not, necessarily, due north and south. The -Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, Southampton, will probably on -application state the correction to be applied to the azimuths on this -account, and this should be applied, of course, to each of the values -obtained. - -If for any reason it is found necessary or desirable to make -observations of the azimuths independently of the Ordnance Survey, full -instructions as to the method of procedure may be found in an -inexpensive instruction book[133] issued by the Board of Education. The -instructions given on p. 49, § 3, are most generally applicable, and -the form on p. 76 will be found very handy for recording and reducing -the observations. - -In making observations of the angular elevation of the horizon a good -theodolite is essential. Both verniers should be read, the mean taken, -and then the telescope should be reversed in its Ys, reset, and both -readings taken again. One setting and reading are of little use. - -The Ordnance Survey maps may also be employed _in a preliminary -reconnaissance_ to obtain approximate values of the horizon elevations. -This may be done by measuring the distances and contour-lines shown on -the one-inch maps. This method, however, is only very roughly -approximate owing to the fact that sharp but very local elevations close -to the monuments may not appear on these maps and yet be of sufficient -magnitude to cause large errors in the results. - -Where trees, houses, &c., top the horizon, they should, of course, be -neglected and the elevation of the ground level, at that spot, taken. -Should the top of the azimuth mark (stone, &c.) show above the actual -horizon, its elevation should be recorded and not that of the horizon. - -Having measured the angular elevation of the horizon along the -sight-line, it is necessary to convert this into actual zenith distance -and to apply the refraction correction before the computations of -declination can be made. - -The process of doing this and of calculating the declination will be -gathered from the examples given below:-- - - _Data._ - - Monument:--E. circle Tregeseal, lat. 50° 8′ N. _i.e._ colat = 39° 52′. - - Alignment. Centre of circle to Longstone. - - Az. (from 25″ Ordnance Map). N. 66° 38′ E. - - Elevation of horizon (measured) 2° 10′. - -Reference to the May-Sun curve, given on p. 263, indicates that this is -probably an alignment to the sunrise on May morning. Therefore, in -determining the zenith distance, the correction for the sun’s -semi-diameter (16′) must be taken into account, allowing that 2′ of the -sun’s disc was above the horizon when the observation was made. - -_Zenith Distance_:-- - - Zenith distance of true horizon = 90° - „ „ local „ = 90° - 2° 10′ = 87° 50′ - -Bessel’s tables show that refraction, at altitude 2° 10′, raises sun -17′. If 2′ of sun’s limb is above horizon, sun’s centre is 14′ below. - -∴ True zenith distance of sun’s centre = 87° 50′ + 17′ + 14′ = 88° 21′. - -_Declination_:-- - -Having obtained the zenith distance, and the azimuth, the latitude being -known, the N.P.D. (North Polar Distance) of the sun may be found by the -following equations:-- - - (1) tan θ = tan _z_. cos A, - -where θ is the subsidiary angle which must be determined for the purpose -of computation, _z_ is the true zenith distance, and A is the distance -from the _North_ point. - - cos _z_. cos (c - θ)[134] - (2) cos Δ = -------------------------, - cos θ - -where Δ is the N.P.D. of the celestial object, and _c_ is the colatitude -(90° - lat.) of the place of observation. - -In the example taken this gives us-- - - (1) tan θ = tan 88° 21′. cos 66° 38′ - θ = 85° 50′ 45″ - - cos 88° 21′. cos (39° 52′ - 85° 50′ 45″) - (2) cos Δ = ---------------------------------------- - cos 85° 50′ 45″ - - Δ = 73° 57′ 50″ - - Declination, δ, = (90° - Δ) = 16° 2′ 10″ N. - -Reference to the Nautical Almanac shows that this is the sun’s -declination on May 5 and August 9. We may therefore conclude that the -Long-stone was erected to mark the May sunrise, as seen from the -Tregeseal Circle. - -Had we been dealing with a star, instead of the sun, the only -modification necessary in the process of calculating the declination -would have been to omit the semi-diameter correction of 14′. - -Having obtained a declination, we must refer to the curves given on pp. -115-6 in order to see if there is any star which fits it, and to find -the date. - -Take, for example, the case of the apex of Carn Kenidjack, as seen from -the Tregeseal circle-- - -Az. = N. 12° 8′ E.; hill = 4° 0.′ lat. = 50° 8′. - -This gives us a declination of 42° 33′ N., and a reference to the -stellar-declination curves (p. 115-6) shows that Arcturus had that -declination in 2330 B.C. From the table given on p. 117, we see that at -that epoch Arcturus acted as warning-star for the August sun. - -In cases where the elevation of the horizon is 30′, or in preliminary -examinations, where it may be assumed as 30′, the refraction exactly -counterbalances the hill, and therefore the true zenith distance at the -moment of star-rise is 90°. Hence the N.P.D. of the star may be found -from the following simple equation-- - - (3) cos Δ = cos A cos λ - -where Δ and A have the same significance as before and λ is the -_latitude_ of the place of observation. - -[133] _Demonstrations and Practical Work in Astronomical Physics at the -Royal College of Science, South Kensington._ Wyman and Sons, 1_s._ - -[134] cos (c - θ) = cos -(c - θ). - - - - -INDEX - - - A. - - =Abydos=, clock star at, 297. - - =Africa=, sacred stones and trees, 235. - - =Aldebaran=, _see_ Tauri α. - - “=Allée couverte=,” 41, 317. - - “=All Hallows=,” 187; - Irish and Welsh equivalents, 195. - - “=All Souls=,” change of date, 186. - - =Alsia well=, 227. - - =Altar stone=, Stonehenge, 81; - Aberdeen type, 36. - - =Amen-Rā=, 2; - temple of, 55, 297. - - =Amplitude=, 10, 111. - - =Animals=, sacrifices of, 197. - - =Annu=, temples at, 296, 297, 304. - - =Antares=, _see_ Scorpionis α. - - =Antiquaries=, Society of, 69, 133. - - =Antrobus=, Sir Edward, 49, 69, 94. - - =Apollo=, 52. - - =Arabia=, sacred stones and trees in, 235. - - =Archæology=, relation to astronomy, 4. - - =Arcturus=, _see_ Boötis α. - - =Aries=, 15, 315. - - =Armenia=, calendar in, 29; - fire festival in, 191. - - =Aryans=, 40, 236. - - =Ascension Day=, 185, 231. - - _Asherah_, 245, 257. - - =Ash Wednesday=, 182. - - =Assacombe=, 158. - - =Assyria=, sacred trees, &c., 245. - - =Astronomer-priests=, procedure of, 110, 316. - - =Athens=, May-day worship, 108; - temples at, 32; - warning stars at, 311. - - =August-festival=, dates of, 185; - in Brittany, 199; - in Ireland and Wales, 186; - warning-stars, 311. - - =Aurigae= α (=Capella=), clock- and warning-star, 117, 272, 290, 292, - 293, 298, 299, 304, 312; - associated with Ptah, 304. - - =Avebury=, cove at, 37. - - =Avenue=, at Stonehenge, 63, 65. - - =Avenues=, in Brittany, 149; - on Dartmoor, 146, 319; - definition of, 37. - - =Axis= (=of temple=), Stonehenge, 55, 60; - Karnak, 56; - Kouyunjik, 305; - Annu, 305; - change of, 42. - - =Azimuth=, defined, 10, 111; - changes in, 122; - of May sunrise, 264. - - =Azimuth-marks=, illumination of, 110. - - - B. - - =Baal=, 197, 249, 259. - - “=Baal’s Fire=” (=Beltan=), 40. - - =Babylon=, 24, 240, 259, 295, 308; - May year in, 304. - - =Babylonians=, astronomical knowledge of, 240; - early navigators, 241. - - =Baker=, Sir Samuel, 235. - - =Balder=, 320. - - =Balfour=, Prof. Bayley, 201. - - =Ball=, Dr. Henry, 26. - - =Balus=, first king of Orkney, 259. - - =Baring-Gould=, Rev. S., 149, 190, 194, 198, 213, 215, 239, 256. - - =Barnstone-Maeshowe= (=Orkney=), 129. - - =Barrows=, burials in, 323; - chambered, 164, 192, 317; - date of, 78, 238; - employment of, 38, 110, 140, 268; - varieties of, 143. - - =Bartinné=, Cornwall, 219. - - =Battendon=, 158. - - =Batworthy=, avenues near, 160. - - =Bede’s well=, near Jarrow, 230. - - =Beirna-well= (=Barnwell=), 230. - - =Bell=, Mr. J., of Dundalk, 253. - - =Beltaine=, ceremonies at, 40, 197, 285, 320; - variations of, 201, 204, 218, 259. - - =Betelgeuse=, _see_ Orionis α. - - =Bethel=, 245, 255. - - =Bigswell=, 218. - - “=Blind Fiddler=,” The, 291. - - =Blisland=, Cornwall, 291. - - =Blocking-stones=, 156, 176. - - =Blow=, Mr., 69. - - “=Blue stones=,” at Stonehenge, 80, 91. - - =Bolitho=, Mr. Horton, 140, 219, 268, 270, 277, 282, 287, 289, 291. - - =Bonfires=, _see_ Fires. - - =Bookan=, Ring of, 128. - - =Boötis α= (=Arcturus=), 117, 137, 150, 151, 156, 158, 159, 160, 161, - 163, 174, 273, 280, 299, 301, 311, 314. - - =Borlase=, Dr., 134, 218, 219, 234, 254, 255, 267, 289, 323. - - =Borlase=, Mr. W. C., 37, 213, 266, 274. - - =Boscawen-Un=, 287, 290, 309, 314. - - =Boswens Common=, 282. - - =Britain=, introduction of clock-stars, 299; - May-year temples, 309; - pre-Celtic inhabitants, 250. - - =Brittany=, festivals, 198; - megalithic remains, 96; - solstitial fires, 194. - - =Britons=, Saxon slaughter of, 95. - - =Bronze-age=, 75, 78. - - =Brugsch=, 1, 296. - - =Budge=, Dr., 296. - - =Burials=, 146, 164; - in mounds, 323. - - =Burton=, Captain, 235. - - - C. - - =Cæsar=, 52, 323, 324. - - =Cairns=, employment of, 38, 142, 164, 192, 289; - Biblical references to, 244; - burials in, 252; - orientation of, 254. - - =Calabria=, 312. - - =Calends=, the winter, 195. - - =Calendar=, changes in the, 23; - Armenian and Turkish, 29; - Celtic, 186; - Koptic, 28. - - =Camden=, 289. - - =Canaan=, sacred stones and trees in, 245. - - =Canis Majoris= α (=Sirius=), 108, 117, 143, 311. - - =Candlemas=, 143, 184, 185, 188, 191. - - =Canopus=, 18. - - =Capella=, _see_ Aurigae α. - - =Capricorni= α, 117. - - =Caradon Hill=, 143. - - =Carn Kenidjack=, 278. - - =Carnac=, bonfires at, 40; - menhirs at, 98, 105, 239; - sacrifices at, 199. - - =Carruthers=, Mr., 69. - - =Castallack=, Cornwall, 267. - - =Castor=, _see_ Geminorum. - - =Cattle=, drenching in holy wells, 230. - - =Caves=, purpose of, 244, 254. - - “=Cave of Elephanta=,” 256. - - =Celts=, calendar of the, 186, 195; - intrusion of, 324; - worship, 32. - - =Ceylon=, 235. - - =Chabas=, 1. - - =Chaldea=, 12. - - =Challacombe=, 158; - multiple avenue, 149, 159; - solstitial worship, 314. - - =Chapel Euny=, Cornwall, 219, 226. - - =Chaucer=, 203. - - “=Cheesewring, The=,” 134. - - =Chichén-Itzá=, 32, 308. - - “=Choir Gawr=,” 53. - - =Chûn Castle=, Cornwall, 284, 286. - - =Chûn Cromlech=, Cornwall, 284. - - =Churches=, replaced stone circles, 219. - - =Chysoister=, 323. - - =Circles (stone)=, employment of, 232, 316; - associated with wells, 228; - classification of, 36, 37; - star observations in, 109. - - =Cists=, 164; - burials in, 323. - - =Clock-stars=, employment of, 108, 294, 296, 298, 299, 304, 308; - fall into disuse, 322. - - =Coinage=, early British, 52. - - =Collimation-marks=, 316. - - =Constantine=, Cornwall, 269. - - =Cord=, The stretching of the, 1. - - =Cormac=, Archbishop, 181, 189, 195, 204. - - =Cornish=, Mr., 270, 282. - - =Cornwall=, astronomical conditions in, 262; - azimuths of May sunrise, 264; - clock-stars in, 299; - May bathing in, 227; - stone circles in, 36, 262; - wells and circles in, 219. - - =Cosens=, Bishop, of Durham, 184. - - =Council of Nice=, 23. - - _Couvade_, 319. - - =Coves=, 37, 316. - - =Cresset-stones=, 190, 256. - - =Cromlechs=, defined, 37; - employed, 101, 102, 161, 253; - in cairns, 253; - uses of, 110, 141, 245, 252, 317. - - =Crosses (stone)=, old monoliths, 141, 273. - - =Crozon=, monuments at, 101. - - =Cult=, change of, 320. - - “=Cultus Lapidum=,” denouncement of, 39. - - =Cumberland=, stone circle in, 36. - - =Cunnington=, Mr., 79, 81, 90. - - =Cups=, for containing lamps, 319. - - =Cursiter=, Mr., 35, 123. - - =Cursus=, The, at Stonehenge, 154, 155, 319. - - - D. - - =Danams=, 90. - - =Danckworth=, Dr., 111. - - =Dartmoor=, avenues on, 146, 151, 319. - - =Davies=, Mr., 27, 95. - - =Declination=, defined, 10; - change of, 111. - - =Deepdale=, 132. - - =Dekkan=, sacred stones and trees in the, 235. - - =Denderah=, 295, 297. - - _Dessil_, pre-Christian custom, 234. - - =Devoir=, Lieut., 98, 104, 105, 145, 152. - - =Diana=, temple of, 31. - - =Diodorus Siculus=, 51. - - =Diseases=, cure of, 318. - - =Divination=, at holy well, 226. - - =Dolmens=, 255, 316; - derivation of name, 38; - _à galerie_, described, 38; - _à l’allée couverte_, described, 38; - in tumuli, 253; - in Ireland, 37; - purpose of, 41, 252, 254; - Semitic origin of, 245. - - =Down Tor=, May-year at, 309. - - =Draconis= γ, 295, 296, 299, 305. - - =Drizzlecombe=, 158. - - =Druids=, arrival of, 27; - customs of, 259, 319, 323; - mistletoe and the, 210; - teachings of, 52. - - =Dümichen=, 1. - - =Durandus=, 183, 192. - - =Durham=, cathedral customs at, 184. - - =Dwellings of priests=, 317, 323. - - =Dymond=, Mr., 166, 171. - - - E. - - =Easter=, 40, 182, 183; - May festival replaced by, 231; - variation of date, 24. - - =Ecliptic=, change of obliquity, 15. - - =Eden Hall=, 227. - - =Edgar= (A.D. 963), 233. - - =Edmonds=, Mr., 267. - - =Egypt=, astronomy in, 249; - calendar, 28; - clock-stars, 295; - equinoxes in Lower, 108; - May-year, 304; - sequence of worships, 312; - solstices, 258; - temple azimuths, 298; - year-gods, of, 259. - - =Elias= (Elijah), or Al-Khidr or El-Khidr, 29, 257. - - =Ephesus=, 32. - - =Equator=, apparent path of stars at, 7. - - =Equinoxes=, the, 13, 18, 108, 211; - temples for, 32; - in Britain, 64, 315. - - =Erechtheum=, the older, 31, 108, 142. - - =Euphrates=, rise of the, 30. - - =Evans=, Sir John, 76. - - - F. - - =Falmouth=, Lord, 268. - - =Farr=, Sutherlandshire, 229. - - =Farmer=, Prof., 27. - - =Feasts=, 187, 319. - - =February=, warning-stars in Britain, 312. - - =Ferguson=, Dr., 110. - - =Fernworthy=, avenues at, 158. - - =Festivals=, 182, 185, 258; - Cornish, 139; - May, 40, 185, 196, 198, 226, 247, 258. - - =Fires=, at various seasons, 30, 32, 39, 183, 184, 189, 194, 204; - Druidical, 181; - in cromlechs, 317; - in hollowed stones, 323; - pagan, 191; - Roman Catholic and Protestant, 182; - sacred, 195, 248, 256; - customs, 190, 199; - festivals, 194; - rites, 192; - signals, 21; - wheels, 193. - - =Flints=, 79. - - =Florence=, fire customs, 193. - - =Folklore=, 179; - Babylonian and Indian, 242; - Semitic and British, 246. - - =Fosseway=, the Great, 147. - - =Fougou=, 192, 267. - - =Fountains=, 246. - - =France=, place names derived from wells, 234. - - =Frazer=, Dr., 26, 28, 40, 189, 209. - - =Friar’s Heel=, the (Stonehenge), 53, 60, 68, 90, 93. - - “=Furry Dance=,” the, 206. - - - G. - - =Gaillard=, 96, 104. - - “=Galgal=,” description of, 38. - - =Games=, 319. - - =Garments=, offerings of, 318. - - =Gauls=, 323. - - =Gavr Innis=, 38, 255. - - =Gemini=, 15. - - =Geminorum=, α, β and γ, 117. - - =Geoffrey of Monmouth=, 52. - - =Glamorgan=, rites at holy wells, 223. - - =Globe=, celestial, 8; - precessional, 114. - - =Goidels=, 237. - - =Gomme=, Mr., 195, 213, 216, 221, 222, 227, 236, 238. - - “=Goon-Rith=,” 266. - - =Gould=, Baring-, _see_ Baring-Gould. - - =Gowland=, Prof., 3, 45, 69, 72, 74, 75, 76, 80, 82, 87, 91, 321. - - =Greece=, astronomical observations in, 34, 298, 311; - divisions of year in, 20, 304; - temples in, 34, 306, 311, 313, 315; - temple building in, 299. - - =Grimm=, 26, 211. - - =Grovely Castle=, 66. - - =Groves=, Biblical reference to, 245; - sacred, 27, 258. - - =Giraldus Cambrensis=, 52. - - =Gudea= (2500 B.C.), 242. - - =Guest=, Dr., 95. - - - H. - - =Hall=, Mr., 237. - - =Halley=, 54. - - =Hallowe’en=, 125, 143, 201, 311. - - =Hallowmass=, 187. - - =Hameldon=, 147. - - =Hammerstones=, and axes, 74. - - =Harrison=, Mr., 50. - - =Har-Tor=, 158. - - =Harvest=, season of, 139, 304. - - “=Hautville’s Quoit=,” 167, 168. - - =Hawthorn=, 201, 202, 221. - - =Hawk’s Tor=, 291. - - =Hazlitt=, 183, 197, 239. - - =Hecatæus=, of Abdera, 51. - - =Hecatompedon=, the, 31, 108, 154. - - =Helios=, 29. - - =Hellard=, Colonel, 270. - - =Helston=, May-day at, 205. - - =Henderson=, Capt., 140, 270, 274. - - =Henry of Huntingdon=, 52. - - =Hermes=, 259. - - =Hieroglyphics=, 38. - - =Higgins=, Mr., 62. - - =Hills=, actual and angular heights, 112; - effects of, 120, 264, 291. - - =Hoare=, Sir R. C., 61, 149. - - =Holed stones=, _see_ stones. - - =Hollantide=, 188. - - =Holne= (Dartmoor), 195. - - =Holy of Holies=, 16, 55. - - =Holy Thursday=, 185. - - =Honeysuckle=, 207. - - =Hook Lake=, 158. - - =Hope=, 213, 228, 231, 233. - - =Horizon=, angular elevation of, 112; - early employment of, 2, 5, 250. - - =Horses=, at May-day festivals, 319. - - =Horus=, 32, 195. - - =Huc=, 236. - - “=Hurlers=, The” (Cornwall), 36, 133, 134, 135; - alignments at, 137; - change of warning star at, 311; - dates of construction, 139; - May-year at, 309; - solstices at, 314. - - =Hyperboreans=, 51. - - - I. - - =Ihering=, 241. - - =Illuminations=, collimation-mark, 317; - May-day, 204. - - =Implements=, flint, 74. - - =Inverness=, type of circle at, 36. - - =Ireland=, division of the year in, 30; - festivals in, 187, 197, 309. - - =Isis=, 32. - - =Isle-of-Man=, festivals in the, 187, 207; - wells and circles in the, 219. - - - J. - - =James=, Sir Henry, 219. - - =Japan=, 3, 84. - - =Jews=, equinoctial festivals among the, 258. - - =Johnston=, Colonel, 111, 129, 135, 152, 166. - - =Jones=, Inigo, 53. - - =Jones=, Prof. J. M., 250. - - =Josephus=, 32. - - =Judd=, Prof., 80, 91. - - =June-Year=, 93, 251. - - - K. - - =Karnak=, temples at, 55, 297. - - =Kenidjack=, Carn, 278. - - =Kerenneur=, 105. - - =Kerlescant=, 39. - - =Kerloas=, 105. - - =Keswick=, 35, 111. - - =King’s Teignton=, 196. - - =Kingstone=, The, at Roll-Rich (Oxon.), 36. - - =Kit’s Coity House=, 37. - - =Knightlow Hill= (Coventry), 188. - - =Knut= (A.D. 1018), 233. - - =Kouyunjik=, 308, 322. - - - L. - - “=Lammas=,” 186. - - =Lanyon=, 273. - - =Lanyon Quoit=, 280. - - =Latitude=, results of, 291. - - =Layard=, Sir H., 241, 307, 308. - - =Lent=, origin and customs of, 183, 184. - - =Leslie=, Colonel, 218, 235, 255. - - =Lewis=, Mr. A. L., 35, 123, 176. - - =Lockyer=, Dr., 111. - - =Longstones=, found in barrows, 268. - - =Longstone=, The (Tregeseal), 278, 280, 309, 314. - - “=Lug=,” the Irish Sun-God, 186. - - =Lugnassad=, Irish feast, 186. - - =Lukis=, Dr., 37, 133, 144, 150, 253, 265, 287, 291, 292. - - =Luxor=, 297. - - =Lyrae=, α (Vega), 297, 315. - - - M. - - =MacRitchie=, Mr., 192, 317. - - =Madron (Cornwall)=, 225. - - =Maeshowe (Orkney)=, 35, 123, 125, 253, 254; - date of, 129; - use of, 192. - - =Markab=, _see_ Pegasi α. - - =Marriage=, customs, 285, 319. - - =Martin=, St., in Germany, 187. - - =Martinmas=, old, 188. - - =Maudslay=, Mr., 32, 308. - - =Mauls=, 75. - - =May-day=, 108, 201, 204. - - =May-eve=, 95, 207. - - =May-festivals=, 40, 185, 196, 198, 226, 247, 258. - - =Maypole=, 205, 227. - - =May-sun=, 36, 151, 262, 263. - - =May-thorn=, 202, 212, 320. - - =May-year=, the, 19, 181, 232, 304, 320; - divisions of, 263, 304; - provided for, 18, 35, 64, 93, 98, 104, 105, 127, 174, 241, 247, 271, - 280, 284, 286, 290, 304, 306, 307, 308, 309, 321; - relation to June-year, 106, 230, 251, 261; - warning-stars, 117, 142; - worship, 95, 96, 109. - - =Mecca=, 245. - - _Meinrethydd_ (May-eve), 95. - - =Melon=, island of, 102. - - =Memphis=, Capella at, 304; - May-worship, 18; - temples at, 297, 298. - - =Mên-an-tol=, 284, 286. - - =Ménec (Le)=, 39, 98, 159. - - =Menhirs=, 37, 105; - ceremonies at, 256; - in Brittany, 96; - near holy wells, 225; - various, 39, 101, 102, 103, 152, 157. - - =Men-Peru=, 269. - - =Menu or Min=, temple of, 29, 31, 108, 142, 297, 298, 305; - associated with Spica, 299. - - =Mercury=, 259. - - =Merrivale=, avenues at, 147, 153, 154; - May-year at, 309. - - =Merry Maidens=, 265; - alignments at, 271, 276; - clock-stars at, 302; - May-year at, 309. - - =Midsummer=, ceremonies at, 231, 285. - - =Midsummer eve=, mistletoe on, 210. - - =Mihr=, Armenian fire-god, 191. - - =Mistletoe=, 26, 27, 201, 210, 320; - as a medicine, 210; - “Oil of St. John,” 210; - Swedish notions concerning, 209. - - =Mitchell’s Egyptian Calendar=, 28. - - =Molech=, 248. - - =Molene Island=, 103. - - =Monoliths=, 81, 216, 244. - - =Montelius=, 76. - - =Moon=, employment of the, 18; - worship of the, 249. - - =Morbihan=, alignments at, 100. - - =Morgan=, Lloyd, Prof., 167, 170, 176. - - =Morgan=, Mr., 53. - - =Morrow=, Mr., 171, 174. - - =Mountain-ash=, 206. - - =Mungo-Park=, 235. - - =Murray=, Mr. George, 27. - - =Murray=, Mr. John, 308. - - =Mut=, temple of, 297. - - =Mythology=, origin of, 19. - - - N. - - =Nantwich=, 221. - - =Naos=, The, at Stonehenge, 16, 41, 63, 95. - - =Need fires=, 190. - - =Neolithic-age=, 75, 76. - - =New-Grange (Meath)=, 38. - - =Newton’s herbal=, 212. - - =New-year=, change of date, 194. - - =Night-dial=, use of, 302. - - =Nile=, 3, 18, 312. - - =Nimrood=, temples at, 241, 308. - - “=Nine Maidens=” (The), 292, 293. - - =Nineveh=, May temple at, 307. - - =Norwich=, sun-wheel at, 193. - - _Nos Galan-galaf_, 187. - - _Nos Glamau_, 207. - - =November=, festival, 186, 195, 290, 311. - - - O. - - =Oak=, contiguous to sacred wells, 216. - - =Obliquity of the Ecliptic=, change of the, 15, 43. - - =Observations=, astronomical and religious, 125, 322. - - =O’Connor=, Dr., 216. - - =Odin stone=, Stenness, 127, 218, 283, 285. - - =Offerings=, at holy places, 222, 318. - - =Onston=, 132. - - =Ordeals=, 247. - - =Ordnance Survey=, 111, 253. - - =Orientation=, first use of, 18. - - =Orionis, α (Betelgeuse)=, 117, 144, 314. - - =Orkney=, 125, 259. - - =Otley=, Mr. Jonathan, 35, 111. - - =Ouseley=, Sir William, 234. - - - P. - - =Palenque=, 32, 308. - - =Palæolithic age=, 75. - - =Palm=, at vernal equinox, 211. - - =Palm Sunday=, 184, 211. - - =Panathenæa=, 31. - - =Parallelithons=, 148. - - “=Pardons=,” in Brittany, 198. - - =Parthenon=, 298. - - =Payn=, Mr. Howard, 66, 94. - - =Pegasi=, α and β, 117. - - =Pennant=, tour of Scotland, 206. - - =Penrose=, Mr., 31, 34, 38, 42, 51, 62, 78, 89, 93, 94, 109, 142, 154, - 298, 306, 310, 312, 313, 315. - - =Pentecost=, feast of, 32, 185. - - =Pepi=, 295. - - =Percy’s Northumberland Notes=, 184. - - =Perrott=, Mr., 148. - - =Persia=, rag-offerings in, 234. - - =Petrie=, Flinders, Prof., 62. - - =Pet-ser=, 2. - - =Philpot=, Mrs., 257. - - =Picks=, of deer’s-horn, 78. - - “=Pierre du Conseil=” (Lagatjar), 104. - - =Piers’= Survey of S. Ireland, 182, 229. - - =Pins=, as offerings at sacred wells, 222, 227, 258, 318. - - “=Pipers=, The,” 266, 271. - - =Pitt-Rivers=, General, 235, 236. - - =Plato=, 7. - - =Pleiades=, at British monuments, 153, 273, 274, 280, 290; - employed by Semites, 247; - elsewhere, 108, 117, 151, 155, 162, 310, 311. - - =Ploudalmezeau=, monuments at, 100. - - =Ploy-field=, the, at Holne, 196. - - =Pole=, apparent path of stars at the north, 6; - elevation of the, 9; - motion of stars, round, 300, 303. - - =Pollux=, _see_ Geminorum. - - =Pompeii=, 312. - - =Pomponius Mela=, 322, 324. - - =Pont l’Abbé=, menhirs at, 105. - - =Portugal=, place-names from wells, 234. - - =Pratt’s flowering plants=, 202, 206. - - =Precession=, effects of, 64, 295. - - =Prestwich=, Prof., 79. - - =Priests=, 316, 317. - - =Processions=, sacred, 319. - - =Ptah=, 29, 31, 298, 304. - - =Pylons=, use of, 55. - - =Pyramids=, building of, 18; - worship at, 29. - - =Pyrenees=, genii at holy-wells, 234. - - _Pyrus aucuparia_, 201. - - - Q. - - =Quicken-tree=, 206, 208. - - =Quiller-Couch=, holy wells, 213, 216, 223, 226, 228. - - =Quoit=, definition of, 38. - - - R. - - =Racing=, at festivals, 319. - - =Rags=, as offerings in sacred places, 216, 222, 223, 225. - - =Ram Feast=, at Holne (Dartmoor), 196. - - =Read=, Mr. C. H., 237. - - =Refraction=, effect of, 112, 120. - - =Rent-day=, date of, in Ireland, 30. - - =Rhys=, Prof., 26, 30, 186, 188, 202, 206, 207, 208, 213, 215, 219, - 220, 223, 250, 260, 319. - - =Roddon=, = Rowan, 206. - - =Roll-Rich=, Oxon., 36. - - =Rolston=, Sir. W. E., 120, 122, 290. - - =Rorrington=, Chirbury, 227. - - =Rowan-tree=, 201, 211, 318, 320; - and witchcraft, 206, 208; - near sacred wells, 220. - - =Rowe’s perambulation of Dartmoor=, 147, 148, 152, 158, 287. - - =Rūz Kāsim=, 29. - - =Rūs Khidr=, 29. - - - S. - - =Sacred-fires=, _see_ fires. - - =Sacrifices=, 197, 205, 319. - - =Sagittarius=, 15. - - =Sainhain=, feast of, 187. - - =Sanctuary=, at Stonehenge, 55. - - =St. Aelian=, Derbyshire, 216. - - =St. Blaze= (“=Blayse=,” “=Blazeus=”), anniversary of, 184. - - =St. Burian=, Cornwall, 267, 271. - - =St. Claire=, 140. - - =St. Cleer=, holy well at, 229. - - =St. Cuthbert=, Cornwall, 228. - - =St. Herbot=, sacrifices to, 199. - - =St. John’s Day=, festivals on, 230. - - =St. John’s Eve=, fire customs, 192. - - =St. Just=, Cornwall, stone circle at, 277. - - =St. Justin=, 140. - - =St. Martin=, feast of, 186. - - =St. Medan=, holy well at Kirkmaiden, 229. - - =St. Michael’s Mount=, 40. - - =St. Nicodemus=, sacrifices to, 199. - - =St. Peter’s=, Rome, 32. - - =St. Renan=, monuments at, 100. - - =Salisbury=, position of cathedral, 65; - solstitial custom at, 43. - - =Saracens=, star-worship among the, 249. - - =Sardonyx=, employment of, 32. - - =Sarsens=, stones, 15, 45, 79, 91. - - =Scandinavia=, temples in, 63. - - =Schübeler=, Prof., 202. - - =Scorpionis α (Antares)=, 117, 142, 273, 310, 311. - - =Scotland=, May-year in, 109, 186, 321; - types of stone circles in, 36. - - =Scott=, Sir Walter, 40. - - =Seasons=, astronomical and vegetational, 212. - - =Semites=, beliefs concerning the stars, 249; - in Britain, 243, 246; - temple practices among the, 240, 248, 256. - - =Sennacherib=, May temple of, 308. - - =Sergi=, Prof., 237. - - =Serpentis α=, 117. - - =Sesheta=, 2. - - =Set=, British equivalent of, 195. - - =Shakspeare=, 204. - - =Sheat=, _see_ Pegasi β. - - _Shenn Laa Boaldyn_ (Manx May-day), 204. - - =Shinto=, cult of, 3. - - =Shovel Down=, Devon, 158, 160, 314. - - =Shrines=, trilithons as, 37. - - =Shrove Tuesday=, 182. - - =Sight-lines=, 316; - different methods of marking, 107; - methods of using, 41. - - =Silbury (or Sidbury)=, 66. - - =Sirius=, _see_ Canis Majoris α. - - =Skins=, offerings of, 318. - - “=Slaughter Stone=,” the, 90, 93. - - =Smith=, Colonel Hamilton, 148. - - =Smith=, Dr. J., 52. - - =Smith=, Robertson, Prof., 243, 245, 248, 255, 257. - - =Society of Antiquaries=, 69. - - =Solstices=, the, 13, 108, 120; - azimuths of sunrise at, 43, 291; - at Palenque and Chichén Itza, 308; - celebration of, 40, 193; - date of introduction into Britain, 313; - determination of, 16; - in Egypt, 3, 13; - in France, 99, 103, 104; - in Morocco and Britain, 243; - provided for at British monuments, 93, 129, 176, 274, 280, 290, 312, - 314; - sunrise at, 36; - warning stars for, 117, 314; - worship at, 259, 320. - - =Spence=, Mr., 35, 123, 128, 254, 285. - - =Spica=, _see_ Virginis α. - - =Stalldon Moor=, 150, 163. - - =Standen (near Hungerford)=, 79. - - =Stanton Drew=, 166, 167, 170, 173; - cove at, 37; - dates of, 174; - dimensions of circles at, 171; - May-year at, 309; - solstitial worship at, 314. - - =Stars=, changes in declination of, 42, 109; - northern, 114; - heliacal risings of, 108; - reason for observations of, 42; - worship of, 139, 249. - _See_ clock-stars. - - =Stenness=, 35, 123, 218; - azimuths of sunrise at, 120; - observations required at, 129; - seasons provided for at, 127, 131, 309, 314. - - =Sterility=, 239, 256. - - =Stirling=, festivals at, 238. - - =Stockwell=, 67, 111, 129, 176. - - =Stone-age=, 75. - - =Stonehenge=, 41, 50, 51, 52, 58, 88, 91; - amplitudes of stars at, 11; - apparent paths of stars at, 7; - architecture of, 83; - avenue, 63, 65; - axis, 55, 60; - azimuth of sunrise at, 120; - the “Cursus” at, 319; - custom at, 43; - date of, 62, 67, 93; - desecration of, 47; - erection of, 84; - “Leaning Stone” at, 69, 84; - May-year at, 109; - origin of stones, 90; - position of, 65; - rededication of, 109; - solstitial temple, 108, 314; - “_Stanenges_,” 52; - tools found at, 74. - - =Stones=, as azimuth marks, 110; - anointing of, 255; - cresset-, 190, 256; - holed, 37, 128, 282, 285, 286, 316, 318; - hollowed, 192, 248, 323; - Semitic, sacred, 244; - unhewn and worked, 321. - - =Stone-worship=, proscribed, 271. - - =Stripple Stones=, Cornwall, 36, 292. - - =Stukeley=, Dr., 37, 53, 134, 289. - - =Sunrise=, apparent, 120; - azimuth of, 64; - determination of, 118; - observation of, 63, 66, 99; - November, 93. - - =Sunset=, determination of, 118; - the May-, 93. - - =Sycamore=, 204. - - - T. - - “=Tan Heol=,” 40. - - “=Tan St. Jean=,” 40. - - =Tanta Fair=, 28, 29. - - =Tara=, perpetual fire at temple of, 191. - - =Tauri α=, Aldebaran, 315. - - =Tavistock=, 147. - - =Temenos mound=, at Stonehenge, 47, 93. - - =Temple-axis=, fixing of, 1. - - =Temples=, associated, 297; - Egyptian, 55; - solstitial, 313. - - =Thebes= (Egypt), 8, 108; - amplitudes at, 11; - stars used at, 299, 304; - May-year at, 247, 305. - - =Thebes= (Greece), 299. - - =Theodolite=, adjustments of, 172, 329. - - =Thomas=, Mr., 277, 282. - - =Thorn-trees=, associated with holy wells, 221. - - =Thoth=, 259. - - =Thurnham=, Dr., 63. - - =Tigris=, rise of the, 30. - - =Tirehan=, 214. - - =Tissington=, Derbyshire, 228. - - =Tlachtaga=, the fire of, 187. - - =Tombs=, dolmens not intended for, 254. - - =Torches=, 317. - - =Toutates=, 260. - - =Track-lines=, 149. - - =Tradition=, 179. - - “=Treachery of the Long Knives=,” 95. - - =Trees=, sacred, 200, 220, 257; - Arabian worship of, 245; - Semitic, 244, 246. - - =Tregaseal=, 277, 278, 280, 309, 314. - - =Trilithons=, 81; - at Stonehenge, 58; - functions of, 37, 41; - in Japan, 3. - - =Trippet stones=, 36. - - =Tristis rock=, 158. - - =Trowlesworthy=, 158, 161, 162. - - =Truthwall Common=, 277. - - =Tubberpatrick=, well at, 225. - - =Tumuli=, 93, 102, 254; - at Stenness, 131. - - =Turkey=, calendar in, 29. - - - U. - - =Ursae Majoris α=, 295, 298. - - - V. - - =Vallum=, 47, 291. - - =Vega=, _see_ Lyrae α. - - “_Via Sacra_,” 60, 155, 163. - - =Via=, stones of, 128. - - =Virginis α=, (Spica), 108, 142, 299, 305, 315. - - - W. - - =Wales=, wells near churches, 229. - - =Warning-stars=, 108; - in Britain, 310; - in Greece, 311. - - =Water=, near holy places, 246, 317. - - =Wells=, associated with trees, 219, 220; - curative powers, 235; - sacred associations, 206, 214, 216, 217, 218, 219, 228, 229, 234, - 257, 273; - “Waking the Well,” 228; - wishing, 215; - worship at, 215, 233; - worship, modern, 221, 223, 225, 226. - - =Westermarck=, Mr., 319. - - =Westmorland=, May-day customs, 207. - - =Whitethorn=, 202. - - =Whitley=, Rev. D., 255. - - =Whitsuntide=, 185, 196. - - =Willow=, blossoms used on Palm Sunday, 211. - - =Wiltshire Archæological Society=, 50. - - =Windle=, Mr., 37. - - =Witchcraft=, 206, 212, 216. - - =Witchen-tree=, 206. - - =Wood-Martin=, Mr., 213, 214, 220, 223, 233. - - =Woon Gumpus Common=, 282. - - =Worship=, British and Semitic, 252; - flower-, 203; - sun- and star-, 260; - well-, 228. - - =Worth=, Mr. Hansford, 146, 148, 150, 153, 164. - - =Worth=, Mr., R.N., 147, 148. - - “=Wroth silver=,” payment of, 188. - - - Y. - - =Year=, the astronomical, 16, 25; - the Celtic, 186; - division of the, 18; - the Julian, 23; - the lunar-, in Babylon, 24; - the solstitial-, 19, 139, 261; - the vegetation-, 18, 19, 25, 97, 109, 203. - - =Yucatan=, the temples of, 33. - - -THE END - - -R. CLAY AND SONS, LTD., BREAD STREET HILL, E.C., AND BUNGAY, SUFFOLK. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - - Inconsistent, archaic and unusual spelling, hyphenation and - capitalisation have been retained, except as mentioned below. This - includes proper and geographical names. - - Depending on the hard- and software used, not all elements may display - as intended. Some tables are best viewed in a wide browser window. - - Index: the occasional error in the order of entries has not been - corrected. - - For the illustrated versions: Where the quality of the illustration in - the source document permits and where the visibility of details in or - the legibility of the illustration requires, larger versions of - illustrations have been provided. Availability of these larger - illustrations depends on the version used. - - Page 100, Fig. 27, Menhir (A): the reference letter is missing from - the illustration. - - Page 101, Carnac-Leomariaquer: probably Carnac-Locmariaquer (as on - Page 38). - - Footnote [124], table Chichen Itza, last line: the E. or W. is missing - in the source document. - - - Changes made - - Illustrations and tables have been moved out of text paragraphs; - footnotes were moved to the end of the chapter. Some tables have been - re-arranged. Ditto marks have occasionally been replaced with the - dittoed text. - - Some obvious minor typographical and punctuation errors have been - corrected silently; some minor formatting inconsistencies have been - standardised silently. 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text-indent: -1em;} - .workslist p.center - {text-align: center;} - - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Stonehenge and other British Stone -Monuments Astronomically Considered, by Joseph Norman Lockyer - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Stonehenge and other British Stone Monuments Astronomically Considered - -Author: Joseph Norman Lockyer - -Release Date: June 8, 2020 [EBook #62342] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STONEHENGE AND OTHER BRITISH *** - - - - -Produced by Tim Lindell, Harry Lam and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian -Libraries) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="tnbox"> - -<p class="center">Please see the <a href="#TN">Transcriber’s Notes</a> at the end of this text.</p> - -<p class="center blankbefore75">The cover image has been created for this e-book and is in the public domain.</p> - -</div><!--tnbox--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="scr"> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/cover_sm.jpg" alt="Cover image" width="450" height="600" /> -</div> - -</div><!--scr--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p class="center highline4 fsize200"><b>STONEHENGE</b></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p class="center blankbefore4"><b>LIST OF WORKS BY SIR NORMAN<br /> -LOCKYER.</b></p> - -<hr class="advert" /> - -<div class="workslist"> - -<p>PRIMER OF ASTRONOMY.</p> - -<p>ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN ASTRONOMY.</p> - -<p>MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH.</p> - -<p>CONTRIBUTIONS TO SOLAR PHYSICS.</p> - -<p>CHEMISTRY OF THE SUN.</p> - -<p>THE METEORITIC HYPOTHESIS.</p> - -<p>THE SUN’S PLACE IN NATURE.</p> - -<p>INORGANIC EVOLUTION.</p> - -<p>RECENT AND COMING ECLIPSES.</p> - -<p>STARGAZING, PAST AND PRESENT.</p> - -<p class="padl8 fsize80">(<i>In conjunction with G. M. Seabroke.</i>)</p> - -<p>THE DAWN OF ASTRONOMY.</p> - -<p>STONEHENGE AND OTHER BRITISH STONE MONUMENTS.</p> - -</div><!--workslist--> - -<hr class="advert" /> - -<div class="workslist"> - -<p>STUDIES IN SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.</p> - -<p>THE SPECTROSCOPE AND ITS APPLICATIONS.</p> - -</div><!--workslist--> - -<hr class="advert" /> - -<div class="workslist"> - -<p>THE RULES OF GOLF.</p> - -<p class="padl8 fsize80">(<i>In conjunction with W. Rutherford.</i>)</p> - -<p class="center blankbefore2 fsize80"><i>In the Press.</i></p> - -<p>EDUCATION AND NATIONAL PROGRESS.</p> - -</div><!--workslist--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h1><span class="fsize210">STONEHENGE</span><br /> -<span class="fsize50">AND OTHER</span><br /> -BRITISH STONE MONUMENTS<br /> -<span class="fsize80"><i>Astronomically Considered</i></span></h1> - -<p class="center highline15"><span class="fsize80">BY</span><br /> -<span class="fsize110">SIR NORMAN LOCKYER, K.C.B., F.R.S.</span></p> - -<p class="center"><span class="fsize80">DIRECTOR OF THE SOLAR PHYSICS OBSERVATORY</span><br /> -<span class="fsize60">HON. LL. D., GLASGOW; HON. SC.D., CAMBRIDGE; CORRESPONDENT OF THE INSTITUTE<br /> -OF FRANCE; CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE IMPERIAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES<br /> -OF ST. PETERSBURG; THE SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF NATIONAL INDUSTRY<br /> -OF FRANCE; THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, GÖTTINGEN; THE FRANKLIN<br /> -INSTITUTE, PHILADELPHIA; THE ROYAL MEDICAL SOCIETY OF BRUSSELS;<br /> -SOCIETY OF ITALIAN SPECTROSCOPISTS; THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF PALERMO;<br /> -THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF GENEVA; OF THE ASTRONOMICAL<br /> -SOCIETY OF MEXICO; MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF LYNCEI,<br /> -ROME; AND THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, PHILADELPHIA;<br /> -HONORARY MEMBER OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCE OF<br /> -CATANIA; PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF YORK; LITERARY AND<br /> -PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF MANCHESTER; ROYAL CORNWALL<br /> -POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION; AND LEHIGH UNIVERSITY</span></p> - -<p class="center highline15 blankbefore4"><span class="oldtype">London</span><br /> -MACMILLAN AND CO., <span class="smcap">Limited</span><br /> -1906<br /> -<span class="fsize80"><i>All rights reserved</i></span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p class="printer"><span class="smcap">Richard Clay and Sons, Limited</span><br /> -BREAD STREET HILL, E.C., AND<br /> -BUNGAY, SUFFOLK.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pagev">[v]</span></p> - -<h2 class="front">PREFACE</h2> - -<p>In continuation of my work on the astronomical uses -of the Egyptian Temples, I have from time to time, -when leisure has permitted, given attention to some of -the stone circles and other stone monuments erected, as I -believed, for similar uses in this country. One reason for -doing so was that in consequence of the supineness of -successive Governments, and the neglect and wanton -destruction by individuals, the British monuments are -rapidly disappearing.</p> - -<p>Although, and indeed because, these inquiries are -still incomplete, I now bring together some of the -notes I have collected, as they may induce other -inquirers to go on with the work. Some of the results -already obtained have been communicated to the Royal -Society, and others have appeared in articles published -in <i>Nature</i>, but only a small percentage of the monuments -available has so far been examined. Further -observations are required in order that the hypothesis -set forth in this book may be rejected or confirmed.</p> - -<p>In the observations made at Stonehenge referred to -in <a href="#Page62">Chapter VII.</a> I had the inestimable advantage of<span class="pagenum" id="Pagevi">[vi]</span> -the collaboration of the late Mr. Penrose. Our work -there would not have been possible without the sympathetic -assistance of Sir Edmund Antrobus, Bart.; -Colonel Duncan A. Johnston, R.E., Director-General of -the Ordnance Survey, also was good enough on several -occasions to furnish us with much valuable information -which is referred to in its place. Messrs. Howard -Payn and Fowler skilfully and zealously helped in -the observations and computations. To all these I -am glad to take this opportunity of expressing my -obligations.</p> - -<p>With regard to the other monuments besides Stonehenge, -I have to tender my thanks to the following -gentlemen for most valuable local <span class="nowrap">assistance:—</span></p> - -<div class="thanks"> - -<p>Brittany—Lieut. de Vaisseau Devoir.</p> - -<p>Stenness—Mr. Spence.</p> - -<p>Stanton Drew—Professor Lloyd Morgan, Mr. Morrow, -and Mr. Dymond.</p> - -<p>The Hurlers, and the Merry Maidens—the Right Hon. -Viscount Falmouth, Capt. Henderson, Mr. Horton -Bolitho and Mr. Wallis.</p> - -<p>Tregaseal—Mr. Horton Bolitho and Mr. Thomas.</p> - -<p>The Dartmoor Avenues—Mr. Worth.</p> - -</div><!--thanks--> - -<p>The following have helped me in many ways, among -them with advice and criticism:—Principal Rhys, Dr. -Wallis Budge, Dr. J. G. Frazer, and Mr. A. L. Lewis.</p> - -<p>The assistance so generously afforded in the case of<span class="pagenum" id="Pagevii">[vii]</span> -Stonehenge by Colonel Johnston, R.E., in furnishing me -with accurate azimuths was continued for the monuments -subsequently investigated till his retirement. To his -successor, Colonel R. C. Hellard, R.E., I am already -under deep obligations.</p> - -<p>For the use of some of the Illustrations my thanks -are due to the Royal Society, the Society of Antiquaries, -the Royal Institute of British Architects, Messrs. Macmillan, -and Mr. John Murray.</p> - -<p>I have to thank Mr. Rolston, F.R.A.S., one of my -staff, for assistance in the computations involved.</p> - -<p class="right padr4 blankbefore75">NORMAN LOCKYER.</p> - -<div class="placedate"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Solar Physics Observatory</span>,</p> - -<p><i>17th May, 1906</i>.</p> - -</div><!--placedate--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Pageviii">[viii]</a><br /><a id="Pageix">[ix]</a></span></p> - -<h2 class="front">CONTENTS</h2> - -<table class="tocloi" summary="ToC"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="2"> </th> -<th class="right padl3 fsize80">PAGE</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="name"><span class="smcap">Preface</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Pagev">v</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left fsize80">CHAPTER</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">I.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">Introductory</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page1">1</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">II.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">The Astronomical Divisions of the Year</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page12">12</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">III.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">The Agricultural Divisions of the Year</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page17">17</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">IV.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">The Various New-Year Days</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page25">25</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">V.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">Conditions and Traditions at Stonehenge</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page34">34</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">VI.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">General Architecture of Stonehenge</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page55">55</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">VII.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">Astronomical Observations at Stonehenge in 1901</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page62">62</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">VIII.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">Archæological Observations at Stonehenge, 1901</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page69">69</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">IX.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">Was there an Earlier Circle?</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page88">88</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">X.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">The May and June Worships in Brittany</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page96">96</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">XI.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">Astronomical Hints for Archæologists</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page107">107</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">XII.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">Astronomical Hints for Archæologists</span> (<i>Continued</i>)</td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page118">118</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">XIII.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">Stenness</span> (Lat. 59° N.)</td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page123">123</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">XIV.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">The Hurlers</span> (Lat. 50° 31′ N.)</td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page133">133</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">XV.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">The Dartmoor Avenues</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page145">145</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">XVI.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">The Dartmoor Avenues</span> (<i>Continued</i>)</td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page157">157</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">XVII.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">Stanton Drew</span> (Lat. 51° 10′ N.)</td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page166">166</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">XVIII.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">Folklore and Tradition</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page178">178</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">XIX.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">Sacred Fires</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page189">189</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">XX.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">Sacred Trees</span><span class="pagenum" id="Pagex">[x]</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page200">200</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">XXI.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">Holy Wells and Streams</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page213">213</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">XXII.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">Where did the British Worship Originate?</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page232">232</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">XXIII.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">The Similarity of the Semitic and British Worships</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page252">252</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">XXIV.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">The May Year in South-West Cornwall</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page261">261</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">XXV.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">The Merry Maidens Circle</span> (Lat. 50° 4′ N.)</td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page265">265</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">XXVI.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">The Tregaseal Circles</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page277">277</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">XXVII.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">Some other Cornish Monuments</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page287">287</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">XXVIII.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">The Clock-Stars in Egypt and Britain</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page294">294</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">XXIX.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">A Short History of Sun-Temples</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page304">304</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">XXX.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">The Life of the Astronomer-Priests</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page316">316</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="center">APPENDICES.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">I.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">Details of the Theodolite Observations at Stonehenge</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page325">325</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no">II.</td> -<td class="name"><span class="smcap">Suggestions on Field Observations</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page329">329</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="name"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td> -<td class="page"><a href="#Page333">333</a></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexi">[xi]</span></p> - -<h2 class="front">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> - -<table class="tocloi" summary="LoI"> - -<tr> -<th class="no fsize80">FIG.</th> -<th> </th> -<th class="right padl1 fsize80">PAGE</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig1">1</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Present Sun Worship in Japan</td> -<td class="page">4</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig2">2</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The Celestial Sphere, Conditions at the North Pole</td> -<td class="page">5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig3">3</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The Celestial Sphere, Conditions at the Equator</td> -<td class="page">6</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig4">4</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The Celestial Sphere, Conditions in a Middle Latitude</td> -<td class="page">6</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig5">5</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The Four Astronomical Divisions of the Year</td> -<td class="page">14</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig6">6</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The Various Bearings of the Sun Risings and Settings in N. latitude 51°</td> -<td class="page">14</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig7">7</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The Astronomical and Vegetation Divisions of the Year</td> -<td class="page">23</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig8">8</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Original Tooling of the Stones at Stonehenge</td> -<td class="page">44</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig9">9</a>.</td> -<td class="name">View of Stonehenge from the West</td> -<td class="page">45</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig10">10</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Copy of Hoare’s Plan of Stonehenge, 1810</td> -<td class="page">46</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig11">11</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The Leaning Stone in 1901</td> -<td class="page">48</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig12">12</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The Axis of the Temple of Karnak</td> -<td class="page">56</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig13">13</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Plan of the Temple of Ramses II. in the Memnonia at Thebes</td> -<td class="page">57</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig14">14</a>.</td> -<td class="name">One of the remaining Trilithons at Stonehenge</td> -<td class="page">59</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig15">15</a>.</td> -<td class="name">General Plan of Stonehenge</td> -<td class="page">60</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig16">16</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The Arrangements for raising the Stone</td> -<td class="page">70</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig17">17</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The Cradle and Supports</td> -<td class="page">71</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig18">18</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The Frame used to locate the Finds</td> -<td class="page">73</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig19">19</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Some of the Flint Implements</td> -<td class="page">77</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig20">20</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Showing the careful Tooling of the Sarsens</td> -<td class="page">82</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig21">21</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Face of Rock against which a Stone was made to rest</td> -<td class="page">83</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig22">22</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The Leaning Stone Upright</td> -<td class="page">85</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig23">23</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Stonehenge, 1905</td> -<td class="page">86</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig24">24</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Map of the Stones made by the Ordnance Survey</td> -<td class="page">89</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig25">25</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Rod placed in the Common Axis of the Circle and Avenue</td> -<td class="page">94</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig26">26</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Alignments at Le Ménec</td> -<td class="page">99</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig27">27</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Menhir on Melon Island</td> -<td class="page">100</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig28">28</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Melon Island, showing Menhir and Cromlech</td> -<td class="page">101</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig29">29</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Menhirs of St. Dourzal</td> -<td class="page">102</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig30">30</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Alignment at Lagatjar (photograph)<span class="pagenum" id="Pagexii">[xii]</span></td> -<td class="page">103</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig31">31</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Alignments at Lagatjar (plan)</td> -<td class="page">104</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig32">32</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Menhirs on Solstitial and May Alignments</td> -<td class="page">105</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig33">33</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Diagram for finding Declination from given Amplitudes or Azimuths in British Latitudes</td> -<td class="page">113</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig34">34</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Declinations of Northern Stars from 250 <span class="smcapall">A.D.</span> to 2150 -<span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></td> -<td class="page">115</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig35">35</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Declinations of Southern Stars from 250 <span class="smcapall">A.D.</span> to 2150 -<span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></td> -<td class="page">116</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig36">36</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The Conditions of Sunrise at the Summer Solstice in Lat. 59° N.</td> -<td class="page">119</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig37">37</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The Azimuths of the Sunrise (upper limb) at the Summer Solstice. Lats. N. 59°-47°</td> -<td class="page">121</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig38">38</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Maeshowe and the Stones of Stenness</td> -<td class="page">124</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig39">39</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Chief Sight-Lines from the Stones of Stenness</td> -<td class="page">126</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig40">40</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Variation of the Obliquity of the Ecliptic 100 <span class="smcapall">A.D.</span>-4000 -<span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></td> -<td class="page">130</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig41">41</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The Sight-Lines at the Hurlers</td> -<td class="page">136</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig42">42</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The Southern Avenue at Merrivale, looking East</td> -<td class="page">147</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig43">43</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Avenues, Circle and Stones at Merrivale, with their Azimuths</td> -<td class="page">154</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig44">44</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Cursus at Stonehenge, nearly parallel to the Merrivale Avenue</td> -<td class="page">155</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig45">45</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The remains of the Challacombe Avenue</td> -<td class="page">159</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig46">46</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The Sight-Lines at Trowlesworthy</td> -<td class="page">162</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig47">47</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The Circles and Avenues at Stanton Drew</td> -<td class="page">169</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig48">48</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The Carro, Florence</td> -<td class="page">194</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig49">49</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Cresset-Stone, Lewannick</td> -<td class="page">257</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig50">50</a>.</td> -<td class="name">First Appearance of May Sun in British Latitudes</td> -<td class="page">263</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig51">51</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Azimuths of the May Sunrise</td> -<td class="page">264</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig52">52</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The Merry Maidens</td> -<td class="page">269</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig53">53</a>.</td> -<td class="name">25-inch Ordnance Map of Merry Maidens showing Alignments</td> -<td class="page">275</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig54">54</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The Eastern Circle at Tregaseal</td> -<td class="page">279</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig55">55</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Photograph of Ordnance Map showing Sight-lines</td> -<td class="page">281</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig56">56</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Plan of the Mên-an-Tol</td> -<td class="page">283</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig57">57</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Photograph of the Mên-an-Tol</td> -<td class="page">284</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig58">58</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The Mên-an-Tol. Front View and Section</td> -<td class="page">285</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig59">59</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Photograph of the Ordnance Map of Boscawen-un</td> -<td class="page">288</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig60">60</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Diagram showing Azimuths of Sunrise 1680 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> and 1905 -<span class="smcapall">A.D.</span></td> -<td class="page">290</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig61">61</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Arcturus and Capella as Clock-Stars in Britain</td> -<td class="page">300</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig62">62</a>.</td> -<td class="name">A Night-Dial</td> -<td class="page">303</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig63">63</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Layard’s Plan of the Palace of Sennacherib</td> -<td class="page">305</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig64">64</a>.</td> -<td class="name">Layard’s Plan of the Mound at Nimrood</td> -<td class="page">306</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="no"><a href="#Fig65">65</a>.</td> -<td class="name">The Temples at Chichen Itza</td> -<td class="page">307</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page1">[1]</span></p> - -<p class="center fsize200 highline4">STONEHENGE</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER I</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">INTRODUCTORY</span></h2> - -<p>In the book I published ten years ago, entitled “The -Dawn of Astronomy,” I gave a pretty full account of -the principles and the methods of observation which -enable us to trace the ideas which were in the minds of -the ancient Egyptians when they set out the line of -a temple they proposed to build.</p> - -<p>Numerous references to the ceremonial of laying the -foundation-stones of temples exist, and we learn from -the works of Chabas, Brugsch, Dümichen<a href="#Footnote1" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor1">[1]</a> and others, -that the foundation of an Egyptian temple was associated -with a series of ceremonies which are repeatedly -described with great minuteness. Amongst these ceremonies, -one especially refers to the fixing of the temple-axis; -it is called, technically, “the stretching of the -cord,” and is not only illustrated by inscriptions on the -walls of the temples of Karnak, Denderah and Edfu—to -mention the best-known cases—but is referred to -elsewhere.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page2">[2]</span></p> - -<p>During the ceremony the king proceeded to the site -where the temple was to be built, accompanied mythically -by the goddess Sesheta, who is styled “the -mistress of the laying of the foundation-stone.”</p> - -<p>Each was armed with a stake. The two stakes were -connected by a cord. Next the cord was aligned towards -the sun on some day of the year, or a star, as -the case might be; when the alignment was perfect the -two stakes were driven into the ground by means of a -wooden mallet. One boundary wall parallel to the main -axis of the temple was built along the line marked out -by this stretched cord.</p> - -<p>If the moment of the rising or setting of the sun -or star were chosen, as we have every reason to believe -was the case, seeing that all the early observations were -made on the horizon, it is obvious that the light from -the body towards which the temple was thus aligned -would penetrate the axis of the temple from one end -to the other in the original direction of the cord.</p> - -<p>We learn from Chabas that the Egyptian word which -expresses the idea of founding or laying the foundation-stone -of a temple is <i>Senti</i>—a word which still exists in -Coptic. But in the old language another word <i>Pet-ser</i>, -which no longer remains in Coptic, has been traced. -It has been established that <i>pet</i> means to stretch, and -<i>ser</i> means cord, so that that part of the ceremonial -which consisted in stretching a cord in the direction of -a star was considered of so great an importance that it -gave its name to the whole ceremonial.</p> - -<p>Dealing with the existing remains of Egyptian temples, -it may be said that the most majestic among them was -that of Amen-Rā at Karnak, dedicated to the Sun-God,<span class="pagenum" id="Page3">[3]</span> -and oriented to catch the light of the sun setting at -the summer solstice, the time of the year at which the -all-important rise of the Nile began.</p> - -<p>Although the sun is no longer worshipped in Egypt -or Britain, sun-worship has not yet disappeared from -the world. Professor Gowland has recently<a href="#Footnote2" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor2">[2]</a> brought to -notice a surviving form of sun-worship in Japan. I -quote his <span class="nowrap">statement:—</span></p> - -<p>“There on the seashore at Fûta-mi-ga-ura (as will -be seen in a copy of a print which I obtained at that -ancient place) the orientation of the shrine of adoration -is given by two gigantic rocks which rise from the sea -as natural pillars. The sun as it rises over the mountains -of the distant shore is observed between them, -and the customary prayers and offerings made in that -direction (<a href="#Fig1">Fig. 1</a>).</p> - -<p>“It is, too, specially worthy of note that the point -from which the sun is revered is marked by a structure -of the form of a trilithon, but made of wood, placed -immediately behind the altar. This representative of -the trilithon is of very remote date in Japan, and has -been in use there from the earliest times in connection -with the observances of the ancient Shintō cult in which -the Sun-Goddess is the chief deity. One of its important -uses, which still survives, was to indicate the -direction of the position of some sacred place or object -of veneration, in order that worshippers might make -their prayers and oblations towards the proper quarter.”</p> - -<p>The table of offerings must also be noted.</p> - -<p>In the book to which I have referred, I also endeavoured -to show that a knowledge of even elementary<span class="pagenum" id="Page4">[4]</span> -astronomy may be of very great assistance to students -of archæology, history, folk-lore and all that learning -which deals with man’s first attempts to grasp the -meaning and phenomena of the universe in which he -found himself before any scientific methods were available -to him; before he had any idea of the origins or -the conditionings of the things around him.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w500" id="Fig1"> - -<img src="images/illo016.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="585" class="bordered" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1</span>.—Present sun worship in Japan.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page5">[5]</span></p> - -<p>It may be well, however, in the present book to -restate the underlying astronomical principles in the -briefest possible manner; and this is the more easily -done because, in the absence of measuring instruments, -the horizon was the only circle which the ancient peoples -could employ effectively, and we need only therefore -consider it.</p> - -<p>Indeed, whether we regard the Rig-Veda or the -Egyptian monuments from an astronomical point of -view, we are struck by the fact that the early worship -and all the early observations related to the horizon. -This was true not only for the sun, but for all the -stars which studded the general expanse of sky.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w400" id="Fig2"> - -<img src="images/illo017.png" alt="" width="350" height="373" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2</span>.—The celestial sphere, conditions at the North Pole. A parallel -sphere. <i>N.P.</i>, North celestial Pole; <i>N</i>, position of observer.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>We have therefore chiefly to consider the relation of -the horizon of any place to the apparent movements -of celestial bodies at that place.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w350" id="Fig3"> - -<img src="images/illo018a.png" alt="" width="350" height="329" /> - -<p class="caption long"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3</span>.—The celestial sphere, conditions at the Equator. A right sphere. -<i>Q</i>, standpoint of observer; <i>PP</i>, the celestial poles; <i>EW</i>, east and west points.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<div class="figcenter w400" id="Fig4"> - -<img src="images/illo018b.png" alt="" width="400" height="391" /> - -<p class="caption long"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4</span>.—The celestial sphere, conditions in a middle latitude. An oblique -sphere. In this woodcut <i>DD′</i> shows the apparent path of a circumpolar -star; <i>BB′B″</i> the path and rising and setting points of an equatorial star; -<i>CC′C″</i> and <i>AA′A″</i>, those of stars of mid declination, one north and the -other south; <i>O</i>, standpoint of observer.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>We now know that the earth rotates on its axis, but -this idea was of course quite unknown to these early -peoples. Since the earth rotates, with stars infinitely -removed surrounding it on all sides, the apparent -movements of the stars will depend very much upon<span class="pagenum" id="Page6">[6]</span> -the position we happen to occupy on the earth. An -observer at the North Pole of the earth, for instance, -would see the stars moving round in circles parallel to -the horizon (<a href="#Fig2">Fig. 2</a>). No star could therefore either rise -or set—one half of the heavens would be always visible -above his horizon, and the other half invisible. An -observer at the South Pole would of course see that<span class="pagenum" id="Page7">[7]</span> -half of the stars invisible to the observer at the -northern one.</p> - -<p>If the observer be on the equator, the movements of -the stars will appear to be as indicated in this diagram -(<a href="#Fig3">Fig. 3</a>)—that is, all the stars will rise and set, and -each star will be, in turn, twelve hours above the horizon, -and the same time below it. But if we consider the -position of an observer in a middle latitude, say at -Stonehenge, we find that some stars will always be -above the horizon, some always below—that is, they -will neither rise nor set. All other stars will both rise -and set, but some of them will be above the horizon -for a long time and below for a short time, whereas -others will be a very short time above the horizon and -a long time below it, each star completing a circle in a -day (<a href="#Fig4">Fig. 4</a>).</p> - -<p>Wherever we are upon the earth we always imagine -that we are on the top of it. The idea held by all -the early peoples was that the surface of the earth -near them was an extended plain: they imagined that -the land that they knew and just the surrounding lands -were really in the centre of the extended plain. Plato, -for instance, was content to think the Mediterranean and -Greece upon the top of a cube, and Anaximander placed -the same region at the top of a cylinder.</p> - -<p>By the use of a terrestrial globe we can best study -the conditions of observation at the poles of the earth, -the equator and some place in middle latitude. The -wooden horizon of the globe is parallel to the horizon -of a place at the top of the globe, which horizon we -can represent by a wafer. By inclining the axis of the -globe and watching the movement of the wafer as the<span class="pagenum" id="Page8">[8]</span> -globe is turned round, we can get a very concrete idea -of the different relations of the observer’s horizon to -the apparent paths of the stars in different latitudes.</p> - -<p>We have next to deal with the astronomical relations -of the horizon of any place, in connection with the -observation of the sun and stars at the times of rising -or setting, when of course they are on or near the -horizon; and in order to bring this matter nearer to -the ancient monuments, we will study this question for -both Thebes and Stonehenge. We may take the latitude -of Thebes as 25°, Stonehenge as 51°, and we will -begin with Thebes.</p> - -<p>To consider an observer on the Nile at Thebes and -to adjust things properly we must rectify a celestial -globe to the latitude of 25° N., or, in other words, -incline the axis of the globe at that angle to the -wooden horizon.</p> - -<p>Since all the stars which pass between the North -Pole and the horizon cannot set, all their apparent -movements will take place above the horizon. All the -stars between the horizon and the South Pole will -never rise. Hence, stars within the distance of 25° -from the North Pole will never set at Thebes, and -those stars within 25° of the South Pole will never be -visible there. At any place the latitude and the elevation -of the pole are the same. It so happens that many -of those places with which archæologists have to do in -studying the history of early peoples—Chaldæa, Egypt, -Babylonia, &c.—are in low middle latitudes, therefore -we have to deal with bodies in the skies which do set -and bodies which do not, and the elevation of the -pole is neither very great nor very small. But<span class="pagenum" id="Page9">[9]</span> -although in each different latitude the inclination of -the equator to the horizon as well as the elevation of -the pole will vary, there will be a strict relationship -between the inclination of the equator at each place -and the elevation of the pole. Except at the poles -themselves the equator will cut the horizon due east -and due west; therefore every celestial body to the north -of the celestial equator which rises and sets will cut the -horizon between the east and west point and the north -point; those bodies which do not rise will of course -not cut the horizon at all.</p> - -<p>The stars near the equator, and the sun, in such -a latitude as that of Thebes, will appear to rise -or set at no very considerable angle from the vertical; -but when we deal with stars very near to the north or -south points of the horizon they will seem to skim -along the horizon instead of rising directly.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">We now pass on to Stonehenge. To represent the -new condition the axis of the globe will now require -to be inclined 51° to the horizon. The number of -northern stars which do not set and of southern stars -which do not rise will be much greater than at -Thebes. The most northern and southern stars visible -will in their movement hug the horizon more closely -than was observed under the Thebes condition.</p> - -<p>The sun, both at Thebes and Stonehenge, since it -moves among the stars from 23<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>° N. to 23<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>° S. each year, -will change its place of rising and setting at different -times of the year.</p> - -<p>Now it will at once be obvious that there must be -a strict law connecting the position of a star with its<span class="pagenum" id="Page10">[10]</span> -place of rising or setting. Stars at the same distance -from the celestial pole or equator will rise or set at -the same point of the horizon, and if a star does not -change its place in the heavens it will always rise or -set in the same place.</p> - -<p>The sun as it changes its position each day, in its -swing N. and S. of the equator, will rise and set on -any day in the same place as a star which permanently -has the same distance from the equator as that temporarily -occupied by the sun.</p> - -<p>Here it will be convenient to introduce one or two -technical terms: we generally define a star’s place by -giving, as one ordinate, its distance in degrees from the -equator: this distance is called its <i>declination</i>.</p> - -<p>Further, we generally define points on the horizon -by dividing its whole circumference into 360°, so that -we can have <i>azimuths</i> up to 90° from the north and south -points to the east and west points. We also have -<i>amplitudes</i> from the east and west points towards the -north and south points. We can say, then, that a -star of a certain declination, or the sun when it -occupies that declination, will rise or set at such an -azimuth, or at such an amplitude. This will apply to -both north and south declinations.</p> - -<p>Then supposing the azimuth to be 39° in the N.E. -quadrant, it is written N. 39° E. For the other quadrants -we have N. 39° W., S. 39° E., and S. 39° W., -respectively.</p> - -<p>The following table gives the amplitudes of rising or -setting (north or south) of celestial bodies having -declinations from 0° to 64°, at Thebes and Stonehenge -respectively.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page11">[11]</span></p> - -<p class="tabhead"><span class="smcap">Amplitudes at Thebes and Stonehenge.</span></p> - -<table class="amplitudes" summary="Amplitudes"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th rowspan="2" colspan="2" class="br">Declina-<br />tion.</th> -<th colspan="8">Amplitude.</th> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<th colspan="4" class="br">Thebes.</th> -<th colspan="4">Stonehenge.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0 w2m">0</td> -<td rowspan="65" class="left top padl0 padr1 br">°</td> -<td class="right padr0 w2m">0</td> -<td rowspan="65" class="left top padl0 padr1">°</td> -<td class="right padr0 w2m">0</td> -<td rowspan="65" class="left top padl0 padr1 br">′</td> -<td class="right padr0 w2m">0</td> -<td rowspan="65" class="left top padl0 padr1">°</td> -<td class="right padr0 w2m">0</td> -<td rowspan="65" class="left top padl0 padr1">′</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="right padr0">7</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="right padr0">36</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">2</td> -<td class="right padr0">2</td> -<td class="right padr0">13</td> -<td class="right padr0">3</td> -<td class="right padr0">11</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">3</td> -<td class="right padr0">3</td> -<td class="right padr0">20</td> -<td class="right padr0">4</td> -<td class="right padr0">46</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">4</td> -<td class="right padr0">4</td> -<td class="right padr0">26</td> -<td class="right padr0">6</td> -<td class="right padr0">22</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td class="right padr0">33</td> -<td class="right padr0">7</td> -<td class="right padr0">58</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">6</td> -<td class="right padr0">6</td> -<td class="right padr0">40</td> -<td class="right padr0">9</td> -<td class="right padr0">34</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">7</td> -<td class="right padr0">7</td> -<td class="right padr0">47</td> -<td class="right padr0">11</td> -<td class="right padr0">10</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">8</td> -<td class="right padr0">8</td> -<td class="right padr0">53</td> -<td class="right padr0">12</td> -<td class="right padr0">47</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">9</td> -<td class="right padr0">9</td> -<td class="right padr0">59</td> -<td class="right padr0">14</td> -<td class="right padr0">23</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">10</td> -<td class="right padr0">11</td> -<td class="right padr0">6</td> -<td class="right padr0">16</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">11</td> -<td class="right padr0">12</td> -<td class="right padr0">13</td> -<td class="right padr0">17</td> -<td class="right padr0">39</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">12</td> -<td class="right padr0">13</td> -<td class="right padr0">20</td> -<td class="right padr0">19</td> -<td class="right padr0">18</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">13</td> -<td class="right padr0">14</td> -<td class="right padr0">27</td> -<td class="right padr0">20</td> -<td class="right padr0">57</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">14</td> -<td class="right padr0">15</td> -<td class="right padr0">34</td> -<td class="right padr0">22</td> -<td class="right padr0">36</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">15</td> -<td class="right padr0">16</td> -<td class="right padr0">41</td> -<td class="right padr0">24</td> -<td class="right padr0">17</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">16</td> -<td class="right padr0">17</td> -<td class="right padr0">49</td> -<td class="right padr0">25</td> -<td class="right padr0">58</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">17</td> -<td class="right padr0">18</td> -<td class="right padr0">56</td> -<td class="right padr0">27</td> -<td class="right padr0">45</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">18</td> -<td class="right padr0">20</td> -<td class="right padr0">3</td> -<td class="right padr0">29</td> -<td class="right padr0">24</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">19</td> -<td class="right padr0">21</td> -<td class="right padr0">10</td> -<td class="right padr0">31</td> -<td class="right padr0">10</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">20</td> -<td class="right padr0">22</td> -<td class="right padr0">17</td> -<td class="right padr0">32</td> -<td class="right padr0">55</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">21</td> -<td class="right padr0">23</td> -<td class="right padr0">25</td> -<td class="right padr0">34</td> -<td class="right padr0">43</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">22</td> -<td class="right padr0">24</td> -<td class="right padr0">33</td> -<td class="right padr0">36</td> -<td class="right padr0">32</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">23</td> -<td class="right padr0">25</td> -<td class="right padr0">41</td> -<td class="right padr0">38</td> -<td class="right padr0">23</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">24</td> -<td class="right padr0">26</td> -<td class="right padr0">49</td> -<td class="right padr0">40</td> -<td class="right padr0">16</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">25</td> -<td class="right padr0">27</td> -<td class="right padr0">58</td> -<td class="right padr0">42</td> -<td class="right padr0">11</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">26</td> -<td class="right padr0">29</td> -<td class="right padr0">6</td> -<td class="right padr0">44</td> -<td class="right padr0">10</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">27</td> -<td class="right padr0">30</td> -<td class="right padr0">15</td> -<td class="right padr0">46</td> -<td class="right padr0">10</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">28</td> -<td class="right padr0">31</td> -<td class="right padr0">23</td> -<td class="right padr0">48</td> -<td class="right padr0">15</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">29</td> -<td class="right padr0">32</td> -<td class="right padr0">32</td> -<td class="right padr0">50</td> -<td class="right padr0">22</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">30</td> -<td class="right padr0">33</td> -<td class="right padr0">41</td> -<td class="right padr0">52</td> -<td class="right padr0">36</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">31</td> -<td class="right padr0">34</td> -<td class="right padr0">51</td> -<td class="right padr0">54</td> -<td class="right padr0">55</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">32</td> -<td class="right padr0">36</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="right padr0">57</td> -<td class="right padr0">21</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">33</td> -<td class="right padr0">37</td> -<td class="right padr0">11</td> -<td class="right padr0">59</td> -<td class="right padr0">56</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">34</td> -<td class="right padr0">38</td> -<td class="right padr0">21</td> -<td class="right padr0">62</td> -<td class="right padr0">42</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">35</td> -<td class="right padr0">39</td> -<td class="right padr0">31</td> -<td class="right padr0">65</td> -<td class="right padr0">44</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">36</td> -<td class="right padr0">40</td> -<td class="right padr0">42</td> -<td class="right padr0">69</td> -<td class="right padr0">4</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">37</td> -<td class="right padr0">41</td> -<td class="right padr0">53</td> -<td class="right padr0">73</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">38</td> -<td class="right padr0">43</td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td class="right padr0">78</td> -<td class="right padr0">4</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">39</td> -<td class="right padr0">44</td> -<td class="right padr0">17</td> -<td class="right padr0">90</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">40</td> -<td class="right padr0">45</td> -<td class="right padr0">30</td> -<td rowspan="25" colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">41</td> -<td class="right padr0">46</td> -<td class="right padr0">43</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">42</td> -<td class="right padr0">47</td> -<td class="right padr0">56</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">43</td> -<td class="right padr0">49</td> -<td class="right padr0">10</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">44</td> -<td class="right padr0">50</td> -<td class="right padr0">25</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">45</td> -<td class="right padr0">51</td> -<td class="right padr0">41</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">46</td> -<td class="right padr0">52</td> -<td class="right padr0">57</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">47</td> -<td class="right padr0">54</td> -<td class="right padr0">14</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">48</td> -<td class="right padr0">55</td> -<td class="right padr0">32</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">49</td> -<td class="right padr0">56</td> -<td class="right padr0">51</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">50</td> -<td class="right padr0">58</td> -<td class="right padr0">12</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">51</td> -<td class="right padr0">59</td> -<td class="right padr0">34</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">52</td> -<td class="right padr0">60</td> -<td class="right padr0">58</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">53</td> -<td class="right padr0">62</td> -<td class="right padr0">23</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">54</td> -<td class="right padr0">63</td> -<td class="right padr0">51</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">55</td> -<td class="right padr0">65</td> -<td class="right padr0">21</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">56</td> -<td class="right padr0">66</td> -<td class="right padr0">54</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">57</td> -<td class="right padr0">68</td> -<td class="right padr0">31</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">58</td> -<td class="right padr0">70</td> -<td class="right padr0">12</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">59</td> -<td class="right padr0">71</td> -<td class="right padr0">59</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">60</td> -<td class="right padr0">73</td> -<td class="right padr0">55</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">61</td> -<td class="right padr0">76</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">62</td> -<td class="right padr0">78</td> -<td class="right padr0">25</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">63</td> -<td class="right padr0">81</td> -<td class="right padr0">19</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="right padr0">64</td> -<td class="right padr0">85</td> -<td class="right padr0">42</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The amplitude is always the complement of the azimuth, -so that amplitude + azimuth = 90°. Later on I -shall give amplitudes for latitudes higher than that of -Stonehenge, so that still more northerly monuments -can be considered.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote1"></a><a href="#FNanchor1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> -“Baugeschichte des Dendera-Tempels.” 1877.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote2"></a><a href="#FNanchor2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> “Archæologia,” vol. lviii.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page12">[12]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER II</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">THE ASTRONOMICAL DIVISIONS OF THE YEAR</span></h2> - - -<p>It is next important to deal with the yearly path -of the sun, with a view of studying the relation of the -various points of the horizon occupied by the sun at -different times in the year. In the very early observations -that were made in Egypt, Chaldæa and elsewhere, -when the sun was considered to be a god who every -morning got into his boat and floated across space, -there was no particular reason for considering the -amplitude at which the boat left, or came to, shore. -But a few centuries showed that this rising or setting -of the sun in widely varying amplitudes at different -times of the year at the same place obeyed a very -definite law.</p> - -<p>In its northward passage it reaches the highest point -at our summer solstice, and then goes down again till -it reaches its greatest southern declination, as it does -in our winter. At both these points the sun appears to -stand still in its north or south movement, and the -Latin word solstice exactly expresses that idea. The -change of declination brought about by these movements -will affect the place of the sun’s rising and setting; -this is why the sun sets most to the north in<span class="pagenum" id="Page13">[13]</span> -summer and most to the south in winter. At the -equinoxes the sun has always 0° Decl., so it rises and -sets due east and west all over the world. But at -the solstices it has its greatest declination of 23<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>° -N. or S.; it will rise and set therefore furthest from -the east and west points; how far, will depend upon -the latitude of the place, as will have been gathered -from the preceding table (<a href="#Page11">p. 11</a>).</p> - -<p>These solstices and their accompaniments are among -the striking things in the natural world. In the -winter solstice we have the depth of winter, in the -summer solstice we have the height of summer, while -at the equinoxes we have but transitional changes; in -other words, while the solstices point out for us the -conditions of greatest heat and greatest cold, the -equinoxes point out for us those two times of the year -at which the temperature conditions are very nearly -equal, although of course in the one case we are saying -good-bye to summer and in the other to winter.</p> - -<p>Did the ancients know anything about these solstices -and these equinoxes? Dealing with the monumental -evidence in Egypt alone, the answer is absolutely overwhelming. -Many thousand years ago the Egyptians -were perfectly familiar with the solstices, and therefore -with the yearly path of the sun.</p> - -<p>This fundamental division of the sun’s apparent revolution -and course which define our year into four -nearly equal parts may be indicated as in <a href="#Fig5">Fig. 5</a>, the -highest point reached by the sun in our northern -hemisphere being represented at the top.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w450" id="Fig5"> - -<img src="images/illo026a.png" alt="" width="450" height="372" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>—The four Astronomical Divisions of the year.</p> - -</div><!--figcenter--> - -<div class="figcenter w500" id="Fig6"> - -<img src="images/illo026b.png" alt="" width="500" height="319" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>—The various bearings of the sun risings and settings in a place with -a N. latitude of 51°.</p> - -</div><!--figcenter--> - -<p>In order better to consider the problem as it was presented -to the early astronomers who built observatories<span class="pagenum" id="Page14">[14]</span> -(temples) to mark these points, we may deal with the -bearings of the points occupied by the sun on the -horizon (either at rising or setting) at the times indicated. -These points are defined, as we have seen, by -their “amplitude” or their distance in degrees from the -E. or W. points of the horizon. In the diagram (<a href="#Fig6">Fig. 6</a>)<span class="pagenum" id="Page15">[15]</span> -I represent the conditions of our chief British sun-temple, -Stonehenge, in latitude 51° N. approximately.</p> - -<p>Taking the astronomical facts regarding the solstices -and equinoxes for the first year (1901) of the present -century, we <span class="nowrap">find—</span></p> - -<table class="standard dontwrap fsize90" summary="Dates"> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Sun</td> -<td class="left">enters</td> -<td class="left">Aries,</td> -<td class="left">Spring equinox,</td> -<td class="left">March 21.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left">Gemini,</td> -<td class="left">Summer solstice,</td> -<td class="left">June 21.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left">Libra,</td> -<td class="left">Autumn equinox,</td> -<td class="left">September 23.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left">Sagittarius,</td> -<td class="left">Winter solstice,</td> -<td class="left">December 23.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>These points, then, are approximately ninety-one days -apart (91 × 4 = 364).</p> - -<p>In <a href="#Fig6">Fig. 6</a> I deal with the “amplitudes” at Stonehenge, -that is, the angular distance along the horizon -from the E. and W. points, at which the sunrise and -sunset are seen at the solstices; at the equinoxes -they are seen at the E. and W. points. But as these -amplitudes vary with the latitude and therefore depend -upon the place of observation, a more general treatment -is possible if we deal with the declination of the -sun itself, that is, its angular distance from the equator.</p> - -<p>The maximum declination depends upon the obliquity -of the ecliptic, that is, the angle between the -plane of the ecliptic and that of the equator at the -time of observation. When the Stonehenge Sarsen -Stones were erected this angle was, as I shall show -later on, 23° 54′ 30″. Its mean value for the present -year (1906) is 23° 27′ 5″; it is decreasing very slowly.</p> - -<p>It will be obvious from <a href="#Fig6">Fig. 6</a> that in temples built -to observe the solstices or equinoxes, if they were open -from end to end, looking in one direction we should -see the sun rising at a solstice or equinox, and looking -in the other we should see the sun setting at the<span class="pagenum" id="Page16">[16]</span> -opposite one. I shall show later on that this statement -requires a slight modification.</p> - -<p>But temples so built interfered with the ceremonial, -which required that the light should illuminate a naos—that -is, the Sanctuary or Holy of Holies, only entered -by the High Priest, and generally kept dark. Usually, -therefore, two temples were built back to back, with a -common axis, as at Karnak.</p> - -<p>And here a very important point comes in; which -time of the year and day of the year are most easy to -fix by astronomical observation? As a matter of fact the -summer solstice, the position of the sun on the longest -day, is a point easily fixed. All we have to do is to -observe the sun rising more and more to the north -as the summer approaches, until at the very height of -the summer we have the extreme north-easterly point -of the horizon reached, and the sun stands still. We -have the solstice. We can then put a row of stakes -up, and so fix the solstitial line. Of course we find, -as mankind has found generally, that the sun comes -back next year to that same solstitial place of rising -or setting. So that when we have once got such an -alignment for the rising of the sun at midsummer, we -can determine the length of the year in days, and -therefore the beginning of each year as it comes round.</p> - -<p>So much, then, for the chief points in what we may -term the astronomical year, those at which the sun’s -declination is greatest and least. We see that they are -approximately ninety-one days apart—say three months.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page17">[17]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER III</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">THE AGRICULTURAL DIVISIONS OF THE YEAR</span></h2> - -<p>The early peoples have been very much misrepresented, -and held to have been uninstructed, by several -writers who have not considered what they were really -driving at. It was absolutely essential for early man, -including the inhabitants of Britain as it was then—townless, -uncivilised—that the people should know -something about the proper time for performing their -agricultural operations. We now go into a shop and -for a penny buy an almanack which gives us everything -we want to know about the year, the month -and the day, and that is the reason why so few of us -care about astronomy: we can get all we want from -astronomy for a penny or twopence. But these poor -people, unless they found out the time of the year and -the month and the day for themselves, or got some one -to tell them—and their priests were the men who -knew, and they were priests because they knew—had -absolutely no means of determining when their various -agricultural operations should take place. So that we -find all over the world temples erected in the very first -flush of civilisation.</p> - -<p>On this a point comes in of very considerable<span class="pagenum" id="Page18">[18]</span> -interest. If we study the civilisations in Egypt, we -find that, so far as we know, one of the first peoples -who used this principle of orientation for agricultural -purposes was some tribe that came down the Nile about -6400 years <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> They used the star Canopus, and their -determination was that of the autumnal equinox, which -practically was the time when the Nile began to go -down, and when their sowing might begin. There -was another race who, instead of being interested -in the sun, and therefore in agriculture, at the time of -the autumnal equinox, were interested in the year -about the time of Easter as well. This race built the -Pyramids about four thousand years <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> There was an -interval of about two or three thousand years between -these races. As we shall see there were others, who at -Thebes started the solstitial worship—that is to say, -the worship of the sun at midsummer—and at Memphis -in May, so as to enable them to go on with their -agricultural operations with greater certainty. We must -not forget that first of all the farmers tried to plough -and sow by the moon. We can see how hopeless -agriculture must have been under such conditions. The -month, indeed, was the only unit of time employed, -even of human life. We hear of people who lived -1200 years; that means 1200 months—there is no -question whatever about that now.</p> - -<p>When we study the history of our own country—when -we come back from Egypt to Britain, leaving alone -Greece and Rome—we find that in various times in our -country we have had a year, a farmer’s year, beginning -in the month of May; we have had another farmer’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page19">[19]</span> -year beginning in the month of August; we have had -another farmer’s year beginning at the longest day; -and it appears that the year beginning at the longest -day was really the last year to be introduced. So that -while we have in Stonehenge a solstitial temple—that is -to say, a temple to make observations of the length of the -year by observing the rise of the sun on the longest -day of the year—in other parts of England there were -other temples observing the sun, not on the 21st of -June, but early in May and early in August.</p> - -<p>Now, as I have indicated, the priest-astronomers in -these temples could only have won and kept the respect -of the agricultural population with whom alone they -were surrounded in early times, and by whom they -were supported, by being useful to them in some way -or another. This could only have been in connection -with what we may term generally the <i>farming</i> operations -necessary at different times of the year, whether -in the shape of preparing the ground or gathering the -produce. For this they must have watched the stars.</p> - -<p>A very large part of mythology has sprung out of -the temple cults, prayer, sacrifices and thanksgiving -connected with these farming operations in different -lands and ages.</p> - -<p>I wish to show next that by studying the orientation -of temples erected to watch the stars and sunrise and -sunset at times other than the solstices or equinoxes, an -immense amount of information may be gained if we -endeavour to find the way in which the problem must -have been attacked before the year was thoroughly -established, and when it was still a question of grass- or<span class="pagenum" id="Page20">[20]</span> -corn-kings or gods who had to be propitiated; and -we may even be enabled to understand why the -particular divisions of the year were chosen.</p> - -<p>In a solstitial temple the sun makes its appearance -only once a year, when it reaches its greatest north or -south declination; but in the temples dealing with -lower declinations the sun appears twice, once on its -journey from the summer to the winter solstice, and -again on its return.</p> - -<p>The first difficulty of the inquiry in the direction I -have indicated arises from the fact that the products of -different countries vary, and that identical farming operations -have to be carried on at different times in these -countries. We must, then, begin with some one -country, and as the record is fullest for Greece I will -begin with it.</p> - -<p>The first thing we find is that the chief points in the -farmer’s year in Greece are about as far from the fixed -points in the astronomical year as they well can be.</p> - -<p>In the Greek information so admirably collated by -M. Ruelle in the article on the calendar in Daremberg -and Saglio’s monumental “Dictionnaire des Antiquités -Grecques et Romaines,” the earlier Gregorian dates on -which the seasons were reckoned to commence in ancient -Greece were as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<table class="standard dontwrap fsize90" summary="Seasons"> - -<tr> -<td class="left w12m"><span class="padr3">Summer</span></td> -<td class="left w8m">May 6.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padr3">Autumn (φθινοπωρον)</span></td> -<td class="left">August 11.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padr3">Winter</span></td> -<td class="left">November 10.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padr3">Spring</span></td> -<td class="left">February 7.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>I may also add from the same source that in the -calendars of the Latins the dates <span class="nowrap">become:—</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page21">[21]</span></p> - -<table class="standard dontwrap fsize90" summary="Seasons"> - -<tr> -<td class="left w12m"><span class="padr3">Summer</span></td> -<td class="left w8m">May 9.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padr3">Autumn</span></td> -<td class="left">August 8.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padr3">Winter</span></td> -<td class="left">November 9.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padr3">Spring</span></td> -<td class="left">February 7.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>Now we see at once that these dates are, roughly, -half-way between the solstices and equinoxes.</p> - -<p>This, then, at once brings us back to the orientation -problem, which was to fix by means of a temple in the -ordinary way dates nearer to these turning-points in -the local farmer’s years than those fixed by the solstitial -and equinoctial temples.</p> - -<p>It must be borne in mind that it is not merely a -question of stately piles such as Karnak and the Parthenon -in populous centres, but of the humblest dolmen -or stone circle, in scattered agricultural communities, -which was as certainly used for orientation purposes, -that is, for recording the lapse of time at night or return -of some season important to the tiller of the soil. The -advent of the season thus determined could be announced -to outlying districts by fire signals at night.</p> - -<p>I have already pointed out that any temple, dolmen -or cromlech oriented to a sunrise or sunset at any dates -between the solstices will receive the sunlight twice a -year.</p> - -<p>If the temple is pointed nearly solstitially the two dates -at which the sun appears in it will be near the solstice; -similarly, for a temple pointed nearly equinoctially the -dates will be near the equinox; but if the ancients wished -to divide the ninety-one days’ interval between the -solstice and equinox, a convenient method of doing this -would be to observe the sun at the half-time interval, -such that the same temple would serve on both<span class="pagenum" id="Page22">[22]</span> -occasions. This could be done by orienting the temple -to the sun’s place on the horizon when it had the -declination 16° 20′ on its upward and downward journey, -or, in other words, was, <i>in days</i>, half-way between -the equinox and solstice. Thus, for the 45 days -<span class="fsize150">(</span><span class="horsplit"><span class="top">91 days</span> -<span class="bot">2</span></span><span class="fsize150">)</span> -from March 22, we have <span class="nowrap">in—</span></p> - -<table class="standard dontwrap" summary="Days"> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padr3">March</span></td> -<td class="right">9</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padr3">April</span></td> -<td class="right">30</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padr3">May</span></td> -<td class="right">6</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="right bt">45</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>What, then, are the non-equinoctial, non-solstitial -days of the year when the sun has this declination?</p> - -<p>They are, in the sun’s journey from the vernal -equinox to the summer solstice and back again,</p> - -<table class="declination" summary="Declination"> - -<tr> -<td class="dates">May 6 and August 8</td> -<td class="decl">Sun’s decl. N. 16° 20′.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>Similarly, for the journey to the winter solstice and -return we have</p> - -<table class="declination" summary="Declination"> - -<tr> -<td class="dates">November 8 and February 4</td> -<td class="decl">Sun’s decl. S. 16° 20′.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>We get, then, a year symmetrical with the astronomical -year, which can be indicated with it as in -<a href="#Fig7">Fig. 7</a>; a year roughly halving the intervals between -the chief dates of the astronomical year.</p> - -<p>With regard to the dates shown I have already -pointed out that farming operations would not occur at -the same time in different lands; that ploughing and -seed time and harvest would vary with crops and -latitudes; and I must now add that when we wish to<span class="pagenum" id="Page23">[23]</span> -determine the exact days of the month we have to -struggle with all the difficulties introduced by the various -systems adopted by different ancient nations to bring -together the reckoning of months by the moon and of -years by the sun.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w500" id="Fig7"> - -<img src="images/illo035.png" alt="" width="500" height="426" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7</span>.—The astronomical and vegetation divisions of the year.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>In more recent times there is an additional difficulty -owing to the incomplete reconstruction of the calendar -by Julius Cæsar, who gave us the Julian year. Thus, -while the spring equinox occurred on March 21 at the -time of the Council of Nice, in 325 <span class="smcapall">A.D.</span>, by the year -1751 the dating of the year on which it took place had -slipped back to the 10th. Hence the Act 24 George II. -c. 23, by which September 2, 1752, was followed by -September 14 instead of by the 3rd, thus regaining the -eleven days lost. This change from the so-called “old -style” to the “new style” is responsible for a great -deal of confusion.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page24">[24]</span></p> - -<p>Another cause of trouble was the forsaking by the -Jews of the solar year, with which they commenced, in -favour of the Babylonian lunar year, which has been -continued for the purposes of worship by Christians, -giving us “movable feasts” to such an extent that -Easter Day, which once invariably marked the spring -equinox, may vary from March 22 to April 25, and -Whit Sunday from May 10 to June 13. It is at once -obvious that no fixed operations of Nature can be -indicated by such variable dates as these.</p> - -<p>Hence in what follows I shall only deal with the -months involved; these amply suffice for a general -statement, but a discussion as to exact dates may come -later.</p> - -<p>To sum up, then, the astronomer-priests had (1) to -watch the time at night by observing a star rising near -the north point of the horizon. This star would act as a -warner of sunrise at some time of the year.</p> - -<p>(2) To watch for the rising or setting of other stars -in various azimuths warning sunrise at the other critical -times of the May or Solstitial years.</p> - -<p>(3) To watch the sunrise and sunset.</p> - -<p>(4) To mark all rising or setting places of the warning -stars and sun by sight-lines from the circle.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page25">[25]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER IV</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">THE VARIOUS NEW-YEAR DAYS</span></h2> - -<p>With regard to the astronomical year it may be stated -that each solstice and equinox has in turn in some -country or another, and even in the same country at -different times, been taken as the beginning of the year.</p> - -<p>We have, then, to begin with, the following which may -be called <i>astronomical</i> <span class="nowrap">years:—</span></p> - -<table class="years" summary="Years"> - -<tr> -<td class="yeartype">Solstitial year.</td> -<td class="brace">{</td> -<td class="months">June<br />December</td> -<td class="months">December<br />June</td> -<td class="months">June.<br />December.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="yeartype">Equinoctial year.</td> -<td class="brace">{</td> -<td class="months">March<br />September</td> -<td class="months">September<br />March</td> -<td class="months">March.<br />September.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>Next, if we treat the intermediate points we have -found in the same way, we have the following <i>vegetation</i> -<span class="nowrap">years:—</span></p> - -<table class="years" summary="Years"> - -<tr> -<td class="yeartype">Flower year.</td> -<td class="brace">{</td> -<td class="months">May<br />November</td> -<td class="months">November<br />May</td> -<td class="months">May.<br />November.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="yeartype">Harvest year.</td> -<td class="brace">{</td> -<td class="months">August<br />February</td> -<td class="months">February<br />August</td> -<td class="months">August.<br />February.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>It will have been gathered from <a href="#Fig7">Fig. 7</a> that the -temples or cromlechs erected to watch the first sunrise of -the May-November-May year could also perform the same -office for the August-February-August year; and in a<span class="pagenum" id="Page26">[26]</span> -stone circle the priests, by looking along the axis almost -in an opposite direction, could note the sunsets marking -the completion of the half of the sun’s yearly round -in November and February.</p> - -<p>Now to those who know anything of the important -contributions of Grimm, Rhŷs, Frazer, and many others -we might name, to our knowledge of the mythology, -worships, and customs in the Mediterranean basin and -western Europe, an inspection of the first columns in the -above tables will show that here we have a common -meeting-ground for temple orientation, vegetation and -customs depending on it, religious festivals, and mythology. -From the Egyptian times at least to our own a generic -sun-god has been specifically commemorated in each of -the named months. Generic customs with specific differences -are as easily traced in the same months; while -generic vegetation with specific representatives proper to -the season of the year has been so carefully regarded that -even December, though without May flowers or August -harvests, not to be outdone, brings forward its offering in -the shape of the berries of the mistletoe and holly.</p> - -<p>About the mistletoe there is this difficulty. Innumerable -traditions associate it with worship and the oak -tree. Undoubtedly the year in question was the solstitial -year, so that so far as this goes the association -is justified. But as a rule the mistletoe does not grow -on oaks. This point has been frequently inquired into, -especially by Dr. Henry Ball (<i>Journal of Botany</i>, vol. -ii. p. 361, 1864) in relation to the growth of the plant in -Herefordshire, and by a writer in the <i>Quarterly Review</i> -(vol. cxiv.), who spoke of the mistletoe “deserting the -oak” in modern times and stated, “it is now so rarely<span class="pagenum" id="Page27">[27]</span> -found on that tree as to have led to the suggestion that -we must look for the mistletoe of the Druids, not in the -<i>Viscum album</i> of our own trees and orchards, but in the -<i>Loranthus Europaeus</i> which is frequently found on oaks -in the south of Europe.”</p> - -<p>On this point I consulted two eminent botanical -friends, Mr. Murray, of the British Museum, and Prof. -Farmer, from whom I have learned that the distribution -of <i>V. album</i> is in Europe universal except north of -Norway and north of Russia; in India in the temperate -Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepaul, altitude 3000 to -7000 feet.</p> - -<p>The <i>Viscum aureum</i>, otherwise called <i>Loranthus -Europaeus</i>, is a near relation of the familiar mistletoe, -and in Italy grows on the oak almost exclusively. There -are fifty species of Loranthus in the Indian flora, but -<i>L. Europaeus</i> does not occur.</p> - -<p>In the <i>Viscum aureum</i> we have the “golden bough,” -the oak-borne <i>Aurum frondens</i> and <i>Ramus aureus</i> of -Virgil; and it can easily be imagined that when the -Druids reached our shores from a country which had -supplied them with the <i>Viscum aureum</i>, this would be -replaced by the <i>V. album</i> growing chiefly on apple -trees and not on oaks; indeed, Mr. Davies, in his -“Celtic Researches,” tells us that the apple was the -next sacred tree to the oak, and that apple orchards -were planted in the vicinity of the sacred groves. The -transplanting of the mistletoe from the apple to the -oak tree before the mystic ceremonies began was not -beyond the resources of priestcraft.</p> - -<p>It must not be forgotten that these ceremonies took -place at both solstices—once in June, when the oak was<span class="pagenum" id="Page28">[28]</span> -in full leaf, and again in December, when the parasitic -plant was better visible in the light of the young moon. -Mr. Frazer, in his “Golden Bough” (iii. p. 328), points -out that at the summer solstice not only was mistletoe -gathered, but many other “magic plants, whose evanescent -virtue can be secured at this mystic season -alone.”</p> - -<p>It is the ripening of the berries at the winter solstice -which secured for the mistletoe the paramount importance -the ceremonials connected with it possessed at -that time, when the rest of the vegetable world was -dormant.</p> - -<p>With regard especially to the particular time of the -year chosen for sun-worship and the worship of the -gods and solar heroes connected with the years to -which I have referred, I may add that the vague year -in Egyptian chronology makes it a very difficult matter -to determine the exact Gregorian dates for the ancient -Egyptian festivals, but, fortunately, there is another -way of getting at them. Mr. Roland Mitchell, when -compiling his valuable “Egyptian Calendar” (Luzac and -Co., 1900), found that the Koptic calendar really presents -to us the old Egyptian year, “which has been in -use for thousands of years, and has survived all the -revolutions.”</p> - -<p>Of the many festivals included in the calendar, the -great Tanta fair, which is also a Mohammedan feast. -“is the most important of all held in Egypt. Religion, -commerce, and pleasure offer combined attractions.” As -many as 600,000 or 700,000 often attend this great -fair, “no doubt the survival of one of the ancient -Egyptian national festivals.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page29">[29]</span></p> - -<p>It is held so as to end on a Friday, and in 1901 the -Friday was August 9!</p> - -<p>This naturally suggests that we should look for a -feast in the early part of May. We find the Festival -of Al-Khidr, or Elias in the middle of the wheat -harvest in Lower Egypt; of this we <span class="nowrap">read:—</span></p> - -<p>“Al-Khidr is a mysterious personage, who, according -to learned opinion, was a just man, or saint, the Visīr -of Dhu’l-Karnên (who was a great conqueror, contemporary -with Ibrahīm—Abraham—and identified in other -legends with Alexander the Great, St. George, &c.). -Al-Khidr, it is believed, still lives, and will live until -the Day of Judgment. He is clad in green garments, -whence probably the name. He is commonly identified -with Elias (Elijah), and this confusion seems due to a -confusion or similarity of some of the attributes that -tradition assigns to both.”</p> - -<p>“The ‘Festival of El-Khidr and of Elias,’ falling -generally on May 6, marks the two-fold division of the -year, in the Turkish and Armenian calendars, into the -Rūz Kāsim and the Rūz Khidr (of 179-80 and 185-6 -days respectively).”</p> - -<p>This last paragraph is important, as it points to -ancient sun-worship, Helios being read for Elias; and 179 -days from May 6 bring us to November 1. So we find -that the modern Turks and Armenians have the old -May-November year as well as the ancient Egyptians -who celebrated it in the Temple of Menu at Thebes.</p> - -<p>The traces of the Ptah worship are not so obvious. -Finally, it may be stated that the second Tanta fair -occurs at the spring equinox, so that the pyramid -worship can still be traced in the modern Egyptian<span class="pagenum" id="Page30">[30]</span> -calendar. The proof that this was an exotic<a href="#Footnote3" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor3">[3]</a> is established, -I think, by the fact that no important agricultural -operations occur at this period in Egypt, while -in May we have the harvest, in August and November -sowing, going on.</p> - -<p>A cursory examination of Prof. Rhŷs’ book containing -the Hibbert Lectures of 1886, in the light of these -years, used as clues, suggests that in Ireland the -sequence was May-November (Fomori and Fir Bolg), -August-February (Lug and the Tuatha Dé Danann), -and, lastly, June-December (Cúchulainn). Should this -be confirmed we see that the farmers’ years were the -first to be established, and it is interesting to note that -the agricultural rent year in many parts of Ireland still -runs from May to November. It is well also to bear -in mind, if it be established that the solstitial year -did really arrive last, that the facts recorded by Mr. -Frazer in his “Golden Bough” indicate that the -custom of lighting fires on hills has been in historic -times most prevalent at the summer solstice; evidently -maps showing the geographical distribution of the May, -June, and August fires would be of great value.</p> - -<p>Some customs of the May and August years are -common to the solstitial and equinoctial years. Each -was ushered in by fires on hills and the like; flowers -in May and the fruits of the earth in August are -associated with them; there are also special customs -in the case of November. In western Europe, however, -it does not seem that such traditions exist over such a<span class="pagenum" id="Page31">[31]</span> -large area as that over which the remnants of the -solstitial practices have been traced.</p> - -<p>I have pointed out that both the May and August -years began when the sun had the same declination -(16° N. or thereabouts); once, on its ascent from March -to the summer solstice in June, again in its decline -from the solstice to September. Hence it may be more -difficult in this case to disentangle and follow the -mythology, but the two years stand out here and -there. With regard to August, Mr. Penrose’s orientation -data for the Panathenæa fix the 19th day (Gregorian) -for the festival in the Hecatompedon; similar celebrations -were not peculiar to western Europe and Greece, -as a comparison of dates of worship will show.</p> - -<table class="worshipdates" summary="Dates"> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="place">Hecatompedon</td> -<td class="left bot">April</td> -<td class="right bot">28</td> -<td class="left bot">and</td> -<td class="left bot">August</td> -<td class="right bot">16.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="place">Older Erechtheum</td> -<td class="left bot">April</td> -<td class="right bot">29</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -<td class="left bot">August</td> -<td class="right bot">13.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Temple of</td> -<td colspan="2" class="place">Diana, Ephesus</td> -<td class="left bot">April</td> -<td class="right bot">29</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -<td class="left bot">August</td> -<td class="right bot">13.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center top">„</td> -<td colspan="2" class="place">Min, Thebes</td> -<td class="left bot">May</td> -<td class="right bot">1</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -<td class="left bot">August</td> -<td class="right bot">12.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center top">„</td> -<td class="left w2m">Ptah,</td> -<td class="place">Memphis</td> -<td class="left bot">April</td> -<td class="right bot">18</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -<td class="left bot">August</td> -<td class="right bot">24.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center top">„</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="place">Annu</td> -<td class="left bot">April</td> -<td class="right bot">18</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -<td class="left bot">August</td> -<td class="right bot">24.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center top">„</td> -<td colspan="2" class="place">Solar Disc, Tell el-Amarna</td> -<td class="left bot">April</td> -<td class="right bot">18</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -<td class="left bot">August</td> -<td class="right bot">24.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>In the above table I have given both the dates on -which the sunlight (at rising or setting) entered the -temple, but we do not know for certain, except in the -case of the Hecatompedon, on which of the two days -the temples were used; it is likely they were all used -on both days, and that the variation from the dates -proper to the sun’s declination of N. 16° indicates that -they were very accurately oriented to fit the local -vegetation conditions in the most important and extensive -temple fields in the world.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page32">[32]</span></p> - -<p>This is the more probable because the Jews also, after -they had left Egypt, established their feast of Pentecost -fifty days after Easter = May 10, on which day -loaves made of newly harvested corn formed the chief -offering.</p> - -<p>With regard to the equinoctial year, the most complete -account of the temple arrangements is to be found -in Josephus touching that at Jerusalem. The temple -had to be so erected that at the spring equinox the -sunrise light should fall on, and be reflected to, the -worshippers by the sardonyx stones on the high priest’s -garment. At this festival the first barley was laid upon -the altar.</p> - -<p>But this worship was in full swing in Egypt for -thousands of years before we hear of it in connection -with the Jews. It has left its temples at Ephesus, -Athens, and other places, and with the opening of this -year as well as of the solstitial one the custom of -lighting fires is associated, not only on hills, but also -in churches.</p> - -<p>Here the sequence of cult cannot be mistaken. We -begin with Isis and the young Sun-god Horus at the -Pyramids, and we end with “Lady Day,” a British legal -date; while St. Peter’s at Rome is as truly oriented -to the equinox as the Pyramids themselves, so that -we have a distinct change of cult with no change of -orientation.</p> - -<p>If such considerations as these help us to connect -Egyptian with British worships we may hope that they -will be no less useful when we go further afield. I -gather from a study of Mr. Maudslay’s admirable plans -of Palenque and Chichén-Itzá that the solstitial and<span class="pagenum" id="Page33">[33]</span> -farmers’ years’ worships were provided for there. How -did these worships and associated temples with naos -and sphinxes<a href="#Footnote4" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor4">[4]</a> get from Egypt to Yucatan? The more -we know of ancient travel the more we are convinced -that it was coastwise, that is, from one point of visible -land to the next. Are the cults as old as differences -in the coast-lines which would most easily explain their -wide distribution?</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote3"></a><a href="#FNanchor3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> -In Babylonia the spring equinox was the critical time of the year -because the Tigris and Euphrates then began to rise.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote4"></a><a href="#FNanchor4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> -See <i>Dawn of Astronomy</i>, Plate facing p. 182, for the lines of -sphinxes at Karnak.</p> - -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page34">[34]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER V</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">CONDITIONS AND TRADITIONS AT STONEHENGE</span></h2> - -<p>After Mr. Penrose, by his admirable observations in -Greece, had shown that the orientation theory accounted -as satisfactorily for the directions in which the chief -temples in Greece had been built as I had shown it did -for some in Egypt, it seemed important to apply the -same methods of inquiry with all available accuracy to -some example, at all events, of the various stone circles -in Britain which have so far escaped destruction. Many -attempts had been previously made to secure data, but -the instruments and methods employed did not seem to -be sufficient.</p> - -<p>Much time has, indeed, been lost in the investigation -of a great many of these circles, for the reason that in -many cases the relations of the monuments to the chief -points of the horizon have not been considered; and -when they were, the observations were made only with -reference to the magnetic north, which is different at -different places, and besides is always varying; few indeed -have tried to get at the astronomical conditions of -the problem.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page35">[35]</span></p> - -<p>The first, I think, was Mr. Jonathan Otley, who -in 1849 showed the “Orientation” of the Keswick -Circle “according to the solar meridian,” giving true -solar bearings throughout the year.</p> - -<p>I wrote a good deal in <i>Nature</i><a href="#Footnote5" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor5">[5]</a> on sun and star -temples in 1891, and Mr. Lewis the next year expressed -the opinion that the British Stone Monuments, -or some of them, were sun and star temples.</p> - -<p>Mr. Magnus Spence of Deerness in Orkney published -a pamphlet, “Standing Stones and Maeshowe of Stenness,<a href="#Footnote6" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor6">[6]</a>” -in 1894; it is a reprint of an article in the -<i>Scottish Review</i>, Oct. 1893. Mr. Cursiter, F.S.A., of -Kirkwall, in a letter to me dated 15 March 1894, -a letter suggested by my <i>Dawn of Astronomy</i> which -appeared in that year and in which the articles which -had appeared in <i>Nature</i> in 1891 had been expanded, -drew my attention to the pamphlet; the observations -had no pretension to scientific accuracy, and -although some of the sight-lines were incorrectly shown -in an accompanying map, May year and solstitial alignments -were indicated.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">So far as I know, there has never been a complete -inquiry into the stone circles in Britain, but Mr. Lewis, -who has paid great attention to these matters, has dealt -in a general manner with them (<i>Archaeological Journal</i>, -vol. xlix. p. 136), and has further described (<i>Journal</i> -Anthropological Institute, n.s., iii., 1900) the observations -made by him of stone circles in various parts of -Scotland. From an examination of the latter he concludes<span class="pagenum" id="Page36">[36]</span> -that they may be divided into different types, -each of which has its centre in a different locality. The -types are—(1) the Western Scottish type, consisting of a -rather irregular single ring or sometimes of two concentric -rings; (2) the Inverness type, consisting of a -more regular ring of better-shaped stones, surrounding a -tumulus with a retaining wall, containing a built-up -chamber and passage leading to it, or a kist without a -passage; (3) the Aberdeen type, consisting of a similar -ring with the addition of a so-called “altar-stone” and -usually having traces of a tumulus and kist in the -middle. In addition to these three types of circles, -there are in Britain generally what Mr. Lewis calls sun -and star circles, with their alignments of stones, and -apparently proportioned measurements. He has shown -that there is a great preponderance of outlying stones -and hill-tops lying between the circles and the N.E. -quarter of the horizon. From what has been stated -in <a href="#Page17">Chapter III</a> with regard to the nightly observations of -stars it will be gathered that these may have been used -for this purpose.</p> - -<p>The following list gives some of the bearings of -outlying stones and other circles from the centres of -the named <span class="nowrap">circles:—</span></p> - -<table class="stonebearing" summary="Bearings"> - -<tr> -<td class="where">Roll-rich, Oxon.—Kingstone</td> -<td class="bearing">N. 27°</td> -<td class="bearing">E.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="where">Stripple Stones, Cornwall—Bastion on bank</td> -<td class="bearing">N. 26</td> -<td class="bearing">E.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="where">Long Meg, Cumberland—Small circle</td> -<td class="bearing">N. 27</td> -<td class="bearing">E.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="where">The Hurlers, Cornwall—Two outlying circles</td> -<td class="bearing">N. 13-16</td> -<td class="bearing">E.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="where">Trippet Stones—Leaze circle</td> -<td class="bearing">N. 11</td> -<td class="bearing">E.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>If these alignments mean anything they must of course -refer to the rising of <i>stars</i>, as the position on the horizon -is outside the sun’s path.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page37">[37]</span></p> - -<p>The many circles in Cornwall have been dealt with by -Mr. Lukis in a volume published by the Society of -Antiquaries in 1895.<a href="#Footnote7" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor7">[7]</a> A carefully prepared list of -circles will be found in Mr. Windle’s recently published -work entitled “Remains of the Prehistoric Age in -England.”</p> - -<p>It may be useful here to state, with regard to megalithic -remains generally, that they may be classed as -follows; some details will be discussed later on.</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) Circles. These may be single, double, or multiple, -and either concentric or not.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) Menhirs, large single stones, used to mark sight-lines -from circles.</p> - -<p>(<i>c</i>) Alignments, <i>i.e.</i>, lines of stones in single, double, -or in many parallel lines. If these alignments are short -they are termed avenues.</p> - -<p>(<i>d</i>) Holed-stones, doubtless used for observing sight-lines, -sometimes <i>over</i> a circle.</p> - -<p>(<i>e</i>) Coves. A term applied by Dr. Stukeley and others -to what they considered shrines formed by three upright -stones, thus leaving one side open. I take them -to be partially protected observing places. There are -well-marked examples at Avebury, Stanton Drew and -Kit’s Coity House.</p> - -<p>(<i>f</i>) Cromlechs. This term generally means a grouping -of upright stones; it is applied to irregular circles in -Brittany. It also applies to a stone or stones raised on -the summits of three or more pillar stones forming the -end and sides of an irregular vault generally open -at one end (“Dolmens of Ireland,” Borlase, p. 429).<span class="pagenum" id="Page38">[38]</span> -The top stone is called in S.W. England a “quoit.” -Cromlechs in most cases have been covered by barrows -or cairns.</p> - -<p>(<i>g</i>) Dolmens, from Dol Men, a table stone. These -consist of stones, resting on two or more upright -stones forming a more or less complete chamber, -some of which are of great length. I note the -following subdivisions: “Dolmen à galerie” having an -entrance way of sufficient height, and “Galgal,” similar -but smaller. In the “Dolmen à l’allée couverte” -there is a covered passage way to the centre. It -is a more elaborate cove. For the relation between -cromlechs and dolmens, see Borlase (<i>loc. cit.</i> and -p. 424 <i>et seq.</i>).</p> - -<p>With regard to dolmens, I give the following quotation -from Mr. Penrose (<i>Nature</i>, vol. lxiv., September 12, -<span class="nowrap">1901):—</span></p> - -<p>“Near Locmariaquer in the estuary named Rivière -d’Auray, there is an island named Gavr’ Inis, or Goat -Island, which contains a good specimen of the kind of -dolmen which has been named ‘Galgal.’</p> - -<p>“At the entrance our attention is at once arrested by -the profusion of tracery which covers the walls. From -the entrance to the wall facing us the distance is between -50 and 60 feet. The square chamber to which -the gallery leads is composed of two huge slabs, the -sides of the room and gallery being composed of upright -stones, about a dozen on each side. The mystic lines -and hieroglyphics similar to those above mentioned -appear to have a decorative character.</p> - -<p>“An interesting feature of Gavr’ Inis is its remarkable -resemblance to the New Grange tumulus at Meath.<span class="pagenum" id="Page39">[39]</span> -In construction there is again a strong resemblance to -Mæs-Howe, in the island of Orkney. There is also -some resemblance in smaller details.”</p> - -<p>While we generally have circles in Britain without, -or with small, alignments; in Brittany we have alignments -without circles, some of them being on an enormous -scale;<a href="#Footnote8" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor8">[8]</a> thus at Menec (the place of stones) we -have eleven lines of menhirs, terminating towards the -west in a cromlech, and, notwithstanding that great -numbers have been converted to other uses, 1169 -menhirs still remain, some reaching as much as 18 feet -in height.</p> - -<p>The alignments of Kermario (the place of the dead) -contain 989 menhirs in ten lines. Those of Kerlescant -(the place of burning), which beginning with eleven -rows are afterwards increased to thirteen, contain altogether -579 stones and thirty-nine in the cromlech, with -some additional stones. The adoration paid these stones -yielded very slowly to Christianity. In the church -history of Brittany the <i>Cultus Lapidum</i> was denounced -in 658 <span class="smcapall">A.D.</span></p> - -<p>Many of the fallen menhirs in these alignments have -been restored to their upright position by the French -Government. Some of them may have been overturned -in compliance with the decree of 658 <span class="smcapall">A.D.</span> above referred -to. Several of the loftier menhirs are surmounted by -crosses of stone or iron.</p> - -<p>Both circles and alignments are associated with holidays -and the lighting of fires on certain days of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page40">[40]</span> -year. This custom has remained more general in Brittany -than in Britain. At Mount St. Michael, near -Carnac, the custom still prevails of lighting a large -bonfire on its summit at the time of the summer solstice; -others, kindled on prominent eminences for a -distance of twenty or thirty miles round, reply to it. -These fires are locally called “Tan Heol,” and also by a -later use, Tan St. Jean. In Scotland there was a -similar custom in the first week in May under the name -of Bel Tan, or Baal’s Fire; the synonym for summer -used by Sir Walter Scott in the “Lady of the -<span class="nowrap">Lake”:—</span></p> - -<div class="poemcenter"> - -<div class="poem"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Ours is no sapling chance-sown by the fountain,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Blooming at Beltane in winter to fade.<br /></span> -</div><!--stanza--> - -</div><!--poem--> - -</div><!--poemcenter--> - -<p>At Kerlescant the winter solstice is celebrated by a -holiday, whilst Menec greets the summer solstice, and -Kermario the equinoxes, with festivals. Concerning -these fires and the associated customs Mr. Frazer’s -“Golden Bough” is a perfect mine of information and -should be consulted. It may simply be said here that the -May and November, and June and December fires seem -to be the most ancient. It is stated that the Balder -bale fires on Mayday Eve were recognised by the primitive -race, and I shall prove this in the sequel when -British customs are referred to. On the introduction -of Christianity the various customs were either transferred -to or reorganised in association with church -festivals; but as some of these, such as Easter, are -movable feasts, it is difficult to follow the dates.</p> - -<p>Regarding both circles and alignments in the light -of the orientation theory, we may consider simple<span class="pagenum" id="Page41">[41]</span> -circles with a central stone as a collection of sight-lines -from the central stone to one or more of the -outer ones, or the interval between any two; indicating -the place of the rise or setting of either the sun -or a star on some particular day of the year, which -day, in the case of the sun, will be a new year’s -day.</p> - -<p>Alignments, on the other hand, will play the same -part as the sight-lines in the circles.</p> - -<p>Sometimes the sight-line may be indicated by a -menhir outside, and even at a considerable distance -from, the circle; later on tumuli replaced menhirs.</p> - -<p>The dolmens have, I am convinced, been in many -cases not graves originally, but darkened observing -places whence to observe along a sight-line; this would -be best done by means of an <i>allée couverte</i>, the predecessor -of the darkened naos at Stonehenge, shielded -by its covered trilithons.</p> - -<p>In order to obtain some measurements to test the -orientation theory in Britain, I found that Stonehenge -is the ancient monument in this country which lends -itself to accurate theodolite work better than any -other. Mr. Spence’s excellent work on astronomical -lines at Stenness, where the stones, till some years ago -at all events, have been more respected than further -south, suggested a beginning there, but the distance -from London made it impossible.</p> - -<p>Avebury and Stanton Drew are well known to a -great many archæologists; there are also other very -wonderful stone circles near Keswick and in other -parts of England; but unfortunately it is very much -more difficult to get astronomical data from these<span class="pagenum" id="Page42">[42]</span> -ancient monuments than it is in the case of Stonehenge, -one reason being that Stonehenge itself lies -high, and the horizon round it in all directions is -pretty nearly the same height, so that the important -question of the heights of the hills along the sight-line—a -matter which is fundamental from an astronomical -point of view, although it has been neglected, -so far as I can make out, by most who have made -observations on these ancient monuments—is quite a -simple one at Stonehenge. Hence it was much easier -to determine a date there than by working at any of -the other ancient remains to which I have referred.</p> - -<p>In orientation generally—such orientation as has -been dealt with by Mr. Penrose and myself in Egypt -and in Greece—the question frequently was a change -in direction in the axis of a temple, or the laying -down of the axis of a temple, by means of observations -of stars. Unfortunately for us as archæologists, not -as astronomers, the changes of position of the stars, -owing to certain causes, chiefly the precessional movement, -are very considerable; so that if a temple -pointed to a star in one year, in two or three hundred -years it would no longer point to the same star, -but to another.</p> - -<p>These star observations were requisite in order to -warn the priests about an hour before sunrise so that -they might prepare for the morning sacrifice which -always took place at the first appearance of the sun. -Hence the morning star to be visible in the dawn -must be a bright one, and the further north or south -of the sun’s rising place it rose, the more easily it -would be seen. Some stars so chosen rose not far<span class="pagenum" id="Page43">[43]</span> -from the north point of the horizon. The alignments -with small azimuths referred to in the British circles -(<a href="#Page36">p. 36</a>) I believe to be connected with the Egyptian -and Greek practice.</p> - -<p>Acting on a very old tradition, some people from -Salisbury and other surrounding places go to observe -the sunrise on the longest day of the year at Stonehenge. -We therefore are perfectly justified in assuming -that it was a solar temple used for observation in -the height of midsummer. But at dawn in midsummer -in these latitudes the sky is so bright that it is not -easy to see stars even if we get up in the morning to -look for them; stars, therefore, were not in question, so -that some other principle had to be adopted, and that -was to point the temple directly to the position on the -horizon at which the sun rose on that particular day -of the year, and no other.</p> - -<p>Now, if there were no change in the position of the -sun, that, of course, would go on for ever and ever; -but, fortunately for archæologists, there is a slight -change in the position of the sun, as there is in the -case of a star, but for a different reason; the planes -of the ecliptic and of the equator undergo a slight -change in the angle included between them. So far -as we know, that angle has been gradually getting less -for many thousands of years, so that, in the case of -Stonehenge, if we wish to determine the date, having -no stars to help us, the only thing that we can hope -to get any information from is the very slow change -of this angle; that, therefore, was the special point -which Mr. Penrose and I were anxious to study at -Stonehenge, for the reason that we seemed in a position<span class="pagenum" id="Page44">[44]</span> -to do it there more conveniently than anywhere else -in Britain.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w430" id="Fig8"> - -<img src="images/illo056.jpg" alt="" width="428" height="600" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8</span>.—The original tooling of the stone protected from the action of the -weather.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>But while the astronomical conditions are better at<span class="pagenum" id="Page45">[45]</span> -Stonehenge than elsewhere, the ruined state of the -monument makes accurate measurements very difficult.</p> - -<p>Great age and the action of weather are responsible -for much havoc, so that very many of the stones -are now recumbent, as will be gathered from an article -by Mr. Lewis, who described the condition of the -monument in 1901, in <i>Man</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w450" id="Fig9"> - -<img src="images/illo057.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="324" /> - -<p class="caption long"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9</span>.—View of Stonehenge from the west. A, stone which fell in 1900; -<i>BB</i>, stones which fell in 1797. (Reproduced from an article on the fallen -stones by Mr. Lewis in <i>Man</i>.)</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>Professor Gowland in his excavations at Stonehenge, -to which I shall refer in the sequel, found the original -tooled surface near the bottom of one of the large -sarsens which had been protected from the action of -the weather by having been buried in the ground. It -enables us to imagine the appearance of the monument -as it left the hands of the builders (<a href="#Fig8">Fig. 8</a>).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page46">[46]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w440" id="Fig10"> - -<img src="images/illo058.jpg" alt="" width="431" height="600" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10</span>.—Copy of Hoare’s plan of 1810, showing the unbroken Vallum and -its relation with the Avenue.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>But the real destructive agent has been man himself; -savages could not have played more havoc with -the monument than the English who have visited it at -different times for different purposes. It is said the<span class="pagenum" id="Page47">[47]</span> -fall of one great stone was caused in 1620 by some -excavations, but this has been doubted; the fall of -another in 1797 was caused by gipsies digging a hole -in which to shelter, and boil their kettle; many -of the stones have been used for building walls and -bridges; masses weighing from 56 lb. downwards have -been broken off by hammers or cracked off as a result -of fires lighted by excursionists.</p> - -<p>It appears that the temenos wall or vallum, which -is shown complete in Hoare’s plan of 1810, is now -broken down in many places by vehicles indiscriminately -driven over it. Indeed, its original -importance has now become so obliterated that many -do not notice it as part of the structure—that, in -fact, it bears the same relation to the interior stone -circle as the nave of St. Paul’s does to the Lady -Chapel (<a href="#Fig10">Fig. 10</a>).</p> - -<p>It is within the knowledge of all interested in archæology -that not long ago Sir Edmund Antrobus, the -owner of Stonehenge, advised by the famous Wiltshire -local society, the Society for the Protection of Ancient -Buildings, and the Society of Antiquaries, enclosed the -monument in order to preserve it from further wanton -destruction, and—a first step in the way of restoration—with -the skilled assistance of Prof. Gowland and -Messrs. Carruthers, Detmar Blow and Stallybrass, set -upright the most important menhir, which threatened -to fall or else break off at one of the cracks. This -menhir, the so-called “leaning stone,” once formed one -of the uprights of the trilithon the fall of the other -member of which is stated by Mr. Lewis to have -occurred before 1574. The latter, broken in two pieces,<span class="pagenum" id="Page48">[48]</span> -and the supported impost, now lie prostrate across -the altar stone.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w450" id="Fig11"> - -<img src="images/illo060.jpg" alt="" width="442" height="600" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11</span>.—The Leaning Stone in 1901.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>This piece of work was carried out with consummate<span class="pagenum" id="Page49">[49]</span> -skill and care, and most important conclusions, as we -shall see in a subsequent chapter, were derived from -the minute inquiry into the conditions revealed in the -excavations which were necessary for the proper conduct -of the work.</p> - -<p>Let us hope that we have heard the last of the -work of devastators, and even that, before long, some -of the other larger stones, now inclined or prostrate, -may be set upright.</p> - -<p>Since Sir Edmund Antrobus, the present owner, has -acted on the advice of the societies I have named to -enclose the monument, with a view to guard it from -destruction and desecration, he has been assailed on -all sides. It is not a little surprising that the “unclimbable -wire fence” recommended by the societies -in question (the Bishop of Bristol being the president -of the Wiltshire society at the time) is by some regarded -as a suggestion that the property is not national, -the fact being that the nation has not bought the -property, and that it has been private property for -centuries, and treated in the way we have seen.</p> - -<p>Let us hope also that before long the gaps in the -vallum may be filled up. These, as I have already -stated, take away from the meaning of an important -part of one of the most imposing monuments of the -world. In the meantime, it is comforting to know that, -thanks to what Sir Edmund Antrobus has done, no -more stones will be stolen, or broken by sledge-hammers; -that fires; that excavations such as were apparently -the prime cause of the disastrous fall of one of the -majestic trilithons in 1797; that litter, broken bottles<span class="pagenum" id="Page50">[50]</span> -and the like, with which too many British sightseers -mark their progress, besides much indecent desecration, -are things of the past.</p> - -<p>If Stonehenge had been built in Italy, or France, or -Germany, it would have been in charge of the State -long ago.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">I now pass from the monument itself to a reference -to some of the traditions and historical statements -concerning it.</p> - -<p>Those who are interested in these matters should -thank the Wiltshire Archæological and Natural History -Society, which is to be warmly congratulated on its -persistent and admirable efforts to do all in its power to -enable the whole nation to learn about the venerable -monuments of antiquity which it has practically taken -under its scientific charge. It has published two most -important volumes<a href="#Footnote9" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor9">[9]</a> dealing specially with Stonehenge, -including both its traditions and history.</p> - -<p>With regard to Mr. Long’s memoir, it may be stated -that it includes important extracts from notices of -Stonehenge from the time of Henry of Huntingdon -(twelfth century) to Hoare (1812), and that all extant -information is given touching on the questions by -whom the stones were erected, whence they came, and -what was the object of the structure.</p> - -<p>From Mr. Harrison’s more recently published bibliography, -no reference to Stonehenge by any ancient -author, no letter to the <i>Times</i> for the last twenty<span class="pagenum" id="Page51">[51]</span> -years dealing with any question touching the monuments, -seems to be omitted.</p> - -<p>It is very sad to read, both in Mr. Long’s volume -and the bibliography, of the devastation which has -been allowed to go on for so many years and of the -various forms it has taken.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">As almost the whole of the notes which follow deal -with the assumption of Stonehenge having been a solar -temple, a short reference to the earliest statements concerning -this view is desirable; and, again, as the approximate -date arrived at by Mr. Penrose and myself -in 1901 is an early one, a few words may be added indicating -the presence in Britain at that time of a race -of men capable of designing and executing such work. -I quote from the paper communicated by Mr. Penrose -and myself to the Royal <span class="nowrap">Society:—</span></p> - -<p>“As to the first point, Diodorus Siculus (ii., 47, ed. -Didot, p. 116) has preserved a statement of Hecatæus -in which Stonehenge alone can by any probability be -referred to.</p> - -<p>“‘We think that no one will consider it foreign to -our subject to say a word respecting the Hyperboreans.</p> - -<p>“‘Amongst the writers who have occupied themselves -with the mythology of the ancients, Hecatæus and some -others tell us that opposite the land of the Celts [ἑν τοις -ἁντιπεραν της -Κελτικης τοποις] there exists in the Ocean -an island not smaller than Sicily, and which, situated -under the constellation of The Bear, is inhabited by the -Hyperboreans; so called because they live beyond the -point from which the North wind blows.... If one -may believe the same mythology, Latona was born in<span class="pagenum" id="Page52">[52]</span> -this island, and for that reason the inhabitants honour -Apollo more than any other deity. A sacred enclosure -[νησον] is dedicated to him in the island, as well as -a magnificent circular temple adorned with many rich -offerings.... The Hyperboreans are in general very -friendly to the Greeks.’”</p> - -<p>“The Hecatæus above referred to was probably -Hecatæus of Abdera, in Thrace, fourth century <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>; -a friend of Alexander the Great. This Hecatæus is -said to have written a history of the Hyperboreans: -that it was Hecatæus of Miletus, an historian of the -sixth century <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, is less likely.</p> - -<p>“As to the second point, although we cannot go so -far back in evidence of the power and civilisation of -the Britons, there is an argument of some value to -be drawn from the fine character of the coinage issued -by British kings early in the second century <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, and -from the statement of Julius Cæsar (‘De Bello Gallico,’ -vi., c. 14) that in the schools of the Druids the subjects -taught included the movements of the stars, the size -of the earth, and the nature of things (multa præterea -de sideribus et eorum motu, de mundi magnitudine, -de rerum natura, de deorum immortalium vi ac potestate -disputant et juventuti tradunt).</p> - -<p>“Studies of such a character seem quite consistent -with, and to demand, a long antecedent period of -civilisation.”</p> - -<p>Henry of Huntingdon is the first English writer to -refer to Stonehenge, which he calls Stanenges. Geoffrey -of Monmouth (1138) and Giraldus Cambrensis come next.</p> - -<p>In 1771, Dr. John Smith, in a work entitled “Choir -Gawr, the Grand Orrery of the Ancient Druids, called<span class="pagenum" id="Page53">[53]</span> -Stonehenge, Astronomically Explained, and proved to -be a Temple for Observing the Motions of the Heavenly -Bodies,” wrote as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<p>“From many and repeated visits, I conceived it to -be an astronomical temple; and from what I could -recollect to have read of it, no author had as yet investigated -its uses. Without an instrument or any -assistance whatever, but White’s ‘Ephemeris,’ I began -my survey. I suspected the stone called <i>The Friar’s -Heel</i> to be the index that would disclose the uses of -this structure; nor was I deceived. This stone stands -in a right line with the centre of the temple, pointing -to the north-east. I first drew a circle round the -vallum of the ditch and divided it into 360 equal -parts; and then a right line through the body of the -temple to the Friar’s Heel; at the intersection of these -lines I reckoned the sun’s greatest amplitude at the -summer solstice, in this latitude, to be about 60 degrees, -and fixed the eastern points accordingly. Pursuing -this plan, I soon discovered the uses of all the detached -stones, as well as those that formed the body of the -temple.”</p> - -<p>With regard to this “Choir Gawr,” translated Chorea -Gigantum, Leland’s opinion is quoted (Long, p. 51) -that we should read Choir vawr, the equivalent of -which is Chorea nobilis or magna.<a href="#Footnote10" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor10">[10]</a></p> - -<p>In spite of Inigo Jones’s (1600) dictum that Stonehenge -was of Roman origin, Stukeley came to the conclusion -in 1723 that the Druids were responsible for<span class="pagenum" id="Page54">[54]</span> -its building; and Halley, who visited it in 1720—probably -with Stukeley—concluded from the weathering -of the stones that it was at least 3000 years old; if -he only had taken his theodolite with him, how much -his interest in the monument would have been increased!</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote5"></a><a href="#FNanchor5"><span class="label"> [5]</span></a> -See especially <i>Nature</i>, July 2, 1891 p. 201.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote6"></a><a href="#FNanchor6"><span class="label"> [6]</span></a> Gardner, Paisley and London.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote7"></a><a href="#FNanchor7"><span class="label"> [7]</span></a> -“The Prehistoric Stone Monuments of the British Isles—Cornwall.”</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote8"></a><a href="#FNanchor8"><span class="label"> [8]</span></a> -“The French Stonehenge: An Account of the Principal Megalithic -Remains in the Morbihan Archipelago.” By T. Cato Worsfold, -F. R. Hist. S., F.R.S.I. (London: Bemrose and Sons, Ltd.)</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote9"></a><a href="#FNanchor9"><span class="label"> [9]</span></a> -<i>The Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine</i>: -“Stonehenge and its Barrows.” By William Long, M.A., F.S.A. 1876. -<i>The Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine</i>: “Stonehenge -Bibliography Number.” By W. Jerome Harrison. 1902.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote10"></a><a href="#FNanchor10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> -Mr. Morien Morgan informs me that Cor y Gawres is correct, -and means Choir of the Giantess Cariadwen, the Welsh Neith, -Nyth (Nydd).</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page55">[55]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER VI</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">GENERAL ARCHITECTURE OF STONEHENGE</span></h2> - -<p>Although I have before hinted that the astronomical -use of the Egyptian temples and British circles -was the same, there is at first sight a vast difference -in the general plan of structure.</p> - -<p>This has chiefly depended upon the fact that the -riches and population of ancient Egypt were so great -that that people could afford to build a temple to a -particular star, or to the sun’s position on any particular -day of the year. The temple axis along the line -pointing to the celestial body involved, then became -the chief feature, and tens of years were spent in -lengthening, constricting and embellishing it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w320" id="Fig12"> - -<img src="images/illo068.jpg" alt="" width="318" height="600" /> - -<p class="caption long"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12</span>.—The axis of the Temple of Karnak, looking south-east, from outside -the north-west pylon (from a photograph by the author).</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>From one end of an Egyptian temple to the other -we find the axis marked out by narrow apertures in -the various pylons, and many walls with doors crossing -the axis. There are seventeen or eighteen of these -apertures in the solar temple of Amen-Rā at Karnak, -limiting the light which falls into the Holy of Holies -or Sanctuary. This construction gives one a very -definite impression that every part of the temple was -built to subserve a special object, viz., to limit the -sunlight which fell on its front into a narrow beam,<span class="pagenum" id="Page56">[56]</span> -and to carry it to the other extremity of the temple—into -the sanctuary, where the high priest performed -his functions. The sanctuary was always blocked. -There is no case in which the beam of light can pass -absolutely through a temple (<a href="#Fig12">Figs. 12</a> and <a href="#Fig13">13</a>).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page57">[57]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig13"> - -<img src="images/illo069.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="288" /> - -<p class="caption long"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13</span>.—Plan of the Temple of Ramses II. in the Memnonia at Thebes (from -Lepsius), showing the pylon at the open end, the various doors along the -axis, the sanctuary at the closed end, and the temple at right angles.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page58">[58]</span></p> - -<p>In Britain the case was different, there was neither -skill nor workers sufficient to erect such stately piles, -and as a consequence one structure had to do the -work of several and it had to be done in the most -economical way. Hence the circle with the observer -at the centre and practically a temple axis in every -direction among which could be chosen the chief directions -required, each alignment being defined by stones, -more or less distant, or openings in the circle itself.</p> - -<p>Now for some particulars with regard to those parts -of Stonehenge which lend themselves to the inquiry.</p> - -<p>The main architecture of Stonehenge consisted of an -external circle of about 100 feet in diameter, composed -of thirty large upright stones, named sarsens, connected -by continuous lintels. The upright stones formerly -stood 14 feet above the surface of the ground. They -have nobs or tenons on the top which fit into mortice -holes in the lintels. Within this peristyle there was -originally an inner structure of ten still larger upright -stones, arranged in the shape of a horseshoe, formed -by five isolated trilithons which rose progressively -from N.E. to S.W., the loftiest stones being 25 feet -above the ground. About one-half of these uprights -have fallen, and a still greater number of the imposts -which they originally carried.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig14"> - -<img src="images/illo071.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="436" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14</span>.—One of the remaining Trilithons.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>There is also another circle of smaller upright stones, -respecting which the only point requiring notice now is -that none of them would have interrupted the line of -the axis of the avenue. The circular temple was also<span class="pagenum" id="Page59">[59]</span> -surrounded by the earthen bank, shown in <a href="#Fig15">Fig. 15</a>, of -about 300 feet in diameter, interrupted towards the -north-east by receiving into itself the banks forming the -avenue before mentioned, which is about 50 feet across.<span class="pagenum" id="Page60">[60]</span> -Within this avenue, no doubt an old <i>via sacra</i>, and -looking north-east from the centre of the temple, at -about 250 feet distance and considerably to the right -hand of the axis, stands an isolated stone, which from -a mediæval legend has been named the Friar’s Heel.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig15"> - -<img src="images/illo072.png" alt="" width="600" height="594" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15</span>.—General plan; the outer circle, naos and avenue of Stonehenge.<br /> -<i>F.H.</i> = Friar’s Heel.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>The axis passes very nearly centrally through an -intercolumniation (so to call it) between two uprights -of the external circle and between the uprights of the -westernmost trilithon as it originally stood. Of this -trilithon the southernmost upright with the lintel -stone fell in 1620, but the companion survived as the<span class="pagenum" id="Page61">[61]</span> -leaning stone which formed a conspicuous and picturesque -object for many years, but happily now restored -to its original more dignified and safer condition of -vertically. The inclination of this stone, however, took -place in the direction of the axis of the avenue, and -as the distance between it and its original companion -is known both by the analogy of the two perfect trilithons -and by the measure of the mortice holes on -the lintel they formerly supported, we obtain by bisection -the distance, 11 inches, from its edge, of a point -in the continuation of the central axis of the avenue -and temple.</p> - -<p>The banks which form the avenue have suffered much -degradation. It appears from Sir Richard Colt Hoare’s -account that at the beginning of the last century they -were distinguishable for a much greater distance than -at present, but they are still discernible, especially on -the northern side, for more than 1300 feet from the -centre of the temple, and particularly the line of the -bottom of the ditch from which the earth was taken -to form the bank, and which runs parallel to it.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page62">[62]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER VII</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS AT STONEHENGE IN -1901<a href="#Footnote11" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor11">[11]</a></span></h2> - -<p>An investigation was undertaken by Mr. Penrose and -myself in the spring of 1901, as a sequel to analogous -work in Egypt and Greece, with a view to determine -whether the orientation theory could throw any light -upon the date of the foundation of Stonehenge, concerning -which authorities vary in their estimates by -some thousands of years. Ours was not the first attempt -to obtain the date of Stonehenge by means of astronomical -considerations. In Mr. Godfrey Higgins’ work<a href="#Footnote12" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor12">[12]</a> -he refers to a method of attack connected with precession. -This furnished him with the date 4000 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>More recently, Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie,<a href="#Footnote13" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor13">[13]</a> whose -plan of the stones is a valuable contribution to the -study of Stonehenge, was led by his measures of the -orientation to a date very greatly in the opposite -direction, but, owing to an error in his application of -the change of obliquity, clearly a mistaken one.</p> - -<p>The chief astronomical evidence in favour of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page63">[63]</span> -solar temple theory lies in the fact that the “avenue,” -as it is called, formed by two ancient earthen banks, -extends for a considerable distance from the structure, -in the general direction of the sunrise at the summer -solstice, precisely in the same way as in Egypt a long -avenue of sphinxes indicates the principal outlook of a -temple.</p> - -<p>These earthen banks defining the avenue do not exist -alone. As will be seen from the sketch plan (<a href="#Fig15">Fig. 15</a>), -there is a general common line of direction for the avenue -and the principal axis of the structure; and the general -design of the building, together with the position and -shape of the naos, indicates a close connection of the -whole temple structure with the direction of the avenue. -There may have been other pylon and screen equivalents -as in other ancient temples, which have disappeared, -the object being to confine the illumination -to a small part of the naos. There can be little doubt, -also, that the temple was originally roofed in, and -that the sun’s first ray, suddenly shining into the -darkness, formed a fundamental part of the cultus.</p> - -<p>With regard to the question of the roof, however, -the above suggestion, I now find, is not new, the view -having been held by no less an authority than Dr. -Thurnham, who apparently was led to it by the representations -of the Scandinavian temples as covered and -enclosed structures.</p> - -<p>Since the actual observation of sunrise was doubtless -made within the sanctuary itself, we seem justified in -taking the orientation of the axis to be the same as -that of the avenue, and since in the present state of -the S.W. trilithon the direction of the avenue can<span class="pagenum" id="Page64">[64]</span> -probably be determined with greater accuracy than -that of the temple axis itself, the estimate of date -must be based upon the orientation of the avenue. -Further evidence will be given, however, to show that -the direction of the axis of the temple, so far as it -can now be determined, is sufficiently accordant with -the direction of the avenue.</p> - -<p>The orientation of this avenue may be examined upon -the same principles that have been found successful in -the case of Greek and Egyptian temples—that is, on -the assumption that Stonehenge was a solar temple, and -that the greatest function took place at sunrise on the -longest day of the year. This not only had a religious -motive; it had also the economic value of marking -officially and distinctly that time of the year and the -beginning of an annual period.</p> - -<p>It is, indeed, possible that the present structure may -have had other capabilities, such as being connected -with the May year, the equinoxes or the winter solstice; -but it is with its uses at the summer solstice alone -that we now deal.</p> - -<p>There is a difference in treatment between the observations -required for Stonehenge and those which are -available for Greek or Egyptian solar temples. In the -case of the latter, the effect of the precession of the -equinoxes upon the stars, which as warning clock stars -were almost invariably connected with those temples, -offers the best measure of the dates of foundation; but -in Britain, owing to the brightness of the dawn at the -summer solstice, such a star could not have been -employed, so that we can rely only on the secular -change of the obliquity as affecting the azimuth of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page65">[65]</span> -point of sunrise. This requires the measurements to be -taken with very great precision, and as the azimuth -of the place of sunrise varies with the latitude, and as -a datum point on the horizon in a known position was -also required, Colonel Johnston, R.E., the Director-General -of the Ordnance Survey, was asked for and -obligingly supplied the following particulars:</p> - -<table class="circlespire" summary="Particulars"> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="item">Centre of stone circle, Stonehenge</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace mid"><span class="fsize200">{</span></td> -<td class="left top paddedr">Lat.</td> -<td class="right top paddedl">51</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left top paddedr">°</td> -<td class="right top paddedl">10</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left top paddedr">′</td> -<td class="right top paddedl">42</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left top paddedr">″</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top paddedr">Long. W.</td> -<td class="right top paddedl">1</td> -<td class="right top paddedl">49</td> -<td class="right top paddedl">99</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="left">Centre of spire, Salisbury Cathedral</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace mid"><span class="fsize200">{</span></td> -<td class="left top paddedr">Lat.</td> -<td class="right top paddedl">51</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left top paddedr">°</td> -<td class="right top paddedl">3</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left top paddedr">′</td> -<td class="right top paddedl">52</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left top paddedr">″</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top paddedr">Long.</td> -<td class="right top paddedl">1</td> -<td class="right top paddedl">47</td> -<td class="right top paddedl">45</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The real point was to determine the direction of the -so-called avenue. Measurements taken from the line -of the bottom of the ditch assisted materially those -taken from the crown of the bank itself. With this -help and by using the southern bank and ditch whenever -it admitted of recognition, a fair estimate of the -central line could be arrived at. To verify this, two -pegs were placed at points 140 feet apart along the -line near the commencement of the avenue, and four -others at distances averaging 100 feet apart nearer -the further recognisable extremity, and their directions -were measured with the theodolite, independently -by two observers, the reference point being Salisbury -Spire, of which the exact bearing had been communicated -by Colonel Johnston.</p> - -<p>This bearing was also measured locally by observations -of the Sun and of Polaris, the mean of -which differed by less than 20″ from the Ordnance -value. The resulting observations gave for the axis -of the avenue nearest the commencement an azimuth -of 49° 38′ 48″, and for that of the more distant part<span class="pagenum" id="Page66">[66]</span> -49° 32′ 54″. The mean of these two lines drawn from -the central interval of the great trilithon, already referred -to, passes between two of the sarsens of the -exterior circle, which have an opening of about 4 feet, -within a few inches of their middle point, the deviation -being northwards. This may be considered to -prove the close coincidence of the original axis of the -temple with the direction of the avenue.</p> - -<p>This value of the azimuth, the mean of which is -49° 35′ 51″, is confirmed by the information, also -supplied from the Ordnance Survey, that from the -centre of the temple, the bearing to the N.E. of the -principal bench mark on a hill, about 8 miles distant, -the bench mark being very near a well-known ancient -fortified British encampment named Silbury or Sidbury, -is 49° 34′ 18″; and that the same line continued through -Stonehenge, to the south-west, strikes another ancient -fortification, namely, Grovely Castle, about 6 miles -distant, and at practically the same azimuth, viz., 49° -35′ 51″. For the above reasons 49° 34′ 18″ has been -adopted for the azimuth of the avenue.</p> - -<p>The summer solstice sunrise in 1901 was also watched -for by Mr. Howard Payn on five successive mornings, -viz., June 21 to 25, and was successfully observed on -the last occasion. As soon as the Sun’s limb was -sufficiently above the horizon for its bisection to be -well measured, it was found to be 8′ 40″ northwards -of the peak of the Friar’s Heel, which was used as -the reference point; the altitude of the horizon being -35′ 48″. The azimuth of this peak from the point of -observation had been previously ascertained to be 50° -39′ 5″, giving for that of the Sun when measured, 50°<span class="pagenum" id="Page67">[67]</span> -30′ 25″; by calculation that of the Sun, with the -limb 2′ above the horizon, should be 50° 30′ 54″. -This observation was therefore completely in accordance -with the results which had been obtained otherwise.</p> - -<p>The time which would elapse between geometrical -sunrise, that is, with the upper limb tangential with the -horizon, and that which is here supposed, would be about -17 seconds, and the difference of azimuth would be 3′ 15″.</p> - -<p>The remaining point was to find what value should be -given to the Sun’s declination when it appeared showing -itself 2′ above the horizon, the azimuth being 49° 34′ 18″.</p> - -<p>The data obtained for the determination of the -required epoch were as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<p>(1.) The elevation of the local horizon at the sunrise -point seen by a man standing between the uprights of the -great trilithon (a distance of about 8000 feet) is about -35′ 30″, and 2′ additional for Sun’s upper limb makes -37′ 30″.</p> - -<p>(2.) -Refraction + parallax, 27′ 20″.</p> - -<p>(3.) Sun’s semi-diameter, allowance being made for -greater eccentricity than at present, 15′ 45″.</p> - -<p>(4.) Sun’s azimuth, 49° 34′ 18″, and N. latitude, -51° 10′ 42″.</p> - -<p>From the above data the Sun’s declination works out -23° 54′ 30″ N., and by Stockwell’s tables of the obliquity, -which are based upon modern determinations of the -elements of the solar system,<a href="#Footnote14" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor14">[14]</a> the date is found to be -1680 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>It is to be understood that on account of the slight -uncertainty as to the original line of observation and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page68">[68]</span> -very slow rate of change in the obliquity of the ecliptic, -the date thus derived may possibly be in error by 200 -years more or less; this gives us a date of construction -lying between say 1900 and 1500 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>In this investigation the so-called Friar’s Heel was used -only as a convenient point for reference and verification -in measurement, and no theory was formed as to its -purpose. It is placed at some distance, as before -mentioned, to the south of the axis of the avenue, so that -at the date arrived at for the erection of the temple the -Sun must have completely risen before it was vertically -over the summit of the stone. It may be remarked, -further, that more than 500 years must yet elapse -before such a coincidence can take place at the beginning -of sunrise.</p> - -<p>In an <a href="#Page325">Appendix</a> certain details of the observations are -given.</p> - -<p>In the next chapter I propose to show that an independent -archæological inquiry carried out, in a most -complete and admirable way, just after Mr. Penrose -and myself had obtained our conclusion, entirely corroborates -the date at which we had arrived.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote11"></a><a href="#FNanchor11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> -This chapter and the end of the previous one are mainly based -on the paper communicated by Mr. Penrose and myself to the Royal -Society (see <i>Proceedings</i>, <i>Royal Society</i>, vol. 69, p. 137 <i>et seq.</i>).</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote12"></a><a href="#FNanchor12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> <i>The Celtic Druids</i>. 4to. London. 1827.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote13"></a><a href="#FNanchor13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> <i>Stonehenge, &c.</i> 1880.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote14"></a><a href="#FNanchor14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> -<i>Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge</i>, vol. xviii. No. 232, -table 9. Washington. 1873. For curve, see <a href="#Page130">page 130</a>.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page69">[69]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER VIII</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">ARCHÆOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT STONEHENGE, 1901</span></h2> - -<p>Soon after Mr. Penrose and myself had made our -astronomical survey of Stonehenge in 1901, some archæological -results of the highest importance were obtained -by Professor Gowland. The operations which secured -them were designed and carried out in order to re-erect -the leaning stone which threatened to fall, a piece of work -recommended to Sir Edmund Antrobus by the Society -of Antiquaries of London and other learned bodies, and -conducted at his desire and expense.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page70">[70]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig16"> - -<img src="images/illo082.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="363" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16</span>.—The arrangements for raising the stone, looking north-east.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page71">[71]</span></p> - -<p>They were necessarily on a large scale, for the great -monolith, “the leaning stone,” is the largest in England, -the Rudston monolith excepted. It stood behind the -altar stone, over which it leant at an angle of 65 degrees, -resting at one point against a small stone of syenite. Half-way -up it had a fracture one-third across it; the weight -of stone above this fracture was a dangerous strain on it, -so that both powerful machinery and great care and -precautions had to be used. Professor Gowland was -charged by the Society of Antiquaries with the conduct -of the excavations necessary in the work. The engineering -operations were planned by Mr. Carruthers, and -Mr. Detmar Blow was responsible for the local superintendence. -Mr. Blow thus describes the arrangements -(<i>Journal</i> Institute of British Architects, 3rd series, ix., -January, <span class="nowrap">1902):—</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page72">[72]</span></p> - -<p>“A strong cradle of 12-inch square baulks of timber -was bolted round the stone, with packing and felt, to -prevent any marking of the stone. To the cradle were -fixed two 1-inch steel eyebolts to receive the blocks for -two six-folds of 6-inch ropes. These were secured and -wound on to two strong winches fifty feet away, with four -men at each winch. When the ropes were thoroughly -tight, the first excavation was made as the stone was -raised on its west side.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter w450" id="Fig17"> - -<img src="images/illo083.jpg" alt="" width="442" height="600" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17</span>.—The cradle and supports, looking west.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>The method employed by Professor Gowland in the -excavation should be a model for all future work of the -kind.</p> - -<p>Above each space to be excavated was placed a frame -of wood, bearing on its long sides the letters A to H, -and on its short sides the letters R M L, each letter being -on a line one foot distant from the next. By this means -the area to be excavated was divided into squares each -having the dimension of a square foot. A long rod -divided into 6-inch spaces, numbered from 1 to 16, was -also provided for indicating the depth from the datum -line of anything found. In this way a letter on the long -sides of the frame, together with one on the short sides, -and a number on the vertical rod, indicated the position -of any object found in any part of the excavation.</p> - -<p>Excavations were necessary because to secure the stone -for the future the whole of the adjacent soil had to be -removed down to the rock level, so that it could be -replaced by concrete.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page73">[73]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig18"> - -<img src="images/illo085.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="447" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18</span>.—The frame used to locate the finds.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page74">[74]</span></p> - -<p>All results were registered by Professor Gowland in -relation to a datum line 337·4 feet above sea level. The -material was removed in buckets, and carefully sifted -through a series of sieves 1-inch, <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>-inch, <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub>-inch, and -<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>8</sub>-inch mesh, in order that the smallest object might -not be overlooked.</p> - -<p>From the exhaustive account of his work given by -Professor Gowland to the Society of Antiquaries (<i>Archaeologia</i>, -lviii.), I gather three results of the highest importance -from the point of view I am considering. These -were, first, the finding of an enormous number of implements; -secondly, the disposition and relative quantities -of the chippings of the sarsen and blue stones; and -thirdly, the discovery of the method by which the stones -were originally erected.</p> - -<p>I will take the implements first. This, in a condensed -form, is what Professor Gowland says about -<span class="nowrap">them:—</span></p> - -<p>More than a hundred flint implements were found, -and the greater number occurred in the stratum of chalk -rubble which either directly overlaid or was on a level -with the bed rock. They may all be arranged generally -in the following <span class="nowrap">classes:—</span></p> - -<p><i>Class I.</i>—Axes roughly chipped and of rude forms, -but having well-defined, more or less sharp cutting edges.</p> - -<p><i>Class II.</i>—Hammerstones, with more or less well-chipped, -sharp curved edges. Most may be correctly -termed hammer-axes. They are chipped to an edge at -one end, but at the other are broad and thick, and in -many examples terminated there by a more or less flat -surface. In some the natural coating of the flint is left -untouched at the thick end.</p> - -<p><i>Class III.</i>—Hammerstones, more or less rounded. -Some specimens appear to have once had distinct working -edges, but they are now much blunted and battered -by use.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page75">[75]</span></p> - -<p>In addition to the above flint implements were found -about thirty hammerstones, consisting of large pebbles -or small boulders of the hard quartzite variety of sarsen. -Some have been roughly broken into convenient forms -for holding in the hand, whilst a few have been rudely -trimmed into more regular shapes. They vary in -weight from about a pound up to six and a half -pounds. To these we have to add mauls, a more -remarkable kind of hammerstone than those just -enumerated. They are ponderous boulders of the quartzite -variety of sarsen with their broadest sides more or -less flat. Their weights range from about 40 lb. to -64 lb.</p> - -<p>How came these flints and stones where they were -found? Prof. Gowland gives an answer which everybody -will accept. The implements must be regarded -as the discarded tools of the builders of Stonehenge, -dumped down into the holes as they became unfit for -use, and, in fact, used to pack the monoliths as they -were erected. We read:—“Dealing with the cavity -occupied by No. 55 before its fall, the mauls were -found wedged in below the front of its base to act -together with the large blocks of sarsen as supports” -(p. 54). Nearly all bear evidence of extremely rough -usage, their edges being jagged and broken, just as -we should expect to find after such rough employment. -We evidently have to deal with builders doing -their work in the Stone and not in the Bronze age. -But was the age Palæolithic or Neolithic?</p> - -<p>Prof. Gowland <span class="nowrap">writes:—</span></p> - -<p>“Perhaps the most striking features of the flint -implements is their extreme rudeness, and that there<span class="pagenum" id="Page76">[76]</span> -is not a single ground or polished specimen among -them. This, at first sight and without due consideration, -might be taken to indicate an extremely remote -age. But in this connection it must be borne in mind -that in the building of such a stupendous structure as -Stonehenge, the tools required must have been numbered -by thousands. The work, too, was of the -roughest character, and for such only rude tools were -required. The highly finished and polished implements -which we are accustomed to consider, and rightly so, -as characteristic of Neolithic man, would find no place -in such work. They required too much labour and time -for their manufacture, and, when made, could not have -been more effective than the hammer-axes and hammerstones -found in the excavations, which could be so -easily fashioned by merely rudely shaping the natural -flints, with which the district abounds, by a few well -directed blows of a sarsen pebble.”</p> - -<p>On this ground Prof. Gowland is of opinion that, -notwithstanding their rudeness, they may be legitimately -ascribed to the Neolithic age, and, it may be, -near its termination, that is, before the Bronze age, the -commencement of which has been placed at 1400 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> -by Sir John Evans for Britain, though he is inclined -to think that estimate too low, and 2000 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> by -Montelius for Italy.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page77">[77]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig19"> - -<img src="images/illo089.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="328" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19</span>.—Some of the Flint Implements.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page78">[78]</span></p> - -<p>Prof. Gowland guardedly <span class="nowrap">writes:—</span></p> - -<p>“The occurrence of stone tools does not alone prove -with absolute certainty that Stonehenge belongs to the -Neolithic age, although it affords a strong presumption -in favour of that view. But, and this is important, -had bronze been in general or even moderately extensive -use when the stones were set up, it is in the -highest degree probable that some implement of that -metal would have been lost within the area of the -excavations, and if so lost, it would certainly have -been found together with the stone tools. Further, the -employment of deer’s horn picks for the extensive excavations -made in the chalk around the base of the -monoliths also tends to support the view that bronze -implements cannot have been in common use. If they -had it would seem not unreasonable to assume that -they would have been employed, as they would have -been so much more effective for such work than the -picks of deer’s horn.</p> - -<p>“Again, the chippings of the stones of Stonehenge in -two of the Bronze age barrows<a href="#Footnote15" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor15">[15]</a> in its neighbourhood -show that it is of earlier date than they.”</p> - -<p>And <span class="nowrap">finally:—</span></p> - -<p>“In my opinion, the date when copper or bronze -was first known in Britain is a very remote one, as -no country in the world presented greater facilities for -their discovery. The beginning of their application to -practical uses should, I think, be placed at least as far -back as 1800 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, and that date I am inclined to give, -until further evidence is forthcoming, as the approximate -date of the erection of Stonehenge.”</p> - -<p>Now the date arrived at by Mr. Penrose and myself -on astronomical grounds was about 1700 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> It is not -a little remarkable that independent astronomical and -archæological inquiries conducted in the same year<span class="pagenum" id="Page79">[79]</span> -should have come so nearly to the same conclusion. If -a general agreement be arrived at regarding it, we have -a firm basis for the study of other similar ancient -monuments in this country.</p> - -<p>I have previously in this book referred to the fact -that the trilithons of the naos and the stones of the -outer circle are all built up of so-called “sarsen” -stones. To describe their geological character, I cannot -do better than quote, from Mr. Cunnington’s “Geology -of Stonehenge,”<a href="#Footnote16" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor16">[16]</a> their origin according to Prestwich.</p> - -<p>“Among the <i>Lower Tertiaries</i> (the Eocene of Sir -Charles Lyell) are certain sands and mottled clays, -named by Mr. Prestwich the Woolwich and Reading -beds, from their being largely developed at these -places, and from these he proves the sarsens to have -been derived; although they are seldom found <i>in situ</i>, -owing to the destruction of the stratum to which they -belonged. They are large <i>masses of sand concreted -together</i> by a siliceous cement, and when the looser -portions of the stratum were washed away, the blocks -of sandy rocks were left scattered over the surface of -the ground.</p> - -<p>“At Standen, near Hungerford, large masses of sarsen -are found, consisting almost <i>entirely</i> of flints, formed -into conglomerate with the sand. Flints are also -common in some of the large stones forming the ancient -temple of Avebury.</p> - -<p>“The abundance of these remains, especially in some -of the valleys of North Wilts, is very remarkable. Few -persons who have not seen them can form an adequate<span class="pagenum" id="Page80">[80]</span> -idea of the extraordinary scene presented to the eye of -the spectator, who standing on the brow of one of the -hills near Clatford, sees stretching for miles before him, -countless numbers of these enormous stones, occupying -the middle of the valley, and winding like a mighty -stream towards the south.”</p> - -<p>These stones, then, may be regarded as closely -associated with the local geology.</p> - -<p>The exact nature of the stones, called “blue stones,” -can best be gathered from a valuable “Note” by Prof. -Judd which accompanies Prof. Gowland’s paper. These -blue stones are entirely unconnected with the local -geology; they must, therefore, represent boulders of the -Glacial drift, or they must have been brought by man, -from distant localities. Prof. Judd inclines to the first -opinion.</p> - -<p>The distinction between these two kinds of stone are -well shown by Prof. <span class="nowrap">Gowland:—</span></p> - -<p>“The large monoliths of the outer circle, and the -trilithons of the horse-shoe are all sarsens. [See general -plan, <a href="#Fig15">Fig. 15</a>.] These sarsens in their composition are -sandstones, consisting of quartz-sand, either fine or -coarse, occasionally mixed with pebbles and angular -bits of flint, all more or less firmly cemented together -with silica. They are the relics of the concretionary -masses which had become consolidated in the sandstone -beds that once overlaid the chalk of the district, and had -resisted the destructive agencies by which the softer -parts of the beds were removed in geological times. -They range in structure from a granular rock resembling -loaf sugar in internal appearance to one of<span class="pagenum" id="Page81">[81]</span> -great compactness similar to and sometimes passing into -quartzite.</p> - -<p>“The monoliths and trilithons all consist of the -granular rock. The examples of the compact quartzite -variety, of which many were found in the excavations, -were almost without exception either hammerstones that -had been used in shaping and dressing the monoliths, -or fragments which had been broken from off them in -these operations.</p> - -<p>“The small monoliths, the so-called ‘blue stones,’ -which form the inner circle and the inner horse-shoe, -are, with the undermentioned exceptions, all of diabase -more or less porphyritic. Two are porphyrite (formerly -known as felstone or hornstone). Two are argillaceous -sandstone.</p> - -<p>“Mr. William Cunnington, in his valuable paper, -‘Stonehenge Notes,’ records the discovery of two stumps -of ‘blue stones’ now covered by the turf. One of these -lies in the inner horseshoe between Nos. 61 and 62, -and 9 feet distant from the latter. It is diabase. The -other is in the inner circle between Nos. 32 and 33, -10 feet from the former, and consists of a soft calcareous -altered tuff, afterwards designated for the sake of brevity -fissile rock.</p> - -<p>“The altar stone is of micaceous sandstone.”</p> - -<p>I now come to the second point, to which I shall -return in the next chapter.</p> - -<p>In studying the material obtained from the excavations, -it was found in almost every case that the -number of chippings and fragments of blue stone largely -exceeded that of the sarsens; more than this, diabase<span class="pagenum" id="Page82">[82]</span> -(blue stone) and sarsen were found together in the layer -overlying the solid chalk (p. 15). Chippings of diabase -were the most abundant, but there were few large -pieces of it. Sarsen, on the other hand, occurred most -abundantly in lumps (p. 20); very few small chips of -sarsen were found (p. 42). Hence Prof. Gowland is of -opinion that the sarsen blocks were roughly hewn where -they were found (p. 40); the local tooling, executed -with the small quartzite hammers and mauls, would -produce not chips but dust.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w300" id="Fig20"> - -<img src="images/illo094.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="488" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20</span>.—Showing the careful tooling of the Sarsens.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page83">[83]</span></p> - -<p>Finally, I reach the third point of importance from -the present standpoint; the excavations produced clear -evidence touching the mode of erection. Prof. Gowland’s -memoir deals only with the leaning stone, but I take -it for granted that the same method was employed -throughout: the method was this.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig21"> - -<img src="images/illo095.png" alt="" width="600" height="370" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21</span>.—Face of rock against which a stone was made to rest.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>(1) The ground in the site a stone was to occupy was -removed, the chalk rock being cut into in such a manner -as to leave a ledge, on which the base of the stone -was to rest, <i>and a perpendicular face rising from it, -against which as a buttress</i> one side would bear when -set up. From the bottom of this hole an inclined plane -was cut to the surface down which the monolith which<span class="pagenum" id="Page84">[84]</span> -had already been dressed was slid until its base rested -on the ledge.</p> - -<p>(2) It was then gradually raised into a vertical position -by means first of levers and afterwards of ropes. -The levers would be long trunks of trees, to one end -of which a number of ropes was attached (this method -is still employed in Japan); so that the weights and -pulling force of many men might be exerted on them. -The stronger ropes were probably of hide or hair, but -others of straw, or of withes of hazel or willow, may -have been in use for minor purposes.</p> - -<p>(3) As the stone was raised, it was packed up with -logs of timber and probably also with blocks of stone -placed beneath it.</p> - -<p>(4) After its upper end had reached a certain elevation, -ropes were attached to it, and it was then hauled -by numerous men into a vertical position, <i>so that its -back rested against the perpendicular face of the chalk -which had been prepared for it</i>. During this part -of the operation, struts of timber would probably be -placed against its sides to guard against slip, a precaution -taken when the leaning stone was raised and -until the foundation was properly set.</p> - -<p>As regards the raising of the lintels, and imposts, -and the placing of them on the tops of the uprights, -there would be even less difficulty than in the erection -of the uprights themselves.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w440" id="Fig22"> - -<img src="images/illo097.jpg" alt="" width="433" height="600" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22</span>.—The leaning stone upright before the struts were removed.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>It could be easily effected by the simple method -practised in Japan for placing heavy blocks of stone in -position. The stone, when lying on the ground, would -be raised a little at one end by means of long wooden -levers. A packing of logs would then be placed under<span class="pagenum" id="Page85">[85]</span> -the end so raised, the other extremity of the stone -would be similarly raised and packed, and the raising -and packing at alternate ends would be continued -until the block had gradually reached the height of -the uprights. It would then be simply pushed forward -by levers until it rested upon them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page86">[86]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig23"> - -<img src="images/illo098.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="291" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23</span>.—Stonehenge, 1905.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page87">[87]</span></p> - -<p>It is not often that an engineering operation has -been made so subservient to the interests of science -as the one we have dealt with in this chapter. It is -satisfactory to know not only that much new knowledge -has been acquired by Professor Gowland and his -coadjutors, but that the famous leaning stone has now -been set upright in such fashion that it will remain -upright for hundreds of years. May the other leaning -stones soon receive the same treatment.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote15"></a><a href="#FNanchor15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> -Sir Richard Colt Hoare, <i>Ancient History of South Wiltshire</i>, p. -127. (London, 1812); W. Stukeley, <i>Stonehenge</i>, p. 46. (London, -1740).</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote16"></a><a href="#FNanchor16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> -<i>Wilts Archaeological and Natural History Magazine</i>, xxi. pp. -141-149.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page88">[88]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER IX</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">WAS THERE AN EARLIER CIRCLE?</span></h2> - -<p>When we come to examine Stonehenge carefully in -relation to the orientation theory, it soon becomes clear -that its outer circle of upright stones with lintels, and -the inner naos, built of trilithons, oriented in the line -of the “avenue” and the summer solstice sunrise, are -not the only things to be considered. These stones, -all composed of sarsen, which, be it remarked, have -been trimmed and tooled, are not alone in question. -We <span class="nowrap">have:—</span></p> - -<p>(1) An interior circle broken in many places, and -other stones near the naos, composed of stones, “blue -stones,” which, as we have seen, are of an entirely -different origin and composition.</p> - -<p>(2) Two smaller <i>untrimmed</i> sarsen stones lying near -the vallum, <i>not</i> at the same distance from it, the line -joining them passing nearly, but not quite, through -the centre of the sarsen circle. The amplitude of the -line joining them is approximately 26° S. of E. and -26° N. of W. Of these stones, the stump of the N.W. -one is situated 22 feet from the top of the vallum -according to the Ordnance plan. The S.E. stone has -fallen, but according to careful observations and<span class="pagenum" id="Page89">[89]</span> -measurements by Mr. Penrose, when erect its centre was -14 feet from the top of the vallum. The centre of the -line joining the stones is therefore about 4 feet to the -S.E. of the axis of the present circles, which, it may be<span class="pagenum" id="Page90">[90]</span> -stated, passes 3 feet to the N.W. of the N.W. edge -of the Friar’s Heel (see <a href="#Fig24">Fig. 24</a>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter w500" id="Fig24"> - -<img src="images/illo101.jpg" alt="" width="497" height="600" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>—Map of the Stones made by the Ordnance -Survey.<a href="#Footnote17" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor17">[17]</a> <span class="smcapall">A</span>, N.W. stone; -<span class="smcapall">B</span>, S.E. stone; <span class="smcapall">C</span>, Friar’s Heel; -<span class="smcapall">D</span>, Slaughter stone.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>There are besides these two large <i>untrimmed</i> sarsen -stones, one standing some distance outside the vallum, -one recumbent lying on the vallum; both nearly, but -not quite, in the sunrise line as viewed from the centre -of the sarsen circle. These are termed the “Friar’s -Heel” and “Slaughter Stone” respectively.</p> - -<p>I will deal with (1) first, and begin by another -quotation from Mr. Cunnington, who displayed great -acumen in dealing with the smaller stones not sarsens.</p> - -<p>“The most important consideration connected with -the smaller stones, and one which in its archæological -bearing has been too much overlooked, is the fact of -their having been brought from a great distance. I -expressed an opinion on this subject in a lecture -delivered at Devizes more than eighteen years ago, and -I have been increasingly impressed with it since. I -believe that these stones would not have been brought -from such a distance to a spot where an abundance of -building stones equally suitable in every respect already -existed, unless some special or religious value had been -attached to them. This goes far to prove that Stonehenge -was <i>originally a temple</i>, and neither a monument -raised to the memory of the dead, nor an astronomical -calendar or almanac.</p> - -<p>“It has been suggested that they were Danams, or -the offerings of successive votaries. Would there in -such case have been such uniformity of design, or would -they have been all alike of foreign materials? I would -make one remark about the small impost of a trilithon -of syenite, now lying prostrate within the circle. One<span class="pagenum" id="Page91">[91]</span> -writer has followed another in taking it for granted -that there must have been a second, corresponding with -it, on the opposite side. Of this there is neither proof -nor record, not a trace of one having been seen by any -person who has written on the subject. This small -impost, not being of sarsen, but syenite, must have -belonged to the original old circle; <i>it may even have -suggested to the builders of the present Stonehenge the -idea of the large imposts, and trilithons with their -tenons and mortices</i>.”</p> - -<p>In Prof. Gowland’s examination of the contents of -the holes necessarily dug in his operations, it was found -over and over again, indeed almost universally, that the -quantity of blue stone chippings was much greater than -that from the sarsen stones. While the sarsen stones -had only been worked or tooled on their surface, the -blue stones had been hewed and trimmed in extraordinary -fashion; indeed it is stated by Prof. Judd -that they had been reduced to half their original -dimensions in this process, the chippings almost equalling -the volume of the stones themselves.</p> - -<p>It seems, then, that when the sarsen stones were set -up, the sarsen and blue stones were treated very differently. -This being so, the following quotation from -Prof. Judd’s “Note” is interesting (<i>Archaeologia</i>, lviii., -p. <span class="nowrap">81):—</span></p> - -<p>“I may repeat my conviction that if the prevalent -beliefs and traditions concerning Stonehenge were true, -and the “bluestone” circles were transported from some -distant locality, either as trophies of war or as the -sacred treasures of a wandering tribe, it is quite inconceivable -that they should have been hewed and<span class="pagenum" id="Page92">[92]</span> -chipped, as we now know them to have been, and reduced -in some cases to half their dimensions, <i>after having -been carried with enormous difficulty over land and -water, and over hills and valleys</i>. On the other hand, in -the glacial drift, which once probably thinly covered -the district, the glacial deposits dying out very gradually -as we proceed southwards, we have a source from -which such stones might probably have been derived. -It is quite a well-known peculiarity of the glacial drift -to exhibit considerable assemblages of stones of a particular -character at certain spots, each of these assemblages -having probably been derived from the same -source.</p> - -<p>“I would therefore suggest as probable that when -the early inhabitants of this island commenced the -erection of Stonehenge, Salisbury Plain was sprinkled -over thickly with the great white masses of the sarsen-stones -(‘grey wethers’), and much more sparingly -with darker coloured boulders (the so-called ‘blue-stones’), -the last relics of the glacial drift, which have -been nearly denuded away. From these two kinds of -materials the stones suitable for the contemplated -temple were selected. It is even possible that the abundance -and association of these two kinds of materials -so strikingly contrasted in colour and appearance, at a -particular spot, may not only have decided the site, -but to some extent have suggested the architectural -features of the noble structure of Stonehenge.”</p> - -<p>If we grant everything that Prof. Judd states, the -question remains—why did the same men in the same -place at the same time treat the sarsen and blue -stones so differently?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page93">[93]</span></p> - -<p>I shall show subsequently that there is a definite -answer to the question on one assumption.</p> - -<p>I next come to (2). The important point about these -stones is that with the amplitude 26°, at Stonehenge, -a line from the centre of the circle over the N.W. -stone would mark the sunset place in the first week in -May, and a line over the S.E. stone would similarly -deal with the November sunrise. We are thus brought -in presence of the May-November year.</p> - -<p>Another point about these stones is that they are not -at the same distance from the centre of the sarsen -stone circle, which itself is concentric with the temenos -mound; this is why they lie at different distances from -the mound. Further, a line drawn from the point of -the Friar’s Heel over the now recumbent Slaughter -Stone with the amplitude determined by Mr. Penrose -and myself for the summer solstice sunrise in 1680 -<span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> cuts the line joining the stones at the middle point, -suggesting that the four untrimmed sarsen stones provided -alignments both for the May and June years -at about that date.</p> - -<p>Nor is this all; the so-called tumuli within the -vallum (<a href="#Fig10">Fig. 10</a>) may have been observation mounds, -for the lines passing from the northern tumulus over -the N.W. stone and from the southern tumulus over -the S.E. one are parallel to the avenue, and therefore -represent the solstitial orientation.</p> - -<p>So much, then, for the stones. We see that, dealing -only with the untrimmed sarsens that remain, the -places of the May sunset and June and November sunrises -were marked from the same central point.</p> - -<p>Statements have been made that there was the stump<span class="pagenum" id="Page94">[94]</span> -of another stone near the vallum to the S.W., in the -line of the Friar’s Heel and Slaughter Stone, produced -backwards, at the same distance from the old centre -as the N.W. and S.E. stones. This stone was <i>not</i> -found in an exploration by Sir Edmund Antrobus, Mr. -Penrose and Mr. Howard Payn by means of a sword -and an auger. But the question will not be settled -until surface digging is permitted, as a “road” about -which there is a present contention passes near the -spot.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w470" id="Fig25"> - -<img src="images/illo106.jpg" alt="" width="468" height="450" /> - -<p class="caption long"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25</span>.—The rod on the recumbent stone is placed in and along the common axis -of the present circle and avenue. It is seen that the Friar’s Heel, the top of -which is shown in the distance, would hide the sunrise place if the axis were -a little further to the S.E.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>But even this is not the only evidence we have for<span class="pagenum" id="Page95">[95]</span> -the May worship in early times. There is an old -tradition of the slaughter of Britons by the Saxons -at Stonehenge, known as “The Treachery of the Long -Knives”; according to some accounts, 460 British -chieftains were killed while attending a banquet and -conference. Now at what time of the year did this -take place? Was it at the summer solstice on June -21? I have gathered from Guest’s “Mabinogion,” vol. -ii. p. 433, and Davies’s “Mythology of the British -Druids,” p. 333, that <i>the banquet took place on May -eve</i> “<i>Meinvethydd</i>.” Is it likely that this date would -have been chosen in a solar temple dedicated exclusively -to the solstice?</p> - -<p>Now the theory to which my work and thought have -led me is that the megalithic structures at Stonehenge—the -worked sarsens with their mortices and lintels, -and above all the trilithons of the magnificent naos—represent -a re-dedication and a reconstruction, on a -more imposing plan and scale, of a much older temple, -which was originally used for worship in connection with -the May year.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote17"></a><a href="#FNanchor17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> -Plans and photographs of Stonehenge, &c., by Colonel Sir Henry -James, R.E., F.R.S., Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1867.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page96">[96]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER X</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">THE MAY AND JUNE WORSHIPS IN BRITTANY</span></h2> - -<p>I purpose next to inquire whether in the wonderful -series of Megalithic remains in Brittany, remains more -extensive than any in Britain, any light is thrown on the -suggestion I have made that the May Worship preceded -the Solstitial Worship at Stonehenge.</p> - -<p>It has long been known that the stones which compose -the prehistoric remains in Brittany are generally similar -in size and shape to those at Stonehenge, but, as I have -already stated, in one respect there is a vast difference. -Instead of a few, arranged in circles as at Stonehenge, we -have an enormous multitude of the so-called menhirs -arranged in many parallel lines for great distances. Some -of these are unhewn like the Friar’s Heel, some have as -certainly been trimmed.</p> - -<p>The literature which has been devoted to them is very -considerable, but the authors of it, for the most part, have -taken little or no pains to master the few elementary -astronomical principles which are necessary to regard the -monuments from the point of view of orientation.</p> - -<p>It is consoling to know that this cannot be said of the -last published contribution to our knowledge of this -region, which we owe to Monsieur F. Gaillard, a member<span class="pagenum" id="Page97">[97]</span> -of the Paris Anthropological Society and of the Polymathic -Society of Morbihan at Plouharnel.<a href="#Footnote18" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor18">[18]</a></p> - -<p>M. Gaillard is a firm believer in the orientation theory, -and accepts the view that a very considerable number of -the alignments are solstitial. But although he gives the -correct azimuths for the solstitial points and also figures -showing the values of the obliquity of the ecliptic as far -as 2200 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, his observations are not sufficiently precise -to enable a final conclusion to be drawn, and his method -of fixing the alignments and the selection of the index -menhir are difficult to gather from his memoir and the -small plans which accompany it, which, alas! deal with -compass bearings only.</p> - -<p>All the same, those interested in such researches owe a -debt of gratitude to M. Gaillard for his laborious efforts to -increase our knowledge, and will sympathise with him at -the manner in which his conclusions were treated by the -Paris anthropologists. One of them, apparently thinking -that the place of sun rising is affected by the precession -of the equinoxes, used this convincing argument:—“Si, à -l’origine les alignements étaient orientés, comme le pense -M. Gaillard, ils ne le pourraient plus être aujourd’hui; au -contraire, s’ils le sont actuellement, on peut affirmer qu’ils -ne l’étaient pas alors!”</p> - -<p>M. Gaillard is not only convinced of the solstitial -orientation of the avenues, but finds the same result in -the case of the dolmens.</p> - -<p>I cannot find any reference in the text to any orientations -dealing with the farmers’ years, that is with amplitudes<span class="pagenum" id="Page98">[98]</span> -of about 25° N. and S. of the E. and W. points; but -in the diagrams on pp. 78 and 127 I find both avenue -and dolmen alignments, which within the limits of -accuracy apparently employed may perhaps with justice -be referred to them; but observations of greater accuracy -must be made, and details of the heights of the horizon -at the various points given, before anything certain can -be said about them.</p> - -<p>I append a reproduction of one of M. Gaillard’s plans, -which will give an idea of his use of the index menhir. It -shows the alignments at Le Ménec, lat. 47<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>° (<a href="#Fig26">Fig. 26</a>). -The line A—Soleil runs across the stone alignments and -is fixed from A by the menhir B, but there does not seem -any good reason for selecting B except that it appears to -fall in the line of the solstitial azimuth according to M. -Gaillard. But if we take this azimuth as N. 54° E., then -we find the alignments to have an azimuth roughly of N. -66° E., which gives us the amplitude of 24° N. marking -the place of sunrise at the beginning of the May and -November years, and the alignments may have dealt -principally with those times of the year.</p> - -<p>I esteem it a most fortunate thing that while I have -been casting about as to the best way of getting more -accurate data, Lieutenant Devoir, of the French Navy -and therefore fully equipped with all the astronomical -knowledge necessary; who resides at Brest and has been -studying the prehistoric monuments in his neighbourhood -for many years, has been good enough to give me the -results of his work in that region, in which the problems -seem to be simpler than further south; for while in the -vicinity of Carnac the menhirs were erected in groups -numbering five or six thousand, near Brest, lat. 48<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>°, they<span class="pagenum" id="Page99">[99]</span> -are much more restricted in number. I am much indebted -to him for permission to use and publish his results.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w400" id="Fig26"> - -<img src="images/illo110.jpg" alt="" width="395" height="600" /> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo110lg.jpg">Larger illustration</a></p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26</span>.—Alignments at Le Ménec.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>Lieutenant Devoir, by his many well-planned and -approximately accurate observations, has put the solstitial -orientation beyond question, and, further, has made important -observations which prove that the May and -August sunrises were also provided for in the systems of<span class="pagenum" id="Page100">[100]</span> -alignments. I give the following extracts from his -<span class="nowrap">letter:—</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w400" id="Fig27"> - -<img src="images/illo111.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="478" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27</span>.—Menhir (A) on Melon Island.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>“It is about twelve years ago that I remarked in the -west part of the Department of Morbihan (near Lorient) -the parallelism of the lines marked out by monuments of -all sorts, and frequently oriented to the N.E., or rather -between N. 50° E. and N. 55° E. I had ascertained, -moreover, the existence of lines perpendicular to the first -named, the right angle being very well measured.</p> - -<p>“The plans, which refer to the cantons of Ploudalmézeau -and of St. Renan (district of Brest) and of Crozon -(district of Chateaulin), have been made on a plane-table; -the orientations are exact to one or two degrees.</p> - -<p>“In the cantons of Ploudalmézeau and of St. Renan,<span class="pagenum" id="Page101">[101]</span> -the monuments are generally simple; seven menhirs are -visible of enormous dimensions, remarkable by the -polish of their surface and the regularity of their -section. The roughnesses hardly ever reach a centimetre; -the sections are more often ovals, sometimes -rectangles with the angles rounded or terminated by -semicircles. In the canton of Crozon the monuments -are, on the contrary, complex; we find a cromlech with -an avenue leading to it of a length of 800 metres, -another of 300 metres. Unfortunately, the rocks employed -(sandstone and schist from Plungastel and -Crozon) have resisted less well than the granulite from -the north part of the Department. The monuments -are for the most part in a very bad condition; the -whole must, nevertheless, formerly have been comparable -with that of Carnac-Leomariaquer.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig28"> - -<img src="images/illo113.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="349" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28</span>.—Melon Island, showing Menhir (A) and Cromlech (B and C).</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>“For the two regions, granitic and schistose, the -results of the observations are identical.</p> - -<p>“The monuments lie along lines oriented S. 54° W.<span class="pagenum" id="Page102">[102]</span> -→ N. 54° E. (54° = azimuth at the solstices for L = -48° 30′ and <i>i</i> = 23° 30′) and N. 54° W. → S. 54° E. -Some of them determine lines perpendicular to the -meridian.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w500" id="Fig29"> - -<img src="images/illo114.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="558" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29</span>.—Menhirs of St. Dourzal, D, E, F.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>“One menhir (A), 6m. 90 in height and 9m. 20 in -circumference, erected in the small island of Melon -(canton of Ploudalmézeau, latitude 48° 29′ 05″) a few -metres from a tumulus surrounded by the ruins of a -cromlech (B and C), has the section such that the faces, -parallel and remarkably plane, are oriented N. 54° E. -(<a href="#Fig27">Figs. 27</a> and <a href="#Fig28">28</a>).</p> - -<p>“At 1300 metres in the same azimuth there is a line -of three large menhirs (D, E, F), of which one (E) is -overthrown. The direction of the line passes exactly<span class="pagenum" id="Page103">[103]</span> -by the menhir A. Prolonged towards the N.E. it -meets at 3k. 700m. an overturned block of 2m. 50 in -height, which is without doubt a menhir; towards -the S.W. it passes a little to the south some lines of -the island of Molène.... (<a href="#Fig29">Fig. 29</a>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig30"> - -<img src="images/illo115.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="401" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30</span>.—Alignment at Lagatjar, G G′.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>“There exists in the neighbourhood other groups, -forming also lines of the same orientation and that of -the winter solstice. It is advisable to remark that -orientations well determined for the solstices are much -less so for the equinoxes, which is natural, the rising -amplitude varying very rapidly at this time of year.</p> - -<p>“The same general dispositions are to be found in -the complex monuments of the peninsula of Crozon. -I take for example the alignments of Lagatjar. Two -parallel lines of menhirs, G G′ H H′, are oriented to S. -54° E. and cut perpendicularly by a third line, I I′. -There existed less than fifty years ago a menhir at K,<span class="pagenum" id="Page104">[104]</span> -6 metres high, which is to-day broken and overturned. -This megalith, known in the country by the name of -‘pierre du Conseil’ (a bronze axe was found underneath -it) gives with a dolmen situated near Camaret the direction -of the sunrise on June 21 (<a href="#Fig31">Fig. 31</a>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig31"> - -<img src="images/illo116.png" alt="" width="600" height="445" /> - -<p class="caption long"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31</span>.—Alignments at Lagatjar, showing the pierre du Conseil and the direction -of the dolmen. From the pierre du Conseil the dolmen marks the sunrise -place at the summer solstice, and the avenue G G′ H H′ the sunset place -on the same day.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>“I have just spoken of the lines perpendicular to -the solstitial one; there exists more especially in the -complex monuments another particularity which merits -attention. Between two monuments, M and N, on a -solstitial line, sometimes other menhirs are noticed, the -line joining them being inclined 12° to the solstitial -line, always towards the east” (<a href="#Fig32">Fig. 32</a>).</p> - -<p>I must call particular attention to this important -observation of Lieutenant Devoir, for it gives us the -amplitude 24° N., the direction of sunrise at the beginning -of the May and August years. It shows, moreover, -that, as at Le Ménec according to M. Gaillard, the -solstitial and May-August directions were both provided<span class="pagenum" id="Page105">[105]</span> -for at the monuments in the neighbourhood of Brest so -carefully studied by Lieutenant Devoir.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig32"> - -<img src="images/illo117.png" alt="" width="600" height="542" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32</span>.—Menhirs, M N on N.E.-S.W. solstitial alignment. Menhirs 1, 2, on -May-August years alignment, sunrise May-August, sunset November-February.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>Lieutenant Devoir points out the wonderful regularity -of form and the fine polish of many of the menhirs. It -will have been gathered from his account that those most -carefully trimmed and tooled belong to the solstitial -alignments. The one at Kerloas (11 metres high) heads -the list in point of size; others in the island of Melon -(7 metres), at Kergadion (8 metres and 10 metres), -Kerenneur, Kervaon and Kermabion follow suit. He -considers them to have been erected at the time of the -highest civilisation of the Megalithic peoples. He also -states that these regularly formed menhirs do not exist -at Carnac, or in the region of Pont l’Abbé, so rich in -other remains which certainly refer chiefly to the May-November -year. It seems, then, that in these localities<span class="pagenum" id="Page106">[106]</span> -the May-August worship first chiefly predominated, and -that the index menhirs of M. Gaillard which indicate -the solstice and which do not form part of the alignments -were erected subsequently.</p> - -<p>Finally, then, the appeal to Brittany is entirely in -favour of the May-November year worship having -preceded the solstitial one.</p> - -<p>I have already stated the evidence at Stonehenge -that the sunrise at the beginning of the May and -August years was observed in an earlier temple which -existed before the present structure existed. Were this -so we have another point common to the British and -Breton monuments. I therefore think that I may justly -claim the Brittany evidence as entirely in favour of the -suggestion put forward in <a href="#Page88">Chap. IX</a> with regard to Stonehenge.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote18"></a><a href="#FNanchor18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> -“L’Astronomie Préhistorique.” Published in “Les Sciences Populaires, -revue mensuelle internationale,” and issued separately by the -administration des “Sciences populaires,” 15 Rue Lebrun, Paris.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page107">[107]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER XI</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">ASTRONOMICAL HINTS FOR ARCHÆOLOGISTS</span></h2> - -<p>The foregoing chapters will have shown that in dealing -with the ancient monuments from an astronomical point -of view, we have to consider chiefly the direction of the -sight-lines, whether they are marked as in Brittany by -long rows of stones—alignments; as at Stonehenge by an -avenue; as in some of our British circles, by two or more -circles the direction being indicated from the central stone -of one to the central stone of the other, or finally by a -single standing stone or barrow.</p> - -<p>It is important then that before we proceed further in -our inquiries we should consider how a meaning is got out -of these directions, and I propose to devote this chapter -to this question, so that the full use of the “azimuths” -already referred to and others which are to follow may be -fully understood.</p> - -<p>There is another matter, at which I hinted on <a href="#Page36">pp. 36</a> -and <a href="#Page42">42</a>. We have to inquire whether there are any stones -or barrows marking the direction of the rising or setting of -<i>stars</i>, as well as those which deal with the rising and setting -of the <i>sun</i> at different times of the year, which we -have already found at Stonehenge and in Brittany. To -face this question we have to consider the stellar as well as<span class="pagenum" id="Page108">[108]</span> -solar conditions of observations, and as the former are -the simpler I will begin with them, especially as now there -is no question whatever that the rising and setting of stars -were provided for.</p> - -<p>In continuation of my work in Egypt in 1891, and -Mr. Penrose’s in Greece in 1892, I have recently -endeavoured to see whether there are any traces in Britain -of star observations, including those connected with the -worship of the sun at certain times of the year. We -both discovered that stars, far out of the sun’s course, -especially in Egypt, were observed in the dawn as heralds -of sunrise—“warning-stars”—so that the priests might -have time to prepare the sunrise sacrifice. To do this -properly the star should rise while the sun is still about -10° below the horizon. There is also reason to believe that -stars rising not far from the north point were also used as -clock-stars to enable the time to be estimated during the -night in the same way as the time during the day could -be estimated by the position of the sun.</p> - -<p>I stated (<i>Dawn of Astronomy</i>, p. 319) that Spica was -the star the heliacal rising of which heralded the sun on -May-day 3200 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> in the temple of Menu at Thebes. -Sirius was associated with the summer solstice at about -the same time.</p> - -<p>Mr. Penrose found this May-day worship continued at -Athens on foundations built in 1495 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> and 2020 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, on -which the Hecatompedon and older Erechtheum respectively -were subsequently built, the warning star being now no -longer Spica, but the cluster of the Pleiades rising, or -Antares setting, in the dawn.</p> - -<p>It is generally known that Stonehenge is associated with -the solstitial year, and I have suggested that it was<span class="pagenum" id="Page109">[109]</span> -originally connected with the May year; but the probable -date of its re-dedication, 1680 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, was determined by -Mr. Penrose and myself by the change of obliquity.</p> - -<p>Now if Stonehenge or any other British stone circle -could be proved to have used observations of warning -stars, the determination of the date when such observations -were made would be enormously facilitated. Mr. -Penrose and myself were content to think that our -date might be within 200 years of the truth, whereas -if we could use the rapid movement of stars in declination -brought about by the precession of the equinoxes, -instead of the slow change of the sun’s declination -brought about by the change of the value of the -obliquity, a possible error of 200 years would be reduced -to one of 10 years.</p> - -<p>In spite of this enormous advantage, no one so far -as I know has yet made any inquiry to connect star -observations with any of the British circles.</p> - -<p>I have recently obtained clear evidence that some -circles in different parts of Britain were used for night -work and also in relation to the May year, which -we know was general over the whole of Europe in -early times, and which still determines the quarter-days -in Scotland.</p> - -<p>If the Egyptian and Greek practice were continued -here, we should expect then to find some indications of the -star observations utilised at the temple of Min and at -the Hecatompedon for the beginning, or the other chief -months, of the May year.</p> - -<p>I have found them, and I will now show the method -employed.</p> - -<p>To begin with, if we assume that the astronomer-priests<span class="pagenum" id="Page110">[110]</span> -here did attempt such observations, what is -the most likely way in which they would have gone -to work?</p> - -<p>The easiest way for the astronomer-priests to conduct -such observations in a stone circle would be to erect -a stone or barrow indicating the direction of the place on -the horizon at which the star would rise as seen from the -centre of the circle. If the dawn the star was to -herald occurred in the summer, the stone or barrow itself -might be visible if not too far away, but there was a -reason why they should not be too close; in a solemn -ceremonial the less seen of the machinery the better.</p> - -<p>Doubtless such stones and barrows would be rendered -obvious in the dark by a light placed on or near them. -Cups which could hold oil or grease are known in -connection with such stones, and a light thus fed would -suffice in the open if there were no wind; but in windy -weather a cromlech or some similar shelter must have -been provided for it.</p> - -<p>Now if these standing stones or barrows were ever -erected and still remain, accurate plans—not the slovenly -plans with which Ferguson and too many others have provided -us, giving us either no indication of the north or any -other point, or else a rough compass bearing without -taking the trouble to state the variation at the time and -place—will help us.</p> - -<p>I have already pointed out that much time has been lost -in the investigation of our stone circles, for the reason -that in many cases the exact relations of the monuments -to the chief points of the horizon, and therefore to the -place of sunrise at different times of the year, have not -been considered; and when they were, the observations<span class="pagenum" id="Page111">[111]</span> -were made only with reference to the magnetic north, -which is different at different places, and besides is always -varying; few indeed have tried to get at the real -astronomical conditions of the problem. The first, I think, -was Mr. Jonathan Otley, who in 1849 showed the -“orientation” of the Keswick circle “according to the -solar meridian,” giving true solar bearings throughout the -year.</p> - -<p>In my opinion the most accurate plans conceivable, -in the absence of a long and minute local inquiry, are the -25-inch maps of the Ordnance Survey, on which, I have -it on the authority of Colonel Johnston the distinguished -Director, each stone may be taken to be shown with a -limit of error of 6 feet. With a large circular protractor -azimuths can be read to one minute of arc, and in critical -cases the true azimuth of the side lines, which are not -necessarily meridians as latitudes are not marked, can be -found on inquiry at the Ordnance Office, Southampton.</p> - -<p>Having then true azimuths, the next question concerns -the declinations of the stars which may have been -observed.</p> - -<p>The work of Stockwell in America, Danckworth in -Germany,<a href="#Footnote19" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor19">[19]</a> and Dr. W. J. S. Lockyer in England, has -provided us with tables of the changing declinations -of stars throughout past time, or enough of it for our -purpose.</p> - -<p>An accurate determination on the 25-inch map of either -the <i>azimuth</i> (angular distance from the N. or S. points) -or <i>amplitude</i> (angular distance from the E. or W. points)<span class="pagenum" id="Page112">[112]</span> -of the stone or barrow as seen from the centre of the stone -circle will enable us to determine the declination of the -star at the time when it was observed.</p> - -<p>I give a <a href="#Fig33">diagram</a> which enables this determination -to be made with the greatest ease for any monuments -between Land’s End and John o’ Groats, whether the -direction is recorded by amplitude or azimuth; the -declination is read at the side from the value of either -indicated, say, by a dot, at the proper latitude.</p> - -<p>This, of course, only gives us a first approximation. -The angular height of the point on the horizon to which the -alignment or sight-line is directed by the stone or barrow -from the centre of the circle must be most accurately -determined, otherwise the declinations may be one or two -degrees out.</p> - -<p>In the absence of measurements it is convenient to -assume, in the first instance, that the horizon is half a -degree high, as with this elevation refraction is -compensated, as the following table will show:</p> - -<table class="compensation" summary="Compensation"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="3">Elevation<br />of actual<br />horizon.</th> -<th colspan="3">Bessel’s<br />refraction.</th> -<th colspan="3">Combined<br />effect.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="leftcol">0°</td> -<td class="midcol"> 0′</td> -<td class="rightcol">0″</td> -<td class="leftcol">34′</td> -<td class="midcol">54″</td> -<td class="rightcol"> </td> -<td class="leftcol">-34′</td> -<td class="midcol">54″</td> -<td class="rightcol"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="leftcol">0°</td> -<td class="midcol">10′</td> -<td class="rightcol"> </td> -<td class="leftcol">32′</td> -<td class="midcol">49″</td> -<td class="rightcol"> </td> -<td class="leftcol">-22′</td> -<td class="midcol">49″</td> -<td class="rightcol"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="leftcol"> </td> -<td class="midcol">20′</td> -<td class="rightcol"> </td> -<td class="leftcol">30′</td> -<td class="midcol">52″</td> -<td class="rightcol"> </td> -<td class="leftcol">-10′</td> -<td class="midcol">52″</td> -<td class="rightcol"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="leftcol"> </td> -<td class="midcol">30′</td> -<td class="rightcol"> </td> -<td class="leftcol">29′</td> -<td class="midcol"> 3·</td> -<td class="rightcol">5″</td> -<td class="leftcol">+0′</td> -<td class="midcol">56·</td> -<td class="rightcol">5″</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="leftcol"> </td> -<td class="midcol">40′</td> -<td class="rightcol"> </td> -<td class="leftcol">27′</td> -<td class="midcol">22·</td> -<td class="rightcol">7″</td> -<td class="leftcol">+12′</td> -<td class="midcol">37·</td> -<td class="rightcol">3″</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="leftcol"> </td> -<td class="midcol">50′</td> -<td class="rightcol"> </td> -<td class="leftcol">25′</td> -<td class="midcol">49·</td> -<td class="rightcol">8″</td> -<td class="leftcol">+24′</td> -<td class="midcol">10·</td> -<td class="rightcol">2″</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="leftcol">1°</td> -<td class="midcol"> 0′</td> -<td class="rightcol"> </td> -<td class="leftcol">24′</td> -<td class="midcol">24·</td> -<td class="rightcol">6″</td> -<td class="leftcol">+35′</td> -<td class="midcol">35·</td> -<td class="rightcol">4″</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>In the absence of theodolite observations the actual -elevation of the horizon can be roughly found by a study of -the contour lines on the 1-inch map. The following heights -will agree with the previous assumption of hills <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>° high:</p> - -<table class="standard dontwrap" summary="Heights"> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Distance</td> -<td class="right">1</td> -<td class="left"><span class="padr3">mile</span></td> -<td class="left">Height</td> -<td class="center">=</td> -<td class="right">46</td> -<td class="left">feet</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="right">2</td> -<td class="left"><span class="padr3">miles</span></td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">=</td> -<td class="right">92</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="right">4</td> -<td class="center"><span class="padr3">„</span></td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">=</td> -<td class="right">184</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="right">8</td> -<td class="center"><span class="padr3">„</span></td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">=</td> -<td class="right">368</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="right">10</td> -<td class="center"><span class="padr3">„</span></td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">=</td> -<td class="right">460</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page113">[113]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig33"> - -<img src="images/illo125.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="363" /> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo125lg.jpg">Larger diagram</a></p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33</span>.—Diagram for finding declination from given amplitudes or -azimuths in British latitudes.</p> - -<div class="illotext w15m"> - -<p class="center">Curves represent (from top) Lat. 49°, 51°, 53°, 55°, 57° and 59°.</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page114">[114]</span></p> - -<p>I also give other diagrams showing the changing declinations -of the brightest stars, those which would naturally -be observed, between the years 150 <span class="smcapall">A.D.</span> and 2150 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> -These have been plotted from the calculations of the -authorities I have named.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig34">Fig. 34</a> deals with the Northern stars. The stars are -numbered as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<table class="standard dontwrap fsize90" summary="Stars"> - -<tr> -<th>Number.</th> -<th>Name of star.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center"> 1</td> -<td class="left">β Ursae Minoris.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center"> 2</td> -<td class="left">α Ursae Minoris (Polaris).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center"> 3</td> -<td class="left">α Draconis.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center"> 4</td> -<td class="left">α Ursae Majoris (Dubhe).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center"> 5</td> -<td class="left">γ Ursae Majoris.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center"> 6</td> -<td class="left">η Ursae Majoris (Benetnasch).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center"> 7</td> -<td class="left">γ Draconis.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center"> 8</td> -<td class="left">β Cassiopeiae.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center"> 9</td> -<td class="left">α Cassiopeiae.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">10</td> -<td class="left">α Persei.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">11</td> -<td class="left">α Aurigae (Capella).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">12</td> -<td class="left">α Cygni.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">13</td> -<td class="left">α Lyrae (Vega).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">14</td> -<td class="left">α Coronae.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">15</td> -<td class="left">α Geminorum (Castor).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">16</td> -<td class="left">β Geminorum (Pollux).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">17</td> -<td class="left">α Boötes (Arcturus).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">18</td> -<td class="left">β Leonis.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">19</td> -<td class="left">α Leonis (Regulus).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">20</td> -<td class="left">α Andromedae.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">21</td> -<td class="left">η Tauri (Alcyone).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">22</td> -<td class="left">α Tauri (Aldebaran).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">23</td> -<td class="left">α Canis Minoris (Procyon).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">24</td> -<td class="left">α Aquilae.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">25</td> -<td class="left">α Orionis (Betelgeuse).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">26</td> -<td class="left">α Virginis (Spica).</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>On <a href="#Fig35">Fig. 35</a>, dealing with the Southern stars, the names -are given along the curves.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">Now supposing that we have our plans; that we -have determined the azimuth of the sight lines; and -have found the declination of the star observed; we may -find more than one star occupying that declination at -various dates.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page115">[115]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w360" id="Fig34"> - -<img src="images/illo127.jpg" alt="" width="357" height="600" /> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo127lg.jpg">Larger diagram</a></p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34</span>.—Declinations of Northern Stars from 250 -<span class="smcapall">A.D.</span> to 2150 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>Which of these stars, then, must we consider?</p> - -<p>Obviously those most conveniently situated for enabling -the time to be estimated during the night, or those which -could have been used as warning stars.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page116">[116]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w380" id="Fig35"> - -<img src="images/illo128.jpg" alt="" width="377" height="600" /> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo128lg.jpg">Larger diagram</a></p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35</span>.—Declinations of Southern Stars from 250 <span class="smcapall">A.D.</span> -to 2150 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></p> - -<p class="caption long">α Ceti, α Aquarii, β Orionis, α Capricorni, α Canis Majoris, α Scorpii, -α Columbæ, α Pisces Austr., η Argûs, α Centauri, α Argûs, -α Crucis, α Gruis, and α Eridani.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page117">[117]</span></p> - -<p>The warning stars can be conveniently picked up by -using a precessional globe. From it we gather that about -1900, 1400 and 800 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> they were as follows for the critical -times of the May year, <i>i.e.</i> May, August, November, -<span class="nowrap">February:—</span></p> - -<table class="warners" summary="Warning stars"> - -<tr> -<th> </th> -<th colspan="2" class="fsize110">1900 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></th> -<th colspan="2" class="fsize110">1400 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></th> -<th colspan="2" class="fsize110">800 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="text">May</td> -<td class="text">Castor rising</td> -<td class="angle">N. 41° E.</td> -<td class="text">Pleiades rising</td> -<td class="angle">N. 77° E.</td> -<td class="text">Pleiades rising</td> -<td class="angle">N. 71° E.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text">Antares setting</td> -<td class="angle">S. 75° W.</td> -<td class="text">Antares setting</td> -<td class="angle">S. 72° W.</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="5" class="text">August</td> -<td class="text">Arcturus circumpolar.</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="text">Arcturus rising</td> -<td class="angle">N. 17° E.</td> -<td class="text">Sirius rising</td> -<td class="angle">S. 63° E.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text">With hill 3′ <span class="nowrap">high:—</span>Rising.</td> -<td colspan="6"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text"><span class="padl2">Date 2170 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></span></td> -<td class="angle">N. 11°15′ E.</td> -<td rowspan="3" colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text"><span class="padl2">Date 2090 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></span></td> -<td class="angle">N. 14°18′ E.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text"><span class="padl2">Date 1900 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></span></td> -<td class="angle">N. 18°44′ E.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text">November</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td class="text">Betelgeuse setting</td> -<td class="angle">N. 87° W.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text">February</td> -<td class="text">Capella rising</td> -<td class="angle">N. 36° E.</td> -<td class="text">Capella rising</td> -<td class="angle">N. 28° E.</td> -<td class="text">Capella rising</td> -<td class="angle">N. 21° E.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>For the solstices, that is, June and December, the -following stars might be used as <span class="nowrap">warners:—</span></p> - -<table class="warners" summary="Warning stars"> - -<tr> -<th> </th> -<th colspan="2" class="fsize110">1900 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></th> -<th colspan="2" class="fsize110">1400 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></th> -<th colspan="2" class="fsize110">800 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="3" class="text">Summer Solstice</td> -<td class="text">Betelgeuse rising</td> -<td class="angle">N. 87° E.</td> -<td class="text">Betelgeuse rising</td> -<td class="angle">N. 90° E.</td> -<td class="text">γ Geminorum rising</td> -<td class="angle">N. 68° E.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text">Arcturus setting<br />with hill 3′ high</td> -<td class="angle">N. 18° W.</td> -<td class="text">Arcturus setting (late)</td> -<td class="angle">N. 16° W.</td> -<td colspan="2" class="text">(“Alhena” mag. 1·9.)</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="text">α Serpentis setting</td> -<td class="angle">N. 53° W.</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="3" class="text">Winter Solstice</td> -<td class="text">Sheat rising (early)</td> -<td class="angle">N. 72° E.</td> -<td class="text">Castor setting</td> -<td class="angle">N. 37° W.</td> -<td class="text">α Capricorni rising</td> -<td class="angle">S. 66° E.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text">Markab rising (late)</td> -<td class="angle">S. 89° E.</td> -<td class="text">Pollux setting</td> -<td class="angle">N. 42° W.</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>It is obvious that a star used all the year round for -night work will warn the sunrise at some one of the yearly -festivals.</p> - -<p>When the stars having the same declinations are considered -from this point of view, the star actually used, -and <i>therefore the date of its use</i>, may generally be -gathered. I shall show subsequently that some of the -stars in the above lists were actually observed in British -as well as in Grecian temples.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote19"></a><a href="#FNanchor19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> -Dr. O. Danckworth, <i>Vierteljahrschrift der Astronomischen Gesellschaft</i>, -16. Jahrgang 1881, p. 9. Dr. Stockwell’s results have been -communicated to me by letter. Some, but not all, of Dr. Lockyer’s -calculations appeared in <i>The Dawn of Astronomy</i>.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page118">[118]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER XII</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">ASTRONOMICAL HINTS FOR ARCHÆOLOGISTS—<i>Continued.</i></span></h2> - -<p>I next come to the sun observations.</p> - -<p>First we must consider the astronomical differences -between the rising of a star and of the sun, by -which we generally mean that small part of the sun’s -limb first visible.</p> - -<p>It is frequently imagined that for determining the -exact place of sunrise or sunset in connection with -these ancient monuments we have to deal with the -sun’s centre, as we should do with the sun half risen. -As a matter of fact, we must consider that part of -the sun’s limb which first makes its appearance above -the horizon; the first glimpse of the upper limb of the -sun is in question, say, when the visible limb is 2′ -high; and we must carefully take the height of the hills -over which it rises into account.</p> - -<p>The accompanying <a href="#Fig36">diagram</a> will at once show the -difference between the rising conditions we have now -to consider. It deals with the summer solstice, as -being the most precise case, in Lat. 59° N.</p> - -<p>At this time the position of the sun, <i>that is of the -sun’s centre</i>, as given in the “Nautical Almanac,” is -represented by the double circle on the sea horizon.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page119">[119]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig36"> - -<img src="images/illo131.png" alt="" width="600" height="326" /> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo131lg.png">Larger diagram</a></p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36</span>.—The Conditions of “Sunrise” at the Summer Solstice in -Lat. 59° N.</p> - -<div class="illotext"> - -<p class="noindent">Vertical axis from bottom: Altitudes <span class="smcapall">SEA HORIZON, HILL -<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>° HIGH, HILL 1° HIGH, HILL 1<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>° HIGH.</span></p> - -<p class="noindent">Horizontal axis from left: Azimuths N 37°-42° E.</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page120">[120]</span></p> - -<p>The azimuth of this position is N. 39° 16′ E. This -is the equivalent of the declination of a star, but it -will be seen that the real azimuths we want are -very different. The dotted circles represent the actual -position of the sun with regard to the horizon, the -continuous circles the apparent positions caused by the -lifting-up effect of refraction. We have the positions -in azimuth of the apparent sun as it appears on a sea -horizon, and when the horizon is formed by hills up to -1<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>° in vertical height.</p> - -<p>To make this quite clear I give a table which has -been computed by Mr. Rolston, of the Solar Physics -Observatory, showing azimuths with hills up to 1<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>° -high for lat. 59° N., and 51° N. nearly the latitude of -Stonehenge, of the sun’s upper limb for the summer -<span class="nowrap">solstice:—</span></p> - -<table class="azimuths" summary="Azimuths"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="7"> </th> -<th colspan="2">Lat. 59°</th> -<th colspan="2">Lat. 51°</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th> </th> -<th colspan="6"><span class="smcap">Summer<br />Solstice.</span></th> -<th colspan="2">Rising N-E<br />or<br />Setting N-W.</th> -<th colspan="2">Rising N-E<br />or<br />Setting N-W.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th colspan="7"> </th> -<th>°</th> -<th>′</th> -<th>°</th> -<th>′</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="7" class="text">Sun’s centre; uncorrected</td> -<td class="center">39</td> -<td class="center">16</td> -<td class="center">50</td> -<td class="center">40</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="4" class="text multirow">Sun’s upper limb; corrected for semi-diameter and refraction</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="brace">-</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="elevation">sea horizon</td> -<td class="center">37</td> -<td class="center"> 1</td> -<td class="center">49</td> -<td class="center">20</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="elevation">hill</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left padl0"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>°</td> -<td class="elevation">high</td> -<td class="center">38</td> -<td class="center">34</td> -<td class="center">50</td> -<td class="center">16</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="left padl0">°</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">40</td> -<td class="center"> 8</td> -<td class="center">51</td> -<td class="center">12</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="left padl0"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>°</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">41</td> -<td class="center">30</td> -<td class="center">52</td> -<td class="center"> 4</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th class="highline"> </th> -<th colspan="6" class="highline"><span class="smcap">Winter<br />Solstice.</span></th> -<th colspan="2" class="highline">Rising S-E<br />or<br />Setting S-W.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="highline">Rising S-E<br />or<br />Setting S-W.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th colspan="7"> </th> -<th>°</th> -<th>′</th> -<th>°</th> -<th>′</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="7" class="text">Sun’s centre; uncorrected</td> -<td class="center">39</td> -<td class="center">16</td> -<td class="center">50</td> -<td class="center">40</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="4" class="text multirow">Sun’s upper limb; corrected for semi-diameter and refraction</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="brace">-</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="elevation">sea horizon</td> -<td class="center">41</td> -<td class="center">24</td> -<td class="center">52</td> -<td class="center"> 0</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="elevation">hill</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left padl0"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>°</td> -<td class="elevation">high</td> -<td class="center">39</td> -<td class="center">54</td> -<td class="center">51</td> -<td class="center"> 4</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="left padl0">°</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">38</td> -<td class="center">23</td> -<td class="center">50</td> -<td class="center"> 8</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="left padl0"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>°</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">36</td> -<td class="center">54</td> -<td class="center">49</td> -<td class="center">14</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The first important thing we learn from the table is -that although at both solstices the azimuths of the -rising and setting of the sun’s centre are the same, -these azimuths of the upper limb at the summer and -winter solstices differ in a high northern latitude by -some 5°. The difference arises, of course, from the -fact that the limb is some 16′ from the sun’s centre, -so that considering the sun’s centre as a star with -fixed declination, at rising the limb appears before the -centre, and at setting it lags behind it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page121">[121]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig37"> - -<img src="images/illo133.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="261" /> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo133lg.jpg">Larger diagram</a></p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37</span>.—The Azimuths of the Sunrise (upper limb) at the Summer Solstice.</p> - -<p class="caption long">The values given in the table have been plotted, -and the effect of the height of hills on the azimuth is shown. The range of -latitude given enables the diagram to be used in connection with the solstitial alignments at Carnak, Le Ménac, and -other monuments in Brittany.</p> - -<div class="illotext w20m"> - -<p class="noindent">Vertical axis from bottom: <span class="smcapall">LAT. 47-59.</span></p> - -<p class="noindent">Horizontal axis from left: <span class="smcapall">AZIMUTHS 37-56.</span></p> - -<p class="noindent">Curves from left: <span class="smcapall">SEA HORIZON, HILLS <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>°, -1°, 1<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>°</span></p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page122">[122]</span></p> - -<p>It will also be seen that at sunrise hills increase the -azimuth from N., and refraction reduces it; while at -setting, hills reduce the azimuth from S. and refraction -increases it.</p> - -<p>This <a href="#Fig36">diagram</a> and <a href="#Page120">table</a> should fully explain the -variation of azimuth at sunrise caused by the fact that -from our present point of view we do not deal with -the sun as a star.</p> - -<p>To make the foregoing applicable for monuments in -all latitudes between Brittany and the Orkneys, I give -still another diagram, <a href="#Fig37">Fig. 37</a>, also prepared for me by -Mr. Rolston which will enable any archæologist to -determine approximately, <i>for the present time</i>, the -azimuth of sunrise at the summer solstice, without -waiting for the 21st of June in any year actually to -observe it.</p> - -<p>As before stated, I have dealt with the solstice in -this chapter because it affords us the most precise -case. I hope to be able to deal with the May year -sun in the same way later on.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page123">[123]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER XIII</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">STENNESS (Lat. 59° N.).</span></h2> - -<p>I wrote a good deal in <i>Nature</i><a href="#Footnote20" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor20">[20]</a> on sun and star -temples in 1891, and Mr. Lewis the next year expressed -the opinion that the British stone monuments, or some -of them, were sun and star temples.</p> - -<p>Mr. Magnus Spence, of Deerness, in Orkney, published -a pamphlet, “Standing Stones and Maeshowe of Stenness,”<a href="#Footnote21" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor21">[21]</a> -in 1894; it is a reprint of an article in the -<i>Scottish Review</i>, October, 1893, showing that the stones -were set up for solar worship. Mr. Cursiter, F.S.A., of -Kirkwall, in a letter to me dated March 15, 1894, a -letter suggested by my “Dawn of Astronomy,” which -appeared in that year, and in which the articles which -had been published in <i>Nature</i> in 1891 had been expanded, -directed my attention to the pamphlet.</p> - -<p>I began the consideration of the Stenness circles and -alignments in 1901, but other pressing calls on my time -then caused me to break off the inquiry. Quite recently -it occurred to me that a complete study of the Stenness -circles might throw light on the question of an earlier -Stonehenge, so I have gone over the old papers, plotting -the results on the Ordnance map.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page124">[124]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig38"> - -<img src="images/illo136.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="339" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38</span>.—Maeshowe, in the foreground, and the Stones of -Stenness. From “Notice of Runic Inscriptions,” by -James Farrer, M.P. (1862).</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page125">[125]</span></p> - -<p>Now that the inquiry is as complete as I can make -it without spending some time in Orkney with a -theodolite, I will begin my reference to other circles -besides Stonehenge by stating the conclusions at which -I have arrived with regard to the stones of Stenness.</p> - -<p>In the first place I may state that although many -of the alignments to which Mr. Spence refers in his -pamphlet on Maeshowe prove to be very different from -those he supposed and drew on the map which accompanies -his paper, the main point of his contention is -amply confirmed.</p> - -<p>I give a <a href="#Fig39">copy</a> of the Ordnance map showing the -true orientation of these and of other sight-lines I -have made out.</p> - -<p>The alignments on which Mr. Spence chiefly depended -were two, one running from the stone circle past the -entrance of Maeshowe to the place of sunrise at Hallowe’en -(November 1), another from the same circle by -the Barnhouse standing stone to the mid-winter sunrise -at the solstice.</p> - -<p>Although the map gives these sight-lines, I shall show -that they had not the use Mr. Spence attributes to them; -but still observations of the sun were provided for on -the days in question, and the circles and outstanding -stones were undoubtedly set up to guide astronomical -observations relating to the different times of the year. -Of course, as I have shown elsewhere, such astronomical -observations were always associated with religious celebrations -of one kind or another, as the astronomer and -the priest were one.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page126">[126]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig39"> - -<img src="images/illo138.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="374" /> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo138lg.jpg">Larger map</a></p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39</span>.—Copy of Ordnance Map showing chief sight-lines -from the stones of Stenness.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page127">[127]</span></p> - -<p>I shall not refer to all the sight-lines indicated, but -deal only with those which I have without local -knowledge been able to test and justify by means of -the 25-inch Ordnance map.</p> - -<p>Not only does calculation prove the worship of the -May and June years, but I think the facts now before -us really go to show that in Orkney the May year was -the first established, and that the solstitial (June) year -came afterwards, and this was one of the chief questions -I had in view.</p> - -<p>I will begin with the May year. I have already -shown, <a href="#Page22">p. 22</a>, that the half-way time between an -equinox and a solstice is when the sun’s centre has a -declination approximately 16° 20′ N. or S. In Orkney, -with the latitude of 59°, assuming a sea horizon, the -approximate amplitude of sunrise or sunset is 33° 6′, -the corresponding azimuth being 56° 54′.</p> - -<p>Now the most interesting and best defined line near -this azimuth on the Ordnance map is the one stretching -S.E. from the centre of the Stenness circle to the -Barnstone, with an azimuth of 57° 15′. The line -contains between the two points I have named another -stone, the Watchstone, 18<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> feet high, in the precise -alignment; and from the statements made and -measures given it is to be inferred that a still more -famous and perforated stone, the “Stone of Odin,” -demolished seventy years since, was also in the same -line within the extremities named.</p> - -<p>If we may accept this we learn something about -perforated stones, and can understand most of the folk -lore associated with them, and few have more -connected with them than the one at Stenness. I<span class="pagenum" id="Page128">[128]</span> -suggest that the perforation, which was in this case -5 feet from the ground, was used by the astronomer-priest -to view the sunrise in November over the Barnhouse -stone in one direction, and the sunset in May over -the circle in the other. I hope to be able to return -to this question subsequently.</p> - -<p>There is another echo of this fundamental line; that -joining the Ring of Bookan and the Stones of Via has -the same azimuth and doubtless served the same -purpose for the May year.</p> - -<p>But this line, giving us the May sunset and November -sunrise, <i>not</i> the December solstitial sunrise as Mr. -Spence shows it, is not the only orientation connected with -the May year at the stones of Stenness. The November -sunset is provided for by a sight-line from the -circle to a stone across the Loch of Stenness with an -azimuth of S. 53° 30′ W.</p> - -<p>To apply the table, given on <a href="#Page120">p. 120</a>, to the solstitial -risings and settings at Stenness, and the sight-lines -which I have plotted on the map, it will be seen that -the table shows us that the lines marked</p> - -<div class="split5050 w50pc"> - -<div class="left5050"> - -<p class="center padtop125 fsize90">N. 41° 16′ E</p> - -</div><!--left5050--> - -<div class="right5050"> - -<p class="center fsize90">S. 41°  0′ E.<br /> -S. 36° 30′ W.</p> - -</div><!--right5050--> - -<p class="clearline"> </p> - -</div><!--splt5050--> - -<p class="noindent">are solstitial lines; to get exact agreement with the -table the heights of the hills must be found and -allowed for.</p> - -<p>I have roughly determined this height from the 1-inch -map in the case of the Barnstone-Maeshowe alignment. -On the N.E. horizon are the Burrien Hills, four miles -away, 600 feet high at the sunrise place, gradually -ascending to the E., vertical angle = 1° 36′ 30″. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page129">[129]</span> -near alignment is on and over the centre of Maeshowe. -Colonel Johnston, the Director-General of the Ordnance -Survey, has informed me that the true azimuth of this -bearing is N. 41° 16′ E., and in all probability it -represents the place of sunrise as seen from the Barnstone -when Maeshowe was erected. What is most -required in Orkney now is that some one with a good -6-inch theodolite should observe the sun’s place of -rising and the angular height of the hills at the next -summer solstice in order to determine the date of the -erection of Maeshowe. Mr. Spence and others made -an attempt to determine this value with a sextant in -1899, but not from the Barnstone.</p> - -<p>In the absence of this observation we may use the -<a href="#Fig37">diagram</a> given on p. 121. With the height of hill previously -given the sun should rise according to calculation -at about the azimuth N. 41° 50′ E.</p> - -<p>The difference between the new and old azimuth -then, on the assumption that az. N. 41° 16′ E. really -represents an observation over Maeshowe, gives us the -difference of date.</p> - -<p>Treating these figures then as we have done in the -case of Stonehenge in <a href="#Page62">Chapter VII</a>, the result is as -follows. The Barnhouse-Maeshowe line was established -about 700 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, when the obliquity had a value of 23° 48′ -according to Stockwell’s tables. (<a href="#Fig40">Fig. 40</a>.)</p> - -<p>I confess the late date does not surprise me. The -masonry of Maeshowe differs widely from that of other -similar structures in that the sides of the gallery and -chamber, instead of being composed of upright stones, -are built in regular courses.</p> - -<p>I do not believe that the Maeshowe structure was<span class="pagenum" id="Page130">[130]</span> -built to observe a winter sunrise twenty days from the -solstice, nor can I think it was set up at midsummer -by someone who had only dealt with a high sun and -a sea horizon, and imagined that the sunrise and sunset -points were exactly opposite to each other. It was -a priest’s house, and the alignment of the passage to the -Barnstone was for the exchange of signals, probably by -lights in Maeshowe itself.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w500" id="Fig40"> - -<img src="images/illo142.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="416" /> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo142lg.jpg">Larger diagram</a></p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 40</span>.—Variation of the Obliquity of the -Ecliptic, 100 <span class="smcapall">A.D.</span>-4000 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> -(Stockwell’s Values.)</p> - -<div class="illotext w20m"> - -<p class="noindent">Horizontal axis: Years. From left: <span class="smcapall">AD 0-BC 4000</span>.</p> - -<p class="noindent">Vertical axis: Obliquity. From bottom: 23.40-24.10.</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>The Ordnance maps give no indication of stones, &c., -by which the direction of the midsummer setting or -the midwinter rising and setting might have been -indicated from either the Maeshowe or the Barnstone.</p> - -<p>To sum up the solar alignments from the circle.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page131">[131]</span></p> - -<p>We have the May sunrise marked by the top of -Burrien Hill, from 600 to 700 feet high, Az. 59° 30′.</p> - -<p>We have the November sunset marked by a standing -stone on the other side of the Loch of Stenness, -Az. 53° 30′.</p> - -<p>June rising, Line from Barnstone over Maeshowe -tumulus.</p> - -<p>December rising, tumulus (Az. 41°) on Ward Hill.</p> - -<p>December setting, tumulus Onston 36° 30′.</p> - -<p>It is not a little remarkable that the summer solstice -rising and the winter solstice rising and setting seem -to have been provided for at the Stenness circle by -alignment on the centres of tumuli, two of them, across -the Loch, one the Onston tumulus to the S.W. -(Az. 36° 30′), the other tumulus being on Ward Hill -to the S.E., Az. 41° (rough measurement).</p> - -<p>If the Maeshowe tumulus was a structure erected at the -time I have suggested to use the Barnstone for the summer -solstice rising; then these two other tumuli, to deal -with the winter solstice at Stenness circle, may have -been built at the same time. All these provided for a -new cult.</p> - -<p>There are also tumuli near the line (which cannot be -exactly determined because the heights of the hills are -unknown) of the summer solstice setting; none was -required for the sunrise at this date, as the line passes -over the highest point of Hindera fiold, a natural tumulus -more than 500 feet high, and on that account a triangulation -station.</p> - -<p>Another argument in favour of the tumuli being -additions to the original design is that the place of the -<i>November</i> setting from the Stenness circle is marked,<span class="pagenum" id="Page132">[132]</span> -<i>not</i> by a tumulus, but by a standing stone. As this -stone, near Deepdale, and the tumulus at Onston are -only about 1200 yards apart, the suggestion may be -made that under certain unknown conditions and -possibly in later times tumuli in some cases replaced -stones as collimation marks.</p> - -<p>With regard to the clock-star, it is to be feared that -the stones in the N.E. quadrant as viewed from the -circle which might have given us a clue have been -removed. As the latitude of Stenness is N. 59°, some -star with a less declination than N. 31° would have -been chosen, assuming that the sky-line towards the -N. point is not very high.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote20"></a><a href="#FNanchor20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> See especially <i>Nature</i>, July 2, 1891, p. 201.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote21"></a><a href="#FNanchor21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Gardner: Paisley and London.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page133">[133]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER XIV</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">THE HURLERS (Lat. 50° 31′ N.)</span></h2> - -<p>The sight-lines to which I have drawn attention in -relation to the stones of Stenness had to do with the -places of sunrise and sunset in the May and Solstitial -years. I now pass to another group of circles in which -we deal chiefly with the places of star-rise and star-set, -some of the stars being used as warners for sunrise at -the critical times of the two years in question.</p> - -<p>Following the clue given me in the case of the -Egyptian temples, such as Luxor, by successive small -changes of the axis necessitated by the change in a -star’s place due to precession, I began this stellar -branch of the inquiry by looking out for this peculiarity -in an examination of many maps and plans of circles.</p> - -<p>I very soon came across two examples in which the -sight-line had been changed in the Egyptian manner. -The first is the three circles of the Hurlers, some -5 miles to the north of Liskeard, a plan of which is -given in “Prehistoric Stone Monuments of the British -Isles: Cornwall,” by W. C. Lukis, Rector of Wath, -Yorkshire, published by the Society of Antiquaries, who -were so good as to furnish me with a copy, and also<span class="pagenum" id="Page134">[134]</span> -some <i>unfolded</i> plans on which sight-lines could be -accurately drawn and their azimuths determined. I am -anxious to express my obligations to the council and -officers of the society for the help thus afforded me.</p> - -<p>The three circles are thus referred to by Lukis -in the valuable monograph which I have already -mentioned.</p> - -<p>“On the moor, about a mile to the south of the -singular pile of granite slabs, which rest upon and -overlap each other, and is vulgarly called the Cheesewring, -there are three large circles of granite stones -placed in a nearly straight line in a north-north-east, -and south-south-west direction, of which the middle -one is the largest, being 135 feet in diameter, the north -110 feet, and the south 105 feet.</p> - -<p>“The north Circle is 98 feet, and the south 82 feet -from the central one. If a line be drawn uniting -the centres of the extreme Circles, the centre of the -middle ring is found to be 12 feet 6 inches to the west -of it.</p> - -<p>“These Circles have been greatly injured. The -largest consists of 9 erect and 5 prostrate stones; the -north Circle has 6 erect and 6 prostrate, and a fragment -of a seventh; and the south has 3 erect and 8 prostrate. -In Dr. Borlase’s time they were in a slightly better -condition. A pen-and-ink sketch made by him, which -is extant in one of Dr. Stukeley’s volumes of original -drawings, represents the middle Circle as consisting of -7 erect and 10 prostrate stones; the north of 10 erect -and 6 prostrate; and the south of 3 erect and 9 -prostrate. The stone to the east of that marked C in -the plan of the middle Circle is the highest, and is<span class="pagenum" id="Page135">[135]</span> -5 feet 8 inches out of the ground, and appears to have -been wantonly mutilated recently. Two of the prostrate -stones of the north Circle are 6 feet 6 inches in -length.</p> - -<p>“About 17 feet south from the centre of the middle -Circle there is a prostrate stone 4 feet long and -15 inches wide at one end. It may possibly have been -of larger dimensions formerly, and been erected on the -spot where it now lies, but as Dr. Borlase has omitted -it in his sketch it is probably a displaced stone of the -ring.</p> - -<p>“If we allow, as before, an average interval of 12 feet -between the stones, there will have been about 28 pillars -in the north, 26 in the south, and 33 in the middle -Circle.</p> - -<p>“At a distance of 409 feet westwards from K in the -middle Circle there are 2 stones, 7 feet apart, both -inclined northwards. One is 4 feet 11 inches in height -out of the ground, and overhangs its base 2 feet -7 inches; the other is 5 feet 4 inches high, and overhangs -18 inches.”</p> - -<p>I now pass from a general description of the circles -to the azimuths of the sight-lines already referred to, -so far as they can be determined from the published -Ordnance maps.</p> - -<p>To investigate them as completely as possible without -local observations in the first instance, I begged Colonel -Johnston, R.E., C.B., the Director-General of the -Ordnance Survey, to send me the 25-inch maps of the -site giving the exact azimuth of the side lines. This -he obligingly did, and I have to express my great indebtedness -to him.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page136">[136]</span></p> - -<p>In <a href="#Fig41">Fig. 41</a> I show the sight-lines from the south and -north Circles as determined by the stones and barrows -marked on the map. The sight-lines on Arcturus are from -the centres of the three circles in succession. I shall -point out later the significance of the fact that the -November alignments are from the south, the solstitial -ones from the north Circle.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w530" id="Fig41"> - -<img src="images/illo148.jpg" alt="" width="524" height="600" /> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo148lg.jpg">Larger map</a></p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41</span>.—The Sight-lines at the Hurlers.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page137">[137]</span></p> - -<p>Of the various sight-lines found, those to which I -wish to direct attention in the first instance, and which -led me to the others, are approximately, reading the -azimuths to the nearest degree,</p> - -<table class="standard dontwrap fsize90" summary="Sight-lines"> - -<tr> -<th><span class="padr3">Lat. 50° 31′ N.</span></th> -<th>Az.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padr3">S. circle to central circle</span></td> -<td class="center">N. 12° E.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padr3">Central to N. circle</span></td> -<td class="center">N. 15° E.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padr3">N. circle to tumulus</span></td> -<td class="center">N. 19° E.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>In a preliminary inquiry in anticipation of the -necessary local observations with a theodolite, I assumed -hills half a degree high, for the reason given on <a href="#Page112">p. 112</a>. -We have the following declinations <span class="nowrap">approximately:—</span></p> - -<table class="standard dontwrap fsize90" summary="Declinations"> - -<tr> -<td class="center">Dec.</td> -<td rowspan="3" class="center top">N.</td> -<td class="left">38<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>°</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left">38°</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left">37°</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>Here, then, we have declinations to work on, but -declinations of what star? To endeavour to answer -this question I studied the declinations of the three -brightest stars in the northern heavens, having approximately -the declinations in question some time or -other during the period 0 to 2500 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>Vega is ruled out as its declination was too high. -The remaining stars Capella and Arcturus may have -been observed so far as the declinations go. For time -limits we <span class="nowrap">have:—</span></p> - -<table class="standard dontwrap fsize90" summary="Stars"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="2">Dec. N.</th> -<th colspan="2">Capella.</th> -<th colspan="2">Arcturus.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right nopad">38</td> -<td class="left nopad"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>°</td> -<td class="right">500</td> -<td class="center"><span class="padr3"><span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></span></td> -<td class="right">1600</td> -<td class="center"><span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right nopad">36</td> -<td class="left nopad">°</td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl3">1050</span></td> -<td class="center"><span class="padr3">„</span></td> -<td class="right">1150</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>Now there is no question as to which of these two -stars we have to deal with, for the northern circle is<span class="pagenum" id="Page138">[138]</span> -evidently less ancient than the others, for some of the -stones are squared and the others are less irregular than -those in the S. circle.</p> - -<p>This being so, the approximate dates of the use of -the three circles at the Hurlers can be derived. They -are, with the above <span class="nowrap">assumption:—</span></p> - -<table class="standard dontwrap fsize90" summary="Dates"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="5"> </th> -<th><span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Southern</td> -<td class="left">circle aligning</td> -<td class="left">Arcturus</td> -<td class="left">over centre of</td> -<td class="left">central circle</td> -<td class="right">1600</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Central</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left">N. circle</td> -<td class="right">1500</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Northern</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left">tumulus</td> -<td class="right">1300</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The next step was to obtain, by means of a large -circular protractor, more accurate readings of the -Ordnance Map. This I could do, but the all important -question of the angular height of the horizon remained. -As it was impossible for me to leave London when the -significance of the alignments was made out, I appealed -to the authorities of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic -Society for aid in obtaining the necessary angles, and -as a result, Captain J. S. Henderson, of Falmouth, an -accomplished surveyor, volunteered his aid and shortly -sent me the angular heights along some of the alignments, -the means of eight readings obtained with a -6-inch theodolite, both verniers and reversed telescopes -being employed. Other students of science besides -myself will, I am sure, feel their indebtedness for such -opportune help.</p> - -<p>The combination of the large protractor and theodolite -work gives the following final values. The -difference between them and the provisional ones -given above speaks volumes as to the necessity of a -local study of the height of the horizon, a point I -believe invariably neglected by archæologists.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page139">[139]</span></p> - -<p class="center blankbefore2">FINAL VALUES.</p> - -<table class="finals" summary="Final values"> - -<tr> -<td class="head"><i>Arcturus from S. circle to central circle.</i></td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="data">Az. N. 11° 15′ E.</td> -<td class="data">Hills, 3° 23′ 52″ high.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="data"><i>Dec.</i> = 41° 38′</td> -<td class="data"><span class="smcap">Date</span>, 2170 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="head"><i>Arcturus from central circle to N. circle.</i></td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="data">Az. N. 14° 18′ E.</td> -<td class="data">Same hills.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="data"><i>Dec.</i> = 41° 9′</td> -<td class="data"><span class="smcap">Date</span>, 2090 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="head"><i>Arcturus from N. circle to Barrow.</i></td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="data">Az. N. 18° 14′ E.</td> -<td class="data">Same hills.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="data"><i>Dec.</i> = 40° 6′</td> -<td class="data"><span class="smcap">Date</span>, 1900 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>Now before this evidence of star worship, so important -if it can be depended on, could be accepted, it -was necessary to make a special inquiry as to the -existence of similar star observations in other places. -Many have been found of which more in the sequel.</p> - -<p>The next point which arose was that Arcturus used -as a clock-star (<a href="#Page108">p. 108</a>) would serve as a warner for -August. This necessitated another inquiry into the -chief festivals in Cornwall: among these the August -(Harvest) festival is one.</p> - -<p>Another point to consider was whether there was -any evidence of a local August festival. It happens -that the Hurlers are in the parish of St. Cleer, and -some of the other Arcturus sight-lines are in that of -St. Just. Now, a local festival in old days was often -associated with the local Saint. As most of the -Cornish Saints are common to Cornwall and Brittany, -I looked up the Calendar of the <i>Annuaire</i> of the -<i>Institut de France</i>, and found that the days dedicated<span class="pagenum" id="Page140">[140]</span> -to SS. Justin and Claire are the 9th and 12th of -August. It seems, then, that at the Hurlers it was -really a question of a clock-star also used as a warning -star for the August festival. I think we have at last, -then, run to earth the origin of some of the northerly -alignments referred to on <a href="#Page36">pages 36</a> and <a href="#Page43">43</a>.</p> - -<p>It will have been noted that the last sight-line on -Arcturus was marked by a barrow. Captain Henderson -inspected it and found it much ruined by explorers, -remains of a chamber inside being visible.</p> - -<p>In a subsequent visit, in which Captain Henderson -was accompanied by Mr. Horton Bolitho, my wife and -myself, we not only visited this barrow, but found that -the whole hill had been honeycombed to such an -extent by mining operations that it was very difficult -to discriminate between “investigated” barrows and -other heaps and holes, unless the barrow showed the -remains of a chamber.</p> - -<p>Our examination was not limited to barrows. -Captain Henderson had spent a long bleak day in examining -and measuring the stones marked on the -Ordnance Map, to which I had called his special -attention. We went over part of the ground with him, -and came to the conclusion that the whole question of -the Cornish treatment of “ancient stones” would -have to be gone into—an inquiry which Mr. Bolitho is -now carrying on.</p> - -<p>It must be remembered that any stone or barrow -used in the sight-lines we are now considering must -have been put up nearly 4,000 years ago, so long ago, -in fact, that many of the chief barrows have been -reduced to the skeletons of their former selves, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page141">[141]</span> -enclosed stone chamber, built of mighty stones, alone -remaining.</p> - -<p>Cromlechs and standing stones then formed important -points in the landscape long before ecclesiastical -divisions were thought of, or any attempt was made -to indicate the boundaries of private property.</p> - -<p>We should expect then to find these ancient -monuments freely made use of to mark what we now -term “parish boundaries.” This is so. Four parishes -have thus used one of the larger cromlechs, and it is -more than probable that something beside the denunciation -of the <i>cultus lapidum</i>, which we have -seen at work in Brittany (<a href="#Page39">p. 39</a>), has been responsible -for the many stone crosses in Cornwall. Of some of -them near circles I have gathered the astronomical use, -while now they “mark the bounds,” as do some of the -stone rows in Dartmoor.</p> - -<p>I believe that in later times this practice of the -Church was followed by those among whom the land -was distributed, and this has gone on till at last there -are many ancient stones trimmed on one side and -bearing initials and so having a modern appearance. -The astronomer, and even the archæologist, may regret -this practice, but as the habit in Cornwall appears to -be for anybody to use the nearest uncrossed and uninitialled -stone for a wall or a pigsty, Mr. Bolitho’s -inquiry may show that in some cases, at all events, it -has been a blessing in disguise, for the stones are still -there.</p> - -<p>In the case of a long chambered barrow, the top of -which nearly touches the horizon, as seen from a circle -near it, there is less danger of being misled.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page142">[142]</span></p> - -<p>In my notes on the stones of Stenness (<a href="#Page123">Chapter XIII</a>) -I pointed out that the chambered Cairns at Onston -and Maeshowe suggested that such structures were later -variants of the more ancient standing stones. Some -barrows at the Hurlers lend further confirmation of this -view. I will deal with them first. Of one the data -are Az. from N. Circle S. 72° 49′ W., height of horizon -12′ (Capt. Henderson). The resulting declination is -S. 11° 5′, the declination of Antares 1720 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> But -why should Antares be thus singled out? The table -on <a href="#Page117">page 117</a> shows the reason. At the date involved -the setting of Antares in the dawn was the warner of -the sunrise on May morning, the greatest day in all -the year.</p> - -<p>Is there any precedent for this use of Antares?</p> - -<p>I have already pointed out (<a href="#Page108">p. 108</a>) that Mr. Penrose -found the warning stars for May morning at the dates -of foundation of the Hecatompedon, and the older -Erechtheum, to be the group of the Pleiades rising -and <i>Antares</i> setting. As the foundations of the -Hecatompedon were built only some few years after the -stones of the central circle of the Hurlers were used, -we ought to find traces of the observations of the -same May-morning stars.</p> - -<p>We have, then, now a third term in the astronomical -use of stars to herald the sunrise on May morning.</p> - -<table class="dontwrap fsize90" summary="Warners"> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr3">Temple of Min</td> -<td class="left padr3">Thebes</td> -<td class="right">3200</td> -<td class="center"><span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></td> -<td class="left padl3">Spica.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr3">Temple at the Hurlers</td> -<td class="left padr3">Liskeard</td> -<td class="right">1720</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left padl3">Antares.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr3">Older Erechtheum</td> -<td class="left padr3">Athens</td> -<td class="right">1070</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center padl3">„</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The next barrow to be referred to—it is shown -to be a long one on the Ordnance Map—is situated<span class="pagenum" id="Page143">[143]</span> -near the top of Caradon Hill, and is visible on the sky-line -from the circles. Data: Az. from N. Circle S. 65° E., -height of horizon 1° 38′ (Henderson). This corresponds -almost exactly with the azimuth of the rise of the -sun’s upper limb with declination S. 16° 20′ on the two -critical dates in November and February of the May-year -(Halloween and Candlemas, see <a href="#Page23">p. 23</a>), so I am -inclined to consider it more than a mere coincidence -that the azimuths coincide so closely. It, however, -may be urged that there are other barrows on Caradon -Hill, but judging from the Ordnance Map they seem -to be of the round variety used for burials, perhaps a -thousand years after the circles were in use, and in -my opinion by a different race of men; but this matter -must not detain us now, I hope to return to it later.</p> - -<p>Still one more barrow and a stone, uncrossed and -uninitialled, in the same sight-line, data: Az. from -N. circle S. 59° 35′ E. Height of horizon 1° 38′ 23″ -(Henderson), resulting declination S. 19° 50′. This was -the declination of Sirius 1690 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> Why Sirius? The -table on <a href="#Page117">p. 117</a> gives us the answer. Sirius replaced -Arcturus as a warning star for the August festival, -and we have seen that the last use of Arcturus was -connected with the sight-line to the barrow about -1900 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>I pass now from barrows to stones. There is one -about which there can be no question. It is a famous -Cross, a “Longstone” at which all travellers stop on -their way from St. Cleer to the Hurlers. It occupies -nearly the same position on the S.W. horizon as does -the long tumulus on Caradon Hill in the S.E. quadrant. -From the <i>South</i> Circle, and this is important, its<span class="pagenum" id="Page144">[144]</span> -Azimuth, S. 64° W., is nearly the same; it marked, and -still marks, the sunset point on the critical days of -the May year in November and February.</p> - -<p>There is another stone marked on the Ordnance Map -Az. N. 88° E. from the N. circle. It has been removed, -so I may fairly assume that it was really an ancient -stone. Captain Henderson’s value for the height of -the horizon is 11′ 31″. The table on <a href="#Page117">p. 117</a> will -show that in this direction we have to deal with -Betelgeuse as a warner for the summer solstice. The -resulting date is 1730 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>It would appear that possibly this is not the only -stone dealing with (later) solstitial alignments. Lukis -gives two stones on the west side of the circles which -on the Ordnance Map are classed as boundary stones: -they lie on a boundary beyond all question, but also -beyond all question they are as ancient as the stones -of the circles themselves. From the N. circle they are -almost but not quite in a line, and the azimuth of the -south stone is S. 49° W. This is a solstitial azimuth. -I think, therefore, that we may accept this as another -evidence of the worship of the setting sun at the -winter solstice, <i>from the N. circle</i>, and in this we -have still further evidence that to the worship of -the May year in the south circle was added later one -dealing with the solstitial year which was chiefly carried -on in the N. circle.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page145">[145]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER XV</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">THE DARTMOOR AVENUES</span></h2> - -<p>In <a href="#Page107">Chapter XI.</a> I referred to the very numerous -alignments of stones in Brittany, and I was allowed by -Lieutenant Devoir, of the French Navy, to give some -of his theodolite observations of the directions along -which the stones had been set up.</p> - -<p>The conclusion was that we were really dealing with -monuments connected with the worship of the sun of -the May year, a year which the recent evidence has -shown to have been the first used after the length -of the year had been determined; thus replacing the -lunar unit of time which was in vogue previously, and -the use of which is brought home to us by the reputed -ages of Methuselah and other biblical personages, who -knew no other measurer of time than the moon.</p> - -<p>There was also evidence to the effect that in later -times solstitial alignments had been added, so that the -idea that we were dealing with astronomically oriented -rows of stones was greatly strengthened, not to say -established.</p> - -<p>So long as the Brittany alignments were things of -mystery, their origin, as well as that of the more or less -similar monuments in Britain, was variously explained;<span class="pagenum" id="Page146">[146]</span> -they were models in stone of armies in battle array, or -they represented funeral processions, to mention only two -suggestions. I should add that Mr. H. Worth, who has -devoted much time to their study, considers that some -sepulchral interest attaches to them, though he thinks -it may be argued that that was secondary, even as are -interments in cathedrals and churches. About burials -associated with them, of course, there is no question, -for the kistvaens and cairns are there; but my observations -suggest that they were added long after the avenues -were built, because some cairns <i>block</i> avenues. Perhaps -a careful study of the modes of burial adopted may throw -light on this point.</p> - -<p>The equivalents of the Brittany alignments are not -common in Britain; they exist in the greatest number -on Dartmoor, whither I went recently to study them. -The conditions on high Dartmoor are peculiar; dense -blinding mists are common, and, moreover, sometimes -come on almost without warning. From its conformation -the land is full of streams. There are stones everywhere. -What I found, therefore, as had others before me, was -that as a consequence of the conditions to which I have -referred, directions had been indicated by rows of stones -for quite other than ceremonial purposes. Here, then, -was another possible origin. It was a matter of great -importance to discriminate most carefully between these -alignments, and to endeavour to sort them out. My -special inquiry, of course, was to see if they, like their -apparent equivalents in Brittany, could have had an -astronomical origin. The first thing to do, then, was to -see which might have been erected for worship or which -for practical purposes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page147">[147]</span></p> - -<p>In doing this there is no difficulty in dealing with -extremes. Thus one notable line of large flat stones has -been claimed by Messrs. R. N. Worth and R. Burnard -as a portion of the Great Fosseway (Rowe’s <i>Perambulation</i>, -third edition, p. 63); it has been traced for -eighteen miles from beyond Hameldon nearly to -Tavistock, the stones being about 2 feet thick and the -road 10 feet wide.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w450" id="Fig42"> - -<img src="images/illo159.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="323" /> - -<p class="photocredit"><i>Photo. by Lady Lockyer.</i></p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span>—The Southern Avenue at Merrivale, looking East.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>There are two notable avenues of upright stones at -Merrivale; they are in close connection with a circle, -and could have had no practical use. These stones, -then, we may claim as representing the opposite extreme -of the Fosseway and as suggesting an astronomical, as -opposed to a practical, use; the adjacent circle, of course -greatly strengthens this view.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page148">[148]</span></p> - -<p>It is between these extremes that difficulties may -arise, but the verdict can, in a great many cases at all -events, be settled without any very great hesitation, -especially where practical or astronomical uselessness -can be established. But even here care is necessary, as -I shall show.</p> - -<p>The stones now in question, originally upright, are -variously called avenues, rows, alignments or parallelithons. -Their study dates from 1827, when Rowe and -Colonel Hamilton Smith examined those at Merrivale -(Rowe, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 31). Their number has increased -with every careful study of any part of the moor, and -doubtless many are still unmapped.<a href="#Footnote22" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor22">[22]</a> The late Mr. R. N. -Worth, of Plymouth, and his son, Mr. H. Worth, have -given great attention to these monuments, and the -former communicated a paper on them to the Devonshire -Association for the Advancement of Science in 1892 -(<i>Trans.</i>, xxv. pp. 387-417).</p> - -<p>A word of caution must be said before I proceed. -We must not take for granted that the stone-rows are -now as they left the hands of the builders. The -disastrous carelessness of the Government in the matter -of our national antiquities is, I am locally informed, -admirably imitated by the Devonshire County and other -lesser councils, and, indeed, by anybody who has a road -to mend or a wall to build. On this account, any of -the rows may once have been much longer and with -an obvious practical use; and those which now appear<span class="pagenum" id="Page149">[149]</span> -to be far removed from circles may once have been -used for sacred processions at shrines which have disappeared.</p> - -<p>Again, the rows of stones we are now considering -must not be confounded with the “track lines” or -“boundary banks” which are so numerous on Dartmoor, -and are represented in Wiltshire according to Sir -R. C. Hoare; these serve for bounds and pathways, and -for connecting and enclosing fields or houses.</p> - -<p>Dealing, then, with stone rows or avenues, which -may be single, double, or multiple; any which are very -long and crooked, following several directions, are certainly -not astronomical; and it is easy to see in some -cases that they might have been useful guides at night -or in mist in difficult country with streams to cross. -This possible utility must not be judged wholly by the -present conformation of the ground or the present beds -of streams.</p> - -<p>For multiple avenues it is hard to find practical uses -such as the above, and we know how such avenues -were used in Brittany for sun worship. Mr. Baring -Gould considers there were eight rows in an avenue -on Challacombe Down 528 feet long; of these only -three rows remain, the others being represented by -single stones here and there (Rowe, p. 33). I shall -have something to say about this avenue further on.</p> - -<p>Although, as I have said, long rows bending in -various directions are not likely to have had an astronomical -origin, it must not be assumed that all astronomical -avenues must be <i>exactly</i> straight. This, of -course, would be true for level ground, but if the -avenue has to pass over ridges and furrows, the varying<span class="pagenum" id="Page150">[150]</span> -height of the horizon must be reckoned with, and -therefore the azimuth of the avenue at any point -along it.</p> - -<p>I think it possible that in the Stalldon Moor row -we have the mixture of religious and practical intention -at which I have before hinted. Both Mr. Lukis -and Mr. Hansford Worth have studied this monument, -which is two miles and a quarter long. There is a -circle at the south end about 60 feet in diameter, -while at its northern end there is a cairn.</p> - -<p>Where the line starts from the circle the direction of -the row is parallel to many sight-lines in Cornwall, -and Arcturus would rise in the azimuth indicated. -But this direction is afterwards given up for one which -leads towards an important collection of hut circles, and -it crosses the Erme, no doubt at the most convenient -spot. More to the north it crosses another stream and -the bog of Red Lake. All this is surely practical -enough, although the way indicated might have been -followed by the priests of the hut circles to the stone -circle to prepare the morning sacrifice and go through -the ritual.</p> - -<p>But there is still another method of discrimination. -If any of these avenues were used at all for purposes -of worship, their azimuths should agree with those -already found in connection with circles in other parts -of Britain, for we need not postulate a special race with -a special cult limited to Dartmoor; and in my inquiries -what I have to do is to consider the general question -of orientation wherever traces of it can be found. The -more the evidences coincide the better it is for the -argument, while variations afford valuable tests.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page151">[151]</span></p> - -<p>Now, speaking very generally (I have not yet compared -all my numerous notes), in Cornwall the chief alignments -from the circles there are with azimuths N. 10°-20° E. -watching the rise of the clock-star, N. 64°-68° E. -watching the rise of the May sun, N. 75°-82° E. -watching the rise of the Pleiades. The variation in -the azimuths is largely due to the different heights of -the horizon towards which the sight-lines are directed.</p> - -<p>The conclusion I have come to is that these alignments, -depending upon circles and menhirs in Cornwall, -are all well represented on Dartmoor associated with -the avenues; and further, so far as I have learned at -present, in the case of the avenues connected with -circles, there are not many alignments I have not met -with in connection with circles in Cornwall and -elsewhere.</p> - -<p>This is not only a <i>prima facie</i> argument in favour -of the astronomical use underlying the structures, but it -is against the burial theory, for certainly there must -have been burials in Cornwall.</p> - -<p>In order, therefore, to proceed with the utmost -caution, I limit myself in the first instance to the above -azimuths, and will begin by applying a test which -should be a rigid one.</p> - -<p>If the avenues on Dartmoor had to deal with the -same practices and cults as did the circles in Cornwall, -they ought to prove themselves to have been in use at -<i>about</i> the same time, and from this point of view the -investigation of the avenues becomes of very great importance, -because of the destruction of circles and -menhirs which has been going on, and is still going -on, on Dartmoor. We have circles without menhirs<span class="pagenum" id="Page152">[152]</span> -and menhirs without circles, so that the azimuths of -the avenues alone remain to give us any chance of -dating the monuments if they were used in connection -with star worship. The case is far different in Cornwall, -where both circles and menhirs have in many -cases been spared.</p> - -<p>On Dartmoor, where in some cases the menhirs still -remain, they have been annexed as crosses and perhaps -as boundary stones, and squared and initialed; hence -the Ordnance surveyors have been misled, and they -are not shown as ancient stones on the map. In some -cases the azimuth of the stones suggests that this has -been the sequence of events.</p> - -<p>It will be seen from the above that I have not -tackled a question full of pitfalls without due caution, -and this care was all the more necessary as the avenues -have for long been the meeting ground of the friends -and foes of what Rowe calls “Druidical speculations”; -even yet the war rages, and my writing and Lieut. -Devoir’s observing touching the similar but grander -avenues of Brittany have so far been all in vain; -chiefly, I think, because no discrimination has been -considered possible between different uses of avenues, -and because the statements made by archæologists as -to their direction have been quite useless to anybody in -consequence of their vagueness, and last of all because -the recent work on the Brittany remains is little known.</p> - -<p>I began my acquaintance with the Dartmoor monuments -by visiting Merrivale, and the result of my -inquiries there left absolutely no doubt whatever on my -mind. I was armed, thanks to the kindness of Colonel -Johnston, the Director of the Ordnance Survey, with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page153">[153]</span> -25-inch map, while Mr. Hansford Worth had been so -good as to send me one showing his special survey.</p> - -<p>The Merrivale avenues (lat. 50° 33′ 15″) are composed -of two double rows, roughly with the azimuth N. 82° E.; -the northern row is shorter than the other. Rowe, -in his original description (1830), makes the northern -1143 feet long; they are not quite parallel, and the -southern row has a distinct “kink” or change of direction -in it at about the centre. The stones are mostly -2 or 3 feet high, and in each row they are about 3 feet -apart; the distance between the rows is about 80 feet.</p> - -<p>I have before pointed out (<a href="#Page149">p. 149</a>) that an avenue -directed to the rising place of a star, if it is erected -over undulating ground, cannot be straight. I may now -mention another apparent paradox. If two avenues are -directed to the rising place of the same star <i>at -different times</i>, they cannot be parallel. It is not a -little curious that absence of parallelism has been used -against avenues having had an astronomical use!</p> - -<p>Both the Ordnance surveyors and Mr. Worth have -shown the want of parallelism of the two avenues, and -Mr. Worth has noted the kink in the southern one. -The height of the horizon, as determined from my -measures, is 3° 18′. The results of these inquiries, -assuming the Pleiades to have been observed warning -May morning, are as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<table class="avenues" summary="Avenues"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="3"><span class="padr3">Azimuth.</span></th> -<th>Authority.</th> -<th colspan="3">N.<br />Declination.</th> -<th>Date<br />B.C.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th colspan="3"><span class="padr3">°</span></th> -<th> </th> -<th><span class="padl3">°</span></th> -<th>′</th> -<th><span class="padr3">″</span></th> -<th> </th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="5" class="center top">N.</td> -<td class="center">83·15</td> -<td rowspan="5" class="center top"><span class="padr3">E.</span></td> -<td>Worth</td> -<td><span class="padl3">6</span></td> -<td>47</td> -<td><span class="padr3">47</span></td> -<td>1710</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>82·30</td> -<td>Worth</td> -<td><span class="padl3">7</span></td> -<td>16</td> -<td><span class="padr3">20</span></td> -<td>1630</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>82·10</td> -<td>Ordnance</td> -<td><span class="padl3">7</span></td> -<td>32</td> -<td><span class="padr3"> 0</span></td> -<td>1580</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>80·40</td> -<td>Worth</td> -<td><span class="padl3">8</span></td> -<td>26</td> -<td><span class="padr3"> 0</span></td> -<td>1420</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>80·30</td> -<td>Ordnance</td> -<td><span class="padl3">8</span></td> -<td>30</td> -<td><span class="padr3"> 0</span></td> -<td>1400</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page154">[154]</span></p> - -<p>To simplify matters we may deal with the Ordnance -values and neglect the small change of direction in -the southern avenue. We have, then, the two dates -1580 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> and 1420 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> for the two avenues. The -argument for the Pleiades is strengthened by the fact -that at Athens the Hecatompedon was oriented to -these stars in 1495 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> according to Mr. Penrose’s -determination of the azimuth.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig43"> - -<img src="images/illo166.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="340" /> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo166lg.jpg">Larger plan</a></p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43</span>.—Plan, from the Ordnance Map, showing the avenues, circle and stones -at Merrivale, with their azimuths.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>Now this is not the first time I have referred to -avenues in these notes. The azimuth of one at Stonehenge -was used to fix the date at which sun worship -went on there. That avenue, unlike the Dartmoor -ones, was built of earth, and it is not alone. There is -another nearly two miles long called the Cursus. So -far, I have found no solstitial worship on Dartmoor, -so there are no avenues parallel to the one at Stonehenge -leading N.E. from the temple. But how about -the other? <i>It is roughly parallel to the avenues at<span class="pagenum" id="Page155">[155]</span> -Merrivale, and I think, therefore, was, like them, used -as a processional road, a via sacra, to watch the -rising of the Pleiades.</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig44"> - -<img src="images/illo167.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="403" /> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo167lg.jpg">Larger map</a></p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44</span>.—Reprint of Ordnance Map showing that the Cursus at Stonehenge is -nearly parallel to the Merrivale Avenue. The azimuth is 82° and not 84° as -shown in the figure.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>I said roughly parallel; its azimuth is about the -same (N. 82° E. roughly); but the horizon is only -about 1° high; it was therefore in use before those at -Merrivale; the exact date of use must wait for theodolite -values of the height of the horizon, but in the -meantime we can see from the above estimates that -the declination of the Pleiades was about N. 5° 28′ 30″ -and the date of use 1950 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, that is some 300 years -before the solstitial restoration.</p> - -<p>Mr. Worth’s survey gives another line of stones. It is -undoubtedly, I think, an ancient line, although it is -not shown in the Ordnance map, a clear indication of<span class="pagenum" id="Page156">[156]</span> -the difficulty of discriminating these avenues on land -cumbered with stones in all directions. Its azimuth is -N. 24° 25′ E., and the height of the horizon 5° 10′. -This gives us Arcturus at the date 1860 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, showing -that, as at the Hurlers, Arcturus was used as a clock-star. -Hence a possible <i>astronomical</i> use is evident, -while this row, like the others, could have been of no -<i>practical</i> use to anybody. It is interesting to note that -this single row of stones is older than the double -ones; this seems natural.</p> - -<p>It is worth while to say a word as to the different -treatment of the ends of the south avenue now that it -seems probable that it was used to watch the rising of -the Pleiades. At the east end there is what archæologists -term a “blocking stone”; these observations -suggest that it was really a <i>sighting</i> stone. At the -west end such a stone is absent, but the final stones -in the avenue are longer than the rest. This may help -us in the true direction of the sight-lines in other -avenues; and, indeed, I shall show in the sequel that -this consideration affords a criterion which, in the -cases I have come across, is entirely in harmony with -others.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote22"></a><a href="#FNanchor22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> On June 15, 1905, that excellent guide of the Chagford -part of the moor, Mr. S. Perrott, showed me an avenue (Azimuth N. -20° E. true) near Hurston Ridge which is not given in the 1-inch -map.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page157">[157]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER XVI</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">THE DARTMOOR AVENUES (<i>continued</i>)</span></h2> - -<p>My inquiries began at Merrivale because there is a -circle associated with the avenues a little to the -south of the west end of the longest; and again nearly, -or quite, south of this there is a fine menhir, possibly -used to give a north-south line. There is another menhir -given on the Ordnance map, azimuth N. 70° 30′ E., -which, with hills 3° high, points out roughly the place -of sunrise from the circle in May (April 29). Although -this stone has been squared and initialed, I think I am -justified in claiming it as an ancient monument. -There is still another, azimuth N. 83° E., giving a -line from the circle almost parallel to the avenue. I -hope some local archæologist will examine it, for if -ancient it will tell us whether the N. avenue or the -circle was built first, a point of which it is difficult to -overrate the importance, as it will show the strict -relationship between the astronomy of the avenues -and that of the circle, and we can now, I think, deal -with the astronomical use of circles after the results -obtained at Stonehenge, Stenness and the Hurlers as -an accepted fact. With the above approximate values<span class="pagenum" id="Page158">[158]</span> -the date comes out 1750 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, the declination of the -Pleiades being N. 6° 35′.</p> - -<p>I now pass on from Merrivale as an example of -those avenues the direction of which lies somewhere -in the E.-W. direction. Others which I have not -seen, given by Rowe, are at Assacombe, Drizzlecombe -and Trowlesworthy; to these Mr. Worth adds Harter -or Har Tor (or Black Tor).</p> - -<p>The avenues which lie nearly N. and S. are more -numerous. Rowe gives the following:—Fernworthy, -Challacombe, Trowlesworthy, Stalldon Moor, Battendon, -Hook Lake, and Tristis Rock. Of these I have -visited the first two, as well as one on Shovel Down -not named by Rowe, and the next two I have studied -on the 6-inch Ordnance map.</p> - -<p><i>Fernworthy</i> (lat. 50° 38′).—Here are two avenues, -one with azimuth N. 15° 45′ E., hills 1° 15′. There is a -sighting stone at the N. end. We appear to be dealing -with Arcturus as clock-star 1610 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> This is about the -date of the erection of the N. avenue at Merrivale.</p> - -<p>The second avenue has its sighting stone built into a -wall at the south end. Looking south along the avenue, -the conditions are azimuth S. 8° 42′ W., hills 3° 30′.</p> - -<p>Both these avenues are aligned on points within, -but <i>not</i> at the centre of, the circle.</p> - -<p><i>Challacombe</i> (lat. 50° 36′).—This is a case of a -triple avenue, probably the remains of eight rows, in -a depression between two hills, Challacombe Down -and Warrington. There is no circle. The azimuth is -23° 37′ N.W. or S.E., according to direction. The -northern end has been destroyed by an old stream -work; there is no blocking stone to the south on<span class="pagenum" id="Page159">[159]</span> -either of the remaining avenues, but one large menhir -terminates one row of stones. The -others may have been removed. So -it is probable that the alignment -was to the north. If so, we are dealing -with the setting of Arcturus, -warning the summer solstice sunrise -in 1860 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> To the S. the hills -are 4° 48′, to the N. 4° 50′.</p> - -<p>To this result some importance -must be attached, first, because it -brings us into presence of the cult -of the solstitial year, secondly, because -it shows us that the system -most in vogue in Brittany was introduced -in relation to that year. -In Brittany, as I have before shown, -the complicated alignments, there -are 11 parallel rows at Le Ménac -(<a href="#Page99">p. 99</a>) (there <i>were</i> 8 parallel rows -at Challacombe), were set up to -watch the May and August sunrises, -and the solstitial alignments -came afterwards. The Brittany -May alignments, therefore, were probably -used long before 1860 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, -the date we have found for Challacombe, -where not the sunrise -but the setting star which gave -warning of it was observed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig45"> - -<img src="images/illo171.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="107" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 45</span>.—The remains of the eight rows -of the Challacombe Avenue. Looking North of East. Terminal Menhir on -the extreme right.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>It is worth while to point out that -at Challacombe, as elsewhere, the priest-astronomers so<span class="pagenum" id="Page160">[160]</span> -located their monuments that the nearly circumpolar stars -which were so useful to them should rise over an horizon -of some angular height. In this way the direction-lines -would be available for a longer period of time, for -near the north point the change of azimuth with change -in the declination of the star observed is very rapid.</p> - -<p><i>Shovel Down</i>, near Batworthy (lat. 50° 39′ 20″).—A -group of five rows of stones, four double, one single, -with two sets of azimuths.</p> - -<p>One set gives az. 22° 25°, and 28°. They seem to -be associated. I will call them A, B, and C. A is -directed to the circle on Godleigh Common. Its ends -are free. B is a single line of stones to the E. of the -triple circle, about which more presently. It is not -marked on the Ordnance map; its ends are also free. -C has its south end blocked, I think in later times, -by a kistvaen. The astronomical direction may be, -therefore, either N.W. or S.E. We find a probable use -in the N.W. quadrant, as at Challacombe, Arcturus -setting at daybreak as a warner of the summer solstice.</p> - -<p>The height of hills is 46′; we have <span class="nowrap">then:—</span></p> - -<table class="dontwrap fsize90" summary="Hills"> - -<tr> -<th><span class="padr3">Az.</span></th> -<th><span class="padr3">N. Dec.</span></th> -<th><span class="padr3">Star.</span></th> -<th colspan="2">Date.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center"><span class="padr3">N. 22° W.</span></td> -<td class="center"><span class="padr3">36° 19′ 40″</span></td> -<td class="center"><span class="padr3">Arcturus</span></td> -<td class="center">1210</td> -<td class="center"><span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center"><span class="padr3">N. 25° W.</span></td> -<td class="center"><span class="padr3">35° 23′ 20″</span></td> -<td class="center"><span class="padr3">„</span></td> -<td class="center">1040</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center"><span class="padr3">N. 28° W.</span></td> -<td class="center"><span class="padr3">34° 19′ 30″</span></td> -<td class="center"><span class="padr3">„</span></td> -<td class="center">850</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>Adjacent to A, B, C, is another avenue, which I -will call D. Unlike the others, its northern end points -2° E. of N. Its southern end is blocked by a remarkable -triple circle, the end of the avenue close to it being -defined by two tall terminal stones. We are justified, -then, in thinking that its orientation was towards the -north; the height of the horizon I measured as 45′. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page161">[161]</span> -may have been an attempt to mark the N. point of the -horizon.</p> - -<p>The triple circle to which I have referred is not an -ordinary circle. I believe it to be a later added, much -embellished, cairn. According to Ormerod, the diameters -are 26, 20, and 3 feet, and there are three small stones -at the centre.</p> - -<p>All the above avenues are on the slope of the hill to the -north. On the south slope we find the longest of all, as -shown on the Ordnance map survey of 1885. There -is a “long stone” in its centre, and at the southern -end was formerly a cromlech, the “three boys.” Part of -this avenue, and two of the three “boys,” have been -taken to build a wall. The long stone remains, because -it is a boundary stone!</p> - -<p>The azimuth is 2° 30′ W. of north or E. of south. -Looking N. from the long stone, the height of the -horizon is 2° 30′. I think this avenue was an attempt -to mark the S. point.</p> - -<p><i>Trowlesworthy</i> (lat. 50° 27′ 30″).—The remains here are -most interesting. This is the only monument on Dartmoor -in which I have so far traced any attempt -to locate the sun’s place at rising either for the May -or solstitial year. But I will deal with the N.-S. -avenue first, as it is this feature which associates it -with Fernworthy and Challacombe.</p> - -<p>As at Merrivale, the avenue has a decided “kink” -or change of direction. The facts as gathered from the -6-inch map are as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<table class="mapfacts" summary="Facts"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="3"> </th> -<th>Az.</th> -<th>Hills.</th> -<th>Dec. N.</th> -<th>Star.</th> -<th>Date.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">S.</td> -<td class="center">part of</td> -<td class="center">Avenue</td> -<td class="center padl">N.  7° E.</td> -<td class="center padl">2° 52′</td> -<td class="center padl">41° 29′ 10″</td> -<td class="center padl">Arcturus</td> -<td class="center padl">2130 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">N.</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center padl">N. 12° E.</td> -<td class="center padl">2° 52′</td> -<td class="center padl">41°  6′ 20″</td> -<td class="center padl">„</td> -<td class="center padl">2080 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page162">[162]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig46"> - -<img src="images/illo174.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="562" /> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo174lg.jpg">Larger map</a></p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 46</span>.—The sight-lines at Trowlesworthy, showing high northern azimuths. -From the Ordnance map.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>This date is very nearly that of the use of the S. -circle at the Hurlers, and it is early for Dartmoor; but -it is quite possible that local observations on an -associated avenue a little to the west of the circle -which terminates the N.-S. avenue will justify it. -This is not far from parallel to that at Merrivale, but -its northern azimuth is greater, so that if it turns out to -have been aligned on the Pleiades its date will be some -time before that of Merrivale, that is, before 1580 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> -I can say nothing more about it till I have visited it.</p> - -<p>The new features to which I have referred are two<span class="pagenum" id="Page163">[163]</span> -tumuli which in all probability represent more recent -additions to the original scheme of observation, as we -have found at Stenness, and show that Trowlesworthy -was for long one of the chief centres of worship on -Dartmoor. Their azimuths are S. 64° E. and S. 49° W., -dealing, therefore, with the May year sunrises in -November and February and the solstitial sunset in -December. It is probable that, as at the Hurlers, -tumuli were used instead of stones not earlier than -1900 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></p> - -<p><i>Stalldon Moor</i> (lat. 50° 27′ 45″) I have already -incidentally referred to. The azimuth of the stone -row as it leaves the circle, <i>not</i> from its centre as I -read the 6-inch map, is N. 3° E.; as the azimuth gradually -increases for a time, we may be dealing with -Arcturus, but local observation is necessary.</p> - -<p>The differences between the Cornish and Dartmoor -monuments give much food for thought, and it is to -be hoped that they will be carefully studied by future -students of orientation, as so many questions are -suggested. I will refer to some of them.</p> - -<p>(1) Are the avenues, chiefly consisting of two rows of -stones, a reflection of the sphinx avenues of Egypt? -and, if so, how can the intensification of them on -Dartmoor be explained?</p> - -<p>(2) Was there a double worship going on in the -avenues and the circles at the same time? If not, why -were the former not aligned on the circles? On a dead -level, of course, if the avenues were aligned on the -centre of the circle towards the rising or setting of the -sun or a star, the procession in the <i>via sacra</i> would -block the view of those in the circle. We have the<span class="pagenum" id="Page164">[164]</span> -avenue at Stonehenge undoubtedly aligned on the centre -of the circle, but there the naos was on an eminence, -so that the procession in the avenue was always below -the level of the horizon, and so did not block the -view.</p> - -<p>(3) Do all the cairns and cists in the avenues represent -later additions, so late, indeed, that they may -have been added after the avenues had ceased to be -used for ceremonial purposes? The cairn at nearly -the central point of the S. avenue at Merrivale was -certainly not there as a part of the structure when the -avenue was first used as a <i>via sacra</i> for observing the -rising of the Pleiades. I have always held that these -ancient temples, and even their attendant long and -chambered barrows, were for the living and not for the -dead, and this view has been strengthened by what I -have observed on Dartmoor.</p> - -<p>There was good reason for burials after the sacred -nature of the spot had been established, and they may -have taken place at any time since; the most probable -time being after 1000 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> up to a date as recent as -archæologists may consider probable.</p> - -<p>Mr. Worth, whose long labours on the Dartmoor -avenues give such importance to his opinions, objects -to the astronomical use of those avenues because there -are so many of them; he informs me that he knows -of 50; I think this objection may be considered less -valid if the avenues show that they were dedicated -to different uses, some practical and others sacred, at -different times of the year. For instance, Challacombe -is not a duplicate of Merrivale; one is solstitial, the -other deals with the May year; and a complete<span class="pagenum" id="Page165">[165]</span> -examination of them—I have only worked on the fringe—may -show other differences having the same bearing.</p> - -<p>In favour of the astronomical view it must be borne -in mind that the results obtained in Devon and Cornwall -are remarkably similar, and the dates are roughly -the same. Among the whole host of heaven from -which objectors urge it is free for me to select any -star I choose, at present only six stars have been considered, -two of which were certainly used, as in Egypt, -as clock-stars as they just dipped below the northern -horizon, and other two afterwards at Athens; and these -six stars are shown by nothing more recondite than an -inspection of a precessional globe to have been precisely -the stars, the “morning stars,” wanted by the priest-astronomers -who wished to be prepared for the instant -of sunrise at the critical points of the May or solstitial -year.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page166">[166]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER XVII</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">STANTON DREW (Lat. 51° 10′ N.)</span></h2> - -<p>Other circles to which I have given some attention -are at Stanton Drew in Somerset. I regret to say -that I have not as yet had an opportunity of visiting -them. But a cursory inspection on the Ordnance map -of the possible sight-lines from circle to circle, for -there are three, suggested at once that we were dealing -with the same problem as that worked out, if somewhat -differently, at the Hurlers.</p> - -<p>The three circles, two avenues leading from two -of the circles towards the river, and some outstanding -stones were most carefully surveyed by -Mr. C. E. Dymond some years ago. He was good -enough to send me copies of his plans and levelling -sections. I have not had the advantage of perusing -his memoir, but I have studied the monuments as -well as I could by means of the 25-inch Ordnance -map. This, combined with an azimuth which Colonel -Johnston, the Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, -was kind enough to send me, should give me bearings -within a degree.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page167">[167]</span></p> - -<p>I will begin by giving a short account of the stones -which remain, abridged from the convenient pamphlet -prepared for the British Association meeting at Bristol -in 1898 by Prof. Lloyd Morgan.</p> - -<p>The circles at Stanton Drew, though far less imposing -than those of Avebury and Stonehenge, are thought to -be more ancient than are the latter, for the rough-hewn -uprights and plinths of Stonehenge bear the -marks of a higher and presumably later stage of -mechanical development. Taken as a group, the -Somersetshire circles are in some respects more complex -than their better known rivals in Wiltshire. -There are three circles, from two of which “avenues” -proceed for a short distance in a more or less easterly -direction; there is a shattered but large dolmen—if we -may so regard the set of stones called “the cove”; -and there are outlying stones—the “quoit,” and those -in Middle Ham—which bear such relations to the -circles as to suggest that they too formed parts of -some general scheme of construction.</p> - -<p>From the photograph of the Ordnance map (<a href="#Fig47">Fig. 47</a>) -it will be seen, as pointed out by Prof. Lloyd Morgan,</p> - -<p>(1) That the centre of the great circle, that of the -S.W. circle, and that of the quoit, are nearly in the -same straight line.</p> - -<p>(2) That the cove, the centre of the great circle, -and that of the N.E. circle, are nearly in the same -straight line.</p> - -<p>The quoit, which generally means the covering -stone of a cromlech—“Hautville’s Quoit,” as it is -named on the Ordnance map—looms large in Stanton -Drew tradition; it is locally as much respected as the<span class="pagenum" id="Page168">[168]</span> -circles themselves. It is pointed to most unmistakably -by the fact that a line from it to the S.W. circle -passes nearly through the centre of the great circle.</p> - -<p>If the observation line, then, meant anything -astronomically, it can only have had to do with the -rising of a star far to the north, in a position far more -northerly than the sun ever reaches.</p> - -<p>The “quoit,” lying in an orchard by the roadside, -has nothing very impressive about its appearance—a -recumbent mass of greyish sandstone; but it seems to -be a brick in the Stanton Drew building. By some -regarded as a sarsen block from Wiltshire, it is, in -Prof. Lloyd Morgan’s opinion, more probably derived -from the Old Red Sandstone of Mendip. In any case -it is not, geologically speaking, <i>in situ</i>; nor has it -reached its present position by natural agency.</p> - -<p>With regard to two of the megalithic circles, at first -sight the constituent stones seem irregularly dotted -about the field; but as we approach them the unevenly -spaced stones group themselves.</p> - -<p>The material of which the greater number of the -rude blocks is composed is peculiar and worthy of -careful examination. It is a much altered rock consisting, -in most of the stones, of an extremely hard -siliceous breccia with angular fragments embedded in a -red or deep brown matrix, and with numerous cavities -which give it a rough slaggy appearance. Many of -these hollows are coated internally with a jasper-like -material, the central cavity being lined with gleaming -quartz-crystals.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page169">[169]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w380" id="Fig47"> - -<img src="images/illo181.jpg" alt="" width="379" height="600" /> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo181lg.jpg">Larger map</a></p> - -<p class="caption long"><span class="smcap">Fig. 47</span>.—The Circles and Avenues at Stanton Drew. Photograph of 25-inch -Ordnance map, shewing approximate azimuths of sight-lines.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page170">[170]</span></p> - -<p>The majority of the stones were probably brought -from Harptree Ridge on Mendip, distant some six -miles. Weathered blocks of Triassic breccia, showing -various stages of silicification, there lie on the surface; -and there probably lay the weathered monoliths which -have been transported to Stanton Drew. It is important -to note that they were erected unhewn and -untouched by the tool. A few stones are of other -material—sandstone, like the “quoit,” or oolite from -Dundry.</p> - -<p>In the great circle, of the visible stones some retain -their erect position, others are recumbent, several are -partially covered by accumulation of grass-grown soil. -Others are completely buried, their position being revealed -in dry seasons by the withering of the grass -above them.</p> - -<p>To the east of this circle a short avenue leads out, -there being three visible stones and one buried block -on the one hand, and two visible stones on the other. -But one’s attention is apt to be diverted from these to -the very large and massive megaliths of the small N.E. -circle. This is composed of eight weathered masses, -one of which (if indeed it do not represent more than -one), Prof. Lloyd Morgan tells us, is recumbent and -shattered. From this circle, all the stones of which -are of the siliceous breccia, a short avenue of small -stones also opens out eastwards.</p> - -<p>The third or S.W. circle lies at some little distance -from the others. The average size of the stones is -smaller than in either of the other circles, and not all -are composed of the same material.</p> - -<p>“The Cove,” which has been variously regarded as a -dolmen, a druidical chair of state, and a shelter for -sacrificial fire, is close to the church.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page171">[171]</span></p> - -<p>The dimensions and numbers of the stones are as -follow:</p> - -<table class="standard dontwrap fsize90" summary="Stones"> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Great</td> -<td>circle,</td> -<td>diameter</td> -<td>368</td> -<td>feet,</td> -<td>30</td> -<td>stones.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">N.E.</td> -<td>„</td> -<td>„</td> -<td> 97</td> -<td>„</td> -<td> 8</td> -<td>„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">S.W.</td> -<td>„</td> -<td>„</td> -<td>145</td> -<td>„</td> -<td>12</td> -<td>„</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>As I was not able to visit Stanton Drew when the -significance of the northerly alignments struck me, I -made an appeal to Prof. Lloyd Morgan, of whose -pamphlet I have so largely made use, to obtain some -theodolite observations. As a result such observations -have been made by himself and Mr. Morrow, from -whom I have recently received a report with full -permission to make use of it in this place.</p> - -<p>The monuments are not easy to measure, as the -centres of the circles are not readily determined, as so -many of the stones are either absent, recumbent or -buried.</p> - -<p>In my rough reading of the Ordnance map given -in <a href="#Fig47">Fig. 47</a>, I thought I might be guided by taking -centres, such that the avenues would be aligned on -them as at Stonehenge. I had not then seen the -Dartmoor avenues, which in some cases are not -aligned on the centres. In this it is possible that I -was wrong, as both Mr. Dymond’s and Mr. Morrow’s -observations suggest that the avenues are really of the -Dartmoor pattern. Mr. Morrow writes: “The centres -of the circles are (to a certain small extent) a matter -of choice, a difference of a few minutes may easily -occur. In dealing with the avenues a larger discrepancy -may occur. I have taken what, in my -opinion, was the best centre line of each avenue and<span class="pagenum" id="Page172">[172]</span> -thus determined its azimuth. But I believe that -originally the southern line of stones forming each -avenue was directed towards the centre of the corresponding -circle, and that the avenue was then completed -by the erection of a parallel line of stones. A -difference of a few degrees may thus be accounted for -in the azimuth supposed to have been originally -marked out.”</p> - -<p>About Mr. Morrow’s azimuths there can be no -question. He writes:</p> - -<p>“The instruments used were, first, a 6″ theodolite, -and second, a 6″ transit theodolite. The final results -were obtained with the latter. It cannot be reversed -when measuring elevations. I tested it very carefully -for the adjustments of (<i>a</i>) line of collimation at right -angles to the horizontal axis, (<i>b</i>) horizontal axis perpendicular -to vertical axis, and (<i>c</i>) line of collimation -and spirit level parallel to each other. The instrument -was in first-rate order, the error in elevation, for -example, being within that corresponding to a slope of -1 in 40,000; that is well within the limit of 20″ to -which vertical angles can be read.</p> - -<p>“The meridian was obtained by two different methods -applied several times, the results agreeing very closely. -Readings of azimuths and altitude of sun were taken -between three and four hours after noon, corrected -for semi-diameter, &c., and the true bearing obtained -with the aid of the latitude and the declination given -in Nautical Almanac (corrected for time).</p> - -<p>“With regard to the elevations of the horizon, the -existence of trees on or just below the sky-line renders -readings to the nearest minute uncertain. In all cases<span class="pagenum" id="Page173">[173]</span> -I have tried to give the most probable value, supposing -the trees to be absent. In some places the heights -will have altered slightly during recent years owing -to the construction of railways.</p> - -<p>“The values given are the means of observations. -They are not corrected for height of instrument above -ground, which might increase the angles by about -5 mins. Trees on the sky-line appear to make a -difference of some 35 mins.”</p> - -<p>The azimuths as found by Mr. Morrow and myself -are as under:</p> - -<table class="morrowazim" summary="Azimuths"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="6"> </th> -<th>Height of horizon<br />(excluding trees).</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th colspan="2"> </th> -<th colspan="3">Morrow.</th> -<th><span class="padl2 padr2">Lockyer.</span></th> -<th>Morrow.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="5" class="fn"><a href="#Footnote23" class="fnanchor fsize80" id="FNanchor23">[23]</a></td> -<td class="text">From centre of great circle to Hauteville’s quoit</td> -<td>N.</td> -<td>17° 59′</td> -<td>E.</td> -<td>17°</td> -<td>2° 23′</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text">From centre of great circle to N.E. circle</td> -<td rowspan="2"> </td> -<td>53°  0′</td> -<td rowspan="2"> </td> -<td>51°</td> -<td>1°  5′</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text">From centre of great circle along great circle avenue</td> -<td>68° 43′</td> -<td>65°</td> -<td>0° 38′</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text">From centre of N.E. circle along N.E. circle avenue</td> -<td>S.</td> -<td>83° 52′</td> -<td>E.</td> -<td>79°</td> -<td>1° 40′</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text">From centre of S.W. circle to centre of great circle</td> -<td>N.</td> -<td>19° 51′</td> -<td>E.</td> -<td>20°</td> -<td>1° 44′</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The azimuths to which I first direct attention are -these:</p> - -<table class="standard dontwrap fsize90" summary="Azimuths"> - -<tr> -<th> </th> -<th>Az.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padr3">Great circle to quoit</span></td> -<td>N. 17° E.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padr3">S.W. circle to great circle</span></td> -<td>N. 20° E.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>These azimuths indicate that at Stanton Drew as at<span class="pagenum" id="Page174">[174]</span> -the Hurlers and elsewhere we are dealing with Arcturus -as a clock-star. The facts are:</p> - -<table class="standard dontwrap fsize90" summary="Azimuths"> - -<tr> -<th>Az.</th> -<th>N. Decln.</th> -<th><span class="padl3 padr3">Height of hills.</span></th> -<th>Star.</th> -<th><span class="padl3">Date.</span></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td><span class="padr3">N. 17° E.</span></td> -<td>38° 59′  0″</td> -<td>2° 23′</td> -<td>Arcturus</td> -<td><span class="padl3">1690</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>20°</td> -<td>37° 26′ 50″</td> -<td>1° 44′</td> -<td>„</td> -<td><span class="padl3">1410</span></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>One of the greatest differences between Mr. Morrow’s -local observation and my reading of the 25-inch -Ordnance map occurs in the case of the direction of -the avenue from the great circle. It may be suggested -that the use of this avenue was to observe the May -and August sunrises of the May year. If we take the -sun’s declination at 16° 20′ N., see <a href="#Page22">p. 22</a>, the azimuth -should be about N. 64° E.; this is 1° from my value and -5° from that given by Mr. Morrow, but it must not -be forgotten that the choice of a day in May and -August slightly differing from the normal date might -easily produce such a variation.</p> - -<p>It seems probable that the great circle was one of -the first erected, and the fact that, like Stonehenge, -it had an avenue, but that, unlike Stonehenge, -the avenue was directed towards the May and not -the June (solstitial) sunrise further, I think, suggests -that the May worship was considered the most important -and was the first provided for.</p> - -<p>There is reason for supposing that the great circle -was at all events built before the S.W. one. The -great circle is situated at a lower level than the S.W. -one. The angular elevation of the hills over which -Arcturus rose would appear, therefore, to be higher -from the great than from the S.W. circle. Arcturus -has been reducing its declination for centuries in consequence -of the precessional movement. It would<span class="pagenum" id="Page175">[175]</span> -therefore rise gradually in a greater azimuth, that is, -nearer the east. An observer in the centre of the -great circle, to follow this more easterly rising over -the quoit, would have to change his position gradually -to the westward. But there was another way. The -original direction could be nearly maintained if the -observation were made at a higher level near the -original line, as then the relative elevation of the rising-place -would be reduced.</p> - -<p>This is what possibly was done, and this indeed may -be the <i>vera causa</i> of the building of the S.W. circle.</p> - -<p>This view of the possible function of the “quoit” is, -of course, strengthened by the fact that we find traces -of high northerly alignment in other stone circles. I -have already shown that there are such alignments in -Cornwall.</p> - -<p>The “quoit” is nearly on a level with the great circle, -while the hills rise behind it. It has been suggested -that it would have been more useful on the top of the -hill, but this suggestion cannot be accepted for a moment -if it were used in the way I have indicated. On a -dark night it would have been invisible, and it also -would have prevented the observation of star-rise if it -were truly aligned. Being comparatively near the circle -it could easily have been illuminated at the critical -time, and thus have anticipated the bright line micrometer -of more modern times.</p> - -<p>So far I have found no obvious use for the avenue -attached to the N.E. circle. The conditions are:</p> - -<table class="standard dontwrap fsize90" summary="Conditions"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="2">Az.</th> -<th>Height of Hills.</th> -<th colspan="2">Dec.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th>Morrow.</th> -<th>Lockyer.</th> -<th>Morrow.</th> -<th>Morrow.</th> -<th>Lockyer.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td><span class="padr1">S. 83° 52′ E.</span></td> -<td><span class="padl1">S. 79° E.</span></td> -<td>1° 40′</td> -<td><span class="padr1">3° 52′ 30″ S.</span></td> -<td><span class="padl1">5° 49′ 30″ S.</span></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page176">[176]</span></p> - -<p>With regard to this N.E. circle, in relation to the -large circle, the data are as follows:</p> - -<table class="standard dontwrap fsize90" summary="Conditions"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="2">Az.</th> -<th>Height of Hills.</th> -<th colspan="2">Dec. N.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th>Morrow.</th> -<th>Lockyer.</th> -<th>Morrow.</th> -<th>Morrow.</th> -<th>Lockyer.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td><span class="padr1">N. 53° E.</span></td> -<td><span class="padl1">N. 51° E.</span></td> -<td>1° 5′</td> -<td><span class="padr1">22° 43′ 50″</span></td> -<td><span class="padl1">23° 48′ 46″</span></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>As Mr. Morrow states, the choice of centre of the -circle may alter the azimuth obtained by as much as -“a few degrees,” but the value obtained from the -Ordnance map is, definitely, N. 51° E., and with the height -of hills determined by Mr. Morrow this would suggest -that the N.E. circle was really erected to provide the -alignment, from the centre of the great circle, or from -the Cove, to the summer solstitial sun, about the year -870 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, Stockwell’s values for the obliquity being taken. -This result is the more striking as it gives a date for -the substitution of the June for the May worship at -Stanton Drew, which is in full accordance with that -obtained for the similar change at Stenness.</p> - -<p>There is other evidence, to which I attach importance, -as it deals with a method and policy found in many -temple fields in Egypt, that of blocking the alignment -of an older star- or sun-cult, which the astronomer-priests -replaced by their own. The stones of the avenue -of the solstitial N.E. circle I expect once blocked the May -sunrise line from the great circle; judging from the -Ordnance map, and remembering the number of stones -that have disappeared, this is probable if not certain.</p> - -<p>If this were so, then the N.E. circle was the last to -be erected, and this suggestion is strengthened by Mr. -Lewis’s statement that it is the most perfect of the -three.</p> - -<p>Prof. Lloyd Morgan concludes his interesting account<span class="pagenum" id="Page177">[177]</span> -of which I have made so much use with the following -remarks:</p> - -<p>“In what order the circles were constructed we do -not know. Whether the small N.E. circle with its more -massive megaliths preceded or succeeded the great circle -with its more numerous but, on the average, less massive -stones, is a matter of mere conjecture. They may -have been contemporaneous: but it is more likely that -so large a work took a long time in execution; nor -does the unity of plan of the final product preclude a -gradual process of development. Finally as to the -purpose of the erection, and its hidden astronomical, -mythological, or social meaning (if it have one), we are -once more at the mercy of more or less plausible conjecture. -There stand the circles in a quiet Somersetshire -valley, silent memorials of a race concerning whose -modes of life, of labour, and of thought we can but -speculate.”</p> - -<p>It is to be hoped that before the monument has disappeared -like so many of its fellows, some student with -more knowledge and time to devote to the inquiry than -myself will endeavour to answer more of the questions -raised by it.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote23"></a><a href="#FNanchor23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> -With regard to these values Mr. Morrow writes: “At present -Hauteville’s quoit is not visible from the centre of great circle. -If the stone were erect, however, and any intervening trees and walls -removed, the top of the stone would no doubt be within view. The -Hauteville quoit line is thus rather a difficult one to obtain with -accuracy, but the azimuth given should be correct to the nearest -minute.”</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page178">[178]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER XVIII</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">FOLKLORE AND TRADITION</span></h2> - -<p>We have so far considered the circles at Stonehenge, -Stenness, the Hurlers and Stanton Drew, and the avenues -in Brittany and on Dartmoor. Before I refer to my later -work in the south-west of England or attempt to present -a summary of the results of the inquiry, I think it will -be convenient to turn for a time to another branch of it, -for that there is another closely connected series of facts to -be considered in relation to the monuments folklore and -tradition abundantly prove.</p> - -<p>So far in this book I have dealt chiefly with stones—as -I hold, associated with, or themselves composing, sanctuaries. -We have become acquainted with circles, menhirs, -dolmens, altars, viæ sacræ, various structures built -up of stones. Barrows and earthern banks represented -them later.</p> - -<p>The view which I have been led to bring forward so far -is that these structures had in one way or another to do -with the worship of the sun and stars; that they had for -the most part an astronomical use in connection with -religious ceremonials.</p> - -<p>The next question which concerns us in an attempt to<span class="pagenum" id="Page179">[179]</span> -get at the bottom of the matter is to see whether there -are any concomitant phenomena, and, if there be any, to -classify them and study the combined results.</p> - -<p>Tradition and folklore, which give dim references to the -ancient uses of the stones, show in most unmistakable -fashion that the stones were not alone; associated with -them almost universally were many practices referred to -on <a href="#Page26">p. 26</a>, such as the lighting of fires, passing through -them, and dancing round them; in the neighbourhood of -the stones and associated with the fire practices were also -sacred trees and sacred wells or streams.</p> - -<p>Folklore and tradition not only thus may help us, but -I think they will be helped by such a general survey, -brief though it must be. So far as my reading has gone -each special tradition has been considered by itself; there -has been no general inquiry having for its object the study -of the possible origin and <i>connection</i> of many of the -ancient practices and ideas which have so dimly come -down to us in many cases and which we can only completely -reconstruct by piecing together the information -derived from various sources.</p> - -<p>I now propose to refer to all these matters with the -view of seeing whether there be any relation between -practices apparently disconnected in so many cases if we -follow the literature in which they are chronicled. We -must not blame the literature, since the facts which remain -to be recorded now here, now there, are but a small -fraction of those that have been forgotten. Fortunately, -the practices forgotten in one locality have been remembered -in another, so that it is possible the picture can be restored -more completely than one might have thought at first.</p> - -<p>It will be seen at once that from the point of view with<span class="pagenum" id="Page180">[180]</span> -which we are at present concerned, one of the chief relations -we must look for is that of time, seeing that my -chief affirmation with regard to the stone monuments is -that they were used for ceremonial purposes at certain -seasons, those seasons being based first upon the agricultural, -and later upon the astronomical divisions of the year, -to which I drew attention in <a href="#Page17">Chapter III.</a> In <a href="#Page25">Chapter IV.</a>, -when referring to the agricultural and astronomical new -years’ days, I indicated a possible relation between the -temple worship and the floral celebrations of that time, -and later on (<a href="#Page40">p. 40</a>), in connection with the monuments -in Brittany, I pointed out the coincidence of fire customs -at the same time of the year.</p> - -<p>But in a matter of this kind it will not do to depend -upon isolated cases; the general trend of all the facts -available along several lines of inquiry must be found and -studied, first separately and then <i>inter se</i>, if any final -conclusion is to be reached.</p> - -<p>This is what I now propose to do in a very summary -manner. It is not my task to arrange the facts of folklore -and tradition, but simply to cull from the available -sources precise statements which bear upon the questions -before us. These statements, I think, may be accepted as -trustworthy, and all the more so as many of the various -recorders have had no idea either of the existence of a May -year at all or of the connection between the different -classes of the phenomena which ought to exist if my -theory of their common origin in connection with ancient -worship and the monuments is anywhere near the truth.</p> - -<p>This question of time relations is surrounded by difficulties.</p> - -<p>I gave in <a href="#Fig7">Fig. 7</a> the Gregorian dates of the beginning<span class="pagenum" id="Page181">[181]</span> -of the quarters of the May year, if nothing but the sun’s -declination of 16° 20′ N. or S., four times in its yearly -path, be considered. These <span class="nowrap">were:—</span></p> - -<table class="standard dontwrap fsize90" summary="Dates"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="3"> </th> -<th colspan="2">May<br />Year.</th> -<th colspan="2">Greek<br />Calendar.</th> -<th colspan="2">Roman<br />Calendar.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="left"><span class="padr3">End of Winter</span></td> -<td rowspan="2" class="w1m mid"><span class="fsize200">}</span></td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left">Feb.</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right">4</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left"><span class="padl3">Feb.</span></td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right"><span class="padr3">7</span></td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left">Feb.</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right">7</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Beginning of</td> -<td class="left"><span class="padr3">Spring</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left"><span class="padr3">Summer</span></td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">May</td> -<td class="right">6</td> -<td class="left"><span class="padl3">May</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padr3">6</span></td> -<td class="left">May</td> -<td class="right">9</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="left"><span class="padr3">End of Summer</span></td> -<td rowspan="2" class="w1m mid"><span class="fsize200">}</span></td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left">Aug.</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right">8</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left"><span class="padl3">Aug.</span></td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right"><span class="padr3">11</span></td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left">Aug.</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right">8</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Beginning of</td> -<td class="left"><span class="padr3">Autumn</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left"><span class="padr3">Winter</span></td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">Nov.</td> -<td class="right">8</td> -<td class="left"><span class="padl3">Nov.</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padr3">10</span></td> -<td class="left">Nov.</td> -<td class="right">9</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>In the table I also give, for comparison, the dates in the -Greek and Roman calendars (<a href="#Page20">p. 20</a>).</p> - -<p>There is no question that on or about the above days -festivals were anciently celebrated in these islands; possibly -not all at all holy places, but some at one and some at -another; this, perhaps, may help to explain the variation -in the local traditions and even some of the groupings -of orientations.</p> - -<p>The earliest information on this point comes from -Ireland.</p> - -<p>Cormac, Archbishop of Cashel in the tenth century, -states, according to Vallancey, that “in his time four -great fires were lighted up on the four great festivals -of the Druids, viz., in February, May, August and -November.”<a href="#Footnote24" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor24">[24]</a></p> - -<p>I am not aware of any such general statement as early -as this in relation to the four festivals of the May year -in Great Britain, but in spite of its absence the fact -is undoubted that festivals were held, and many various -forms of celebration used, during those months.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page182">[182]</span></p> - -<p>From the introduction of Christianity attempts of -different kinds were made to destroy this ancient time -system and to abolish the so-called “pagan” worships -and practices connected with it. Efforts were made to -change the date and so obliterate gradually the old -traditions; another way, and this turned out to be the -more efficacious, was to change the venue of the festival, -so to speak, in favour of some Christian celebration or -saint’s day. The old festivals took no account of week-days, -so it was ruled that the festivals were to take -place on the first day of the week; later on some of -them were ruled to begin on the first day of the -month.</p> - -<p>When Easter became a movable feast, the efforts of -the priests were greatly facilitated, and indeed it would -seem as if this result of such a change was not absent -from the minds of those who favoured it.</p> - -<p>The change of style was, as I have before stated, a -fruitful source of confusion, and this was still further -complicated by another difficulty. Piers<a href="#Footnote25" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor25">[25]</a> tells us that -consequent upon the change “the Roman Catholics light -their fires by the new style, as the correction originated -from a pope; and for that very same reason the -Protestants adhere to the old.”</p> - -<p>I will refer to each of the festivals and their changes -of date.</p> - -<h3><i>February 4.</i></h3> - -<p>Before the movable Easter the February festival had -been transformed into Ash Wednesday (February 4). -The eve of the festival was Shrove Tuesday, and it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page183">[183]</span> -quite possible that the ashes used by the priests on -Wednesday were connected with the bonfires of the -previous night.</p> - -<p>It would seem that initially the festival, with its -accompanying bonfire, was transferred to the first -Sunday in Lent, February 8.</p> - -<p>I quote the following from <span class="nowrap">Hazlitt<a id="FNanchor26"></a><a href="#Footnote26" -class="fnanchor">[26]</a>:—</span></p> - -<p>“Durandus, in his ‘Rationale,’ tells us, Lent was -counted to begin on that which is now the first Sunday -in Lent, and to end on Easter Eve; which time, saith -he, containing forty-two days, if you take out of them -the six Sundays (on which it was counted not lawful -at any time of the year to fast), then there will remain -only thirty-six days: and, therefore, that the number -of days which Christ fasted might be perfected, Pope -Gregory added to Lent four days of the week before-going, -viz., that which we now call Ash Wednesday, -and the three days following it. So that we see the -first observation of Lent began from a superstitious, -unwarrantable, and indeed profane, conceit of imitating -Our Saviour’s miraculous abstinence. Lent is so called -from the time of the year wherein it is observed: Lent -in the Saxon language signifying Spring.”</p> - -<p>Whether this be the origin of the lenten fast or not -it is certain that the connection thus established between -an old pagan feast and a new Christian one is -very ingenious: 24 days in February plus 22 days in -March (March 22 being originally the fixed date for -Easter) gives us 46 days (6 × 7) + 4, and from the point -of view of priestcraft the result was eminently satisfactory, -for thousands of people still light fires on<span class="pagenum" id="Page184">[184]</span> -Shrove Tuesday or on the first Sunday of Lent, whether -those days occur in February or March. They are -under the impression that they are doing homage to a -church festival, and the pagan origin is entirely forgotten -not only by them but even by those who -chronicle the practices as “Lent customs.”<a href="#Footnote27" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor27">[27]</a></p> - -<p>Finally, after the introduction of the movable Easter, -the priests at Rome, instead of using the “pagan” ashes -produced on the eve of the first Sunday in Lent or Ash -Wednesday in each year, utilised those derived from -the burning of the palms used on Palm Sunday of the -year before.</p> - -<p>Further steps were taken to conceal from future -generations the origin of the “pagan” custom due on -February 4. February 3 was dedicated to St. “Blaze.” -How well this answered is shown by the following -quotation from Percy.<a href="#Footnote28" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor28">[28]</a> “The anniversary of St. Blazeus -is the 3rd February, when it is still the custom in -many parts of England to light up fires on the hills on -St. Blayse night: <i>a custom antiently taken up perhaps -for no better reason than the jingling resemblance of -his name to the word Blaze</i>.”</p> - -<p>This even did not suffice. A great candle church festival -was established on February 2. This was called “Candlemas,” -and Candlemas is still the common name of the -beginning of the Scotch legal year. In the Cathedral of -Durham when Cosens was bishop he “busied himself from -two of the clocke in the afternoone till foure, in climbing -long ladders to stick up wax candles in the said Cathedral -Church; the number of all the candles burnt that evening<span class="pagenum" id="Page185">[185]</span> -was 220, besides 16 torches; 60 of those burning tapers -and torches standing upon and near the high altar.”<a href="#Footnote29" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor29">[29]</a></p> - -<p>There is evidence that the pagan fires at other times of -the year were also gradually replaced by candles in the -churches.</p> - -<h3><i>May 6.</i></h3> - -<p>The May festival has been treated by the Church in the -same way as the February one. With a fixed Easter Sunday -on March 22, 46 days after brought us to a Thursday -(May 7), hence Holy Thursday<a href="#Footnote30" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor30">[30]</a> and Ascension Day. With -Easter movable there of course was more confusion. Whit -Sunday, the Feast of Pentecost, was only nine days after -Holy Thursday, and it occurred, in some years, on the -same day of the month as Ascension Day in others. In -Scotland the festival now is ascribed to Whit Sunday.</p> - -<p>It is possibly in consequence of this that the festival -before even the change of style was held on the 1st of the -month.</p> - -<p>In Cornwall, where the celebrations still survive, the -day chosen is May 8.</p> - -<h3><i>August 8.</i></h3> - -<p>For the migrations of the dates of the “pagan” festival -in the beginning of August from the 1st to the 12th, -migrations complicated by the old and new style, I refer to<span class="pagenum" id="Page186">[186]</span> -Prof. Rhys’ Hibbert Lectures, p. 418, in which work a full -account of the former practices in Ireland and Wales is -given. The old festival in Ireland was associated with -Lug, a form of the Sun-God; the most celebrated one was -held at Tailetin. This feast—Lugnassad—was changed -into the church celebration Lammas, from A.S. hl’áfmaesse—that -is loaf-mass or bread-mass, so named as a mass or -feast of thanksgiving for the first fruits of the corn harvest. -The old customs in Wales and the Isle of Alan included -the ascent of hills in the early morning, but so far I have -found no record of fires in connection with this date.<a href="#Footnote31" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor31">[31]</a></p> - -<h3><i>November 8.</i></h3> - -<p>The facts that November 11 is quarter day in Scotland, -that mayors are elected on or about that date, show, I think, -pretty clearly that we are here dealing with the old -“pagan” date.</p> - -<p>The fact that the Church anticipated it by the feast of -All Souls’ on November 1 reminds us of what happened -in the case of the February celebration; later I give a -reference to the change of date; and perhaps this date -was also determined by the natural gravitation to the first -of the month, as in the case of May, and because it marked -at one time the beginning of the Celtic year.</p> - -<p>But what seems quite certain is that the feast which -should have been held on November 8 on astronomical -grounds was first converted by the Church into the -feast of St. Martin on November 11. The <i>Encyclopædia -Britannica</i> tells us: “The feast of St. Martin -(Martinmas) took the place of an old pagan festival,<span class="pagenum" id="Page187">[187]</span> -and inherited some of its usages, such as the Martinsmännchen, -Martinsfeuer, Martinshorn, and the like, in -various parts of Germany.”</p> - -<p>St. Martin lived about <span class="smcapall">A.D.</span> 300. As the number of -saints increased, it became impossible to dedicate a -feast-day to each. Hence it was found expedient to -have an annual aggregate commemoration of such as -had not special days for themselves. So a church -festival “All Hallows,” or “Hallowmass,” was instituted -about <span class="smcapall">A.D.</span> 610 in memory of the martyrs, and it was -to take place on May 1. For some reason or another -this was changed in <span class="smcapall">A.D.</span> 834; May was given up, -and the date fixed as November 1. This was a commemoration -of all the saints, so we get the new name -“All Saints’ Day.”</p> - -<p>There can be little doubt that the intention of the -Church was to anticipate, and therefore gradually to -obliterate the pagan festival still held at Martinmas, -and it has been successful in many places. In Ireland, -for instance; at Samhain,<a href="#Footnote32" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor32">[32]</a> November 1, “the proper -time for prophecy and the unveiling of mysteries.”... -It was then that fire was lighted at a place called -after Mog Ruith’s daughter Tlachtga. From Tlachtga -all the hearths in Ireland are said to have been -annually supplied, just as the Lemnians had once a -year to put their fires out and light them anew -from that brought in the sacred ship from Delos. The -habit of celebrating <i>Nos Galan-galaf</i> in Wales by -lighting bonfires on the hills is possibly not yet extinct.</p> - -<p>Here, then, we find the pagan fires transferred from -the 8th to the 1st of November in Ireland, but in<span class="pagenum" id="Page188">[188]</span> -the Isle of Man this is not so. I will anticipate -another reference to Rhys by stating that Martinmas -had progressed from the 11th to the 24th before the -change of style brought it back, “old Martinmas,” -November 24, being one of the best recognised “old -English holidays,” “old Candlemas” being another, at -the other end of the May year; this last had slipped -from February 2 to February 15 before it was put -back again.</p> - -<p>With regard to the Isle of Man Rhys writes<a href="#Footnote33" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor33">[33]</a> that -the feast is there called Hollantide, and is kept on -November 12, a reckoning which he states “is according -to the old style.” The question is, are we not dealing -here with the Martinmas festival <i>not</i> antedated to -November 1? He adds, “that is the day when the -tenure of land terminates, and when serving men go -to their places. In other words it is the beginning -of a new year.” This is exactly what happens in -Scotland, and the day is still called Martinmas.</p> - -<p>There is a custom in mid-England which strikingly -reminds us of the importance of Martinmas in relation -to old tenures, if even the custom does not carry us -still further back. This is the curious and interesting -ceremony of collecting the wroth silver, due and -payable to his Grace the Duke of Buccleuch and -Queensbury on “Martinmas Eve.” The payment is -made on an ancient mound on the summit of Knightlow -Hill, about five miles out of Coventry, and in the -parish of Ryton-on-Dunsmore. One feature about this -singular ceremonial is that it must take place before -sun-rising.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote24"></a><a href="#FNanchor24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> -Hazlitt, <i>Dictionary of Faiths and Folklore</i>, under Gule of August.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote25"></a><a href="#FNanchor25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> -<i>Survey of the South of Ireland</i>, p. 232.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote26"></a><a href="#FNanchor26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Under Ash Wednesday.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote27"></a><a href="#FNanchor27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> -Frazer, <i>Golden Bough</i>, iii., 238 <i>et seq.</i></p> - -<p><a id="Footnote28"></a><a href="#FNanchor28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> -<i>Notes to Northumberland Household Book</i>, 1770, p. 333.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote29"></a><a href="#FNanchor29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Quoted by Hazlitt.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote30"></a><a href="#FNanchor30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> -Much confusion has arisen with regard to the Holy Thursday in -Rogation week because there is another Holy or Maundy Thursday -in Easter week. Archæologists have also been often misled by the -practice of many writers of describing the May festivals as midsummer -festivals. The first of May, of course, marked the beginning of -summer.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote31"></a><a href="#FNanchor31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> -Mr. Frazer informs me that the 13th August was Diana’s day at -Nemi and there was a fire festival.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote32"></a><a href="#FNanchor32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> <i>Rhys’ Hibbert Lectures</i>, p. 514.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote33"></a><a href="#FNanchor33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> <i>Celtic Folklore</i>, p. 315.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page189">[189]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER XIX</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">SACRED FIRES</span></h2> - -<p>The magnificent collection of facts bearing on this -subject which has been brought together by Mr. Frazer -in <i>The Golden Bough</i> renders it unnecessary for me -to deal with the details of this part of my subject at -any great length.</p> - -<p>We have these records of <span class="nowrap">fires:—</span></p> - -<p>(1) In February, May, August and November of the -original May year.</p> - -<p>(2) In June and December on the longest and shortest -days of the solstitial year, concerning which there -could not be, and has not been, any such change of date -as has occurred in relation to the May year festivals.</p> - -<p>(3) A fire at Easter, in all probability added not long -before or at the introduction of Christianity. I find no -traces of a fire festival at the corresponding equinox -in September.</p> - -<p>We learn from Cormac that the fires were generally -double and that cattle were driven between them.</p> - -<p>Concerning this question of fire, both Mr. Frazer and -the Rev. S. Baring-Gould<a href="#Footnote34" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor34">[34]</a> -suggest that we are justified<span class="pagenum" id="Page190">[190]</span> -in considering the Christian treatment of the sacred -fire as a survival of pagan times. Mr. Baring-Gould -writes as follows:—“When Christianity became dominant, -it was necessary to dissociate the ideas of the -people from the central fire as mixed up with the old -gods; at the same time the central fire was an -absolute need. Accordingly the Church was converted -into the sacred depository of the perpetual fire.”</p> - -<p>He further points out that there still remain in some -of our churches (in Cornwall, York, and Dorset) the -contrivances—now called cresset-stones—used. They -are blocks of stone with cups hollowed out. Some are -placed in lamp-niches furnished with flues. On these -he remarks (p. <span class="nowrap">122):—</span></p> - -<p>“Now although these lamps and cressets had their -religious signification, yet this religious signification -was an afterthought. The origin of them lay in the -necessity of there being in every place a central light, -from which light could at any time be borrowed; and -the reason why this central light was put in the church -was to dissociate it from the heathen ideas attached -formerly to it. As it was, the good people of the -Middle Ages were not quite satisfied with the central -church fire, and they had recourse in times of emergency -to other, and as the Church deemed them -unholy, fires. When a plague and murrain appeared -among cattle, then they lighted need-fires from two -pieces of dry wood, and drove the cattle between the -flames, believing that this new flame was wholesome -to the purging away of the disease. For kindling the -need-fires the employment of flint and steel was forbidden. -The fire was only efficacious when extracted<span class="pagenum" id="Page191">[191]</span> -in prehistoric fashion, out of wood. The lighting of -these need-fires was forbidden by the Church in the -eighth century. What shows that this need-fire was -distinctly heathen is that in the Church new fire was -obtained at Easter annually by striking flint and steel -together. It was supposed that the old fire in a -twelvemonth had got exhausted, or perhaps that all -light expired with Christ, and that new fire must be -obtained. Accordingly the priest solemnly struck new -fire out of flint and steel. But fire from flint and -steel was a novelty; and the people, Pagan at heart, -had no confidence in it, and in time of adversity went -back to the need-fire kindled in the time-honoured way -from wood by friction, before this new-fangled way of -drawing it out of stone and iron was invented.”</p> - -<p>The same authority informs us that before Christianity -was introduced into Ireland by St. Patrick there was a -temple at Tara “where fire burned ever, and was on no -account suffered to go out.”</p> - -<p>Mr. Frazer,<a href="#Footnote35" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor35">[35]</a> quoting Cerbied, shows that in the -ancient religion of Armenia the new fire was kindled -at the February festival of the May year, in honour of -the fire-god Mihr. “A bonfire was made in a public -place, and lamps kindled at it were kept burning -throughout the year in each of the fire-god’s temples.” -This festival now takes place at Candlemas, February 2.</p> - -<p>We must assume, then, that the pagan fires were produced -by the friction of dry wood, and possibly in connection -with an ever-burning fire. In either case the -priests officiating at the various circles must have had -a place handy where the wood was kept dry or the<span class="pagenum" id="Page192">[192]</span> -fire kept burning, and on this ground alone we may -again inquire whether such structures as Maeshowe at -the Stenness circle, the Fougou at that of the Merry -Maidens, and indeed chambered barrows and cairns -generally, were not used for these purposes amongst -others; whether indeed they were not primarily built -for the living and not for the dead, and whether this -will explain the finding of traces of fires and of hollowed -stones in them, as well as some points in their structure. -Mr. MacRitchie<a href="#Footnote36" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor36">[36]</a> has brought together several of these -points, among them fireplaces and flues for carrying -away smoke.</p> - -<p>At both solstices it would appear that a special fire-rite -was practised. This consisted of tying straw on a -wheel and rolling it when lighted down a hill. There -is much evidence for the wheel at the summer, but -less at the winter, solstice; still, we learn from the old -Runic <i>fasti</i> that a wheel was used to denote the -festival of Christmas. With regard to the summer -solstice I quote the following from Hazlitt (under -John, <span class="nowrap">St.):—</span></p> - -<div class="figright w270" id="Fig48"> - -<img src="images/illo206.jpg" alt="" width="270" height="409" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 48</span>.—The Carro, Florence. From -Baring-Gould’s <i>Strange Survivals</i>.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>“Durandus, speaking of the rites of the Feast of -St. John Baptist, informs us of this curious circumstance, -that in some places they roll a wheel about to -signify that the sun, then occupying the highest place -in the Zodiac, is beginning to descend. ‘Rotam quoque -hoc die in quibusdam locis volvunt, ad significandum -quod Sol altissimum tunc locum in Cœlo occupet, et -descendere incipiat in Zodiaco.’ Harl. MSS. 2345 (on -vellum), Art. 100, is an account of the rites of St. John -Baptist’s Eve, in which the wheel is also mentioned.<span class="pagenum" id="Page193">[193]</span> -In the amplified account of these ceremonies given by -Naogeorgus, we read that this wheel was taken up to -the top of a mountain and rolled down thence; and -that, as it had previously been covered with straw, -twisted about it and set on fire, it appeared at a -distance as if the sun had been falling from the sky. -And he further observes, that the people imagine that -all their ill-luck rolls away from them together with -this wheel. At Norwich, says a writer in <i>Current Notes</i> -for March, 1854, the rites of St. John the Baptist were -anciently observed, ‘when it was the custom to turn or -roll a wheel about, in signification of the sun’s annual -course, or the sun, then occupying the highest place in -the Zodiac, was about descending.’”</p> - -<p>At Magdalen College, Oxford, the May and June -years are clearly differentiated. There is a vocal service -at sunrise on May morning, followed by boys blowing -horns. At the summer solstice there is a sermon preached -during the day in the quadrangle.</p> - -<p>One of the most picturesque survivals of this ancient -custom takes place at Florence each year at Easter. -This is fully described by Baring-Gould. The moment -the sacred fire is produced at the high altar a dove -(in plaster) carries it along a rope about 200 yards -long to a car in the square outside the west door of -the cathedral and sets fire to a fuse, thus causing the -explosion of fireworks.</p> - -<p>The car with its explosives is the survival of the -ancient bonfire.</p> - -<p>It would appear that the lighting of these fires on a -large scale lingered longest in Ireland and Brittany.</p> - -<p>A correspondent of the <i>Gentleman’s Magazine</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page194">[194]</span> -(February, 1795) thus describes the Irish Beltane fires -in 1782, “the most singular sight in <span class="nowrap">Ireland”:—</span></p> - -<p>“Exactly at midnight, the fires began to appear, -and taking the advantage of going up to the leads of -the house, which had a widely extended view, I saw -on a radius of thirty miles, all around, the fires -burning on every eminence which the country afforded. -I had a farther satisfaction -in learning, from undoubted -authority, that -the people danced round -the fires, and at the close -went through these fires, -and made their sons and -daughters, together with -their cattle, pass through -the fire; and the whole -was conducted with religious -solemnity.”</p> - -<p>It will have been observed -with reference to -these fire festivals that -although there were undoubtedly -four, in May, -August, November and -February, those in May and November were more -important than the others. This no doubt arose from -the fact that at different times the May and November -celebrations were <i>New Year</i> festivals. With regard to -the New Year in November in Celtic and later times. -Rhys writes as follows (<i>Hibbert Lectures</i>, p. <span class="nowrap">514):—</span></p> - -<p>“The Celts were in the habit formerly of counting<span class="pagenum" id="Page195">[195]</span> -winters, and of giving precedence in their reckoning -to night and winter over day and summer (p. 360); I -should argue that the last day of the year in the -Irish story of Diarmait’s death meant the eve of -November or All-halloween, the night before the Irish -<i>Samhain</i>, and known in Welsh as <i>Nos Galan-gaeaf</i>, -or the Night of the Winter Calends. But there is no -occasion to rest on this alone, as we have the evidence -of Cormac’s Glossary that the month before the -beginning of winter was the last month; so that the -first day of the first month of winter was also the -first day of the year.”</p> - -<p class="blankbelow75">That the November bonfire was recognised as heralding -the dominion of the gods and spirits of darkness,<a href="#Footnote37" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor37">[37]</a> -that the old ideas surrounding Horus and Set in -Egypt were not forgotten, is evidenced by the fact -that when it was extinct the whole company round it -would suddenly take to their heels, shouting at the -top of their <span class="nowrap">voices:—</span></p> - -<div class="split5050 w60pc"> - -<div class="left5050 br"> - -<div class="centerblock"> - -<p class="noindent">Yr hwch đu gwta<br /> -A gipio ’r ola’!</p> - -</div><!--centerblock--> - -</div><!--left5050--> - -<div class="right5050 bl"> - -<div class="centerblock"> - -<p class="noindent">The cropped black sow<br /> -Seize the hindmost!</p> - -</div><!--centerblock--> - -</div><!--right5050--> - -<p class="clearline"> </p> - -</div><!--split5050--> - -<p class="blankbefore75">A piecing together of the folklore and traditions of -different districts suggests that sacrifices were made -in connection with the fire festivals, in fact that the -fire at one of the critical times of the May year at least -was a sacrificial one.</p> - -<p>I will quote two cases given by Gomme<a href="#Footnote38" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor38">[38]</a> for May -Day and All Souls’ Day <span class="nowrap">respectively:—</span></p> - -<p>“At the village of Holne, situated on one of the -spurs of Dartmoor, is a field of about two acres, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page196">[196]</span> -property of the parish, and called the Ploy Field. In -the centre of this field stands a granite pillar (Menhir) -six or seven feet high. On May-morning, before daybreak, -the young men of the village used to assemble -there, and then proceed to the moor, where they -selected a ram lamb, and after running it down, -brought it in triumph to the Ploy Field, fastened it -to the pillar, cut its throat and then roasted it whole, -skin, wool, &c. At midday a struggle took place, at -the risk of cut hands, for a slice, it being supposed -to confer luck for the ensuing year on the fortunate -devourer. As an act of gallantry the young men -sometimes fought their way through the crowd to -get a slice for the chosen amongst the young women, -all of whom, in their best dresses, attended the Ram -Feast, as it was called. Dancing, wrestling, and other -games, assisted by copious libations of cider during the -afternoon, prolonged the festivity till midnight.”</p> - -<p>In the parish of King’s Teignton, Devonshire, “a -lamb is drawn about the parish on Whitsun Monday -in a cart covered with garlands of lilac, laburnum and -other flowers, when persons are requested to give -something towards the animal and attendant expenses; -on Tuesday it is then killed and roasted whole in the -middle of the village. The lamb is then sold in slices -to the poor at a cheap rate.”</p> - -<p>The popular legend concerning the origin of this -custom introduces two important elements—a reference -to “heathen days” and the title of “sacrifice” ascribed -to the killing of the lamb (p. 31).</p> - -<p>“At St. Peter’s, Athlone, every family of a village -on St. Martin’s Day kills an animal of some kind or<span class="pagenum" id="Page197">[197]</span> -other; those who are rich kill a cow or sheep, others -a goose or turkey, while those who are poor kill a -hen or cock; with the blood of the animal they sprinkle -the threshold and also the four corners of the house, -and ‘this performance is done to exclude every kind -of evil spirit from the dwelling where the sacrifice is -made till the return of the same day the following -year’” (p. 163).</p> - -<p>Other traditions indicate that human sacrifices were -in question, and that lots were drawn, or some other -method of the choice of a victim was adopted. I quote -from Hazlitt (i., 44) the following report of the Minister -of Callender in <span class="nowrap">1794:—</span></p> - -<p>“The people of this district have two customs, which -are fast wearing out, not only here, but all over the -Highlands, and therefore ought to be taken notice of, -while they remain. Upon the first day of May, which -is called Beltan, or Bàl-tein-day, all the boys in a -township or hamlet meet in the moors. They cut a -table in the green sod, of a round figure, by casting a -trench in the ground of such a circumference as to hold -the whole company. They kindle a fire, and dress a -repast of eggs and milk in the consistence of a custard. -They knead a cake of oatmeal, which is toasted at the -embers against a stone. After the custard is eaten -up, they divide the cake into so many portions, as -similar as possible to one another in size and shape, -as there are persons in the company. They daub one -of these portions all over with charcoal, until it be -perfectly black. They put all the bits of the cake -into a bonnet. Everyone, blindfold, draws out a -portion. He who holds the bonnet is entitled to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page198">[198]</span> -last bit. Whoever draws the black bit is the devoted -person, who is to be sacrificed to Baal, whose favour -they mean to implore in rendering the year productive -of the sustenance of man and beast. There is little -doubt of these inhuman sacrifices having been once -offered in this country as well as in the East, although -they now pass from the act of sacrificing, and only -compel the devoted person to leap three times through -the flames; with which the ceremonies of the festival -are closed.”</p> - -<p>I may conclude this chapter by referring to similar -practices in Brittany, where Baring-Gould<a href="#Footnote39" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor39">[39]</a> has so -successfully studied them.</p> - -<p>The present remnants of the old cult in the different -parishes are now called “pardons”;<a href="#Footnote40" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor40">[40]</a> they are still -numerous. I give those for the May and August festivals -(p. 83).</p> - -<table class="pardons" summary="Pardons"> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="month"><i>May.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="day">Ascension Day.</td> -<td class="fest">Bodilis, Penhars, Spezet (at the well of S. Gouzenou), Landevennec, Plougonnec.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="day">Sunday after<br />Ascension Day.</td> -<td class="fest">Trégoat, S. Divy.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="day">Whit Sunday.</td> -<td class="fest">Kernilis; Plouider; Edern; Coray; Spezet (Chapel of Cran).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="day">Whit Monday.</td> -<td class="fest">Quimperlé (Pardon des Oiseaux); Pont l’Abbé (Pardon des Enfants); Ergué-Armel, La Forêt, -Landudal, Ploneis, Landeleau, Carantec.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="day">Whit Thursday.</td> -<td class="fest">Gouezec (Les Fontaines).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="month"><i>August.</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page199"><span class="fsize110">[199]</span></span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="day">1st Sunday in<br />August.</td> -<td class="fest">Pleyben (horse races); Plébannalec; Pouldreuzic; Plougomelin; Huelgoët; S. Nicodème in Plumeliau (M.) -(Cattle blessed; second day horse fair, and girls sell their tresses to hair merchants).</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>Judging by the “pardons,” the solstitial celebrations -are not so numerous as those connected with the May -year; the bonfire is built up by the head of a family -in which the right is hereditary. The fire has to be -lighted only by a pure virgin, and the sick and feeble -are carried to the spot, as the bonfire flames are held -to be gifted with miraculous healing powers.</p> - -<p>When the flames are abated, stones are placed for -the souls of the dead to sit there through the remainder -of the night and enjoy the heat. “Every member of -the community carries away a handful of ashes as a -sovereign cure for sundry maladies. The whole proceeding -is instinct with paganism” (p. 75). With -regard to the accompanying sacrifices we read: “In -ancient times sacrifices were made of cocks and oxen -at certain shrines—now they are still presented, but it -is to the chapels of saints. S. Herbot receives cow’s -tails, and these may be seen heaped upon his altar -in Loqeffret. At Coadret as many as seven hundred -are offered on the day of the “pardon.” At S. Nicolas-des-Eaux, -it is S. Nicodemus who in his chapel receives -gifts of whole oxen, and much the same takes place at -Carnac.”</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote34"></a><a href="#FNanchor34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> -<i>Strange Survivals</i>, p. 120 <i>et seq.</i></p> - -<p><a id="Footnote35"></a><a href="#FNanchor35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> <i>Golden Bough</i>, iii. 248.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote36"></a><a href="#FNanchor36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> <i>The Testimony of Tradition.</i></p> - -<p><a id="Footnote37"></a><a href="#FNanchor37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> -<i>Hibbert Lectures</i>, p. 516; <i>Dawn of Astronomy</i>, p. 215.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote38"></a><a href="#FNanchor38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> <i>Ethnology in Folklore</i>, pp. 32 and 163.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote39"></a><a href="#FNanchor39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> <i>A Book of Brittany.</i></p> - -<p><a id="Footnote40"></a><a href="#FNanchor40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> -These “pardons” run strangely parallel with the “Feast Days” -in E. and W. Penrith, in Cornwall, where of 26 feasts, 13 occur -around the chief days of the May year.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page200">[200]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER XX</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">SACRED TREES</span></h2> - -<p>The subject of tree-worship is a vast one, as anyone -may gather who will read the <i>Golden Bough</i>. Fortunately -for my readers it is not necessary to discuss the whole -or even any great part of it in connection with the -inquiry which now concerns us. I may say that only -rarely is the old tree-worship considered with its concomitant -of temple-worship, so that I now have to -bring together information widely separated because the -connection which I have to show was intimate has not -been enlarged upon; indeed, in many cases it has not -been suspected.</p> - -<p>There is another limitation of the inquiry. We have -only to deal chiefly with those plants and trees recorded -as worshipped at the chief festival times of the year, -which have already been marked out for us by the fire -ceremonials. These fires were like the chronofer installed -in modern days at the General Post Office, their practical -function being to give the time; they announced the beginning -of a new season.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page201">[201]</span></p> - -<p>In <a href="#Page25">Chapter IV.</a> I referred to the association of -Mistletoe with the Solstitial worship. When we deal -with the May year we meet constantly with references -to the Rowan and the Hawthorn in the folklore connected -with it. We seem in presence, then, not only -of tree cult generally, but of sacred trees special to each -of the two worships we have been considering. I -propose now, therefore, to bring together some of the -information to be gathered from a very cursory reference -to the vast literature which exists on the subject.</p> - -<p>In the first instance I begged my friend, Professor -Bayley Balfour, Keeper of the King’s Garden at Edinburgh, -to give me some particulars of the Rowan Tree, -which I imagined (1) to have been chosen on account of its -flowers being prominent about May Day (Beltane) and its -berries in early November (Hallowe’en), and (2) to have a -different habitat from the Mistletoe. I have to thank my -friend for much valuable information.</p> - -<p>The Rowan Tree, called also the Mountain Ash (<i>Pyrus -Aucuparia</i>), seems to grow pretty freely all over the -<i>Northern</i> parts of Europe. Professor Balfour tells me: -“Rowan is essentially a Northern plant—an immigrant -to Europe from N.W. Asia—and now is spread all over -North and Central Europe in abundance, with only some -‘feelers’ passing south into the Mediterranean Basin. -It does not go south of Cappadocia in Asia Minor. -It does not reach Greece. In Italy it occurs on the -Eastern Apennines, and also in N.E. Sicily. In Spain -it runs over the higher regions in the N. and into the -centre, passing just into Portugal. Its occurrence in -Madeira is not certainly established as a natural phenomenon; -perhaps it is only introduced there. In all<span class="pagenum" id="Page202">[202]</span> -these Southern outruns the tree cannot be said to have -any dominance, and its area and abundance are infinitely -less than in the North. Scandinavia is one of its best -homes. Everywhere it is found right north to 71°, -there becoming a bush only, but yet ripening seed. It -reaches Iceland, where trees of some size occur. All -over Great Britain and Ireland it is generally spread. -You may certainly say there is much in Norway, and -there is equally certainly less, even little, in Italy.”</p> - -<p>In Pratt’s <i>Flowering Plants of Great Britain</i> (vol. 2, -p. 260) it is stated, “The flowers, which grow in dense -clusters, and are greenish-white, appear in May.... -In autumn, however, the tree is more beautiful than in -summer, for at that season the rich cluster of red fruits -gleams among the foliage, each berry having the form of -a tiny apple, and containing a little core and seeds -within.”</p> - -<p>At Christiania the mean of ten years’ flowering is -given by Professor Schübeler<a href="#Footnote41" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor41">[41]</a> as—first flowers, June 19; -general flowering, June 30. This, then, is later than -in Britain. On high grounds the fruit is conspicuous -here on November 1; on lower levels the birds attack -it and reduce its striking appearance before that date.</p> - -<p>Associated with the Rowan in the folklore connected with -temple worship is the Hawthorn, Whitethorn or “May” -(<i>Crategus oxyocantha</i>), which also flowers at the beginning -of May, while its berries or “haws,” like those of the -Rowan, are conspicuous in November. We see, then, that -there is a most obvious reason in this for the association -of the two trees. According to Rhys,<a href="#Footnote42" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor42">[42]</a> -the English<span class="pagenum" id="Page203">[203]</span> -name appears to be of Scandinavian origin, the Old -Norse being <i>reynir</i>, Danish <i>rönne</i>, Swedish <i>rönn</i>; and -the old Norsemen treated the tree as holy and sacred -to Thor.</p> - -<p>These two trees interest us from three points of -view. We find them connected <span class="nowrap">with:—</span></p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">1. May and November celebrations.</p> - -<p>2. Superstitions concerning witchcraft, &c.</p> - -<p>3. Holy wells.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">In this chapter I shall deal with the two former.</p> - -<h3>I. <i>The May Celebrations.</i></h3> - -<p>Seeing that the year beginning in May was established -because that month really opened the vegetation year, -it is little to be wondered at that among the chief -features of New Year’s Day was what we may term a -flower worship; it is probable that we are here dealing -with the sacred-tree side of the general festival -at all the monuments erected in connection with the -May year worship. The old traditions have lingered -longest around the things we have still with us, the -trees and flowers; and it is in connection with this -side of the worship that most information is available. -From the facts I have already stated, for Britain the -Rowan and Hawthorn were most naturally selected as -the typical forms.<a href="#Footnote43" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor43">[43]</a></p> - -<p>Many poets have written of this festival<a href="#Footnote44" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor44">[44]</a>: -Chaucer,<span class="pagenum" id="Page204">[204]</span> -Shakspere, Milton, Bourne, Herrick and others. Chaucer -writes:</p> - -<div class="poemcenter"> - -<div class="poem"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i00">“Fourth goeth al the Court both most and lest,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">To fetch the flouris fresh and branche and blome,”<br /></span> -</div><!--stanza--> - -</div><!--poem--> - -</div><!--poemcenter--> - -<p class="noindent">when not the courtiers only, but lowliest of men and -maidens sallied forth</p> - -<div class="poemcenter"> - -<div class="poem"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i00">“To do observaunce to a morn of May.”<br /></span> -</div><!--stanza--> - -</div><!--poem--> - -</div><!--poemcenter--> - -<p>There is a vast literature connected with May Day -celebrations, among it references to Celtic customs, and -I may add that, besides May Day, August, November and -February had their flower festivals also. I shall, however, -deal chiefly with May in this book to keep it within bounds.</p> - -<p>May Day in Manx was termed <i>Shenn Laa Boaldyn</i>; -it is the <i>belltaine</i> of Cormac’s <i>Glossary</i>, the Scotch -Gaelic equivalent of which is <i>bealtuinn</i>.</p> - -<p>The traditions and customs connected with May -Day in Great Britain have survived longest in the West -of England; even now, as will be seen by the account -of recent celebrations at Helston in Cornwall, given -below, they are still continued.</p> - -<p>Altogether the customs, ancient and modern, of which -the flower worship formed a part, may be summed up as -<span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">1. Lighting of bonfires,<a href="#Footnote45" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor45">[45]</a> -and, in the evening, houses<span class="pagenum" id="Page205">[205]</span> -illuminated with candles, torches carried about, and -fireballs played with.</p> - -<p>2. Man and beast passed through the fire or between -two fires.</p> - -<p>3. Going out at daybreak to gather Whitethorn or -May (Sycamore in Cornwall), and making whistles of -the branches for the May-music and merry-making. -Blowing of tin horns at daybreak by boys, and from -money received getting breakfast at a farmhouse.</p> - -<p>4. Flower-bedecked girls dance round a Maypole, and -one chosen as “Queen of the May.”</p> - -<p>5. In Cornwall the custom prevailed till lately of -going out with buckets or any available vessels full of -water and thoroughly wetting anyone who was not -wearing a piece of May.</p> - -<p>6. The “Furry Dance” (in Cornwall), which consists -in dancing through the town and also through as many -houses as desired. If resistance is offered it is permitted -to break open the door, and no penalty can be -imposed.</p> - -<p>7. Sacrifices made (Isle of Man) at a very ancient -date, and probably human ones still earlier (Scotland).</p> - -<p>8. Special worship at holy wells.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">Flowers are public property on Flora Day, and this -custom of dancing through the <i>houses</i> is supposed to -have originated probably for the purpose of picking -the flowers in the gardens behind.</p> - -<p>The following is a short abstract of a very interesting -account given in <i>The Western Weekly News</i>, -May 13th, 1905, of the “Flora Day” at Helston, -Cornwall, which took place this year. It gives us<span class="pagenum" id="Page206">[206]</span> -an idea of former festivals which are so quickly dying -<span class="nowrap">out:—</span></p> - -<p>The Furry Dance is always the feature of the day. -The first part took place at seven o’clock in the morning, -at which hour two couples started out and danced -through the streets and through some houses of residents. -The great dance was at noon, and those taking part -in it assembled in the Corn Exchange.</p> - -<p>When all was ready the whole company, headed by a -band playing the old Furry Dance, started out and -danced through the town and through many houses.</p> - -<p>The rest of the day was given over to a Horse Show -and to much merry-making. Excursions had been run -from all parts.</p> - -<h3>II. <i>The Rowan Tree and Witchcraft.</i></h3> - -<p>There is little doubt that in the constant association -of the Rowan with the May worship and the holy wells -which were adjacent to the stone circles where the worship -was conducted, we find the reason of the selection of -the wood of the Rowan Tree as an antidote to all the -ills which witchcraft was supposed to bring about. -Rhys tells us that “The tree has also the old names of -Quicken-tree, Roddon, and Witchen-tree.”</p> - -<p>To quote again from Pratt (<i>op. cit.</i> vol. 2, p. 261): -“The old notion that the Mountain Ash, or Rowan Tree, -as it is called in the North, was efficacious against -witchcraft and the evil eye, still prevails in the North -of England and the Scottish Highlands. Pennant remarks, -in his <i>Tour of Scotland</i>, that the farmers carefully preserve -their cattle against witchcraft by placing branches<span class="pagenum" id="Page207">[207]</span> -of Honeysuckle and Mountain Ash in their cowhouses on -the 2nd of May. The milkmaid in Westmorland may -often be seen, even now, with a branch of this tree -either in her hand or tied to her milking-pail, from a -similar superstition; and in earlier days crosses cut out -of its wood were worn about the person. In an old -song called “Laidley Wood,” in the <i>Northumberland -Garland</i>, we find a reference to this:</p> - -<div class="poemcenter"> - -<div class="poem"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i00">“The spells were vain, the hag return’d<br /></span> -<span class="i0">To the Queen in sorrowful mood,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Crying, that witches have no power<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Where there is Rown-tree wood.”<br /></span> -</div><!--stanza--> - -</div><!--poem--> - -</div><!--poemcenter--> - -<p>Rhys, referring to May Day customs in the Isle of -Man, writes<a href="#Footnote46" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor46">[46]</a>: “This was a day when systematic efforts -were made to protect man and beast against elves and -witches; for it was then that people carried crosses of -rowan in their hats and placed may-flowers over the -tops of their doors and elsewhere as preservatives -against all malignant influences. With the same object -in view, crosses of rowan were likewise fastened to the -tails of the cattle, small crosses which had to be made -without the help of a knife.”</p> - -<p>In connection with this last reference, Rhys quotes a -passage showing that a similar thing is done in Wales -on May Eve.<a href="#Footnote47" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor47">[47]</a> “Another bad papistic habit which -prevails among some Welsh people is that of placing -some of the wood of the rowan-tree (<i>coed cerdin</i> or -criafol) in their corn lands (<i>ttafyrieu</i>) and their fields -on May-eve (<i>Nos Glamau</i>) with the idea that such a -custom brings a blessing on their fields, a proceeding<span class="pagenum" id="Page208">[208]</span> -which would better become atheists and pagans than -Christians.”</p> - -<p>Rhys also tells us that in Lincolnshire,<a href="#Footnote48" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor48">[48]</a> “a twig -of the rowan-tree, or wicken, as it is called, was effective -against all evil things, including witches. It is useful -in many ways to guard the welfare of the household, -and to preserve both the live stock and the crops; -while placed on the churn it prevents any malign -influence from retarding the coming of the butter.”</p> - -<p>We also read (p. 358): “Not only the Celts, but -some also of the Teutons, have been in the habit of -attaching great importance to the rowan or roan tree, -and regarding it as a preservative against the malignant -influence of witches and all things uncanny.... -Moreover, the Swede of modern times believes the -rowan a safeguard against witchcraft, and likes to have -on board his ship something or other made of its -wood, to protect him against tempests and the demons -of the water world.”</p> - -<p>In the Hibbert Lectures, 1886, we have another interesting -reference to this tree. Rhys first relates an old Irish -fairy story, the scene of which is supposed to have -been “on the plain near the Lake of Lein of the -Crooked Teeth, that is to say, the Lake of Killarney.” -In it we are told that the scarlet quicken-berries were -first brought from the “Land of Promise,” that one -was accidentally dropped and took root, and “from the -berry there grew up a tree which had the virtues of -the quicken-tree growing in fairy-land, for all the berries -on it had many virtues.” Then we learn (page 358) -that these berries “formed part of the sustenance of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page209">[209]</span> -gods, according to Goidelic notions; and the description -which has been quoted of the berries makes them a -sort of Celtic counterpart to the soma-plant of Hindu -mythology.”</p> - -<p>This suggests that at the November Celebration a -decoction or brew of Rowan berries was used for -curative or superstitious purposes.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">I have thought it desirable to enter at some length -into the use of the Rowan as a protection against witchcraft -and as the basis of a brew used for different -purposes, because the Mistletoe has been dealt with in -exactly the same manner; indeed, it was to the later -Solstitial worship what the Rowan and Maythorn were -to the earlier May worship.</p> - -<p>Mr. Frazer has collected in his <i>Golden Bough</i><a href="#Footnote49" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor49">[49]</a> much -information bearing on these points.</p> - -<p>In Sweden, on Midsummer Eve, Mistletoe is sought -after, the people “believing it to be, in a high degree, -possessed of mystic qualities; and that if a sprig of -it be attached to the ceiling of the dwelling-house, -the horse’s stall, or the cow’s crib, the ‘Troll’ will -then be powerless to injure either man or beast.” The -Oak Mistletoe, we are told, is “held in the highest -repute in Sweden, and is commonly seen in farmhouses -hanging from the ceiling to protect the dwelling from -all harm, but especially from fire; and persons afflicted -with the falling sickness think they can ward off -attacks of the malady by carrying about with them a -knife which has a handle of Oak Mistletoe.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page210">[210]</span></p> - -<p>“A Swedish remedy for other complaints is to hang a -sprig of Mistletoe round the sufferer’s neck, or to make -him wear on his finger a ring made from the plant.”</p> - -<p>It would appear from Mr. Frazer’s inquiries that the -Mistletoe was <i>en évidence</i> at both the summer and -winter solstice—precisely as the Rowan and Hawthorn -were associated with the May and November festivals.</p> - -<p>He <span class="nowrap">writes:—</span></p> - -<p>“The sacred mistletoe may have acquired, in the -eyes of the Druids, a double portion of its mystic -qualities at the solstice in June, and accordingly they -may have regularly cut it with solemn ceremony on -Midsummer Eve. The conjecture is confirmed when -we find it to be still a rule of folklore that the -mistletoe should be cut on this day. Further, the -peasants of Piedmont and Lombardy still go out on -Midsummer-morning to search the oak-leaves for the -‘oil of St. John,’ which is supposed to heal all wounds -made with cutting instruments. Originally, perhaps, the -‘oil of St. John’ was simply the mistletoe, or a -decoction made from it. For in Holstein the mistletoe, -especially oak-mistletoe, is still regarded as a panacea -for green wounds; and if, as is alleged, ‘all-healer’ is -the name of the plant in the modern Celtic speech of -Brittany, Wales, Ireland and Scotland, this can be -nothing but a survival of the name by which, as we -have seen, the Druids addressed the oak, or rather, -perhaps, the mistletoe. At Lacaune, in France, the old -Druidical belief in the mistletoe as an antidote to all -poisons still survives among the people; they apply -the plant to the stomach of the sufferer, or give him a -decoction of it to drink.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page211">[211]</span></p> - -<p>If we attempt to collate the different festivals with -the vegetation most striking or abundant at each, in -different countries naturally possessing different floras, a -great variety of plants and trees has to be considered. -It is probable that the Rowan-tree was chiefly taken -here as the representative of the ash in more southern -and eastern lands, and the ash indeed did not always -take second rank, especially in the worship connected -with wells, as we shall see. Grimm<a href="#Footnote50" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor50">[50]</a> calls the ash “a -world tree which links heaven, earth and hell together; -of all trees the greatest and holiest.”</p> - -<p>In the same way at the later established Vernal -Equinox festival, the palm which grows in lower latitudes -was replaced here by the willow. Coles, in his <i>Adam in -Eden</i>,<a href="#Footnote51" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor51">[51]</a> writes: “The willow blossoms come forth before -any leaves appear, and are in their most flourishing -state usually before Easter, divers gathering them to -deck up their houses on Palm Sunday, and therefore -the said flowers are called palme.” Willows are still -used to deck churches at this time.</p> - -<p>As in the case of the Rowan, the willow (or palm) -was a protection against witchcraft; small crosses and -palm were carried about in the purses and placed upon -doors. These crosses had to be made on Palm Sunday -out of the wood used in the church. Sometimes box -replaced the willow.</p> - -<p>We are driven to the conclusion that practices connected -with magic, the precursor of the later “witchcraft,” -were associated with the festivals now in question,<span class="pagenum" id="Page212">[212]</span> -and that the products of the vegetable world at the -different seasons were utilized for these purposes.</p> - -<p>The putting on of a special garb by the vegetable -world at each season in turn would be one of the first -things to be manifested, and the close association of -it with the stars and the sun in their yearly course -would cause the representatives of it to be worshipped -together with them, and it would appear from the records -that the astronomer priests did not neglect those magical -arts which were practised by man in the early stages of -civilisation.</p> - -<p>Indeed, these magical practices seem to have taken -such firm root that it was difficult to get rid of them -even in much later times. Newton<a href="#Footnote52" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor52">[52]</a> writes: “I once knew -a foolish cock-brained priest which ministered to a -certaine young man the ashes of boxe, being (forsooth) -hallowed on Palme Sunday, according to the superstitious -order and doctrine of the Romish Church, which ashes -he mingled with their unholie holie water using to the -same a kind of... exorcisme; which... medicine -(as he persuaded the standers by) had vertue to drive -away any ague.”</p> - -<p>Among the virtues attributed to the May thorn was -that of preserving the beauty of those maidens who -at daybreak on May morning each year would wash -themselves in hawthorn dew. As late as 1515 it was -recorded that Catherine of Aragon, accompanied by -twenty-five of her ladies, sallied out on May morning -for this purpose.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote41"></a><a href="#FNanchor41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> -Schübeler, <i>Die Pflanzenwelt Norwegens</i>, Christiania, 1873-75, -p. 439.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote42"></a><a href="#FNanchor42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> <i>Hibbert Lectures</i>, p. 358.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote43"></a><a href="#FNanchor43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> -The Rowan had to be cut on Ascension Day, <i>Golden Bough</i>, III, -p. 448.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote44"></a><a href="#FNanchor44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> -Pratt’s <i>British Flowering Plants</i>, vol. 2, p. 266.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote45"></a><a href="#FNanchor45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> -The word bonfire, according to the <i>Century Dictionary</i>, comes -from the “early modern English, boonfire, bondfire, bounfire, later -burnfire; Scotch, banefire; the earliest known instance is banefyre. -‘ignis ossium,’ in the <i>Catholicon Anglicum</i>, <span class="smcapall">A.D.</span> 1483; from bone -(Scotch, bane, Middle English, bone, bon, bane, &c.) + fire.”</p> - -<p>Hence the word seems formerly to have meant a fire of bones; a -funeral pile, a pyre. And it has gradually developed into a fire out -in the open, whatever its object.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote46"></a><a href="#FNanchor46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> <i>Celtic Folklore</i>, vol. i. p. 308.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote47"></a><a href="#FNanchor47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Vol. ii. p. 691.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote48"></a><a href="#FNanchor48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> <i>Celtic Folklore</i>, vol. i. p. 325.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote49"></a><a href="#FNanchor49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Second Edition, vol. iii. pp. 343 <i>et seq.</i></p> - -<p><a id="Footnote50"></a><a href="#FNanchor50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> <i>Teutonic Mythology</i>, Stallybrass’s -translation, ii. 796.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote51"></a><a href="#FNanchor51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Quoted by Hazlitt under Palm Sunday.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote52"></a><a href="#FNanchor52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> <i>Herbal for the Bible</i>, p. 207.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page213">[213]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER XXI</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">HOLY WELLS AND STREAMS</span></h2> - -<p>I have thought it most important to look up this -subject with a view of seeing whether any clues were -available which could help us to associate the introduction -of the well ceremonials with the worshippers of the -May or of the Solstitial year. For shortness I will -call the ceremonial “baptism,” not necessarily baptism -in the modern sense, but as implying the use of water for -purifying or other religious purpose.</p> - -<p>That baptism was pre-Christian is shown by John -the Baptist using the Jordan for this purpose before -Christ’s ministration began. (Matt. 3. 6.)</p> - -<p>There is a tremendous literature<a href="#Footnote53" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor53">[53]</a> dealing with the -folklore of holy wells and streams. The number of<span class="pagenum" id="Page214">[214]</span> -holy wells and streams in Britain is legion; there are -3,000 in Ireland alone, and the first thing which -strikes us in a casual study of the folklore is the close -association of the wells with sacred trees. Almost -equally distinctly we gather that both were situated -near holy stones, and that the worship included ceremonials -connected with all three.</p> - -<p>The folklore dealing with holy wells and well-worship -is so various that it will be useful for our present -purpose to classify the portions we need under the -following headings.</p> - -<p>1. Well-worship outcome of pre-Christian days and -customs.</p> - -<p>2. Wells generally situated near circles, dolmens, -cromlechs or cairns, or churches which have replaced -them.</p> - -<p>3. Association with sacred trees.</p> - -<p>4. Well-worship and offerings.</p> - -<p>5. Time of the chief festivals.</p> - -<h3 class="inline">1. <i>Pagan origin.</i></h3> - -<p class="hinline">—It seems to be accepted now that -well-worship in Britain originated long before the -Christian era; that it was not introduced by the -Christian missionaries, but rather they found it in vogue -on their arrival, and tolerated it at first and utilized -it afterwards, as they did a great many other Pagan -customs.</p> - -<p>With regard to this point Wood-Martin writes:<a href="#Footnote54" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor54">[54]</a></p> - -<p>“In many Irish MSS. there are allusions to this pre-Christian -worship. For example, Tirehan relates that<span class="pagenum" id="Page215">[215]</span> -St. Patrick, in his progress through Ireland, came to -a fountain called Slaun, to which the Druids offered -sacrifices, and which they worshipped as a God; and in -Adamnan’s <i>Life of St. Columkille</i> it is recounted that -this saint, when in the country of the Picts, heard of -a notable fountain to which the Pagans paid divine -honour.”</p> - -<p>He adds (p. 50):</p> - -<p>“It evidently did not originate in the blessing -of wells by early saints and thus spread downwards, -until it became almost, if not quite, universal; -on the contrary, it began from the people, who -were being Christianized, and thence permeated the -entire system of Irish Christianity.”</p> - -<p>Baring-Gould tells us much concerning the transitional -state (pp. 28 <i>et seq.</i>). Wood-Martin divides -holy wells into three classes: (1) those which “derive -their reputed virtues from Pagan superstition”; (2) -those which were “transferred from Pagan to so-called -Christian uses,” and (3) “a few which may lay claim -to a merely Christian origin.”<a href="#Footnote55" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor55">[55]</a></p> - -<p>It is very easy to understand how the purely devout -custom developed in course of time, in the case of -some wells at any rate, into a more superstitious one, -how some wells came to be called “wishing-wells” and -others were regarded as prophetic. Rhys gives us -several instances of these two classes in Wales.<a href="#Footnote56" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor56">[56]</a></p> - -<p>Wishing-wells are known all over the United Kingdom; -many authors give accounts of them.<a href="#Footnote57" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor57">[57]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page216">[216]</span></p> - -<p>There can be no doubt that in the most ancient -times magical practices were carried on at wells or at -the religious centre of which the well formed a constituent -part. Local practices of witchcraft would be -a natural survival of these. Gomme (p. 87) thus refers -to the well of St. Aelian, not far from Bettws Abergeley, -in Denbighshire.</p> - -<p>“Near the well resided a woman who officiated as a -kind of priestess. Anyone who wished to inflict a curse -upon an enemy resorted to this priestess, and for a -trifling sum she registered, in a book kept for the purpose, -the name of the person on whom the curse was -wished to fall. A pin was then dropped into the well -in the name of the victim, and the curse was complete.”</p> - -<p>The magical associations with wells appear in the -following extract (given by Quiller-Couch, p. 134) of a -letter from Dr. O’Connor, the author of the letters of -Columbanus, to his brother.</p> - -<p>“I have often inquired of your tenants what they -themselves thought of their pilgrimages to the wells of -<i>Kill-Aracht</i>, <i>Tobbar Brighde</i>, <i>Tobbar Muir</i>, near Elphin, -<i>Moor</i>, near <i>Castlereagh</i>, where multitudes annually -assembled to celebrate what they, in broken English, -termed <i>Patterns</i> (Patron’s days); and when I pressed -a very old man, Owen Hester, to state what possible -advantage he expected to derive from the singular -custom of frequenting in particular such wells as were -contiguous to an old blasted oak, <i>or an upright hewn -stone</i>, and what the meaning was of the yet more -singular custom of <i>sticking rags</i> on the branches of -such trees and spitting on them, his answer, and the -answer of the oldest men, was that their ancestors<span class="pagenum" id="Page217">[217]</span> -always did it, and that it was a preservation against -<i>Geasa Draoidecht</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, the sorceries of the Druids, and -that their cattle were preserved by it from infectious -disorders; that the <i>daoini maithe</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, the fairies, were -kept in good humour by it; and so thoroughly persuaded -were they of the sanctity of these Pagan -practices that they would travel bareheaded and barefooted -from ten to twenty miles for the purpose of -crawling on their knees round these wells, upright -stones, and oak trees, westward, as the sun travels, -some three times, some six, some nine, and so on in -uneven numbers until their voluntary penances were -completely fulfilled.”</p> - -<h3 class="inline">2. <i>Wells generally situated near stone monuments or -churches which have replaced them.</i></h3> - -<p class="hinline">—We find many -instances of wells near stone circles and dolmens.</p> - -<p>It may even be that the existence of the spring -determined the position of the circle, for the officiating -astronomer-priest must like other mortals have had a -water supply available. “Where a spring or a river -flows,” says Seneca, “there should we build altars and -offer sacrifices” (Hope, p. 47). The following shows -how closely connected they were.<a href="#Footnote58" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor58">[58]</a></p> - -<p>“Closely associated with the circles, and occupying -an equally important position in the religious rites and -ceremonies of the ancient inhabitants, were sacred wells. -These were more numerous than circles, no doubt owing -to the fact that their acquisition was more easily accomplished:<span class="pagenum" id="Page218">[218]</span> -but amongst sacred wells we find some, as we -find certain circles, occupying a position of pre-eminence -in the religious cult of their votaries, and these, as a -rule, in close proximity to sun and moon temples. At -Tillie Beltane, in Aberdeenshire, in close proximity to -the remains of a larger and smaller circle, is a well -which was held sacred by the people. According to -Col. Leslie, on Beltane and Midsummer days, those on -whom the dire hand of disease had fallen, or those -desirous of averting that calamity, went seven times -round the sacred wells sunwise (deasil)<a href="#Footnote59" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor59">[59]</a> and then proceeded -to the circles, where a like ceremony was performed.”</p> - -<p>“In Stenness we find the same association of the well -and the circles. But in harmony with the unrivalled -completeness of these monuments... we find the -sacred well here in a closer and deeper connection with -the circles than elsewhere.”</p> - -<p>“In the parish of Stenness there is a district called -Bigswell, in the centre of which is a sacred well, -and from which the district takes its name, Big(s)well.... -Be that as it may, we know from tradition that -down to the time when the Stone of Odin was demolished, -parents came to the well with children, on -Beltane and Midsummer, passed round it sunwise, and -having bathed their little ones (a healthy ordeal), -carried them thence to the Stone of Odin, and passed -them through the hole as a divine protection against -the malignant influences of the evil one.”</p> - -<p>Borlase records an instance of a well near a stone-circle<span class="pagenum" id="Page219">[219]</span> -in Ireland in the Townland of Ballyferriter, in -County Kerry.<a href="#Footnote60" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor60">[60]</a></p> - -<p>The same author also gives examples in Ireland of -wells near dolmens, and of wells <i>covered</i> by dolmens.<a href="#Footnote61" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor61">[61]</a></p> - -<p>It may be remarked that in Cornwall Chapel Euny -well is associated with the circles at Bartinné and -Carn Euny; St. Cleer with the three circles at the -Hurlers, and Alsia well is near the Bolleit circle. -Mr. Horton Bolitho is my authority for these statements.</p> - -<p>A well is often found near a cell, cairn or <i>keeill</i>. -Rhys gives us two examples in the Isle of Man.<a href="#Footnote62" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor62">[62]</a> At -Ardmore Bay the holy well is within the ruined chapel -of the saint.<a href="#Footnote63" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor63">[63]</a> A vast pile of stones surrounds the holy -well in Glencolumbkille in Donegal.<a href="#Footnote64" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor64">[64]</a></p> - -<p>It might be useful to add here that it is a very -common thing to find a well by a so-called tomb -of a saint.</p> - -<p>Let us turn now to wells situated near churches.</p> - -<p>It is very generally known that many churches -have been built on the sites of stone-circles, menhirs, -&c. This leads us to think that some form of -worship must have taken place at the “ancient-stones” -originally. The following extract from Wilson’s -<i>Archæology</i> (page 110) is given in <i>Stonehenge</i> by Sir -Henry James (page 17):</p> - -<p>“The common Gaelic phrase—Am bheil thu dol don -chlachan—Are you going to the stones?—by which the -Scottish Highlander still enquires at a neighbour if he<span class="pagenum" id="Page220">[220]</span> -is bound for church, seems in itself no doubtful tradition -of ancient worship within the monolithic ring.”</p> - -<p>Rhys<a href="#Footnote65" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor65">[65]</a> gives us many instances of wells near churches, -and here it may be useful to add that the Welsh for -well is Ffynnon.</p> - -<p>Ffynnon Faglan is described as being near a church, -also Ffynnon Fair, a wishing-well. Criccieth Church -is supposed to have had a well near it at one time. -Again, Ffynnon Beris is near the parish church of -Llanberis (p. 366), and Ffynnon Elian near to the church -of Llanelian, Denbighshire. Then there are St. Teilo’s -Church and Well at Llandeilo Llwydarth, near Maen -Clochog, North Pembrokeshire.</p> - -<p>Wood-Martin<a href="#Footnote66" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor66">[66]</a> refers to the rites at the well of -Tubberpatrick, part of the ceremony taking place in -the church near by.</p> - -<h3 class="inline">3. <i>Association of sacred wells with sacred trees.</i></h3> - -<p class="hinline">—Rhys, -and many other authors, give us several -instances of a tree by the side of a well.<a href="#Footnote67" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor67">[67]</a></p> - -<p>When we come to deal with well offerings we shall -find, in fact, that in almost every case a tree has been a -necessary companion of the well, as the well offerings -were hung on them.</p> - -<p>In many cases, of course, the kind of tree is not -specified. When it is, it is almost invariably the rowan -or hawthorn. Rhys tells us: “The tree to expect by -a sacred well is doubtless some kind of thorn.”<a href="#Footnote68" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor68">[68]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page221">[221]</span></p> - -<p>Then again, with reference to Ireland, Rhys, p. 335, -quotes a passage from a letter by the late Mr. W. C. -Borlase, on Rag Offerings and Primitive Pilgrimages in -Ireland, to the effect that a hawthorn almost invariably -stands by the brink of the typical Irish “holy well.”</p> - -<p>There are also many references to thorn trees in the -same position in Wales.</p> - -<p>There are thorn trees at St. Madron’s well in Cornwall, -and at Chapel well St. Breward in the same county near -Bodmin, there is a thorn tree over the well.</p> - -<p>Not only are wells often recorded as near sacred trees, -but in the case of some we learn that at the chief -annual festival they were decked with flowers and -garlands, and “encircled with a jovial band of young -people celebrating the day with song and dance.” This -is recorded of the “blessing of the Brine” at Nantwich -(Hope, p. 7).</p> - -<h3 class="inline">4. <i>Well worship and offerings.</i></h3> - -<p class="hinline">—Although the traditions -and superstitions connected with wells are fast -becoming things of the past, in certain parts they are -still believed and practised.</p> - -<p>Gomme<a href="#Footnote69" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor69">[69]</a> informs us that well-worship prevails in -every county of the three kingdoms. He finds it “most -vital in the Gaelic countries, somewhat less so in the -British, and almost entirely wanting in the Teutonic -south-east. In some cases wells were resorted to -for the cure of diseases; in others to obtain change of -weather or good luck. Offerings were made to them to -propitiate their guardian gods and nymphs. Pennant -tells us that in olden times the rich would sacrifice<span class="pagenum" id="Page222">[222]</span> -one of their horses at a well near Abergelen to secure -a blessing upon the rest.<a href="#Footnote70" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor70">[70]</a> Fowls were offered at St. -Tegla’s Well, near Wrexham, by epileptic patients,<a href="#Footnote71" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor71">[71]</a> -but of late years the well spirits have had to be -content with much smaller tributes—such trifles as -pins, rags, coloured pebbles and small coins.”</p> - -<p>In consequence of this dwindling down of the offering -we have chiefly to do with rags, but I think we may learn -from the traditions that originally it was an offering of a -garment, and to the officiating priest, at the well, or temple -with which the well was connected. It is also a question -whether the almost universal association of pins with the -garment or part of it might not have originated at a time -when such an offering—it was probably originally a skin—to -a priest without a pin (of bone) to fasten it on would -not have been complete. In Kent’s cavern pins of bone -have been found associated with bones of palæolithic -mammals.</p> - -<p>Mr. Gomme tells us,<a href="#Footnote72" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor72">[72]</a> “In the case of some wells, -especially in Scotland, at one time the whole garment -was put down as an offering. Gradually these offerings -of clothes became less and less till they came down to -rags.” He also points out, as we have already seen, -that “the geographical distribution of rag-offerings -coincides with the existence of monoliths and dolmens.”</p> - -<p>As has been noted, almost invariably by the side of -every well there grows the “sacred tree,” a rowan or -thorn for the most part; on this tree the rags are hung, -then the bent pin is dropped in. If there happens to -be no tree, or if it is so old that only the stump is<span class="pagenum" id="Page223">[223]</span> -left, then the rags may sometimes be seen wedged in -between the stones of the well.</p> - -<p>Quiller-Couch (p. 135) tells us that at Ahagour in -Mayo is a well much frequented by pilgrims, for penance -chiefly, where among other offerings they cut up their -clothes, be they ever so new, and tie them to the two old -trees growing near, “lest, on the day of judgment,” thinks -the superstitious peasant, “the Almighty should forget -that he came there, and in order that the tokens should -be known, when St. Patrick should lay them before the -tribunal.”</p> - -<p>When the original well-worship in relation with the -temples became disestablished, if the well-worship were -kept up at all, reasons other than the old one would soon -be invented, and many of these would naturally be connected -with magic and sorcery. In the oldest days the -priest would be a physician as well as an astronomer and -a magician, and his advice might be good for various disorders, -but after he had disappeared there was only magic -to depend upon; and this atmosphere is reflected in the -traditions.</p> - -<p>I will now give a few extracts to show what goes on at -present in certain localities with regard to the offerings, -and the frame of mind of the devotees.</p> - -<p>With reference to the reasons for the offerings made -in the present day, Wood-Martin writes:<a href="#Footnote73" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor73">[73]</a></p> - -<p>“Wells were the haunts of spirits that proved to be -propitious if remembered, but were vindictive if neglected, -and hence no devotee approached the sacred precincts -empty-handed, the principle being no gift no cure; -therefore the modern devotee, when tying up a fragment<span class="pagenum" id="Page224">[224]</span> -from the clothing, or dropping a cake, a small coin, or -a crooked pin into the well, is unconsciously worshipping -the old presiding spirit of the place.”</p> - -<p>Rhys<a href="#Footnote74" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor74">[74]</a> gives us a great deal of information on this. -The ritual varies at some of them. People came from -far and near; it is the custom to make some sort of offering, -rags and pins being the most modern, and about -these we have most information as a matter of course.</p> - -<p>Rhys quotes statements he has received about three -wells in the county of Glamorgan (Vol. 1, p. 356). At -the first it was the custom “that the person who wishes -his health to be benefited should wash in the water of -the well, and throw a pin into it afterwards.” At -another “the custom prevails of tying rags to the -branches of a tree growing close at hand”; and at the -third, “it is the custom for those who are healed in it -to tie a shred of linen or cotton to the branches of a tree -that stands close by; and there the shreds are almost -as numerous as the leaves.”</p> - -<p>Further (p. 363) we read of another Ffynnon Faglan, -and of this Rhys says, “One told me his mother used -to take him to it when he was a child for sore eyes, -bathe them with the water, and then drop in a pin. The -other man, when he was young, bathed in it for rheumatism.” -Of this well it is recorded that when it was -cleaned out about fifty years ago “two basinfuls of pins -were taken out,” which were all bent, but no coins -were found in it.</p> - -<p>Wood-Martin<a href="#Footnote75" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor75">[75]</a> also gives an interesting account of -the rite performed at a certain well in Ireland; it is a<span class="pagenum" id="Page225">[225]</span> -little more elaborate than at some, but affords an idea -of what was probably at one time a very usual -ceremony in connection with stones in other places.</p> - -<p>“In a statistical account of the parish of Dungiven, -written in 1813, it is stated that at the well of -Tubberpatrick, after performing the usual rounds, -devotees wash their hands and feet with the water -and tear off a small rag from their clothes, which they tie -on a bush overhanging the well; from whence they all -proceed to a large stone in the River Roe, immediately -below the old church, and having performed an oblation -they walk round the stone, bowing to it, and repeating -prayers as at the well. Their next movement is to the -old church, within which a similar ceremony goes on, and -they finish this rite by a procession and prayers round -the upright stone.”</p> - -<h3 class="inline">5. <i>Time of the chief festival.</i></h3> - -<p class="hinline">—On this point there is -not a great quantity of precise information, but what -we have points to May 1 as being about the time -when the holy wells are most frequented and considered -most efficacious.</p> - -<p>This lack of information arises from the fact that the -existence of the May year in prehistoric times has not -been even dreamt of by those who have compiled the -various accounts of the fast fading traditions, and in very -many instances a reference to an unknown saint’s day is -the only information given as to the time of the annual -celebration. Wide generalisation, therefore, from the -material at hand is risky.</p> - -<p>I will refer in the first instance to the May worship, -and begin with the famous Madron well in Cornwall, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page226">[226]</span> -walls of which I found to be oriented to the May sunrise, -so that the priest officiating at the altar would face the -sunrise. Quiller-Couch (p. 137) thus refers to what -happened there.</p> - -<p>“Children used to be taken to this well on the first -three Sunday mornings in May to be dipped in the water, -that they might be cured of the rickets, or any other -disorder with which they were troubled. Three times -they were plunged into the water, after having been -stripped naked; the parent, or person dipping them, -standing facing the sun; after the dipping they were -passed nine times round the well from east to west; then -they were dressed and laid on St. Madern’s bed; should -they sleep, and the water in the well bubble, it was -considered a good omen. Strict silence had to be kept -during the entire performance, or the spell was broken. -At the present time the people go to the well in crowds -on the first Sunday in May, when the Wesleyans hold a -service there, and a sermon is preached; after which the -people throw in two pins or pebbles to consult the spirit, -or try for sweethearts; if the two articles sink together, -they will soon be married.</p> - -<p>“Here divination is performed on May morning by -rustic maidens anxious to know when they are to be -married. Two pieces of straw about an inch long are -crossed and transfixed with a pin. This, floated on the -waters, elicits bubbles, the number of which, carefully -counted, denotes the years before the happy day.”</p> - -<p>Chapel Euny in Cornwall, near the Bartinné circle, has -a wishing (lucky) well near it. It was used on one of -the three first Wednesdays in May. Children suffering -from mesenteric disease are dipped three times<span class="pagenum" id="Page227">[227]</span> -“widderschynnes,” that is contrary to the sun’s motion, -and dragged round the well three times in the same -direction.<a href="#Footnote76" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor76">[76]</a></p> - -<p>Edmunds<a href="#Footnote77" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor77">[77]</a> thus refers to this <span class="nowrap">well:—</span></p> - -<p>“Some years since I had the curiosity to go with a -friend to Chapel Euny on one of these Wednesdays, and, -whilst watching at a distance, we saw two women come to -the well at the appointed hour, and perform this ceremony -on an infant.”</p> - -<p><i>Alsia Well</i>, in the parish of Buryan, same parish as -Bolleit circle, has its well ceremonials on the first three -Wednesdays in May.</p> - -<p>In Cornwall the May bathing ceremonial is even carried -out in salt water.<a href="#Footnote78" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor78">[78]</a> The time chosen is the same as that at -Madron and Chapel Euny, the first three Sundays in May.</p> - -<p>This Sunday in May celebration is not confined to -Cornwall. At Eden Hall, Giant’s Cave, water with -sugar is drunk on the third Sunday in May. A vast -concourse of both sexes is present.<a href="#Footnote79" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor79">[79]</a></p> - -<p>At Rorrington, a township in the parish of Chirbury, -was a holy well at which a wake was celebrated on -Ascension Day.</p> - -<p>In the account of this well given by Gomme (p. 82) -we get a glimpse of many associated usages.</p> - -<p>“The well was adorned with a bower of green boughs, -rushes, and flowers, and a may-pole was set up. The -people walked round the well, dancing and frolicking as -they went. They threw pins into the well to bring good -luck and to preserve them from being bewitched, and -they also drank some of the water. Cakes were also<span class="pagenum" id="Page228">[228]</span> -eaten; they were round flat buns from three to four -inches across, sweetened, spiced, and marked with a -cross, and they were supposed to bring good luck if -kept.”</p> - -<p>The legend given by Quiller-Couch (p. 55) respecting -St. Cuthbert’s well in North Cornwall is that “in olden -times mothers on Ascension Day brought their deformed -or sickly children here, and dipped them in, at the same -time passing them through the aperture connecting the -two cisterns; and thus, it is said, they became healed of -their disease or deformity. It would seem that other classes -also believed virtue to reside in its water; for it is said -that the cripples were accustomed to leave their crutches -in the hole at the head of the well.”</p> - -<p>At the village of Tissington, near Ashbourne, in Derbyshire, -the custom of well-flowering is still observed on -every anniversary of the Ascension (Hope, p. 48).</p> - -<p>We may gather from these associated observances -at different places that the wells themselves were -situated near circles, for the worshippers would not -be distributed at such a time. This argument is -strengthened by the custom of “waking the well” -which took place on the patron saint’s day.</p> - -<p>With regard to the time of the day or night at which -well-worship took place, there seems little doubt that for -the most part it was carried on at night. The practices -connected with the “waking of the well” indicate this -clearly, and when it is remembered that these ancient -worships were carried on at a time when marriage had -not been instituted, we can understand that many -‘pagan’ rituals savoured of sensualism as we should -now think and call it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page229">[229]</span></p> - -<p>The particular times when it was considered most -propitious for the <i>sick</i> to visit the wells appear anciently -to have been at daybreak or sunrise.</p> - -<p>At the well at Farr, in Sutherlandshire, it is held that -the patient, after undergoing his plunge, drinking of the -water, and making his offering, “must be away from the -banks so as to be fairly out of sight of the water before -the sun rises, else no cure is effected.” At Roche Holywell, -in Cornwall, before sunrise on holy Thursday was -the appointed time.</p> - -<p>Sometimes the moment of sunrise is chosen. To bathe -in the well of St. Medan, at Kirkmaiden in Wigtonshire, -as the sun rose on the first Sunday in May was considered -an infallible cure for almost any disease.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, in some cases, as at St. Madron’s -well, noon is chosen on the first three Sundays in May, -“not believing that these waters have any virtue if -resorted to on any other days of the year, or at any other -hour of the day.”</p> - -<p>With regard to the August festival, there is a holy well -at St. Cleer, near the Hurlers; the festival is held on -August 9th.<a href="#Footnote80" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor80">[80]</a> I have no special references to August wells -in Ireland, but there is evidence given by Piers<a href="#Footnote81" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor81">[81]</a> that at -that time cattle were bathed.</p> - -<p>“On the first Sunday in harvest, viz., in August, they -will be sure to drive their cattle into some pool or river -and therein swim them; this they observe as inviolable as -if it were a point of religion, for they think no beast will -live the whole year thro’ unless they be thus drenched.<span class="pagenum" id="Page230">[230]</span> -I deny not but that swimming cattle, and chiefly in this -season of the year, is healthful unto them, as the poet -hath <span class="nowrap">observed:—</span></p> - -<div class="poemcenter"> - -<div class="poem"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i00">“Balantemque gregem fluvio mersare salubri.”—<i>Virg.</i><br /></span> -</div><!--stanza--> - -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">In th’ healthful flood to plunge the bleating flock.<br /></span> -</div><!--stanza--> - -</div><!--poem--> - -</div><!--poemcenter--> - -<p class="noindent">but precisely to do this on the first Sunday in harvest, I -look on as not only superstitious but profane.”</p> - -<p>I next come to the solstice in June.</p> - -<p>There is evidence concerning wells quite akin to that -furnished by the astronomical use of the circles, that the May -year festivals were subsequently changed to solstitial -dates. The well worship does not appear to have been -carried on in the cold weather—hence the absence of -references to February and November; for the same reason -we have only now to do with the summer solstice.</p> - -<p>Hazlitt quotes the following from the Irish Hudibras -(1689) concerning June worship at a well in the North of -<span class="nowrap">Ireland:—</span></p> - -<div class="poemcenter"> - -<div class="poem"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i00">“Have you beheld, when people pray<br /></span> -<span class="i0">At St. John’s well on Patron-Day,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">By charm of priest and miracle,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">To cure diseases at this well;<br /></span> -<span class="i0">The valleys filled with blind and lame,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">And go as limping as they came.”<br /></span> -</div><!--stanza--> - -</div><!--poem--> - -</div><!--poemcenter--> - -<p>At Barnwell (Beirna-well = youths’ well), near Cambridge, -the festival took place on St. John’s Day.<a href="#Footnote82" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor82">[82]</a></p> - -<p>Brand, in his history of Newcastle (ii. 54), refers to a -well still called Bede’s Well, near Jarrow. “As late as -1740 it was a prevailing custom to bring children -troubled with any disease or infirmity; a crooked pin was -put in, and the well laved dry between each dipping.<span class="pagenum" id="Page231">[231]</span> -My informant has seen twenty children brought together -on a Sunday, to be dipped in this well, at which also, on -Midsummer Eve, there was a great resort of neighbouring -people, with bonfires, music, etc.”</p> - -<p>Hope gives references to seven wells dedicated to -“St. John,” one to “St. John the Baptist,” and four to -St. Peter. These <i>may</i> have been solstitial wells, but the -information given is very slight and not to the present -point. He states (xxii) that the most important celebrations -were first held in May and at the summer solstice. -He then adds, “later Easter and Ascensiontide were the -favoured seasons.” May, Summer Solstice and Easter was, -I think, the true order.</p> - -<p>Finally, I may refer to the earliest holy well known -to history. This is the famous well at Heliopolis where -Rā used to wash himself, and Piankhi, <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> 740, went and -washed his face in it. At this same well the Virgin sat -and washed her Son’s swaddling bands in it. Its water -made the balsam trees to grow. It is now called by -the Arabs “The Fountain of the Sun” ‘Êyn ash-Shems.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote53"></a><a href="#FNanchor53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> -The literature that I have chiefly consulted is as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<table class="authorities" summary="Authorities"> - -<tr> -<td class="author">R. C. Hope</td> -<td class="book"><i>Holy Wells; their Legends and Traditions.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="author">R. L. Quiller-Couch</td> -<td class="book"><i>Ancient and Holy Wells of Cornwall.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="author">W. G. Wood-Martin</td> -<td class="book"><i>Traces of the Elder Faiths of Ireland.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="author">G. L. Gomme</td> -<td class="book"><i>Ethnology in Folklore.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="author">Prof. Rhys</td> -<td class="book"><i>Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="author">W. C. Borlase</td> -<td class="book"><i>Dolmens of Ireland.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="author">S. Baring-Gould</td> -<td class="book"><i>A Book of the West.</i></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p><a id="Footnote54"></a><a href="#FNanchor54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> -<i>Traces of the Elder Faiths of Ireland, A Folklore Sketch</i>, ii., -p. 47.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote55"></a><a href="#FNanchor55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Pp. 11, 47.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote56"></a><a href="#FNanchor56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> -<i>Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh</i>, ii., p. 366.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote57"></a><a href="#FNanchor57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> Wood-Martin, <i>loc. cit.</i>, ii., p. 80.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote58"></a><a href="#FNanchor58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> -<i>Standing Stones and Maeshowe of Stenness</i>, by Magnus Spence, -p. 13.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote59"></a><a href="#FNanchor59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> -That is from W. to E. through N., or E. to W. through S.; in the -same direction as the hands of a clock.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote60"></a><a href="#FNanchor60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> <i>The Dolmens of Ireland</i>, i., p. 3.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote61"></a><a href="#FNanchor61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 95, 765.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote62"></a><a href="#FNanchor62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> -<i>Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh</i>, i., p. 332.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote63"></a><a href="#FNanchor63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Borlase, <i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 760.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote64"></a><a href="#FNanchor64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 426.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote65"></a><a href="#FNanchor65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> -Rhys, <i>Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh</i>, p. 363.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote66"></a><a href="#FNanchor66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> <i>Pagan Ireland</i>, p. 160.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote67"></a><a href="#FNanchor67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> -Rhys, <i>Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh</i>, i., pp. 354, 356, -357, &c.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote68"></a><a href="#FNanchor68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Rhys, <i>ibid.</i>, p. 332.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote69"></a><a href="#FNanchor69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> <i>Ethnology in Folklore</i>, p. 78.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote70"></a><a href="#FNanchor70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Sikes: <i>British Goblins</i>, p. 351.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote71"></a><a href="#FNanchor71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Sikes, <i>idem.</i>, p. 329.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote72"></a><a href="#FNanchor72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> <i>Folklore</i>, 1892, p. 89.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote73"></a><a href="#FNanchor73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> <i>Pagan Ireland</i>, p. 145.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote74"></a><a href="#FNanchor74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> <i>Celtic Folklore, Manx and Welsh.</i></p> - -<p><a id="Footnote75"></a><a href="#FNanchor75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> <i>Pagan Ireland</i>, p. 160.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote76"></a><a href="#FNanchor76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Hope, p. 14.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote77"></a><a href="#FNanchor77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> <i>The Land’s End District</i>, p. 72.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote78"></a><a href="#FNanchor78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Edmunds, p. 72.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote79"></a><a href="#FNanchor79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> Hope, p. 40.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote80"></a><a href="#FNanchor80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> -St. Cleer = St. Cledod, <span class="smcapall">A.D.</span> 482. The arms of St. Cleer are the -Sun in its glory.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote81"></a><a href="#FNanchor81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> -Description of Westmeath, 1682, quoted by Vallencey, i., 121.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote82"></a><a href="#FNanchor82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> Hazlitt, ii., 616.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page232">[232]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER XXII</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">WHERE DID THE BRITISH WORSHIP ORIGINATE?</span></h2> - -<p>The recent chapters have, I think, established, by the -evidence derived from folklore and tradition, that there -was in the long past a combined worship of trees, -wells and streams in the neighbourhood of sacred -places, the sacred place being a stone circle or some -other monument built up of stones.</p> - -<p>We have gathered also that the chief times of -worship were on or near the most important dates -defined for us by the May year, the original year -marked out by the various agricultural and other -operations proper to the various seasons.</p> - -<p>It is again imperative that I should point out that -if the basis of this worship was not utility it must -have been started by men sufficiently skilled to -indicate by their astronomical knowledge the proper -times for the various operations to which I have -referred. In this we see the reason for the local -combination of the worship in the neighbourhood of -the stones, for the stones were really the instruments -which enabled the astronomer-priest to be useful to<span class="pagenum" id="Page233">[233]</span> -the community; that he in process of time became -powerful and sacred because he was wise, and added -medicine and magic to his other qualifications, was -only what was to be expected.</p> - -<p>I am not the first to have been driven by the -facts to note the close association to which I have -referred, that the cults were not separate but were -parts of one whole.</p> - -<p>Wood-Martin speaks with the most certain sound -on this point. “It will be seen that, from a review -of the whole subject, stone, water, tree, and animal-worship -are intimately connected.”<a href="#Footnote83" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor83">[83]</a></p> - -<p>What the analysis in the recent chapters, taken in -connection with the astronomical results previously -stated, has done is perhaps to give a clear reason for the -connection. Not only were the cults started together, but -they remained together for a long time; it is only in -quite late years that the traditions have become so -dim that practices once closely connected are now -dealt with apart from the rest.</p> - -<p>Hope points out (p. xxii) that the 16th of the canons -of the reign of Edgar, <span class="smcapall">A.D.</span> 963, which enjoins the clergy -to be diligent, advance Christianity, and extinguish -heathenism, mentions especially the worship of stones, -trees, and fountains. The laws of Knut (<span class="smcapall">A.D.</span> 1018) -specify the worship “of heathen gods, the sun, moon, -fire, rivers, fountains, rocks, or trees.”</p> - -<p>Now, although the folklore evidence I have brought -together has been gathered for the most part from -the British Isles, my inquiries have not been limited -to that area.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page234">[234]</span></p> - -<p>It was natural that when the study of folklore had -suggested that there was a close connection between -the worship carried on in Britain at stone monuments, -sacred trees, and sacred wells an attempt should -have been made to see whether these three cults had -been associated out of Britain with the ceremonials -of any of the early peoples for which complete and -trustworthy information is available.</p> - -<p>On this point the traditions of widely sundered -countries is amazingly strong.</p> - -<p>The folklore of the Pyrenees, France, Spain and -Portugal regarding sacred wells is very similar to that -of Ireland. Borlase writes:<a href="#Footnote84" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor84">[84]</a></p> - -<p>“It is interesting to notice that the pre-Christian -custom called <i>dessil</i>, or circuit around a venerated spot, -which is practised in Ireland in the case of one dolmen -at least, as well as at wells and Churches innumerable, -is found also in Portugal.”</p> - -<p>In the Pyrenees, too, fairies and spirits are thought -much of in this connection. Borlase tells us:<a href="#Footnote85" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor85">[85]</a> “They -are the presiding genii of certain wells.” He adds:</p> - -<p>“It is not in Ireland alone that dolmens are associated -with the notion of wells and water springs. The -Portuguese names, Anta do Fontao, Fonte Coberta, Anta -do Fonte-de Mouratao, and the French names, Fonte -de Rourre, and Fonte nay le Marmion, show this to be -the case.”<a href="#Footnote86" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor86">[86]</a></p> - -<p>In Persia Sir Wm. Ouseley saw a tree covered with -rags, and similar trees in the Himalayas are associated -with large heaps of stones (Gomme, p. 105).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page235">[235]</span></p> - -<p>The late General Pitt-Rivers affirms that the customs -of well-offerings I referred to in the last chapter are -invariably associated with cairns, megalithic monuments -or some such early Pagan institutions, and he adds that -the area in which traces of well-offerings are found is -conterminous with the area of the megalithic monuments.<a href="#Footnote87" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor87">[87]</a></p> - -<p>The idea that the waters of certain wells have -marvellous healing powers is also not confined to the -British Isles, for in a great many parts of Europe, -perhaps more especially in France, Spain and Portugal, -we find instances.</p> - -<p>The practice of worshipping in connection with wells -and the sacred stones and sacred trees which were associated -with them, as we have seen, was indeed in ancient -days almost, if not quite, universal wherever man existed. -The traditions of the past, therefore, are to be gathered -over a very wide area. I quote a summary of the -universality of this practice given by the late General -Pitt-Rivers in the paper already noticed:</p> - -<p>“Burton says it extends throughout northern Africa -from west to east; Mungo Park mentions it in western -Africa; Sir Samuel Baker speaks of it on the confines of -Abyssinia, and says that the people who practised it -were unable to assign a reason for doing so; Burton also -found the same custom in Arabia during his pilgrimage to -Mecca; in Persia Sir William Ouseley saw a tree <i>close to -a large monolith</i> covered with these rags, and he describes -it as a practice appertaining to a religion long since proscribed -in that country; in the Dekkan and Ceylon -Colonel Leslie says that the trees in the neighbourhood of<span class="pagenum" id="Page236">[236]</span> -wells may be seen covered with similar scraps of cotton: -Dr. A. Campbell speaks of it as being practised by the -Limboos near Darjeeling in the Himalaya, where it is -associated, as in Ireland, with large heaps of stones; and -Huc in his travels mentions it among the Tartars.”</p> - -<p>The astronomical facts given in this book, gathered -from a study of the monuments in these islands, can -only give us information touching the introduction of -the combined worship here.</p> - -<p>My investigations have strongly suggested, to say the -least, that there were men here with knowledge enough to -utilise the movements of the sun and stars for temple, -and no doubt practical purposes before 2000 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, that -is, a thousand years before Solomon was born, and at -about the time that the Hecatompedon was founded -at Athens.</p> - -<p>If this is anywhere near the truth, these men must -have been representatives of a very old civilisation.</p> - -<p>Now the civilisation principally considered by archæologists -in connection with the building of the monuments -which I have studied is the Aryan, of which the -Celts formed a branch. This view, however, is not -universally held; the late General Pitt-Rivers, and I -know of no higher authority, stated his opinion that -“The megalithic monuments... take us back to pre-Aryan -people, and suggest the spread of this people -over the area covered by their remains.”<a href="#Footnote88" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor88">[88]</a></p> - -<p>Mr. Gomme is of the same opinion (p. 27):</p> - -<p>“Ceremonies which are demonstrably non-Aryan in -India, even in the presence of Aryan people, must -in origin have been non-Aryan in Europe, though the<span class="pagenum" id="Page237">[237]</span> -race from whom they have descended is not at present -identified by ethnologists.”</p> - -<p>Sergi also points <span class="nowrap">out:—</span></p> - -<p>“Indo-Germanism led to almost entire forgetfulness -of the most ancient civilisations of the earth, those born -in the valleys of the Euphrates and the Tigris, and in -the valley of the Nile; no influence was granted to -them over Greco-Roman classic civilisation, almost none -anywhere in the Mediterranean.”<a href="#Footnote89" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor89">[89]</a></p> - -<p>It is not necessary for me to deal at length with the -great Aryan controversy in this book, even if the subject -were within my competence, which it is not; but -now that we have a large number of monuments dated, -say, within twenty years of their use, it is important -to bring forward some dates arrived at by archæologists -and philologists to compare with those which the -astronomical method of inquiry has revealed.</p> - -<p>Hall<a href="#Footnote90" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor90">[90]</a> gives evidence to show that the Aryans did -not reach Greece till after the earlier period of the -Mycenæan age, which he dates at about 1700 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>With regard to the date of the Aryan invasion of -Britain, Mr. Read, of the Department of Ethnography, -British Museum, informs me that it may be taken as -about 1000 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>; it was associated with cremation. It -is highly probable that these Aryans were the Goidels -or the Gael. These were followed some 700 years later -by another Aryan sept—the Brythons. Mr. Read is -also of opinion that the Goidels reached Britain from -the country round the South Baltic, and the Brythons -from or through north-east France.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page238">[238]</span></p> - -<p>Archæologists, however, recognise a pre-Aryan invasion, -about 1800 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> (a date determined by the introduction -of bronze), of a brachycephalic folk who built covered -barrows, different in these respects from the neolithic -folk, who were long-skulled and built long barrows. -Now, in relation to the stone structures to which this -book especially refers, the question arises, are we then -dealing with this swarm or the people whom they -found on the soil?</p> - -<p>There are some indications in the traditions which -imply that we are really dealing with an early stone -age, when flints were the only weapons, and there were -no clothes to speak of. I will give one or two examples -of these traditions. Gomme (p. 53) refers to a singular -fact preserved among the ceremonies of witchcraft in -Scotland:</p> - -<p>“In order to injure the waxen image of the -intended victim, the implements used in some cases -by the witches were stone arrowheads, or elf-shots, as -they were called, and their use was accompanied by -an incantation. Here we have, in the undoubted form -of a prehistoric implement, the oldest untouched detail -of early life which has been preserved by witchcraft.”</p> - -<p>Gomme (p. 39) also tells us that one of the May -practices at Stirling is for boys of ten and twelve years -old to divest themselves of their clothing, and in a state -of nudity to run round certain natural or artificial -circles. “Formerly the rounded summit of Demyat, -an eminence in the Ochil range, was a favourite scene -of this strange pastime, but for many years it has -been performed at the King’s Knot, in Stirling, an -octagonal mound in the Royal Gardens. The performances<span class="pagenum" id="Page239">[239]</span> -are not infrequently repeated at Midsummer -and Lammas.” He adds, “The fact that in this instance -the practice is continued only by ‘boys of ten and -twelve years old,’ shows that we have here one of the -last stages of an old rite before its final abolition.”</p> - -<p>Baring-Gould (p. 21) provides us with a practice in -Brittany which would seem to be a remnant of a pre-clothing -age.</p> - -<p>Near Carnac is a menhir, at which a singular “ceremony -took place till comparatively recently, and may perhaps -still be practised in secret. A married couple that have -no family repair to this stone when the moon is full, -strip themselves stark naked and course one another -round it a prescribed number of times, whilst their -relations keep guard against intrusion at a respectful -distance.”</p> - -<p>Now it is in connection with this question that I -am in hopes that some help may be got from the -astronomical results recorded in the present volume. The -dates revealed by the orientation of the circles and -outstanding stones already dealt with (and there is -a large number to follow) indicate that it is among -the records of some people of whom the civilisation -is very ancient that we must look in the first instance -with a view of tracing the origin of our British -monuments.</p> - -<p>Further, now that we have been able to follow their -astronomical methods, to note how sound they were, -and to gather the purposes of utility they were intended -to serve, it is simply common sense to inquire, in the -first instance, if they may have been connected with -these ancient peoples whose astronomical skill is<span class="pagenum" id="Page240">[240]</span> -universally recognised, and whose records and even -observations have come down to us.</p> - -<p>Now, while we know nothing of the astronomy of -the Aryans generally, or that of the Celts in particular, -the astronomical knowledge of the Babylonians -and Egyptians is one of the wonders of the ancient -world.</p> - -<p>Hence Babylonia and Egypt are at once suggested, -and the suggestion is not rendered a less probable -one when we remember that both these peoples -studied and utilised astronomy at least some 8,000 -years ago.</p> - -<p>But here we are dealing with two peoples. It is -more than probable that they both were associated more -or less near the origin with one race, the ideas of which -permeated both civilisations.</p> - -<p>I have it on the highest authority, that of Dr. Budge, -that in Babylonia there were originally the Sumerians -and the Semites. The primitive race which conquered -the Egyptians seems to have been connected with the -former as regards civilisation, and with the latter as -regards some aspects of the Egyptian language.</p> - -<p>This race was Semitic, and as the pyramids, built -some 6,000 years ago, are a proof of the interaction of the -two civilisations at that time, for the Easter festival -celebrated on the banks of the Nile came from the -valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates, we may omit the -pre-Semites from our consideration.</p> - -<p>There is other evidence that the connection between -the Semites and Egyptians was close astronomically, -so that any Semitic influence in later times or in -other lands would be sure to show traces of this<span class="pagenum" id="Page241">[241]</span> -connection, and in temple worship it would be traceable. -While the carefully oriented Egyptian temples built -of stone remain and have been carefully studied, -those erected in the centres of Semitic power, built of -unbaked brick, have for the most part disappeared, but -for the most part only; some stone structures remain, -but in regard to them there has been no Lepsius; of -their orientation, too, little is known. This is all the -more to be regretted since Layard, in addition to many -E. and N. buildings found at Nimrood, noted at the -mound of Kouyunjik, the site of Nineveh, lat. 36° 20′ N., -that Sennacherib’s palace, which appears to have been -built round a central temple, was oriented to the May -year.<a href="#Footnote91" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor91">[91]</a> (Az. N. 68° 30′ E. = Dec. N. 16°.)</p> - -<p>Now, calling in the Babylonians as the originators of -what went on in Britain 4,000 years ago may seem -to some to be far-fetched in more ways than one; -but the Babylonians were a remarkable people; according -to some they originated all the voyaging of the early -world, though other authorities point out that the first -ships in the eastern seas must have been Indian.</p> - -<p>Ihering<a href="#Footnote92" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor92">[92]</a> adduces a series of facts which indicate -clearly that the Babylonians carried on maritime -navigation at least as early as about 3500 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> But, -whatever this time was, the Semites and Egyptians had -already a rich culture behind them at a time when the -Aryans, whatever or wherever their origin, had not made -themselves a place in the world’s history. An ancient<span class="pagenum" id="Page242">[242]</span> -sea connection between Babylonia and India may -explain the similarity of the British and Indian -folklore.</p> - -<p>Some facts with regard to long distance ancient -travel are the following. Our start-point may be that -Gudea, a Babylonian king who reigned about 2500 -<span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, brought stones from Melukhkha and Makan, that -is, Egypt and Sinai (Budge, <i>History of Egypt</i>, ii., -130). Now these stones were taken coastwise -Sinai to Eridu, at the head of the Persian Gulf, -a distance of 4,000 miles, and it is also said that -then, or even before then, there was a coast-wise -traffic to and from Malabar, where teak was got to -be used in house- and boat-building. The distance -from Eridu coastwise to Malabar, say the present -Cannanore, is 2,400 miles.</p> - -<p>The distance, coastwise, from Alexandria to Sandwich, -where we learn that Phœnicians and others -shipped the tin extracted from the mines in Cornwall, -is only 5,300 miles, so that a voyage of this length -was quite within the powers of the compassless navigators -of 2500 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>The old idea that the ancient merchants could -make a course from Ushant to, say, Falmouth or -Penzance need no longer be entertained; the crossing -from Africa to Gibraltar and from Cape Grisnez -to Sandwich were both to visible land, <i>i.e.</i> coastwise. -The cliffs on the opposite land are easily seen on a -clear day.</p> - -<p>Hence it would have been easier before the days -of astronomical knowledge and compasses to have -reached England, and therefore Ireland and the Orkneys,<span class="pagenum" id="Page243">[243]</span> -than to get to some of the islands in the Mediterranean -itself.<a href="#Footnote93" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor93">[93]</a></p> - -<p>It is seen then that it is possible that Semites -might have built our stone monuments between 2000 -and 1200 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, while it is quite certain that the -Aryans did not build them, if the archæologists are not -widely wrong in their dates.</p> - -<p>Let us, then, begin our inquiries by considering the -information available with regard to the Semites. Let -us see in the first instance whether they had stone -monuments, and sacred trees and sacred wells; a -system of worship; and whether this worship was connected -with the sun and stars.</p> - -<p>It is fortunate for us in this matter that one of the -most fully equipped scholars which the last century -produced, Robertson Smith, devoted his studies for many -years to <i>The Religion of the Semites</i>, and information on -the points raised is to our hand; all I need do is to -give as shortly as possible a statement of the various -conclusions he had reached on the points to which our -attention may in the first instance be confined. I quote -from his book <i>The Religion of the Semites</i>.</p> - -<p>The Semites include the Babylonians, who spoke a -Semitic dialect, for there were Sumerian speaking peoples -among them, Assyrians, Phœnicians, Hebrews, Arabs -and Aramæans, who in ancient times occupied the<span class="pagenum" id="Page244">[244]</span> -fertile lands of Syria, Mesopotamia and Irak from the -Mediterranean coast to the base of the mountains of -Iran and Armenia. They also embrace the inhabitants -of the great Arabian peninsula, which is believed to -have been the centre of dispersion.</p> - -<p>The ordinary artificial mark of a Semitic sanctuary -was the sacrificial pillar, cairn, or rude altar (p. 183): -it was a fixed point where, according to primitive rule, -the blood of the offering was applied to the sacred -stones; or where a sacred tree, as we shall see presently, -was hung with gifts; the stones and tree being symbols -of the God (p. 151).</p> - -<p>Further, it is certain that the original altar among -the northern Semites was a great unhewn<a href="#Footnote94" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor94">[94]</a> stone, or a -cairn, at which the blood of the victim was shed (p. 185).</p> - -<p>Monolithic pillars or cairns of stones are frequently -mentioned in the more ancient parts of the Old Testament -as marking sanctuaries; Shechem, Bethel, Gilead, Gilgal, -Mizpah, Gibeon, and En-Rogel are referred to (p. 186).</p> - -<p>There is evidence that in very early times the sanctuary -was a cave (p. 183). The obvious successors of a natural -cave are, (1) an artificial cave made in the earth like -the natural one, and (2) a model or representation of a -cave built of stone, with a small entrance which would -be barred, and covered over with earth, thus protecting -the priests from wild animals and the weather.</p> - -<p>The dolmens and cromlechs which are found in the -Semitic area where there are stones doubtless had this -origin.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page245">[245]</span></p> - -<p>The use of a cave was probably borrowed both by the -Egyptians and Greeks (there is a cave, for instance, at -Eleusis) from the Semites.</p> - -<p>In later times, when caves or their equivalents were -no longer in vogue and temples were erected, they -enclosed a Bit-ili or Beth-el, an upright stone, consecrated -by oil.<a href="#Footnote95" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor95">[95]</a></p> - -<p>We next learn (pp. 170 and 183) that no Canaanite -high place was complete without its sacred tree standing -beside the altar.</p> - -<p>In tree-worship pure and simple as in Arabia, the -tree is adored at an annual feast (? May), when it is -hung with clothes and women’s ornaments (p. 169).</p> - -<p>The tree at Mecca to which offerings are made is -spoken of as a “tree to hang things on.”</p> - -<p>The references to “groves” given in the Bible as associated -with temple worship are misleading, “groves” -being a wrong translation of the word Asherah, which was -a pole made of wood which the Jews adopted from the -Canaanites. It was ornamented and perhaps draped, and -was most probably originally a tree. It may have been -used in the “high places” because single trees would not -grow there in the East any more than on the moors -in Devon and Cornwall.</p> - -<p>The antiquity of this emblem is proved by Smith’s -statement (p. 171) that in an Assyrian monument from<span class="pagenum" id="Page246">[246]</span> -Khorsābād an ornamental pole is shown beside a -portable altar. “Priests stand before it engaged in an -act of worship and touch the pole with their hands or -perhaps anoint it with some liquid substance.”</p> - -<p>The draping of the tree seems to be proved by the passage -which suggested the mistranslation to me before I -wrote to some Hebrew scholars among my friends who -allowed me to consult them. The passage is as follows -(II. Kings, xxiii., 6, <span class="nowrap">7):—</span></p> - -<p>“And he brought out the grove from the house of -the Lord, without Jerusalem, unto the brook Kidron, -and burned it at the brook Kidron, and stamped it -small to powder, and cast the powder thereof upon the -graves of the children of the people.</p> - -<p>“And he brake down the houses of the Sodomites, that -were by the house of the Lord, where the women wove -hangings for the grove.”</p> - -<p>To show how little variation there was in the Semitic -practices to those recorded in British folklore I may -state that one of my friends—one of the revision -committee—informed me that his impression was that -the Asherah was furnished with pegs or hooks, so that -the garments, &c., might be easily hung on it.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">I next come to the sacred waters. A sacred fountain, -as well as the sacred tree, was a common symbol -at Semitic sanctuaries (p. 183). Nevertheless, they -were sometimes absent, the main place being given -to altar worship. Further, Robertson Smith was of -opinion that this altar worship did not originate with -tree [? or water] worship (p. 170); but still, sacred -wells are among the oldest and most ineradicable<span class="pagenum" id="Page247">[247]</span> -objects of reverence among all the Semites, and were -credited with oracular powers (pp. 128, 154). The -fountain or stream was not a mere adjunct to the -temple, but was itself one of the principal <i>sacra</i> of -the spot (p. 155).</p> - -<p>Undoubtedly there were ordeals among other things -at these wells (p. 163). One case is given in Numbers, -v., 17, where the words “holy water” occur, and -other water “that causeth the curse” is referred to. -Ordeal by water is not unknown among British customs.</p> - -<p>It is interesting to note that special sanctity was -attached to groups of seven wells (p. 167), and that -one such group was called Thorayga=Pleiades (p. 153).<a href="#Footnote96" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor96">[96]</a> -We may gather from this that one of the most sacred -times for Semitic worship was at the May festival, -marked by the rising of the Pleiades.</p> - -<p>Although I do not find many references in Robertson -Smith’s book as to great festival days, there is other -evidence which shows that the May festival was the -greatest, and represented New Year’s Day. I have -already shown that the May-November year is the -one recognised in the present Turkish, Armenian and -I believe Persian calendars (p. 29). As this was the -year used at Thebes 3200 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, we may take it that -at that time it was universal in W. Asia and the -adjacent lands. The Jews afterwards adopted the -equinoctial year.</p> - -<p>It seems highly probable that we may learn from<span class="pagenum" id="Page248">[248]</span> -many passages in the Old Testament what the Semitic -temple practices were generally. There were sacrifices -of men and beasts, burnt offerings, and lighting of -fires, through which the children were made to pass.</p> - -<p>I give some references to these fire practices.</p> - -<p>“And thou shalt not let any of thy seed pass -through the fire to Molech.”—Leviticus, xviii., 21.</p> - -<p>“There shall not be found among you any one that -maketh his son or his daughter to pass through the -fire, or that useth divination, or an observer of times, -or an enchanter, or a witch,</p> - -<p>“Or a charmer, or a consulter with familiar spirits, -or a wizard, or a necromancer.”—Deuteronomy, xviii., -10, 11.</p> - -<p>“He walked in the way of the kings of Israel, yea, -and made his son to pass through the fire.”—II. Kings, -xvi., 3.</p> - -<p>“And they caused their sons and their daughters to -pass through the fire, and used divination and enchantments.”—II. -Kings, xvii., 17.</p> - -<p>“And he defiled Topheth, which is in the valley of -the children of Hinnom, that no man might make his -son or his daughter to pass through the fire to -Molech.”—II. Kings, xxiii., 10. (See also 4 and 5.)</p> - -<p>Fire sacrifices which were interpreted as offerings of -fragrant smoke were prevalent among the settled Semites -(p. 218). Sacrificial fat was burned on the altar. Smith -remarks: “This could be done without any fundamental -modification of the old type of sacred stone or altar -pillar, simply by making a hollow on the top to -receive the grease, and there is some reason to think -that fire-altars of this simple kind, which in certain<span class="pagenum" id="Page249">[249]</span> -Phœnician types are developed into altar candlesticks, -are older than the broad platform altar proper for -receiving a burnt offering” (p. 364).</p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">With regard to the worship of the sun and stars -by the Semites, we read that the Semite addressed his -God as Baal or Bal. The simple form of Baal was -the sun.<a href="#Footnote97" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor97">[97]</a></p> - -<p>By the Semites the stars were, on account of their -movements, held to be alive; they were therefore -gods, and it was in consequence of this widespread -belief that the stars were worshipped (p. 127). The -worshippers “burned incense unto Baal, to the sun, to -the moon and to the planets, and to all the hosts of -heaven” (II. Kings, xxiii., 5). Job congratulated himself -that “his heart had not been enticed, nor his mouth -kissed his hand, if he beheld the sun when it shined, -or the moon walking in her brightness” (Job, xxxi., -26-27). The worship of the morning star as a god -is the old Semitic conception (Isa., xiv., 12), “Lucifer -son of the Dawn.”</p> - -<p>We gather from the later practices of the Saracens -that the sacrifices to the morning star could not be -made after the star had disappeared in the dawn.<a href="#Footnote98" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor98">[98]</a> -The God had to be in the presence of the worshippers.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">The Semitic worship was generally carried on in -“high places”; in the Babylonian temples built in a -river valley the “high places” were secured by building -towers with the sanctuary on the top.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page250">[250]</span></p> - -<p>These high places were necessary because exact observations -of the risings of the heavenly bodies formed part -of the ceremonial, and a clear horizon was absolutely -imperative. That this was generally understood and -acted on is well evidenced by the fact that in the Old -Testament the mention of high places is nearly always -associated with the references to the religion of the -Canaanites and other Semitic nations as if the high -places were among the most important points in it.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">Other arguments may be founded upon linguistic -considerations. Prof. J. Morris Jones<a href="#Footnote99" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor99">[99]</a> finds that -the syntax of Welsh and Irish differs from that of -other Aryan languages in many important respects, <i>e.g.</i> -the verb is put first in every simple sentence. Prof. -Rhys had suggested that these differences represented -the persistence in Welsh and Irish of the syntax of a -pre-Aryan dialect, and as the anthropologists hold that -the pre-Aryan population of these islands came from -North Africa, it seemed to Prof. Jones that that was -the obvious place to look for the origin of these syntactical -peculiarities. He finds the similarities between -Old Egyptian and neo-Celtic syntax to be astonishing; -he shows that practically all the peculiarities of Welsh -and Irish syntax are found in the Hamitic languages.</p> - -<p>This conclusion practically implies that the bulk of -the population of these islands, before the arrival of -the Celts, spoke dialects allied to those of North -Africa. The syntactical peculiarities must have represented<span class="pagenum" id="Page251">[251]</span> -the habits of thought of the people, which survived -in the Celtic vocabulary imposed upon them.</p> - -<p>These conclusions were not known to me when I -began to see the necessity of separating the cult of -the June from that of the May year, and the -identity of the conclusions drawn from astronomical -and linguistic data is to me very striking and also -suggests further special inquiries.</p> - -<p>It is also worth while to state that the Semites, including -the Hebrews and Phœnicians, did not burn their -dead. Finally, I may quote a remark made by General -Pitt-Rivers in the paper already referred to:—“If we do -not accept one old civilization as the origin of the various -practices, then we must assume accidental origins in each -country.”</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote83"></a><a href="#FNanchor83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Wood-Martin, p. 265.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote84"></a><a href="#FNanchor84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> <i>Dolmens of Ireland</i>, ii., p. 696.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote85"></a><a href="#FNanchor85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, ii., p. 580.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote86"></a><a href="#FNanchor86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 772.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote87"></a><a href="#FNanchor87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> <i>Journal Eth. Soc.</i>, N.S., i., 64.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote88"></a><a href="#FNanchor88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> <i>Journ. Eth. Soc.</i>, N.S. i., 64.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote89"></a><a href="#FNanchor89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> <i>The Mediterranean Races</i>, p. 4.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote90"></a><a href="#FNanchor90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> <i>The Oldest Civilisation of Greece</i>, p. 105.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote91"></a><a href="#FNanchor91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> -This I gather from the plan prepared by Lieut. Glascott, R.N., -who apparently accompanied Mr. Layard. He indicates the true -north point with a sailor’s precision in such matters. (See <a href="#Page305">p. 305</a>).</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote92"></a><a href="#FNanchor92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> -<i>Evolution of the Aryan</i>, Translation by Drucker, § 32.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote93"></a><a href="#FNanchor93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> -The prevalence of solstitial customs in Sardinia and Corsica, with -apparently no trace of the May year, tends to support this view, -which is also strengthened by the fact that the solstitial customs in -Morocco are very similar to those we read of in Britain: the May -year is unnoticed, and there is a second feast at Easter (March 16th). -See Westermarck in <i>Folk-lore</i>, vol. xxi., p. 27.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote94"></a><a href="#FNanchor94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> -And if thou wilt make me an altar of stone, thou shalt not build -it of hewn stone: for if thou lift up thy tool upon it, thou hast -polluted it.—Exodus, xx., 25.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote95"></a><a href="#FNanchor95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> -And Jacob rose up early in the morning, and took the stone that -he had put for his pillows, and set it up for a pillar, and poured oil -upon the top of it.</p> - -<p>And this stone, which I have set for a pillar, shall be God’s house; -and of all that thou shalt give me I will surely give the tenth unto -thee.—Genesis, xxviii., 18, 22.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote96"></a><a href="#FNanchor96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> -Herodotus, iii., 8, refers to an Arabian rite in which seven stones -are smeared with blood among peoples whose only gods were -Dionysos and Urania, whom they called Orotalt and Alilat.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote97"></a><a href="#FNanchor97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Sayce, <i>Babylonians and Assyrians</i>, p. 234.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote98"></a><a href="#FNanchor98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> -<i>Nili op. quaedam</i> (Paris, 1639), pp. 28, 117, quoted by Robertson -Smith, p. 151.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote99"></a><a href="#FNanchor99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> -“Pre-Aryan Syntax in Insular Celtic,” in the <i>Welsh People</i>, by -Rhys and Brynmor-Jones, pp. 617-641.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page252">[252]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER XXIII</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">THE SIMILARITY OF THE SEMITIC AND BRITISH WORSHIPS</span></h2> - -<p>I propose in this chapter to bring into juxtaposition -the various British and Semitic-Egyptian practices which -we have so far considered.</p> - -<p>I confess I am amazed at the similarities we have -come across in the first cast of the net; we have -found so much that is common to both worships in -connection with all the points we considered separately. -I will, for convenience, deal with the various points -seriatim.</p> - -<h3 class="leftnobot">1. The cult of sacred stones or cairns.</h3> - -<p>The only objection which, so far as I can see, may -be raised to these practices being absolutely common -is the idea among many British archæologists that -the cairns, in which term I include chambered barrows -or dolmens and their skeletons, the cromlechs and stone -passages, were set up for burial and not for worship. -This idea has arisen because some of them have been -used for burials. But I cannot accept this argument, -because since the burials might have taken place at -any time subsequent to their erection they prove<span class="pagenum" id="Page253">[253]</span> -nothing as to the reason of the erection; and further, -if these chambered cairns were meant for burials, there -should be burials in all of them, and yet there are -none in the most majestic of them all, Maeshowe.</p> - -<p>Let us consider a few facts in relation to the Semitic -use of cairns referred to on <a href="#Page244">p. 244</a>.</p> - -<p>That the cromlechs found both in Britain and Syria—there -are 780 in Ireland and 700 in Moab—are the -remains of chambered cairns is pretty clear from the -evidence brought forward by Borlase.<a href="#Footnote100" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor100">[100]</a></p> - -<p>Mr. John Bell, of Dundalk, disinterred over sixty -cromlechs from cairns in Ulster. All dolmens were -covered by tumuli according to Mr. Bell and Mr. Lukis. -Monuments called cairns in the earliest Ordnance -Survey have been marked dolmens in subsequent -surveys (<i>e.g.</i> Townland of Leana in Clare) because the -earth covering the stones had disappeared in the -meantime.</p> - -<p>Among the evidences of natural and artificial caves -preceding cairns which replaced them are the twenty-four -caves which have been explored in France (<i>op. cit.</i>, -p. 568).<a href="#Footnote101" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor101">[101]</a></p> - -<p>Borlase points out with regard to the Irish dolmens<span class="pagenum" id="Page254">[254]</span> -that large tumuli were not essential; all that was -necessary was that the walls of the cell or crypt should -be impervious to the elements and to wild animals. -A creep or passage communicating with the edge of the -mound is common to Ireland, Wales, Portugal and -Brittany (<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 428).</p> - -<p>The facts that the cairns so often had their open -ends facing the N.E. or S.E., and that the west end -was generally higher, like the naos trilithons at Stonehenge, -must be borne in mind.</p> - -<p>Most of what we know of earliest man has been -obtained from their lives in caves; what they ate, the -contemporary fauna and their art are thus known to -us, but caves have not been considered as tombs, though -men have died and left their remains in them.</p> - -<p>In the case of a dolmen, however, an artificial cave, -as we shall see, the possibility of people living in them -appears never to have been considered seriously, and -the tomb theory has led to bad reasoning and forced -argument.</p> - -<p>When burials are absent it has been suggested that -“owing to some peculiarity of the soil, the entire of -the human remains have become decomposed, only the -imperishable stone implements entombed with the body -remaining.”<a href="#Footnote102" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor102">[102]</a></p> - -<p>Mr. Spence has pointed out the extreme improbability -of Maeshowe being anything but a temple, and I may -now add on the Semitic model. There were a large -central hall and side rooms for sleeping, a stone door -which could have been opened or shut <i>from the inside</i>, -and a niche for a guard, janitor or hall porter! So<span class="pagenum" id="Page255">[255]</span> -high an authority as Colonel Leslie has pointed out -that neither Maeshowe, New Grange and Dowth on -the Boyne, nor Gavr Innis in Brittany bear any -internal proof of being specially prepared as tombs.<a href="#Footnote103" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor103">[103]</a></p> - -<p>There is another point connected with these dolmens -and cromlechs. An origin in the Semitic area easily -explains why in Asia and Britain the dolmens are -so alike, down to small details, such as the perforation -of one of the side stones. Borlase has remarked -also upon the similarity of Indian and Irish dolmens -(<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 755), similar holes also being common to -them. The curious concentric circles, &c., found on -some dolmen stones are common to Assyrian vessels.<a href="#Footnote104" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor104">[104]</a></p> - -<p>The most philosophical study of this question I have -seen<a href="#Footnote105" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor105">[105]</a> certainly suggests that much light may be expected -from this source.</p> - -<p>Part of the cult of the sacred stones was the ceremony -of <i>anointing them</i>. Robertson Smith (p. 214) gives -us the meaning and history of anointing among the -Semites, and notes its continuation from Jacob’s pouring -oil on sacred stones at Bethel, through the time of -Pausanias to that of the Pilgrims of the fourth century <span class="smcapall">A.D.</span></p> - -<p>The anointing of stones was certainly carried on in<span class="pagenum" id="Page256">[256]</span> -ancient times in Britain and Brittany. Baring-Gould -tells us:<a href="#Footnote106" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor106">[106]</a></p> - -<p>“Formerly the menhir was beplastered with oil and -honey and wax, and this anointing of the stones was -condemned by the bishops. In certain places the local -clergy succeeded in diverting the practice to the -Churches. There are still some in Lower Brittany whose -exterior walls are strung with wax lines arranged in -festoons and patterns.</p> - -<p>“In some places childless women still rub themselves -against menhirs, expecting thereby to be cured of -barrenness, but in others, instead, they rub themselves -against stone images of saints.”</p> - -<p>When I visited the Cave of Elephanta in 1871 I was -told that the barren women of Bombay visit the cave -once a year and anoint the standing stone in the -chief chamber. In Egypt they still rub their bodies on -the Colossi.</p> - -<h3 class="leftnobot">2. Sacred fires.</h3> - -<p>Among the Semites the sacrificial fat was burned on -the altar. And we have seen that “this could be done -without any fundamental modification of the old type -of sacred stone or altar pillar, simply by making a hollow -on the top to receive the grease.”<a href="#Footnote107" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor107">[107]</a></p> - -<div class="figright w260" id="Fig49"> - -<img src="images/illo269.png" alt="" width="250" height="378" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 49</span>.—Cresset-stone, Lewannick. -From Baring-Gould’s -<i>Strange Survivals</i>.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>Baring-Gould<a href="#Footnote108" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor108">[108]</a> has written on the question of -sacrificial and sacred fires in ancient times in Britain, and -points out that there still remain in some of our -churches (in Cornwall, York and Dorset) the contrivances—now -called cresset-stones—used. They are<span class="pagenum" id="Page257">[257]</span> -blocks of stone with cups hollowed out precisely as -described by Robertson Smith. Some are placed in -lamp-niches furnished with flues. -On these he remarks (p. <span class="nowrap">122):—</span></p> - -<p>“Now although these lamps and -cressets had their religious signification, -yet this religious signification -was an afterthought. The -origin of them lay in the necessity -of there being in every place a -central light, from which light -could at any time be borrowed.”</p> - -<h3 class="leftnobot">3. The cult of the sacred tree.</h3> - -<p>I have shown that the sacred -trees in Britain, whether rowan, thorn or mistletoe, -were at their best at the times of the festivals at -which they were chiefly worshipped. Mrs. J. H. -Philpot, in her valuable book on “the sacred tree,” -gives us the names of some used in different countries; -it would be interesting to inquire whether the same consideration -applies to them in the Semitic and other areas.</p> - -<p>There seems to be no doubt that the Semitic Asherah -was the precursor of the British Maypole, even to its -dressing of many coloured ribands, and from the Maypole -customs we may infer something of the Semitic -practices which have not come down to us. Even -“Jack o’ the Green” may eventually be traced to -Al-Khidr (<a href="#Page29">p. 29</a>) of the old May festivals.</p> - -<h3 class="leftnobot">4. The cult of the sacred well.</h3> - -<p>Here we find only trifling differences. The chief<span class="pagenum" id="Page258">[258]</span> -one is the use of pins in Britain. If we knew more -about the Asherah with its hooks this difference might -disappear.</p> - -<p>It has been pointed out by several authors that the -worship of wells and water would be most likely to -arise in a dry and thirsty land.</p> - -<h3 class="leftnobot">5. The time of the chief festivals.</h3> - -<p>Here we find beyond all question that the festival -times were the same to begin with. May is the chief -month both in West Asia and West Europe.</p> - -<p>It was not till a subsequent time that June and -December were added in Egypt and Britain, and April -and September among the Jews.</p> - -<h3 class="leftnobot">6. The characteristics of the festivals.</h3> - -<p>Here again is precise agreement. The list I gave -on <a href="#Page205">p. 205</a> of what can be gathered from British folklore -is identical with the statements as to Semitic -practices which I quoted from Robertson Smith in the -last chapter.</p> - -<h3 class="leftnobot">7. The worship in high places.</h3> - -<p>Absolute identity; and from this we can gather that -the ancient condition of the high places wherever -selected for temple worship was as treeless as it is -now; otherwise the observations of sun- and star-rise -and -set would be greatly interfered with.</p> - -<p>Of course, there may have been “groves” associated -with, but away from, sanctuaries in both Semitic and -British areas: but it is not impossible that much which -has been written on this subject with regard to Britain<span class="pagenum" id="Page259">[259]</span> -and the “Druids” may have been suggested in part by -the erroneous translation of Asherah to which I have -referred. It has also been stated that an early transcriber -who, in error, substituted lucus for locus may -also be held partly responsible, even if lucus does not -mean a clearing in a grove, as some maintain.</p> - -<h3 class="leftnobot">8. The god or gods worshipped.</h3> - -<p>The year-gods in Babylonia and Egypt respectively -were Baal and Thoth. It is worth while to inquire -whether either name has made its appearance as a -loan-word in the traditions of Western Europe.</p> - -<p>About Baal there can be no question as to the -coincidence, whether accidental, as some philologists -affirm, or not.</p> - -<p>We find Bel or Baal common to the two areas. Mr. -Borlase informs us (<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 1164) that in Western -Europe Bel, Beal, Balor, Balder, and Phol, Fal, Fáil -are the equivalents of the Semitic Baal. Balus, indeed, -is named as the first king of Orkney. A May worship -is connected with all the above. Beltaine and many -variants describe the fires lighted at the festival, and -it is worthy of note that although this fire worship -has been extended to the solstitial ceremonials in June, -the name Baltaine has never been applied to it at that -time except by writers who think that the term “midsummer” -may be applied indiscriminately to the beginning -of May and the end of June.</p> - -<p>I next deal with the Egyptian year-god Thoth. In -Greece he became Hermes, among the Romans Mercury. -In this connection I can most usefully refer to Rhys’s -Hibbert Lectures and his chapter on the Gaulish<span class="pagenum" id="Page260">[260]</span> -Pantheon. He tells us (p. 5) that “Mercury is the god -with whom the monuments lead one to begin.” There is -also mention of a god Toutates or Teutates, and a -Toutius, who might have been a public official (? priest -of Toutates). Only Celtic or other later origins of the -words are suggested; it is not said whether the -possible Egyptian root has been considered.</p> - -<p>We may even, I think, go further and ask whether -some of the constellations were not figured as in Egypt, -otherwise it is difficult to account for the horror of the -black pig (<a href="#Page195">p. 195</a>) at Hallowe’en. The whole Egyptian -story is told in my <i>Dawn of Astronomy</i><a href="#Footnote109" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor109">[109]</a> in connection -with the worship of Set, that is the stars visible at -night, blotted out at dawn by the rising sun, or becoming -predominant after sunset.</p> - -<h3 class="leftnobot">9. The worship of the sun and stars.</h3> - -<p>Here also, as I have shown, is complete agreement. -The same astronomical methods have been employed for -the same purpose. The chief difference lies in the fact -that by lapse of time the precessional movement caused -different stars to be observed as clock stars or to herald -the sunrise on the chief ceremonial days.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote100"></a><a href="#FNanchor100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> <i>Dolmens of Ireland</i>, p. 426.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote101"></a><a href="#FNanchor101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> -“France, indeed, furnishes us with a stepping-stone, as it were, -between the natural cave and the dolmen in certain artificial caves -which offer comparison both with the former and the latter... the -natural cave was scooped out into a large chamber or chambers either -by the swirling of water pent up in the limestone or other yielding rock -and finding its way out through some narrow crevice. The ground -plan and section, therefore, is that of an <i>allée couverte</i> with a -vestibule... the artificial cave is modelled on the natural one, and -yet bears, as M. Mortillet points out, a close resemblance to the -dolmen.”</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote102"></a><a href="#FNanchor102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> -Wandle, <i>Remains of Prehistoric Age in England</i>, p. 147.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote103"></a><a href="#FNanchor103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> -It is interesting to point out in relation to the fact that -different swarms successively introduced the May and solstitial years -that the “sleeping rooms” of the May year cairns at New Grange -are about 3 feet square, while at the solstitial Maeshowe, built very -much later, the dimensions are 6 feet × 4<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> feet. There were differences -of sleeping posture in the old days among different peoples as -well as different methods of burial.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote104"></a><a href="#FNanchor104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> Borlase, p. 617.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote105"></a><a href="#FNanchor105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> -“The Builders and the Antiquity of our Cornish Dolmens,” by -Rev. D. Gath Whitley (<i>Journal R.I. Cornwall</i>, No. 4).</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote106"></a><a href="#FNanchor106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> <i>Book of Brittany</i>, p. 21.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote107"></a><a href="#FNanchor107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> <i>History of the Semites</i>, p. 364.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote108"></a><a href="#FNanchor108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> <i>Strange Survivals</i>, p. 122.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote109"></a><a href="#FNanchor109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> Pp. 146, 215, and elsewhere.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page261">[261]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER XXIV</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">THE MAY-YEAR IN SOUTH-WEST CORNWALL</span></h2> - -<p>The previous pages of this volume have apparently -dealt with two distinct subjects; the use of the British -monuments on the orientation theory, and the folklore -and tradition which enable us to get some glimpses into -the lives, actions, habits and beliefs of the early inhabitants -of these islands, and the region whence these -early inhabitants had migrated.</p> - -<p>But although these subjects are apparently distinct, -I think my readers will agree that the study of each -has led to an identical result, namely, that in early -times it was a question of the May year, and that the -solstitial year was introduced afterwards. This was the -chief revelation of the monuments when they were -studied from the astronomical point of view.</p> - -<p>Without confirmation from some other sources this -result might have been considered as doubtful, and the -orientation theory might have been thought valueless. It -has, however, been seen that folklore and tradition confirm -it up to the hilt. I think it may be said, therefore, -that the theory I put forward in this book touching the -astronomical use of our ancient temples is so far justified.</p> - -<p>The British monuments I had considered before this -appeal to tradition was made were the circles at Stonehenge,<span class="pagenum" id="Page262">[262]</span> -Stenness, The Hurlers and Stanton Drew, and -the avenues on Dartmoor. These were studied generally, -the main special result being that to which I have referred; -we not only found alignments to sunrise and -sunset on the critical quarter-days of the May years, but -we found alignments to the stars which should have -been observed either at rising or setting to control the -morning sacrifices.</p> - -<p>But this inquiry had left out of account several circles -in south-west Cornwall, of which I had vaguely heard -but never seen. When I had written the previous -chapters showing how fully May-year practices are referred -to in the folklore of that part of the country, I -determined to visit the circles, dealing with them as test -objects in regard to this special branch of orientation. -I had not time to make a complete survey; this -I must leave to others; but with the help so readily -afforded me, which I shall acknowledge in its proper -place, I thought it possible in a brief visit to see -whether or not there were any May-year alignments. In -the following chapters I will give an account of the -observations made, but before doing so, in order to prove -how solid the evidence afforded by the Cornish monuments -is, I will state the details of the local astronomical conditions -depending upon the latitude of the Land’s End -region, N. 50°. In the chapter containing some astronomical -hints to archæologists I referred (<a href="#Page122">p. 122</a>) to the -solstice conditions for Stenness beyond John o’ Groat’s, -because those conditions afforded a special case, the -solstice being determined by the arrival of the sun at its -highest or lowest declination, which happens on particular -dates which recur each year. But with regard to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page263">[263]</span> -May year, during the first week of May the sun’s -declination is changing by over a quarter of a degree -daily, so that we must not expect to find the declination -of 16° 20′ (see <a href="#Page22">p. 22</a>) rigidly adhered to.</p> - -<p>As I have shown (<a href="#Page23">p. 23</a>), the sun’s passage through this -declination four times on its annual path on the dates -stated accurately divides the year into four equal parts. -But this accuracy might have been neglected by the -early observers, so that, for instance, the sun’s position -on the 4th or 8th of May instead of that on the 6th -might have been chosen as being in greater harmony -with the agricultural conditions at the place.</p> - -<p>The conditions of the sunrise from John o’ Groat’s to -Land’s End, 2′ of the sun being visible above the sky-line, -can be gathered from the following <span class="nowrap">diagram:—</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w500" id="Fig50"> - -<img src="images/illo275.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="414" /> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo275lg.jpg">Larger diagram</a></p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 50</span>.—Place of first appearance of the May sun, in British latitudes.</p> - -<div class="illotext w20m"> - -<p class="noindent">Vertical axis: N. LAT. From bottom: 48-59.</p> - -<p class="noindent">Horizontal axis: AZIMUTHS. From left: 55-67.</p> - -<p class="noindent">Curves, from left: HORIZON, 0° HILL, 2°HILL.</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page264">[264]</span></p> - -<p>The exact azimuths for this sunrise in the Land’s End -region (Lat. 50°) in relation to the place of the sunrise -when half the sun has risen, with a sea horizon, are -shown in <a href="#Fig51">Fig. 51</a>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig51"> - -<img src="images/illo276.png" alt="" width="600" height="431" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 51</span>.—Showing the influence of -the height of the sky-line on the apparent place of sunrise -in May and August. The double circle shows the tabular place of sun’s centre.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page265">[265]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER XXV</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">THE MERRY MAIDENS CIRCLE (LAT. 50° 4′ N.)</span></h2> - -<p>One of the best preserved circles that I know of is -near Penzance. It is called the Merry Maidens<a href="#Footnote110" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor110">[110]</a> (Dawns-Maen), -and is thus described by Lukis<a href="#Footnote111" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor111">[111]</a> -(p. <span class="nowrap">1):—</span></p> - -<p>“This very perfect Circle, which is 75 feet 8 inches -in diameter, stands in a cultivated field which slopes -gently to the south.</p> - -<p>“It consists of 19 granite stones placed at tolerably -regular distances from each other, but there is a gap -on the east side, where another stone was most -probably once erected.</p> - -<p>“Many of the stones are rectangular in plan at the -ground level, vary from 3 feet 3 inches to 4 feet in -height, and are separated by a space of from 10 to 12<span class="pagenum" id="Page266">[266]</span> -feet. There is a somewhat shorter interval between -four of the stones on the south side.</p> - -<p>“In the vicinity of this monument are two monoliths -called the Pipers; another called Goon-Rith; a -holed stone (not long ago there were two others); and -several [5] Cairns.”</p> - -<p>Lukis thus describes the <span class="nowrap">“Pipers”:—</span></p> - -<p>“Two rude stone pillars of granite stand erect, 317 -feet apart, and about 400 yards to the north-east of -the Circle of Dawns-Maen. No. 1 is 15 feet high, 4 -feet 6 inches in breadth, and has an average thickness -of 22 inches, and is 2 feet 9 inches out of the -perpendicular. The stone is of a laminated nature, and -a thin fragment has flaked off from the upper part. -No. 2 is 13 feet 6 inches high, and is much split -perpendicularly. At the ground level its plan in -section is nearly a square of about 3 feet.”</p> - -<p>Goon-Rith is next described:—“No. 3 is naturally -of a rectangular form in plan, and is 10 feet 6 inches -in height. The land on which it stands is called -Goon-Rith, or Red Downs. The upper part of the -stone is of irregular shape.”</p> - -<p>Borlase, in his <i>History of Cornwall</i> (1769), only -mentions the circle, but W. C. Borlase, in his <i>Nænia -Cornubiæ</i> (1872), gives a very rough plan including -the stones before mentioned and several barrows, some -of which have been ploughed up.</p> - -<p>At varying distances from the circle and in widely -different azimuths are other standing stones, ancient -crosses and holed stones, while some of the barrows -can still be traced.</p> - -<p>The descriptions of the locality given by Borlase<span class="pagenum" id="Page267">[267]</span> -and Lukis, however, do not exhaust the points of -interest. Edmonds<a href="#Footnote112" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor112">[112]</a> -writes as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<p>“A cave still perfect... is on an eminence in the -tenement of Boleit (Boleigh) in St. Buryan, and about -a furlong south-west of the village of Trewoofe (Trove). -It is called the ‘Fowgow,’ and consists of a trench 6 -feet deep and 36 long, faced on each side with -unhewn and uncemented stones, across which, to serve -as a roof, long stone posts or slabs are laid covered -with thick turf, planted with furze. The breadth of -the cave is about 5 feet. On its north-west side, near -the south-west end, a narrow passage leads into a -branch cave of considerable extent, constructed in the -same manner. At the south-west end is an entrance -by a descending path; but this, as well as the cave -itself, is so well concealed by the furze that the whole -looks like an ordinary furze break without any way -into it. The direction of the line of this cave is about -north-east and south-west, which line, if continued -towards the south-west, would pass close to the two -ancient pillars called the Pipers, and the Druidical -temple of Dawns Myin, all within half of a mile.”</p> - -<p>This fougou is situated on a hill on the other side -of the Lamorna Valley, near the village of Castallack, -and the site of the Roundago shown in the 1-inch -Ordnance map.</p> - -<p>Borlase<a href="#Footnote113" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor113">[113]</a> says that many similar caves were to be -seen “in these parts” in his time, and others had -been destroyed by converting the stones to other uses.</p> - -<p>There is evidence that the circle conditions at the -Merry Maidens were once similar to those at Stenness,<span class="pagenum" id="Page268">[268]</span> -Stanton Drew, the Hurlers, Tregaseal and Botallack, -that is that there was more than one, the numbers -running from 2 to 7. Mr. Horton Bolitho, without -whose aid in local investigations this chapter in all -probability would never have been written, in one -of his visits came across “the oldest inhabitant,” -who remembered a second circle. He said, “It was -covered with furze and never shown to antiquarians”; -ultimately the field in which it stood was ploughed up -and the stones removed. It is to prevent a similar -fate happening to the “Merry Maidens” themselves -that Lord Falmouth will not allow the field in -which they stand to be ploughed, and all antiquarians -certainly owe him a debt of gratitude for this and -other proofs of his interest in antiquities. Mr. -Bolitho carefully marked the site thus indicated on a -copy of the 25-inch map. I shall subsequently show -that the circle which formerly existed here, like the -others named, was located on an important sight-line.</p> - -<p>Mr. Horton Bolitho was good enough to make -a careful examination of the barrows A and B of -Borlase.<a href="#Footnote114" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor114">[114]</a> In A (S. 69° W.) he found a long stone -still lying in the barrow, suggesting that the barrow -had been built round it, and that the apex of the -barrow formed a new alignment. In B there is -either another recumbent long stone or the capstone -of a dolmen. This suggests work for the local antiquarians.</p> - -<p>I should state that there may be some doubt about -barrow A, for there are two not far from each other -with approximate azimuths S. 69° W. and S. 64° W.<span class="pagenum" id="Page269">[269]</span> -The destruction of these and other barrows was probably -the accompaniment of the reclamation of waste lands -and the consequent -interference with -antiquities which -in Cornwall has -mostly taken place -since 1800.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig52"> - -<img src="images/illo281.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="234" /> - -<p class="photocredit"><i>Photo. by Lady Lockier.</i></p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span>—The Merry Maidens (looking East).</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>But it did not -begin then, nor has -it been confined to -barrows. Dr. Borlase, -in his parochial -memoranda under -date September 29, -1752, describes a -monolith 20 feet -above ground, and -planted 4 feet in it, -the “Men Peru” -(stone of sorrow) -in the parish of -Constantine. A farmer -acknowledged -that he had cut it -up, and had made -twenty gate-posts -out of it.</p> - -<p>My wife and I -visited the Merry -Maidens at Easter, -1905, for the purpose<span class="pagenum" id="Page270">[270]</span> -of making a reconnaissance. Mr. Horton Bolitho -and Mr. Cornish were good enough to accompany us.</p> - -<p>On my return to London I began work on the -25-inch Ordnance map, and subsequently Colonel R. C. -Hellard, R.E., director of the Ordnance Survey, was -kind enough to send me the true azimuths of the -Pipers. In October, 1905, Mr. Horton Bolitho and -Captain Henderson, whose help at the Hurlers I have -already had an opportunity of acknowledging, made -a much more complete survey of the adjacent standing -stones and barrows.</p> - -<p>In this survey they not only made use of the -25-inch map, but of the old plan given by W. C. -Borlase dating from about 1870. Although the outstanding -stones shown by Borlase remain, some of -the barrows indicated by him have disappeared.</p> - -<p>In January, 1906, my wife and I paid other visits -to the monuments, and Mr. Horton Bolitho was -again good enough to accompany us. Thanks to him -permission had been obtained to break an opening in -the high wall-boundary which prevented any view -along the “Pipers” sight-line. I may here add that -unfortunately in Cornwall the field boundaries often -consist of high stone walls topped by furze, so that -the outstanding stones once visible from the circles -can now no longer be seen from them; another -trouble is that from this cause the angular height of -the sky-line along the alignment cannot be measured -in many cases.</p> - -<p>I will now proceed to refer to the chief sight-lines -seriatim. The first is that connecting the circle which -still exists with the site of the ancient one. On this<span class="pagenum" id="Page271">[271]</span> -line exactly I found four points, a barrow (L) which -Borlase had missed (further from the circle than his -barrow A), the site, the present circle, and the -fougou; azimuth from centre of circle N. 64° E. -and S. 64° W. This is the May-year line found at -Stonehenge, Stenness, the Hurlers and Stanton Drew.</p> - -<p>In connection with this there is another sight-line -which must not be passed over; from the circle the -bearing of the church of St. Burian is about N. 64° W.; -like the fougou it is situated on a hill, and near -it are ancient crosses which I suspect were menhirs -first and crosses afterwards.<a href="#Footnote115" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor115">[115]</a> However this may be, -we see in this azimuth of 64° three times repeated -that the May and August sunrises and sunsets and -the February and November sunsets were provided for.</p> - -<p>With regard to the other sight-lines I will begin -with that of the Pipers, as it is quite obviously -connected with the eastern circle only; the stones -could not have been seen from the other on account -of rising ground. The barrow shown in this direction -by Borlase has now entirely disappeared, and the -earth has evidently been spread over the surrounding<span class="pagenum" id="Page272">[272]</span> -field; its surface is therefore higher than formerly, so -that when the opening was made in the wall the top -of the nearest piper could not be seen from the centre -of the circle; an elevation of about 2 feet from the -ground level was necessary. Walking straight from -the circle to the first piper, the second piper was -exactly in a line, though at a much lower level. This -showed that the Ordnance values were not quite -accurate, which was not to be wondered at as no -direct observation had been possible. I therefore -adopted the mean of the Ordnance values as the true -<span class="nowrap">azimuth:—</span></p> - -<table class="calculation" summary="Calculation"> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Piper 1.—</td> -<td class="center padded">N.</td> -<td class="center">37</td> -<td class="center padded">°</td> -<td class="center">58</td> -<td class="center padded">′</td> -<td class="center">36</td> -<td class="center padded">″</td> -<td class="center">E.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Piper 2.—</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">38</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">52</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">36</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Mean</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center bt">38</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="center bt">25</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="center bt">36</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The sky-line from the centre of the circle was defined -by the site of the vanished barrow, angular elevation -20′, and it is highly probable that the function of the -barrow when built was to provide a new sight-line when -the star-rise place was no longer exactly pointed out by -the piper line.</p> - -<p>With these data the star in question was Capella, dec. -29° 58′ N., heralding the February sunrise, 2160 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>I next come to the famous menhir Goon-Rith. The -conditions are as follows:—from the circle Az. S. 81° 35′ -W. Altitude of sky-line 34′.</p> - -<p>Concerning this alignment from the circle, it may be -stated that it cuts across many ancient stones, including -one resembling a rock basin or laver, and another either -a holed stone or the socket of a stone cross. I suspect<span class="pagenum" id="Page273">[273]</span> -also the presence in old days of a holy well attached -to the circle, for there is a pool of water in a depression -which is shown in the 25-inch map.</p> - -<p>I regard it as quite possible that we are here in -presence of the remains of a cursus, an old <i>via sacra</i>, -for processions between the circle and the monolith.</p> - -<p>I have not been able to find any astronomical use for -this stone from the circle or from the site of the old -one, but if we suppose it to have been used like the -Barnstone at Stenness for observations <i>over</i> the circle its -object at once becomes obvious.</p> - -<p>From the azimuth given, the declination of the star -was 5° 24′ N. Now this was the position of the Pleiades -<span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> 1960, when they would have warned the rising of -the May sun.</p> - -<p>So that it is possible that the erection of the Pipers -and of Goon-Rith took place at about the same time, and -represent the first operations.</p> - -<p>The next alignment has an azimuth of S. 69° W. -from the circle; it would be the same within a degree -from the site of the one which has disappeared; altitude -of sky-line 32′; this line is to a stone cross on rising -ground,<a href="#Footnote116" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor116">[116]</a> doubtless a re-dressing of an old menhir, and -on the line nearer the circle are the remains of a barrow.</p> - -<p>With these data the star in question was Antares, -dec. S. 13° 18′, heralding the May sunrise 1310 -<span class="smcapall">B.C.<span class="pagenum" id="Page274">[274]</span></span></p> - -<p>There is another stone cross defining a line az. -N. 11° 45′ E. from the circle, altitude of sky-line about -the same as along the Piper azimuth; an intervening -house prevents measurement. These values give us N. dec. -38° 46′, referring to Arcturus warning the August sunrise -in 1640 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>The three alignments already referred to, then, give -us the warning stars for three out of the four quarter-days -of the May year.</p> - -<p>There is still another stone cross, Az. N. 82° 5′ W., -hills about 34′. This has no connection with the May -year, but may refer to the equinoctial one.</p> - -<p>W. C. Borlase refers to several holed stones. The -data for two of these, supplied by Capt. Henderson, are -as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<table class="standard dontwrap fsize90" summary="Stones"> - -<tr> -<th> </th> -<th colspan="3"><span class="padr3">Az.</span></th> -<th>Alt. of<br />sky-line</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padr3">Stone in hedge N. of road</span></td> -<td class="center">S.</td> -<td class="center">50°33′</td> -<td class="center"><span class="padr3">E.</span></td> -<td class="center">45′</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padr3">Stone, half still standing</span></td> -<td class="center">S.</td> -<td class="center">79  25 </td> -<td class="center"><span class="padr3">W.</span></td> -<td class="center">49 </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>Azimuths near these have been noted before at other -circles, and it must not be forgotten that as the holed -stones on my view were used for observation, these -azimuths must be reversed, since it is probable that the -observations were made over the circle. If this were so, -then S.E. would be changed into N.W., and we should -get N. 50° 33′ W. indicating the solstitial sunset. Similarly, -S.W. would become N.E., and we should have -N. 79° 25′ E., possibly a Pleiades alignment.</p> - -<p>I have brought together in the following table all -the sight-lines so far referred to. Where the altitude -of the sky-line has been measured it is marked -with a *.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page275">[275]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig53"> - -<img src="images/illo287.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="382" /> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo287lg.jpg">Larger map</a></p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 53</span>.—25-inch Ordnance Map of Merry Maidens, showing alignments.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page276">[276]</span></p> - -<p>In the map the probable site of the second circle -and the barrows have special marks attached to them. -The numbers of the alignments in the table are also -shown in the map.</p> - -<p class="tabhead">TABLE OF ALIGNMENTS.</p> - -<table class="alignment" summary="Alignment"> - -<tr class="bt bb"> -<th class="br">Align-<br />ment.</th> -<th class="br">Azimuth.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Hill.</th> -<th class="br">Decl.</th> -<th class="br">Sun or Star.</th> -<th class="br">Date.</th> -<th>Mark.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"> </th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="br"><span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></th> -<th> </th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center br">1</td> -<td class="center br">N. 11° 45′ E.</td> -<td class="right">20′</td> -<td class="center br"> </td> -<td class="right br">38° 46′ N.</td> -<td class="star wrappable">Arcturus (warning August)</td> -<td class="center br">1650</td> -<td class="mark wrappable">Stone in road.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center br">2</td> -<td class="center br">N. 38° 25′ E.</td> -<td class="right">20′</td> -<td class="center br">*</td> -<td class="right br">29° 58′ N.</td> -<td class="star wrappable">Capella (warning February)</td> -<td class="center br">2160</td> -<td class="mark wrappable">The Pipers and barrow.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center br">3</td> -<td class="center br">N. 64° E.</td> -<td class="right"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub>°</td> -<td class="center br"> </td> -<td class="right br">16° 21′ N.</td> -<td class="star wrappable">May year</td> -<td class="center br">—</td> -<td class="mark wrappable">Fougou.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center br">4</td> -<td class="center br">S. 38° 22′ N.</td> -<td class="right">20′</td> -<td class="center br"> </td> -<td class="right br">30° 27′ S.</td> -<td class="star wrappable">Pipers line</td> -<td class="center br">—</td> -<td class="mark wrappable">Barrrow B.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center br">5</td> -<td class="center br">S. 64° W.</td> -<td class="right">20′</td> -<td class="center br"> </td> -<td class="right br">16° 26′ S.</td> -<td class="star wrappable">May year (February-November setting)</td> -<td class="center br">—</td> -<td class="mark wrappable">Barrow L.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center br">6</td> -<td class="center br">S. 69° W.</td> -<td class="right">32′</td> -<td class="center br">*</td> -<td class="right br">13° 18′ S.</td> -<td class="star wrappable">Antares (warning May)</td> -<td class="center br">1310</td> -<td class="mark wrappable">Stone cross on hill and Barrow A.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center br">7</td> -<td class="center br">S. 81° 35′ W.</td> -<td class="right">32′</td> -<td class="center br">*</td> -<td class="right br">5° 24′ N.</td> -<td class="star wrappable"><i>Reversed line.</i> Pleiades elev. <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>°(warning May)</td> -<td class="center br">1960</td> -<td class="mark wrappable">Goon-Rith.</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<td class="center br">8</td> -<td class="center br">N. 64° W.</td> -<td class="right">42′</td> -<td class="center br"> </td> -<td class="right br">16° N.</td> -<td class="star wrappable">May year (May eve setting)</td> -<td class="center br">—</td> -<td class="mark wrappable">St. Burian Church.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote110"></a><a href="#FNanchor110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> -I may here remark that “9 maidens” is very common as a name -for a circle in Cornwall. It is a short title for 19 maidens. Lukis -implies that Dawns-Maen once consisted of 20 stones. If all the -circles followed suit it would be interesting to note if the present -number of 19 is always associated with a gap on the eastern side. -The “pipers” are, of course, the musicians who keep the maidens -merry, as does the “blind fiddler” at Boscowen-un Circle.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote111"></a><a href="#FNanchor111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> <i>Prehistoric Stone Monuments, Cornwall.</i></p> - -<p><a id="Footnote112"></a><a href="#FNanchor112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> <i>The Land’s End District</i>, p. 46.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote113"></a><a href="#FNanchor113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> <i>Antiquities</i>, p. 274.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote114"></a><a href="#FNanchor114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> <i>Nænia</i>, p. 214.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote115"></a><a href="#FNanchor115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> -In <span class="smcapall">A.D.</span> 658 a council assembled at Nantes decreed:—“As in -remote places and in woodlands there stand certain stones which the -people often worship, and at which vows are made, and to which -oblations are presented—we decree that they be all cast down and -concealed in such a place that their worshippers may not be able to -find them.”</p> - -<p>“Now the carrying out of their order was left to the country -parsons, and partly because they had themselves been brought up to -respect these stones, and partly because the execution of the decree -would have brought down a storm upon their heads, they contented -themselves with putting a cross on top of the stones.”—<i>Book of -Brittany</i>, by Baring-Gould, p. 20.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote116"></a><a href="#FNanchor116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> -With regard to this Mr. Horton Bolitho has sent me the -following note:—“The rising ground here is called locally ‘Lanine -Hill’ (spelt Lanyon and pronounced Lanine); this is worth noticing, as -it is the same name as the dolmen six or seven miles away from Boleit, -and in the same district as the Men an Tôl and Boskednan Circle, to -say nothing of Lannion in Brittany. Lan signifies something sacred, -the place of the saint, or belonging to the saint.”</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page277">[277]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER XXVI</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">THE TREGASEAL CIRCLES (LAT. 50° 8′ 25″ N., -LONG. 5° 39′ 25″ W.)</span></h2> - -<p>There are two circles situated on Truthwall Common -near to Tregaseal and not far from St. Just; -the one is nearly to the east of the other, and there -are outstanding stones, including four holed stones, -and several barrows. The eastern temple has a -diameter of 69 feet, and includes, at the present time, -nine erect and four prostrate stones; the original -structure seems to have contained twenty-eight stones -according to Lukis.</p> - -<p>My wife and I visited the region in January, 1906, -but previously to our going Mr. Horton Bolitho, -accompanied by Mr. Thomas, whose knowledge of the -local antiquities is very great, had explored the region -and taught us what to observe.</p> - -<p>The chief interest appears to lie on the N.E. quadrant, -where, in addition to a famous longstone on a -hill about a mile away, the nest of holed stones and -several of the barrows are located. Carn Kenidjack, a -famous landmark, lies to the north.</p> - -<p>Of the two circles, I confined my attention almost -exclusively to the eastern one, as the other is in a<span class="pagenum" id="Page278">[278]</span> -fragmentary condition, though it is still traceable. It -is hidden almost entirely from the eastern circle by -a modern hedge.</p> - -<p>Mr. Horton Bolitho, who accompanied us in January, -has again visited the spot, with Mr. Thomas, for the -purpose of further exploration, and determining the -angular height of the sky-line along the different -alignments, which I have plotted from the 6-inch and -25-inch maps. My readers will therefore see that my -part of the work has been a small one, and that they -are chiefly indebted to those I have named.</p> - -<p>No theodolite survey has as yet been made for determining -the azimuths and the height of the hills. The -following approximate azimuths have been determined -by myself from a 25-inch map, and the elevations by -Mr. Horton Bolitho by means of a miner’s dial.</p> - -<table class="dontwrap fsize90" summary="Azimuths"> - -<tr> -<th> </th> -<th>Alignments.</th> -<th colspan="6">Azimuth.</th> -<th colspan="4">Elevation.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr1">1.</td> -<td class="left">Apex of Carn</td> -<td class="center padl3">N.</td> -<td class="right padr0">12</td> -<td rowspan="6" class="left top padl0">°</td> -<td class="right padr0"> 8</td> -<td rowspan="6" class="left top padl0">′</td> -<td class="center padr3">E.</td> -<td class="right padr0">4</td> -<td rowspan="6" class="left top padl0">′</td> -<td class="right padr0"> 0</td> -<td rowspan="6" class="left top padl0">′</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr1">2.</td> -<td class="left">Barrow 800′ distant</td> -<td class="center padl3">N.</td> -<td class="right padr0">20</td> -<td class="right padr0">8</td> -<td class="center padr3">E.</td> -<td class="right padr0">3</td> -<td class="right padr0">50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr1">3.</td> -<td class="left">Two barrows 900′ distant</td> -<td class="center padl3">N.</td> -<td class="right padr0">50</td> -<td class="right padr0">8</td> -<td class="center padr3">E.</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="right padr0">50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr1">4.</td> -<td class="left">Holed stones</td> -<td class="center padl3">N.</td> -<td class="right padr0">53</td> -<td class="right padr0">20</td> -<td class="center padr3">E.</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="right padr0">15</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr1">5.</td> -<td class="left">Longstone</td> -<td class="center padl3">N.</td> -<td class="right padr0">66</td> -<td class="right padr0">38</td> -<td class="center padr3">E.</td> -<td class="right padr0">2</td> -<td class="right padr0">10</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr1">6.</td> -<td class="left">Stone</td> -<td class="center padl3">N.</td> -<td class="right padr0">76</td> -<td class="right padr0">13</td> -<td class="center padr3">E.</td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The carn referred to in the above table is Carn -Kenidjack, called “the hooting cairn.” The rocks on -the summit, in which there is a remarkable depression, -are still by local superstition supposed to emit evil -sounds by night.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page279">[279]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig54"> - -<img src="images/illo291.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="290" /> - -<p class="photocredit"><i>Photo. by Lady Lockyer.</i></p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span>—The Eastern Circle at Tregaseal.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page280">[280]</span></p> - -<p>Of the sight-lines studied so far, those to and from -the Longstone and the holed stones seem the most -important. The Longstone,<a href="#Footnote117" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor117">[117]</a> -1<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> miles to the N.E., is -a monolith 10 feet high on the western side of a -hill; it is visible from the circle though furze has -grown round and partly hidden it.</p> - -<p>The meanings of the various alignments seem to be -as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<table class="dontwrap fsize90" summary="Meanings"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="2"> </th> -<th colspan="6" class="padl3 padr3">Decl. N.</th> -<th colspan="2">Star.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="padl3">Date.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr1">1.</td> -<td class="left">Apex of Carn</td> -<td class="right padl3 padr0">42</td> -<td rowspan="6" class="left top padl0">°</td> -<td class="right padr0">33</td> -<td rowspan="6" class="left top padl0">′</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -<td rowspan="6" class="left top padl0 padr3">″</td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">Arcturus</td> -<td class="left padl3">2330</td> -<td class="center"><span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr1">2.</td> -<td class="left">Barrow 800′ distant</td> -<td class="right padl3 padr0">40</td> -<td class="right padr0">29</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">„</td> -<td class="left padl3">1970</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr1">3.</td> -<td class="left">Two barrows 900′ distant</td> -<td class="right padl3 padr0">25</td> -<td class="right padr0">20</td> -<td class="right padr0">21</td> -<td class="left">?</td> -<td class="left">Solstitial</td> -<td rowspan="3" colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr1">4.</td> -<td class="left">Holed stones</td> -<td class="right padl3 padr0">23</td> -<td class="right padr0">2</td> -<td class="right padr0">20</td> -<td class="left">?</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr1">5.</td> -<td class="left">Longstone</td> -<td class="right padl3 padr0">16</td> -<td class="right padr0">2</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">May sun</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr1">6.</td> -<td class="left">Stone</td> -<td class="right padl3 padr0">9</td> -<td class="right padr0">15</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">Pleiades</td> -<td class="left padl3">1270</td> -<td class="center"><span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>Regarding the possible solstitial alignments, the -declinations obtained may be neglected until the -azimuths and angular heights of the hills have been -determined with a good theodolite. A change of --10′ in the angular elevation, and hence about that -in the resulting declination, would bring the date -given by the barrows to about 2000 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>The position of the Longstone is well worthy of -attention. Several very fine monuments which mark -the surrounding horizon are visible from it in azimuths -with which other monuments have made us familiar. -They are as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<table class="dontwrap fsize90" summary="Azimuths"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="2">Alignment.</th> -<th colspan="6">Az.</th> -<th colspan="4">Hills.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Longstone to</td> -<td class="left">Mên-an-tol</td> -<td class="center padl3">N.</td> -<td class="right padr0">50</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="left top padl0">°</td> -<td class="right padr0">30</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="left top padl0">′</td> -<td class="center padr3">E.</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="left top padl0">°</td> -<td class="right padr0">34</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="left top padl0">′</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left">Nine Maidens (Boskednan)</td> -<td class="center padl3">N.</td> -<td class="right padr0">54</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -<td class="center padr3">E.</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left">W. Lanyon Quoit</td> -<td class="center padl3">N.</td> -<td class="right padr0">67</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -<td class="center padr3">E.</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left">Lanyon Quoit</td> -<td class="center padl3">N.</td> -<td class="right padr0">72</td> -<td class="right padr0">45</td> -<td class="center padr3">E.</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>These values, of which the angular heights of the -hills were determined approximately from the contours -on the 1-inch Ordnance map, lead us to the following -<span class="nowrap">declinations:—</span></p> - -<table class="dontwrap fsize90" summary="Declinations"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="2">Alignment.</th> -<th colspan="5">Decl.</th> -<th>Star.</th> -<th class="padl3">Date.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Longstone to</td> -<td class="left">Mên-an-tol</td> -<td class="right padl3 padr0">24</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="left top padl0">°</td> -<td class="right padr0">7</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="left top padl0">′</td> -<td class="center padr3">N.</td> -<td class="left">Solstitial sun.</td> -<td rowspan="3"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left">Nine Maidens (Boskednan)</td> -<td class="right padl3 padr0">22</td> -<td class="right padr0">37</td> -<td class="center padr3">N.</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left">W. Lanyon Quoit</td> -<td class="right padl3 padr0">14</td> -<td class="right padr0">3</td> -<td class="center padr3">N.</td> -<td class="left">May sun.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left">Lanyon Quoit</td> -<td class="right padl3 padr0">10</td> -<td class="right padr0">30</td> -<td class="center padr3">N.</td> -<td class="left">Pleiades</td> -<td class="center padl3">1030 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page281">[281]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig55"> - -<img src="images/illo293.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="389" /> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo293lg.png">Larger map</a></p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 55</span>.—Photograph of Ordnance Map, showing sight-lines.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page282">[282]</span></p> - -<p>The May-sun alignment, it may be noted, differs -from that from the circle. The heights of hills when -determined may give us the same solar declination; -that now used gives the declination for April 28 and -August 15 in our present calendar.</p> - -<p>Regarding the alignment on Lanyon Quoit, it need -only be pointed out that the Pleiades date obtained -is some 200 years after the date obtained for the -analagous alignment from the circle, showing that if -these two monuments—the Tregaseal circle and the -Longstone—have any relationship, the removal to the -high plain, now known as Woon Gumpus and Boswen -Commons, was an afterthought improvement.</p> - -<p>I next come to the holed stones, not only the nest -of them not far from the circle, but the famous -Mên-an-tol itself.</p> - -<p>I had heard before going to Tregaseal that the four -holed stones shown on the Ordnance map had been -knocked down and set up again (not necessarily in -their old places) two or three times. Mr. Horton -Bolitho and Mr. Thomas, however, in their examination -were convinced that the largest of them has never -been moved. They also express the belief that the -others are not more than a foot or so from their -original positions, and that this change is only due -to their re-erection by Mr. Cornish after they had -fallen down. So far I have heard nothing of the -direction of the hole in the stone which retains its -original position.</p> - -<p>Another interesting matter is that the explorers in -question were able to trace an ancient stone alignment -from the circle to the holed stones.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page283">[283]</span></p> - -<p>I have long held that these holed stones were -arrangements for determining an alignment. The -famous Odin stone at Stenness, long since disappeared, -was, if we may trust the very definite statements made -about its position, used to observe the Barnstone in one -direction and the chief circle in the other.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig56"> - -<img src="images/illo295.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="327" /> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo295lg.jpg">Larger plan</a></p> - -<p class="caption long"><span class="smcap">Fig. 56</span>.—Plan of the -Mên-an-tol from Lukis, showing that it was an apparatus for observing the -sunrise in May and August in one direction and the sunset in February and November in the -other. Sun’s declination, 16° N. or S.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page284">[284]</span></p> - -<p>The azimuths suggest that theodolite measures may -show that the Tregaseal stones might have been used -in the same way; they, the Longstone and Lanyon -Quoit, are in nearly the same straight line, the alignment, -holed stones to Longstone and Lanyon Quoit, -being N. 67° E., so that the May sunrise may have -been noted in this way.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w450" id="Fig57"> - -<img src="images/illo296.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="493" /> - -<p class="photocredit"><i>Photo. by Lady Lockyer.</i></p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span>—The Mên-an-tol.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>Several other monuments, <i>e.g.</i>, Chûn Castle and -Cromlech, are to be found in the immediate neighbourhood -of the Tregaseal circle and the Longstone, -but these will have to await further investigation as to -their character and antiquity before any conclusions -concerning their astronomical use can be deduced.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page285">[285]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig58"> - -<img src="images/illo297.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="392" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58</span>.—The Mên-an-tol. Front view and section, from Lukis.</p> - -<div class="illotext w25m"> - -<div class="split6040"> - -<div class="left6040"> - -<p class="center">Front view:<br /><span class="smcap">D. Looking S.W.</span>,<br /> -<span class="smcapall">SCALE 1 INCH TO 1 FOOT</span>.</p> - -</div><!--left6040--> - -<div class="right6040"> - -<p class="center">Section:<br /><span class="smcapall">SECTION OF D.</span></p> - -</div><!--right6040--> - -<p class="clearline"> </p> - -</div><!--split6040--> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>Not only do we find in this neighbourhood the nest -of holed stones to which I have referred, but the Mên-an-tol, -the most famous of them all, in England at all -events. This, then, is the place to say a few words -about them. I have before stated my opinion that -these stones, instead of being used as slaughter stones -or posts at which to tie up the victim before sacrifice, -or in any other similar employment, were really sighting -stones to enable an alignment to be easily picked -up. As such these were, of course, treated as sacred, -and hence the folk-lore connected with them. This -folk-lore seems to be most complete in the case of the -famous stone of Odin at Stenness, so I condense Mr. -Spence’s account of it.</p> - -<p>Children brought to the stone at Beltaine and Midsummer, -after being carried sunwise round the holy -well were passed through the hole as a protection against -the powers of the evil one. Marriage ceremony consisted<span class="pagenum" id="Page286">[286]</span> -of joining hands through the hole, a vow held as -sacred as the legal marriage of to-day. Pains in the -head cured by inserting the head in the cavity, cure of -palsy in children. Children and adults travelled many -miles to secure relief in this way.</p> - -<p>At the Mên-an-tol the curative effects could only be -obtained by crawling through the aperture, which is of -considerable size.</p> - -<p>As a rule, however, the aperture is much more -restricted. The general size of the holed stone and the -position of the aperture in it may be well gathered from -the fact that almost all of them have been used for -gateposts, and are now to be seen fulfilling that function. -In some cases the old special use can be inferred, -but in others this is more difficult, as the stones have -been shifted or slewed round, or the ancient monument -to which the sighting stone was directed has -disappeared.</p> - -<p>The astronomical origin of the Mên-an-tol, which -obviously has never been disturbed, is quite obvious. -<a href="#Fig56">Fig. 56</a> (from Lukis) shews that it was arranged along -the May year alignment, the advent of May and August, -February and November being indicated by the shadows -cast by the stones through the aperture on to the -opposite ones.</p> - -<p>To the south-west the alignment for the February and -November sunsets passes exactly over Chûn Castle.</p> - -<p>The “Tolmen” near Gweek, Constantine, another -famous holed stone 7 feet 9 inches high and with an -aperture of 17 inches, is according to a magnetic bearing -I took last Easter parallel to the Mên-an-tol, and doubtless -was used for the same purpose.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote117"></a><a href="#FNanchor117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> -In Cornwall this is the name generally given to a monolith.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page287">[287]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER XXVII</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">SOME OTHER CORNISH MONUMENTS</span></h2> - -<h3><i>Boscawen-un</i>, <i>N. Lat.</i> 50° 5′ 20″</h3> - -<p>My wife and I visited Boscawen-un on a pouring -day, when it was impossible to make any observations. -Mr. Horton Bolitho, who was with us, introduced us -to the tenant of Boscawen-noon—Mr. Hannibal Rowe—who -very kindly, in spite of the bad weather, took -us to the circle and the stone cross to the N.E. of it.</p> - -<p>Lukis thus described this -<span class="nowrap">monument:<a href="#Footnote118" id="FNanchor118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a>—</span></p> - -<p>“The enclosed ground on which this circle stands is -uncultivated and heathy, and slopes gently to the -south. Twenty years ago a hedge ran across it and -bisected the circle.</p> - -<p>“This monument is composed of nineteen standing -stones, and is of an oval form, the longer diameter -being 80 feet and the shorter 71 feet 6 inches. One of -the stones is a block of quartz 4 feet high, and the rest, -which are of granite, vary from 2 feet 9 inches to 4 feet -7 inches in height. On the west side there is a gap, -whence it is probable that a stone has been removed. -Within the area, 9 feet to the south-west from the -centre, is a tall monolith, 8 feet out of the ground, -which inclines to the north-east, and is 3 feet 3 inches -out of the perpendicular.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page288">[288]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig59"> - -<img src="images/illo300.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="381" /> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo300lg.jpg">Larger map</a></p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 59</span>.—Photograph of the Ordnance Map.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page289">[289]</span></p> - -<p>“In 1594 Camden describes this monument as consisting -of nineteen stones, 12 feet from each other, with -one much larger than the rest in the centre. It must -have been much in the same condition then as -now. As he does not say that the monolith enclosed -within it was inclined, it is possible that it was upright -at that time.</p> - -<p>“Dr. Stukeley’s supposition was that it originally -stood upright, and that ‘somebody digging by it to find -treasure disturbed it.’</p> - -<p>“On the north-east side there are two fallen -stones which Dr. Borlase, in 1749, imagined to have -formed part of a Cromlech. It is more probable that -they are the fragments of a second pillar which was -placed to the north-east of the centre, and as far from -it as the existing one is. There are instances, I believe, -of two pillars occupying similar positions within a circle. -One of the stones, that marked <span class="smcapall">C</span> in my plan, on the -eastern side of the ring, was prostrate in the Doctor’s -time.</p> - -<p>“At a short distance to the south-east and south-west -there are cairns, which have been explored.”</p> - -<p>For this monument I have used the 6-inch map, as -the circle lies nearly at the centre, and all the outstanding -stones are within its limits. The heights of -the sky-line were measured by Mr. H. Bolitho at a -subsequent visit with a miner’s dial; the resulting<span class="pagenum" id="Page290">[290]</span> -declinations have been calculated by Mr. Rolston. A -theodolite survey will doubtless revise some of <span class="nowrap">them:—</span></p> - -<table class="dontwrap fsize90" summary="Marks"> - -<tr> -<th> </th> -<th>Marks.</th> -<th colspan="6" class="padl3 padr3">Az.</th> -<th colspan="5">Hills.</th> -<th colspan="5" class="padl3 padr3">Dec.</th> -<th>Star.</th> -<th>Date.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">1.</td> -<td class="left">F. Stone cross</td> -<td class="center padl3">N.</td> -<td class="right padr0">43</td> -<td rowspan="7" class="left top padl0">°</td> -<td class="right padr0">15</td> -<td rowspan="7" class="left top padl0">′</td> -<td class="center padr3">E.</td> -<td class="right padr0">2</td> -<td rowspan="7" class="left top padl0">°</td> -<td class="right padr0">7</td> -<td rowspan="7" class="left top padl0">′</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center padl3">+</td> -<td class="right padr0">29</td> -<td rowspan="7" class="left top padl0">°</td> -<td class="right padr0">26</td> -<td rowspan="7" class="left top padl0 padr3">′</td> -<td class="left">Capella</td> -<td class="center">2250</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">2.</td> -<td class="left">P. Fine menhir</td> -<td class="center padl3">N.</td> -<td class="right padr0">53</td> -<td class="right padr0">30</td> -<td class="center padr3">E.</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="right padr0">15</td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="right padr0">22</td> -<td class="right padr0">58</td> -<td class="left">Solstitial sun</td> -<td class="center">—</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">3.</td> -<td class="left">B. Blind Fiddler</td> -<td class="center padl3">N.</td> -<td class="right padr0">54</td> -<td class="right padr0">30</td> -<td class="center padr3">E.</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="right padr0">15</td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="right padr0">22</td> -<td class="right padr0">24</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">—</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">4.</td> -<td class="left">Two large menhirs</td> -<td class="center padl3">N.</td> -<td class="right padr0">66</td> -<td class="right padr0">50</td> -<td class="center padr3">E.</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="right padr0">14</td> -<td class="right padr0">55</td> -<td class="left">May sun</td> -<td class="center">—</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">5.</td> -<td class="left">Stone cross</td> -<td class="center padl3">N.</td> -<td class="right padr0">78</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -<td class="center padr3">E.</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -<td class="center">(?)</td> -<td class="center padl3">+</td> -<td class="right padr0">8</td> -<td class="right padr0">8</td> -<td class="left">Pleiades (May)</td> -<td class="center">1480</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">6.</td> -<td class="left">Stone</td> -<td class="center padl3">S.</td> -<td class="right padr0">66</td> -<td class="right padr0">30</td> -<td class="center padr3">E.</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -<td class="center">(?)</td> -<td class="center padl3">-</td> -<td class="right padr0">14</td> -<td class="right padr0">32</td> -<td class="left">November sun</td> -<td class="center">—</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center top">7.</td> -<td class="left top">Stone</td> -<td class="center top padl3">N.</td> -<td class="right top padr0">83</td> -<td class="right top padr0">30</td> -<td class="center top padr3">W.</td> -<td class="right top padr0">1</td> -<td class="right top padr0">0</td> -<td class="center top">(?)</td> -<td class="center top padl3">+</td> -<td class="right top padr0">4</td> -<td class="right top padr0">36</td> -<td class="left">Pleiades<br />(September)</td> -<td class="center top">2120</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig60"> - -<img src="images/illo302.png" alt="" width="600" height="387" /> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo302lg.png">Larger chart</a></p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 60</span>.—Showing azimuths in Lat. N. 50° -for the summer solstice sunrise, with different heights -of hills for 1905 <span class="smcapall">A.D.</span> and 1680 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></p> - -<div class="illotext w40m"> - -<p class="noindent">Vertical axis from bottom: <span class="smcap">Sea Level</span>, <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>°, -1°, 1<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>°, 2°.</p> - -<p class="noindent">Horizontal axis, top, from left: 1905 <span class="smcapall">A.D.</span>, 49° 20′-54° 20′.</p> - -<p class="noindent">Horizontal axis, bottom, from left: 1680 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> (<span class="smcap">Date of -Stonehenge</span>), 48° 40′-53° 40′.</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page291">[291]</span></p> - -<p>I gather from a report which Mr. H. Bolitho has -been good enough to send me that modern hedges and -farming operations have changed the conditions of the -sight-lines, so that 1 and 3 are just invisible from the -circle. This is by no means the only case in which the -sighting stone has just been hidden over the brow of -a hill and in which signals from an observer on the -brow itself have been suggested, or a <i>via sacra</i> to the -brow from the circle; there are many monoliths in this -direction which certainly never belonged to the circle.</p> - -<p>From the menhir P (No. 2) a fine view is obtained -from N. to S. through E., so that the Blind Fiddler -and the two large menhirs, and almost the circle, are -visible. The curious shapes of 1 and 2 are noted, the -east face vertical and the west boundary curved, like -several sighting stones on Dartmoor.</p> - -<p>The circle itself has several peculiarities. In the -first place, as shown by Lukis, it is not circular, -the diameters being about 85 and 65 feet; the minor -axis runs through the pillar stone in the centre -and the “fallen stones” of Dr. Borlase towards the -“stone cross” (which is no cross but a fine menhir) -in Az. N. 43° 15′ E. This would suggest that this was -the original alignment in 2250 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, but against this is -the fact that the two stones of the circle between -which the “fallen stones” lie are more carefully squared -than the rest. It is true, however, that this might -have been done afterwards, and this seems probable, -for they are closer together than the other circle -stones.</p> - -<p>The one quartz stone occupies an azimuth S. 66° W. -It was obviously placed in a post of honour. As a<span class="pagenum" id="Page292">[292]</span> -matter of fact, from it the May sun was seen to rise -over the centre of the circle.</p> - -<p>As there are both at Tregaseal and Boscawen-un -alignments suggesting the observation of the summer -solstice sunrise, it is desirable here to refer to the -azimuths as calculated. For this purpose <a href="#Fig60">Fig. 60</a> has -been prepared, which shows these for lat. 50° both at -the present day and at the date of the restoration at -Stonehenge.</p> - -<p>My readers should compare this with <a href="#Fig36">Fig. 36</a>, which -gives the solstice sunrise conditions of Stenness in -Lat. N. 59°. Such a comparison will show how useless -it is to pursue these inquiries without taking the latitude -and the height of the sky-line into account.</p> - -<h3>“<i>Stripple Stones</i>” (lat. 50° 32′ 50″ N., long. -4° 37′ W.)</h3> - -<p>This is a very remarkable circle consisting of 5 erect -and 11 prostrate stones situated on a circular level -platform 175 feet in diameter on the boggy south -slope of Hawk’s Tor on the Hawkstor Downs in the -parish of Blisland. The circle itself is about 148 feet -in diameter, and the whole monument is, in Lukis’s -opinion, the most interesting and remarkable in the -country. Surrounding the platform is a ditch 11 feet -wide, and beyond that a penannular vallum about 10 -feet in width. The peculiarity of the vallum is that it -has three bastions situate on the north-east, north-west, -and east sides. It is to the north-east bastion that I -wish to refer.</p> - -<p>Sighting from the huge monolith, which is now<span class="pagenum" id="Page293">[293]</span> -prostrate but originally marked the centre of the circle, -along a line bisecting the arc of this bastion we find -that the azimuth of the sight-line is N. 25° E.; the -angular elevation of the horizon from the 1-inch -Ordnance map appears to be about 0° 22′. From these -values, proceeding as in the former cases, we find</p> - -<table class="dontwrap fsize90" summary="Alignment"> - -<tr> -<th>Alignment.</th> -<th class="padl3 padr3">Decl.</th> -<th>Star.</th> -<th class="padl3">Date.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Centre of circle to centre of bastion</td> -<td class="left padl3 padr3">35° 1′ N.</td> -<td class="left">Capella</td> -<td class="center padl3">1250 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="noindent">indicating that this alignment was formed for the same -purpose as that which dominated the erection of the -“Pipers.”</p> - -<h3>“<i>Nine Maidens</i>” (lat. 50° 28′ 20″ N., long. -4° 54′ 35″ W.)</h3> - -<p>In this monument we find a very different type -from those considered previously.</p> - -<p>The Nine Maidens are simply 9 stones in a straight -line 262 feet in length at the present day; possibly, -as suggested by Lukis, it may have extended originally -to the monolith known as “The Fiddler,” -situated some 800 yards away in a north-easterly -direction. Measuring the azimuth of the alignment on -Lukis’s plan, and finding the horizon elevations from -the 1-inch Ordnance map, we have the <span class="nowrap">following:—</span></p> - -<table class="dontwrap fsize90" summary="Nine Maidens"> - -<tr> -<th>Az.</th> -<th class="padl3 padr3">Hills.</th> -<th>Decl.</th> -<th class="padl3 padr3">Star.</th> -<th>Date.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">N. 28° E.</td> -<td class="center padl3 padr3">0° 0′</td> -<td class="center">37° 47′ N.</td> -<td class="center padl3 padr3">Capella</td> -<td class="center">1480 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>It may be remarked that here we have a date -for the use of Capella intermediate between those -obtained for the “Pipers” and the “Strippie Stones” -respectively.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote118"></a><a href="#FNanchor118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> -<i>Prehistoric Stone Monuments of the British Isles: Cornwall.</i> -W. C. Lukis. P. 1.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page294">[294]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER XXVIII</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">THE CLOCK-STARS IN EGYPT AND BRITAIN.</span></h2> - -<p>I have now finished my astronomical reconnaissance -of the British monuments. I trust I have shown how -important it is that my holiday task should be followed -by a serious inquiry by other workers so that the -approximate values with which I have had to content -myself for want of time may be replaced by others to -which the highest weight can be attached. This means -at each circle reversed observations with a six-inch -theodolite and determination of azimuths by means of -observations of the sun if necessary.</p> - -<p>I propose in the present chapter to bring together -the general results already obtained in cases where the -inquiry has been complete enough to warrant definite -conclusions to be drawn.</p> - -<p>The first result to be gathered from the observations, -and one to which I attach the highest importance, is -that the practice, so long employed in Egypt, of determining -time at night by the revolution of a star round -the pole, was almost universally followed in the British -circles. This practice was to watch a first-magnitude<span class="pagenum" id="Page295">[295]</span> -star, which I named a “clock-star,”<a href="#Footnote119" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor119">[119]</a> of such a declination -that it just dipped below the northern horizon so -that it was visible for almost the whole of its path.</p> - -<p>Doubtless this same method of determining the flow -of time during the night watches was also employed -in Babylonia,<a href="#Footnote120" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor120">[120]</a> but there, alas! the temples, or, in other -words, the astronomical observatories, have disappeared, -so that only the Egyptian practice remains for us to -study.</p> - -<h3><i>Egypt.</i></h3> - -<p>Let us, before we proceed, consider some results which -have been gathered from the study of the Egyptian -observations.</p> - -<p>One of the earliest temples in Egypt concerning which -we have historical references to check the orientation -results was built to carry on these night observations -at Denderah, lat. N. 26° 10′. The star observed was -α Ursae Majoris, decl. N. 58° 52′, passing 5° below the -northern horizon; date (assuming horizon 1° high) about -4950 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, <i>i.e.</i>, in the times of the Shemsu Heru, before -Mena, as is distinctly stated in the inscriptions.</p> - -<p>After α Ursae Majoris had become circumpolar in the -latitude of Denderah, γ Draconis, which had ceased to be -circumpolar, and so fulfilled the conditions to which I -have referred, replaced it. Its declination was 58° 52′ N. -about 3100 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, and it, therefore, could have been -watched rising in the axis prolonged of the old temple -in the time of Pepi, who restored it then, no doubt on<span class="pagenum" id="Page296">[296]</span> -account of the advent of the new star, and is stated to -have deposited a copy of the old plan in a cavity in -the new walls.</p> - -<p>Here, then, we have two dates given by orientation -of a clock-star temple entirely agreeing with the most -recent views of Egyptian chronology.</p> - -<p>In Dr. Budge’s <i>History of Egypt</i> (iii. 14) the story -of the rebuilding of the temple at Annu by Usertsen -(2433 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, Brugsch) is given from an ancient roll. Supposing -this temple built parallel with the faces of the -remaining obelisk, γ Draconis would rise in its axis -prolonged 2500 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, proving that Usertsen did at Annu -what Pepi previously did at Denderah, and that the -same reason for restoration and even the same star -were in question.<a href="#Footnote121" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor121">[121]</a></p> - -<p>When the clock-star ceased to be visible in the chief -temple other subsidiary temples were subsequently built -to watch it. Thus γ Draconis was watched at Thebes -from 3500 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> to the times of the Ptolemys by temples -oriented successively from that of Mut Az. N. 72° 30′ E. -to 68° 30′, 63° 30′, and 62°.<a href="#Footnote122" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor122">[122]</a></p> - -<p>It is worth while to show that what we know now of -the Egyptian methods of observation enables us to carry -the matter further, while we gather at the same time -that in consequence of the difference of latitude the -method employed in Egypt could not be followed in -Britain.</p> - -<p>I showed in the <i>Dawn of Astronomy</i> that several -ancient shrines consisted of two temples at right angles<span class="pagenum" id="Page297">[297]</span> -to each other (see <a href="#Fig13">Fig. 13</a>), one axis pointing high N.E. -to observe the clock-star—the worship of Set—the -other low N.W. to observe either the sun by itself, or -in association with some important star of the same -declination as the sun.</p> - -<p>The temples of Mut and Menu (or Min), and of Amen, -with the associated temple M. of Lepsius, at Karnak, are -the best extant examples of this principle of temple -building.</p> - -<p>There is evidence that both at Annu and Memphis -the same principle was followed, but at Annu one -obelisk alone remains, and at Memphis one temple; from -these, however, Captain Lyons and myself have obtained -sufficient data to enable the original directions of the -temple-systems to be gathered.</p> - -<p>At Denderah, if such a N.W. temple ever existed it -has disappeared, but as the monument stands there -are still two temples at right angles to each other, but -the second one faces S.E. instead of N.W.</p> - -<p>This premised, I will now give, in anticipation of -another one dealing with the British monuments, a list -of the most ancient star temples in Egypt, with their -azimuths and the first-magnitude clock-stars which -could have been observed in them at different dates. -These dates have been approximately determined by -the use of a precessional globe, an horizon of 1° elevation -being assumed. As I have shown, the present -views of Egyptian chronology and the inscriptions carry -us back to α Ursae Majoris, at Denderah. But there is -a suggestion at Luxor, and perhaps also at Abydos, that -Vega was used before that star, though there are, so -far as I know, no temple traces of Arcturus.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page298">[298]</span></p> - -<table class="dontwrap fsize90" summary="Temples"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th class="br">Temple.</th> -<th colspan="4" class="br">N.<br />Lat.</th> -<th colspan="4" class="br">Az.<br />N.E.</th> -<th colspan="4" class="br">N.<br />Decl.</th> -<th class="br">Vega.</th> -<th class="br">Arc-<br />turus.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">α<br />Ursae<br />Majoris.</th> -<th colspan="2">γ<br />Draconis.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br">Annu</td> -<td class="right padr0">30</td> -<td rowspan="6" class="left top padl0">°</td> -<td class="right padr0">10</td> -<td rowspan="6" class="left top padl0 br">′</td> -<td class="right padr0">14</td> -<td rowspan="6" class="left top padl0">°</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -<td rowspan="6" class="left top padl0 br">′</td> -<td class="right padr0">57</td> -<td rowspan="6" class="left top padl0">°</td> -<td class="right padr0">25</td> -<td rowspan="6" class="left top padl0 br">′</td> -<td class="center br">6250</td> -<td class="center br">5550</td> -<td class="right padr0">*</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">5200</td> -<td class="right padr0">*</td> -<td class="left padl0">2500</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br">Memphis</td> -<td class="right padr0">29</td> -<td class="right padr0">50</td> -<td class="right padr0">12</td> -<td class="right padr0">45</td> -<td class="right padr0">58</td> -<td class="right padr0">20</td> -<td class="center br">6450</td> -<td class="center br">6000</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left padl0 br">5000</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left padl0">2850</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br">Denderah</td> -<td class="right padr0">26</td> -<td class="right padr0">10</td> -<td class="right padr0">18</td> -<td class="right padr0">30</td> -<td class="right padr0">58</td> -<td class="right padr0">52</td> -<td class="center br">6550</td> -<td class="center br">6200</td> -<td class="right padr0">*</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">4950</td> -<td class="right padr0">*</td> -<td class="left padl0">3100</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br">Thebes (Mut)</td> -<td class="right padr0">25</td> -<td class="right padr0">40</td> -<td class="right padr0">17</td> -<td class="right padr0">30</td> -<td class="right padr0">59</td> -<td class="right padr0">46</td> -<td class="center br">6700</td> -<td class="center br">6700</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left padl0 br">4800</td> -<td class="right padr0">*</td> -<td class="left padl0">3500</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br">Tell-el-Amarna</td> -<td class="right padr0">27</td> -<td class="right padr0">40</td> -<td class="right padr0">13</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -<td class="right padr0">60</td> -<td class="right padr0">12</td> -<td class="center br">6800</td> -<td class="center br">6800</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left padl0 br">4750</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left padl0">3700</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="left br">Nagada</td> -<td class="right padr0">26</td> -<td class="right padr0">10</td> -<td class="right padr0">12</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -<td class="right padr0">61</td> -<td class="right padr0">16</td> -<td class="center br">7000</td> -<td class="center br">7400</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left padl0 br">4600</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left padl0">4000</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>There is a very great difference between determining -the date of a temple erected to the rising or -setting of a particular star, and of one erected to the -rising or setting of the sun on a particular day of -the year. In the latter case no date can be given -unless we have reason to believe that both the sun -<i>and</i> a star rose or set at the same point of the -horizon at the same date; in other words, the sun and -star had the same declination, and the rising or setting -of both could be seen in the same temple.</p> - -<p>I assumed, without historical data, that this view -was acted on in Egypt, at the temple of Menu; Mr. -Penrose found, with historical data, that it was actually -acted on in Greece at the Parthenon. To show that -we are at all justified in this view we must study -the association of gods with temple worship, and look -for temples in different azimuths erected at different -times if the god is a star; and we can run the star home -if the dates fall in with the star’s precessional change. -Thus there is reason for supposing that the god Ptah -and the star Capella were associated. There is a -temple of Ptah at Memphis, Az. N. 77° 15′ W., hills -50′, decl. N. 11°, star Capella, date 5200. In the rectangular -system at Memphis, then, α Ursae Majoris<span class="pagenum" id="Page299">[299]</span> -was watched in one temple and Capella in the other at -that date. There is also evidence that the god Menu -was associated with the star Spica. In the temple -system of Mut at Thebes, in 3200 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, γ Draconis -was used as a clock-star in one temple, while the -setting of Spica was watched in the other.</p> - -<p>If a temple is erected to the sun with no specially -named cult, it may be a sun-temple pure and simple, -not connected with star worship because there was no -star with the proper declination at the time.</p> - -<p>In Greece temple-building was carried on at a much -later time, so late that perhaps water clocks were -available, so that we should not expect to find many -clock-star temples in that country. As a matter of -fact there is only one, of which the data, according -to Mr. Penrose, are as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<table class="dontwrap fsize90" summary="Temple"> - -<tr> -<th> </th> -<th>N. Decl.</th> -<th class="padl3 padr3">Star.</th> -<th>Date.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr3">Thebes, The City of the Dragon</td> -<td class="center">+54° 28′</td> -<td class="left padl3 padr3">γ Draconis</td> -<td class="center">1160</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>It will be seen that the star used in Greece was the -last clock-star traced in the Egyptian temples.</p> - -<h3><i>Britain.</i></h3> - -<p>I now come to Britain. So far as my inquiries -have gone, these clock-star observations were introduced -into these islands about 2300 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>In my statement concerning them I will deal with -the astronomical conditions for lat. 50° N., as it is in -Cornwall that the evidence is most plentiful and -conclusive.</p> - -<p>In that latitude and at that time Arcturus, decl. N.<span class="pagenum" id="Page300">[300]</span> -41°, was just circumpolar with a sea horizon, and -therefore neither rose nor set. Capella, decl. N. 31°, -when northing was 9° below the horizon, so that it -rose and set in azimuths N. 37° E. and N. 37° W. -respectively; it was therefore invisible for a long time -and was an awkward clock-star in consequence.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig61"> - -<img src="images/illo312.png" alt="" width="600" height="421" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span>—Arcturus and Capella as clock-stars in Britain.</p> - -<p class="caption center">AB = sea horizon.<br /> -A′B′ = horizon 3° high.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p><a href="#Fig61">Fig. 61</a> represents diagrammatically the conditions -named, the circumpolar paths of Arcturus and Capella -being shown by the smaller and larger circle respectively. -<i>A B</i> represents the actual sea horizon and -<i>A′ B′</i> a locally raised horizon 3° high, whilst the -dotted portion of the larger circle represents the non-visible -part of Capella’s apparent path.</p> - -<p>What the British astronomer-priests did, therefore, in<span class="pagenum" id="Page301">[301]</span> -the majority of cases was to set up their temples -in a locality where the N.E. horizon was high, so that -Arcturus rose and set over it and was invisible for only -a short time, as shown in the diagram by the raised -horizon <i>A′ B′</i>.</p> - -<p>The two lists following contain the names of the monuments -where I suggest Arcturus was used as a clock-star. -In the first, the angular elevation of the sky-line -as seen from the circle in each case has been actually -measured, and the date of the alignment is, therefore, -fairly trustworthy; but in the second list the elevations -have been estimated from the differences of contour -shown on the one-inch Ordnance map, and the dates -must be accepted as open to future revision.</p> - -<p class="tabhead">ARCTURUS AS A CLOCK-STAR.</p> - -<table class="clockstar" summary="Clock Star"> - -<tr> -<td colspan="29" class="center tabnr">I.</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th rowspan="2" class="br">Monument.</th> -<th colspan="12" class="br">Position.</th> -<th rowspan="2" class="br">Alignment.</th> -<th rowspan="2" colspan="6" class="br">Az.</th> -<th rowspan="2" colspan="4" class="br">Hills.</th> -<th rowspan="2" colspan="4" class="br">Decl. N.</th> -<th rowspan="2">Date <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></th> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<th colspan="6" class="br">Lat. N.</th> -<th colspan="6" class="br">Long. W.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="temple">Tregaseal</td> -<td class="numberright">50</td> -<td rowspan="12" class="angle">°</td> -<td class="numberright">8</td> -<td rowspan="12" class="angle">′</td> -<td class="numberright">0</td> -<td rowspan="12" class="angle br">″</td> -<td class="numberright">5</td> -<td rowspan="12" class="angle">°</td> -<td class="numberright">39</td> -<td rowspan="12" class="angle">′</td> -<td class="numberright">20</td> -<td rowspan="12" class="angle br">″</td> -<td class="alignment">Circ. to Carn Kenidjack</td> -<td class="direction">N.</td> -<td class="numberright">12</td> -<td rowspan="12" class="angle">°</td> -<td class="numberright">8</td> -<td rowspan="12" class="angle">′</td> -<td class="direction br">E.</td> -<td class="numberright">4</td> -<td rowspan="12" class="angle">°</td> -<td class="numberright">0</td> -<td rowspan="12" class="angle br">′</td> -<td class="numberright">42</td> -<td rowspan="12" class="angle">°</td> -<td class="numberright">33</td> -<td rowspan="12" class="angle br">′</td> -<td class="numbercenter">2330</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="3" class="temple highline">The Hurlers</td> -<td rowspan="3" class="numberright highline">50</td> -<td rowspan="3" class="numberright highline">31</td> -<td rowspan="3" class="numberright highline">0</td> -<td rowspan="3" class="numberright highline">4</td> -<td rowspan="3" class="numberright highline">27</td> -<td rowspan="3" class="numberright highline">20</td> -<td class="alignment highline">S. circ. over cent. circ.</td> -<td class="direction highline">N.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">11</td> -<td class="numberright highline">15</td> -<td class="direction highline br">E.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">3</td> -<td class="numberright highline">24</td> -<td class="numberright highline">41</td> -<td class="numberright highline">38</td> -<td class="numbercenter highline">2170</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="alignment">Cent. circ. over N. circ.</td> -<td class="direction">N.</td> -<td class="numberright">14</td> -<td class="numberright">18</td> -<td class="direction br">E.</td> -<td class="numberright">3</td> -<td class="numberright">24</td> -<td class="numberright">41</td> -<td class="numberright">9</td> -<td class="numbercenter">2090</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="alignment">N. circ. over N.E. barrow</td> -<td class="direction">N.</td> -<td class="numberright">18</td> -<td class="numberright">44</td> -<td class="direction br">E.</td> -<td class="numberright">3</td> -<td class="numberright">24</td> -<td class="numberright">40</td> -<td class="numberright">6</td> -<td class="numbercenter">1900</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="temple highline">Merrivale</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="numberright highline">50</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="numberright highline">33</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="numberright highline">15</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="numberright highline">4</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="numberright highline">2</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="numberright highline">30</td> -<td class="alignment highline">Circ. to remains of cromlech</td> -<td class="direction highline">N.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">15</td> -<td class="numberright highline">0</td> -<td class="direction highline br">E.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">3</td> -<td class="numberright highline">1</td> -<td class="numberright highline">40</td> -<td class="numberright highline">36</td> -<td class="numbercenter highline">1990</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="alignment">Direction of smaller avenue</td> -<td class="direction">N.</td> -<td class="numberright">24</td> -<td class="numberright">25</td> -<td class="direction br">E.</td> -<td class="numberright">5</td> -<td class="numberright">0</td> -<td class="numberright">39</td> -<td class="numberright">55</td> -<td class="numbercenter">1860</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="temple highline">Fernworthy</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="numberright highline">50</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="numberright highline">38</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="numberright highline">30</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="numberright highline">3</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="numberright highline">54</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="numberright highline">10</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="alignment highline">Direction of Avenue</td> -<td class="direction highline">N.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">13</td> -<td class="numberright highline">0</td> -<td class="direction highline br">E.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">1</td> -<td class="numberright highline">15</td> -<td class="numberright highline">39</td> -<td class="numberright highline">7</td> -<td class="numbercenter highline">1720</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="direction">N.</td> -<td class="numberright">14</td> -<td class="numberright">20</td> -<td class="direction br">E.</td> -<td class="numberright">1</td> -<td class="numberright">15</td> -<td class="numberright">38</td> -<td class="numberright">51</td> -<td class="numbercenter">1670</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="temple highline">Stanton Drew</td> -<td class="numberright highline">51</td> -<td class="numberright highline">22</td> -<td class="numberright highline">0</td> -<td class="numberright highline">2</td> -<td class="numberright highline">34</td> -<td class="numberright highline">20</td> -<td class="alignment highline">Cent. of Gt. Circ. to Quoit</td> -<td class="direction highline">N.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">17</td> -<td class="numberright highline">59</td> -<td class="direction highline br">E.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">2</td> -<td class="numberright highline">33</td> -<td class="numberright highline">38</td> -<td class="numberright highline">38</td> -<td class="numbercenter highline">1620</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="temple highline">Fernworthy</td> -<td class="numberright highline">50</td> -<td class="numberright highline">38</td> -<td class="numberright highline">30</td> -<td class="numberright highline">3</td> -<td class="numberright highline">54</td> -<td class="numberright highline">10</td> -<td class="alignment highline">Direction of Avenue</td> -<td class="direction highline">N.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">15</td> -<td class="numberright highline">45</td> -<td class="direction highline br">E.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">1</td> -<td class="numberright highline">15</td> -<td class="numberright highline">38</td> -<td class="numberright highline">34</td> -<td class="numbercenter highline">1610</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="temple highline">Merry Maidens</td> -<td class="numberright highline">50</td> -<td class="numberright highline">3</td> -<td class="numberright highline">40</td> -<td class="numberright highline">5</td> -<td class="numberright highline">35</td> -<td class="numberright highline">25</td> -<td class="alignment highline">Circ. to stone in the road</td> -<td class="direction highline">N.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">11</td> -<td class="numberright highline">45</td> -<td class="direction highline br">E.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">0</td> -<td class="numberright highline">12</td> -<td class="numberright highline">38</td> -<td class="numberright highline">27</td> -<td class="numbercenter highline">1590</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="temple highline">Stanton Drew</td> -<td class="numberright highline">51</td> -<td class="numberright highline">22</td> -<td class="numberright highline">0</td> -<td class="numberright highline">2</td> -<td class="numberright highline">34</td> -<td class="numberright highline">20</td> -<td class="alignment highline">S.W. circ. to centre of Gt. Circ.</td> -<td class="direction highline">N.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">19</td> -<td class="numberright highline">51</td> -<td class="direction highline br">E.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">1</td> -<td class="numberright highline">44</td> -<td class="numberright highline">37</td> -<td class="numberright highline">30</td> -<td class="numbercenter highline">1420</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="29" class="center tabnr">II.<span class="pagenum" id="Page302"><span class="fsize110">[302]</span></span></td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th rowspan="2" class="br">Monument.</th> -<th colspan="12" class="br">Position.</th> -<th rowspan="2" class="br">Alignment.</th> -<th rowspan="2" colspan="6" class="br">Az.</th> -<th rowspan="2" colspan="4" class="br">Hills.</th> -<th rowspan="2" colspan="4" class="br">Decl. N.</th> -<th rowspan="2">Date <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></th> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<th colspan="6" class="br">Lat. N.</th> -<th colspan="6" class="br">Long. W.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="temple">Trowlesworthy</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="numberright">50</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="angle">°</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="numberright">27</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="angle">′</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="numberright">30</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="angle br">″</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="numberright">4</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="angle">°</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="numberright">0</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="angle">′</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="numberright">20</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="angle br">″</td> -<td class="alignment">Direction of primary avenue</td> -<td class="direction">N.</td> -<td class="numberright">7</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="angle">°</td> -<td class="numberright">0</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="angle">′</td> -<td class="direction br">E.</td> -<td class="numberright">2</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="angle">°</td> -<td class="numberright">52</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="angle br">′</td> -<td class="numberright">41</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="angle">°</td> -<td class="numberright">24</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="angle br">′</td> -<td class="numbercenter">2130</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="alignment">Direction of final avenue</td> -<td class="direction">N.</td> -<td class="numberright">12</td> -<td class="numberright">0</td> -<td class="direction br">E.</td> -<td class="numberright">2</td> -<td class="numberright">52</td> -<td class="numberright">41</td> -<td class="numberright">6</td> -<td class="numbercenter">2080</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="temple highline">Longstone (Tregaseal)</td> -<td class="numberright highline">50</td> -<td class="numberright highline">8</td> -<td class="numberright highline">10</td> -<td class="numberright highline">5</td> -<td class="numberright highline">38</td> -<td class="numberright highline">20</td> -<td class="alignment highline">Longstone to Chûn Cromlech</td> -<td class="direction highline">N.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">9</td> -<td class="numberright highline">0</td> -<td class="direction highline br">E.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">1</td> -<td class="numberright highline">43</td> -<td class="numberright highline">40</td> -<td class="numberright highline">39</td> -<td class="numbercenter highline">2000</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="temple highline">Lee Moor</td> -<td class="numberright highline">50</td> -<td class="numberright highline">26</td> -<td class="numberright highline">30</td> -<td class="numberright highline">3</td> -<td class="numberright highline">59</td> -<td class="numberright highline">40</td> -<td class="alignment highline">Direction of avenue</td> -<td class="direction highline">N.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">22</td> -<td class="numberright highline">0</td> -<td class="direction highline br">E.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">2</td> -<td class="numberright highline">28</td> -<td class="numberright highline">38</td> -<td class="numberright highline">17</td> -<td class="numbercenter highline">1500</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>In some cases, for one reason or another, this arrangement -was not carried out, and Capella, in spite of the -objection I have stated, was used in the following -<span class="nowrap">circles:—</span></p> - -<p class="tabhead">CAPELLA AS A CLOCK-STAR.</p> - -<table class="clockstar" summary="Clock Star"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th rowspan="2" class="br">Monument.</th> -<th colspan="12" class="br">Position.</th> -<th rowspan="2" class="br">Alignment.</th> -<th rowspan="2" colspan="6" class="br">Az.</th> -<th rowspan="2" colspan="4" class="br">Hills.</th> -<th rowspan="2" colspan="4" class="br">Decl. N.</th> -<th rowspan="2">Date <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></th> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<th colspan="6" class="br">Lat. N.</th> -<th colspan="6" class="br">Long. W.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center br">I.</td> -<td colspan="6" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="6" class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="6" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="br"> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="temple highline">Boscawen-un</td> -<td class="numberright highline">50</td> -<td rowspan="5" class="angle highline">°</td> -<td class="numberright highline">5</td> -<td rowspan="5" class="angle highline">′</td> -<td class="numberright highline">20</td> -<td rowspan="5" class="angle highline br">″</td> -<td class="numberright highline">5</td> -<td rowspan="5" class="angle highline">°</td> -<td class="numberright highline">37</td> -<td rowspan="5" class="angle highline">′</td> -<td class="numberright highline">0</td> -<td rowspan="5" class="angle highline br">″</td> -<td class="alignment highline">Circ. to Stone Cross</td> -<td class="direction highline">N.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">43</td> -<td rowspan="5" class="angle highline">°</td> -<td class="numberright highline">15</td> -<td rowspan="5" class="angle highline">′</td> -<td class="direction highline br">E.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">2</td> -<td rowspan="5" class="angle highline">°</td> -<td class="numberright highline">7</td> -<td rowspan="5" class="angle highline br">′</td> -<td class="numberright highline">29</td> -<td rowspan="5" class="angle highline">°</td> -<td class="numberright highline">36</td> -<td rowspan="5" class="angle highline br">′</td> -<td class="numbercenter highline">2250</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="temple highline">Merry Maidens</td> -<td class="numberright highline">50</td> -<td class="numberright highline">3</td> -<td class="numberright highline">40</td> -<td class="numberright highline">5</td> -<td class="numberright highline">35</td> -<td class="numberright highline">25</td> -<td class="alignment highline">Circ. over the “Pipers”</td> -<td class="direction highline">N.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">38</td> -<td class="numberright highline">26</td> -<td class="direction highline br">E.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">0</td> -<td class="numberright highline">20</td> -<td class="numberright highline">29</td> -<td class="numberright highline">58</td> -<td class="numbercenter highline">2100</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center br highline">II.</td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="temple highline">The Nine Maidens</td> -<td class="numberright highline">50</td> -<td class="numberright highline">28</td> -<td class="numberright highline">20</td> -<td class="numberright highline">4</td> -<td class="numberright highline">54</td> -<td class="numberright highline">30</td> -<td class="alignment highline">Direction of Nine Maidens row</td> -<td class="direction highline">N.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">28</td> -<td class="numberright highline">0</td> -<td class="direction highline br">E.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">0</td> -<td class="numberright highline">0</td> -<td class="numberright highline">33</td> -<td class="numberright highline">47</td> -<td class="numbercenter highline">1480</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="temple highline">Stripple Stones</td> -<td class="numberright highline">50</td> -<td class="numberright highline">32</td> -<td class="numberright highline">51</td> -<td class="numberright highline">4</td> -<td class="numberright highline">37</td> -<td class="numberright highline">35</td> -<td class="alignment highline">Centre to N.E. bastion</td> -<td class="direction highline">N.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">26</td> -<td class="numberright highline">0</td> -<td class="direction highline br">E.</td> -<td class="numberright highline">0</td> -<td class="numberright highline">22</td> -<td class="numberright highline">34</td> -<td class="numberright highline">38</td> -<td class="numbercenter highline">1320</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>At the Merry Maidens, however, with nearly a sea -horizon, when Arcturus ceased to be circumpolar and -rose in Azimuth N. 11° 45′ E., it replaced Capella, and -was used as a clock-star after 1600 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>In this system of night observation we have the germ -of the use in later times of an instrument called the “night-dial,” -specimens of which, dating from the fourteenth -century, can be seen in our museums. The introduction<span class="pagenum" id="Page303">[303]</span> -of graduated circles permitted the employment of circumpolar -stars, and the “guards” of the Little Bear or -the “pointers” of the Great Bear were thus used. -There was a disc with a central aperture through which -the pole star could be observed; the disc could be adjusted -for every night in the year; an arm was then moved round -so that the direction of the pointers (or the guards) with -regard to the vertical could be measured; on a second -concentric circle the time of night could be read off.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w500" id="Fig62"> - -<img src="images/illo315.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="429" /> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 62</span>.—A “night-dial.”</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote119"></a><a href="#FNanchor119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> <i>Dawn of Astronomy</i>, 1894, p. 343.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote120"></a><a href="#FNanchor120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> -Jensen, <i>Kosmologie der Babylonier</i>, p. 147.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote121"></a><a href="#FNanchor121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> <i>Dawn of Astronomy</i>, p. 215.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote122"></a><a href="#FNanchor122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 214.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page304">[304]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER XXIX</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">A SHORT HISTORY OF SUN TEMPLES</span></h2> - -<h3><i>The Original Cult</i></h3> - -<p>I have given detailed evidence showing that the first -circle builders in Britain worshipped the May-year sun, -whether they brought it with them or not. This year -was used in Babylon, Egypt, and afterwards in Greece. -In the two former countries May was the harvest month, -and thus became the chief month in the year. The dates -were apt to vary with the local harvest time.</p> - -<p>The earliest extant temple aligned to the sun at this -festival seems to have been that of Ptah at Memphis, -5200 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> I have already referred to this temple in -relation to the clock-star observations carried on in it.</p> - -<p>This approximate date of the building of the temple is -obtained by the evidence afforded (1) by the associated -clock-star (see <a href="#Page298">p. 298</a>), and (2) by the fact that the god -Ptah represented the star Capella, since there is a Ptah -temple at Thebes aligned on Capella at a later time, -when by the processional movement it had been carried -outside the solar limit. There was also a similar temple -at Annu (Heliopolis, lat. N. 30° 10′), but it has disappeared. -The light of the sun fell along the axis when<span class="pagenum" id="Page305">[305]</span> -the sun had the declination N. 11°, the Gregorian dates -being April 18 and August 24.</p> - -<p>Another May-year temple was that of Menu at Thebes, -Az. N. 72° 30′ W. (lat. N. 25°; sun’s declination N. 15°; -Gregorian date, May 1).</p> - -<div class="figcenter w450" id="Fig63"> - -<img src="images/illo317.jpg" alt="" width="442" height="600" /> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo317lg.jpg">Larger plan</a></p> - -<p class="caption long"><span class="smcap">Fig. 63</span>.—Layard’s -plan of the Palace of Sennacherib discovered in the mound of -Kouyunjik. The temple axis, XXXVI., XXXIV., XXIX., XIX. (XXII. is -on a lower level), faces the rising of the May sun.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>As we have seen (<a href="#Page299">p. 299</a>), Spica had this declination in -3200 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, and the coincidence may have been the reason<span class="pagenum" id="Page306">[306]</span> -for the erection, or, more probably, the restoration, of -the temple,<a href="#Footnote123" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor123">[123]</a> especially as γ Draconis came into play -as a new clock-star at the same date.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w600" id="Fig64"> - -<img src="images/illo318.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="434" /> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo318lg.jpg">Larger plan</a></p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 64</span>.—Layard’s plan of the Mound at Nimrood showing its equinoctial -orientation.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>The researches of Mr. Penrose in Greece have provided -us with temples oriented to the May-year sun. I shall -return to them afterwards, as they are later in time than -the British monuments.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page307">[307]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w440" id="Fig65"> - -<img src="images/illo319.jpg" alt="" width="438" height="600" /> - -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo319lg.jpg">Larger map</a></p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 65</span>.—The Temples at Chichen Itza.</p> - -</div><!--image--> - -<p>The explorations of Sir H. Layard at Nineveh, lat. -36° N., have shown that the temple in Sennacherib’s -palace, which may have been a restoration of a much -older temple, was also oriented to the May sun.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page308">[308]</span></p> - -<p>It is a pity that our present-day archæologists do not -more strictly follow the fine example set by Sir Henry -Layard in his explorations of Kouyunjik. When he -had unearthed Sennacherib’s palace (700 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>) he was -careful to give the astronomical and magnetic bearings -of the buildings and of the temple which seemed to -form the core of them. The bearing is Az. N. 68° 30′ E., -giving the sun’s declination as N. 16°.</p> - -<p>I am enabled by the kindness of Mr. John Murray -to give copies of the plans which Sir H. Layard prepared -of the excavations both at Kouyunjik and -Nimrood, showing the careful orientation which enables -us to claim Sennacherib’s temple as one consecrated -to the May year, while at Nimrood (Babylon) the -equinoctial worship was in vogue as at the pyramids.</p> - -<p>In association with these plans of Layard’s, I give -another by Mr. Maudslay of the as carefully oriented -temples at Chichen Itza (N. lat. 20°) explored by -him. In these temples, of unknown date and origin, -the azimuths of two show that the May year was -worshipped.<a href="#Footnote124" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor124">[124]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page309">[309]</span></p> - -<h3><i>The May-Year Monuments in Britain.</i></h3> - -<p>In the first glimpses of the May year in Egypt we -have dates from 5000 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> It does not follow that it -did not reach Great Britain before about 2000 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> -because monuments made their appearance about that -time. It is clear, also, that with the possibilities of -coastwise traffic as we have found it, it might as easily -have reached Ireland by then; 2000 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, therefore, is -a probable date for the May worship to have reached -Britain arguing on general principles; we now come to -a detailed summary of the facts showing that it really -reached Britain earlier.</p> - -<p>Alignments in British monuments designed to mark -the place of the sun’s rising or setting on the quarter-days -of the May year have been found as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<table class="monuments" summary="Monuments"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th rowspan="2" class="br">Monument.</th> -<th colspan="12" class="br">Position.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">May and Aug.</th> -<th colspan="2">Feb. and Nov.</th> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<th colspan="6" class="br">Lat. N.</th> -<th colspan="6" class="br">Long. W.</th> -<th class="br">Rising.</th> -<th class="br">Setting.</th> -<th class="br">Rising.</th> -<th>Setting.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br"><span class="padr3">Merry Maidens</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">50</span></td> -<td rowspan="11" class="left">°</td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">3</span></td> -<td rowspan="11" class="left">′</td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">40</span></td> -<td rowspan="11" class="left br">″</td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">5</span></td> -<td rowspan="11" class="left">°</td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">35</span></td> -<td rowspan="11" class="left">′</td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">25</span></td> -<td rowspan="11" class="left br">″</td> -<td class="center br">*</td> -<td class="center br">*</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="center">*</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br"><span class="padr3">Boscawen-un</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">50</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">5</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">20</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">5</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">37</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">0</span></td> -<td class="center br">*</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="center br">*</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br"><span class="padr3">Tregaseal</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">50</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">7</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">50</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">5</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">39</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">20</span></td> -<td class="center br">*</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br"><span class="padr3">Longstone (Tregaseal)</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">50</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">8</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">10</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">5</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">38</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">20</span></td> -<td class="center br">*</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br"><span class="padr3">Down Tor</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">50</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">30</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">10</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">3</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">59</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">30</span></td> -<td class="center br">*</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br"><span class="padr3">Merrivale</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">50</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">33</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">15</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">4</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">2</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">30</span></td> -<td class="center br">*</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br"><span class="padr3">The Hurlers</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">50</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">31</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">0</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">4</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">27</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">20</span></td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="center br">*</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br"><span class="padr3">Stonehenge</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">51</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">10</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">40</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">1</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">49</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">30</span></td> -<td class="center br">*</td> -<td class="center br">*</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br"><span class="padr3">Stanton Drew</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">51</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">22</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">0</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">2</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">34</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">30</span></td> -<td class="center br">*</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="center">?</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center br">circle<br />along<br />avenue</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="center">avenue<br />to<br />circle<br />*</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="left br"><span class="padr3">Stenness</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">59</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">0</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">10</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">3</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">13</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padl1">40</span></td> -<td class="center br">*</td> -<td class="center br">*</td> -<td class="center br">*</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>I have already shown that it was the practice in -ancient times for the astronomer-priests not only to<span class="pagenum" id="Page310">[310]</span> -watch the clock-stars during the night, but also other -stars which rose or set about an hour before sunrise, -to give warning of its approach on the days of the -principal festivals.</p> - -<p class="blankbelow75">Each clock-star, if it rose and set very near the -north point, might be depended on to herald the -sunrise on <i>one</i> of the critical days of the year, but -for the others other stars would require to be observed. -This practice was fully employed in Britain.</p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>May Warnings.</i></h4> - -<p class="hinline">—The following table gives the stars -I have so far noted which were used as warners for the -May festival.</p> - -<table class="standard dontwrap fsize90" summary="Stars"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th class="br">Monument.</th> -<th class="br">Star.</th> -<th>Date or dates<br /><span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top br"><span class="padr3">Stonehenge</span></td> -<td class="left br">Pleiades (R)</td> -<td class="center">1950</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="left top padtop br"><span class="padr3">Merry Maidens</span></td> -<td class="left padtop br">Pleiades (R)</td> -<td class="center padtop">1930</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br">Antares (S)</td> -<td class="center">1310</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="left top padtop br"><span class="padr3">The Hurlers</span></td> -<td class="left padtop br">Antares (S)</td> -<td class="center padtop">1720</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br">Pleiades (R)</td> -<td class="center">1610</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="left top padtop br"><span class="padr3">Merrivale</span></td> -<td class="left padtop br">Pleiades (R)</td> -<td class="center padtop">1610</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center padtop br">„</td> -<td class="center padtop">1420</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padtop br"><span class="padr3">Boscawen-un</span></td> -<td class="left padtop br">Pleiades (R)</td> -<td class="center padtop">1480</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padtop br"><span class="padr3">Tregaseal</span></td> -<td class="left padtop br">Pleiades (R)</td> -<td class="center padtop">1270</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padtop br"><span class="padr3">Stenness</span></td> -<td class="left padtop br">Pleiades (R)</td> -<td class="center padtop">1230</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="left padtop br"><span class="padr3">Longstone (Tregaseal)</span></td> -<td class="left padtop br">Pleiades (R)</td> -<td class="center padtop">1030</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="center"><span class="padr3">(R) = rising.</span> <span class="padl3">(S) = setting.</span></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>It is convenient here to give a list of the May -warning stars found by Mr. Penrose in Greece, as it -shows that the same stars were observed for the same -purpose.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page311">[311]</span></p> - -<table class="nopad dontwrap fsize90" summary="Warnign stars"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="5" class="br">Decl.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Day.</th> -<th>Year.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="5" class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"> </th> -<th><span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br"><span class="padr3">Archaic temple of Minerva</span></td> -<td class="left paddedl">Pleiades</td> -<td class="center padded br">(R)</td> -<td class="center paddedl">+</td> -<td class="right"><span class="padr0">7</span></td> -<td rowspan="7" class="left top"><span class="padl0">°</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padr0">50</span></td> -<td rowspan="7" class="left top paddedr br"><span class="padl0">′</span></td> -<td class="left paddedl">April</td> -<td class="right padded br">20</td> -<td class="center padded">2020</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br"><span class="padr3">Hiero of Epidaurus, Asclepieion</span></td> -<td class="center paddedl">„</td> -<td class="center padded br">(R)</td> -<td class="center paddedl">+</td> -<td class="right"><span class="padr0">9</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padr0">15</span></td> -<td class="center paddedl">„</td> -<td class="right padded br">28</td> -<td class="center padded">1275</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br"><span class="padr3">Hecatompedon</span></td> -<td class="center paddedl">„</td> -<td class="center padded br">(R)</td> -<td class="center paddedl">+</td> -<td class="right"><span class="padr0">9</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padr0">58</span></td> -<td class="center paddedl">„</td> -<td class="right padded br">26</td> -<td class="center padded">1150</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br"><span class="padr3">Older Erechtheum</span></td> -<td class="left paddedl">Antares</td> -<td class="center padded br">(S)</td> -<td class="center paddedl">-</td> -<td class="right"><span class="padr0">14</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padr0">31</span></td> -<td class="center paddedl">„</td> -<td class="right padded br">29</td> -<td class="center padded">1070</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br"><span class="padr3">Temple of Bacchus</span></td> -<td class="left paddedl">Pleiades</td> -<td class="center padded br">(R)</td> -<td class="center paddedl">+</td> -<td class="right"><span class="padr0">10</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padr0">35</span></td> -<td class="center paddedl">„</td> -<td class="right padded br">29</td> -<td class="center padded">1030</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br"><span class="padr3">Corinth</span></td> -<td class="left paddedl">Antares</td> -<td class="center padded br">(S)</td> -<td class="center paddedl">-</td> -<td class="right"><span class="padr0">16</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padr0">0</span></td> -<td class="left paddedl">May</td> -<td class="right padded br">6</td> -<td class="center padded"> 770</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="left br"><span class="padr3">Aegina</span></td> -<td class="center paddedl">„</td> -<td class="center padded br">(S)</td> -<td class="center paddedl">-</td> -<td class="right"><span class="padr0">16</span></td> -<td class="right"><span class="padr0">45</span></td> -<td class="center paddedl">„</td> -<td class="right padded br">7</td> -<td class="center padded"> 630</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="blankbelow75">The warning stars at Athens were the Pleiades for -temples facing the east, and Antares for temples using -the western horizon.</p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>August warnings.</i></h4> - -<p class="hinline blankbelow75">—Sunrise at the August festival was -heralded by the rising of Arcturus, which, as we have -seen, was also used as a clock-star. The alignments -and dates given in the Arcturus table therefore hold -good for August. At the Hurlers, where the hill over -which Arcturus was observed fell away abruptly, we -find Sirius supplanting Arcturus as the warning star -for August in 1690 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>November warnings.</i></h4> - -<p class="hinline">—So far I have discovered no -evidence that any star was employed to herald the -November sun. There may be two reasons for this. -In the first place the November festival “Halloween” -took place at sun<i>set</i> and the sun itself could be watched, -no heralding star being necessary.</p> - -<p class="blankbelow75">Secondly, the atmospheric conditions which prevail in -Britain during November would not be conducive to -the making of stellar observations <i>at the horizon</i>, and -only risings or settings were observed with regard to -the quarter-days.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page312">[312]</span></p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>February Warnings.</i></h4> - -<p class="hinline">—In the same way that Arcturus -served the double purpose of clock-star and herald for the -August sun, so did Capella serve to warn the February -sun in addition to its use at night. The alignments -and dates given in the Capella table will therefore hold -good for its employment at the February quarter-day.</p> - -<h3><i>The Solstitial Year Monuments.</i></h3> - -<p>In Egypt generally, the solstitial worship followed -that of the May and equinoctial years. The religion of -Thothmes III. and the Rameses was in greatest vogue -2200-1500 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>We find little trace of it in Greece proper, though -Mr. Penrose has traced it in Calabria and Pompeii, and -in some of the islands.</p> - -<p>The solstitial cult was born in Egypt; it is a child -of the Nile-rise. I have shown in my <i>Dawn of -Astronomy</i> that the long series of temples connected -with the solstice may have commenced about 3000 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>; -but for long it was a secondary cult; it was parochial -until the twelfth dynasty, say 2300 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> Egypt’s solstitial -“golden age” may be given as 1700 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, and her -influence abroad was very great, so that much travel, -“coastwise” and other, may be anticipated. It is for -some centuries after the first date that the introduction -of the solstitial worship into Britain may be anticipated. -It, for instance, is quite probable that the pioneers of this -worship should have reached Stonehenge in 2000 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page313">[313]</span></p> - -<p>The solstitial alignments found by Mr. Penrose in -Greece are as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<table class="nopad dontwrap fsize90" summary="Alignments"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th class="br"><span class="padr3">Temples.</span></th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="5" class="br">Decl.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Day.</th> -<th>Year.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="5" class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"> </th> -<th><span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="highline150 br"> </td> -<td class="center highline150 padded br"><span class="smcap">June.</span></td> -<td colspan="5" class="highline150 br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="highline150 br"> </td> -<td class="highline150"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br"><span class="padr3">Athens, Dionysus (Upper Temple)</span></td> -<td class="center padded br">Antares (setting)</td> -<td class="center paddedl">-</td> -<td class="right paddedl">11</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left top padl0 paddedr">°</td> -<td class="right paddedl">2</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left top padl0 paddedr br">′</td> -<td class="left padded">June</td> -<td class="center paddedr br">20</td> -<td class="center padded">1700</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br"><span class="padr3">Pompeii (Isis)</span></td> -<td class="center padded br">β-Geminorum</td> -<td class="center paddedl">-</td> -<td class="right paddedl">16</td> -<td class="right paddedl">44</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center paddedr br">19</td> -<td class="center padded"> 750</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="highline150 br"> </td> -<td class="center highline150 padded br"><span class="smcap">December.</span></td> -<td colspan="5" class="highline150 br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="highline150 br"> </td> -<td class="highline150"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left br"><span class="padr3">Metapontum (setting)</span></td> -<td class="center padded br">β-Geminorum</td> -<td class="center paddedl">+</td> -<td class="right paddedl">29</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left top padl0 paddedr">°</td> -<td class="right paddedl">38</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left top padl0 paddedr br">′</td> -<td class="left padded">Dec.</td> -<td class="center paddedr br">21</td> -<td class="center padded"> 610</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="left br"><span class="padr3">Locri</span></td> -<td class="center padded br">„</td> -<td class="center paddedl">+</td> -<td class="right paddedl">29</td> -<td class="right paddedl">40</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center paddedr br">21</td> -<td class="center padded"> 610</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>We find plentiful evidence that the worship of the -solstitial sun such as was carried on in Egypt at -Karnak and at other places<a href="#Footnote125" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor125">[125]</a> was introduced into -Britain some time after the May-year worship was -provided for in the monuments.</p> - -<p>Although some of the alignments already discovered -are in all probability solstitial, the variation of the sun’s -solstitial declination is so slow and takes place between -such narrow limits that a most careful determination of -the actual azimuths and of the angular heights of the -various horizons must be made before any definite conclusion -as to dates can be arrived at. The necessity -for this care is illustrated in the paper on Stonehenge<a href="#Footnote126" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor126">[126]</a> -communicated to the Royal Society by Mr. -Penrose and myself in 1891, where, after taking the -greatest precautions, the resulting date was in doubt to -the amount of 200 years in either direction.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page314">[314]</span></p> - -<p>So far Stonehenge is the only temple at which these -observations have been made, so that for the other -alignments contained in the following list no dates -can yet be given.</p> - -<table class="noyears" summary="Monuments"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th class="br">Monument.</th> -<th class="br">Alignment.</th> -<th colspan="8" class="br">Az.</th> -<th colspan="7" class="br">Decl.<br />(provisional).</th> -<th class="br">Season.</th> -<th>Date<br /> <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="monument">Stonehenge</td> -<td class="line">Direction of avenue</td> -<td class="direction">N.</td> -<td class="angle">49</td> -<td rowspan="13" class="left top padl0">°</td> -<td class="angle">34</td> -<td rowspan="13" class="left top padl0">′</td> -<td class="angle">18</td> -<td rowspan="13" class="left top padl0">″</td> -<td class="direction br">E.</td> -<td class="angle">23</td> -<td rowspan="9" class="left top padl0">°</td> -<td class="angle">54</td> -<td rowspan="9" class="left top padl0">′</td> -<td class="angle">30</td> -<td rowspan="9" class="left top padl0">″</td> -<td class="direction br">N.</td> -<td class="center br padded">Summer (R)</td> -<td class="center padded">1680</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="monument padtop">Boscawen-un</td> -<td class="line padtop">Circ. to fine menhir</td> -<td class="direction padtop">N.</td> -<td class="angle padtop">53</td> -<td class="angle padtop">30</td> -<td class="angle padtop">0</td> -<td class="direction padtop br">E.</td> -<td class="angle padtop">22</td> -<td class="angle padtop">58</td> -<td class="angle padtop">13</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="br padtop"> </td> -<td class="center padtop br">Summer (R)</td> -<td rowspan="12" class="padtop"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="line">Circ. to Blind Fiddler</td> -<td class="direction">N.</td> -<td class="angle">54</td> -<td class="angle">30</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td class="direction br">E.</td> -<td class="angle">22</td> -<td class="angle">24</td> -<td class="angle">12</td> -<td class="center br">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="monument padtop">Tregaseal</td> -<td class="line padtop">Circ. to row of holed stones</td> -<td class="direction padtop">N.</td> -<td class="angle padtop">53</td> -<td class="angle padtop">20</td> -<td class="angle padtop">25</td> -<td class="direction padtop br">E.</td> -<td class="angle padtop">22</td> -<td class="angle padtop">53</td> -<td class="angle padtop">26</td> -<td class="center padtop br">Summer (R)</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="line">Circ. to two barrows 900′ distant</td> -<td class="direction">N.</td> -<td class="angle">50</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td class="direction br">E.</td> -<td class="angle">24</td> -<td class="angle">7</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td class="center br">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="monument padtop">Longstone (Tregaseal)</td> -<td class="line padtop">Mèn-an-tol to Longstone</td> -<td class="direction padtop">S.</td> -<td class="angle padtop">50</td> -<td class="angle padtop">30</td> -<td class="angle padtop">0</td> -<td class="direction padtop br">W.</td> -<td class="angle padtop">24</td> -<td class="angle padtop">33</td> -<td class="angle padtop">0</td> -<td class="direction padtop br">S.</td> -<td class="center padtop br">Winter (S)</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="monument padtop">The Hurlers</td> -<td class="line padtop">N. circ. to S.E. stone</td> -<td class="direction padtop">S.</td> -<td class="angle padtop">50</td> -<td class="angle padtop">50</td> -<td class="angle padtop">0</td> -<td class="direction padtop br">E.</td> -<td class="angle padtop">24</td> -<td class="angle padtop">17</td> -<td class="angle padtop">20</td> -<td class="direction padtop br">S.</td> -<td class="center padtop br">Winter (S)</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="monument padtop">Stanton Drew</td> -<td class="line padtop">Gt. Circle to N.E. circle</td> -<td class="direction padtop">N.</td> -<td class="angle padtop">51</td> -<td class="angle padtop">0</td> -<td class="angle padtop">0</td> -<td class="direction br padtop">E.</td> -<td class="angle padtop">23</td> -<td class="angle padtop">48</td> -<td class="angle padtop">46</td> -<td class="direction br padtop">N.</td> -<td class="center padtop br">Summer (R)</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="5" class="monument padtop">Stenness</td> -<td class="line padtop">Circle to Hindera Fiold</td> -<td class="direction padtop">N.</td> -<td class="angle padtop">39</td> -<td class="angle padtop">30</td> -<td class="angle padtop">0</td> -<td class="direction br padtop">E.</td> -<td class="angle padtop">24</td> -<td class="angle padtop">3</td> -<td class="angle padtop">15</td> -<td class="direction br padtop">N.</td> -<td class="center padtop br">Summer (R)</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="line">Barnstone to Maeshowe</td> -<td class="direction">N.</td> -<td class="angle">41</td> -<td class="angle">16</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td class="direction br">E.</td> -<td colspan="7" class="center br">—</td> -<td class="center br">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="line">Circ. to Ward Hill tumulus</td> -<td class="direction">S.</td> -<td class="angle">41</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td class="direction br">E.</td> -<td colspan="7" class="center br">—</td> -<td class="center br">Winter (R)</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="line">Circ. to Onston tumulus</td> -<td class="direction">S.</td> -<td class="angle">36</td> -<td class="angle">30</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td class="direction br">W.</td> -<td colspan="7" class="center br">—</td> -<td class="center br">Winter (S)</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="line">Circ. to tumuli</td> -<td class="direction">N.</td> -<td class="angle">37</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td class="direction br">W.</td> -<td colspan="7" class="center br">—</td> -<td class="center br">Summer (S)</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="20" class="center"><span class="padr3">(R) = rising.</span><span class="padl3">(S) = setting.</span></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>I cited an alignment at the Hurlers which marked -the rising point of Betelgeuse. This star warned the -summer solstice sunrise at about the Hurlers’ date. So -far, however, I have not yet found any suggestion of -its use elsewhere.</p> - -<p>At Shovel Down and Challacombe on Dartmoor there -are avenues pointing a few degrees west of north. The -sight-lines along these avenues would mark the -setting-point of Arcturus at the time that that star -(setting) warned the rising of the sun at the summer -solstice; but this use cannot be considered as established, -as Arcturus would scarcely set before its light was -drowned in that of the rising sun. The absence of<span class="pagenum" id="Page315">[315]</span> -darkness in high summer in these latitudes and the -bad weather in the winter may both be responsible -for so few alignments for the solstices.</p> - - -<p><i>The Equinoctial Year Monuments.</i></p> - -<p>The equinoctial pyramid and Babylonian cult in -vogue in Egypt in the early dynasties (4000 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>), with -the warning stars Aldebaran (March) and Vega (September), -was represented in Greece at a much later -period. The facts for Greece, according to Mr. Penrose, -are as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<table class="nopad dontwrap fsize90" summary="Greek facts"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="5" class="br">Decl.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Day.</th> -<th>Year.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="5" class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"> </th> -<th class="paddedl"><span class="smcapall">B.C.</span></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="11" class="center padded padbot padtop"><span class="smcap">March.</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left paddedr br">Nike Apteros</td> -<td colspan="2" class="left paddedl paddedr br">Spica (setting)</td> -<td class="center padded">+</td> -<td class="right paddedl">6</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="left top paddedr">°</td> -<td class="right paddedl">10</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="left top paddedr br">′</td> -<td class="left padded">Mar.</td> -<td class="right padded br">17</td> -<td class="center paddedl">1130</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left paddedr br">Juno Lacinia (near Croton)</td> -<td colspan="2" class="left paddedl paddedr br">α-Arietis</td> -<td class="center padded">+</td> -<td class="right paddedl">7</td> -<td class="right paddedl">27</td> -<td class="center padded">„</td> -<td class="right padded br">28</td> -<td class="center paddedl">1000</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left paddedr br">Paestum (Neptune)</td> -<td colspan="2" class="left paddedl paddedr br">Spica (setting)</td> -<td class="center padded">+</td> -<td class="right paddedl">3</td> -<td class="right paddedl">5</td> -<td class="center padded">„</td> -<td class="right padded br">22</td> -<td class="center paddedl"> 535</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left paddedr br">Gergenti (Hercules)</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center br">„</td> -<td class="center padded">+</td> -<td class="right paddedl">2</td> -<td class="right paddedl">30</td> -<td class="center padded">„</td> -<td class="right padded br">30</td> -<td class="center paddedl"> 470</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="11" class="center padded padbot padtop"><span class="smcap">September.</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left paddedr br">Rhamnus (Themis)</td> -<td class="left paddedl">Spica</td> -<td class="left padded br">(rising)</td> -<td class="center padded">+</td> -<td class="right paddedl">6</td> -<td rowspan="8" class="left top paddedr">°</td> -<td class="right paddedl">0</td> -<td rowspan="8" class="left top paddedr br">′</td> -<td class="left padded">Sept.</td> -<td class="right padded br">17</td> -<td class="center paddedl">1092</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left paddedr br">Tegea (Minerva)</td> -<td class="center paddedl">„</td> -<td class="center br">„</td> -<td class="center padded">+</td> -<td class="right paddedl">5</td> -<td class="right paddedl">51</td> -<td class="center padded">„</td> -<td class="right padded br">18</td> -<td class="center paddedl">1075</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left paddedr br">Syracuse (? Minerva)</td> -<td class="center paddedl">„</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="center padded">+</td> -<td class="right paddedl">4</td> -<td class="right paddedl">30</td> -<td class="center padded">„</td> -<td class="right padded br">20</td> -<td class="center paddedl"> 815</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left paddedr br">Athens (dedication unknown)</td> -<td class="center paddedl">„</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="center padded">+</td> -<td class="right paddedl">4</td> -<td class="right paddedl">17</td> -<td class="center padded">„</td> -<td class="right padded br">23</td> -<td class="center paddedl"> 780</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left paddedr br">Rhamnus (Nemesis)</td> -<td class="center paddedl">„</td> -<td class="center br">„</td> -<td class="center padded">+</td> -<td class="right paddedl">4</td> -<td class="right paddedl">5</td> -<td class="center padded">„</td> -<td class="right padded br">22</td> -<td class="center paddedl"> 747</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left paddedr br">Bassæ (Apollo)</td> -<td class="center paddedl">„</td> -<td class="center br">„</td> -<td class="center padded">+</td> -<td class="right paddedl">3</td> -<td class="right paddedl">57</td> -<td class="center padded">„</td> -<td class="right padded br">22</td> -<td class="center paddedl"> 728</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left paddedr br">Ephesus (Diana)</td> -<td class="center paddedl">„</td> -<td class="center br">„</td> -<td class="center padded">+</td> -<td class="right paddedl">3</td> -<td class="right paddedl">57</td> -<td class="center padded">„</td> -<td class="right padded br">25</td> -<td class="center paddedl"> 715</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left paddedr br">Syracuse (Diana)</td> -<td class="center paddedl">„</td> -<td class="center br">„</td> -<td class="center padded">+</td> -<td class="right paddedl">2</td> -<td class="right paddedl">22</td> -<td class="center padded">„</td> -<td class="right padded br">26</td> -<td class="center paddedl"> 450</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="left paddedr br">Ephesus (Diana) (re-orientation)</td> -<td class="center paddedl">„</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="5" class="center padded br">—</td> -<td class="left padded">Oct.</td> -<td class="right padded br">6</td> -<td class="center paddedl"> 355</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>In Britain equinoctial alignments are not wanting, but -so few have been traced that I have reserved them for -future inquiry.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote123"></a><a href="#FNanchor123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> See <i>Dawn of Astronomy</i>, p. 318.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote124"></a><a href="#FNanchor124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> -The temple conditions are approximately as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<table class="fn124" summary="Conditions"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="14" class="temple"><i>PALENQUE.</i></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th colspan="6">Azimuths.</th> -<th colspan="4"><span class="padl2">Decl.</span></th> -<th colspan="4"> </th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="direction">N.</td> -<td class="angle">21</td> -<td rowspan="5" class="unit">°</td> -<td class="angle">30</td> -<td rowspan="5" class="unit">′</td> -<td class="direction">E.</td> -<td class="angle"><span class="padl2">60</span></td> -<td rowspan="5" class="unit">°</td> -<td class="angle">15</td> -<td rowspan="5" class="unit">′</td> -<td rowspan="3" class="brace mid"><span class="fsize300">}</span></td> -<td rowspan="3" colspan="3" class="text">Stellar temples. Clock-stars.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="direction">N.</td> -<td class="angle">18</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td class="direction">E.</td> -<td class="angle"><span class="padl2">62</span></td> -<td class="angle">36</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="direction">S.</td> -<td class="angle">27</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td class="direction">W.</td> -<td class="angle"><span class="padl2">56</span></td> -<td class="angle">17</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="direction">S.</td> -<td class="angle">66</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td class="direction">E.</td> -<td class="angle"><span class="padl2">23</span></td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td colspan="2" class="text">Solstice</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace mid"><span class="fsize200">}</span></td> -<td rowspan="2" class="text">Solar temples.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="direction">S.</td> -<td class="angle">73</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td class="direction">E.</td> -<td class="angle"><span class="padl2">16</span></td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td colspan="2" class="text">May</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th colspan="14" class="temple"><i>CHICHEN ITZA.</i></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th colspan="6">Azimuths.</th> -<th colspan="4">Decl.</th> -<th colspan="4"> </th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="direction">N.</td> -<td class="angle">26</td> -<td rowspan="5" class="unit">°</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td rowspan="5" class="unit">′</td> -<td class="direction">E.</td> -<td class="angle"><span class="padl2">59</span></td> -<td rowspan="5" class="unit">°</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td rowspan="5" class="unit">′</td> -<td colspan="4" class="text">Stellar temple. Clock-star.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="direction">S.</td> -<td class="angle">70</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td class="direction">E.</td> -<td class="angle"><span class="padl2">19</span></td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td colspan="4" class="text"><span class="padl3">(?)</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="direction">N.</td> -<td class="angle">70</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td class="direction">W.</td> -<td class="angle"><span class="padl2">19</span></td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td colspan="4" class="text"><span class="padl3">(?)</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="direction">N.</td> -<td class="angle">67</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td class="direction">W.</td> -<td class="angle"><span class="padl2">22</span></td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td colspan="2" class="text">Solstitial</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace mid"><span class="fsize200">}</span></td> -<td rowspan="2" colspan="3" class="text">Solar temples.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="direction">N.</td> -<td class="angle">72</td> -<td class="angle">30</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle"><span class="padl2">16</span></td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td colspan="2" class="text">May</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p><a id="Footnote125"></a><a href="#FNanchor125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> <i>Dawn of Astronomy</i>, p. 78.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote126"></a><a href="#FNanchor126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, vol. 69.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page316">[316]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="h2number">CHAPTER XXX</span><br /> -<span class="h2name">THE LIFE OF THE ASTRONOMER-PRIESTS</span></h2> - -<p>The facts contained in the preceding chapters have -suggested, at all events, that whatever else went on -some four thousand years ago in the British circles -there was much astronomical observation and a great -deal of preparation for it.</p> - -<p>In a colony of the astronomer-priests who built and -used the ancient temples we had of <span class="nowrap">necessity:—</span></p> - -<p>(1) Observatories, <i>i.e.</i>, circles in the first place; next -something to mark the sight-lines to the clock-star for -night work, to the rising or setting of the warning stars, -and to the places of sunrise and sunset at the chief festivals. -This something, we have learned, might be another -circle, a standing stone, a dolmen, a cove, or a holed -stone.</p> - -<p>A study of the sight-lines shows us that these collimation -marks, as we may call them, were of set -purpose, generally placed some distance away from the -circles, so far that they would require to be illuminated -in some way for the night and dawn observations. -When there was no wind, one or more hollows in a -stone, whether a menhir or a quoit, might have held<span class="pagenum" id="Page317">[317]</span> -grease to feed a wick or a pine-wood torch. But in a -wind some shelter would be necessary, and the light -might have been used in a cromlech or allée couverte. -Stones have been found with such cups, and débris of -fires have been found in cromlechs.</p> - -<p>It must not be forgotten that here there was no oil -as in the Semitic countries whence, as we have seen, -the immigrants came; and it was not a question of a -light on the sight-line alone. If wood were used, it -must have been kept dry for use, and whether wood or -animal fat were employed the most practical and convenient -way of lighting up would have been to keep a -fire ever burning in some sheltered place.</p> - -<p>(2) Dwellings, which would be cromlechs or many-chambered -barrows, according to the number of astronomer-priests -at the station. These dwellings would -require to be protected against the invasions of the -local fauna, very different from what it is now, and for -this a small, and on that account easily blocked, entrance -would be an essential.</p> - -<p>These dwellings would naturally suggest themselves -as the shelter place for the ever-burning fire or the -supply of dry wood. Tradition points with no uncertain -sound to the former existence of life and light -in these “hollow hills.” Mr. MacRitchie’s book<a href="#Footnote127" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor127">[127]</a> contains -a mine of most valuable and interesting information -on this subject.</p> - -<p>(3) A water supply for drinking and bathing, which -might be a spring, river or lake, according to the -locality.</p> - -<p>Given a supply of food we have now provided for<span class="pagenum" id="Page318">[318]</span> -the shelter and protection of the astronomer and the -man.</p> - -<p>But the man who brought this new astronomical -knowledge was, before he came, astrologer and magician -as well, and, further, he was a priest; hence on account -of his knowledge of the seasons, he could not only -help the aboriginal tiller of the soil as he had never -been helped before, by his knowledge; but he could -appeal in the strongest way to his superstitious fears -and feelings, by his function as the chief sacrificer and -guardian of the sacrificial altars and fires. Hence it -was that everything relating to the three different -classes of things to which I have referred was regarded -as very holy because they were closely associated with -the astronomer-priests, on whom the early peoples depended -for guidance in all things, not only of economic, -but of religious, medical and superstitious value.</p> - -<p>The perforated stones were regarded as sacred, so -that passing through them was supposed to cure disease. -Whether men and women, or children only, -passed through the hole depended upon its size. But a -hole large enough for a head to be inserted was good -for head complaints.</p> - -<p>The wells, rivers, and lakes used by the priests were, -as holy places, also invested with curative properties, and -offerings of garments (skins?), and pins to fasten them -on, as well as bread and wine and cheese, were made at -these places to the priests.</p> - -<p>The fact that the tree on which the garment was hung -was either a rowan or a thorn shows that these offerings -commenced as early as the May-November worship.</p> - -<p>The holed stones, besides being curative, were in long<span class="pagenum" id="Page319">[319]</span> -after years, when marriage had been instituted, used for -the interchange of marriage vows by clasping hands -through the opening.</p> - -<p>The cups for the light would also be sacred objects; -and many of them have been since used for holy -water.</p> - -<p>The cursus at Stonehenge and the avenues on Dartmoor -may be regarded as evidences that sacred processions -formed part of the ceremonial on the holy days, -but sacrifices and sacred ceremonials were not alone in -question; many authors have told us that feasts, games -and races were not forgotten. This, so far as racing is -concerned, is proved, I think, by the facts that the -cursus at Stonehenge is 10,000 feet long and 350 feet -broad, that it occupies a valley between two hills, thus -permitting of the presence of thousands of spectators, -and that our horses are still decked in gaudy trappings -on May Day.</p> - -<p>Nor is this all. It is hard to understand some of -the folklore and tradition unless we recognise that at -a time before marriage was instituted, at some of the -sacred festivals the intercourse of the sexes was permitted -if not encouraged. This view is strengthened -by the researches of Westermarck<a href="#Footnote128" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor128">[128]</a> -and Rhys.<a href="#Footnote129" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor129">[129]</a> Given -such a practice, the origin of matriarchal customs and -of the <i>couvade</i> is at once explained; and it is clear -that the charges against the Druids of special cruelty -and impurity must be withdrawn. Their sacrifices and -customs were those common to all priesthoods in the -ancient world.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page320">[320]</span></p> - -<p>I have shown that some circles used in the worship -of the May year were in operation 2200 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, and that -there was the introduction of a new cult about 1600 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, -or shortly afterwards, in southern Britain, so definite -that the changes in the chief orientation lines in the -stone circles can be traced.</p> - -<p>To the worship of the sun in May, August, November -and February was added a solstitial worship in June -and December.</p> - -<p>The associated phenomena are that the May-November -Balder and Beltaine cult made much of the rowan and -may thorn. The June-December cult brought the worship -of the mistletoe.</p> - -<p>The flowering of the rowan and thorntree in May, -and their berries in early November, made them the -most appropriate and striking floral accompaniments of -the May and November worships, and the same ideas -would point to a similar use of the mistletoe in June -and December.</p> - -<p>The fact that the June-December cult succeeded and -largely replaced the May-November one could hardly -have been put in a cryptic and poetic statement more -happily than it appears in folklore: Balder was killed -by mistletoe.</p> - -<p>This change of cult may be due to the intrusion of -a new tribe, but I am inclined to attribute it to a new -view taken by the priests themselves due to a greater -knowledge, among it being the determination, in Egypt, -of the true length of the year which could be observed -by the recurrence of the solstices, and of the intervals -between the festivals reckoned in days.</p> - -<p>However this may have been, all the old practices<span class="pagenum" id="Page321">[321]</span> -and superstitions were retained, only the time of year -at which they took place was changed. As the change -of cult was slow, in any one locality the celebrations -would be continued at <i>both</i> times of the year, and for -long both sets of holidays were retained.</p> - -<p>Since I have shewn that the solstitial worship came -last, traces of this, as a rule, would be most obvious in -places where it eventually prevailed over the cult of -the May year. In such places the absence of traces of -the May festival would be no valid argument against -its former prevalence. In other places, like Scotland, -where the solstitial cult was apparently introduced late -and was never prevalent, we should expect strong traces -of the May worship, and, as a matter of fact, it is very -evident in the folk lore and customs of Scotland; even -the old May year quarter days are still maintained.</p> - -<p>Between the years 2300 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> and 1600 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>, whether -we are dealing with the same race of immigrants or -not, we pass from unhewn to worked stones. The -method of this working and its results have been -admirably shown to us by Prof. Gowland’s explorations -at Stonehenge.</p> - -<p>From the tables, given in Chap. XXVIII, it can be -seen that, so far as the present evidence goes, there was a -pretty definite time—about 2300 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>—of beginning the -astronomical work at the chief monuments; Cornwall -came first, Dartmoor was next.</p> - -<p>Almost as marked as the simultaneous beginning are -the dates of ending the observations, if we may judge of -the time of ending by the fact that the precessional -changes in the star places were no longer marked by -the marking out of new sight lines.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page322">[322]</span></p> - -<p>The clock-star work was the first to go, about 1500 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> -The May-warning stars followed pretty quickly.</p> - -<p>We may say, then, that we have full evidence of -astronomical activity of all kinds at the circles for a -period of some 700 years.</p> - -<p>What prevented its continuance on the old lines? It -may have been that the invention of some other method -of telling time by night had rendered the old methods -of observation, and therefore the apparatus to carry them -on, no longer necessary.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, it may have been that some new -race, less astronomically inclined, had swept over the land.</p> - -<p>I am inclined to take the former view. It is quite -certain that for the clock-stars other observations besides -those on the horizon would soon have suggested themselves -for determining the lapse of time during the night. -The old, high, bleak, treeless moorlands might then in -process of time have been gradually forsaken, and life -may have gone on in valleys and even in sheltered woods, -except on the chief festivals. When this was so astronomy -and superstition would give way to politics and -other new human interests, and the priests would become -in a wider sense the leaders and the teachers of the -more highly organised community.</p> - -<p>It is clear that in later days as at the commencement -they were still ahead in the knowledge of the time. “Hi -terrae mundique magnitudinem et formam, motus coeli -ac siderum, ac quod dii velunt sciere profitentur” is -Pomponius Mela’s statement concerning them.<a href="#Footnote130" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor130">[130]</a> From -1500 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> to Cæsar’s time is a -long interval, and yet<span class="pagenum" id="Page323">[323]</span> -the astronomical skill of the so-called Druids, who beyond -all question were the descendants of our astronomical-priests, -was then a matter of common repute. Cæsar’s -account of the Druids in Gaul (<i>Bello Gallico</i>, vi. c. -13, 14, 15) is extremely interesting because it indicates, -I think, that the Druid culture had not passed through -Gaul and had therefore been waterborne to Britain, -whither the Gauls therefore went to study it.<a href="#Footnote131" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor131">[131]</a></p> - -<p>Simultaneously with the non-use of the ancient stones, -we may imagine that the priests—of ever-increasing -importance—no longer dwelt in their cromlechs, but, -rather, occupied such buildings as those which remain -at Chysoister, and from this date it is possible that -burials may have taken place in some of the mounds -then given up as dwelling places. As sacred places -they were subsequently used for burials, as Westminster -Abbey has been; but burials were not the object of -their erection.<a href="#Footnote132" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor132">[132]</a> This new habit may have started the -practice of cist burial by later people in barrows thrown -up for that special purpose.</p> - -<p>I cannot close this Chapter without expressing my -admiration of the learning and acumen displayed by -Dr. Borlase in his treatment of the subject of the Druids -in his <i>History of Cornwall</i>, published in 1769; I find -he has anticipated me in suggesting that the hollowed<span class="pagenum" id="Page324">[324]</span> -stones were used for fires. It is clear, now that the monuments -have been dated, that the astronomical knowledge -referred to by Cæsar and Pomponius Mela was no new -importation; if, therefore, the present view of ethnologists -that the Celtic intrusion took place about 1000 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> is -correct, it is certain the Celts brought no higher intelligence -with them than was possessed by those whom -they found here; nor is this to be expected if, as the -inquiry has suggested, the latter were the representatives -of the highest civilisation of the East with which possibly -the former had never been brought into contact.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote127"></a><a href="#FNanchor127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> <i>The Testimony of Tradition.</i></p> - -<p><a id="Footnote128"></a><a href="#FNanchor128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> <i>History of Human Marriage</i>, Chapter II.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote129"></a><a href="#FNanchor129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> <i>Celtic Folklore</i>, ii., 654.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote130"></a><a href="#FNanchor130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> -<i>Pomp. Mela</i>, Lib. II. c. 2. I have already (<a href="#Page52">p. 52</a>) quoted Cæsar’s -testimony to the same effect.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote131"></a><a href="#FNanchor131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> -“Disciplina in Britannia reperta, atque in Galliam translata esse -existimatur.”—<i>C. Bell. Gall.</i> lib. vi. c. 13. This “discipline” also -included magic according to Pliny. “Britannia hodie eam (<i>i.e.</i> -Magiam) attonite celebrat tantis ceremoniis, ut eam Persis dedisse -videri possit” (lib. xxx. c. 1.)</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote132"></a><a href="#FNanchor132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> -Bertrand and Reinach, <i>Les Celtes et les Gaulois dans les Vallées du -Pô et du Danube</i>, p. 82. Tregellis, “Stone Circles in Cornwall.” -<i>Trans.</i> Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society, 1893-4.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page325">[325]</span></p> - -<h2>APPENDICES</h2> - -<h3>I. <span class="smcap">Details of the Theodolite Observations at -Stonehenge</span></h3> - -<p>The instrument chiefly employed was a six-inch transit theodolite -by Cooke with verniers reading to 20″ in altitude and azimuth. -Most of the observations were made at two points very near the -axis, which may be designated by <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>. Station <i>a</i> was at a distance -of 61 feet to the south-west of the centre of the temple, and <i>b</i> -364 feet to the north-east. The distance from the centre of Stonehenge -to Salisbury Spire being 41,981 feet, the calculated corrections -for parallax at the points of observation with reference to Salisbury -Spire <span class="nowrap">are:—</span></p> - -<table class="nopad dontwrap" summary="Parallax"> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Station</td> -<td class="center padded"><i>a</i></td> -<td class="center paddedr">+</td> -<td class="right">4</td> -<td class="left paddedr">′</td> -<td class="right">12</td> -<td class="left">″.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center padded"><i>b</i></td> -<td class="center paddedr">-</td> -<td class="right">25</td> -<td class="left paddedr">′</td> -<td class="right">20</td> -<td class="left">″.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>(1) <i>Relative Azimuths.</i>—Theodolite at station <span class="nowrap"><i>a</i>—</span></p> - -<table class="observation" summary="Observation"> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Salisbury Spire</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td rowspan="6" class="unit">°</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td rowspan="6" class="unit">′</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td rowspan="6" class="unit">″</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">N. side of opening in N.E. trilithon of the external ring</td> -<td class="angle">237</td> -<td class="angle">27</td> -<td class="angle">40</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Tree in middle of clump on Sidbury Hill</td> -<td class="angle">237</td> -<td class="angle">40</td> -<td class="angle">20</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Highest point of Friar’s Heel</td> -<td class="angle">239</td> -<td class="angle">47</td> -<td class="angle">25</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr split">S. side of opening in N.E. trilithon</td> -<td class="angle">240</td> -<td class="angle">14</td> -<td class="angle">40</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Middle of opening in N.E. trilithon</td> -<td class="angle">238</td> -<td class="angle">51</td> -<td class="angle">10</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>(2) <i>Absolute Azimuths.</i>—All the azimuths were referred to that -of Salisbury Spire, the azimuth of which was determined by -observations of the Sun and Polaris.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page326">[326]</span></p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Observation of Sun</i>, <i>June 23, 1901</i>, 3.30-3.40 <span class="smcapall">P.M.</span></p> - -<table class="observation" summary="Observation"> - -<tr> -<td colspan="7" class="descr"><span class="nowrap">Mean of observed altitudes of Sun</span></td> -<td class="angle">41</td> -<td class="unit">°</td> -<td class="angle">26</td> -<td class="unit">′</td> -<td class="angle">35</td> -<td class="unit">″</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Refraction</td> -<td class="center">-</td> -<td class="angle">1</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="unit">′</td> -<td class="angle">4</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="unit">″</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace"><span class="fsize200">}</span></td> -<td rowspan="2" class="angle mid">0</td> -<td rowspan="2"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="angle mid">0</td> -<td rowspan="2"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="angle mid">58</td> -<td rowspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Parallax</td> -<td class="center">+</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">6</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="7" class="descr"><span class="padl5">True altitude of Sun’s centre</span></td> -<td class="angle bt">41</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">25</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">37</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>Latitude = 51° 10′ 42″. Sun’s declination = 23° 26′ 43″. -Using the formula</p> - -<p class="formula">cos<sup>2</sup> <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> A = -<span class="horsplit"><span class="top">sin <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>(Δ + <i>c</i> - <i>z</i>) -sin <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>(Δ + <i>z</i> - <i>c</i>)</span> -<span class="bot">sin <i>c</i> . sin <i>z</i></span></span></p> - -<p class="center blankbefore75 blankbelow75">where A = azimuth from south, Δ = polar distance,<br /> -<i>c</i> = co-latitude, and <i>z</i> = zenith distance,</p> - -<p class="noindent">we get</p> - -<table class="observation" summary="Observation"> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Azimuth of Sun</td> -<td class="center padded">S.</td> -<td class="angle">75</td> -<td class="unit">°</td> -<td class="angle">30</td> -<td class="unit">′</td> -<td class="angle">30</td> -<td class="unit">″</td> -<td class="center padded">W.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Mean circle reading on Sun</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">84</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">38</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">35</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Azimuth of Salisbury Spire</td> -<td class="center padded">S.</td> -<td class="angle bt">9</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">8</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">5</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="center padded">E.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Observations of Polaris.</i>—June 23, 1901. Time of greatest -easterly elongation, calculated by formula cos <i>h</i> = tan φ cot δ, is -G.M.T. 1.34 <span class="smcapall">A.M.</span></p> - -<p>Azimuth at greatest easterly elongation, calculated by the -formula</p> - -<p class="formula">sin A = cos δ sec φ</p> - -<p class="noindent">is 181° 57′ 0″ from south.</p> - -<table class="observation" summary="Observation"> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Observed maximum reading of circle</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">256</td> -<td class="unit">°</td> -<td class="angle">33</td> -<td class="unit">′</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td class="unit">″</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">True azimuth of star</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">181</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">57</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Meridian (S.) reading of circle</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle bt">74</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">36</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">0</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Circle reading on Salisbury Spire</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">65</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">28</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr"><span class="padl5">Azimuth of Salisbury Spire</span></td> -<td class="center padded">S.</td> -<td class="angle bt">9</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">8</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">0</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="center padded">E.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The mean of the two determinations gives for the azimuth of -Salisbury Spire S. 9° 8′ 2″ E. This result agrees well with the -value of the azimuth communicated by the Ordnance Survey -Office, namely, 9° 4′ 8″ from the centre of the circle, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page327">[327]</span> -being corrected by +4′ 12″ for the position of station <i>a</i>, is increased -to 9° 8′ 20″.</p> - -<p>Hence, from the point of observation <i>a</i>, 9° 8′ 20″ has been -adopted as the azimuth of Salisbury Spire.</p> - -<p>We thus get the following absolute values of the principal -azimuths from the point <i>a</i>:</p> - -<table class="observation" summary="Observation"> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Highest point of Friar’s Heel</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">239</td> -<td class="unit">°</td> -<td class="angle">47</td> -<td class="unit">′</td> -<td class="angle">25</td> -<td class="unit">″</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">-9</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">8</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">20</td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle bt">230</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">39</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">5</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">or</td> -<td class="center padded">N.</td> -<td class="angle">50</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">39</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">5</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center padded">E.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Middle of opening in N.E. trilithon</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">238</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">51</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">10</td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">-9</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">8</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">20</td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle bt">229</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">42</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">50</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">or</td> -<td class="center padded">N.</td> -<td class="angle">49</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">42</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">50</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center padded">E.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The difference of 8<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>′ between this and the assumed axis -49° 34′ 18″ is so slight that considering the indirect method which -has necessarily been employed in determining the axis of the -temple from the position of the leaning stone, and the want of -verticality, parallelism and straightness of the inner surfaces of -the opening in the N.E. trilithon, we are justified in adopting -the azimuth of the avenue as that of the temple.</p> - -<p>Next, with regard to the determination of the azimuth of the -avenue as indicated by the line of pegs to which reference is made on -<a href="#Page65">p. 65</a>. The small angle between the nearest pegs A and B (which -are supposed to be parallel to the axis of the avenue), observed -from station <i>a</i>, was measured, and the corresponding calculated -correction was applied to the ascertained true bearing of the more -distant peg B.</p> - -<p>Thus</p> - -<table class="observation" summary="Observation"> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">True bearing of peg B =</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">238</td> -<td class="unit">°</td> -<td class="angle">35</td> -<td class="unit">′</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td class="unit">″</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Calculated correction to peg A =</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">12</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">8</td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">True bearing of line AB</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle bt">238</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">47</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">8</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Bearing of Salisbury Spire</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">189</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">8</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">20</td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">True bearing of a line parallel to the axis of near part of avenue</td> -<td class="center padded">N.</td> -<td class="angle bt">49</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">38</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">48</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="center padded">E.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page328">[328]</span></p> - -<p>The mean of the three independent determinations by another -observer was 49° 39′ 6″.</p> - -<p>The calculated bearing of the more distant part of the axis of -the avenue determined in the same manner by observations from -station <i>b</i> is 49° 32′ 54″. The mean of the two, namely, 49° 35′ 51″, -justifies the adoption of the value 49° 34′ 18″ as given by the -Ordnance Survey for the straight line from Stonehenge to Sidbury -Hill.</p> - -<p>(3) <i>Observation of Sunrise.</i>—On the morning of June 25, 1901, -sunrise was observed from station <i>a</i>, and a setting made as nearly -as possible on the middle of the visible segment as soon as could be -done after the Sun appeared.</p> - -<p>The telescope was then set on the highest point of the Friar’s -Heel, and the latter was found to be 8′ 40″ south of the Sun.</p> - -<table class="observation" summary="Observation"> - -<tr> -<td colspan="7" class="descr">Sun’s declination at time of observation</td> -<td class="angle">23</td> -<td class="unit bot">°</td> -<td class="angle">25</td> -<td class="unit bot">′</td> -<td class="angle">5</td> -<td class="unit bot">″</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="7" class="descr">Elevation of horizon at point of sunrise</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">35</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">48</td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="7" class="descr">Assuming 2′ vertical of Sun to have been visible at observation, we have apparent altitude of -Sun’s upper limb</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">37</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">48</td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr"><span class="padl5">Refraction</span></td> -<td class="center w1m">-</td> -<td class="angle w1m">27</td> -<td class="unit bot w025m">′</td> -<td class="angle w1m">27</td> -<td class="unit bot w025m">″</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace"><span class="fsize200">}</span></td> -<td rowspan="2" class="angle mid">-0</td> -<td rowspan="2"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="angle mid">27</td> -<td rowspan="2"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="angle mid">18</td> -<td rowspan="2"> </td> -<td rowspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr"><span class="padl5">Parallax</span></td> -<td class="center padded">+</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">9</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="7" class="descr">True altitude of upper limb</td> -<td class="angle bt">0</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">10</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">30</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="7" class="descr">Sun’s semi-diameter</td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">15</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">46</td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="7" class="descr">True altitude of Sun’s centre</td> -<td class="angle bt">-0</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">5</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">16</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5" class="descr">From this it results that the true azimuth of the Sun at the time of observation</td> -<td class="center padded">=</td> -<td class="center padded">N.</td> -<td class="angle">50</td> -<td class="unit bot">°</td> -<td class="angle">30</td> -<td class="unit bot">′</td> -<td class="angle">54</td> -<td class="unit bot">″</td> -<td class="center padded">E.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5" class="descr">And since azimuth of Friar’s Heel</td> -<td class="center padded">=</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">50</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">39</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">5</td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5" class="descr">2′ of sunrise should be N. of Friar’s Heel</td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle bt">0</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">8</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">11</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5" class="descr">Observed difference of azimuth</td> -<td class="center padded">=</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">0</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">8</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle">40</td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5" class="descr"><span class="padl5">Observed - calculated</span></td> -<td class="center padded">=</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="angle bt">0</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">0</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td class="angle bt">29</td> -<td class="bt"> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The observation thus agrees with calculation, if we suppose -about 2′ of the Sun’s limb to have been above the horizon when it -was made, and therefore substantially confirms the azimuth above -given of the Friar’s Heel and generally the data adopted.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page329">[329]</span></p> - -<h3>II. <span class="smcap">Hints on Making, and Method of Reducing, the -Field Observations.</span></h3> - -<p>It will probably be found useful if I give here a few hints as to -the precautions which must be taken in making the field observations -and an example of their reduction to an astronomical -basis.</p> - -<p>For the <i>azimuths</i> of the sight-lines the investigator of these -monuments cannot do better than use the 25-inch, or 6-inch, maps -published by the Ordnance Survey. Their accuracy is of a very -high order and is not likely to be exceeded, even if approached, -by any casual observer having to make his own special arrangements -for correct time before he can begin his surveying -work.</p> - -<p>In some cases, however, it may be found that the Survey has not -included every outstanding stone which may be found by an -investigator on making a careful search; many of the stones are -covered by gorse, &c., and are not, therefore, easily found.</p> - -<p>In such cases the azimuth of some object that is marked on the -map should be taken as a reference line and the difference of -azimuth between that and the unmarked objects determined. By -this means the azimuths of all the sight-lines may be obtained.</p> - -<p>When using the 25-inch maps for determining azimuths it -must be borne in mind that the side-lines are not, necessarily, due -north and south. The Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, -Southampton, will probably on application state the correction to -be applied to the azimuths on this account, and this should be -applied, of course, to each of the values obtained.</p> - -<p>If for any reason it is found necessary or desirable to make -observations of the azimuths independently of the Ordnance -Survey, full instructions as to the method of procedure may be -found in an inexpensive instruction book<a href="#Footnote133" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor133">[133]</a> issued by the Board of -Education. The instructions given on p. 49, § 3, are most<span class="pagenum" id="Page330">[330]</span> -generally applicable, and the form on p. 76 will be found very -handy for recording and reducing the observations.</p> - -<p>In making observations of the angular elevation of the horizon -a good theodolite is essential. Both verniers should be read, the -mean taken, and then the telescope should be reversed in its -Ys, reset, and both readings taken again. One setting and -reading are of little use.</p> - -<p>The Ordnance Survey maps may also be employed <i>in a -preliminary reconnaissance</i> to obtain approximate values of the -horizon elevations. This may be done by measuring the distances -and contour-lines shown on the one-inch maps. This method, -however, is only very roughly approximate owing to the fact that -sharp but very local elevations close to the monuments may not -appear on these maps and yet be of sufficient magnitude to cause -large errors in the results.</p> - -<p>Where trees, houses, &c., top the horizon, they should, of course, -be neglected and the elevation of the ground level, at that spot, -taken. Should the top of the azimuth mark (stone, &c.) show above -the actual horizon, its elevation should be recorded and not that of -the horizon.</p> - -<p>Having measured the angular elevation of the horizon along the -sight-line, it is necessary to convert this into actual zenith distance -and to apply the refraction correction before the computations of -declination can be made.</p> - -<p>The process of doing this and of calculating the declination -will be gathered from the examples given <span class="nowrap">below:—</span></p> - -<p class="blankbefore75"><i>Data.</i></p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">Monument:—E. circle Tregeseal, lat. 50° 8′ N. <i>i.e.</i> colat = 39° 52′.</p> - -<p>Alignment. Centre of circle to Longstone.</p> - -<p>Az. (from 25″ Ordnance Map). N. 66° 38′ E.</p> - -<p>Elevation of horizon (measured) 2° 10′.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">Reference to the May-Sun curve, given on <a href="#Page263">p. 263</a>, indicates that -this is probably an alignment to the sunrise on May morning. -Therefore, in determining the zenith distance, the correction for -the sun’s semi-diameter (16′) must be taken into account, allowing -that 2′ of the sun’s disc was above the horizon when the observation -was made.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page331">[331]</span></p> - -<p class="noindent"><i>Zenith</i> <span class="nowrap"><i>Distance</i>:—</span></p> - -<table class="dontwrap" summary="Distances"> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Zenith</td> -<td class="left">distance of</td> -<td class="left">true</td> -<td class="left">horizon</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">=</td> -<td class="right">90°</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left">local</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left">= 90° - 2° 10′</td> -<td class="center">=</td> -<td class="right">87°</td> -<td class="right">50′</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>Bessel’s tables show that refraction, at altitude 2° 10′, raises -sun 17′. If 2′ of sun’s limb is above horizon, sun’s centre is -14′ below.</p> - -<p>∴ True zenith distance of sun’s centre = 87° 50′ + 17′ + 14′ = 88° 21′.</p> - -<p class="noindent"><span class="nowrap"><i>Declination</i>:—</span></p> - -<p>Having obtained the zenith distance, and the azimuth, the -latitude being known, the N.P.D. (North Polar Distance) of the -sun may be found by the following <span class="nowrap">equations:—</span></p> - -<p class="formula"><span class="formulanumber">(1)</span> -<span class="numberedformula">tan θ = tan <i>z</i>. cos A,</span></p> - -<p class="noindent">where θ is the subsidiary angle which must be determined for the -purpose of computation, <i>z</i> is the true zenith distance, and A is the -distance from the <i>North</i> point.</p> - -<p class="formula"><span class="formulanumber">(2)</span> -<span class="numberedformula">cos Δ = -<span class="horsplit"><span class="top">cos <i>z</i> . cos -(c - θ)<a href="#Footnote134" class="fnanchor" id="FNanchor134">[134]</a></span> -<span class="bot">cos θ</span></span>,</span></p> - -<p class="noindent">where Δ is the N.P.D. of the celestial object, and <i>c</i> is the -colatitude (90° - lat.) of the place of observation.</p> - -<p>In the example taken this gives <span class="nowrap">us—</span></p> - -<p class="formula"><span class="formulanumber">(1)</span> -<span class="numberedformula">tan θ = tan 88° 21′ . cos 66° 38′</span></p> - -<p class="formula nothigh">θ = 85° 50′ 45″</p> - -<p class="formula"><span class="formulanumber">(2)</span> -<span class="numberedformula">cos Δ = -<span class="horsplit"><span class="top">cos 88° 21′. cos (39° 52′ - 85° 50′ 45″)</span> -<span class="bot">cos 85° 50′ 45″</span></span></span></p> - -<p class="formula nothigh">Δ = 73° 57′ 50″</p> - -<p class="formula nothigh">Declination, δ, = (90° - Δ) = 16° 2′ 10″ N.</p> - -<p>Reference to the Nautical Almanac shows that this is the sun’s -declination on May 5 and August 9. We may therefore conclude -that the Long-stone was erected to mark the May sunrise, as seen -from the Tregeseal Circle.</p> - -<p>Had we been dealing with a star, instead of the sun, the only -modification necessary in the process of calculating the -declination would have been to omit the semi-diameter correction -of 14′.</p> - -<p>Having obtained a declination, we must refer to the curves given -on <a href="#Page115">pp. 115</a>-<a href="#Page116">6</a> in order to see if there is any star which fits it, and -to find the date.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page332">[332]</span></p> - -<p>Take, for example, the case of the apex of Carn Kenidjack, as -seen from the Tregeseal <span class="nowrap">circle—</span></p> - -<p>Az. = N. 12° 8′ E.; hill = 4° 0.′ lat. = 50° 8′.</p> - -<p>This gives us a declination of 42° 33′ N., and a reference to the -stellar-declination curves (<a href="#Page115">p. 115</a>-<a href="#Page116">6</a>) shows that Arcturus had that -declination in 2330 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span> From the table given on <a href="#Page117">p. 117</a>, we -see that at that epoch Arcturus acted as warning-star for the -August sun.</p> - -<p>In cases where the elevation of the horizon is 30′, or in -preliminary examinations, where it may be assumed as 30′, the -refraction exactly counterbalances the hill, and therefore the true -zenith distance at the moment of star-rise is 90°. Hence the -N.P.D. of the star may be found from the following simple -<span class="nowrap">equation—</span></p> - -<p class="formula"><span class="formulanumber">(3)</span> -<span class="numberedformula">cos Δ = cos A cos λ</span></p> - -<p class="noindent">where Δ and A have the same significance as before and λ is the -<i>latitude</i> of the place of observation.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote133"></a><a href="#FNanchor133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> -<i>Demonstrations and Practical Work in Astronomical Physics at the Royal -College of Science, South Kensington.</i> Wyman and Sons, 1<i>s.</i></p> - -<p><a id="Footnote134"></a><a href="#FNanchor134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> cos (c - θ) = cos -(c - θ).</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page333">[333]</span></p> - -<h2>INDEX</h2> - -<ul class="index"> - -<li class="letter">A.</li> - -<li><b>Abydos</b>, clock star at, <a href="#Page297">297</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Africa</b>, sacred stones and trees, <a href="#Page235">235</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Aldebaran</b>, <i>see</i> <a href="#Index1">Tauri α</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>Allée couverte</b>,” <a href="#Page41">41</a>, <a href="#Page317">317</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>All Hallows</b>,” <a href="#Page187">187</a>; Irish and Welsh equivalents, <a href="#Page195">195</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>All Souls</b>,” change of date, <a href="#Page186">186</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Alsia well</b>, <a href="#Page227">227</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Altar stone</b>, Stonehenge, <a href="#Page81">81</a>; Aberdeen type, <a href="#Page36">36</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Amen-Rā</b>, <a href="#Page2">2</a>; temple of, <a href="#Page55">55</a>, <a href="#Page297">297</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Amplitude</b>, <a href="#Page10">10</a>, <a href="#Page111">111</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Animals</b>, sacrifices of, <a href="#Page197">197</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Annu</b>, temples at, <a href="#Page296">296</a>, <a href="#Page297">297</a>, <a href="#Page304">304</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Antares</b>, <i>see</i> <a href="#Index2">Scorpionis α</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Antiquaries</b>, Society of, <a href="#Page69">69</a>, <a href="#Page133">133</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Antrobus</b>, Sir Edward, <a href="#Page49">49</a>, <a href="#Page69">69</a>, <a href="#Page94">94</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Apollo</b>, <a href="#Page52">52</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Arabia</b>, sacred stones and trees in, <a href="#Page235">235</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Archæology</b>, relation to astronomy, <a href="#Page4">4</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Arcturus</b>, <i>see</i> <a href="#Index3">Boötis α</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Aries</b>, <a href="#Page15">15</a>, <a href="#Page315">315</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Armenia</b>, calendar in, <a href="#Page29">29</a>; fire festival in, <a href="#Page191">191</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Aryans</b>, <a href="#Page40">40</a>, <a href="#Page236">236</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Ascension Day</b>, <a href="#Page185">185</a>, <a href="#Page231">231</a>.</li> - -<li><i>Asherah</i>, <a href="#Page245">245</a>, <a href="#Page257">257</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Ash Wednesday</b>, <a href="#Page182">182</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Assacombe</b>, <a href="#Page158">158</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Assyria</b>, sacred trees, &c., <a href="#Page245">245</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Astronomer-priests</b>, procedure of, <a href="#Page110">110</a>, <a href="#Page316">316</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Athens</b>, May-day worship, <a href="#Page108">108</a>; temples at, <a href="#Page32">32</a>; warning stars at, -<a href="#Page311">311</a>.</li> - -<li><b>August-festival</b>, dates of, <a href="#Page185">185</a>; in Brittany, <a href="#Page199">199</a>; in Ireland and Wales, -<a href="#Page186">186</a>; warning-stars, <a href="#Page311">311</a>.</li> - -<li id="Index6"><b>Aurigae</b> α (<b>Capella</b>), clock- and warning-star, <a href="#Page117">117</a>, <a href="#Page272">272</a>, -<a href="#Page290">290</a>, <a href="#Page292">292</a>, <a href="#Page293">293</a>, <a href="#Page298">298</a>, -<a href="#Page299">299</a>, <a href="#Page304">304</a>, <a href="#Page312">312</a>; associated with Ptah, <a href="#Page304">304</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Avebury</b>, cove at, <a href="#Page37">37</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Avenue</b>, at Stonehenge, <a href="#Page63">63</a>, <a href="#Page65">65</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Avenues</b>, in Brittany, <a href="#Page149">149</a>; on Dartmoor, <a href="#Page146">146</a>, <a href="#Page319">319</a>; -definition of, <a href="#Page37">37</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Axis</b> (<b>of temple</b>), Stonehenge, <a href="#Page55">55</a>, <a href="#Page60">60</a>; Karnak, <a href="#Page56">56</a>; -Kouyunjik, <a href="#Page305">305</a>; Annu, <a href="#Page305">305</a>; change of, <a href="#Page42">42</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Azimuth</b>, defined, <a href="#Page10">10</a>, <a href="#Page111">111</a>; changes in, <a href="#Page122">122</a>; of May sunrise, -<a href="#Page264">264</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Azimuth-marks</b>, illumination of, <a href="#Page110">110</a>.</li> - -<li class="letter">B.</li> - -<li><b>Baal</b>, <a href="#Page197">197</a>, <a href="#Page249">249</a>, <a href="#Page259">259</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>Baal’s Fire</b>” (<b>Beltan</b>), <a href="#Page40">40</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Babylon</b>, <a href="#Page24">24</a>, <a href="#Page240">240</a>, <a href="#Page259">259</a>, <a href="#Page295">295</a>, -<a href="#Page308">308</a>; May year in, <a href="#Page304">304</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Babylonians</b>, astronomical knowledge of, <a href="#Page240">240</a>; early navigators, <a href="#Page241">241</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Baker</b>, Sir Samuel, <a href="#Page235">235</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Balder</b>, <a href="#Page320">320</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Balfour</b>, Prof. Bayley, <a href="#Page201">201</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Ball</b>, Dr. Henry, <a href="#Page26">26</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Balus</b>, first king of Orkney, <a href="#Page259">259</a>.</li> - -<li id="Index8"><b>Baring-Gould</b>, Rev. S., <a href="#Page149">149</a>, <a href="#Page190">190</a>, <a href="#Page194">194</a>, -<a href="#Page198">198</a>, <a href="#Page213">213</a>, <a href="#Page215">215</a>, <a href="#Page239">239</a>, -<a href="#Page256">256</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Barnstone-Maeshowe</b> (<b>Orkney</b>), <a href="#Page129">129</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Barrows</b>, burials in, <a href="#Page323">323</a>; chambered, <a href="#Page164">164</a>, <a href="#Page192">192</a>, -<a href="#Page317">317</a>; date of, <a href="#Page78">78</a>, <a href="#Page238">238</a>; employment of, <a href="#Page38">38</a>, -<a href="#Page110">110</a>, <a href="#Page140">140</a>, <a href="#Page268">268</a>; varieties of, <a href="#Page143">143</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Bartinné</b>, Cornwall, <a href="#Page219">219</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Battendon</b>, <a href="#Page158">158</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Batworthy</b>, avenues near, <a href="#Page160">160</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Bede’s well</b>, near Jarrow, <a href="#Page230">230</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Beirna-well</b> (<b>Barnwell</b>), <a href="#Page230">230</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Bell</b>, Mr. J., of Dundalk, <a href="#Page253">253</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Beltaine</b>, ceremonies at, <a href="#Page40">40</a>, <a href="#Page197">197</a>, <a href="#Page285">285</a>, -<a href="#Page320">320</a>; variations of, <a href="#Page201">201</a>, <a href="#Page204">204</a>, <a href="#Page218">218</a>, -<a href="#Page259">259</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Betelgeuse</b>, <i>see</i> <a href="#Index4">Orionis α</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Bethel</b>, <a href="#Page245">245</a>, <a href="#Page255">255</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Bigswell</b>, <a href="#Page218">218</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>Blind Fiddler</b>,” The, <a href="#Page291">291</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Blisland</b>, Cornwall, <a href="#Page291">291</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Blocking-stones</b>, <a href="#Page156">156</a>, <a href="#Page176">176</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Blow</b>, Mr., <a href="#Page69">69</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>Blue stones</b>,” at Stonehenge, <a href="#Page80">80</a>, <a href="#Page91">91</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Bolitho</b>, Mr. Horton<span class="pagenum" id="Page334">[334]</span>, <a href="#Page140">140</a>, <a href="#Page219">219</a>, -<a href="#Page268">268</a>, <a href="#Page270">270</a>, <a href="#Page277">277</a>, <a href="#Page282">282</a>, <a href="#Page287">287</a>, -<a href="#Page289">289</a>, <a href="#Page291">291</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Bonfires</b>, <i>see</i> <a href="#Index5">Fires</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Bookan</b>, Ring of, <a href="#Page128">128</a>.</li> - -<li id="Index3"><b>Boötis α</b> (<b>Arcturus</b>), <a href="#Page117">117</a>, <a href="#Page137">137</a>, -<a href="#Page150">150</a>, <a href="#Page151">151</a>, <a href="#Page156">156</a>, <a href="#Page158">158</a>, <a href="#Page159">159</a>, -<a href="#Page160">160</a>, <a href="#Page161">161</a>, <a href="#Page163">163</a>, <a href="#Page174">174</a>, <a href="#Page273">273</a>, -<a href="#Page280">280</a>, <a href="#Page299">299</a>, <a href="#Page301">301</a>, <a href="#Page311">311</a>, -<a href="#Page314">314</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Borlase</b>, Dr., <a href="#Page134">134</a>, <a href="#Page218">218</a>, <a href="#Page219">219</a>, <a href="#Page234">234</a>, -<a href="#Page254">254</a>, <a href="#Page255">255</a>, <a href="#Page267">267</a>, <a href="#Page289">289</a>, -<a href="#Page323">323</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Borlase</b>, Mr. W. C., <a href="#Page37">37</a>, <a href="#Page213">213</a>, <a href="#Page266">266</a>, -<a href="#Page274">274</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Boscawen-Un</b>, <a href="#Page287">287</a>, <a href="#Page290">290</a>, <a href="#Page309">309</a>, -<a href="#Page314">314</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Boswens Common</b>, <a href="#Page282">282</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Britain</b>, introduction of clock-stars, <a href="#Page299">299</a>; May-year temples, <a href="#Page309">309</a>; pre-Celtic -inhabitants, <a href="#Page250">250</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Brittany</b>, festivals, <a href="#Page198">198</a>; megalithic remains, <a href="#Page96">96</a>; solstitial fires, -<a href="#Page194">194</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Britons</b>, Saxon slaughter of, <a href="#Page95">95</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Bronze-age</b>, <a href="#Page75">75</a>, <a href="#Page78">78</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Brugsch</b>, <a href="#Page1">1</a>, <a href="#Page296">296</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Budge</b>, Dr., <a href="#Page296">296</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Burials</b>, <a href="#Page146">146</a>, <a href="#Page164">164</a>; in mounds, <a href="#Page323">323</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Burton</b>, Captain, <a href="#Page235">235</a>.</li> - -<li class="letter">C.</li> - -<li><b>Cæsar</b>, <a href="#Page52">52</a>, <a href="#Page323">323</a>, <a href="#Page324">324</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Cairns</b>, employment of, <a href="#Page38">38</a>, <a href="#Page142">142</a>, <a href="#Page164">164</a>, -<a href="#Page192">192</a>, <a href="#Page289">289</a>; Biblical references to, <a href="#Page244">244</a>; burials in, -<a href="#Page252">252</a>; orientation of, <a href="#Page254">254</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Calabria</b>, <a href="#Page312">312</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Calends</b>, the winter, <a href="#Page195">195</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Calendar</b>, changes in the, <a href="#Page23">23</a>; Armenian and Turkish, <a href="#Page29">29</a>; Celtic, -<a href="#Page186">186</a>; Koptic, <a href="#Page28">28</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Camden</b>, <a href="#Page289">289</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Canaan</b>, sacred stones and trees in, <a href="#Page245">245</a>.</li> - -<li id="Index11"><b>Canis Majoris</b> α (<b>Sirius</b>), <a href="#Page108">108</a>, <a href="#Page117">117</a>, -<a href="#Page143">143</a>, <a href="#Page311">311</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Candlemas</b>, <a href="#Page143">143</a>, <a href="#Page184">184</a>, <a href="#Page185">185</a>, <a href="#Page188">188</a>, -<a href="#Page191">191</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Canopus</b>, <a href="#Page18">18</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Capella</b>, <i>see</i> <a href="#Index6">Aurigae α</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Capricorni</b> α, <a href="#Page117">117</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Caradon Hill</b>, <a href="#Page143">143</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Carn Kenidjack</b>, <a href="#Page278">278</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Carnac</b>, bonfires at, <a href="#Page40">40</a>; menhirs at, <a href="#Page98">98</a>, <a href="#Page105">105</a>, -<a href="#Page239">239</a>; sacrifices at, <a href="#Page199">199</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Carruthers</b>, Mr., <a href="#Page69">69</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Castallack</b>, Cornwall, <a href="#Page267">267</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Castor</b>, <i>see</i> <a href="#Index7">Geminorum</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Cattle</b>, drenching in holy wells, <a href="#Page230">230</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Caves</b>, purpose of, <a href="#Page244">244</a>, <a href="#Page254">254</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>Cave of Elephanta</b>,” <a href="#Page256">256</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Celts</b>, calendar of the, <a href="#Page186">186</a>, <a href="#Page195">195</a>; intrusion of, <a href="#Page324">324</a>; -worship, <a href="#Page32">32</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Ceylon</b>, <a href="#Page235">235</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Chabas</b>, <a href="#Page1">1</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Chaldea</b>, <a href="#Page12">12</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Challacombe</b>, <a href="#Page158">158</a>; multiple avenue, <a href="#Page149">149</a>, <a href="#Page159">159</a>; solstitial -worship, <a href="#Page314">314</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Chapel Euny</b>, Cornwall, <a href="#Page219">219</a>, <a href="#Page226">226</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Chaucer</b>, <a href="#Page203">203</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>Cheesewring, The</b>,” <a href="#Page134">134</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Chichén-Itzá</b>, <a href="#Page32">32</a>, <a href="#Page308">308</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>Choir Gawr</b>,” <a href="#Page53">53</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Chûn Castle</b>, Cornwall, <a href="#Page284">284</a>, <a href="#Page286">286</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Chûn Cromlech</b>, Cornwall, <a href="#Page284">284</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Churches</b>, replaced stone circles, <a href="#Page219">219</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Chysoister</b>, <a href="#Page323">323</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Circles (stone)</b>, employment of, <a href="#Page232">232</a>, <a href="#Page316">316</a>; associated with wells, -<a href="#Page228">228</a>; classification of, <a href="#Page36">36</a>, <a href="#Page37">37</a>; star observations in, -<a href="#Page109">109</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Cists</b>, <a href="#Page164">164</a>; burials in, <a href="#Page323">323</a>.</li> - -<li id="Index13"><b>Clock-stars</b>, employment of, <a href="#Page108">108</a>, <a href="#Page294">294</a>, <a href="#Page296">296</a>, -<a href="#Page298">298</a>, <a href="#Page299">299</a>, <a href="#Page304">304</a>, <a href="#Page308">308</a>; fall into disuse, -<a href="#Page322">322</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Coinage</b>, early British, <a href="#Page52">52</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Collimation-marks</b>, <a href="#Page316">316</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Constantine</b>, Cornwall, <a href="#Page269">269</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Cord</b>, The stretching of the, <a href="#Page1">1</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Cormac</b>, Archbishop, <a href="#Page181">181</a>, <a href="#Page189">189</a>, <a href="#Page195">195</a>, -<a href="#Page204">204</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Cornish</b>, Mr., <a href="#Page270">270</a>, <a href="#Page282">282</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Cornwall</b>, astronomical conditions in, <a href="#Page262">262</a>; azimuths of May sunrise, <a href="#Page264">264</a>; -clock-stars in, <a href="#Page299">299</a>; May bathing in, <a href="#Page227">227</a>; stone circles in, <a href="#Page36">36</a>, -<a href="#Page262">262</a>; wells and circles in, <a href="#Page219">219</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Cosens</b>, Bishop, of Durham, <a href="#Page184">184</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Council of Nice</b>, <a href="#Page23">23</a>.</li> - -<li><i>Couvade</i>, <a href="#Page319">319</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Coves</b>, <a href="#Page37">37</a>, <a href="#Page316">316</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Cresset-stones</b>, <a href="#Page190">190</a>, <a href="#Page256">256</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Cromlechs</b>, defined, <a href="#Page37">37</a>; employed, <a href="#Page101">101</a>, <a href="#Page102">102</a>, -<a href="#Page161">161</a>, <a href="#Page253">253</a>; in cairns, <a href="#Page253">253</a>; uses of, <a href="#Page110">110</a>, -<a href="#Page141">141</a>, <a href="#Page245">245</a>, <a href="#Page252">252</a>, <a href="#Page317">317</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Crosses (stone)</b>, old monoliths, <a href="#Page141">141</a>, <a href="#Page273">273</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Crozon</b>, monuments at, <a href="#Page101">101</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Cult</b>, change of, <a href="#Page320">320</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>Cultus Lapidum</b>,” denouncement of, <a href="#Page39">39</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Cumberland</b>, stone circle in, <a href="#Page36">36</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Cunnington</b>, Mr., <a href="#Page79">79</a>, <a href="#Page81">81</a>, <a href="#Page90">90</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Cups</b>, for containing lamps, <a href="#Page319">319</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Cursiter</b>, Mr., <a href="#Page35">35</a>, <a href="#Page123">123</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Cursus</b>, The, at Stonehenge, <a href="#Page154">154</a>, <a href="#Page155">155</a>, <a href="#Page319">319</a>.</li> - -<li class="letter">D.</li> - -<li><b>Danams</b>, <a href="#Page90">90</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Danckworth</b>, Dr., <a href="#Page111">111</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Dartmoor</b>, avenues on, <a href="#Page146">146</a>, <a href="#Page151">151</a>, <a href="#Page319">319</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Davies</b>, Mr., <a href="#Page27">27</a>, <a href="#Page95">95</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Declination</b>, defined, <a href="#Page10">10</a>; change of, <a href="#Page111">111</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Deepdale</b>, <a href="#Page132">132</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Dekkan</b>, sacred stones and trees in the, <a href="#Page235">235</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Denderah</b><span class="pagenum" id="Page335">[335]</span>, <a href="#Page295">295</a>, <a href="#Page297">297</a>.</li> - -<li><i>Dessil</i>, pre-Christian custom, <a href="#Page234">234</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Devoir</b>, Lieut., <a href="#Page98">98</a>, <a href="#Page104">104</a>, <a href="#Page105">105</a>, <a href="#Page145">145</a>, -<a href="#Page152">152</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Diana</b>, temple of, <a href="#Page31">31</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Diodorus Siculus</b>, <a href="#Page51">51</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Diseases</b>, cure of, <a href="#Page318">318</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Divination</b>, at holy well, <a href="#Page226">226</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Dolmens</b>, <a href="#Page255">255</a>, <a href="#Page316">316</a>; derivation of name, <a href="#Page38">38</a>; <i>à -galerie</i>, described, <a href="#Page38">38</a>; <i>à l’allée couverte</i>, described, <a href="#Page38">38</a>; in -tumuli, <a href="#Page253">253</a>; in Ireland, <a href="#Page37">37</a>; purpose of, <a href="#Page41">41</a>, -<a href="#Page252">252</a>, <a href="#Page254">254</a>; Semitic origin of, <a href="#Page245">245</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Down Tor</b>, May-year at, <a href="#Page309">309</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Draconis</b> γ, <a href="#Page295">295</a>, <a href="#Page296">296</a>, <a href="#Page299">299</a>, -<a href="#Page305">305</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Drizzlecombe</b>, <a href="#Page158">158</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Druids</b>, arrival of, <a href="#Page27">27</a>; customs of, <a href="#Page259">259</a>, <a href="#Page319">319</a>, -<a href="#Page323">323</a>; mistletoe and the, <a href="#Page210">210</a>; teachings of, <a href="#Page52">52</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Dümichen</b>, <a href="#Page1">1</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Durandus</b>, <a href="#Page183">183</a>, <a href="#Page192">192</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Durham</b>, cathedral customs at, <a href="#Page184">184</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Dwellings of priests</b>, <a href="#Page317">317</a>, <a href="#Page323">323</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Dymond</b>, Mr., <a href="#Page166">166</a>, <a href="#Page171">171</a>.</li> - -<li class="letter">E.</li> - -<li><b>Easter</b>, <a href="#Page40">40</a>, <a href="#Page182">182</a>, <a href="#Page183">183</a>; May festival replaced by, -<a href="#Page231">231</a>; variation of date, <a href="#Page24">24</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Ecliptic</b>, change of obliquity, <a href="#Page15">15</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Eden Hall</b>, <a href="#Page227">227</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Edgar</b> (<span class="smcapall">A.D.</span> 963), <a href="#Page233">233</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Edmonds</b>, Mr., <a href="#Page267">267</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Egypt</b>, astronomy in, <a href="#Page249">249</a>; calendar, <a href="#Page28">28</a>; clock-stars, <a href="#Page295">295</a>; -equinoxes in Lower, <a href="#Page108">108</a>; May-year, <a href="#Page304">304</a>; sequence of worships, <a href="#Page312">312</a>; -solstices, <a href="#Page258">258</a>; temple azimuths, <a href="#Page298">298</a>; year-gods, of, <a href="#Page259">259</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Elias</b> (Elijah), or Al-Khidr or El-Khidr, <a href="#Page29">29</a>, <a href="#Page257">257</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Ephesus</b>, <a href="#Page32">32</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Equator</b>, apparent path of stars at, <a href="#Page7">7</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Equinoxes</b>, the, <a href="#Page13">13</a>, <a href="#Page18">18</a>, <a href="#Page108">108</a>, <a href="#Page211">211</a>; -temples for, <a href="#Page32">32</a>; in Britain, <a href="#Page64">64</a>, <a href="#Page315">315</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Erechtheum</b>, the older, <a href="#Page31">31</a>, <a href="#Page108">108</a>, <a href="#Page142">142</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Euphrates</b>, rise of the, <a href="#Page30">30</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Evans</b>, Sir John, <a href="#Page76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="letter">F.</li> - -<li><b>Falmouth</b>, Lord, <a href="#Page268">268</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Farr</b>, Sutherlandshire, <a href="#Page229">229</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Farmer</b>, Prof., <a href="#Page27">27</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Feasts</b>, <a href="#Page187">187</a>, <a href="#Page319">319</a>.</li> - -<li><b>February</b>, warning-stars in Britain, <a href="#Page312">312</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Ferguson</b>, Dr., <a href="#Page110">110</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Fernworthy</b>, avenues at, <a href="#Page158">158</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Festivals</b>, <a href="#Page182">182</a>, <a href="#Page185">185</a>, <a href="#Page258">258</a>; Cornish, -<a href="#Page139">139</a>; May, <a href="#Page40">40</a>, <a href="#Page185">185</a>, <a href="#Page196">196</a>, -<a href="#Page198">198</a>, <a href="#Page226">226</a>, <a href="#Page247">247</a>, <a href="#Page258">258</a>.</li> - -<li id="Index5"><b>Fires</b>, at various seasons, <a href="#Page30">30</a>, <a href="#Page32">32</a>, <a href="#Page39">39</a>, -<a href="#Page183">183</a>, <a href="#Page184">184</a>, <a href="#Page189">189</a>, <a href="#Page194">194</a>, -<a href="#Page204">204</a>; Druidical, <a href="#Page181">181</a>; in cromlechs, <a href="#Page317">317</a>; in hollowed stones, -<a href="#Page323">323</a>; pagan, <a href="#Page191">191</a>; Roman Catholic and Protestant, <a href="#Page182">182</a>; sacred, -<a href="#Page195">195</a>, <a href="#Page248">248</a>, <a href="#Page256">256</a>; customs, <a href="#Page190">190</a>, -<a href="#Page199">199</a>; festivals, <a href="#Page194">194</a>; rites, <a href="#Page192">192</a>; signals, <a href="#Page21">21</a>; -wheels, <a href="#Page193">193</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Flints</b>, <a href="#Page79">79</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Florence</b>, fire customs, <a href="#Page193">193</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Folklore</b>, <a href="#Page179">179</a>; Babylonian and Indian, <a href="#Page242">242</a>; Semitic and British, -<a href="#Page246">246</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Fosseway</b>, the Great, <a href="#Page147">147</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Fougou</b>, <a href="#Page192">192</a>, <a href="#Page267">267</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Fountains</b>, <a href="#Page246">246</a>.</li> - -<li><b>France</b>, place names derived from wells, <a href="#Page234">234</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Frazer</b>, Dr., <a href="#Page26">26</a>, <a href="#Page28">28</a>, <a href="#Page40">40</a>, <a href="#Page189">189</a>, -<a href="#Page209">209</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Friar’s Heel</b>, the (Stonehenge), <a href="#Page53">53</a>, <a href="#Page60">60</a>, <a href="#Page68">68</a>, -<a href="#Page90">90</a>, <a href="#Page93">93</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>Furry Dance</b>,” the, <a href="#Page206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="letter">G.</li> - -<li><b>Gaillard</b>, <a href="#Page96">96</a>, <a href="#Page104">104</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>Galgal</b>,” description of, <a href="#Page38">38</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Games</b>, <a href="#Page319">319</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Garments</b>, offerings of, <a href="#Page318">318</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Gauls</b>, <a href="#Page323">323</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Gavr Innis</b>, <a href="#Page38">38</a>, <a href="#Page255">255</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Gemini</b>, <a href="#Page15">15</a>.</li> - -<li id="Index7"><b>Geminorum</b>, α, β and γ, <a href="#Page117">117</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Geoffrey of Monmouth</b>, <a href="#Page52">52</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Glamorgan</b>, rites at holy wells, <a href="#Page223">223</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Globe</b>, celestial, <a href="#Page8">8</a>; precessional, <a href="#Page114">114</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Goidels</b>, <a href="#Page237">237</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Gomme</b>, Mr., <a href="#Page195">195</a>, <a href="#Page213">213</a>, <a href="#Page216">216</a>, <a href="#Page221">221</a>, -<a href="#Page222">222</a>, <a href="#Page227">227</a>, <a href="#Page236">236</a>, <a href="#Page238">238</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>Goon-Rith</b>,” <a href="#Page266">266</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Gould</b>, Baring-, <i>see</i> <a href="#Index8">Baring-Gould</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Gowland</b>, Prof., <a href="#Page3">3</a>, <a href="#Page45">45</a>, <a href="#Page69">69</a>, <a href="#Page72">72</a>, -<a href="#Page74">74</a>, <a href="#Page75">75</a>, <a href="#Page76">76</a>, <a href="#Page80">80</a>, <a href="#Page82">82</a>, -<a href="#Page87">87</a>, <a href="#Page91">91</a>, <a href="#Page321">321</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Greece</b>, astronomical observations in, <a href="#Page34">34</a>, <a href="#Page298">298</a>, <a href="#Page311">311</a>; -divisions of year in, <a href="#Page20">20</a>, <a href="#Page304">304</a>; temples in, <a href="#Page34">34</a>, -<a href="#Page306">306</a>, <a href="#Page311">311</a>, <a href="#Page313">313</a>, <a href="#Page315">315</a>; temple building in, -<a href="#Page299">299</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Grimm</b>, <a href="#Page26">26</a>, <a href="#Page211">211</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Grovely Castle</b>, <a href="#Page66">66</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Groves</b>, Biblical reference to, <a href="#Page245">245</a>; sacred, <a href="#Page27">27</a>, <a href="#Page258">258</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Giraldus Cambrensis</b>, <a href="#Page52">52</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Gudea</b> (2500 <span class="smcapall">B.C.</span>), <a href="#Page242">242</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Guest</b>, Dr., <a href="#Page95">95</a>.</li> - -<li class="letter">H.<span class="pagenum" id="Page336">[336]</span></li> - -<li><b>Hall</b>, Mr., <a href="#Page237">237</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Halley</b>, <a href="#Page54">54</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Hallowe’en</b>, <a href="#Page125">125</a>, <a href="#Page143">143</a>, <a href="#Page201">201</a>, -<a href="#Page311">311</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Hallowmass</b>, <a href="#Page187">187</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Hameldon</b>, <a href="#Page147">147</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Hammerstones</b>, and axes, <a href="#Page74">74</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Harrison</b>, Mr., <a href="#Page50">50</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Har-Tor</b>, <a href="#Page158">158</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Harvest</b>, season of, <a href="#Page139">139</a>, <a href="#Page304">304</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>Hautville’s Quoit</b>,” <a href="#Page167">167</a>, <a href="#Page168">168</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Hawthorn</b>, <a href="#Page201">201</a>, <a href="#Page202">202</a>, <a href="#Page221">221</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Hawk’s Tor</b>, <a href="#Page291">291</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Hazlitt</b>, <a href="#Page183">183</a>, <a href="#Page197">197</a>, <a href="#Page239">239</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Hecatæus</b>, of Abdera, <a href="#Page51">51</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Hecatompedon</b>, the, <a href="#Page31">31</a>, <a href="#Page108">108</a>, <a href="#Page154">154</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Helios</b>, <a href="#Page29">29</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Hellard</b>, Colonel, <a href="#Page270">270</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Helston</b>, May-day at, <a href="#Page205">205</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Henderson</b>, Capt., <a href="#Page140">140</a>, <a href="#Page270">270</a>, <a href="#Page274">274</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Henry of Huntingdon</b>, <a href="#Page52">52</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Hermes</b>, <a href="#Page259">259</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Hieroglyphics</b>, <a href="#Page38">38</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Higgins</b>, Mr., <a href="#Page62">62</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Hills</b>, actual and angular heights, <a href="#Page112">112</a>; effects of, <a href="#Page120">120</a>, -<a href="#Page264">264</a>, <a href="#Page291">291</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Hoare</b>, Sir R. C., <a href="#Page61">61</a>, <a href="#Page149">149</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Holed stones</b>, <i>see</i> <a href="#Index9">stones</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Hollantide</b>, <a href="#Page188">188</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Holne</b> (Dartmoor), <a href="#Page195">195</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Holy of Holies</b>, <a href="#Page16">16</a>, <a href="#Page55">55</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Holy Thursday</b>, <a href="#Page185">185</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Honeysuckle</b>, <a href="#Page207">207</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Hook Lake</b>, <a href="#Page158">158</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Hope</b>, <a href="#Page213">213</a>, <a href="#Page228">228</a>, <a href="#Page231">231</a>, <a href="#Page233">233</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Horizon</b>, angular elevation of, <a href="#Page112">112</a>; early employment of, <a href="#Page2">2</a>, <a href="#Page5">5</a>, -<a href="#Page250">250</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Horses</b>, at May-day festivals, <a href="#Page319">319</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Horus</b>, <a href="#Page32">32</a>, <a href="#Page195">195</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Huc</b>, <a href="#Page236">236</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>Hurlers</b>, The” (Cornwall), <a href="#Page36">36</a>, <a href="#Page133">133</a>, <a href="#Page134">134</a>, -<a href="#Page135">135</a>; alignments at, <a href="#Page137">137</a>; change of warning star at, <a href="#Page311">311</a>; dates of -construction, <a href="#Page139">139</a>; May-year at, <a href="#Page309">309</a>; solstices at, <a href="#Page314">314</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Hyperboreans</b>, <a href="#Page51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="letter">I.</li> - -<li><b>Ihering</b>, <a href="#Page241">241</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Illuminations</b>, collimation-mark, <a href="#Page317">317</a>; May-day, <a href="#Page204">204</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Implements</b>, flint, <a href="#Page74">74</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Inverness</b>, type of circle at, <a href="#Page36">36</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Ireland</b>, division of the year in, <a href="#Page30">30</a>; festivals in, <a href="#Page187">187</a>, -<a href="#Page197">197</a>, <a href="#Page309">309</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Isis</b>, <a href="#Page32">32</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Isle-of-Man</b>, festivals in the, <a href="#Page187">187</a>, <a href="#Page207">207</a>; wells and circles in the, -<a href="#Page219">219</a>.</li> - -<li class="letter">J.</li> - -<li><b>James</b>, Sir Henry, <a href="#Page219">219</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Japan</b>, <a href="#Page3">3</a>, <a href="#Page84">84</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Jews</b>, equinoctial festivals among the, <a href="#Page258">258</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Johnston</b>, Colonel, <a href="#Page111">111</a>, <a href="#Page129">129</a>, <a href="#Page135">135</a>, -<a href="#Page152">152</a>, <a href="#Page166">166</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Jones</b>, Inigo, <a href="#Page53">53</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Jones</b>, Prof. J. M., <a href="#Page250">250</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Josephus</b>, <a href="#Page32">32</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Judd</b>, Prof., <a href="#Page80">80</a>, <a href="#Page91">91</a>.</li> - -<li><b>June-Year</b>, <a href="#Page93">93</a>, <a href="#Page251">251</a>.</li> - -<li class="letter">K.</li> - -<li><b>Karnak</b>, temples at, <a href="#Page55">55</a>, <a href="#Page297">297</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Kenidjack</b>, Carn, <a href="#Page278">278</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Kerenneur</b>, <a href="#Page105">105</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Kerlescant</b>, <a href="#Page39">39</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Kerloas</b>, <a href="#Page105">105</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Keswick</b>, <a href="#Page35">35</a>, <a href="#Page111">111</a>.</li> - -<li><b>King’s Teignton</b>, <a href="#Page196">196</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Kingstone</b>, The, at Roll-Rich (Oxon.), <a href="#Page36">36</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Kit’s Coity House</b>, <a href="#Page37">37</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Knightlow Hill</b> (Coventry), <a href="#Page188">188</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Knut</b> (<span class="smcapall">A.D.</span> 1018), <a href="#Page233">233</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Kouyunjik</b>, <a href="#Page308">308</a>, <a href="#Page322">322</a>.</li> - -<li class="letter">L.</li> - -<li>“<b>Lammas</b>,” <a href="#Page186">186</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Lanyon</b>, <a href="#Page273">273</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Lanyon Quoit</b>, <a href="#Page280">280</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Latitude</b>, results of, <a href="#Page291">291</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Layard</b>, Sir H., <a href="#Page241">241</a>, <a href="#Page307">307</a>, <a href="#Page308">308</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Lent</b>, origin and customs of, <a href="#Page183">183</a>, <a href="#Page184">184</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Leslie</b>, Colonel, <a href="#Page218">218</a>, <a href="#Page235">235</a>, <a href="#Page255">255</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Lewis</b>, Mr. A. L., <a href="#Page35">35</a>, <a href="#Page123">123</a>, <a href="#Page176">176</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Lockyer</b>, Dr., <a href="#Page111">111</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Longstones</b>, found in barrows, <a href="#Page268">268</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Longstone</b>, The (Tregeseal), <a href="#Page278">278</a>, <a href="#Page280">280</a>, <a href="#Page309">309</a>, -<a href="#Page314">314</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>Lug</b>,” the Irish Sun-God, <a href="#Page186">186</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Lugnassad</b>, Irish feast, <a href="#Page186">186</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Lukis</b>, Dr., <a href="#Page37">37</a>, <a href="#Page133">133</a>, <a href="#Page144">144</a>, <a href="#Page150">150</a>, -<a href="#Page253">253</a>, <a href="#Page265">265</a>, <a href="#Page287">287</a>, <a href="#Page291">291</a>, -<a href="#Page292">292</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Luxor</b>, <a href="#Page297">297</a>.</li> - -<li id="Index14"><b>Lyrae</b>, α (Vega), <a href="#Page297">297</a>, <a href="#Page315">315</a>.</li> - -<li class="letter">M.</li> - -<li><b>MacRitchie</b>, Mr., <a href="#Page192">192</a>, <a href="#Page317">317</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Madron (Cornwall)</b>, <a href="#Page225">225</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Maeshowe (Orkney)</b>, <a href="#Page35">35</a>, <a href="#Page123">123</a>, <a href="#Page125">125</a>, <a href="#Page253">253</a>, -<a href="#Page254">254</a>; date of, <a href="#Page129">129</a>; use of, <a href="#Page192">192</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Markab</b>, <i>see</i> <a href="#Index10">Pegasi α</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Marriage</b>, customs, <a href="#Page285">285</a>, <a href="#Page319">319</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Martin</b>, St., in Germany<span class="pagenum" id="Page337">[337]</span>, <a href="#Page187">187</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Martinmas</b>, old, <a href="#Page188">188</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Maudslay</b>, Mr., <a href="#Page32">32</a>, <a href="#Page308">308</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Mauls</b>, <a href="#Page75">75</a>.</li> - -<li><b>May-day</b>, <a href="#Page108">108</a>, <a href="#Page201">201</a>, <a href="#Page204">204</a>.</li> - -<li><b>May-eve</b>, <a href="#Page95">95</a>, <a href="#Page207">207</a>.</li> - -<li><b>May-festivals</b>, <a href="#Page40">40</a>, <a href="#Page185">185</a>, <a href="#Page196">196</a>, <a href="#Page198">198</a>, -<a href="#Page226">226</a>, <a href="#Page247">247</a>, <a href="#Page258">258</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Maypole</b>, <a href="#Page205">205</a>, <a href="#Page227">227</a>.</li> - -<li><b>May-sun</b>, <a href="#Page36">36</a>, <a href="#Page151">151</a>, <a href="#Page262">262</a>, <a href="#Page263">263</a>.</li> - -<li><b>May-thorn</b>, <a href="#Page202">202</a>, <a href="#Page212">212</a>, <a href="#Page320">320</a>.</li> - -<li><b>May-year</b>, the, <a href="#Page19">19</a>, <a href="#Page181">181</a>, <a href="#Page232">232</a>, <a href="#Page304">304</a>, -<a href="#Page320">320</a>; divisions of, <a href="#Page263">263</a>, <a href="#Page304">304</a>; provided for, <a href="#Page18">18</a>, -<a href="#Page35">35</a>, <a href="#Page64">64</a>, <a href="#Page93">93</a>, <a href="#Page98">98</a>, <a href="#Page104">104</a>, -<a href="#Page105">105</a>, <a href="#Page127">127</a>, <a href="#Page174">174</a>, <a href="#Page241">241</a>, <a href="#Page247">247</a>, -<a href="#Page271">271</a>, <a href="#Page280">280</a>, <a href="#Page284">284</a>, <a href="#Page286">286</a>, <a href="#Page290">290</a>, -<a href="#Page304">304</a>, <a href="#Page306">306</a>, <a href="#Page307">307</a>, <a href="#Page308">308</a>, <a href="#Page309">309</a>, -<a href="#Page321">321</a>; relation to June-year, <a href="#Page106">106</a>, <a href="#Page230">230</a>, <a href="#Page251">251</a>, -<a href="#Page261">261</a>; warning-stars, <a href="#Page117">117</a>, <a href="#Page142">142</a>; worship, <a href="#Page95">95</a>, -<a href="#Page96">96</a>, <a href="#Page109">109</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Mecca</b>, <a href="#Page245">245</a>.</li> - -<li><i>Meinrethydd</i> (May-eve), <a href="#Page95">95</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Melon</b>, island of, <a href="#Page102">102</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Memphis</b>, Capella at, <a href="#Page304">304</a>; May-worship, <a href="#Page18">18</a>; temples at, <a href="#Page297">297</a>, -<a href="#Page298">298</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Mên-an-tol</b>, <a href="#Page284">284</a>, <a href="#Page286">286</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Ménec (Le)</b>, <a href="#Page39">39</a>, <a href="#Page98">98</a>, <a href="#Page159">159</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Menhirs</b>, <a href="#Page37">37</a>, <a href="#Page105">105</a>; ceremonies at, <a href="#Page256">256</a>; in Brittany, -<a href="#Page96">96</a>; near holy wells, <a href="#Page225">225</a>; various, <a href="#Page39">39</a>, <a href="#Page101">101</a>, -<a href="#Page102">102</a>, <a href="#Page103">103</a>, <a href="#Page152">152</a>, <a href="#Page157">157</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Men-Peru</b>, <a href="#Page269">269</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Menu or Min</b>, temple of, <a href="#Page29">29</a>, <a href="#Page31">31</a>, <a href="#Page108">108</a>, -<a href="#Page142">142</a>, <a href="#Page297">297</a>, <a href="#Page298">298</a>, <a href="#Page305">305</a>; associated with Spica, -<a href="#Page299">299</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Mercury</b>, <a href="#Page259">259</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Merrivale</b>, avenues at, <a href="#Page147">147</a>, <a href="#Page153">153</a>, <a href="#Page154">154</a>; May-year at, -<a href="#Page309">309</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Merry Maidens</b>, <a href="#Page265">265</a>; alignments at, <a href="#Page271">271</a>, <a href="#Page276">276</a>; clock-stars -at, <a href="#Page302">302</a>; May-year at, <a href="#Page309">309</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Midsummer</b>, ceremonies at, <a href="#Page231">231</a>, <a href="#Page285">285</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Midsummer eve</b>, mistletoe on, <a href="#Page210">210</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Mihr</b>, Armenian fire-god, <a href="#Page191">191</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Mistletoe</b>, <a href="#Page26">26</a>, <a href="#Page27">27</a>, <a href="#Page201">201</a>, <a href="#Page210">210</a>, -<a href="#Page320">320</a>; as a medicine, <a href="#Page210">210</a>; “Oil of St. John,” <a href="#Page210">210</a>; Swedish -notions concerning, <a href="#Page209">209</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Mitchell’s Egyptian Calendar</b>, <a href="#Page28">28</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Molech</b>, <a href="#Page248">248</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Molene Island</b>, <a href="#Page103">103</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Monoliths</b>, <a href="#Page81">81</a>, <a href="#Page216">216</a>, <a href="#Page244">244</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Montelius</b>, <a href="#Page76">76</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Moon</b>, employment of the, <a href="#Page18">18</a>; worship of the, <a href="#Page249">249</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Morbihan</b>, alignments at, <a href="#Page100">100</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Morgan</b>, Lloyd, Prof., <a href="#Page167">167</a>, <a href="#Page170">170</a>, <a href="#Page176">176</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Morgan</b>, Mr., <a href="#Page53">53</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Morrow</b>, Mr., <a href="#Page171">171</a>, <a href="#Page174">174</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Mountain-ash</b>, <a href="#Page206">206</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Mungo-Park</b>, <a href="#Page235">235</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Murray</b>, Mr. George, <a href="#Page27">27</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Murray</b>, Mr. John, <a href="#Page308">308</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Mut</b>, temple of, <a href="#Page297">297</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Mythology</b>, origin of, <a href="#Page19">19</a>.</li> - -<li class="letter">N.</li> - -<li><b>Nantwich</b>, <a href="#Page221">221</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Naos</b>, The, at Stonehenge, <a href="#Page16">16</a>, <a href="#Page41">41</a>, <a href="#Page63">63</a>, -<a href="#Page95">95</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Need fires</b>, <a href="#Page190">190</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Neolithic-age</b>, <a href="#Page75">75</a>, <a href="#Page76">76</a>.</li> - -<li><b>New-Grange (Meath)</b>, <a href="#Page38">38</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Newton’s herbal</b>, <a href="#Page212">212</a>.</li> - -<li><b>New-year</b>, change of date, <a href="#Page194">194</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Night-dial</b>, use of, <a href="#Page302">302</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Nile</b>, <a href="#Page3">3</a>, <a href="#Page18">18</a>, <a href="#Page312">312</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Nimrood</b>, temples at, <a href="#Page241">241</a>, <a href="#Page308">308</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>Nine Maidens</b>” (The), <a href="#Page292">292</a>, <a href="#Page293">293</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Nineveh</b>, May temple at, <a href="#Page307">307</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Norwich</b>, sun-wheel at, <a href="#Page193">193</a>.</li> - -<li><i>Nos Galan-galaf</i>, <a href="#Page187">187</a>.</li> - -<li><i>Nos Glamau</i>, <a href="#Page207">207</a>.</li> - -<li><b>November</b>, festival, <a href="#Page186">186</a>, <a href="#Page195">195</a>, <a href="#Page290">290</a>, -<a href="#Page311">311</a>.</li> - -<li class="letter">O.</li> - -<li><b>Oak</b>, contiguous to sacred wells, <a href="#Page216">216</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Obliquity of the Ecliptic</b>, change of the, <a href="#Page15">15</a>, <a href="#Page43">43</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Observations</b>, astronomical and religious, <a href="#Page125">125</a>, <a href="#Page322">322</a>.</li> - -<li><b>O’Connor</b>, Dr., <a href="#Page216">216</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Odin stone</b>, Stenness, <a href="#Page127">127</a>, <a href="#Page218">218</a>, <a href="#Page283">283</a>, -<a href="#Page285">285</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Offerings</b>, at holy places, <a href="#Page222">222</a>, <a href="#Page318">318</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Onston</b>, <a href="#Page132">132</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Ordeals</b>, <a href="#Page247">247</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Ordnance Survey</b>, <a href="#Page111">111</a>, <a href="#Page253">253</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Orientation</b>, first use of, <a href="#Page18">18</a>.</li> - -<li id="Index4"><b>Orionis, α (Betelgeuse)</b>, <a href="#Page117">117</a>, <a href="#Page144">144</a>, -<a href="#Page314">314</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Orkney</b>, <a href="#Page125">125</a>, <a href="#Page259">259</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Otley</b>, Mr. Jonathan, <a href="#Page35">35</a>, <a href="#Page111">111</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Ouseley</b>, Sir William, <a href="#Page234">234</a>.</li> - -<li class="letter">P.</li> - -<li><b>Palenque</b>, <a href="#Page32">32</a>, <a href="#Page308">308</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Palæolithic age</b>, <a href="#Page75">75</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Palm</b>, at vernal equinox, <a href="#Page211">211</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Palm Sunday</b>, <a href="#Page184">184</a>, <a href="#Page211">211</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Panathenæa</b>, <a href="#Page31">31</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Parallelithons</b>, <a href="#Page148">148</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>Pardons</b>,” in Brittany, <a href="#Page198">198</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Parthenon</b>, <a href="#Page298">298</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Payn</b>, Mr. Howard, <a href="#Page66">66</a>, <a href="#Page94">94</a>.</li> - -<li id="Index10"><b>Pegasi</b>, α and β, <a href="#Page117">117</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Pennant</b>, tour of Scotland, <a href="#Page206">206</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Penrose</b>, Mr., <a href="#Page31">31</a>, <a href="#Page34">34</a>, <a href="#Page38">38</a>, <a href="#Page42">42</a>, -<a href="#Page51">51</a>, <a href="#Page62">62</a>, <a href="#Page78">78</a>, <a href="#Page89">89</a>, <a href="#Page93">93</a>, -<a href="#Page94">94</a>, <a href="#Page109">109</a>, <a href="#Page142">142</a>, <a href="#Page154">154</a>, <a href="#Page298">298</a>, -<a href="#Page306">306</a>, <a href="#Page310">310</a>, <a href="#Page312">312</a>, <a href="#Page313">313</a>, -<a href="#Page315">315</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Pentecost</b>, feast of, <a href="#Page32">32</a>, <a href="#Page185">185</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Pepi</b>, <a href="#Page295">295</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Percy’s Northumberland Notes</b>, <a href="#Page184">184</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Perrott</b>, Mr.<span class="pagenum" id="Page338">[338]</span>, <a href="#Page148">148</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Persia</b>, rag-offerings in, <a href="#Page234">234</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Petrie</b>, Flinders, Prof., <a href="#Page62">62</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Pet-ser</b>, <a href="#Page2">2</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Philpot</b>, Mrs., <a href="#Page257">257</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Picks</b>, of deer’s-horn, <a href="#Page78">78</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>Pierre du Conseil</b>” (Lagatjar), <a href="#Page104">104</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Piers’</b> Survey of S. Ireland, <a href="#Page182">182</a>, <a href="#Page229">229</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Pins</b>, as offerings at sacred wells, <a href="#Page222">222</a>, <a href="#Page227">227</a>, <a href="#Page258">258</a>, -<a href="#Page318">318</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>Pipers</b>, The,” <a href="#Page266">266</a>, <a href="#Page271">271</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Pitt-Rivers</b>, General, <a href="#Page235">235</a>, <a href="#Page236">236</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Plato</b>, <a href="#Page7">7</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Pleiades</b>, at British monuments, <a href="#Page153">153</a>, <a href="#Page273">273</a>, <a href="#Page274">274</a>, -<a href="#Page280">280</a>, <a href="#Page290">290</a>; employed by Semites, <a href="#Page247">247</a>; elsewhere, -<a href="#Page108">108</a>, <a href="#Page117">117</a>, <a href="#Page151">151</a>, <a href="#Page155">155</a>, <a href="#Page162">162</a>, -<a href="#Page310">310</a>, <a href="#Page311">311</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Ploudalmezeau</b>, monuments at, <a href="#Page100">100</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Ploy-field</b>, the, at Holne, <a href="#Page196">196</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Pole</b>, apparent path of stars at the north, <a href="#Page6">6</a>; elevation of the, <a href="#Page9">9</a>; motion of stars, -round, <a href="#Page300">300</a>, <a href="#Page303">303</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Pollux</b>, <i>see</i> <a href="#Index7">Geminorum</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Pompeii</b>, <a href="#Page312">312</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Pomponius Mela</b>, <a href="#Page322">322</a>, <a href="#Page324">324</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Pont l’Abbé</b>, menhirs at, <a href="#Page105">105</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Portugal</b>, place-names from wells, <a href="#Page234">234</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Pratt’s flowering plants</b>, <a href="#Page202">202</a>, <a href="#Page206">206</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Precession</b>, effects of, <a href="#Page64">64</a>, <a href="#Page295">295</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Prestwich</b>, Prof., <a href="#Page79">79</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Priests</b>, <a href="#Page316">316</a>, <a href="#Page317">317</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Processions</b>, sacred, <a href="#Page319">319</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Ptah</b>, <a href="#Page29">29</a>, <a href="#Page31">31</a>, <a href="#Page298">298</a>, <a href="#Page304">304</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Pylons</b>, use of, <a href="#Page55">55</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Pyramids</b>, building of, <a href="#Page18">18</a>; worship at, <a href="#Page29">29</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Pyrenees</b>, genii at holy-wells, <a href="#Page234">234</a>.</li> - -<li><i>Pyrus aucuparia</i>, <a href="#Page201">201</a>.</li> - -<li class="letter">Q.</li> - -<li><b>Quicken-tree</b>, <a href="#Page206">206</a>, <a href="#Page208">208</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Quiller-Couch</b>, holy wells, <a href="#Page213">213</a>, <a href="#Page216">216</a>, <a href="#Page223">223</a>, -<a href="#Page226">226</a>, <a href="#Page228">228</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Quoit</b>, definition of, <a href="#Page38">38</a>.</li> - -<li class="letter">R.</li> - -<li><b>Racing</b>, at festivals, <a href="#Page319">319</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Rags</b>, as offerings in sacred places, <a href="#Page216">216</a>, <a href="#Page222">222</a>, <a href="#Page223">223</a>, -<a href="#Page225">225</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Ram Feast</b>, at Holne (Dartmoor), <a href="#Page196">196</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Read</b>, Mr. C. H., <a href="#Page237">237</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Refraction</b>, effect of, <a href="#Page112">112</a>, <a href="#Page120">120</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Rent-day</b>, date of, in Ireland, <a href="#Page30">30</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Rhys</b>, Prof., <a href="#Page26">26</a>, <a href="#Page30">30</a>, <a href="#Page186">186</a>, <a href="#Page188">188</a>, -<a href="#Page202">202</a>, <a href="#Page206">206</a>, <a href="#Page207">207</a>, <a href="#Page208">208</a>, <a href="#Page213">213</a>, -<a href="#Page215">215</a>, <a href="#Page219">219</a>, <a href="#Page220">220</a>, <a href="#Page223">223</a>, <a href="#Page250">250</a>, -<a href="#Page260">260</a>, <a href="#Page319">319</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Roddon</b>, = Rowan, <a href="#Page206">206</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Roll-Rich</b>, Oxon., <a href="#Page36">36</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Rolston</b>, Sir. W. E., <a href="#Page120">120</a>, <a href="#Page122">122</a>, <a href="#Page290">290</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Rorrington</b>, Chirbury, <a href="#Page227">227</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Rowan-tree</b>, <a href="#Page201">201</a>, <a href="#Page211">211</a>, <a href="#Page318">318</a>, <a href="#Page320">320</a>; -and witchcraft, <a href="#Page206">206</a>, <a href="#Page208">208</a>; near sacred wells, <a href="#Page220">220</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Rowe’s perambulation of Dartmoor</b>, <a href="#Page147">147</a>, <a href="#Page148">148</a>, <a href="#Page152">152</a>, -<a href="#Page158">158</a>, <a href="#Page287">287</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Rūz Kāsim</b>, <a href="#Page29">29</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Rūs Khidr</b>, <a href="#Page29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="letter">S.</li> - -<li><b>Sacred-fires</b>, <i>see</i> <a href="#Index5">fires</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Sacrifices</b>, <a href="#Page197">197</a>, <a href="#Page205">205</a>, <a href="#Page319">319</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Sagittarius</b>, <a href="#Page15">15</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Sainhain</b>, feast of, <a href="#Page187">187</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Sanctuary</b>, at Stonehenge, <a href="#Page55">55</a>.</li> - -<li><b>St. Aelian</b>, Derbyshire, <a href="#Page216">216</a>.</li> - -<li><b>St. Blaze</b> (“<b>Blayse</b>,” “<b>Blazeus</b>”), anniversary of, <a href="#Page184">184</a>.</li> - -<li><b>St. Burian</b>, Cornwall, <a href="#Page267">267</a>, <a href="#Page271">271</a>.</li> - -<li><b>St. Claire</b>, <a href="#Page140">140</a>.</li> - -<li><b>St. Cleer</b>, holy well at, <a href="#Page229">229</a>.</li> - -<li><b>St. Cuthbert</b>, Cornwall, <a href="#Page228">228</a>.</li> - -<li><b>St. Herbot</b>, sacrifices to, <a href="#Page199">199</a>.</li> - -<li><b>St. John’s Day</b>, festivals on, <a href="#Page230">230</a>.</li> - -<li><b>St. John’s Eve</b>, fire customs, <a href="#Page192">192</a>.</li> - -<li><b>St. Just</b>, Cornwall, stone circle at, <a href="#Page277">277</a>.</li> - -<li><b>St. Justin</b>, <a href="#Page140">140</a>.</li> - -<li><b>St. Martin</b>, feast of, <a href="#Page186">186</a>.</li> - -<li><b>St. Medan</b>, holy well at Kirkmaiden, <a href="#Page229">229</a>.</li> - -<li><b>St. Michael’s Mount</b>, <a href="#Page40">40</a>.</li> - -<li><b>St. Nicodemus</b>, sacrifices to, <a href="#Page199">199</a>.</li> - -<li><b>St. Peter’s</b>, Rome, <a href="#Page32">32</a>.</li> - -<li><b>St. Renan</b>, monuments at, <a href="#Page100">100</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Salisbury</b>, position of cathedral, <a href="#Page65">65</a>; solstitial custom at, <a href="#Page43">43</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Saracens</b>, star-worship among the, <a href="#Page249">249</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Sardonyx</b>, employment of, <a href="#Page32">32</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Sarsens</b>, stones, <a href="#Page15">15</a>, <a href="#Page45">45</a>, <a href="#Page79">79</a>, <a href="#Page91">91</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Scandinavia</b>, temples in, <a href="#Page63">63</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Schübeler</b>, Prof., <a href="#Page202">202</a>.</li> - -<li id="Index2"><b>Scorpionis α (Antares)</b>, <a href="#Page117">117</a>, <a href="#Page142">142</a>, <a href="#Page273">273</a>, -<a href="#Page310">310</a>, <a href="#Page311">311</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Scotland</b>, May-year in, <a href="#Page109">109</a>, <a href="#Page186">186</a>, <a href="#Page321">321</a>; types of stone -circles in, <a href="#Page36">36</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Scott</b>, Sir Walter, <a href="#Page40">40</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Seasons</b>, astronomical and vegetational, <a href="#Page212">212</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Semites</b>, beliefs concerning the stars, <a href="#Page249">249</a>; in Britain, <a href="#Page243">243</a>, -<a href="#Page246">246</a>; temple practices among the, <a href="#Page240">240</a>, <a href="#Page248">248</a>, -<a href="#Page256">256</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Sennacherib</b>, May temple of, <a href="#Page308">308</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Sergi</b>, Prof., <a href="#Page237">237</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Serpentis α</b>, <a href="#Page117">117</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Sesheta</b>, <a href="#Page2">2</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Set</b>, British equivalent of, <a href="#Page195">195</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Shakspeare</b><span class="pagenum" id="Page339">[339]</span>, <a href="#Page204">204</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Sheat</b>, <i>see</i> <a href="#Index10">Pegasi β</a>.</li> - -<li><i>Shenn Laa Boaldyn</i> (Manx May-day), <a href="#Page204">204</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Shinto</b>, cult of, <a href="#Page3">3</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Shovel Down</b>, Devon, <a href="#Page158">158</a>, <a href="#Page160">160</a>, <a href="#Page314">314</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Shrines</b>, trilithons as, <a href="#Page37">37</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Shrove Tuesday</b>, <a href="#Page182">182</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Sight-lines</b>, <a href="#Page316">316</a>; different methods of marking, <a href="#Page107">107</a>; methods of using, -<a href="#Page41">41</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Silbury (or Sidbury)</b>, <a href="#Page66">66</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Sirius</b>, <i>see</i> <a href="#Index11">Canis Majoris α</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Skins</b>, offerings of, <a href="#Page318">318</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>Slaughter Stone</b>,” the, <a href="#Page90">90</a>, <a href="#Page93">93</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Smith</b>, Colonel Hamilton, <a href="#Page148">148</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Smith</b>, Dr. J., <a href="#Page52">52</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Smith</b>, Robertson, Prof., <a href="#Page243">243</a>, <a href="#Page245">245</a>, <a href="#Page248">248</a>, -<a href="#Page255">255</a>, <a href="#Page257">257</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Society of Antiquaries</b>, <a href="#Page69">69</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Solstices</b>, the, <a href="#Page13">13</a>, <a href="#Page108">108</a>, <a href="#Page120">120</a>; azimuths of sunrise at, -<a href="#Page43">43</a>, <a href="#Page291">291</a>; at Palenque and Chichén Itza, <a href="#Page308">308</a>; celebration of, -<a href="#Page40">40</a>, <a href="#Page193">193</a>; date of introduction into Britain, <a href="#Page313">313</a>; determination of, -<a href="#Page16">16</a>; in Egypt, <a href="#Page3">3</a>, <a href="#Page13">13</a>; in France, <a href="#Page99">99</a>, -<a href="#Page103">103</a>, <a href="#Page104">104</a>; in Morocco and Britain, <a href="#Page243">243</a>; provided for at British -monuments, <a href="#Page93">93</a>, <a href="#Page129">129</a>, <a href="#Page176">176</a>, <a href="#Page274">274</a>, -<a href="#Page280">280</a>, <a href="#Page290">290</a>, <a href="#Page312">312</a>, <a href="#Page314">314</a>; sunrise at, -<a href="#Page36">36</a>; warning stars for, <a href="#Page117">117</a>, <a href="#Page314">314</a>; worship at, -<a href="#Page259">259</a>, <a href="#Page320">320</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Spence</b>, Mr., <a href="#Page35">35</a>, <a href="#Page123">123</a>, <a href="#Page128">128</a>, <a href="#Page254">254</a>, -<a href="#Page285">285</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Spica</b>, <i>see</i> <a href="#Index12">Virginis α</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Stalldon Moor</b>, <a href="#Page150">150</a>, <a href="#Page163">163</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Standen (near Hungerford)</b>, <a href="#Page79">79</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Stanton Drew</b>, <a href="#Page166">166</a>, <a href="#Page167">167</a>, <a href="#Page170">170</a>, <a href="#Page173">173</a>; -cove at, <a href="#Page37">37</a>; dates of, <a href="#Page174">174</a>; dimensions of circles at, <a href="#Page171">171</a>; May-year -at, <a href="#Page309">309</a>; solstitial worship at, <a href="#Page314">314</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Stars</b>, changes in declination of, <a href="#Page42">42</a>, <a href="#Page109">109</a>; northern, <a href="#Page114">114</a>; -heliacal risings of, <a href="#Page108">108</a>; reason for observations of, <a href="#Page42">42</a>; worship of, -<a href="#Page139">139</a>, <a href="#Page249">249</a>. <i>See</i> <a href="#Index13">clock-stars</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Stenness</b>, <a href="#Page35">35</a>, <a href="#Page123">123</a>, <a href="#Page218">218</a>; azimuths of sunrise at, -<a href="#Page120">120</a>; observations required at, <a href="#Page129">129</a>; seasons provided for at, <a href="#Page127">127</a>, -<a href="#Page131">131</a>, <a href="#Page309">309</a>, <a href="#Page314">314</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Sterility</b>, <a href="#Page239">239</a>, <a href="#Page256">256</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Stirling</b>, festivals at, <a href="#Page238">238</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Stockwell</b>, <a href="#Page67">67</a>, <a href="#Page111">111</a>, <a href="#Page129">129</a>, <a href="#Page176">176</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Stone-age</b>, <a href="#Page75">75</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Stonehenge</b>, <a href="#Page41">41</a>, <a href="#Page50">50</a>, <a href="#Page51">51</a>, <a href="#Page52">52</a>, -<a href="#Page58">58</a>, <a href="#Page88">88</a>, <a href="#Page91">91</a>; amplitudes of stars at, <a href="#Page11">11</a>; apparent -paths of stars at, <a href="#Page7">7</a>; architecture of, <a href="#Page83">83</a>; avenue, <a href="#Page63">63</a>, -<a href="#Page65">65</a>; axis, <a href="#Page55">55</a>, <a href="#Page60">60</a>; azimuth of sunrise at, <a href="#Page120">120</a>; -the “Cursus” at, <a href="#Page319">319</a>; custom at, <a href="#Page43">43</a>; date of, <a href="#Page62">62</a>, -<a href="#Page67">67</a>, <a href="#Page93">93</a>; desecration of, <a href="#Page47">47</a>; erection of, <a href="#Page84">84</a>; -“Leaning Stone” at, <a href="#Page69">69</a>, <a href="#Page84">84</a>; May-year at, <a href="#Page109">109</a>; origin of -stones, <a href="#Page90">90</a>; position of, <a href="#Page65">65</a>; rededication of, <a href="#Page109">109</a>; solstitial temple, -<a href="#Page108">108</a>, <a href="#Page314">314</a>; “<i>Stanenges</i>,” <a href="#Page52">52</a>; tools found at, -<a href="#Page74">74</a>.</li> - -<li id="Index9"><b>Stones</b>, as azimuth marks, <a href="#Page110">110</a>; anointing of, <a href="#Page255">255</a>; cresset-, -<a href="#Page190">190</a>, <a href="#Page256">256</a>; holed, <a href="#Page37">37</a>, <a href="#Page128">128</a>, -<a href="#Page282">282</a>, <a href="#Page285">285</a>, <a href="#Page286">286</a>, <a href="#Page316">316</a>, <a href="#Page318">318</a>; -hollowed, <a href="#Page192">192</a>, <a href="#Page248">248</a>, <a href="#Page323">323</a>; Semitic, sacred, <a href="#Page244">244</a>; -unhewn and worked, <a href="#Page321">321</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Stone-worship</b>, proscribed, <a href="#Page271">271</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Stripple Stones</b>, Cornwall, <a href="#Page36">36</a>, <a href="#Page292">292</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Stukeley</b>, Dr., <a href="#Page37">37</a>, <a href="#Page53">53</a>, <a href="#Page134">134</a>, <a href="#Page289">289</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Sunrise</b>, apparent, <a href="#Page120">120</a>; azimuth of, <a href="#Page64">64</a>; determination of, -<a href="#Page118">118</a>; observation of, <a href="#Page63">63</a>, <a href="#Page66">66</a>, <a href="#Page99">99</a>; November, -<a href="#Page93">93</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Sunset</b>, determination of, <a href="#Page118">118</a>; the May-, <a href="#Page93">93</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Sycamore</b>, <a href="#Page204">204</a>.</li> - -<li class="letter">T.</li> - -<li>“<b>Tan Heol</b>,” <a href="#Page40">40</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>Tan St. Jean</b>,” <a href="#Page40">40</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Tanta Fair</b>, <a href="#Page28">28</a>, <a href="#Page29">29</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Tara</b>, perpetual fire at temple of, <a href="#Page191">191</a>.</li> - -<li id="Index1"><b>Tauri α</b>, Aldebaran, <a href="#Page315">315</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Tavistock</b>, <a href="#Page147">147</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Temenos mound</b>, at Stonehenge, <a href="#Page47">47</a>, <a href="#Page93">93</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Temple-axis</b>, fixing of, <a href="#Page1">1</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Temples</b>, associated, <a href="#Page297">297</a>; Egyptian, <a href="#Page55">55</a>; solstitial, -<a href="#Page313">313</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Thebes</b> (Egypt), <a href="#Page8">8</a>, <a href="#Page108">108</a>; amplitudes at, <a href="#Page11">11</a>; stars used at, -<a href="#Page299">299</a>, <a href="#Page304">304</a>; May-year at, <a href="#Page247">247</a>, <a href="#Page305">305</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Thebes</b> (Greece), <a href="#Page299">299</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Theodolite</b>, adjustments of, <a href="#Page172">172</a>, <a href="#Page329">329</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Thomas</b>, Mr., <a href="#Page277">277</a>, <a href="#Page282">282</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Thorn-trees</b>, associated with holy wells, <a href="#Page221">221</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Thoth</b>, <a href="#Page259">259</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Thurnham</b>, Dr., <a href="#Page63">63</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Tigris</b>, rise of the, <a href="#Page30">30</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Tirehan</b>, <a href="#Page214">214</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Tissington</b>, Derbyshire, <a href="#Page228">228</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Tlachtaga</b>, the fire of, <a href="#Page187">187</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Tombs</b>, dolmens not intended for, <a href="#Page254">254</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Torches</b>, <a href="#Page317">317</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Toutates</b>, <a href="#Page260">260</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Track-lines</b>, <a href="#Page149">149</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Tradition</b>, <a href="#Page179">179</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>Treachery of the Long Knives</b>,” <a href="#Page95">95</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Trees</b>, sacred, <a href="#Page200">200</a>, <a href="#Page220">220</a>, <a href="#Page257">257</a>; Arabian worship of, -<a href="#Page245">245</a>; Semitic, <a href="#Page244">244</a>, <a href="#Page246">246</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Tregaseal</b>, <a href="#Page277">277</a>, <a href="#Page278">278</a>, <a href="#Page280">280</a>, <a href="#Page309">309</a>, -<a href="#Page314">314</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Trilithons</b>, <a href="#Page81">81</a>; at Stonehenge, <a href="#Page58">58</a>; functions of, <a href="#Page37">37</a>, -<a href="#Page41">41</a>; in Japan, <a href="#Page3">3</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Trippet stones</b>, <a href="#Page36">36</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Tristis rock</b>, <a href="#Page158">158</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Trowlesworthy</b>, <a href="#Page158">158</a>, <a href="#Page161">161</a>, <a href="#Page162">162</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Truthwall Common</b>, <a href="#Page277">277</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Tubberpatrick</b>, well at, <a href="#Page225">225</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Tumuli</b><span class="pagenum" id="Page340">[340]</span>, <a href="#Page93">93</a>, <a href="#Page102">102</a>, -<a href="#Page254">254</a>; at Stenness, <a href="#Page131">131</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Turkey</b>, calendar in, <a href="#Page29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="letter">U.</li> - -<li><b>Ursae Majoris α</b>, <a href="#Page295">295</a>, <a href="#Page298">298</a>.</li> - -<li class="letter">V.</li> - -<li><b>Vallum</b>, <a href="#Page47">47</a>, <a href="#Page291">291</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Vega</b>, <i>see</i> <a href="#Index14">Lyrae α</a>.</li> - -<li>“<i>Via Sacra</i>,” <a href="#Page60">60</a>, <a href="#Page155">155</a>, <a href="#Page163">163</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Via</b>, stones of, <a href="#Page128">128</a>.</li> - -<li id="Index12"><b>Virginis α</b>, (Spica), <a href="#Page108">108</a>, <a href="#Page142">142</a>, <a href="#Page299">299</a>, -<a href="#Page305">305</a>, <a href="#Page315">315</a>.</li> - -<li class="letter">W.</li> - -<li><b>Wales</b>, wells near churches, <a href="#Page229">229</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Warning-stars</b>, <a href="#Page108">108</a>; in Britain, <a href="#Page310">310</a>; in Greece, <a href="#Page311">311</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Water</b>, near holy places, <a href="#Page246">246</a>, <a href="#Page317">317</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Wells</b>, associated with trees, <a href="#Page219">219</a>, <a href="#Page220">220</a>; curative powers, -<a href="#Page235">235</a>; sacred associations, <a href="#Page206">206</a>, <a href="#Page214">214</a>, <a href="#Page216">216</a>, -<a href="#Page217">217</a>, <a href="#Page218">218</a>, <a href="#Page219">219</a>, <a href="#Page228">228</a>, <a href="#Page229">229</a>, -<a href="#Page234">234</a>, <a href="#Page257">257</a>, <a href="#Page273">273</a>; “Waking the Well,” -<a href="#Page228">228</a>; wishing, <a href="#Page215">215</a>; worship at, <a href="#Page215">215</a>, <a href="#Page233">233</a>; -worship, modern, <a href="#Page221">221</a>, <a href="#Page223">223</a>, <a href="#Page225">225</a>, <a href="#Page226">226</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Westermarck</b>, Mr., <a href="#Page319">319</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Westmorland</b>, May-day customs, <a href="#Page207">207</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Whitethorn</b>, <a href="#Page202">202</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Whitley</b>, Rev. D., <a href="#Page255">255</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Whitsuntide</b>, <a href="#Page185">185</a>, <a href="#Page196">196</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Willow</b>, blossoms used on Palm Sunday, <a href="#Page211">211</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Wiltshire Archæological Society</b>, <a href="#Page50">50</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Windle</b>, Mr., <a href="#Page37">37</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Witchcraft</b>, <a href="#Page206">206</a>, <a href="#Page212">212</a>, <a href="#Page216">216</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Witchen-tree</b>, <a href="#Page206">206</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Wood-Martin</b>, Mr., <a href="#Page213">213</a>, <a href="#Page214">214</a>, <a href="#Page220">220</a>, -<a href="#Page223">223</a>, <a href="#Page233">233</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Woon Gumpus Common</b>, <a href="#Page282">282</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Worship</b>, British and Semitic, <a href="#Page252">252</a>; flower-, <a href="#Page203">203</a>; sun- and star-, -<a href="#Page260">260</a>; well-, <a href="#Page228">228</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Worth</b>, Mr. Hansford, <a href="#Page146">146</a>, <a href="#Page148">148</a>, <a href="#Page150">150</a>, -<a href="#Page153">153</a>, <a href="#Page164">164</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Worth</b>, Mr., R.N., <a href="#Page147">147</a>, <a href="#Page148">148</a>.</li> - -<li>“<b>Wroth silver</b>,” payment of, <a href="#Page188">188</a>.</li> - -<li class="letter">Y.</li> - -<li><b>Year</b>, the astronomical, <a href="#Page16">16</a>, <a href="#Page25">25</a>; the Celtic, <a href="#Page186">186</a>; division -of the, <a href="#Page18">18</a>; the Julian, <a href="#Page23">23</a>; the lunar-, in Babylon, <a href="#Page24">24</a>; the solstitial-, -<a href="#Page19">19</a>, <a href="#Page139">139</a>, <a href="#Page261">261</a>; the vegetation-, <a href="#Page18">18</a>, -<a href="#Page19">19</a>, <a href="#Page25">25</a>, <a href="#Page97">97</a>, <a href="#Page109">109</a>, <a href="#Page203">203</a>.</li> - -<li><b>Yucatan</b>, the temples of, <a href="#Page33">33</a>.</li> - -</ul> - -<p class="center highline4 fsize90">THE END</p> - -<p class="center highline4 fsize70">R. CLAY AND SONS, LTD., BREAD STREET HILL, E.C., AND BUNGAY, SUFFOLK.</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<div class="tnbot" id="TN"> - -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<p>Inconsistent, archaic and unusual spelling, hyphenation and capitalisation have been retained, except as mentioned -below. This includes proper and geographical names.</p> - -<p>Depending on the hard- and software used, not all elements may display as intended. Some tables are best viewed -in a wide browser window.</p> - -<p>Index: the occasional error in the order of entries has not been corrected.</p> - -<p>For the illustrated versions: Where the quality of the illustration in the source -document permits and where the visibility of details in or the legibility of -the illustration requires, larger versions of illustrations have been provided. Availability -of these larger illustrations depends on the version used.</p> - -<p>Page 100, Fig. 27, Menhir (A): the reference letter is missing from the illustration.</p> - -<p>Page 101, Carnac-Leomariaquer: probably Carnac-Locmariaquer (as on Page 38).</p> - -<p>Footnote [124], table Chichen Itza, last line: the E. or W. is missing in the source document.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">Changes made</p> - -<p>Illustrations and tables have been moved out of text paragraphs; footnotes were moved to the end of the -chapter. Some tables have been re-arranged. Ditto marks have occasionally been replaced with the dittoed text.</p> - -<p>Some obvious minor typographical and punctuation errors have -been corrected silently; some minor formatting inconsistencies have been standardised silently. Some Greek accents and diacritics -have been ignored.</p> - -<p>Texts <span class="illotext">in dotted rectangles</span> are not present in the source document, -but have been transcribed from the illustrations where these may not provide sufficient visible detail.</p> - -<p>Page 29: closing bracket inserted after 185-6 days respectively</p> - -<p>Page 90, Fig. 24: reference letters A, B, C and D inside the illustration have been enlarged for better visibility.</p> - -<p>Page 97: alignments changed to alignements; aujourdhui changed to aujourd’hui</p> - -<p>Page 173, first table: 19° 51′ E. changed to N. 19° 51′ E.</p> - -<p>Page 220: footnote marker [65] inserted after Rhys where it seems to fit best (lacking in source document).</p> - -</div><!--tnbot--> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Stonehenge and other British Stone -Monuments Astronomically Considered, by Joseph Norman Lockyer - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STONEHENGE AND OTHER BRITISH *** - -***** This file should be named 62342-h.htm or 62342-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/3/4/62342/ - -Produced by Tim Lindell, Harry Lam and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian -Libraries) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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